text string | id string | dump string | url string | date string | file_path string | offset int64 | token_count int64 | language string | page_average_lid string | page_average_lid_score float64 | full_doc_lid string | full_doc_lid_score float64 | per_page_languages list | is_truncated bool | extractor string | page_ends list | fw_edu_scores list | minhash_cluster_size int64 | duplicate_count int64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chapter 4: Water Quality
Clean water is an essential human need and one whose value will increase as global climates change. The Niagara River Watershed and Lake Erie’s tremendous water supply supports everything from daily living needs (drinking, bathing, cooking) to recreation (swimming, fishing, boating) and local economies (industry, tourism, shipping). Presently, the Great Lakes provide drinking water to 34 million people in the United States and Canada, and support more than 1.5 million U.S. jobs that generate $62 billion in wages\(^1\).
While certain areas of the watershed have improved considerably since the enactment of the Clean Water Act in 1972 (i.e. Buffalo River), there are a number of areas within the watershed with poor and impacted water quality stemming from various types of pollution, existing storm-water management practices, adverse land uses and development trends, and other stressors that threaten our freshwater resources.
**Water Classification & Quality Assessment**
There are several mechanisms by which water quality is evaluated in New York State. One of the primary methods includes classifying water resources based upon their best uses and determining whether or not the water quality is in line with those uses\(^2\). For example, a water body used for drinking water has lower thresholds for contaminants or pollutants than a water body used solely for recreation. All waters in New York State are classified into various categories based on their best “beneficial uses” and the state establishes standards by which the resources should be maintained and
---
\(^1\) U.S. EPA Great Lakes Basin Report
\(^2\) NYS Water Quality Standards Program (overseen by the US EPA.)
protected (i.e. Anti-degradation policies). Table 4.1 outlines the various Water Quality Classifications for surface and ground waters in New York State.
Table 4.1 NYS Water Quality Classifications
| Class | Water Type | Best Usages |
|----------------|------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| N | Fresh Surface Water | Suitable for the enjoyment of water in its natural condition (most restrictive) and, where compatible, as drinking water or culinary purposes; bathing; fishing; fish propagation; and recreation. Suitable for fish, shellfish, and wildlife propagation and survival. |
| AA-Special, A-Special, AA & A | Fresh Surface Water | Suitable for drinking water, culinary or food processing purposes; primary and secondary contact recreation; and fishing; fish, shellfish, and wildlife propagation and survival (A-Special: International Boundary Waters, AA & A: drinking water with disinfection/treatment). |
| B | Fresh Surface Water | Suitable for primary and secondary contact recreation and fishing; suitable for fish, shellfish, and wildlife propagation and survival. |
| C | Fresh Surface Water | Suitable for fish, shellfish, and wildlife propagation and survival; primary and secondary contact recreation, although other factors may limit the use for these purposes. |
| D | Fresh Surface Water | Due to such natural conditions as intermittency of flow, water conditions not conducive to propagation of game fishery, or stream bed conditions, the waters will not support fish propagation. These waters shall be suitable for fish, shellfish, and wildlife survival. The water quality shall be suitable for primary and secondary contact recreation, although other factors may limit the use for these purposes. |
| GA | Fresh Groundwater | As a source of potable water supply (all fresh groundwater resources are classified GA). |
Note: Saline Water Resource Classifications are not included in this table.
Source: NYS DEC 6 NYCRR Part 701
Use classifications are applied according to water bodies or water course segments. For the Niagara River Watershed there are a total of 2,963 segments provided, with 726 designated as Class A, 872 designated as Class B, 1,351 designated as Class C, and 14 designated as Class D. The State’s Water Quality Classifications Map is provided on the following page and identifies each segment’s classification as well as segments designated as trout and trout spawning waters.
NYS Waterbody Inventory & Priority Waterbodies List
New York State’s Waterbody Inventory and Priority Waterbodies List (WI/PWL) is an inventory of the state’s surface waters (Figure 4.1). This data set provides a summary of general water quality conditions, tracks the degree to which a waterbody supports its designated uses, and monitors
STATE WATER QUALITY CLASSIFICATIONS
Stream Class
- A
- B
- C(T)
- A(T)
- B(T)
- C(TS)
- A(TS)
- C
- D
Sub-Basin Boundary County Municipality
This data set provides the water quality classifications of New York State water bodies.
Classification A or A is assigned to waters used as a source of drinking water.
Classification B indicates a best usage for swimming, wading and fishing, and a secondary use for drinking water.
Classification C is for waters supporting fisheries and limited for swimming and wading.
The lowest classification and standard is D.
Streams with classifications A, B, and C may also have a standard (T), indicating that it may support a trout population, or (TS), indicating that it may support trout spawning (TS). These requirements apply to streams in watersheds that support these important and sensitive fisheries resources.
Streams designated as A(T) and B(T) (A, TS, B, or A) are collectively referred to as "protected streams."
Sub-Watersheds are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
This map was prepared for the New York State Department of State with funds provided under Title 17 of the Environmental Protection Fund Act.
progress toward the identification and resolution of water quality problems, pollutants, and sources. The assessments are conducted every five years as part of DEC’s *Rotating Integrated Basin Studies (RIBS)* and categorize each segment as either *Impaired*, waters with *Minor Impacts*. Threatened waters, waters with impacts *Needing Verification*, waters having *No Known Impacts*, or *Un-assessed* waters (Table 4.2).
**Table 4.2 NYS Water Quality Assessment Categories**
| Category | Description |
|---------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Impaired Waters** | Waterbodies with well documented water quality problems. |
| **Waters with Minor Impacts** | Waterbodies where less severe water quality impacts are apparent, but classification uses are considered fully supported. |
| **Threatened Waters** | Waterbodies for which uses are not restricted and no water quality problems currently exist, but where data suggests declining water quality trends or specific land uses or other changes in the surrounding watershed are known to be threatening water quality. |
| **Waters with Impacts Needing Verification** | Waterbodies that are thought to have water quality problems, but for which there is not sufficient or definitive documentation. These waterbodies need additional monitoring to determine whether uses are restricted or threatened. |
| **Waters having no Known Impacts** | Waterbodies where monitoring data and information indicate that there are no use restrictions or other water quality impacts, threats or issues. |
| **Unassessed Waters** | Waterbodies where there is no available water quality information to assess the support of designated uses. |
Source: NYS DEC - CALM Section 305(b) Assessment Methodology (May 2009)
The data collected and provided as part of NYS’s WI/PWL is submitted to the U.S. EPA and comprises New York State’s *Clean Water Act Section 305(b) Water Quality Report*. Segments that do not meet the standards for their use classification are categorized as either Threatened, Waters with Minor Impacts, or Impaired Waters and included in the state’s Priority Waterbodies List. Waters identified as “Impaired” and requiring Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) limits are also provided directly to the U.S. EPA as part of the *Clean Water Act Section 303(d) Impaired Waters List*. Waters included on the NYS Priority Waterbodies List or U.S. EPA 303(d) List are the focus of remedial/corrective and resource protection actions, as well as priorities for funding resources.
The Priority Waterbody List for the Niagara River/Lake Erie Basin was reviewed and updated with sampling done in 2005-06 and issued in September 2010. The data is collected and maintained by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. The next update and review effort in the basin will begin in 2015 and is expected to be completed by 2017.
Figure 4.1: NYS Waterbody Inventory and Priority Waterbodies List – Status of Water Quality based on Use Classification
Source: NYS DEC WI/PWL
Of the watershed’s total 3,193 miles of waterways, approximately 1,548.8 stream miles (48.5%) are considered Priority Waterbodies, meaning they have water quality impacts or issues that restrict the
water’s beneficial uses. The NYS WI/PWL also includes 255.8 water body acres and 25.4 Lake Erie shoreline miles as Priorities. Of these water bodies and segments, 64% have been placed on the *U.S. EPA 303(d) Impaired Waters List* and include much of the Niagara River, Ellicott Creek, Smokes Creek, Lower and Upper Tonawanda Creek Sub-watersheds, and all of the Lake Erie shoreline miles within the state. Only the southern end of the watershed and headwaters of Eighteenmile Creek, Buffalo River, Buffalo Creek, Cayuga Creek, and Upper Tonawanda Creek Sub-watersheds have no known impacts at this time (Figure 4.1). Table 4.3 on the following pages outlines the RIBS water quality data by each sub-watershed, including the uses that are impacted and their known or suspected causes.
According to the 2010 Niagara River/Lake Erie RIBS report, the primary water quality issues in the watershed stem from past industrial uses which center on the Lake Erie Lakewide Action Management Plan (LAMP) and the Great Lakes Areas of Concern (AOCs) located along the Buffalo and Niagara Rivers. Historical contamination issues are well documented in the RIBS data for the Niagara River Sub-watershed overall, where a number of impaired stream segments have a variety of toxic substances identified (PCBs, PAHs, Dioxins) as known pollutants. Impairments in this sub-watershed are also quite comprehensive and include impacts/limits on fish consumption, public bathing, aquatic life, recreation, habitat/hydrology modification, and aesthetics.
In the Buffalo River Sub-watershed many of the past industrial uses were centered along a portion of the Buffalo River within the City of Buffalo, and again many of the impairments identify toxic or contaminated sediments as the known or suspected cause to the river’s beneficial use impairments: fish consumption, aquatic life, and recreation\(^3\). Outside of the Buffalo and Niagara River corridors, there are a few remaining areas within the watershed that have impairments from known or suspected contaminated sediments, and include the more urban/suburban areas of Eighteenmile Creek, Ellicott Creek, and Tonawanda Creek, as well as the Lake Erie Shoreline (see Table 4.3).
---
\(^3\) Please note, public bathing is not evaluated in the Buffalo River, even though unauthorized swimming does occur. Because no public swimming areas have been designated, contaminants that would restrict public bathing are not sampled nor evaluated for the level of threat to public health.
| ID number | Waterbodies/ Segments | Length/Size | WQ Category | Class | Impacted Uses & Severity | Pollutants** | Pollutant Sources** |
|-----------|------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|-------------|-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------|
| Ont 158 (portion 1) | Niagara River, Lower, Main Stem | 12.0 miles | IMPAIRED | A-Spcl | Water Supply - Threatened, Fish Consumption - Impaired, Habitat/Hydrology - Impaired | Priority Organics (Dioxin, PCBs, PAHs), Pesticides (mirex, Org.Chlor.Pest/HCB) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Habitat Modification |
| Ont 158 (portion 2) | Niagara River, Upper, Main Stem | 24.8 miles | IMPAIRED | A-Spcl | Water Supply - Threatened, Fish Consumption - Impaired, Habitat/Hydrology - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed | Priority Organics (PCBs, PAHs), Pesticides (Org. Chlor. Pest/HCB), Water Level/Flow, Restricted Passage | Habitat Modification, Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Landfill/Land Disp., Combined Sewer Overflow, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158 (portion 3) | Chippewa (West) Channel | 12.8 miles | IMPAIRED | A-Spcl | Water Supply - Threatened, Fish Consumption - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Landfill/Land Disp. |
| Ont 158 (portion 4) | Black Rock Canal | 2.2 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Habitat/Hydrology - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Landfill/Land Disp., Habitat Modification |
| Ont 158 G.I.-1 thru 6 | Grand Island (all trib to Niagara River) | 53.7 miles | Needs Verification | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Habitat/Hydrology - Threatened | Silt/Sediment | Hydro Modification, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-6 | Gill Creek and Tribs | 12.3 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Aesthetics (debris), Unknown Toxicity, Priority Organics (Dioxin) | Urban/Storm Run-off, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-1 thru 5 | Minor Tribs to Niagara River | | Unassessed | | | | |
| Ont 158-6-Pla | Hyde Park Lake | 28.1 acres | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Impaired | Algal/Weed Growth, Nutrients (phosphorus), Oxygen Demand | Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-8 | Cayuga Creek and minor Tribs | 21.6 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Precluded, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Priority Organics (dioxin), Unknown Toxicity, Metals (nickel, zinc), Pesticides (DDE, DDD), Algal, Weed Growth | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-13 | Two-mile Creek and Tribs | 7.1 miles | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Aesthetics (odors, floatables), Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Nutrients, Priority Organics | Combined Sewer Overflow, Municipal (Kenmore/Tonawanda (T)), Urban/Storm Run off, Industrial, Other Sanitary Discharge, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Upper and Tribs | 15.1 miles | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Nutrients (phosphorus), Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Silt/Sediment | Urban/Storm Run-off, Combined Sewer Overflow |
| Ont 158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Middle and Tribs | 8.3 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Precluded, Recreation - Impaired, Habitat/Hydrology - Stressed, Aesthetics - Stressed | Aesthetics (floatables), Oxygen Demand, Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens, Priority Organics, Silt/Sediment | Combined Sewer Overflow, Urban/Storm Run-off, Habitat & Hydro Modification, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Code | Watershed | Length/Size | Status | Use | Impairments | Pollutants | Sources |
|------------|------------------------------------------------|----------------------|------------|-----|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Lower and Tribs | 0.3 miles | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Precluded, Aquatic Life - Precluded, Recreation - Impaired, Habitat/Hydrology - Stressed, Aesthetics - Stressed | Aesthetics (odors, floatables), Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Nutrients (phosphorus), Priority Organics | Combined Sewer Overflow, Urban/Storm Run-off, Habitat & Hydro Modification, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-8-1| Bergholtz Creek and Tribs | 33.1 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Priority Organics (PCBs) Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens, Metals, Pesticides | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-15-P25 | Delaware Park Pond | 1.3 acres | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Fish Consumption - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Algal/Weed Growth, Nutrients (phosphorus), Oxygen Demand, Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Urban/Storm Run-off |
**Buffalo River Sub-watershed**
| Code | Watershed | Length/Size | Status | Use | Impairments | Pollutants | Sources |
|------------|------------------------------------------------|----------------------|------------|-----|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158..E-1 | Buffalo River, Main Stem | 8.6 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Precluded, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | PCBs, Dissolved Oxygen, Pathogens, Silt/Sediment | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Habitat & Hydro Modification, Urban/Storm Run-off, CSOs |
| Ont 158..E-1-4 | Cazenovia Creek and Tribs | 51.7 miles | No Known Impacts | B | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1-4-14 | East Branch Cazenovia, Lower and Tribs | 33.9 miles | Minor Impacts | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Unknown Toxicity | Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158..E-1-4-14 | East Branch Cazenovia, Upper and Tribs | 93.7 miles | No Known Impacts | B | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1-4-15 | West Branch Cazenovia, Lower and Tribs | 25.0 miles | No Known Impacts | B* | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1-4-15 | West Branch Cazenovia, Upper and Tribs | 73.8 miles | No Known Impacts | B | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E1-4-15-10 | Pipe Creek and Tribs | Unassessed | | | | | |
| Ont 158..E1-4-15-10-P | Orchard Park Reservoir | 23.1 acres | Minor Impacts | A | Water Supply - Threatened, Public Bathing - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Silt/Sediment | Urban/Storm Run-off |
**Buffalo Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Watershed | Length/Size | Status | Use | Impairments | Pollutants | Sources |
|------------|------------------------------------------------|----------------------|------------|-----|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158..E-1* | Buffalo Creek, Lower, and Minor Tribs | 63.5 miles | Minor Impacts | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients, Pathogens | Streambank Erosion, Urban/Storm Run-off, Agriculture |
| Ont 158..E-1* | Buffalo Creek, Upper, and Minor Tribs | 285.1 miles | No Known Impacts | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158-12-77-3-P20b | Faun Lake | 44.3 acres | No Known Impacts | C | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1*^55-P?? | Beaver Meadow Pond | Unassessed | | | | | |
**Cayuga Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Watershed | Length/Size | Status | Use | Impairments | Pollutants | Sources |
|------------|------------------------------------------------|----------------------|------------|-----|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158..E-1-6 | Cayuga Creek, Lower and Tribs | 13.5 miles | Minor Impacts | C | Fish Consumption - Stressed, Aquatic Life - Stressed | Nutrients, Silt/Sediment, Metals, PAHs, Pathogens | Streambank Erosion, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158..E-1-6 | Cayuga Creek, Middle and minor Tribs | 116.6 miles | Needs Verification | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients, Pathogens, Silt/Sediments | On-site Septic Systems (Cowlesville), Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158..E-1-6 | Cayuga Creek, Upper and Tribs | 57.3 miles | No Known Impacts | B | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1-6-6 | Plumb Bottom Creek and Tribs | 27.2 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired | Unknown Toxicity, Oxygen Demand, Nutrients | Unknown Source, Municipal, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Impacts | Category | Habitat/Hydrology | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
|------------|--------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------|----------|-------------------|---------------|--------------------|
| Ont 158..E-1-6-7 | Little Buffalo Creek and Tribs | 74.4 miles | Minor Impacts | C* | Habitat/Hydrology - Stressed | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158..E-1-6-30 | Right Branch/Gillett Creek and Tribs | 30.1 miles | No Known Impacts | C | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-1-6-2 | Slate Bottom Creek and Tribs | | Unassessed | | | | |
**Eighteenmile Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Impacts | Category | Habitat/Hydrology | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
|------------|--------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------|----------|-------------------|---------------|--------------------|
| Ont 158..E-13 | Eighteenmile Creek, Lower & minor Tribs | 30.8 miles | Minor Impacts | B(T) | Fish Consumption - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed, Habitat/Hydrology - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, PCBs, Pathogens | Streambank Erosion, Urban/Storm Run-off, Agriculture, Hydro Modification, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158..E-13 | Eighteenmile Creek, Middle and Tribs | 49.5 miles | No Known Impacts | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-13 | Eighteenmile Creek, Upper and Tribs | 72.3 miles | No Known Impacts | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-13-4 | South Branch Eighteenmile, Lower and Tribs | 77.8 miles | No Known Impacts | B | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-13-4 | South Branch Eighteenmile, Upper and Tribs | 21.7 miles | No Known Impacts | C | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158..E-13-6 | Hampton Brook and Tribs | 16.7 miles | Minor Impacts | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Oxygen Demand | Agriculture, Urban/Storm Run-off |
**Smoke Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Impacts | Category | Habitat/Hydrology | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
|------------|--------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------|----------|-------------------|---------------|--------------------|
| Ont 158..E-2 | Smoke Creek, Lower and Tribs | 7.2 miles | Minor Impacts | C | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed, Aesthetics Stressed | Aesthetics (sludge banks), Nutrients, Silt/Sediment, Pathogens | Urban/Storm Run-off, Industrial |
| Ont 158..E-2 | Smoke Creek, Upper and Tribs | 25.2 miles | Minor Impacts | C | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Unknown Toxicity | Urban/Storm Run-off, Municipal |
| Ont 158..E-2-1 | South Branch Smoke Creek, Lower and Tribs | 27.2 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Silt/Sediment, Aesthetics (sludge, debris) | Streambank Erosion, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158..E-2-1 | South Branch Smoke Creek, Upper and Tribs | 4.7 miles | Minor Impacts | B | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens | Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158..E-3 | Rush Creek and Tribs | 17.2 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Pathogens, Aesthetics (sludge-banks, odors), Oil and Grease, Nutrients (phosphorus), Unknown Toxicity | Municipal (Hamburg, Blasdell SSOs) Urban/Storm Run-off, other Sanitary Discharge |
| Ont 158..E-4 thru 12 | Minor Tribs to Lake Erie | | Unassessed | | | | |
| Ont 158..E-2-1-P81b | Green Lake | 18.6 acres | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Impaired | Nutrients (phosphorus), Oxygen Demand | Urban/Storm Run-off |
**Ellicott Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Impacts | Category | Habitat/Hydrology | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
|------------|--------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------|----------|-------------------|---------------|--------------------|
| Ont 158-12-1 | Ellicott Creek, Lower and Tribs | 112.0 miles | IMPAIRED | B | Fish Consumption - Stressed, Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Stressed, Aesthetics Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Silt/Sediment, Pesticides (chlordane), Thermal Changes | Urban/Storm Run-off, Habitat & Hydro Modification, Municipal (unknown), Agriculture, Other Sanitary Discharge, Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-12-1 | Ellicott Creek, Upper and Tribs | 112.1 miles | Needs Verification | C* | Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment | Agriculture |
**Murder Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Impacts | Category | Habitat/Hydrology | Silt/Sediment | Streambank Erosion |
|------------|--------------------------------------|---------|--------------------------|----------|-------------------|---------------|--------------------|
| Ont 158-12-11 | Ledge Creek and Minor Tribs | 28.9 miles | Minor Impacts | C (T) | Aquatic Life - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients | Agriculture, Streambank Erosion |
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Status | Category | Impairment Description | Pollutants | Sources/Impacts |
|------|---------------------------------------------------|---------|-----------------|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-12-11-1 | Murder Creek, Lower and Tribs | 75.5 miles | Needs Verification | C* | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients (phosphorus) | Streambank Erosion, Agriculture, On-site Septic Systems |
| Ont 158-12-11-1 | Murder Creek, Upper and Tribs | 106.2 miles | Needs Verification | C* | Aquatic Life - Impaired | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients | Agriculture, Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158-12-11-1-P13 | Tribs to Akron Reservoir | 5.5 miles | No Known Impact | A | Water Supply - Threatened | | |
| Ont 158-12-11-1-P13 | Akron Reservoir | 47.4 acres | No Known Impact | A | Water Supply - Threatened | | |
**Lower Tonawanda Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Status | Category | Impairment Description | Pollutants | Sources/Impacts |
|------|---------------------------------------------------|---------|-----------------|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-12 (portion 1) | Tonawanda Creek, Lower, Main Stem | 11.9 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Priority Organics (PCBs), Nutrients, Silt/Sediments | Tox/Contaminated Sediment, Urban/Storm Run-off, Other Sanitary Discharge, Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158-12-3 | Bull Creek and Tribs | 48.6 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired | Unknown Toxicity, Oxygen Demand, Nutrients | Unknown Source, Municipal, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-12-6 | Ransom Creek, Lower and Tribs | 49.5 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Aesthetics (odors), Nutrients, Silt/Sediment | On-site Septic System (Clarence Hollow), Private Comm/Institutional (various residential), Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-12-6 | Ransom Creek, Upper and Tribs | 44.2 miles | IMPAIRED | C (T) | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Aesthetics (odors), Nutrients, Silt/Sediment | On-site Septic System (Clarence Hollow), Private Comm/Institutional (various residential), Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-12-2 thru 5 | Minor Tribs to Lower Tonawanda Creek | | Unassessed | | | | |
| Ont 158-12 (portion 1a) | NYS Barge Canal (portion 1) | | Unassessed | | | | |
**Middle Tonawanda Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Status | Category | Impairment Description | Pollutants | Sources/Impacts |
|------|---------------------------------------------------|---------|-----------------|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-12 (portion 2) | Tonawanda Creek, Middle, Main Stem | 49.3 miles | Minor Impacts | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Pathogens, Nutrients | Agriculture, Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158-12-8 | Mud Creek and Tribs | 113.5 miles | Minor Impacts | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens | Agriculture |
| Ont 158-12-9 | Beeman Creek and Tribs | 43.7 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Oxygen Demand, Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens | |
| Ont 158-12-20-P15 | Divers Lake | | Unassessed | | | | |
| Ont 158-12-7 thru 31 | Minor Tribs to Tonawanda Creek | | Unassessed | | | | |
**Upper Tonawanda Creek Sub-watershed**
| Code | Sub-watershed | Length | Status | Category | Impairment Description | Pollutants | Sources/Impacts |
|------|---------------------------------------------------|---------|-----------------|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-12 (portion 3) | Tonawanda Creek, Middle, Main Stem | 11.7 miles | IMPAIRED | C | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired, Aesthetics - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Silt/Sediment, Oxygen Demand | Other Sanitary Discharge, Streambank Erosion, Urban/Storm Run-off, Agriculture, Municipal (East Pembroke) |
| Ont 158-12 (portion 4) | Tonawanda Creek, Upper and minor Tribs | 255.1 miles | IMPAIRED | A | Water Supply - Impaired, Aquatic Life - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients, Oxygen Demand, Thermal Changes | Agriculture, Streambank Erosion, Hydro Modification, Municipal (Attica WWTP), Other Sanitary Discharge |
| Ont 158-12-28 | Bowen Brook and Tribs | 60.6 miles | IMPAIRED | C* | Aquatic Life - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Oxygen Demand, Nutrients (phosphorus), Pathogens | |
| Ont 158-12-32 | Little Tonawanda Creek, Lower and Tribs | 52.8 miles | IMPAIRED | A | Water Supply - Impaired, Public Bathing - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Silt/Sediment, Nutrients, Oxygen Demand | Agriculture, Streambank Erosion |
| Ont 158-12-32 | Little Tonawanda Creek, Upper and Tribs | 54.8 miles | No Known Impact | A (T) | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158-12-41 | Tannery Brook and Tribs | 14.7 miles | No Known Impact | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158-12-46 | Crow Creek and Tribs | 20.3 miles | Threatened | A | Water Supply - Threatened | Pathogens | Agriculture |
| Ont 158-12-66 | Stony Brook and Tribs | 25.0 miles | No Known Impact | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158-12-77 | East Fork and Tribs | 48.5 miles | No Known Impact | A | No Uses Impaired | | |
| Ont 158-12-46-P20 | Attica Reservoir | 11.3 acres | Minor Impacts | A | Water Supply - Threatened, Public Bathing - Stressed, Recreation - Stressed | Nutrients (phosphorus), Problem Species (Eurasian milfoil), Algal/Weed Growth, Pathogens | Agriculture |
| Ont 158-12-46-P20a | Attica Water Supply Reservoir | 173.4 acres | Threatened | A | Water Supply - Threatened | Pathogens | Agriculture |
| Lake Erie Shoreline | | | | | | | |
|---------------------|----------------|------------------|----------|----------|--------------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------|
| Ont 158-E (portion 1)| Lake Erie (Erie Basin) | 4.4 shore mi. | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-E (portion 2)| Lake Erie (Outer Harbor, North) | 7.3 shore mi. | IMPAIRED | B | Fish Consumption - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-E (portion 3)| Lake Erie (Outer Harbor, South) | 1.9 shore mi. | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments |
| Ont 158-E (portion 4)| Lake Erie (Northeast Shoreline) | 2.8 shore mi. | IMPAIRED | C | Fish Consumption - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-E (portion 5)| Lake Erie (Main Lake, North) | 9.0 shore mi. | IMPAIRED | B | Public Bathing - Impaired, Fish Consumption - Impaired, Recreation - Impaired | Priority Organics (PCBs) | Tox/Contaminated Sediments, Urban/Storm Run-off |
* has smaller trib under different classification
(T) indicates Trout waters
** only known or suspected are included in this chart
Aside from the historical contamination still present in the watershed, the remaining water quality issues are quite diverse, stemming from various sources of point and non-point source pollution. For the rural sub-watersheds of Cayuga Creek, Eighteenmile Creek, Buffalo Creek, Murder Creek, Middle and Upper Tonawanda Creek many of the known or suspected impairments are attributed to agricultural activities, stormwater run-off, streambank erosion, and failing on-site septic systems, which create aesthetic issues, nutrient (phosphorus) loading, pathogens, sedimentation, and lower dissolved oxygen levels. While the more urban/suburban sub-watersheds (Lower Tonawanda Creek, Smokes Creek, Ellicott Creek, Buffalo River, Niagara River) are experiencing similar issues, pathogens and nutrient loading are introduced through other means, such as combined sewer overflows events and stormwater run-off from improper lawn care practices. Lake Erie itself (beyond the shoreline) is experiencing rather complicated water quality issues resulting from a resurgence of algae blooms, including toxic blue-green algae; bioaccumulation of organochlorine compounds, pesticides, and mercury; shoreline erosion and sedimentation; ecosystem stresses from invasive species; and nutrient loading\(^4\). For more detailed information on the leading causes of water quality impairments in the watershed see the section of this chapter titled “Causes & Contributors of Water Quality Degradation” on page 4 - 19.
**Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs)**
Waters that do not support their classified uses and require Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) limits are placed on the U.S. EPA 303(d) Impaired Waters List. According to the Clean Water Act, states must consider the creation of TMDLs or another strategy to reduce the input of specific pollutants that contribute to the waters impairment. A Total Maximum Daily Load is a calculation of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a waterbody can receive and still safely meet water quality standards\(^5\). For TMDL development, studies are conducted to identify the source pollutant for the impairment and identify appropriate threshold limits. Upon establishing the TMDL, a timeline is established with specific strategies needed to reduce the contaminant levels and reduce pollutant levels to fall within the TMDL threshold.
Most often implemented for nutrient loading impairments (phosphorus & nitrogen), TMDLs are a mechanism through which watershed managers can apply point and non-point source pollution thresholds on stream segments to address segments that are failing to meet water quality standards. The thresholds are developed by determining the levels by which pollution inputs would need to be reduced to bring stream segments back into water quality compliance. Once TMDLs are established, there are opportunities to seek additional funding for management and strategy implementation.
---
\(^4\) Myers, Donna N., et al. *Water Quality in the Lake Erie-Lake Saint Clair Drainages* (USGS 2000)
\(^5\) U.S. EPA
through the U.S. EPA\(^6\). In the Niagara River Watershed 12 out of the 35 waterbodies/segments (34%) identified in the 2010 303(d) Impaired Waters List are identified as waters with “Impairments Requiring TMDL Development” (Table 4.4 below).
**Table 4.4 Waters Requiring TMDL Development within the Niagara River Watershed**
| Id # | Waterbodies/Segments | Type | Class | Impairment | Known Cause |
|---------------|---------------------------------------|--------|-------|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|
| Ont 158-6 | Gill Creek & Tribs | River | C | Aquatic Toxicity | Urban Run-off, Contaminated Sediment |
| Ont 158-6-Pla | Hyde Park Lake | Lake | B | Phosphorus | Urban/Storm Run-off |
| Ont 158-8-1 | Bergholtz Creek and Tribs | River | C | Phosphorus, Pathogens | Urban Run-off |
| Ont-158-12-6 | Ransom Creek, Lower & Tribs | River | C | Oxygen Demand, Pathogens | Onsite Waste Treatment Systems |
| Ont-158-12-6 | Ransom Creek, Upper & Tribs | River | C (T) | Oxygen Demand, Pathogens | Onsite Waste Treatment Systems |
| Ont-158-13 | Two Mile Creek & Tribs | River | B | Floatables, Oxygen Demand, Pathogens | CSOs, Municipal |
| Ont-158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Lower & Tribs | River | B | Floatables, Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Phosphorus | CSOs, Urban Run-off |
| Ont-158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Upper & Tribs | River | C | Floatables, Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Phosphorus | CSOs, Urban Run-off |
| Ont-158-15 | Scajaquada Creek, Middle & Tribs | River | B | Oxygen Demand, Pathogens, Phosphorus | CSOs, Urban Run-off |
| Ont-158-E (portion 5) | Lake Erie (Northeast Shoreline) | Great Lake | B | Pathogens | Urban, Storm Run-off |
| Ont-158.E-2-1-P81b | Green Lake | Lake | B | Phosphorus | Urban Run-off |
| Ont-158.E-3 | Rush Creek & Tribs | River | C | Pathogens, Phosphorus | CSOs, Urban Run-off, Municipal |
Source: 2012 Section 303(d) Impaired Waters List
None of these waters listed are scheduled for TMDL development by the NYS DEC at this time and the Niagara River Watershed is currently the only area of the state that has not had any TMDLs developed. According to NYS DEC Region 9 staff this is due to a number of factors, including the lack of comprehensive base data existing in the region; the considerable expense in developing TMDLs for rivers and streams versus lakes; how some of the listed stream segments would not realistically benefit from TMDL development (other major factors at play); and, how there
---
\(^6\) TMDLs are a key metric for the US EPA’s 9 Element Watershed Management Plan (preferred planning model).
historically hasn’t been enough local support for advancing this work in the region nor adequate land use tools and regulations to do so in a “Home Rule” state.
**Aquatic Habitat – Water Quality Indicators**
Additional resources exist to assist in categorizing the quality of our waters that pay special attention to aquatic habitat. The NYS DEC Priority Waterbodies List includes data generated from the state’s Stream Biomonitoring Program (SBP) Assessment. This assessment is also performed throughout the state on a rotating basis. One element of the program uses the presence or absence of aquatic macroinvertebrates to determine the quality of ecosystem health using the Biotic Assessment Profile (BAP). The BAP scores water quality in a tributary by taking into consideration several indices including species richness, community balance, and presence of pollution-tolerant species to calculate a single score. A higher score demonstrates better quality of aquatic habitat (NYS DEC, 2013), and water quality in general. The map provided on the following page contains BAP scores from 3 different years of sampling ranked by the assessment score. Scores ranging from 0-2.5 fall under the “poor” category, 2.5-5 are “fair, 5-7.5 are “good,” and 7.5-10 are “very good.”
Predicted BAP scores are also displayed on the map for each stream segment using the same color coding scheme referenced in the point data. Predicted BAP scores were developed by The New York Natural Heritage Program’s New York State Freshwater Conservation Blueprint Project. This analysis used the highest BAP score at each sampling location and applied a regression modeling tool in order to show how the observed data related to a number of other environmental variables. The variables included 146 local and regional attributes that apply to stream segments inducing stream velocity, land cover, geology, precipitation, stream order, and temperature. The regression model then used the importance and correlation of each attribute relative to the known BAP scores to extrapolate a predicted score for all of the streams in the watershed. Predicted BAP scores by percentage of waterways within each sub-watershed are displayed in Table 4.5 for comparison purposes.
Map Notes:
Station scores from Biological Assessment Profiles (BAP) and Related Integrated Basin Studies (RIBS). Water Quality Assessment through the NYS Water Monitoring Program. Predicted scores were derived by NYS Freshwater Concourse River Blueprint Project, Phases I and II: Freshwater Systems, Species, and Viability Metrics (NYSDEC; Dec 2011).
Biological Assessment Profiles (BAP)
Observed and Predicted
SAMPLING YEARS: 2010, 2005, & 2001
NIAGARA RIVER WATERSHED
BUFFALO NIAGARA RIVERKEEPER® MAP CREATED BY BUFFALO NIAGARA RIVERKEEPER THROUGH FUNDING FROM THE NYS DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION STATE IN SUPPORT OF THE US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY’S GREAT LAKES RESTORATION INITIATIVE.
NIAGARA RIVER HABITAT CONSERVATION STRATEGY | MARCH, 2014
The BAP scores (point & predicted) show similar findings to the overall RIBS data set, which indicates poorer water quality conditions in the northern portions of the watershed: Niagara River Sub-watershed, Ellicott Creek Sub-watershed, Murder Creek Sub-watershed, and Lower, Middle, and Upper Tonawanda Creek Sub-watersheds. However, when reviewing trends shown in the BAP data over the sampling years, it’s clear that some of the southern sub-watersheds are beginning to show signs of degrading conditions as well. This is most apparent in Cazenovia Creek (and tributaries), portions of Eighteenmile Creek and its South Branch, and Cayuga Creek within the first ring suburbs. There are also a few stream segments where conditions have improved slightly, such as portions of Rush Creek, Smokes Creek, Eighteenmile Creek (near the Lake Erie shoreline), and Little Tonawanda Creek.
Overall, the Niagara River Sub-watershed has the highest percentage of stream segments considered “fair” (88.2%), with Lower and Middle Tonawanda Creek Sub-watersheds coming in a close second and third highest, with 77.4% and 50.8% respectively. Cayuga Creek Sub-watershed has the highest percentage of stream segments considered “very good” according to the predicted BAP scores, but this only accounts for 10.6% of its stream segments, not nearly enough to consider the entire sub-watershed as “very-good”. Unfortunately, biological assessment data collection isn’t occurring frequently enough or comprehensively enough in the watershed to effectively capture detailed trending at the stream segment level at this time.
**Water Quality of Wetlands & Lakes**
Wetland water quality monitoring is an important aspect of implementing the Clean Water Act; unfortunately New York State does not have a wetlands water quality monitoring program in effect.
at this time. The NYS DEC has worked towards creating standards by which wetlands water quality is assessed, but, “standards have not been adopted due to workload issues and the difficulty of smoothly incorporating wetlands protection into delivery of water quality standards.”\textsuperscript{7} According to the U.S. EPA Clean Water Act guidance, development of wetland water quality standards provides a regulatory basis for a variety of water quality management activities including, but not limited to, monitoring and assessment under Section 305(b), permitting under Sections 402 and 404, water quality certification under Section 401, and control of non-point source pollution under Section 319.
Smaller lakes and ponds within the watershed are monitored as part of the NYS WI/PWL as well, and drinking waterbodies are assessed by the NYS Department of Health’s Source Waters Assessment Program (SWAP). The Niagara River Watershed has 10 smaller waterbodies included in the NYS WI/PWL (See Table 4.3) of which Hyde Park Lake, Attica Reservoir, Delaware Park (Hoyt) Lake, and Green Lake are the most degraded according to their use classifications. The causes for water quality impairments in the lakes are very similar to the other primary watershed impairments, with data showing nutrient loading and signs of eutrophication.
\textbf{Figure 4.2: Eutrophication Diagram}
\begin{itemize}
\item \textbf{1. Nutrient load up:} excessive nutrients from fertilisers are flushed from the land into rivers or lakes by rainwater.
\item \textbf{2. Plants flourish:} these pollutants cause aquatic plant growth of algae, duckweed and other plants.
\item \textbf{3. Algae blooms, oxygen is depleted:} algae blooms, preventing sunlight reaching other plants. The plants die and oxygen in the water is depleted.
\item \textbf{4. Decomposition further depletes oxygen:} dead plants are broken down by bacteria decomposers), using up even more oxygen in the water.
\item \textbf{5. Death of the ecosystem:} oxygen levels reach a point where no life is possible. Fish and other organisms die.
\end{itemize}
Source: British Broadcasting Company, GCSE: Bitesize Science
\textsuperscript{7} NYS DEC New York State Wetlands Assessment
The urban lakes, Delaware Park (Hoyt) Lake and Hyde Park Lake, have the most issues and both are considered impaired. Delaware Park (Hoyt) Lake’s issues stem from high pathogen levels and toxic sediments due to combined sewer overflows and legacy contamination, and excessive algal growth and low oxygen levels from its altered hydrology. Hyde Park Lake is located in the City of Niagara Falls and directly adjacent to the municipal golf course which directly contributes to the lake’s documented eutrophication issues (Figure 4.2). Divers Lake (Attica, NY) and Beaver Meadow Pond (Java, NY) have yet to be assessed and Akron Reservoir (Bennington, NY) and Faun Lake (Wethersfield, NY) have no known impacts at this time.
**Groundwater Quality**
In 2001, the U.S. Geological Service, in cooperation with the NYS DEC and the USEPA, began an assessment of ground water quality in NYS river basins (Ground-Water Quality in Western New York, 2006\(^8\)). Water samples were taken from 7 production wells and 26 private residential wells across Western New York in 2006, with eight of the sampling wells located in the Niagara River Watershed. These samples were analyzed for five physical properties and 219 constituents that included inorganic major ions, nutrients, organic carbon, trace elements, radon-222, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), phenolic compounds, pesticides, and bacteria. According to the 2006 Report, the quality of the ground water was generally considered acceptable, except where concentrations of some limited constituents such as sodium, sulfate, iron, manganese, and total coliform appeared in a few water sources that exceeded maximum USEPA and NYS DOH standards. The citations that were detected in the highest concentrations were calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The anions that were detected in the highest concentrations were bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate and the predominant nutrients were nitrate and ammonia. The report also indicates that 18 pesticides were detected in 14 of the 33 wells sampled, and 14 VOCs were detected in 12 samples, but neither of their concentrations exceeded regulatory thresholds.
---
\(^8\) Prepared by the NYS DEC, US EPA, US Dept. of Interior and US Geological Survey.
It should also be noted that the USGS Ground-water Quality in Western New York, 2006 Report states “a comprehensive and current assessment of the ground-water quality throughout the entire area is needed.”
**Drinking Water Supplies**
The largest water suppliers are the Erie County Water Authority (ECWA) and the Niagara Falls Water Board. The ECWA had 158,650 customers or over 550,000 persons in 35 municipalities in Erie, Genesee and Wyoming counties in 2010. The Niagara Falls Water Board serves about 55,000 persons in Niagara County through 19,500 service connections. Their water sources are Lake Erie and the Niagara River. More information about these two water suppliers can be found in their most recent water quality reports that are included in the Appendices D & E.
Many of the rural communities and residents that are not supplied by these two systems rely on ground water from bedrock or from surficial deposits of sand and gravel. Some smaller community water systems use surface water from small reservoirs or lakes, while others obtain water from bedrock wells. A map of the watershed’s wells and aquifers is provided on the following page\(^9\). Many rural residents have private wells. Shallow wells that tap sand and gravel aquifers are susceptible to contamination by several types of substances including volatile organic compounds, pesticides, deicing chemicals, and nutrients from nearby roads, and commercial, agricultural and residential areas. The movement of these contaminants to the water table can be relatively rapid. Bedrock wells in lowland areas with carbonate rock may be vulnerable to contamination from surface runoff. Aquifers can also contain elements such as sodium, chloride, methane, and radon gasses.
Groundwater is also assessed on a site-by-site basis at inactive hazardous waste sites monitored by NYSDEC. Historic contamination from spills and dumping of industrial wastes commonly results in contamination of groundwater, which may then travel offsite in plumes and/or enter surface water and waterway sediments through river and stream banks. Groundwater recovery pumping systems are often used to reduce the migration of contaminants off-site and into waterways.
**Areas of Concern (AOCs)**
As mentioned previously, the Buffalo and Niagara Rivers each have areas designated as “Areas of Concern” due to the extent of their historical contamination. The U.S.-Canada Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (Annex 2 of the 1987 Protocol) defines Areas of Concerns (AOC) as "geographic areas that fail to meet the general or specific objectives of the agreement where such failure has caused or is likely to cause impairment of beneficial use of the area's ability to support aquatic life."
\(^9\) The Wells and Aquifers map only outlines public water supply wells, private wells are not documented.
Water well data is developed from well completion reports submitted to NYS DEC and is not always verified. The aquifers represented on this map by NYS DEC to facilitate the identification of the location and characteristics of various unconsolidated aquifers; those that consist of sand and gravel and yield water in sufficient quantity to supply wells. Aquifer boundaries are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
This map was prepared for the New York State Department of State with funds provided under Article 24 of the Environmental Protection Fund Act.
1987, 43 Areas of Concern were identified throughout the Great Lakes Basin; 26 within the US, 12 within Canada, and 5 shared between the US and Canada. These areas were identified based on their impairments to fourteen listed Beneficial Uses and were required to develop and implement Remedial Action Plans (RAPs). A RAP is developed in three stages: Stage I identifies and assesses use impairments, and identifies the sources of the stresses from all media in the AOC; Stage II identifies proposed remedial actions and their method of implementation; and Stage III documents evidence that uses have been restored\(^{10}\). Areas of Concern are “delisted” when all Beneficial Use Impairments (BUIs) have been restored.
**Buffalo River Area of Concern**
The Buffalo River Area of Concern is located in the City of Buffalo, Erie County, NY. The AOC includes the lower 6.2 miles of the Buffalo River and the adjacent City Ship Canal. The River flows westerly through the City of Buffalo and discharges into Lake Erie near the head of the Niagara River. The Buffalo River and City Ship Canal are man-made waterways which were created to allow for industrialization of the area. That industrialization led to the contamination of bottom sediments, poor water quality, and degradation of wildlife habitat.
The Buffalo River RAP was completed in 1989 by NYS Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) in partnership with a local citizen’s advisory committee. The combined Stage 1 and Stage 2 RAP included a remediation strategy of stream water quality monitoring, contaminated bottom sediment assessment and action determination, inactive hazardous waste site remediation, point and nonpoint source discharge evaluation, combined sewer overflow assessment, remedial measure implementation monitoring, fish and wildlife beneficial use restoration, and habitat protection. Between 1989 and 2003, NYSDEC coordinated the Buffalo River Remedial Action Plan process. In October 2003, the USEPA Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO) selected Friends of the Buffalo Niagara Rivers (FBNR)\(^{11}\) to take over coordination of the RAP. With the assistance of the Remedial Advisory Committee (RAC), NYSDEC, and over 30 other governmental and non-governmental agencies and organizations, Riverkeeper is working towards the goal of delisting the Buffalo River as an Area of Concern.
Currently, the Buffalo River has 9 of the 14 BUIs listed as Impaired (Table 4.6). The main impairment causes are contaminated sediments, loss of wildlife habitat, and ongoing contamination from point and non-point source pollution.
---
\(^{10}\) US EPA
\(^{11}\) FBNR changed its name in July 2005 and is now known as Buffalo Niagara RIVERKEEPER®.
Table 4.6 Buffalo River AOC Beneficial Use Impairments
| Beneficial Use Impairment Indicator | Current Status | Known or Likely Cause of Impairment |
|-------------------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------|
| 1 | Impaired | PCB’s and Chlordane in sediments. |
| 2 | Impaired | PAHs in sediments. |
| 3 | Impaired | Low dissolved oxygen, river channelization, and contaminated sediments. |
| 4 | Impaired | Contaminated sediments and navigational dredging. |
| 5 | Impaired | PCBs, DDT, and metabolites in sediments. |
| 6 | Impaired | Contaminated sediments and navigational dredging. |
| 7 | Impaired | Various contaminants in sediments. |
| 8 | Not Impaired | |
| 9 | Not Applicable | |
| 10 | Not Applicable | |
| 11 | Impaired | Floatables, debris and foul odor from CSOs and upper watershed. |
| 12 | Not Impaired | |
| 13 | Not Impaired | |
| 14 | Impaired | Physical disturbance such as bulk heading, dredging and steep slopes, and lack of suitable substrate. |
Work to remediate the contaminated sediment in the Buffalo River AOC began in August of 2011. Phase I (Navigational Dredging: August 2011 – January 2012) removed 550,000 cubic yards of sediment from the center channel of the river. This work was conducted by the US Army Corps of Engineers and funded ($4.6 million) by the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative. Phase II of the project began in October 2013 and is being funded ($20 million) by the Great Lakes Legacy Act Program. This phase will dredge approximately 480,000 cubic yards of contaminated sediment from the side
slopes of the River and cap approximately 9 acres in the City Ship Canal\(^{12}\). Dredging was completed in 2014, leading to significant progress towards delisting 7 of the 9 Impaired Beneficial Uses.
Restoring fish and wildlife habitat is a critical step needed to delist the Buffalo River as an AOC. As part of the Great Lakes Legacy Act Project, five in-water sites will be enhanced/restored with in-water plantings and the placement of in-water structures. Erie County has received funding from USEPA to enhance shoreline and upland habitat at their two community pocket parks on the River (Smits Street Park and Bailey Avenue Peninsula). Funded by various sources, the RiverBend habitat restoration project will enhance approximately 4,320 linear feet of shoreline in the AOC.
**Niagara River Area of Concern**
The Niagara River Area of Concern is a bi-national AOC. The New York State portion of the AOC is located in Erie and Niagara Counties and extends from the mouth of Smokes Creek at Lake Erie north to the mouth of the Niagara River at Lake Ontario. The Niagara River AOC experienced degradation due to contaminated discharges, shoreline alteration, habitat degradation and inputs from combined sewer overflows and other point and non-point source pollution.
NYSDEC applied a phased approach in the development of this RAP. In 1989, a group of interested citizens was appointed by New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) as the Niagara River Action Committee to help develop the RAP. The committee comprised 26 environmental, industrial, sports people, academic, community and local government representatives. Committee representatives and NYSDEC staff created an Executive Committee that directed RAP development. The Executive Committee established RAP goals, mapped out a workplan, defined responsibilities and reviewed draft sections of the RAP. The RAP was completed in 1993 and published as final in 1994; it addresses problems, sources, existing remediation programs and recommends remedial strategies.
Currently, the Niagara River has 7 of the 14 BUIs listed as Impaired (Table 4.7). The main causes of these impairments are contaminated sediment, contamination from hazardous waste sites, and habitat
---
\(^{12}\) More information on the project can be found at buffaloriverrestoration.org.
loss. Ongoing water monitoring has shown a significant decrease in the River’s contaminant levels since 1987. The improvement is mainly the result of government programs that now routinely address hazardous waste sites, maintain strict limits on pollutants in wastewater discharges, reduce the number of sewer overflows and enhance control of nonpoint source pollution.
Table 4.7 Niagara River AOC Beneficial Use Impairments
| Beneficial Use Impairment Indicator | Current Status | Known or Likely Cause of Impairment |
|-------------------------------------|----------------|------------------------------------|
| 1 | Impaired | Hazardous waste sites, contaminated sediment |
| 2 | Not Impaired | |
| 3 | Impaired | Loss of habitat and contamination |
| 4 | Impaired | Hazardous waste sites, contaminated sediment |
| 5 | Impaired | Hazardous waste sites, contaminated sediment |
| 6 | Impaired | Hazardous waste sites, contaminated sediment |
| 7 | Impaired | Hazardous waste sites, contaminated sediment |
| 8 | Not Impaired | |
| 9 | Not Impaired | |
| 10 | Not Impaired | |
| 11 | Not Impaired | |
| 12 | Not Impaired | |
| 13 | Not Impaired | |
| 14 | Impaired | Bulkheading, filling, water diversion, marine development, etc. |
A total of 44 hazardous waste sites were found to be potential sources for contaminant migration to the Niagara River. Thirty-seven of these sites are fully remediated. The remediation (and subsequent monitoring) of the remaining 7 hazardous waste sites along the Niagara River through Federal and State Superfund Programs will decrease the amount of pollutants entering the system. Projects to address contaminated sediment have been completed at 18 locations, resulting in the removal of over 300,000 cubic yards of contaminated material. Remaining contaminated sediment in the River and tributaries (source areas) will likely be addressed by the US Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Legacy Act Program.
Other efforts have focused on the habitat loss and impacts to fish and wildlife. More than 25 habitat related projects are either completed or ongoing. As a benefit of the 2007 Niagara Power Project relicensing, the New York Power Authority agreed to fund eight selected habitat projects and to provide additional funds for future projects. A regional commission has created a Greenway Plan to expand and enhance parks and conservation areas along the River, increasing public access for recreation.
**Lakewide Area Management Plans**
Under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA), the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the waters of the Great Lakes Basin Ecosystem. Lakewide Area Management Plans (LAMPs) for each lake are developed to identify actions required to restore and protect the lakes and evaluate the effectiveness of those actions.
**Lake Erie Lakewide Area Management Plan**
The 2013 Lake Erie LAMP report lists three immediate challenges to the health of the lake. First is the need to reduce pollutants in the lake along with a call for assistance. Invasive species, Asian Carp and non-native phragmites, are the two other cited challenges.
One of the next steps to meet these concerns is the implementation of the [Binational Nutrient Management Strategy](#). This strategy is concerned with phosphorus from tributaries and impacts to coastal wetlands. LAMP will work with partners to develop domestic action plans targeted at priority areas, research goals and collaboration, education and awareness. In addition, the work group will review any new and emerging science to develop, review, revise or update any phosphorus targets as needed to achieve the goals of the Strategy and the renewed GLWQA commitments.
Another important action is the LAMP adoption of the [Binational Biodiversity Conservation Strategy](#) (BBCS). The BBCS identifies priority areas for conservation action and recommends strategies to deal with critical threats to biodiversity, including:
- reducing the impact of agricultural pollutants,
- preventing and reducing the impact of invasive species,
- coastal conservation - preventing and reducing the impacts of incompatible development and shoreline alterations,
- reducing the impacts of urban pollutants.
The LAMP work group plans to review the binational Lake Erie BCS to determine how best to implement it in the United States and Canada and to incorporate it into future LAMP activities.
Lake Ontario Lakewide Area Management Plan
A very small portion of the Niagara Watershed along the eastern boundary of the lower Niagara River downstream is located in the Lake Ontario LAMP’s Niagara River area.
On the U.S. side, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation is reassessing cumulative inputs of toxic substances from historical sources along the Niagara River. This assessment of groundwater and surface water discharging to the river will also indicate if more work to identify pollution sources is necessary. On the Canadian side, no further action is required under the Canadian Niagara River Remedial Action Plan (RAP). The Canadian RAP is entering its final phase and is working to delist this Canadian AOC. Future contaminant issues will be addressed through routine federal, provincial and municipal abatement and enforcement programs.
In addition, the agencies participating in the binational Niagara River Toxics Management Plan continue to monitor contaminant levels in the river.
Fish Consumption
Because of the industrial past of the Western New York region, fish consumption advisories also exist throughout a large portion of the watershed today. The NYS Department of Health issues advisories with support from the NYS DEC who performs regular testing of fish species. Presently there are many local fish species on the advisories; those specifically listed include Carp, Rock Bass, Yellow Perch, Burbot, Channel Catfish, Coho Salmon, Chinook Salmon, Rainbow Trout, Smallmouth Bass, White Sucker, White Perch and Brown Trout. However, there are several locations within the watershed where the Department of Health cautions against eating “all other fish” as well, such as the Niagara River, Lewiston Reservoir, Lake Erie, Delaware Park (Hoyt) Lake, Cayuga Creek, Buffalo River, City of Buffalo Inner and Outer Harbor, and portions of the Erie Canal and Eighteenmile Creek. Contaminants of concern include PCBs, Dioxins and Mirex. Advisories caution that consumption be limited to either 1-4 meals/month or not at all, depending on your demographic, with the most restrictions provided for children under the age of 15 and women of child bearing years.
Unfortunately many of Buffalo’s immigrant and refugee populations often engage in subsistence fishing on the Buffalo and Niagara Rivers, many times
unknowingly exposing themselves to toxic chemicals. A majority of these transplants are often uninformed about the potential health risks resulting from exposure to contaminants via the degraded waterway and fish consumption. To better inform these anglers in the City of Buffalo and regional anglers overall, Buffalo Niagara RIVERKEEPER® developed more accessible and easily understood versions of the New York State Fish Consumption Advisory, using more symbols and illustrations to convey information to non-English speakers. Also, pamphlets detailing the risk of consumption to mother and child are translated into several languages and presently given out at family clinics; informative and aesthetically pleasing posters are hung in doctor’s offices; and, pocket-sized fishing guides, also translated into different languages, are given out at fishing sites. Despite these efforts, Riverkeeper has found that additional outreach is necessary to better inform and educate these vulnerable populations.
**Causes & Contributors to Water Quality Impairments**
According to the NYSDEC many of the watershed’s Impacted Uses identified in the RIBS data are associated with a variety of point and non-point pollution sources, including combined and sanitary sewer overflows, stormwater runoff, and historic contamination. In addition, there are other new and emerging threats affecting the watershed at this time, such as climate change, ecosystem changes, pharmaceuticals and other man-made chemical compounds.
**Types of Pollution**
There are five main types of pollution affecting our waters. *The Protecting Water Resources through Local Controls and Practices: An Assessment Manual for New York Municipalities* outlines four of the pollution types as follows:
Water pollution can be described as the introduction of substances into a body of water that adversely affects its quality or intended use. As direct (or “point source”) pollution from sewage treatment plants and industry has decreased, attention has turned to other sources of water pollution. Non-point source pollution such as rainwater and snow melt running off of roofs, parking lots, streets, lawns, agricultural lands, and construction sites has significant impacts on water quality. Point sources of pollution can often be more easily monitored and regulated using existing technologies because the pollutants enter the environment at a specific location, whereas non-point sources are more difficult to evaluate and regulate because pollutants come from a broader area.
---
13 Prepared by Genesee/Finger Lakes Regional Planning Council (June 2006).
While water pollution results from a variety of sources and activities, generally pollutants can be classified as being toxic, sediment, nutrient or bacterial. Rain water flowing over land picks up a wide array of contaminants ranging from salt used for de-icing roads, leaked motor oil and gasoline on driveways and parking lots, agricultural and lawn chemicals, and large amounts of silt from construction sites. Streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and wetlands that are polluted by stormwater runoff can suffer from such effects as salinization (high levels of dissolved salts), eutrophication (excessive nutrient levels), and siltation (large deposits of silt), to name a few.
Toxic pollution includes chemicals that poison and kill organisms. When high levels of toxins accumulate in fish tissue that threaten human health, advisories to limit consumption are issued, such as those mentioned earlier. Contaminated legacy sediments from past industrial activity and hazardous waste sites are a significant issue in our urban waterways, especially within the Areas of Concern. Examples of toxic pollutants include pesticides and herbicides; gasoline, oil, and other automotive chemicals; household cleaning products; paints and solvents; battery acid; and industrial chemicals.
Sediment pollution includes soil, sand, silt, clay, and minerals eroded from the land surface and washed into water. Sediment is typically generated from areas with exposed soils. Without vegetative cover, rainwater flows quickly off land surfaces picking up soil particles, rather than slowly soaking into the ground. Hard surfaces such as roofs, streets, and parking lots prevent rain water from slowly soaking (infiltrating) into the ground. The resulting increase in water quantity and velocity can erode stream banks leading to further sedimentation. Sediment overload causes a number of problems for aquatic organisms. Sediment also often picks up other forms of pollution such as toxins, nutrients, or bacteria.
Nutrient pollution results from an overabundance of substances such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and is often referred to as nutrient loading. Higher nutrient levels induce the prolific growth of aquatic plants and algae. When large quantities of algae die off, bacterial decomposition uses dissolved oxygen, depriving organisms of the oxygen they need (aka. eutrophication). The depletion of oxygen also kills the small aquatic invertebrates consumed by fish. The fertilizing and growth of vegetation can also make swimming, boating, and fishing difficult. Sources of nutrient pollution can include sewage treatment plant discharges, leaking septic systems, industrial discharges, and agricultural and lawn care fertilizers.
Bacterial pollution occurs when an excess of harmful bacteria is present. This can be lethal to animals and humans that may consume contaminated water. Sources of bacterial pollution include combined sewage overflows, sanitary sewer overflows, failing septic systems, leaking sanitary sewer infrastructure, and animal wastes.
In addition to toxic, sediment, nutrient, and bacterial pollution types outlined in the Genesee/Finger Lakes Regional Planning Council Guide, thermal pollution should also be considered a major pollution type within the Niagara River Watershed. Thermal pollution is defined as the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Water temperature can be affected by many things, including natural influences and man-made influences. For example such things as a stream corridor’s lack of overhanging trees and vegetation, would be considered a natural heating process, as exposure to sunlight is causing the thermal increases. Man-made influences can include power plants and other manufacturing processes where high water volumes of heated water are discharged into a waterway.
Thermal pollution can have a negative effect on aquatic species, including fish, amphibians, and macroinvertebrates by altering their metabolic rates, reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen, and increasing bacterial levels. Dissolved oxygen levels also have a direct effect on the frequency and extent of algal blooms, further impacting water ecosystems. Even with minor temperature changes, stream corridors can go from habitable to inhabitable for certain species, such as Brook Trout, Brown Trout, and Salmon.
**SPDES Facilities & Other Permitted Discharges**
Point source pollution comes from facilities and infrastructure that discharge directly into streams and water bodies. In the Niagara River Watershed these include National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitted facilities; State Pollution Discharge Elimination Systems (SPDES) permitted facilities, Combined Sewer Overflow Systems (CSOs), Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs), and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems (MS4s).
All of these point source discharges are regulated as part of the Clean Water Act. New York State’s SPDES permitting program administers all the NPDES permitting in the state and is currently broader in scope than required by the Clean Water Act, in that it controls point source discharges to ground waters as well as surface waters. Buffalo Niagara Riverkeeper was able to identify 330 NPDES/SPDES permitted facilities (points) within the Niagara River Watershed with data obtained from NYS DEC. This data set includes such companies/facilities as Praxair, NYPA’s
Lewiston Power Plant, DuPont, O-AT-KA Milk Products Cooperative, Niagara Mohawk’s Huntley Generating Station, the Alabama Quarry, and East Aurora Wastewater Treatment Plant. However, it is suspected that there are several hundred more NPDES/SPDES permitted facilities within the watershed\(^{14}\). All of these facilities are provided for on the maps on the following pages. (SPDES, EPA 1 and EPA 2).
NYS’s SPDES Program does have General Permits in place for the following activities:
- Multi-Sector General Permit (stormwater discharges from industrial activity)
- Aquatic Pesticides
- Private/Commercial/Institutional (to groundwater, 1,000 – 10,000 gpd)
- Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (Medium or Large)
- Construction
- High Volume Hydraulic Fracturing
- Vessels
Combined Sewer Overflow Systems (CSOs), Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs), and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems (MS4s) are discussed in detail on the following pages. The remaining facilities making up NPDES and SPDES permitted facilities include industrial operations, food processing plants, private sewer districts, and power generation facilities, to name a few. The discharges released by these types of facilities can include untreated waters that have such things as heavy metals, chemical compounds, food wastes and bi-products in them as long as the levels fall below permitted amounts. Some permits require waters to be pre-treated prior to release, but again the amount of contaminants must remain within allowable levels, as dictated by state regulations. Without a full dataset of the SPDES facilities in the region, a further analysis of the issues presented by NPDES/SPDES permitted facilities is hard to quantify at this time.
**CSOs contribute toxic, sediment, nutrient and bacterial pollution.**
**Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs)**
Combined Sewer Systems (CSS) are conveyance systems that are designed to collect stormwater runoff, domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater in the same pipe. Most of the time, combined sewer systems transport all of the wastewater to a sewage treatment plant, where it is treated before being discharged to a local waterbody.
However, during periods of heavy rainfall or snowmelt, the total water volume in a combined sewer
---
\(^{14}\) Buffalo Niagara Riverkeeper was unable to obtain the rest of the NYS DEC NPDES/SPDES data set for the region without doing a FOIL request for each individual facility. At this time we settled on utilizing a former dataset obtained from DEC several years ago.
STATE POLLUTANT DISCHARGE ELIMINATION SYSTEM (SPDES)
SPDES Discharge
- 01-State Significant Industrial
- 02-Non Significant P/C/I
- 03-EPA Major Industrial
- 04-Non Significant Industrial
- 05-EPA Major Municipal
- 07-State Significant Municipal
Sub-Basin Boundary
County
Municipality
Sub-Basins of the Niagara River Watershed
State Pollution Discharge Elimination System Locations
NYS Department of Environmental Conservation
Development and accuracy checked by Buffalo Niagara Riverkeeper, 2010.
Sub-Watersheds are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
This map was prepared for the New York State Department of State with funds provided under Title 17 & the Environmental Protection Fund Act.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for environmental oversight over a variety of industrial activities under many federal statutes including the Clean Air Act (CAA), Permit Compliance System (PCS), the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), Clean Water Act (CWA), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
Hydrographic boundaries are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for environmental oversight over a variety of industrial activities under many federal statutes, including the Clean Air Act (CAA), Permit Compliance System (PCS), the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), Clean Water Act (CWA), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA).
Hydrography methods are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
system can exceed the capacity of the sewer system or treatment plant. In this instance, CSSs will overflow and discharge untreated or partially treated water directly into streams, rivers, or other waterbodies in order to prevent basement back-ups and flooding (Figure 4.3).
These systems contribute to water quality issues when they overflow. Types of pollutants that can empty into local water bodies from combined sewer system overflow events are:
- Untreated human waste, which can host *E. coli* and Botulism (Type C) bacteria;
- Industrial waste;
- Litter and trash;
- Sediment and debris;
- Toxic pollutants from fertilizers and pesticides.
**Figure 4.3 Combined Sewer System Outfalls in Dry and Wet Weather**
Source: US EPA
In the Niagara Watershed, six communities have Combined Sewer Systems: The City of Buffalo (in Erie County); the Cities of Lockport, North Tonawanda, and Niagara Falls (in Niagara County); and the Village and Town of Lewiston.
Combined sewer overflows are regulated as point sources of pollution by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and are no longer a legal means of preventing sewer back-up problems. The City of Buffalo is the largest CSO system in the watershed, having 790 miles of combined sewer lines and 52 permitted outfalls, and is currently negotiating a Consent Decree with the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation and the Environmental
Protection Agency, which will bring the Buffalo Sewer Authority into closer compliance with the Clean Water Act. The City’s recently completed Long Term Control Plan (January 2014) is expected to have a major positive impact on water quality in the Niagara River watershed as it is implemented over the next 20 years.
The Buffalo system overflows into the Niagara River and four of its tributaries: the Buffalo River, the Black Rock Canal, Scajaquada Creek, and Cazenovia Creek. If implemented as projected, the Buffalo Sewer Authority’s Long Term Control Plan is expected to reduce annual CSO volume from 1752.3 million gallons per year to 486.3 million gallons, and increase the wet weather flow percent capture from 91.3% to 97.4%.
The City of Niagara Falls has significantly fewer combined sewer outfall points than the City of Buffalo, six total. The Niagara Falls CSO’s are owned and operated by the Niagara Falls Water Board, a separate water-sewer utility entity. The number of CSO events is currently not well tracked, as visual inspections of the overflows occur monthly to identify whether an event occurred. All of the CSOs discharge to the Niagara Gorge. Presently the water board suspects that groundwater is also infiltrating the system via cracked pipes and deteriorated pipe connections, adding to the amount of rainfall entering the system and overall number of overflow events. At this time the City’s has begun to address the infiltration issue and has made improvements in the last few years. The water board is not under a consent order from the EPA at this time, as they have recently completed a Long-Term Control Plan that was approved by the DEC and has completed all of the required improvement projects. The water board is currently in the water quality monitoring stage of the Long-Term Control Plan.
The City of Lockport is divided by the Niagara Escarpment, the northern boundary of the watershed, meaning a portion of its infrastructure is located outside of the watershed, including the wastewater treatment plant. In addition, only a portion of the City of
Combined Sewer Outfall, Cazenovia Creek
Lockport’s sewer system is a combined system (approximately 30%) and in the last few years has only experienced 1 overflow event/year. The city currently has 10 CSOs, 7 of which are located in the watershed. Currently the city is working with NYS DEC to close 8 or 9 of the existing CSOs, since they haven’t had any events. The only CSO where overflow events occur every year and they plan to keep open is CSO #2 (East of Jackson/North of William), which discharges to Eighteen Mile Creek in Niagara County, outside of the watershed.
The City of North Tonawanda’s combined sewer system includes 5 Combined Sewer Outfalls, all of which discharge to the Niagara River. The city typically only utilizes the CSOs, or old bypasses as their referred to, during major residential flooding events, which has been once or twice in recent years. Additional data as to the volumes they discharge is not known at this time.
The last 2 CSOs existing within the watershed are located in the Village and Town of Lewiston, and both discharge to the lower Niagara River. For the Village of Lewiston’s CSO, overflow events are detected via observation and occur 1 time/year (on average). The Lewiston Sewer District’s CSO is located near the Stella Niagara property and also typically sees only 1 overflow event annually.
**Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs)**
Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs) fulfill a similar purpose to Combined Sewer Overflows. However, sanitary sewer systems carry domestic sanitary sewage, but not stormwater. System blockages, groundwater infiltration into sewage pipes, or infrastructure problems can result in sanitary sewage overflow events into local waterways. SSOs are prohibited by New York State as a legal means of preventing sewer back-ups and have been phased out in many communities. However many communities in the watershed still have overflow events a few times a year. According to reportings to DEC a total of 1,440 sanitary sewer overflow events occurred between May 13, 2013 and November 5, 2014, discharging raw untreated sewage into the watershed. The volumes discharged are not fully documented unfortunately, as the amounts are not always reported or accurately known. Of these 1,440 incidents, the top five communities with SSO discharges during this timeframe are as follows:
1. Town of Cheektowaga = 511 overflow incidents
2. Town of Hamburg = 213 overflow incidents
3. Town of Tonawanda = 183 overflow incidents
4. Town of West Seneca = 180 overflow incidents
5. Town of Grand Island = 110 overflow incidents
For the other 20 communities reporting incidents during this time period, discharges were all below
most municipalities documented only 1 incident. In this same data set where the receiving waters of the discharge were noted, Scajaquada Creek by far received the most illegal sewage discharges, with 494 recorded discharges. The Niagara River was the second highest recipient with 189 discharges, and third highest was Ellicott Creek with 173 discharges. All other receiving waters had under 100 discharge events. This just illustrates the extent to which SSOs are a problem in the watershed. In the majority of cases heavy rain events were cited as the cause, meaning old, cracked or broken infrastructure is receiving stormwater and groundwater inflows that contribute to the need to open a SSO pipe rather than inundate the wastewater treatment plants.
Many communities in the watershed have taken steps to identify where their inflow problems are and address them slowly with infrastructure upgrades as municipal budgets allow. However, there are some communities, such as Cheektowaga, where some of the issues may stem from poor private connections to the public sewer and with a lower-income tax base there is little desire to force taxpayers to bear the burden of fixing it. In order for the SSO situation to improve at a faster rate, innovative funding mechanisms should be identified and implemented.
**Stormwater Infrastructure and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems**
As mentioned in Chapter 2, stormwater infrastructure and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems (MS4s) are a conveyance network of pipes, culverts and ditches that transport stormwater into retention ponds or area waterways. Stormwater infrastructure is the primary collector of non-point source pollution, as stormwater run-off typically picks up roadway contaminants, sediments, animal wastes, fertilizers and pesticides, and litter, amongst other things. Unlike combined sewer systems, where stormwater has the opportunity to be treated at a waste water treatment plant prior to release, stormwater conveyed through separated infrastructure is not treated.
Water quality impacts from stormwater runoff can be significant with multiple impacts on water quality and aquatic life. Many rivers, streams and lakes are impaired and degraded due to polluted stormwater runoff. Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen can cause the
*Urban and Rural Stormwater Runoff contribute sediment, nutrient, bacterial and thermal pollution to the watershed.*
Example of MS4 Pollution (nykography.com)
overgrowth of algae resulting in waterway oxygen depletion. Toxic substances from motor vehicles and careless application of pesticides and fertilizers threaten water quality and can kill fish and other aquatic life. Bacteria from animal wastes and improper connections to storm sewer systems can make lakes and waterways unsafe for recreation and fish consumption. Eroded soil is a pollutant that clouds the waterway and interferes with the habitat of fish and plant life.
All areas of the watershed have some form of stormwater infrastructure. In more urban areas, stormwater infrastructure may be fully underground, with storm drains and pipes. In rural communities much of the stormwater network is made up of roadside ditches and retention ponds.
Suburban municipalities usually include a mixture of both types of infrastructure. Recently, the WNY Stormwater Coalition undertook a major mapping effort to document the stormwater infrastructure, their flow directions and outfall locations in order to better plan and maintain this infrastructure in MS4 regulated communities. Figure 4.4 outlines the MS4 outfall locations in the watershed as documented by the WNY Stormwater Coalition.
Increasing development and higher levels of impervious cover (as found in high-density urban areas), contribute more and more stormwater into these conveyance systems, reducing the ability for rain water and snow melt to be filtered and cleaned through groundwater infiltration. This redirect of waters decreases base flow in headwater streams, which often results in negative impacts on channel stability and the health of aquatic biological communities. Common problems include bank scouring and erosion, increased downstream flooding, and loss of in-stream habitat for macroinvertebrates, fish, and other organisms.
As regulatory requirements have increased for MS4 communities subject to NPDES permitting, there has been increasing interest in evolving MS4 infrastructure into “greener” systems. Opportunities exist with stormwater system designs to build in natural green infrastructure that can capture, store, and filter stormwater prior to its direct release into area waterways. In communities around the country, wetlands are being constructed as a means to filter stormwater prior to discharge into drinking water bodies. Currently the Town of Aurora has begun regarding roadside ditches and discussing best management practices with neighboring landowners as a means to reduce sediment erosion and improve filtering opportunities. In order to affect the volume of stormwater entering our waterways, as well as its quality, efforts should be undertaken to improve MS4 design and maintenance practices in the watershed to improve their support of water quality (i.e. natural filtration, buffering, reduced erosion, and increased infiltration).
**Agricultural Operations**
Agricultural Operations can impact neighboring waters in numerous ways. In the 2000 National Water Quality Inventory, US States reported that agricultural non-point source pollution is the leading source of water quality impacts on surveyed lakes and rivers, the second largest impairment to wetlands, and a major contributor to contamination of surveyed estuaries and groundwater. In the Niagara River Watershed, five of the 11 sub-watersheds have over 40% of their land use in agriculture, with another 4 hosting 20-39%, and the last two between 10-19%.
Non-point source pollution stemming from farms and farming practices can include:
- Erosion and sedimentation from farm fields, irrigation channels and over-grazing;
- Streambank erosion and instability caused by encroachment of fields & pastures into
riparian areas.
- Toxins and nutrient loading from improper pesticide and fertilizer use; and,
- Pathogens and bacteria, like E-coli, from poor animal waste management practices.
Many of these causes of non-point source pollution stemming from farms can be alleviated or greatly reduced by improving farm layout and design, providing outreach and education on best management practices, as well as technical & financial assistance to install BMPs and implement management changes on farms.
**Agricultural Operations can contribute sediment, nutrient, bacterial, and toxic pollution to the watershed.**
As part of the Clean Water Act, the US EPA regulates farms of a certain size, which are referred to as Consolidated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) and considered a source of point source pollution. For more than 30 years, the Clean Water Act has enacted statutes, regulations and performance standards for CAFOs. NYS DEC currently regulates CAFO’s under its authority as part of the State Pollution Discharge Elimination System (SPDES). Farms that are classified as a CAFO, operate under a SPDES permit that requires the farm to develop and fully implement a Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan (CNMP) to reduce impacts to the environment. The map on the following page documents the large and medium-sized CAFOs in the watershed.
Animal feeding operations (AFOs) that do not meet the CAFO criteria can still complete CNMPs voluntarily with the help of County Soil and Water Conservation Districts as part of the Agricultural Environmental Management Program (AEM) or through the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Environmental Quality Incentives Program. It is estimated that over 13,000 farms in NYS participate in the AEM, however many small to medium sized farms who go through the planning process are finding it difficult to implement the plans, either from lack of funding or technical assistance available.
Recently the DEC revised a rule applying to Agricultural Feeding Operations to exempt dairy farms with “200-299 mature dairy cows, whether milked or dry, that does not cause a discharge” meaning these farms would no longer be considered a Medium CAFO and are no longer required to receive a SPDES permit. These dairy farms are granted the exemption because they have already developed and fully implemented their CNMP and have demonstrated to NYS DEC through on farm inspections that they do not pose a significant risk to
STATE PERMITS FOR CONCENTRATED ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS (CAFOs)
- Large CAFO
- Medium CAFO
Sub-Basin Boundary
County
Municipality
The New York State Departments of Environmental Conservation and Agriculture and Markets, the State Soil and Water Conservation Board, farmers, agribusiness, and other interested parties developed CAFO Permits to ensure that all twenty-five state permits meet the business needs of farmers and assist CAFO owners or operators in complying with State and federal water quality requirements.
Sub-Basins of the Niagara River Watershed are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
This map was prepared for the New York State Department of State with funds provided under Article 27 of the Environmental Protection Fund Act.
the environment. This change is concerning because there is uncertainty if there will be any future monitoring of these farms to insure they’re maintaining a high level of environmental stewardship.
Emerging agricultural concerns in the watershed is the use of acid whey and biosolids. Wyoming County is currently the largest dairy producing county in the State and is host to major yogurt production facilities. Erie County contains the second largest city in New York and has the infrastructure and industry to produce biosolids. Biosolids are a nutrient rich organic byproduct of wastewater treatment. Acid whey and biosolids are both byproducts that have the potential for beneficial use in the agricultural industry. Acid whey has the potential to be used as a feed source for livestock and as a feedstock for anaerobic digesters, and both have the potential for use as a fertilizer product. These byproducts like many others including commercial fertilizer, pesticides and manure have the potential to cause detrimental effects to the environment and human health when mismanaged. Improper management of these products such as land applications above agronomic rates, poorly timed applications and applications near sensitive areas can result in acidification of the soil and aluminum leaching, accumulation of excess nutrients and heavy metals in soil, and runoff into streams and hydrologically sensitive areas. When these products enter the aquatic system they cause nutrient loading and reduction of dissolved oxygen; bioaccumulation of toxic metals and chemicals in the food web; fish kills; the impairment of the aquatic ecosystem; and the contamination of water bodies used for municipal water supplies. Proper management, planning, education and regulatory oversight will be needed to insure the safe use of these products within the watershed.
**Brownfields may contribute toxic pollution to sediments, groundwater and surface water.**
**Historic Contamination (Brownfields)**
As mentioned previously, the 2010 Niagara River/Lake Erie RIBS report, the primary water quality issues in the watershed stem from past industrial uses. Properties contaminated with toxic substances (brownfields) are considered point source pollution in the watershed. Surface and ground waters can pick-up toxic substances present in soils contaminated by former land-use practices, which can then migrate contaminants off-site into streams, water bodies, and the ecosystem. Former industrial and commercial operations (i.e. gas stations, auto repair) often utilized toxic chemicals and other pollutants as part of their regular operations. Sometimes these materials were poorly handled in the past, creating opportunities for spills, dumping and other environmental exposures. Unfortunately heavy concentrations of industry were located in the cities of Buffalo, Niagara Falls, and Lackawanna and along major waterways well before many of the environmental regulations we have today were in effect. Because of this, these areas of the watershed have high concentrations of brownfields. Today the US EPA oversees many of the most highly contaminated
brownfields (National Priority List and Superfund Sites), while the remaining sites are under state jurisdiction. The EPA Regulated Facilities Maps included following page 4-23 outlines the following facilities, whose past history or current operations pose a potential threat to the environment:
- sites or facilities that are proposed for, currently on, or removed from the U.S. EPA National Priorities List (NPL), which considers contaminated properties for inclusion in the EPA’s Superfund list;
- U.S. EPA CERCLIS\textsuperscript{15} Superfund sites;
- National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)\textsuperscript{16} permitted facilities and pipes;
- Combined Sewer Overflow Event locations;
- facilities that hold, generate, transport and/or dispose of hazardous waste as regulated by the U.S. EPA (RCRA\textsuperscript{17} permits); and,
- facilities or sites where a hazardous substance release occurred (Toxic Release Inventory, EPCRA\textsuperscript{18}).
Presently, the watershed hosts 4 brownfields currently on the National Priorities List and 181 US EPA CERCLIS Superfund Sites, including the infamous Love Canal, Hooker Chemical Plant properties and a half dozen landfills. Many of the documented hazardous waste sites in the watershed are part of the Buffalo and Niagara River Areas of Concern and their Remedial Action Plans. Because remediation (clean-up) and rehabilitation of brownfield properties can take decades, many of them are still considered “active” sites today and can still pose a threat to surface and groundwater resources in the watershed.
\textsuperscript{15} Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System (CERCLIS).
\textsuperscript{16} As part of the Clean Water Act
\textsuperscript{17} Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
\textsuperscript{18} Environmental Protection and Community Right-to-Know Act
In addition to brownfield properties there are a number of existing industrial, commercial, retail and institutional facilities in the watershed that utilize hazardous substances as part of their everyday operations. RCRA permitted facilities are those facilities required to track the generation, use and/or disposal of certain hazardous materials. As of 2008, the watershed has 178 facilities operating with RCRA permits. RCRA facilities are also monitored and regulated at the state and federal level in order to ensure proper handling and to limit exposures to people and the environment. Unfortunately spills do occur at these facilities and sometimes in transport of their hazardous materials. The Toxic Release Inventory sites documents where a spill has occurred as part of the Environmental Protection and Community Right-to-Know Act. As of 2008, 228 spills have been documented in the watershed. Known brownfields and Hazardous Waste Sites under NYS jurisdiction are represented in the State Regulated Remediation Sites Map provided on the following page and in Table 4.8 below\(^{19}\).
**Table 4.8 State Regulated Hazardous Waste Sites by Sub-Watershed (2008)**
| Sub-watershed | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | A | C | Total |
|------------------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|-------|
| Buffalo River | 6 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 22 | 13 | 52 |
| Buffalo Creek | | | | | | | |
| Cayuga Creek | 1 | 1 | 5 | | | 2 | 9 |
| Eighteenmile Creek | | | 1 | | 1 | 2 | 4 |
| Lower Tonawanda Creek | 2 | 1 | 3 | | 4 | 4 | 14 |
| Middle Tonawanda Creek | 1 | | 1 | | | | 2 |
| Upper Tonawanda Creek | | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| Murder Creek | | | | 1 | | | 1 |
| Niagara River | 17 | 12 | 33 | 1 | 21 | 26 | 110 |
| Smoke Creek | 2 | | 2 | | 6 | 3 | 13 |
| Ellicott Creek | 2 | 1 | 1 | | 6 | 4 | 14 |
| **Total** | 31 | 19 | 53 | 3 | 61 | 55 | 222 |
Source: NYS DEC Environmental Site Remediation Database
The Niagara River Sub-watershed has 110 Hazardous Waste sites, the most of all the sub-watersheds. Twenty-one of these sites are currently considered Active, meaning “remedial work is underway” and 17 of which are considered Class 02, “posing a significant threat”. Buffalo River sub-watershed also has a numerous sites listed in the database (52), with 22 active and 6 identified as Class 02 sites. The State Regulated Remediation Sites Map also clearly shows these sites concentrated in the urban areas of the watershed, along the Lake Erie and Niagara River shoreline, and along Tonawanda Creek, Scajaquada Creek, and Smokes Creek.
\(^{19}\) See Map for NYS DEC Site Classification Key.
STATE REGULATED REMEDIATION SITES
Remediation Site Class
- **02** - Significant Threat; Action Required
- **03** - No Significant Threat; Action May Be Deferred
- **04** - Site Properly Closed; Requires Management
- **05** - Site Properly Closed; No Further Action
- **A** - Active, Remedial Work is Underway
- **C** - Remediation Complete
Sub-Basin Boundary County Municipality
Sub-Basins of the Niagara River Watershed
Points representing the locations for each remediation site in New York State. The file also includes known Inactive Hazardous Waste Sites is now included in the Remediation Sites file. November 2008
Sub-Watersheds are based on the U.S. Geological Survey 10-Digit Hydrologic Unit Codes (HUC).
This map was prepared for the New York State Department of State with funds provided under Article 17 of the Environmental Protection Fund Act.
While the sheer numbers of hazardous sites within the watershed and along key waterways are alarming, former brownfield properties do offer opportunities when remediated and redeveloped. In many cases, environmental conditions limit options for redevelopment allowing sites to be reclaimed for features that would support watershed health, such as flood plains, wetlands, riparian buffers, and green stormwater infrastructure, which are lacking in urban areas where brownfields concentrate.
**Thermal Increases**
Increases in the temperature of waters can negatively affect water conditions in how they support aquatic life and the ecosystem. For example, cold water fish species are sensitive to raises in water temperature as higher temperatures reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen and cold water fish require larger amounts of oxygen. As mentioned previously, temperature increases can be caused by both natural conditions and man-made conditions. In the case of the Niagara River Watershed thermal increases are attributed to:
- Lack of forested riparian cover to shade rivers and stream corridors;
- Stormwater run-off traveling over heated surfaces (black top, concrete channels);
- Loss of forested wetlands;
- Industrial discharges; and,
- Climate change (increased air temperatures).
Thermal pollution is most evident in the loss of trout found in the watershed. In recent years the number of stream segments with trout documented in the watershed has been decreasing. Presently trout is found closest to the headwaters of Tonawanda Creek, Buffalo River, and Buffalo Creek, where springs help keep water temperatures colder than other areas of the watershed.
The primary means to affect thermal pollution in the watershed is by the restoration and protection of forested riparian areas and improved design of stormwater conveyance systems. There currently are limited areas in the watershed where Stream Visual Assessment Protocol (SVAP) data collection has been completed, which limits the means to assess the quality of riparian areas for the watershed as a whole. Where SVAPing has occurred, inadequate riparian cover is consistently documented as an issue affecting stream health.
**Erosion & Sedimentation**
Many of the causes of erosion and sedimentation in the watershed have already been touched on as part of the discussion on stormwater
infrastructure and agricultural operations. However, there are erosion and sedimentation problems occurring in the watershed from causes aside from these factors. Other common erosion and sedimentation causes stem from topographical and geological conditions, such as steep slopes/banks and highly erodible soils; stream channel changes include down cutting and meandering; and man-made conditions include loss of riparian buffers.
Presently the extent of erosion areas in the watershed are not fully characterized; however, it is evident that erosion issues are occurring due to high sedimentation and turbidity issues found in water quality sampling. According to the *Riverwatch 2013 Water Quality Report*, turbidity thresholds were exceeded the majority of the time in certain waterways (Table 4.9).
**Table 4.9 2013 Riverwatch Program Turbidity Findings**
| Sampled Waterways | % of Samples where Turbidity Exceeded Thresholds* |
|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|
| Cayuga Creek | 9% |
| Buffalo Creek | 52% |
| Cazenovia Creek | 15% |
| Buffalo River | 94% |
| Inner & Outer Harbor | 73% |
| Niagara River | 50% |
| Scajaquada Creek | 61% |
| Grand Island | 100% |
| Ellicott Creek | 33% |
| Tonawanda Creek (Middle Main Stem) | 95% |
| Tonawanda Creek (Lower Main Stem) | 92% |
| Cayuga Creek (Niagara Falls) | 92% |
| Gill Creek | 83% |
*NYS DEC Part 703: Surface Water Quality Standards: 5 ntu*
A full comprehensive erosion assessment or geomorphic assessments do not currently exist for the Niagara River Watershed. Major erosion areas are mostly known in a piecemeal fashion, from projects and requests for assistance to the Soil and Water Conservation districts, and at the municipal/county level from where erosion is threatening neighboring infrastructure (i.e. roads, bridge abutments) or private property. A GIS data set documenting high erosion shoreline areas was completed recently for the Niagara River Greenway Communities. This GIS analysis really needs expansion to the remainder of the watershed in order to outline and address erosion issues. Conducting Stream Visual Assessments are more involved than the GIS assessment and are unrealistic to utilize for all stream miles of the watershed, but SVAPing does also document shoreline erosion.
The most primary suspected cause of erosion and sedimentation in the watershed is the lack of adequate riparian buffers. In many stream corridors riparian buffers have been removed or severely reduced causing the benefits and protections of these vegetative strips to be ineffective in strengthening shorelines and protecting water quality. A well-functioning riparian buffer:
- improves water quality by acting as a filter for surface and ground waters;
- stabilizes banks to reduce erosion and sedimentation downstream;
- provides storage during seasonal high-volume and flood events;
- slows the velocity of flood waters;
- improves water quantity and groundwater recharge by allowing for more surface water infiltration;
- maintains lower water temperatures that support aquatic habitats; and,
- supports wildlife habitat and movement corridors.
The lack of riparian buffers has negative effects on the integrity of shorelines, limiting a shore’s ability to withstand erosive forces. In the watershed, riparian buffers have been lost due to land use practices, where residential and commercial property owners mow down vegetation all the way to the waters’ edge. In other cases riparian loss is replaced with costly riprap to reduce further erosion, but while riprap may reduce erosion issues, the shoreline receives no additional benefits a vegetative buffer provides. As watershed planning continues, riparian lands should be comprehensively assessed in the watershed, plus outreach and education programs, land use policies, and bioengineering solutions should be developed and implemented to improve and protect riparian lands.
Invasive Species
The invasive species found in the watershed and the problems they cause are documented in Chapter 5. Invasive species threaten the health of the watershed’s ecosystems and in some cases, such as zebra mussels and hydrilla, contribute to water quality degradation, infrastructure issues, and/or algae blooms. Documentation of the extent of invasive species within the watershed depends on the specific species and how much research has been conducted. In recent years certain species have received more attention than others, such as Water Chestnut where several efforts exist to remove it (Tonawanda Creek) and educate the public to limit transporting it.
Invasive Species contribute to thermal, nutrient, and bacterial pollution.
There are also the more difficult species to address, such as Japanese Knotweed, which can severely impact habitat and riparian areas, but its long-term removal involves the use of herbicides that can cause other water quality impacts. Unfortunately the most common issue with trying to address invasives in the watershed is the need to comprehensively document their extent and spread in a cost-effective manner. A new partnership aims to do just this, by working
with and educating the public to be citizen scientists and document invasives through the iMAP Invasives website\(^{20}\) that utilizes online and smart phone spatial mapping applications to document invasives in the field. The new iMAP Invasives website is a good start in improving attempts to create better base datasets, but additional data collection is needed. In addition, strategies and public education should focus on outlining the best ways to address invasive species that present the least impact on water quality and habitat (i.e. hand removal vs. herbicides).
**Emerging Contaminants**
As outlined by the *Emerging Contaminant Threats and the Great Lakes: Existing Science, estimating relative risk and determining policies* report completed by the Alliance for the Great Lakes (2011), the last two decades have seen a growing concern about human health risks from chemical contaminants in the environment. Exposure to some of these manmade and naturally occurring chemicals is unavoidable as they end up in wastewater, air and land. Many come from every day products such as shampoos, plastics, pharmaceuticals and flame retardants. The impacts of emerging contaminants on the health of organisms in the Great Lakes and human populations are largely unknown. The data that does exist suggest they are a health concern, but more data and further study are needed.
There are millions of pounds of medications that expire or go unused in the United States every year. Improper disposal of these medications has generated concerns about their impacts on aquatic and human health. A number of studies have observed fish developing sexual and behavioral abnormalities. The scientific consensus appears to be that pharmaceuticals threaten aquatic organisms, though the effects on human health aren’t as clear. Scientists say there’s not enough data or understanding about emerging contaminants in the Great Lakes, but what is known is cause for concern. Pharmaceutical chemicals have been found in 41 million Americans drinking water in 24 major metro areas.
The growing number of pharmaceuticals and other chemical byproducts in the Great Lakes pose a health risk to the more than 40 million who rely on the lakes for drinking water, and to fish and wildlife. A comprehensive Alliance for the Great Lakes study analyzed existing data on emerging
\(^{20}\) www.imapinvasives.org
contaminants in the Great Lakes, and what this could mean for our health. Some highlights from the study:
- Flame retardants, pesticides, the antibacterial and antifungal agent Triclosan, and the insect repellent DEET are all found in the Great Lakes.
- Bisphenol A (BPA), used in plastics from baby bottles to food packaging, is found in more than half the water samples analyzed in all studies to date.
- Most emerging contaminants found in the Great Lakes come from everyday products such as shampoos, sunscreens, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
- Emerging contaminants have been implicated in hormone disruption and cancers, but few studies have looked at long term impacts in drinking water.
Addressing the problem of emerging contaminants requires focus on four main areas: new research, new technologies aimed at removing more contaminants during wastewater treatment, marketplace behavioral changes, and policy reforms. Few regulations exist regarding emerging contaminant control. The existing theory that a chemical cannot be removed from the marketplace without data showing a negative impact on people and the environment underscores the need for a more effective and realistic risk assessment program. Changing federal policies governing the production and use of new chemicals and existing contaminants may have the biggest impact. Few laws exist to control emerging contaminants, and current U.S. regulatory approaches don’t keep pace with the deluge of new chemicals. | 8cda1239-34cd-49c0-817f-6315833cc6bc | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://bnwaterkeeper.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Chapter-4-Water-Quality-FINAL.pdf | 2022-09-26T12:33:18+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030334871.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20220926113251-20220926143251-00515.warc.gz | 182,725,608 | 25,443 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.923901 | eng_Latn | 0.989734 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"ilo_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
1723,
5170,
6381,
9362,
10067,
12581,
17327,
25492,
31596,
42875,
44339,
47397,
50707,
52954,
53725,
55561,
57798,
60037,
62891,
63488,
66221,
68527,
70876,
73605,
76154,
78506,
81135,
83858,
86577,
89119,
89859,
90401,
90940,
92375,
94511,
97156... | [
2.53125,
1.78125
] | 2 | 0 |
MA30102 Foundation Mathematics 2
Teacher Mr. Shiv Kumar
Contact Science Lab, 2nd Floor Colombet Building.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Class Time EP-M4/1: Monday Period-1, Wednesday Period-4
EP-M4/2: Monday Period-7, Wednesday Period-1
Credits 1.0
Course Description
Before midterm exams:
The first topics will be function and relations, domain and range of a function and different types of functions. Relations and an introduction to functions: definitions and terminology.
As with many courses within EP, critical thinking skills are emphasized over those of rote learning and where possible an investigative approach is used.
After midterm exams:
After the midterm exams, the different types of functions explored will continue in particular, drawing linear, quadratic, exponential, absolute and step functions. The topics of unite circle along with trigonometric value of 30, 45 and 60 degree and the application of trigonometry for height and distance problems.
In general, the key competencies for the math course are: 1. Communicative ability 2. Thinking ability 3. Problem solving ability 4. Ability to use life skills 5. Technological ability
The key process skills are: 1. Problem solving 2. Reasoning 3. Communicating the meaning 4. Connecting 5. Creative thinking
Textbook
[Book 1] Barron’s SAT Math Level 1, 13th Edition.
[Book 2] IGCSE Cambridge International Mathematics Extended (0607), 2015 Edition *For new students, or those who have lost this EP3 textbook, I will have a shared online version.
Additional teacher handouts
Online resources
Khan Academy, Kahoot and Schoology
Course Outline & Objectives
Learning Unit 1.1: Relations [Strand 1, Standard MA1.2, Indicators MA 1.2 S.5/1]
1. Ordered pairs
2. Cartesian product
3. Relations
4. Graphs of relations
5. Domain and range of a relation
6. Inverse of a relation
Learning Unit 2: **Functions** [Strand 1, Standard MA1.2, Indicators MA 1.2 S.5/1]
1. Definition of function
2. Domain and range of function
3. Value of a function \( f(x) \)
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
Learning Unit 2: **Functions** [Strand 1, Standard MA2, Indicators MA 2.1 S.5/2] continued..
4. Types of functions
- Linear and Quadratic functions
- Exponential function
- Absolute value function
- Step function
Learning Unit 3: **Trigonometry** [Strand 1, Standard MA2.1, Indicators MA 2.2 S.2/1]
1. Trigonometric ratio
2. Calculation of 30, 45 and 60 degree of trigonometric identities
3. Relation between side and angles
4. Height and distance problems
Resources
Required
- At least 3 notebooks (2 white, 1 pink)
- Scientific calculator (not a phone-based application)
- Ruler
- Glue stick, stapler, or tape
Suggested
- Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
- Electronic Thai-English translator (not a phone-based application)
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (Notebooks,
textbook, scientific calculator, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Behavior is monitored every day as per the class rules that are set out at the beginning of the academic year (see the front of your notebooks). At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%). Students earn the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following desired characteristics:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Proud to be Thai
- Be an AC gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Be honest and upright
**Attendance & Tardiness**
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
**Homework & Classwork**
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in before the last week of the term get 0%.
**Grading**
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
**Evaluation and Assessment**
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Class work | 20% |
|------------|-----|
| Class Participation | 10% |
| Note book | 10% |
| Behavior | 10% |
| Quizzes | 10% |
| Midterm (Summative) Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Mathematics can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the course textbook. Often, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Get a Thai language introductory mathematics book.
4. Do not copy your classmates work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the textbook. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
7. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
MA30214 Universal Mathematics 2
Teacher: Robert John Sylvester III
email@example.com
Contact: EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
Class Time: EP-M4/1: Mon, Period 5. Thurs, Period 2
EP-M4/2: Mon, Period 6. Fri, Period 2
Course Description
This Universal course for maths emphasizes algebraic functions, matrices, and analytical geometry. The goal is to explore a variety of math topics while also linking the visual component of mathematics with its algebraic written counterpart. The course offers many of the maths skills students will need to succeed at university. As with many courses within EP, critical thinking skills are emphasized. The course will closely follow the order and content of the Thai syllabus while also exposing students to international syllabus style word-based problems. The course is prerequisite to MA30215 Universal Maths.
Matrix and Determinant (3, 4, 5, 10) [Midterm Exam]
1. Types and Properties of a Matrix
2. Finding determinants of 2x2 and 3x3 Matrices
3. Finding inverse multiplication of matrix
4. Use of matrix to solve system of linear equations
Analytic Geometry* (6, 7, 8, 9, 10) [Final Exam]
3.1 Foundation of analytic geometry
3.1.1 Distance between two points
3.1.2 Midpoint between two points
3.1.3 Slope of linear
3.1.4 Parallel and perpendicular
3.1.5 Linear relation graphs
3.1.6 Distance between linear and point
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonesty lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
Students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students must speak English in class. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (notebooks, textbook, scientific calculator, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Behaviour is monitored every class. At the end of the semester the points are accumulated and used for the student’s behaviour score (10%).
Furthermore, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Be honest and upright
- Proud to be Thai
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Be an AC gentleman
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Classwork
An assessment item must be submitted on or before the due date. An assessment item submitted later than the due date, without an extension from the teacher, will not be graded and will result in an automatic score of zero. Late homework, however, may be completed and submitted to qualify towards eligibility for exams. At the end of the semester, if the students have not completed a sufficient number of homework assignments to pass this aspect of the course, additional work will be set for them.
Grading
This course adheres to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|-----------------|------------|
| Online | 20% |
| Projects | 10% |
| Homework/Classwork | 20% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Mathematics can be difficult for many students. All students are encouraged to do the following:
1. Read the course textbook. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Complete all forms of assessment and submit all homework and assignments.
3. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
4. Do not copy the work of your classmates; try to struggle through on your own. This will help you learn.
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Do more than just the bare minimum; do the additional problems in the textbook and the review questions at the end of the chapter and check your answers.
7. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day.
HP30102 Foundation Health Studies & Physical Education 2
Teacher Mr. Brian Mallon
Contact EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
Credits 0.5
Course Description
Students will study a Health component and a Physical Education component under the one unit in M4. Study the development of methods to promote physical and motor fitness, realize the value of the promotion of physical and motor fitness, apply the plan for practicing, improving, and developing physical fitness for health and motor fitness to analyze risky situations leading to the occurrence of accidents by taking part in promoting awareness and cooperation in solving problems from personal risky behaviors affecting community using knowledge and understanding in Community Safety Laws by developing methods for preventing injuries from accidents such as project presentation to promote the strength of community security, understand the development of various kinds of drug use including personal roles in solving problems of addictive substances by recognizing various sectors giving advices and treatment for drug addicted persons, analyze negative media with provocative presenting leading to violence in the society, find methods for preventing and solving problems of violence in the society by distinguishing between creative media and negative media, and recognize principles and process of correct rescue methods.
Study foundation physical education on the topics of the concept about different types of movements when playing sports, use of one’s ability to increase team capacity, and play at least one type of Thai sports and international sports both individuals and teams. At the same time, students have to show movements creatively, participate in recreation activities outside schools, and use this idea to improve and develop ways of personal life and society including doing exercise and playing sports regularly and using personal ability to increase team capability, reduce ego, consider effects on other people, sport competition with other people by practicing rights, rules, regulations, and various tactics during the competitions, showing good manners of watching, and playing sports, sportsmanship, good personalities, playing sports happily, and admiring values and beauty of sports. Use process of establishing knowledge and understanding, practical skills, problem-solving skills, decision-making skills, value to create knowledge, understanding, and apply the knowledge to real-life situations with morality, ethics, honesty, disciplines, responsibility, being free from addictive substances and allurements, democracy and justice.
Textbook
No textbook required for this unit
Course Outline & Objectives
PHYSICAL EDUCATION COMPONENT
1. **Badminton** [Indicators – 1, 2, 4, 5, 6,7]
- Basic movement for badminton
- Etiquette
2. Games / Exercises and Playing Sports / Physical Fitness Test [Indicators – 1, 2, 6, 7]
- Games, exercises or playing sports
- Test of physical fitness
3. Movements in playing sports creatively [Indicators – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
- Physical Movement in skill practicing
- Physical connection in practicing badminton forehand skills
- Physical connection in practicing badminton backhand skills
- Physical connection in practicing badminton drive skills
- Physical connection in practicing badminton drop skills
4. Increase in Team Capacity [Indicators – 1, 3, 4]
- Serve
- Chop
- Smash
- Drop shot by changing directions
5. Rights / Rules / Regulations / Competing Methods [Indicators – 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7]
- Rules and regulations in competitions
- Planning for attacks and defenses
6. Competitions [Indicators – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
- Good manners of watching and playing sports
- Sportsmanship
- Good personalities
- Playing sports happily
- Admiring value and beauty of sports
7. Rules and Regulations [Indicators – 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7]
- Rules / Regulations / Competitions
- Team Playing
8. Futsal Competition [Indicators – 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
- Team playing and competition
- Tactics of attacking-defending
- Sportsmanship
- Cooperation in participating activities
HEALTH COMPONENT
Course Outline & Objectives
1. Health Promotion and Disease Prevention [Indicators 1, 2, 4, 8]
- Definition and importance of health promotion
- Guidelines for health promotion
- Guidelines for disease prevention
2. Emotions and Stress [Indicators 3, 4, 5]
- Definition and importance of emotions and Stress
- Proper stress and emotional management
- Effects of emotions and stress on health
3. Basic Knowledge of Sports [Indicators 9, 10]
- Basic movement skills for sport playing
- Movement science and efficiency promotion of sport playing
4. Safety and Living [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9]
- Safe use of medicines
- Dangers from addictive substances
- Problems of violence in children
Resources
Required
- School Physical Education Uniform (a note explaining why the student is out of uniform is required or a behavior score of 0 for this lesson)
- Pink resource booklet for note taking (Reminder that any handouts must be stapled or glue into the pink resource)
Suggested
- Fitness and sport activities during lunch break each day
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (in PE uniform) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Possess discipline
- Eager to learn
- Be an AC gentleman
- Dedicated to work
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Classwork
Homework in Physical Education is limited; however, any homework must be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in *before* the last week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Grading
| Component | Percentage |
|--------------------|------------|
| Formative | 50% |
| Midterm Exam | 20% |
| Final Exam | 20% |
| Affective Domain | 10% |
Recommendations for Success
Physical Education is to be enjoyed. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Look to do some form of Physical Activity every day.
2. Look to visit parks and tracks where the required fitness testing can be practiced.
3. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
4. Try new sports. We all have different sports we like and different sports we are good at. We encourage students to learn more about their favorite sports on ‘YouTube’ and other media platforms. If you never try, you will never know if you like it!
5. See PE and movement as an opportunity to improve your health and well-being, not a chore. Your teenage years are the most important years to be active and can affect the quality of life you have as an adult.
ST30231 Universal Chemistry
Teacher Mr. Michael Dew
Contact EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
Class Time EP-M 4/1: Monday Period 1, Wednesday Period 2
Credits 1.5 (2 lessons per week)
Course Description
Universal Chemistry is the second installment within the comprehensive Chemistry program offered here at Assumption College English Program. This course serves as a continuation into a student’s progression within the subject as the course material will build upon prior knowledge and advance into more complex and detailed areas of Chemistry. Within this semester, redox reactions, electrolysis, energy changes, rates of reaction, and reactivity of metals will be explored and discussed.
Demonstrations, computer-simulated activities and laboratory experiments will allow students to learn basic laboratory techniques, lab safety and get a hands-on experience of the theories and concepts learned in the lectures. As with many courses within the English Program, critical thinking skills are emphasized over those of rote learning and BMAT-style questions are a part of the evaluation process. The course will follow the content of BMAT Past Paper Worked Solutions (2003-2017) 2018 by Black Stone Tutors.
Textbook
- Cambridge IGCSE & O Level Chemistry
By RoseMarie Gallagher and Paul Ingram
Supplementary:
- N/A
Course Outline & Objectives
Redox Reactions (Chapter 6)
- Oxidation and Reduction
- Redox and Electron Transfer
- Redox and oxidation numbers
- Oxidizing and Reducing agents
Electricity and Chemical Changes (Chapter 7)
- Conductors and non-conductors
- The principles of electrolysis
- Electrode reactions
- Electroplating
The Rate of Reaction (Chapter 9)
Introducing reaction rates
Measuring reaction rates
Changing reaction rates
Chemical catalysts
**Acids, Bases, and Salts (Chapter 11)**
- Acids and Bases
- Reactions of acids and bases
- Neutralization
- Oxides
- Making Salts
- Chemical catalysts
**The Behavior of Metals (Chapter 13)**
- Comparing Metals and Non-metals
- Comparing Metals for reactivity
- Metals in Competition
- Reactivity Series
- Rusting of Iron
**Extracting and Using Metals (Chapter 14)**
- Metal Ores and Metal Extraction
- Extracting Iron
- Extracting Aluminum
- Making use of metals
- Metals and Alloys
**Resources**
**Required**
- Assumption Notebook (2)
- Binder/ folder
- Scientific calculator (not a phone-based application)
- Ruler
**Suggested**
- Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
- Electronic Thai-English translator (not a phone-based application)
- A Matayom-level chemistry practice book in Thai
**Academic Integrity Policy**
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonesty lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate
acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
**Behavioral Expectations**
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (Notebook, textbook, scientific calculator, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
A behavior score (out of 5 points) is taken every day. At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%).
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Possess discipline
- Eager to learn
- Be an AC gentleman
- Dedicated to work
**Attendance & Tardiness**
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
**Homework & Classwork**
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in *before* the last week of the term will receive a zero.
**Grading**
Foundation Chemistry follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| Homework/Classwork/Labs | 30% |
| Class Test | 20% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Chemistry can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the Chemistry textbook. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Get a Thai language introductory chemistry book.
4. Do not copy your classmate’s work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the textbook. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
7. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in the homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
ST30201 Mechanics Physics
Teacher: Mr. Edward Aldworth
Contact: EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
Credits: 1.5
Course Description
This course will explore the world of physics, delving into essential concepts that form the foundation of our understanding of the physical universe. We will begin with a deep dive into vectors and resultant forces, learning how to represent and manipulate these quantities to comprehend complex interactions. As we progress, we will study interconnected concepts of work, energy, and power, understanding how they govern motion, transformations, and the efficiency of various systems. Moving further, we'll explore the dynamics of momentum and collisions in two dimensions, unlocking the secrets of how objects interact in intricate scenarios. Finally, we'll venture into the captivating realm of current and magnetism, where the principles of electromagnetism come to life, influencing everything from electrical circuits to the fundamental behavior of magnets. This course promises to be an exciting and enlightening journey through the fundamental laws and phenomena that govern the physical world.
Textbook
Physics, for Cambridge IGCSE
ISBN: 978-1-108-88807-3
Course Outline & Objectives
Unit 1: Vectors
1.1: Analyse and calculate the resultant force of two vectors
1.2: Find the resultant force using the parallelogram method
1.3: Experiment and summarize the conditions of the three forces acting on the object.
1.4: Analyze and calculate relevant quantities when it comes to dealing with objects which affects balance.
1.5: Describe the meaning of the word friction and friction coefficient including experiments to find the friction coefficient.
1.6: Summarize the conditions that balance the forces on a rotating object and find the point of equilibrium for rotation.
1.7: Explain and describe the position of the center of mass and center of gravity.
1.8: Explain the meaning of coupling forces. Summarize the movement characteristics of an object when a pair of coupling forces act on it.
ST 2.2 S.5/2 Unit 2: Work, energy and power
2.1: Work and power.
2.2: Potential Energy
2.3: Kinetic Energy
2.4: Conservation of Energy
2.5: Newton III [SC 2.2 S.5/4]
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
ST 2.2 S.5/3 Unit 3: Momentum and Collisions
3.1: Impulse
3.2: Elastic Collision
3.3: Inelastic Collision
3.4: Collisions in 2D and Explosions
ST 2.2 S.5/7 unit 4: Current and Magnetism
4.1: Electric Current
4.2: Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Forces [S.5/8]
4.3: EMF [S.5/9]
4.4: Understanding Strong Forces and Weak Forces [S.5/10]
Resources
Required
- Notebook
- Scientific calculator (not a phone-based application)
- Ruler
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonesty lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another's idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (Notebook, textbook, scientific calculator, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
A behavior score (out of 5 points) is taken every day. At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%). Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following desired characteristics:
Possess discipline Eager to learn
Be an AC gentleman Dedicated to work
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Assignments & Classwork
Assignments and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in before the last week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
Foundation Earth Stars & Universe follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Assignments/Notebook/Lab | 25% |
|--------------------------|-----|
| Quiz/Test | 15% |
| STEM | 10% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm (Summative) Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the textbook. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically
only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Do not copy your classmates’ work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
4. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
5. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
6. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
ST30246 Biochemistry & Biodiversity
Teacher Mr. Nicholas Crook
Contact EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombe Bldg.
Email firstname.lastname@example.org
Class Time EP-M 4/2 (H): Wed, period 5; Fri, periods 4 & 5
Credits 1.5
Course Description
This biology course focuses on the following contents: Biochemistry and the nature of living things. Composition of elements in living things, chemical reactions within the cell and the importance of water. biodiversity and the connection between the genetic diversity, species diversity and ecological diversity, forming of the protocell of living organisms and the evolution of the single celled organisms, bacterial organisms, protist, plants, fungus and animals, organism classification from large scale to smaller ones and the methods of creating scientific names in sequence of species, creation of Dichotomous Key to identify the organism or the selected samples that have been categorized into groups, application of knowledge about biotechnology, energy from the agricultural raw materials: biomass gas and ethanol to explain about alternative energy for future use. The course will closely follow the order and content of the latest version of the American high school textbook *International A Level Biology*, by Oxford.
Textbook
*International A Level Biology*, by Oxford (ISBN-13: 978-0-328-92512-4)
Course Outline & Objectives
TERM 2: Biochemistry
1. Qualifications of being a living thing.
2. Scientific method.
3. The properties and importance of water to living things.
4. Carbohydrates.
5. Proteins.
6. Lipids.
7. Nucleic acids.
8. Explain the chemical reactions that take place in living things.
9. Enzymes.
Biodiversity
Genetics
1. Summarize Mendel’s experiments
2. Summary of ‘Law of segregation & Law of independent assortment.
3. Calculate probability of creating various phenotypes and genotypes.
4. Discontinuous and continuous variation.
5. Genetic & chromosome mutations. Causes of mutation and results of mutations such as diseases.
Chapter: 6
6.3 Diversity [Indicators 1-3]
- Discuss the significance of biodiversity.
- Explain the connection between genetic – species – and ecological diversity.
Chapter: 7
7.1 Protocells [Indicators 4-6]
- Explain about protocells of organisms.
- Describe evolution of singled celled organisms.
Chapters: 20/21/25
20.2 Bacterial Organisms [Indicators 7-9, 38]
- Explain important characteristics of bacteria.
- Give examples of bacteria.
21.2 Protist Organisms [Indicators 10-12, 39]
- Explain important characteristics of protists.
- Give examples of protists.
22.1 Plant Organisms [Indicators 13-14, 40]
- Explain important characteristics of plants.
- Give examples of plants.
21.4 Fungus Organisms [Indicators 13-14, 40]
- Explain important characteristics of fungi.
- Give examples of Fungi.
25.1 Animal Organisms [Indicators 13-14, 40]
- Explain important characteristics of animals.
- Give examples of animals.
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
TERM 2: Biodiversity.
Chapter 18: Classification of Organisms.
18.1 Classification System [Indicators 15-19]
- Explain the classification system from large to small scale.
- Describe the methods used to create scientific names of organisms.
- Describe the sequence of classifying organisms of a species.
- Give examples of the classification of specific species.
18.2 Create Dichotomous Key [Indicators 20-23]
• Explain the function of a dichotomous key system.
• Describe the process for creating a dichotomous key.
• Categorize selected organisms into groups.
Chapter: Biotechnology.
1 Biotechnology [Indicator 29]
• Search for information about biotechnology.
• Discuss biotechnology.
• Apply knowledge about biotechnology.
2 Energy from agricultural raw materials [Indicators 30-32]
• Explain alternative energy such as biomass gas and ethanol for future use.
Resources
Required
□ Textbook: *Biology*, by Pearson
□ Plastic Folder for Biology only (to keep handouts, etc.)
Suggested
□ Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
□ Electronic Thai-English translator (not a phone-based application)
□ Ruler
□ Glue stick, stapler, or tape
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (textbook, plastic folder for handouts, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
A behavior score (out of 3 points) is taken every day. At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%). Students earn the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Possess discipline
- Eager to learn
- Be an AC gentleman
- Dedicated to work
**Attendance & Tardiness**
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
**Homework & Classwork**
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. No late assignments will be accepted unless the student is absent the day the assigned work is due. If a student is absent the day an assignment is due, the assigned work will be due at the beginning of the following class. Remember - it is the *student’s* responsibility to remember what and when assignments are due.
**Grading**
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
**Evaluation and Assessment**
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| Homework/Classwork | 30% |
| Quizzes | 20% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm (Summative) Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
**Recommendations for Success**
Biology can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the *Biology*, by Pearson textbook. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Get a Thai language introductory biology book.
4. Do not copy your classmates work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the textbook. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
7. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
ST30274 Computer for Graphic works
Teacher: Mr. Matt Harris
Contact: Location: 5th Floor Computer Lab
Class Time:
EP-M 4/1: Tuesday 14:00 – 14:50
EP-M 4/2H: Wednesday 14:50 – 15:40
Credits: 1.0
Course Description
Learn knowledge of programs for developing graphic works Adobe Photoshop & Illustrator. Understanding the software that is used for editing & manipulating imagery. Editing of photographs to a variety of levels, integration of Vector based graphics and photographs. Creation of graphics to be used in a number of different applications. Creation of template and vector-based graphics, editing and wider use of vector graphics. Use information technology skills and processes which are data exploration, explanation, demonstration and analysis, discussion, group skills and process to create knowledge and understanding, thinking ability, exploring ability, ability to use technology, learning ability, communicative ability, systematic thinking ability, ability to use living skills and daily life with honesty, diligence, and endeavor.
Course Outline & Objectives
Topics include: [Indicator 1,2,3,4]
Computer for Graphic works [Indicator 1, 2, 3, 4]
| Graphics |
|----------|
| Week 1: Intro Computer for Graphic Works |
| Week 2-4: **Unit 1. Photoshop** [Indicators 1, 2] Intro into Photoshop, editing images |
| Week 5-7: Creation of images based on photographs, digital artwork |
| Midterm Exam (Week 8 and 9) |
| Week 10-12: **Unit 2. Illustrator** [Indicators 3, 4] Intro into Illustrator & Illustration |
| Week 13-14: Vector Graphics |
| Week 15: **Unit 3. Integration of Graphic Systems** [Indicators 1, 2, 3, 4] Create works based on Vectors and Image files |
| Final Exam (Week 16) |
Resources
Required • EP Computer Lab
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students
involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing
the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's
own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate
acknowledgement when repeating another's idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to
give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
**Behavioral Expectations**
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their
classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves
and their actions. A behavior score (out of 10 points) is taken every day. At the end of the
semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%). Students *earn*
the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Proud to be Thai
- Be an AC gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Be honest and upright
**Attendance & Tardiness**
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-
time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of
planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are
expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
**Homework & Classwork**
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due
date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the
term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in *before* the last week of the term
will receive a zero.
**Grading**
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|--------------------|------------|
| STEAM | 10% |
| Homework/Classwork | 30% |
| Coursework | 30% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm Exam/Project | 10% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 10% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Information technology can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the teacher’s online notes. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Do not copy your classmates’ work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
4. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
5. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the teacher’s online notes. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
6. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
ST30105 Design & Technology
Teacher Mr. Matt Harris
Contact Location: 5th Floor Computer Lab
Class Time EP-M 4/1: Thursday 13:00 – 13:50
EP-M 4/2: Thursday 11:10 – 12:00
Credits 1.0
Course Description
To understand the key concepts of Design & Technology for living in a rapidly changing society; apply knowledge and skills in science, mathematics and other disciplines to creatively solve problem or develop work by using the engineering design process; select technology to use properly by taking into account impacts on life, society, and environment. Students will study the following topics: main concepts of technology, relationships of technology with other fields of study especially science or mathematics; evaluating its impact on humans, society, economy and environment so as to use the information as a guideline for developing technology. Students will apply many learning processes: attitude development process, knowledge and understanding development process, critical thinking process, practicing process and problem-solving process.
Course Outline & Objectives
Topics include: [Indicator 1,2,3,4]
Design & Technology [Indicator 1, 2, 3, 4]
| Week 1: Introduction week |
|---------------------------|
| Week 2-4: **Unit 1.** Analyze the main concepts of technology and relationship of technology with other fields of knowledge especially science, or mathematics. |
| Week 5-6: Identify problems or needs that have impacts on society; gather and analyze information |
**Midterm Exam (Week 7 and 8)**
| Week 9-10: **Unit 2.** Design a solution by analyzing and comparing information; then, select essential information under the conditions and existing resources |
| Week 11-12: Test, evaluate, analyze and give reasons of problems or defects found within conditions scope; generate improvement alternatives |
| Week 13-14: **Unit 3.** Understand and use computational thinking concept to solve problems found in real life systematically and step by step; use information technology and communication for efficient learning, work, and problem solving. |
| Week 15: **Unit 4.** Apply computational thinking creatively to develop a project work which is integrated with other disciplines and is connected with real life. |
| [Indicators 1, 2, 3, 4] |
**Final Exam (Week 16)**
Resources
Required • EP Computer Lab
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonesty lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. A behavior score (out of 10 points) is taken every day. At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%). Students earn the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following desired characteristics:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Proud to be Thai
- Be an AC gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Be honest and upright
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Classwork
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in before the last week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| STEAM | 10% |
| Homework/Classwork | 30% |
| Coursework | 30% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm Exam/Project | 10% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 10% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Information technology can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the teacher’s online notes. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Do not copy your classmates work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
4. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
5. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the teacher’s online notes. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
6. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
ST30291 Health Science 1
Teacher: Mr. Michael Dew
Contact: EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
Class Time: EP-M 4/2: Monday Period 1, Wednesday Period 2
Credits: 1.5 (2 lessons per week)
Course Description
This Health Science course encompasses a detailed and comprehensive approach to learning. The course embraces the unique spirit of Assumption in delivering both a dynamic and holistic approach to learning; addresses the needs of individual students at varying academic levels. The new teaching and learning of science focuses on students themselves, allowing them to discover the knowledge mostly by themselves. With their fundamental knowledge and the results from their scientific investigations, students can construct their own principles, conceptual ideas and understandings systematically. Health science topics include the history of medicine, medical breakthroughs, detailed insight of various medical fields, and the benefits of different types of medicine. Enhanced knowledge and understanding of scientific processes and developing skills in observation, experimentation and the interpretation of data, and production of conclusions. Students will understand the importance of applying knowledge to real-life situations with responsibility, honesty, integrity, discipline, creativity, self-sufficiency, a scientific mind and attitude. See course outline and objectives below.
Textbook
- Cambridge IGCSE & O Level Chemistry
By RoseMarie Gallagher and Paul Ingram
- Supplementary:
- N/A
Course Outline & Objectives
History of Medicine (Chapter 1)
- Explore the background and progression of medicine and health care
- Discuss and explore major healthcare breakthroughs in the past 200 years.
Medical Breakthroughs and Fields of Medicine (Chapter 2)
- Investigate and discuss possible future medical breakthroughs.
- Investigate the different fields of medicine.
Thailand’s healthcare history (Chapter 3)
- Identify and research key innovators and contributions made in the history of Thailand’s healthcare.
Benefits of Medicine (Chapter 4)
- Identify and research benefits and side effects of various types of medicine.
- Investigate and conduct healthcare based experiments.
Resources
Required
- Assumption Notebook (2)
- Binder/folder
- Scientific calculator (not a phone-based application)
- Ruler
Suggested
- Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
- Electronic Thai-English translator (not a phone-based application)
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonesty lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (Notebook, textbook, scientific calculator, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
A behavior score (out of 5 points) is taken every day. At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (10%).
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following desired characteristics:
- Possess discipline
- Be an AC gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Classwork
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in before the last week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
Foundation Chemistry follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| Homework/Classwork/Labs | 30% |
| Class Test | 20% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
Chemistry can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read the Chemistry textbook. Oftentimes, reading the text once is not enough even for native English speakers. You may need to read the material multiple times to understand. By reading along at home with the lessons taught at school (typically only a few pages per night), students will be able to responsibly manage the material and gain the most from the course.
2. Search online, in either Thai or English, if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class or simply to get a better understanding of the topic.
3. Get a Thai language introductory chemistry book.
4. Do not copy your classmate’s work; struggle through and do the work on your own! This is how you learn!
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Do more than just the bare minimum; there are plenty of problems in the textbook. We only have time for so many of them. Do the review questions at the end of the chapter and see the teacher for the answers.
7. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in the homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
OC30104 Foundation Occupational Works 1
Teacher Dr Hermann Gruenwald
Contact EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Building
email@example.com
Website Google Classroom
Credits 0.5
Course Description
This introduction to the upper-mathayom Occupational Works course focuses on the basic principles of craftwork and the development of skills and creativity in producing craftworks. Group, pair and individual work will incorporate theory of craftwork with a practical integration.
Students will work on projects which give them the opportunity for creativity and design. They will refine their research, planning, designing and collaborative skills and apply them to producing craftworks that include woodwork and electrical work. Students will gain experience in using a variety of tools as well as developing their working processes.
The goals of the Occupational Works subject are to:
- endow students with creative opportunities and curiosity
- refine skills for individual and group working processes such as management, teamwork, problem-solving and attention to detail
- develop and apply research and investigation skills to coursework
- improve awareness of human impact on the environment for one’s life and family
- acquire technological knowledge for occupational development
- promote awareness of nationalism, religiosity, royalty, honesty, self-discipline, studiousness, self-sufficiency, endeavor, love of being Thai, and public-mindedness.
Course Outline & Objectives
Unit 1: Basic principles of craftwork (theory)
Unit 1.1: Woodwork and electrical work for crafts (Indicators 1, 2, 3, 5)
- Understand the working process for creating craftwork.
- Research and identify basic woodworking tools and their applications for crafts.
- Research and identify basic electrical tools / devices and their applications for crafts.
Unit 1.2: Design and selection of material for craftwork (Indicators 1, 2, 3, 4, 7)
- Recognize the basic principle and procedure for creating craftwork with creativity.
- Identify how to select appropriate materials for craftwork based on limitations of tools, equipment and funds (reuse or recycle items).
Unit 1.3: Creativity and intellectual property (Indicators 3, 4, 5, 11)
- Identify the process of designing with creativity using modern examples.
- Distinguish between various aspects of intellectual property protection such as; copyright, trademarks, geographical indication and patents.
- Compare tangible versus intangible intellectual property.
Discuss methods of enforcing intellectual property rights if they are violated.
**Unit 1.4: Creative Occupations (Indicators 8, 9, 10)**
- Discuss types of creative occupations and guidelines for taking them up.
- Students determine if they have aptitude and interest in creative occupations.
- Identify ways to gain experience in creative occupations of interest.
**Unit 2: Integration for craftworks (practice)**
**Unit 2.1: Craftwork for environmental conservation (Indicators 3, 4, 6, 7)**
- Produce your own work from leftover materials to help reduce global warming effects (individual work).
- Create, design and select materials appropriate to the brief.
**Unit 2.2: Useful crafts (Indicators 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)**
- Express in writing the inspiration to create the work.
- Write the plan for the project.
- Use woodworking skills to create an item in pairs.
**Unit 2.3: Craft project (Indicators 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11)**
- Work in groups to create an electrical item.
- Present work by setting up an exhibition
- Take photographs of your craftworks and present your work online.
**Resources**
**Required**
- Pink AC notebook A3
- AC 3 ring binder portfolio A4
- Basic stationary (pen, pencil, eraser, ruler, glue, sharpener etc)
**Suggested**
- Various colored pens / markers / highlighters / pencils
**Occasional**
- Electrical / woodworking tools
- Specific craftwork materials or items
- Leftover waste materials to construct projects
*The above will be requested a week in advance of use*
**Academic Integrity Policy**
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another's idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (sketch book, basic stationary, materials, ingredients etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Behavior and participation is monitored during every class and points are deducted for misbehavior, non-participation or disruption to the class. This is averaged throughout the semester and calculated as a score of 10 at the end of semester.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Possess discipline
- Be eager to learn
- Be an AC gentleman
- Be dedicated to work
- Be honest and upright
- Have a sense of public-consciousness
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Class Work
Homework and class work will be assigned often, must be completed to a high standard and be submitted on or before the due date. Late assignments are subject to 50% less marks for each week they are late. All missed assignments will receive a zero and will dramatically reduce the averaged class work and homework scores of the individual.
Grading
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 | A |
|-------------------|-----|---|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 | B+ |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 | B |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 | C+ |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 | C |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 | D+ |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 | D |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 | F |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage | Domain |
|----------------------------------|------------|------------|
| Behavior & Participation | 20% | Affective Domain |
| Formative 1 Class Work & Home Work | 15% | Formative |
| Formative 2 Class Work & Home Work | 15% | Formative |
| STEM | 10% | Formative |
| Midterm Exam | 20% | Exams |
| Final Exam | 20% | Exams |
Recommendations for Success
1. Bring all the materials that are needed to complete projects on the day of class
2. Be creative and work hard for your own success and learning.
3. Don’t be afraid to experiment and have fun studying
4. Plan projects carefully and have the required materials for your project
5. Keep your notebook tidy, attractive and up-to-date and submit work on time
6. Check schoology.com for assignments and course materials and grades
EN30102 Foundation English 2
Teacher Mr. Jonas Godson
Contact EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Bldg.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Credits 1.5
Course Description
The Foundation English course focuses on laying solid groundwork on basic grammar, speech, reading and vocabulary skills. Using an integrated learning methodology, this course aims to give students the more advanced skills needed to converse in English. Starting with parts of speech and focusing on more complex grammar tenses, such as present perfect simple, present perfect progressive and past perfect simple, and then moving on to prefixes and suffixes, conditionals and comparative and superlatives.
For reading, the focus will be on more advanced reading skills and higher level critical thinking skills. Writing will be more focused on essays and complex, flowing paragraphs and connectives. Speaking and listening will be integrated into activities, but phonetics and correct pronunciation will be highlighted. There will be more of an emphasis on debating, rather than role-playing.
This course will follow the content of the course book, with a few extra adaptations and activities where necessary.
Textbook
Pathways. Reading, Writing and Critical Thinking 3 - Vargo & Blass.
Gateway B2
Course Outline & Objectives
Weeks 23 & 24: Unit 5: The Travel Business
Vocabulary:
Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading:
Skimming to make predictions.
Scanning for specific information
Sequencing information
Identifying main ideas and supporting information from text
Writing:
Synthesizing information in complete paragraphs
Write compare and contrast paragraphs
Writing an opinion paragraph
Grammar:
Cause & effect, conditionals
Weeks 25 & 26: Unit 6: Information Design
Vocabulary:
Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences.
Reading: Skimming to make predictions
Scanning for specific information
Sequencing information
Identifying main ideas and supporting information from text
Writing: Synthesizing information in complete paragraphs
Write compare and contrast paragraphs
Writing an opinion paragraph
Grammar: Describing visual information
Weeks 27 & 28: Unit 7: Global Challenges
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Interpreting maps.
Skimming to make predictions
Identifying main ideas
Identifying supporting ideas
Identifying meaning from context
Writing: Drafting & Revising
Grammar: Adjective clauses
Weeks 29 & 30: Unit 8: Medical Innovations
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Prefixes (un-)
Reading: Interpreting maps
Making predictions
Scanning for key details
Interpreting information from a multimodal context
Understanding a process
Writing: Passive sentences in a research-based essay
Week 31 & 32: Revision & mid-term exam
Content: Past Simple: regular vs. irregular verbs
Present Perfect
Passive tenses
Sequencing and synthesizing information.
Drafting & finalizing an essay
Taught vocabulary (available to all students through Edmodo)
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
Weeks 33 & 34: Unit 9: World Languages
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Interpreting maps and charts.
Predicting content from clue
Identifying main ideas
Identifying supporting ideas
Identifying meaning from context
Writing: 3 paragraph essay about Geo-tourism
Writing & revising
Grammar: Making predictions, counter-arguments
Weeks 35 & 36: Unit 10: Survival instinct
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences.
Reading: Responding to text and photos.
Identifying main and supporting ideas
Understanding meaning form context
Writing: Drafting & Revising
Concluding paragraphs
Grammar: Similes, metaphors, alliteration and onomatopoeia.
Weeks 37 & 38: Tourism in Thailand. (Handouts in class)
Students will use previously taught skills and vocabulary to produce a written guide to Thailand for tourists. They will then present this to the class and answer questions.
Week 39: Revision for final exam
Content: Past continuous
Similes, metaphors, alliteration and onomatopoeia
Referring to sources using quotes and paraphrases
Writing a persuasive essay on a given topic.
Reading comprehension and inference.
Taught vocabulary
Week 40: Final exam week
Resources
Required
- At least 3 notebooks.
- Dictionary (English to English, not a translating one)
- Extra lines A4 paper for written assignments.
- Access to a computer and internet.
- A Gmail email account would be beneficial.
Suggested
- Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
Behavioral Expectations
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their classmates, the teacher, and the facilities. Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to be ready at the start of every class (notebooks, textbook, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Behavior is monitored every day as per the class rules that are set out at the beginning of the academic year (see the front of your notebooks). At the end of the semester the average is taken and used for the student’s behavior score (20%). Students earn the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following desired characteristics:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Proud to be Thai
- Be an A.C. gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Be honest and upright
Attendance & Tardiness
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
Homework & Class work
Homework and class work will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due date for a score of 20 points. If the work is not done for the start of class, a maximum score of 15 will be possible. After more than one day has lapsed, a maximum score of 10 will be available. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% (10 points) up until the last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in before the last week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| Participation in class | 10% |
| Class work | 10% |
| Notebooks | 10% |
| Quiz 1 | 10% |
| Quiz 2 | 10% |
| Behavior | 10% (Program Mandated) |
| Midterm Exam | 20% (Program Mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (Program Mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
English can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read and read. The best way to learn English is to read literature. It helps with nearly every aspect of English. The best students are always the ones who enjoy reading. Find a book you like and keep at it. A little every day is a good way to start.
2. Watching American movies or TV shows with the English subtitles is a good way to improve your speaking and listening skills; it also helps with vocabulary too. When you come across a new word, just pause the movie and write it down in your vocabulary book.
3. Search online (in English) if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class to get a better understanding of the topic.
4. Do not copy your classmate’s work; struggle through and do the work on your own. This is how you learn.
5. Come see the teacher outside of classtime for assistance.
6. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
7. If you don’t understand then ask your friends, communication is vital for success in English, communicate with your classmates in English, you’ll be surprised how quickly your English improves just by doing this.
Student Syllabus for: EP4 Reading and Writing **EN30202**
**Teacher:** Mr. Jonathan Steven Phillips
**Contact:** email@example.com
**COURSE DESCRIPTION:**
Welcome to Semester 1 of EP4 Supplemental English (Reading & Writing). This course is designed to further your ability with analyzing reading, critical thinking, as well as strengthen your formal writing ability. We focus on academic skills, writing, time management and interpersonal communication skills. This course is reading, and writing intensive. In-class reading and writing assignments, research essays, large amounts of literary and academic vocabulary, participation, homework, quizzes and exams make up a majority of your grade. By the end of the year, you should be well prepared to write and analyze on the majority of topics in year 5.
The course is at an intermediate level and will move quickly. If you miss a class, it is **your responsibility to find out what you have missed**, either from your classmates or by seeing me on your own time, not during class time.
**COURSE OBJECTIVES:**
The main objectives of this course are:
- to strengthen the students’ writing ability in formal, informal, and technical writing, according to International English language exam expectations;
- to broaden and expand the students’ proficiency and knowledge in exam level English;
- to provide material for the students to revise, consolidate and extend their command of English grammar and vocabulary;
- to develop the students’ reading skills to enable them to skim the text for main ideas, to scan the text for specific information, and to deduce meanings from the context, to identify the views/opinions of the author, to distinguish main ideas from supporting ones, to recognize connections and relationships between facts in a text and to label diagrams/flowcharts using precise information.
- to develop the students’ writing skills to enable them to respond to input applying information to a specified task, to elicit, to select, to summarize information in clear, organized essays, to give a well-organised overview of relevant information in a graph, chart, table or diagram and to present a clear, relevant, well-organised argument, giving evidence or examples to support ideas and use language accurately.
**COURSE OUTLINE:**
IELTS: the high-stakes English test for **study, migration** or **work**
- Reading: The reading component consists of 40 questions, designed to test a wide range of reading skills. These include reading for gist, reading for main ideas, reading for detail, skimming, understanding logical argument and recognizing writers’ opinions, attitudes and purpose.
• Writing: You will be presented with a graph, table, chart or diagram and asked to describe, summarise or explain the information in your own words. You may be asked to describe and explain data, describe the stages of a process, how something works or describe an object or event.
• Vocabulary: Art, business & money, communication & personality, crime & punishment, economics, education, environment, family & children.
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
IELTS: the high-stakes English test for **study**, **migration** or **work**
• Reading: this includes three long texts which range from the descriptive and factual to the discursive and analytical. These are taken from books, journals, magazines and newspapers. They have been selected for a non-specialist audience but are appropriate for people entering university courses or seeking professional registration.
• Writing: you will be asked to write an essay in response to a point of view, argument or problem. Responses to both tasks must be in a formal style.
• Vocabulary: Food, health, language, technology, transport, travel, society, sport, work.
**You need to have the following in class each day:**
Blue or Black ink pens and pencils.
Plastic folder to hold materials/textbooks
(2) White notebooks
(1) Highlighter
Paper Dictionary
Paper/Electronic Thesaurus
**COURSE POLICIES/BEHAVIOR:**
Course policies are the rules and guidelines our class follows. They can be summed up in one word: respect. Respect the teacher; respect your fellow classmates and their desire to learn. Exhibit respect and behave and act as young men.
**CHEATING, COPYING and PLAGIARISM:**
There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and **will not be tolerated**. Students involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing the copying to take place, **will receive a zero**.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
**HOMEWORK:**
All homework assignments must be completed and turned in during class the day that it is due. Late work is accepted, but if work is turned in after class or the next day, points will be deducted.
**GRADE DETERMINATION:**
Your grades will be determined by your homework, class work, quizzes/tests and participation. You will be graded on speaking, listening, reading, writing and behaviour. Do your best in everything that we do, and do your best to keep up and not miss anything. Zeros will hurt your grade much more than a low score. **Active participation and preparedness is expected at all times!**
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
**Evaluation and Assessment**
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|----------------------------|------------|
| Independent Reading | 10% |
| Assignments (Reading & Writing) | 20% |
| Essays | 20% |
| Behavior | 10% (program mandated) |
| Midterm (Summative) Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (program mandated) |
With your dedication, discipline, respect and hard work we will have an excellent semester.
EN30242 English for Life Skills 2
Teacher: Mr. Jonas Godson
Contact: EP Teacher Room, 2nd Floor Colombet Building.
firstname.lastname@example.org
Credits: 1.5
Course Description
The Foundation English course focuses on laying solid groundwork on basic grammar, speech, reading and vocabulary skills. Using an integrated learning methodology, this course aims to give students the more advanced skills needed to converse in English.
For reading, the focus will be on predicting, scanning, skimming, inference and sequencing. Writing will be more focused on essays and complex paragraphs. Speaking and listening will be integrated into activities, but phonetics and correct pronunciation will be highlighted. There will be an opportunity for students to demonstrate and apply their knowledge in group and individual projects.
This course will follow the content of the course book, with a few extra adaptations and activities where necessary.
Textbook
Cambridge Prepare B2 – Listening & Speaking focus
Level 7
Course Outline & Objectives
Weeks 23 & 24: p. 1-22. Unit 1: Creative Minds
Vocabulary:
Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences.
Reading:
Skimming to make predictions.
Scanning for specific information
Sequencing information
Identifying main ideas and supporting information from text.
Writing:
Synthesizing information in complete paragraphs.
Write compare and contrast paragraphs.
Writing an opinion paragraph.
Grammar:
Modal verbs, continuous tenses, prefixes
Weeks 25 & 26: p. 23-46. Unit 2: Addicted to Fashion
Vocabulary:
Understanding meaning from context
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Skimming to make predictions
Scanning for specific information
Sequencing information
Identifying main ideas and supporting information from text
Writing: Synthesizing information in complete paragraphs
Write compare and contrast paragraphs
Writing an opinion paragraph
Grammar: First and second conditionals, pronoun references, modifiers, adverbs of manor
Weeks 27 & 28: p. 47-68. Unit 3: All in the mind
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Interpreting maps
Skimming to make predictions
Identifying main ideas
Identifying supporting ideas
Identifying meaning from context
Writing: Thesis statements
Writing descriptive paragraphs
Grammar: Past Simple vs. past perfect, used to
Weeks 29 & 30: p. 69-92. Unit 4: Take it easy
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Interpreting maps
Making predictions
Scanning for key details
Interpreting information from a multimodal context
Understanding a process
Writing: Introduction paragraphs
Opinion paragraphs
Grammar: Using parallel structures, conjunctions, sequence words
Week 31: Project. Tourism in Thailand (Handouts in class)
Students will use previously taught skills and vocabulary to produce a written guide to Thailand for tourists. They will then present this to the class and answer questions.
Week 32: Review and Midterm exams.
Content: Modal verbs, continuous tenses, conditionals, past simple vs. past perfect
Sequencing and synthesizing information.
Thesis statements
Opinion paragraph (relating to texts)
Reading and understanding non-text information (i.e., maps)
Taught vocabulary
End of Midterm Exam Content – Start of Final Exam Content
Weeks 33: p. 93 -114. Unit 5: Past times
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Interpreting maps and charts
Predicting content from clues
Identifying main ideas
Identifying supporting ideas
Identifying meaning from context
Writing: 3 paragraph essay about Geotourism
Writing well developed body paragraphs
Cause and effect paragraphs
Grammar: Mixed conditionals
Weeks 34 & 35: p. 115 – 138. Unit 6: Totally emotional
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context.
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences.
Reading: Responding to text and photos.
Using visual clues to make predictions
Identifying main and supporting ideas
Understanding meaning from context
Identifying events to complete a timeline
Writing: Explanatory essay about literature
Concluding paragraphs
Grammar: Similes, metaphors, and figurative language
Weeks 36 & 37: p. 138-162. Unit 7: Telling Stories
Vocabulary: Understanding meaning from context
Matching words and definitions
Applying learned vocabulary in full sentences
Reading: Responding to text and photos
Using visual clues to make predictions
Identifying main and supporting ideas
Understanding meaning from context
Interpreting a writer’s tone and meaning
Writing: Using an outline to plan an essay.
Write a persuasive essay
Grammar: Using taught grammar well in full essays
Week 38 & 39: Project. Thailand’s Best Innovators and Inventors. (Handouts in class)
Research, write and present a report on the best innovators and inventors that Thailand has produced. Students will use previously taught grammar, vocabulary and reading/writing skills to produce this project.
Week 40: Revision and Final Exams.
Content: Making predications on reading.
Writing a persuasive essay on a given topic
Reading comprehension and inference
Taught vocabulary
Mixed conditionals, similes, metaphors, and figurative language
Resources
Required
- At least 3 notebooks.
- Dictionary (English to English, not a translating one)
- Extra lines A4 paper for written assignments.
- Access to a computer and internet.
Suggested
- Many different colored pens/markers/highlighters
Academic Integrity Policy
Students are expected to adhere to the Assumption College student handbook. There is to be no plagiarism, no copying, and no cheating of any kind. These and any other acts of academic dishonestly lower the quality of the education and will not be tolerated. Students
involved in any form of academic dishonesty, including any student supplying or allowing
the copying to take place, will receive a zero.
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's
own work or ideas. Examples of plagiarism include the failure to give appropriate
acknowledgement when repeating another’s idea, phrase, sentence or paragraph, or failure to
give appropriate acknowledgement when paraphrasing any of those.
**Behavioral Expectations**
For the sake of all the members of the class, students are expected to respect themselves, their
classmates, the teacher, and the facilities.
Students must accept responsibility for themselves and their actions. Students are expected to
be ready at the start of every class (notebooks, textbook, writing utensils, etc.) and to actively
participate throughout the lesson until class is dismissed.
Behavior is monitored every day as per the class rules that are set out at the beginning of the
academic year (see the front of your notebooks). At the end of the semester the average is
taken and used for the student’s behavior score (20%). Students *earn* the scores they receive.
Additionally, all Thai students are expected to embrace the following *desired characteristics*:
- Love for the country and the King, faith in religion
- Possess discipline
- Be self-sufficient
- Proud to be Thai
- Be an A.C. gentleman
- Eager to learn
- Dedicated to work
- Have a sense of public consciousness
- Be honest and upright
**Attendance & Tardiness**
Attendance will be taken at the start of every class. Students are expected to be in class on-
time, every time. Unexcused absences or tardiness will not be tolerated. In the case of
planned absences, please notify the teacher in as far in advance as possible. Students are
expected to catch up on all missed work outside of class time.
**Homework & Classwork**
Homework and classwork will be assigned often and must be submitted on or before the due
date for a score of 20 points. If the work is not done for the start of class, a maximum score of
15 will be possible. After more than one day has lapsed, a maximum score of 10 will be
available. Late assignments can be submitted for a maximum of 50% (10 points) up until the
last week of the term. All late or missed assignments that are not turned in *before* the last
week of the term will receive a zero.
Grading
This course follows to the Assumption College grading scale:
| Final Score ≥ 80% | 4.0 |
|-------------------|-----|
| 75% ≤ Final Score < 80% | 3.5 |
| 70% ≤ Final Score < 75% | 3.0 |
| 65% ≤ Final Score < 70% | 2.5 |
| 60% ≤ Final Score < 65% | 2.0 |
| 55% ≤ Final Score < 60% | 1.5 |
| 50% ≤ Final Score < 55% | 1.0 |
| Final Score < 50% | 0.0 |
Evaluation and Assessment
The final semester grade for this course out of 100% is broken down as follows:
| Component | Percentage |
|--------------------|------------|
| Projects | 20% |
| Written Work | 10% |
| Notebooks | 10% |
| Participation in class | 10% |
| Behaviour | 10% (Programme Mandated) |
| Midterm Exam | 20% (Programme Mandated) |
| Final Exam | 20% (Programme Mandated) |
Recommendations for Success
English can be a difficult course for many students. All students are encouraged to try the following:
1. Read, read, read and read. The best way to learn English is to read literature. It helps with nearly every aspect of English. The best students are always the ones who enjoy reading. Find a book you like and keep at it. A little every day is a good way to start.
2. Watching American movies or TV shows with the English subtitles is a good way to improve your speaking and listening skills; it also helps with vocabulary too. When you come across a new work, just pause the movie and write it down in your vocabulary book.
3. Search online (in English) if you don’t understand a topic discussed in class to get a better understanding of the topic.
4. Do not copy your classmate’s work; struggle through and do the work on your own. This is how you learn.
5. Come see the teacher outside of class time for assistance.
6. Study the notes and vocabulary at least a few minutes every day, such as in homeroom or during any free time you might have in other classes.
7. If you don’t understand then ask your friends, communication is vital for success in English, communicate with your classmates in English, you’ll be surprised how quickly your English improves just by doing this. | 17711c5c-0391-4aa6-895d-313de6166fed | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.ep-ac.com/_files/ugd/80c616_d49b2a6cb63a49c09f964861a440a5ec.pdf | 2023-11-30T17:27:26+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100229.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20231130161920-20231130191920-00225.warc.gz | 869,966,021 | 22,041 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.981993 | eng_Latn | 0.995128 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
1892,
3959,
5991,
7236,
8631,
11187,
12996,
15836,
17117,
18964,
20827,
21612,
23309,
24821,
26816,
28523,
30680,
32716,
34590,
35271,
37271,
38676,
40812,
43148,
43878,
45926,
48220,
49883,
52188,
54431,
56515,
58727,
60877,
62737,
63270,
65792,... | [
2.15625,
3.28125
] | 1 | 0 |
Your Guide to Life After Delivery
Start Smart for Your Baby.
Congratulations on the birth of your baby! We hope you find this book useful as you begin to care for your baby and recover from delivery. As a reminder, we also provide the following:
- A 24-hour nurse advice line.
- Breastfeeding support and resources.
- Help obtaining a breast pump.
- Assistance if you are experiencing feelings of depression or anxiety. (Contact us for support if you feel sad, overwhelmed or “down,” or are thinking about harming yourself or others.)
- Methods to help you decrease or stop smoking, drinking alcohol, or using drugs.
- Weekly text and email programs, if offered by your plan.
- Over-the-counter medicines that may be available at no cost to you. (Ask your doctor or call us for more information.)
Visit your health plan website for more information!
Fill in your doctor’s and baby’s doctor’s information here for easy reference:
Your Doctor’s Name
Your Doctor’s Phone Number
Your Baby’s Doctor’s Name
Your Baby’s Doctor’s Phone Number
Support for You
- Are you feeling sad, irritable, hopeless, or worried more often than not? You’re not alone. Call the National Crisis Hotline at 1-800-273-TALK (8255).
- If your relationship is causing you to question your safety or the safety of your baby, call 1-800-799-7233.
- Visit AllianceforPeriodSupplies.org to find organizations dedicated to making period products accessible in their communities.
- Visit ChooseMyPlate.gov for tips on healthy eating!
Breastfeeding Support
- You may have a lactation consultant available to you! The International Lactation Consultant Association can also help you find a specialist in your area! Visit ilca.org and select the “Find A Lactation Consultant” option.
- For tips on breastfeeding, like pumping and storing milk, visit WomensHealth.gov/breastfeeding.
Community Resources
- We may be able to help you get a ride to your healthcare appointments. Just call us!
- If you need help with childcare, call Child Care Aware at 1-800-444-2246 to find out your options.
- Diapers are expensive, but you need them to keep your baby clean and healthy. Visit NationalDiaperBankNetwork.org to find a diaper bank partner near you.
- WIC can provide you with free and healthy food, nutrition education, and screenings/referrals to other health services. They also provide formula for babies, breast pumps, and other breastfeeding resources. You can call the National Hunger Hotline at 1-800-548-6479 or talk to your doctor, local health department or health plan to find out more about WIC. You can also visit feedingamerica.org/find-your-local-foodbank to find a food pantry near you.
- Farmers markets are great for finding affordable healthy food while supporting your community. Some even accept SNAP benefits! Visit AMS.USDA.gov/local-food-directories/farmersmarkets to find a market in your area.
- Public libraries are a great place to spend time with your baby, and they’re free! Visit https://librarytechnology.org/libraries/uspublic to find one in your community.
Reproductive Health Options
- Your sexual health is more than just choosing when or if you get pregnant again. Visit Gettested.cdc.gov to find free, fast, and confidential testing near you.
- Visit Redsider.org/methods or the Title X Family Planning Clinic Locator at gpa-fpclinicsdb.hhs.gov/ to find clinics, resources, and support for low-cost (or free) birth control.
Support for Decreasing Substance Use
- If you are concerned about how your medications can affect breastfeeding, talk to your doctor or call MotherToBaby for more information at 1-866-626-6487.
- If you are trying to quit smoking and are having trouble, ask for help. Call the Quit Smoking Hotline at 1-800-QUIT-NOW (1-800-784-8669). Or text MOM to 222888 to sign up for a text program specially designed to help those who are pregnant quit smoking.
- If you are trying to decrease or stop alcohol or substance use, there’s help available.
- National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (1-844-289-0879)
- Federal Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s Treatment Referral Routing Service (1-800-662-4357)
Visit your health plan website for tips on how to care for your baby!
You can learn more about:
- Helping baby sleep through the night
- Swaddling safely
- Lead testing for your home and water
- Tummy time tips and tricks
- Baby-proofing your home
- Taking your baby’s temperature correctly
- Vaccinations
- Car seat safety
- And more!
Contact us to sign up for weekly emails and/or texts about caring for your newborn baby.
Worried about healthcare coverage?
Visit HealthCare.gov to learn about your options.
| Page | Topic |
|------|-------------------------------------------|
| 2 | Your Body After Delivery |
| 4 | Your Feelings as a New Parent |
| 5 | Vaccines for You and Your Baby’s Caregivers|
| 6 | Birth Control and Family Planning |
| 8 | Planning Ahead |
| 10 | Tips for Breastfeeding |
| 13 | How To Take Care of Sore Breasts When Breastfeeding |
| 14 | Your First Few Weeks at Home |
| 17 | Feeding Your Baby |
| 18 | Caring for Your Baby |
| 21 | Your Baby’s Vaccinations and Well-Child Visits |
| 23 | Health Screen and Lead Poison Assessment Record |
| 24 | What to Do if Your Baby Is Sick |
| 26 | Developmental Milestones in Your Baby’s First Year |
| 28 | Words to Know |
This book is available in other languages. Please call us for more information.
Your Body After Delivery
Be sure to see your doctor after you deliver for follow-up and ongoing care. These visits are called postpartum visits and are needed to make sure your body is healing after delivery.
Check With Your Doctor
Find out when you can resume having sex and doing other normal activities. If you had high blood pressure or diabetes before or during pregnancy, make sure you get screened during your postpartum visit!
Ask for Help
You just had your baby. It’s good to ask for help! Your body has been through a lot, so be sure to take care of yourself. This will also help you be the best you can be for your baby.
Get some rest and ask for help with housework and heavy lifting. But make sure you don’t spend too much time lying down. Gentle movement will help you heal more quickly. Walking also reduces your risk of having blood clots in your legs.
POSTPARTUM VISITS
Your first postpartum visit is important for your recovery and should happen within the first 3 weeks after delivery. If you had pregnancy complications or have a chronic health condition, your doctor may run extra tests.
Your last visit should be by 12 weeks after delivery. Talk to your doctor about the best schedule for your needs. Your insurance coverage may change after delivery, so be sure to check!
HEALING FROM A CESAREAN SECTION
If you delivered through cesarean section (C-section), you may have some soreness, numbness, or itching around your incision. This is normal and should improve over time. Use the pain relievers prescribed by your doctor. Remember to hold your belly when you sneeze or cough and use pillows for extra support while feeding your baby.
If your incision looks very red, is draining, or is getting more painful, there may be an infection. Call your doctor.
DISCOMFORT FROM NOT BREASTFEEDING
If you’re not breastfeeding, your breasts may be sore and swollen until the milk stops coming in. This can take about a week or so. To ease some of the discomfort, wear a firm, supportive bra for 24 hours and use cold packs until your milk stops.
It is important to check your blood pressure in the first week after delivery. If you don’t have a blood pressure cuff, call your health plan. We may be able to help you get one.
Call your doctor if your blood pressure is 140/90 or above.
Call 911 immediately if your blood pressure is 160/110 or above.
Your postpartum visits are very important to make sure your body is healing after delivery.
Here are some common symptoms you may experience as you recover from delivery and some tips on how to handle them.
| SYMPTOM | WHAT TO EXPECT AND WHAT YOU CAN DO | WHEN TO CALL THE DOCTOR |
|----------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Feeling tired | • Try to nap, eat, and shower when your baby is napping. | • You are so tired that you can’t take care of yourself or your baby. |
| | • Eat a healthy diet and drink plenty of fluids. | • You have a temperature higher than 100.4° F. |
| | • Keep taking your prenatal vitamins. | |
| | • Ask family and friends for help. | |
| Cramps | • This is expected for 7 days or longer. It may get more intense while nursing. | • Severe cramping that is not resolved with pain medication. |
| | • You can take a mild pain reliever like ibuprofen or naproxen. | |
| Sore bottom and painful piles (hemorrhoids) | • Use a cold pack for the first 48 hours. | • You are having severe pain. |
| | • Take a sitz bath (soaking your bottom in a small plastic tub with warm water). | • You have a lot of trouble with urination or bowel movements. |
| | • Use cotton balls or pads soaked in witch hazel.* | |
| | • Use a spray bottle to wash your bottom several times a day. | |
| | • Use over-the-counter ointments and creams like hydrocortisone.* | |
| Bleeding and discharge from your vagina | • This is normal for the first few weeks after delivery. | • You pass blood clots larger than a golf ball. |
| | | • You have severe vaginal bleeding that gets heavier. |
| Swelling, pain, and/or redness in your legs or calves | • It is normal to have some swelling. | • If you have more swelling in one leg than the other, this could be a blood clot. |
| | • You can lie on your left side when resting or sleeping. | |
| | • Put your feet up. | |
| | • Try to stay cool and wear loose clothes. | |
| | • Drink plenty of water. | |
* You may be able to get these items at no cost with a prescription from your doctor.
**Know the Warning Signs**
Most people recover from giving birth without experiencing serious problems, but anyone can have complications after delivery. Knowing the warning signs and what to do could help save your life. Visit your health plan website for more information.
**Call 911 Immediately if You Are Experiencing:**
- Chest pain.
- Shortness of breath.
- Seizures.
- Thoughts of hurting yourself or someone else.
Your Feelings as a New Parent
After delivery, many parents get a mild form of depression called “baby blues.” You may be moody, irritable, and anxious. These feelings are usually temporary and resolve within 2 weeks. If you are feeling down one day and better the next, this is totally normal! You may feel like you should be happy after having a baby. Give yourself a break! This is a challenging time. There is nothing wrong with feeling emotional. Your body and your life are going through a lot of changes.
SIGNS OF POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION
Sometimes, feelings of sadness are severe and don’t go away on their own. If you feel sad or worried more often than not, you might have postpartum depression. Below are some common signs of postpartum depression:
• Crying a lot.
• Withdrawal from family and friends.
• Loss of interest or pleasure in activities you used to enjoy.
• Weight loss.
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt.
• Thoughts of death or suicide. **If you have these thoughts, call for help right away.**
If you answer yes to either of the following questions, you could have depression:
• During the past month, have you often been bothered by feeling down, depressed, or hopeless?
• During the past month, have you often had little interest or pleasure in doing things?
If you are having these feelings, reach out for help from your doctor, a friend, or your partner. There is support available to you. You can find our resources page in the back of this book.
HOW TO GET HELP
Postpartum depression can be treated with great results. There is help.
• If you are thinking of harming yourself or others, call 911 or the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at **1-800-273-TALK (8255)** for help right away.
• Complete the Patient Health Questionnaire on your health plan member portal.
• Talk to your doctor about possible medications you can take to help lift the feelings.
• Many people find talking to a counselor can help. If you don’t feel comfortable talking to a counselor, talk to a friend, a family member, or another parent you trust.
Vaccines for You and Your Baby’s Caregivers
Babies are more likely to get sick from germs in their first 6 months of life. It is very important for new parents and your baby’s caregivers to stay up to date on vaccines to keep your baby protected.
VACCINES YOU SHOULD GET
If you did not get vaccinated during your pregnancy, you may need the following:
- Flu vaccine.
- Tdap vaccine.
- Chickenpox vaccine.
THE FLU VACCINE
Since your baby cannot get the flu vaccine until they are 6 months old, the only way to protect your baby from serious problems is for you and those around your baby to get the flu vaccine.
Your baby’s immune system is not fully developed at first, so your baby is more prone to severe illness from the flu, which can lead to:
- Pneumonia (a serious lung infection).
- Dehydration (when too much water is lost from the body).
- In rare cases, death.
THE TDAP VACCINE AND WHOOPING COUGH
You may have heard of pertussis, or whooping cough. This disease is very contagious and can cause pneumonia and serious breathing problems. Whooping cough can be deadly for infants. The Tdap vaccine protects against whooping cough, tetanus, and diphtheria. Since your baby cannot start their vaccines for these diseases until they are 2 months old, it’s up to you to protect your baby.
THE CHICKENPOX VACCINE
Chickenpox is highly contagious to people who haven’t been vaccinated. Babies cannot get this vaccine until they are at least 12 months old. You and your baby’s caregivers may need to be vaccinated for chickenpox to protect them. Visit your health plan website for more information.
Other People Who May Need Vaccines
Make sure anyone who lives with or cares for your baby is vaccinated against the flu and whooping cough. All loved ones should get an annual flu shot. Anyone who hasn’t previously received a Tdap shot should try to get one at least 2 weeks before interacting with your baby.
These vaccines are safe for people who are breastfeeding!
Now that you have delivered your baby, it’s important to think about if or when you are going to have more children and the birth control you will use. This is called a reproductive life plan.
**Using Birth Control While Breastfeeding**
Breastfeeding can delay the return of your period, but you can become pregnant before it shows up. Make sure you start reliable contraception before you resume sexual activity.
**Sexual Health**
You can use condoms with another form of birth control. Condoms stop the spread of STIs, like HIV. There are many forms of condoms, and they are usually cheap (and sometimes free). Stay in control of your body and visit GetTested.cdc.gov to find free, fast, and confidential STD/STI testing.
**CREATE A REPRODUCTIVE LIFE PLAN**
Ask yourself these questions:
Would I like to have more children in the future?
How many children would I like to have?
How long do I want to wait before becoming pregnant again?
What birth control method do I plan to use until I’m ready to get pregnant?
How can I be sure I will be able to use this birth control method without problems?
CONSIDER WHAT FACTORS YOU SHOULD REFLECT ON BEFORE BECOMING PREGNANT AGAIN
Ask yourself these questions:
- Do I feel mentally supported and physically healthy enough to be pregnant again?
- Is there help available to stop smoking or misusing drugs before becoming pregnant again?
- Do I have the financial resources to support another baby?
- Does finishing school improve my and my baby’s future?
- Do I have supportive relationships to help me if I have another baby?
Now that you have thought about taking control of your reproductive life, the rest of this section will talk about safe forms of birth control that work.
Stay in Control
Life is full of transition, especially after you deliver. If you’re worried about which birth control options will be available to you if you lose coverage, visit the resources page at the back of this book. These can help you stay in control of your body and your future.
In the U.S., it is estimated that 50% of pregnancies are unplanned.
— The Shriver Report
Planning Ahead
There are many safe forms of birth control you can use to fit your reproductive life plan.
It is best to wait at least 18 months before getting pregnant again. Shorter periods of time between pregnancies increases risks for you and your future baby. Having the appropriate time between pregnancies can also help protect your future child from SIDS. Talk to your doctor about the best options for you and your planning needs.
SHORT-TERM CONTRACEPTION
If you may want to have children within the next few years.
| NAME | EFFECTIVENESS |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------|
| Birth Control Shots (Depo-Provera) | 94% |
| Vaginal Ring (NuvaRing®, ANNOVERA®) | 91% |
| Birth Control Pills | 91% |
LONG-ACTING REVERSIBLE CONTRACEPTION (LARC)
If you know you don’t want to have children within the next few years. Sometimes these can be inserted in the hospital right after delivery.
| NAME | EFFECTIVENESS |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------|
| Birth Control Implant (NEXPLANON®) | 99.95% |
| IUD | 99.20% |
PERMANENT CONTRACEPTION
If you know you don’t want more children and prefer permanent birth control.
| NAME | EFFECTIVENESS |
|-------------------------------------------|---------------|
| Partner Vasectomy | 99.85% |
| Tube Tying - Tubal Ligation | 99.50% |
If you’d like to learn more about these birth control options, visit your health plan website. You can learn more about potential side effects, when you can get pregnant next, and more.
PRODUCT DETAILS
Provide hormones that prevent pregnancy. You need to get the shot every 3 months. Typically stops periods temporarily. Some people gain weight from the shot.
A flexible, plastic ring you place into your vagina. It releases hormones that prevent pregnancy. You can put it in and remove it yourself. You will not feel it during sex. You need to replace it every 4 weeks.
Provide hormones that prevent pregnancy. Easy to use and very effective when taken correctly. You have to take them every day.
PRODUCT DETAILS
A small rod is placed under the skin of your upper arm and releases hormones that prevent pregnancy. Works for 3 years and is easily removed. You return to your regular cycle after it is removed. There is a potential for irregular bleeding, headaches, or acne.
A T-shaped plastic device that is slid into your womb to prevent pregnancy. A good choice if you do not want to have children for several years. Sometimes this can be inserted in the hospital right after delivery. Mirena®, Skyla®, and LILETTA® make your periods lighter. Paragard® has no hormones but can make your periods heavier.
PRODUCT DETAILS
The tubes that carry sperm out of your partner’s testicles are cut. Great option if you only have one partner. This can be done under local anesthesia.
The tubes that carry the eggs to the womb are blocked. This procedure can sometimes be performed right after your baby is born. If you want to get your tubes tied, talk to your doctor before you deliver. In some cases, a consent form has to be signed at least 30 days before the procedure.
Tips for Breastfeeding
Choosing to breastfeed is one of the best gifts you can give your baby. In addition to being the best nutrition for your baby, it has some great benefits for you, too! Here are some tips to help you have a successful breastfeeding experience.
TAKE CARE OF YOURSELF
When you breastfeed, it is especially important to get plenty of rest, drink lots of fluids, and eat a well-balanced diet. Nursing takes some practice, but it is worth it. The longer you breastfeed, the greater the health benefits for you and your baby.
STAYING COMFORTABLE WHEN NURSING
It is important to get comfortable and support your baby in finding a good latch. You also can use pillows under your arms, elbows, neck, or back to give you added comfort and support. Keep in mind that what works well for one feeding may not work well for the next. Keep trying different positions until you are comfortable.
Some parents find that the positions on the next page are helpful.
THREE STEPS TO A GOOD LATCH
A good latch and positioning are important during breastfeeding. They also help prevent sore nipples and ensure your baby is getting your milk.
1. Support the breast when needed. Support with your thumb on top and four fingers underneath, making sure that all fingers are behind the areola (the darker skin around the nipple).
2. Make sure your baby’s mouth is wide open. You can tickle their lip with your nipple to help get their mouth to open more.
3. Pull your baby in close and keep them close. They will take a large mouthful of the breast and be pulled in so that both their chin and the tip of their nose are close to or touching the breast. Don’t worry, your baby will not suffocate! Babies are able to breathe while breastfeeding.
Cradle Hold
This is an easy, common hold that is comfortable for most parents and babies. Hold your baby with their head on your forearm. Their whole body should be facing yours.
Cross-Cradle or Transitional Hold
This hold is useful for premature babies or babies with a weak suck. It gives extra head support and may help babies stay latched. Hold your baby along the opposite arm from the breast you are using. Support your baby’s head with the palm of your hand at the base of their neck.
Clutch or “Football” Hold
This is useful for people who had a C-section. It works for others with large breasts, flat or inverted nipples, or a strong letdown reflex (the reflex that releases your milk). It is also helpful for babies who prefer to be more upright. This hold allows you to better see and control your baby’s head. It will also keep the baby away from a C-section incision. Hold your baby at your side, lying on their back. Their head should be at the level of your nipple. Support your baby’s head with the palm of your hand at the base of the head (so that the baby is placed almost under the arm).
Side-Lying Position
This position is useful for people who had a C-section. It can help you get extra rest while the baby breastfeeds. Lie on your side with your baby facing you and pull your baby close. Your baby will be facing your body.
Reference: Office of Women’s Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). Learning to Breastfeed. Retrieved from http://www.womenshealth.gov/breastfeeding/learning-to-breastfeed.html
SIGNS OF A GOOD LATCH
• The latch feels comfortable to you and doesn’t hurt or pinch.
• Your baby’s chest is against your body and they do not have to turn their head while drinking.
• You see little or no areola, depending on the size of your areola and the size of your baby’s mouth. If your areola is showing, you will see more above your baby’s lip and less below.
• You hear or see your baby swallow. Some babies swallow so quietly that a pause in their breathing may be the only sign of swallowing.
• You see your baby’s ears wiggle slightly.
• Your baby’s lips turn out like fish lips, not in. You may not be able to see the bottom lip.
• Your baby’s chin touches your breast.
WHAT IS A LACTATION CONSULTANT?
A lactation consultant is a specialist trained to help parents with breastfeeding. The International Lactation Consultant Association can help you find a specialist in your area.
See the resource listed under Breastfeeding Support at the back of this book.
Benefits of Breast Milk for Baby
• Protects from gastrointestinal infections (vomiting and diarrhea).
• Decreases risk of ear infections, colds, and wheezing.
• Lowers chance of developing obesity, some cancers, diabetes, and other diseases.
Benefits of Breastfeeding for You
• Helps you recover from childbirth.
• Burns calories.
• Decreases risk of some cancers, osteoporosis, heart disease, and diabetes.
• Decreases risk of postpartum depression.
Breastfeeding Tip
If you can’t tell if your baby’s lower lip is out or if you feel their gums chomping on your nipple, press on their lower chin to gently nudge their mouth open and their lower lip out.
How To Take Care of Sore Breasts When Breastfeeding
Here are some symptoms you may experience when you begin to breastfeed and suggestions for how to handle them. Keep in mind these symptoms are usually temporary.
| SYMPTOM | HOW CAN I PREVENT THIS? | HOW CAN I TREAT THIS? |
|--------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Sore, dry, or cracked nipples** | • Make sure your baby latches on and gets enough breast tissue in their mouth. This will create a tight seal.
• Let your baby suck for as long as the sucking is strong. If your baby starts to doze or just nibble, stop the feed. Put your finger in your baby’s mouth alongside your nipple to get your baby to let go. Don’t just pull your baby off.
• Rinse your nipples with water after nursing. Don’t use soap. Leave your bra off or open so your nipples can air-dry for a short time. | • Apply cream with lanolin in it to the nipple after nursing. Only use creams or medicines your doctor tells you to use. Wipe this off before the next feeding. |
| **Full, sore breasts** | • Nurse or pump every 2 to 4 hours.
• Make sure your baby nurses on each breast each time they feed.
• Take a hot shower or put on a heating pad before feeding to help you release your milk.
• Wear a supportive bra. Make sure it’s not too tight. | • Take mild pain medicine like acetaminophen (TYLENOL®).
• Place cold packs or a package of frozen peas on your breasts between feedings. |
**Breastfeeding Help**
If you are having trouble with breastfeeding or your breasts, visit your health plan website or the resources page at the back of this book.
**If You’re Breastfeeding, Look Out for Mastitis!**
If you have a sore, red, painful breast with chills, fever, and flu-like symptoms, you may have an infection called mastitis. Mastitis is caused by blocked milk ducts or when bacteria enters the breast. Mastitis needs to be treated with antibiotics. Call your doctor if you think you may have mastitis.
Your First Few Weeks at Home
Going home with a new baby can be overwhelming. Here are some great tips to help ease your worries about caring for your baby when you first get home.
WHEN SHOULD YOUR BABY FIRST SEE THEIR DOCTOR?
It is very important to take your baby to see their doctor within the first week after birth and again before turning 1 month old. Babies younger than 1 month old can get sick quickly.
If your newborn looks sick, has a fever, is feeding poorly, or is sleeping too much, call your baby’s doctor right away.
WHAT SHOULD YOU DO ABOUT VISITORS?
You are going to be exhausted when you first come home from the hospital. Try to hold off on having visitors in the beginning if you can. It’s OK to limit visitors or set a schedule. If you do allow visitors, make sure they wash their hands before they hold your baby. Babies’ immune systems are not fully developed, so they get sick easily, which can be dangerous. If anyone is not feeling well, ask them to come another time.
Ask anyone who will be around your baby to get Tdap and flu vaccinations.
HOW OFTEN SHOULD YOU FEED YOUR BABY?
Babies normally eat 8 to 12 times per day and average 1.5 to 3 ounces per feeding for the first week or two. Feed your baby anytime they seem hungry. If you wait until they are crying, it is often harder to calm them down for the feeding.
Watch for the signs! Babies may smack their lips, stick out their tongue, move their head side to side, or put their hands in their mouth as a sign that they are getting hungry.
HOW DO YOU KNOW YOUR BABY IS EATING ENOUGH?
Weight gain is the number one way to tell if your baby is getting enough to eat. Your baby’s doctor will check their weight at every visit. It is normal for babies to lose a bit of weight at first. They will catch up within a couple of weeks.
Watch your baby’s diaper changes. You should be seeing at least 6 wet diapers and 3 to 4 poopy diapers per day.
WHEN CAN YOU GIVE YOUR BABY A BATH?
Babies should receive only sponge baths until their umbilical cord has fallen off, usually 1 to 2 weeks after birth.
HOW CAN YOU MAKE SURE YOUR BABY IS SAFE WHEN SLEEPING?
You should always put your baby on their back to sleep unless your doctor tells you not to. Use a crib or bassinet with well-fitting sheets. You and your baby should never sleep in the same bed. Never place your baby on sofas, waterbeds, or other soft surfaces.
Keep “stuff” out of your baby’s sleep area. No soft objects, toys, pillows, loose bedding, or bumper pads. Check out what a safe sleep environment looks like on the next page and visit your health plan website to learn more.
Staying Healthy
Call your baby’s doctor to schedule their well-child visits and your doctor to schedule your postpartum visits. Your baby’s first visits should be within 1 week of delivery and no more than 30 days after birth. Your first postpartum visits are important for your recovery and should happen within the first 3 weeks after delivery. Your last visit should be by 12 weeks after delivery.
Call us to figure out your baby’s healthcare coverage options!
How Can You Make Sure Your Baby Is Safe When Sleeping?
1. Make sure your baby’s sleep area is in the same room, next to where you sleep.
2. Dress your baby in sleep clothing, such as a wearable blanket. Do not use a loose blanket, and do not overbundle your baby.
3. Always place your baby on their back to sleep — for naps and at night.
4. Use a firm and flat sleep surface, such as a mattress in a safety-approved crib, covered by a fitted sheet.
Do not put your baby to sleep in an adult bed, on a couch, or on a chair alone, with you, or with anyone else.
Do not smoke or let anyone else smoke around your baby.
Do not put pillows, blankets, sheepskins, or crib bumpers anywhere in your baby’s sleep area.
Keep soft objects, toys, and loose bedding out of your baby’s sleep area. Make sure nothing covers their head.
Source: https://safetosleep.nichd.nih.gov/resources/caregivers/environment/look
Safe Sleeping
Safe sleep is important for your baby’s health. It can help protect your baby from sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). SIDS is also known as crib death.
Risk Factors for SIDS Include:
• Sleeping position of the baby. Your baby should always sleep on their back unless your doctor tells you otherwise.
• Smoking during pregnancy.
• Premature birth.
• Being around secondhand smoke.
Feeding Your Baby
It’s important to start your baby off right on the road to good nutrition. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that babies have only breast milk or formula during the first 6 months of life. Once your baby starts eating solids, continue breast milk or formula until at least 1 year of age.
FOLLOW YOUR BABY’S LEAD
Even immediately after birth, babies are good at letting you know if they are getting enough to eat. They will root (move their head when their cheek is stroked), smack their lips, cry, or put their hands in their mouth when they are hungry. Feeding your baby based on these cues is called feeding on demand.
Feeding Time
Each feeding should take about 10 to 20 minutes. Both breastfed and bottle-fed babies will need to have feedings throughout the day and night (every 2 to 4 hours) for at least the first month or two. You may notice some growth spurts when your baby will be hungrier and eat more often. Follow your baby’s lead. They typically know how much food they need.
Avoid Overfeeding
Overfeeding can cause spitting up and may lead to obesity. Bottle-fed babies should take no more than 7 to 8 ounces at once or no more than 32 to 36 ounces in a day.
All Babies Are Different
Regular well-child visits will allow you to talk to your baby’s doctor about their growth and feedings.
WHEN IS YOUR CHILD READY FOR BABY FOOD?
✔️ They are at least 4 to 6 months old and 13 pounds.
✔️ They can sit upright and hold their head up.
✔️ They swallow food instead of pushing it out with their tongue.
✔️ They put their hands or toys in their mouth.
✔️ They show a desire for food by leaning forward and opening their mouth.
WHAT FOODS SHOULD YOU START WITH?
Make sure to start with one food at a time and try it for a few days before adding anything else. This gives you the chance to see if your baby has any problems like gas, diarrhea, vomiting, or a rash. You can use commercial baby food or make it yourself. Don’t give your baby any food that could cause choking. Talk to your baby’s doctor about what they recommend.
FIRST FEEDINGS
When you start solid foods, put a small amount on a spoon and offer it while your baby is sitting up. You can mix it with some breast milk or formula to keep it runny. Don’t serve it from a bottle — that can lead to choking.
Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
WIC is a special nutrition program for low-income families. WIC can provide you with free and healthy foods, nutrition education, and screening/referrals to other health services. WIC parents who choose to breastfeed receive an enhanced food package and are able to participate in WIC longer. Talk to your doctor, local health department, or health plan to learn more about WIC.
Facts About Formula
If you can’t (or choose not to) breastfeed, formula is also a healthy choice! Talk to your baby’s doctor about the formula that is right for your baby. If you choose a powder formula and plan to use tap water to make it, make sure your water supply is safe. Have your water checked for lead if you live in an older home or if you’re worried about your water.
Mix formula from powder exactly as directed. Do not add extra water to make it last longer. This can harm your baby.
Caring for Your Baby
Holding your baby for the first time is a very special feeling. Even though you have been carrying your baby for 9 months, it will take time for you and your baby to get to know each other. In the coming weeks and months, you will learn what your baby needs to be happy, healthy, and safe.
WHAT TO DO WHEN YOUR BABY CRIES
Crying is a natural reaction for babies. They typically have 1 to 2 hours of unexplained crying scattered throughout each day for the first 3 months of life. If your baby is crying, make sure their basic needs are met. If they have been changed and fed and don’t have a fever, try to soothe or comfort them.
WAYS TO COMFORT A CRYING BABY
• Hold your baby. You can’t spoil them by holding them too much.
• Quietly talk or sing to your baby, play some music, or turn on a sound machine.
• Gently rock or walk around with your baby.
• Sucking helps calm babies, so try a pacifier. (It is fine to use for breastfed babies once breastfeeding has been established.)
• Wrap your baby snugly in a blanket with their arms inside. This is called swaddling.
Never Shake a Crying Baby
If you or your baby’s caregivers are getting frustrated, calmly put your baby down in a safe place such as a crib. Call family and friends and say you need help. Go for a walk, read a magazine, or watch TV until you feel ready. Never shake a baby — their neck muscles are too weak to support their head, and this can be fatal.
WHAT TO DO ABOUT TEETHING
It is very important to start good oral care early. Once you see your baby’s first tooth, you should clean it with a soft toothbrush and a tiny bit (rice grain size) of fluoride toothpaste twice per day. Most babies start getting teeth by the time they are 6 months old.
WHAT HELPS?
• Rubbing your baby’s gums gently with a clean finger.
• Pacifiers or firm rubber teether. (Some babies like them cold, but don’t freeze them — they get too hard and can hurt your baby’s gums.)
• Medications that you rub on gums don’t usually work and can cause harm if the baby swallows too much.
• Talk to your baby’s doctor if nothing is working. Teething may not be the cause of the symptoms.
SIGNS OF TEETHING
• Drooling.
• Fussiness.
• Biting hard on things.
• Swollen and tender gums.
PREVENTING CAVITIES
• Make your baby’s first dental appointment when the first tooth appears and by their first birthday.
• Don’t put your baby to sleep with a bottle of milk or juice. It can cause serious tooth decay called “bottle caries.”
• Avoid giving your baby fruit juice, soda, and other sugary drinks. Sweet drinks can settle on teeth and cause decay.
• Talk to your baby’s doctor or dentist about fluoride varnish, which can be painted on your baby’s teeth to prevent cavities.
How To Give Your Baby a Bath After the Umbilical Cord Has Fallen Off
As long as you clean the diaper area well, you shouldn’t need to bathe your baby more than 3 times per week. Bathing too often can dry out the skin.
Establish a bathing routine. Your baby usually won’t need a bath every night, but setting a routine will help your baby set their body clock. If the bath routine leads to bedtime, your baby will be more relaxed and (hopefully) easier to put to sleep.
For bath time safety tips, check out your health plan website.
How To Keep Your Baby Safe
**Home Safety**
- Never leave your baby alone on a changing table, bed, sofa, or chair. Keep one hand on your baby at all times. Even newborns can move suddenly and fall. When you aren’t able to hold your baby, put them in a safe place like a crib or playpen.
- To keep your baby from choking, keep small objects like coins, small balls, and toys with small parts out of your baby’s reach. Safe baby toys have smooth edges and no small parts that can come off.
- Never leave your baby alone with younger children or pets. They may not understand what is going on with your new baby.
- Keep your baby away from secondhand smoke. Never smoke in your home or car. Ask smokers to change into fresh, clean clothes before holding your baby.
- Lead exposure can cause learning and behavior problems. Young children are most at risk. The biggest source of lead exposure is from paint in homes built before 1978 or contaminated water. Have your water checked for lead if you live in an older home or if you’re worried about your water.
**Sun Safety**
Direct sunlight is not safe for your baby in any amount. For the first 6 months, avoid sun exposure as much as possible and only use sunscreen on small areas like the face or hands. Most sunscreens are not safe for babies under 6 months old. The best protection for them is shade. If you’re taking a walk, make sure your baby is covered by a light blanket. If your stroller has a canopy that shades your baby, use it. Talk to your baby’s doctor if you have any questions on how to protect your baby’s skin.
**Secondhand Smoke**
Secondhand smoke is dangerous, especially for babies. Babies exposed are at higher risk for serious illness and SIDS or crib death, and they are more likely to get coughs, pneumonia, ear infections, sore throats, and worsened asthma. Always keep your baby away from secondhand smoke.
**Car Safety**
Your child must ride in a car safety seat every time they ride in a car. The seat should be rear-facing and in the backseat. The American Academy of Pediatrics says babies should stay rear-facing until they reach the highest weight or height allowed by the car seat manufacturer.
Remember, you should never leave your baby alone in a car — not even for a minute.
Using drugs and alcohol around your baby can limit your ability to parent and can put your baby in danger. For help finding treatment, see the resources page at the back of this book.
Your baby should be seen often during their first year for well-child care. These visits are different from sick visits, which address a specific problem with your baby like a fever or cough.
PICKING A DOCTOR FOR YOUR BABY
If your baby has not seen their doctor since coming home from the hospital, please make the appointment right away. If you need help finding a doctor for your baby, ask your doctor or friends for their recommendation or call your health plan for a referral.
WHAT TO EXPECT
At each of these well-child visits, your baby will be weighed and measured to make sure they are growing at a steady rate. A physical exam will be done, and your baby may receive vaccines (also called immunizations or shots) or screening tests.
You will discuss things like feeding, nutrition, sleeping, newborn care, safety, development, and family issues.
LEAD SCREENING
The only way to tell if your child has lead poisoning is a blood test. Make sure your child is tested or evaluated for lead exposure — usually at ages 1 and 2.
VACCINE SHOT SCHEDULE FOR CHILDREN
Vaccines help prevent serious illness. This chart will help keep track of when your child should be given each vaccine. If your child does not get their shots at the age shown below, they still need to get that shot. Talk to your doctor about your child’s vaccines. Children must have their shots to enter school.
WHY YOUR BABY NEEDS VACCINES
Vaccines protect children from diseases. Kids who don’t get vaccines have a greater chance of getting these diseases. They can also spread the disease to others.
Keep up with your baby’s well-child visits! Not only will your baby stay protected with up-to-date vaccines, but you’ll also learn more about your baby’s growing personality. Your baby’s doctor will discuss how your baby plays and interacts with others to see how they’re developing.
| BIRTH | 1 MONTH | 2 MONTHS | 4 MONTHS | 6 MONTHS | 12 MONTHS | 15 MONTHS | 18 MONTHS | 19-23 MONTHS | 2-3 YEARS | 4-6 YEARS |
|-------|---------|----------|----------|----------|-----------|-----------|-----------|-------------|-----------|-----------|
| HEP B | HepB | | | | HepB | | | | | |
| | RV | RV | RV | | | | | | | |
| | DTaP | DTaP | DTaP | | | | | | | |
| | Hib | Hib | Hib | | | | | | | |
| | PCV | PCV | PCV | | | | | | | |
| | IPV | IPV | | | IPV | | | | | |
| | | | | | Influenza (Yearly)* | | | | | |
| | | | | | MMR | | | | | |
| | | | | | Varicella | | | | | |
| | | | | | HepA** | | | | | |
Source: https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/easy-to-read/child-easyread.html (2020)
| DISEASE | VACCINE | SYMPTOMS | COMPLICATIONS |
|-------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Chickenpox | Varicella vaccine| Rash, tiredness, headache, and fever. | Infected blisters, bleeding disorders, encephalitis (brain swelling), and pneumonia. |
| Diphtheria | DTaP* vaccine | Sore throat, mild fever, weakness, and swollen glands in the neck. | Swelling of the heart muscle, heart failure, coma, paralysis, and death. |
| Flu | Flu vaccine | Fever, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, and extreme fatigue. | Pneumonia. |
| Hib (Haemophilus influenzae type b) | Hib vaccine | May be no symptoms unless bacteria enters the blood. | Meningitis (infection of the covering around the brain and spinal cord), intellectual disability, epiglottitis (life-threatening condition that can block the windpipe and lead to serious breathing problems), pneumonia, and death. |
| Hepatitis A | HepA vaccine | May be no symptoms, fever, stomach pain, loss of appetite, fatigue, vomiting, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), and dark urine. | Liver failure, arthralgia (joint pain), and kidney, pancreatic, and blood disorders. |
| Hepatitis B | HepB vaccine | May be no symptoms, fever, headache, weakness, vomiting, jaundice, and joint pain. | Chronic liver infection, liver failure, and liver cancer. |
| Measles | MMR** vaccine | Rash, fever, cough, runny nose, and pinkeye (conjunctivitis). | Encephalitis, pneumonia, and death. |
| Mumps | MMR** vaccine | Swollen salivary glands (under the jaw), fever, headache, tiredness, and muscle pain. | Meningitis, encephalitis, inflammation of testicles or ovaries, and deafness. |
| Pertussis (whooping cough) | DTaP* vaccine | Severe cough, runny nose, and apnea (a pause in breathing in infants). | Pneumonia and death. |
| Pneumococcal | PCV vaccine | May be no symptoms and pneumonia. | Bacteremia (blood infection), meningitis, and death. |
| Polio | IPV vaccine | May be no symptoms, sore throat, fever, nausea, and headache. | Paralysis and death. |
| Rotavirus | RV vaccine | Diarrhea, fever, and vomiting. | Severe diarrhea and dehydration. |
| Rubella | MMR** vaccine | Rash, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. | Very serious in pregnant women. Can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, and birth defects. |
| Tetanus | DTaP* vaccine | Stiffness in neck and abdominal muscles, difficulty swallowing, muscle spasms, and fever. | Broken bones, difficulty breathing, and death. |
*DTaP combines protection against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. **MMR combines protection against measles, mumps, and rubella. Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention*
An EPSDT/HCY health screen helps children stay healthy or find problems that may need medical treatment. Your child needs to get regular checkups. Children between 6 months and 6 years old need to get checked for lead poisoning. You may use the chart below to record when your child gets a health screen or lead poison screen.
| AGE | DATE OF HEALTH SCREEN | DATE OF LEAD POISON SCREEN |
|--------------|-----------------------|----------------------------|
| Newborn | | |
| By 1 month | | |
| 2-3 months | | |
| 4-5 months | | |
| 6-8 months | | |
| 9-11 months | | |
| 12-14 months | | |
| 15-17 months | | |
| 18-23 months | | |
| 24 months | | |
| 30 months | | |
| 3 years | | |
| 4 years | | |
| 5 years | | |
| 6-7 years | | |
Your child needs a blood lead level at 12 and 24 months.
Your child needs a blood lead level each year until age 6 if in a high-risk area.
Your baby can’t tell you in words if they are sick or hurt, but you know your child best and can probably sense when something is wrong. Here are some tips about what to do if you think your baby is sick. If you are not sure what to do, call your baby’s doctor or our 24-hour nurse advice line.
**WHEN TO CALL YOUR BABY’S DOCTOR OR SEEK MEDICAL ATTENTION**
- Poor feeding.
- Your baby is limp or floppy.
- Decreased urine output.
- Body jerks or seizures.
- Difficulty breathing.
- Bluish skin or lips.
- Your baby seems hard to wake up or doesn’t respond.
- Bleeding that won’t stop.
- Exposure to poison.
- Parental instinct. *If you think something is wrong with your baby, seek medical attention. Don’t be afraid to ask for help.*
**WHAT TO DO ABOUT A FEVER**
A fever is a worrisome sign for parents. What many don’t know is that a fever by itself is rarely dangerous.
*You should call your baby’s doctor or our 24-hour nurse advice line for:*
- Fever over 100.4°F in a child less than 3 months of age.
- High fever (higher than 103°F).
- Any fever in a child who doesn’t look well or won’t eat or drink.
- Fever and rash together.
- Fever for more than 2 or 3 days.
- Fever that begins several days after a cold has started.
**THE COMMON COLD**
Babies are especially susceptible to the common cold. Symptoms include nasal congestion and runny nose, and these usually resolve on their own. Some babies can develop more serious complications like pneumonia, croup, and bronchiolitis.
Treatment includes making sure your baby gets plenty of fluids. Babies may have trouble eating with a stuffy nose. Suctioning your baby’s nose with a bulb syringe and thinning the mucus with saline drops can help.
*You should call your baby’s doctor or our 24-hour nurse advice line for:*
- Cold symptoms in a baby less than 3 months old.
- Coughing, wheezing, or trouble breathing.
- Cold symptoms with vomiting, diarrhea, or poor feeding.
- Any other symptoms that concern you.
**Sick Newborns**
Babies younger than 1 month old can get sick very quickly. If you have any concerns that your newborn looks sick, has a fever, is feeding poorly, or is sleeping too much, call your baby’s doctor as soon as possible. These could be signs of something more serious.
**24-Hour Nurse Advice Line**
Call the number on the back of your health plan ID card if you have questions when your baby’s doctor’s office is closed or you are not sure if you should go to the emergency room.
**Taking Your Baby’s Temperature**
If your baby is younger than 3 months old, you will need to take a rectal temperature with a digital thermometer. If your baby is older than 3 months old, you can take an underarm temperature. To find more information on how to take your baby’s temperature, visit your health plan website.
VOMITING AND DIARRHEA
Vomiting and diarrhea can be caused by many things but are usually due to a stomach virus. Most times, vomiting only lasts 24 to 48 hours, but it may take 1 to 2 weeks for the diarrhea to stop and stools to become normal. Most experts agree that you should try to continue to feed your baby normally despite vomiting and diarrhea. It might help to give small amounts of formula or breast milk more frequently at first.
The biggest concern with vomiting and diarrhea is dehydration. Some signs of dehydration are:
- Decreased tears.
- Dry mouth.
- Decreased urine output.
You should call your baby’s doctor or our 24-hour nurse advice line for:
- Vomiting for more than 24 hours or many times in a row.
- Vomit with blood or with a greenish-yellow color (bile).
- Swollen abdomen or severe pain.
- Crying with no tears or no urine in more than 8 to 10 hours.
- Lack of energy or lots of fussiness.
- Any other concerns that your baby may be dehydrated.
Keeping Your Baby Healthy
To keep your baby healthy, take these steps to prevent the spread of infection:
- Keep your baby away from others who are sick.
- Wash your hands often, especially before holding or feeding your baby.
- Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
- Clean countertops, doorknobs, toys, and other frequently touched areas in your house often.
Developmental Milestones in Your Baby’s First Year
From birth to 5 years old, your child should reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, act, and move. These milestones offer important clues about your baby’s development. Below are just a few of many important milestones to look for in your baby’s first year. Check off a milestone as your baby reaches it! Don’t forget that this list is a guide and not set in stone. Every baby learns and grows at a different pace!
Missing Milestones
You know your baby best. If you think your baby is not meeting the milestones for their age or if you, your family, your baby’s teacher, or another care provider ever become concerned about how your baby plays, learns, speaks, acts, or moves, talk with their doctor and share your concerns. Don’t wait! Acting early can make a big difference!
For More Information
If you are ever unsure about what to do, visit www.cdc.gov/Concerned.
2 MONTHS
- Begins to smile at people
- Turns head toward sounds
- Pays attention to faces
- Can hold head up and begins to push up when lying on tummy
4 MONTHS
- Likes to play with people and might cry when playing stops
- Babbles with expression and copies sounds heard
- Uses hands and eyes together, such as seeing a toy and reaching for it
- Can hold a toy and shake it and swing at dangling toys
6 MONTHS
- Responds to own name
- Likes to play with others, especially parents
- Strings vowels together when babbling (“ah,” “eh,” “oh”) and likes taking turns with parent while making sounds
- Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach
- Rolls over in both directions (front to back, back to front)
9 MONTHS
- May be clingy with familiar adults
- Copies sounds and gestures of others
- Looks for things they see you hide
- Sits without support
12 MONTHS
- Uses simple gestures such as shaking head for “no” or waving “bye-bye”
- Repeats sounds or actions to get attention
- Says short names like “mama” and “dada” and exclamations like “uh-oh!”
- Follows simple directions such as, “pick up the toy”
- Pulls up to stand and walks holding onto furniture (cruising)
For more complete checklists by age (2 months through 5 years old), visit www.cdc.gov/Milestones.
Adapted with permission from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” program.
A baby's feet standing on a wooden floor, with an adult's feet behind them.
Words to Know
There are many words that doctors and nurses use to talk about recovering from childbirth. Knowing what these words mean will help you understand what is happening to your body.
ANXIETY: An uneasy or troubled feeling.
AREOLA: The colored circle of skin around the nipple.
BOWEL MOVEMENT: The elimination of waste through the anus.
CONTRACEPTIVE: Something that is used to prevent pregnancy.
CROUP: Inflammation of the larynx and trachea in children associated with infection and causing breathing difficulties.
DTAP VACCINE/Tdap VACCINE: These vaccines protect against 3 diseases caused by bacteria: tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (whooping cough). DTaP is for children younger than age 7 and Tdap is for adults.
EXPRESS MILK: A technique used for those who are breastfeeding to remove milk from the breasts, especially if they are overfull.
HEALTHCARE PROVIDER: A healthcare professional who provides services and care for you or your baby. Your provider may be an obstetrics and gynecology (OB-GYN) doctor, family doctor, nurse practitioner, nurse midwife, or other nurse with advanced training. Your baby’s provider may be a pediatric doctor (pediatrician), family doctor, neonatologist, nurse practitioner, or other nurse with advanced training.
HEMORRHOID: A swollen vein on or near the anus. Hemorrhoids are also known as piles.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV): A virus that attacks the body’s immune system. HIV can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), a chronic, life-threatening condition.
IMMUNIZATION/VACCINE: A shot or other medicine used to prevent diseases.
JAUNDICE: When a chemical called bilirubin builds up in a baby’s blood. It causes the skin to turn yellowish.
LACTATION: When the body makes breast milk.
LANOLIN: A waxy ointment that can be used to protect skin and to treat sore nipples.
LETDOWN REFLEX: An involuntary reflex during the period of time when a person is breastfeeding that causes the milk to flow freely.
MASTITIS: An infection of the breast that can happen when the milk duct gets clogged. It is usually associated with redness of the breast and fever.
MILESTONES: Behavior and physical skills babies and children have as they grow. Sitting up, crawling, and walking are examples of milestones.
NURSING: The method of feeding the baby with milk from the breast.
OVA OR OVUM: A mature female reproductive cell, also known as an egg.
PNEUMONIA: A lung inflammation caused by a bacterial or viral infection.
POSTPARTUM: The period of time (approximately 6 months) following childbirth.
POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION: Feelings of sadness or hopelessness after giving birth.
PRENATAL: Describes pregnant people before they deliver their baby. Prenatal care is medical care you receive before your baby is born.
PROGESTERONE: A hormone that prepares and maintains the uterus for pregnancy.
REPRODUCTIVE LIFE PLAN: A plan regarding when or if you want to have more children. The plan should include how you will stick to your decision and what methods you will use for birth control.
RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS (RSV): Causes infections of the lungs and breathing passages and is a major cause of respiratory illness in young children.
ROOTING: A baby’s instinctive search for food that helps you recognize when your baby is hungry.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs): Infections that spread from person to person through sexual contact. STIs do not always cause symptoms and may go unnoticed. STIs can be harmful to you and your baby if you are infected while pregnant. Most STIs are curable with medicine.
SPERM: A male reproductive cell.
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS): The unexplained death, usually during sleep, of a seemingly healthy baby less than a year old. SIDS is sometimes known as crib death because the infants often die in their cribs.
UMBILICAL CORD: The cord that transfers nourishment to the baby and removes waste from the baby during pregnancy. This cord is cut at birth, creating the belly button.
UTERUS: The pear-shaped, hollow organ in the female reproductive system where the baby grows until birth. The uterus is also called the womb. The uterus is connected to the vagina by the cervix.
VAGINA: A canal-shaped opening in your body also called the birth canal. The vagina connects to the cervix, which is connected to the uterus.
Congratulations on the birth of your baby! We hope you find this book useful as you begin to care for your baby and recover from delivery. As a reminder, we also provide the following:
• A 24-hour nurse advice line.
• Breastfeeding support and resources.
• Help obtaining a breast pump.
• Assistance if you are experiencing feelings of depression or anxiety. (Contact us for support if you feel sad, overwhelmed or “down”, or are thinking about harming yourself or others.)
• Methods to help you decrease or stop smoking, drinking alcohol, or using drugs.
• Weekly text and email programs, if offered by your plan.
• Over-the-counter medicines that may be available at no cost to you. (Ask your doctor or call us for more information.)
Visit your health plan website for more information!
Fill in your doctor’s and baby’s doctor’s information here for easy reference:
Your Doctor’s Name
Your Doctor’s Phone Number
Your Baby’s Doctor’s Name
Your Baby’s Doctor’s Phone Number
Support for You
- Are you feeling sad, irritable, hopeless, or worried more often than not? You’re not alone. Call the National Crisis Hotline at 1-800-273-TALK (8255).
- If your relationship is causing you to question your safety or the safety of your baby, call 1-800-799-7233.
- Visit AllianceforPeriodSupplies.org to find organizations dedicated to making period products accessible in their communities.
- Visit ChooseMyPlate.gov for tips on healthy eating!
Breastfeeding Support
- You may have a lactation consultant available to you! The International Lactation Consultant Association can also help you find a specialist in your area! Visit ilca.org and select the “Find A Lactation Consultant” option.
- For tips on breastfeeding, like pumping and storing milk, visit WomensHealth.gov/breastfeeding.
Community Resources
- We may be able to help you get a ride to your healthcare appointments. Just call us!
- If you need help with childcare, call Child Care Aware at 1-800-424-2246 to find out your options.
- Diapers are expensive, but you need them to keep your baby clean and healthy. Visit NationalDiaperBankNetwork.org to find a diaper bank partner near you.
- WIC can provide you with free and healthy food, nutrition education, and screenings/referrals to other health services. They also provide formula for babies, breast pumps, and other breastfeeding resources. You can call the National Hunger Hotline at 1-800-548-6479 or talk to your doctor, local health department or health plan to find out more about WIC. You can also visit feedingamerica.org/find-your-local-foodbank to find a food pantry near you.
- Farmers markets are great for finding affordable healthy food while supporting your community. Some even accept SNAP benefits! Visit AMS.USDA.gov/local-food-directories/farmersmarkets to find a market in your area.
- Public libraries are a great place to spend time with your baby, and they’re free! Visit Lib-Web.org/united-states/public-libraries to find one in your community.
Reproductive Health Options
- Your sexual health is more than just choosing when or if you get pregnant again. Visit Gettested.cdc.gov to find free, fast, and confidential testing near you.
- Visit Bedsider.org/methods or the Title X Family Planning Clinic Locator at opa-fpclinicdb.hhs.gov/ or to find clinics, resources, and support for low-cost (or free!) birth control.
Support for Decreasing Substance Use
- If you are concerned about how your medications can affect breastfeeding, talk to your doctor or call MotherToBaby for more information at 1-866-626-6487.
- If you are trying to quit smoking and are having trouble, ask for help. Call the Quit Smoking Hotline at 1-800-QUIT-NOW (1-800-8669). Or text MOM to 222888 to sign up for a text program specially designed to help those who are pregnant quit smoking.
- If you are trying to decrease or stop alcohol or substance use, there’s help available.
- National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (1-800-622-2255)
- Federal Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s Treatment Referral Routing Service (1-800-662-4357)
Contact us to sign up for weekly emails and/or texts about caring for your newborn baby.
Visit your health plan website for tips on how to care for your baby!
You can learn more about:
- Helping baby sleep through the night
- Swaddling safely
- Lead testing for your home and water
- Tummy time tips and tricks
- Baby-proofing your home
- Taking your baby’s temperature correctly
- Vaccinations
- Car seat safety
- And more!
Worried about healthcare coverage?
Visit HealthCare.gov to learn about your options. | 6f633c5c-2af8-44f6-922f-3025aeeb0ea6 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.ambetteroftennessee.com/content/dam/centene/Centene%20Corporate/web-files/ambetter-shared/AMB21-SSFB-00052-E%20_%20AMB_MothersGuidetoPostpartumBook_ENG_100621%20(1).pdf | 2022-08-17T13:42:33+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572908.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817122626-20220817152626-00379.warc.gz | 581,215,258 | 14,383 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995016 | eng_Latn | 0.998351 | [
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
61,
4688,
5703,
8173,
13552,
15618,
17596,
18705,
19719,
21532,
23121,
24867,
26420,
28068,
30332,
31863,
33429,
34739,
37965,
39413,
41255,
43713,
47198,
50915,
52575,
55378,
56750,
59105,
59182,
63542,
64530,
68170
] | [
1.234375,
2.125
] | 8 | 1 |
Radio Mathematics
Understanding radio and electronics beyond an intuitive or verbal level requires the use of some mathematics. None of the math is more advanced than trigonometry or advanced algebra, but if you don’t use math regularly, it’s quite easy to forget what you learned during your education. In fact, depending on your age and education, you may not have encountered some of these topics at all.
It is well beyond the scope of this book to be a math textbook, but this section touches some of topics that most need explanation for amateurs. For introductory-level tutorials and explanations of advanced topics, a list of on-line, no-cost tutorials is presented in the sidebar, “Online Math Resources”. You can browse these tutorials whenever you need them in support of the information in this reference text.
Working With Decibels
The decibel (dB) is a way of expressing a ratio logarithmically, meaning as a power of some base number, such as 10 or the base for natural logarithms, the number $e \approx 2.71828$. A decibel, using the metric prefix “deci” (d) for one-tenth, is one-tenth of a Bel (B), a unit used in acoustics representing a ratio of 10, and named for the telephone’s inventor, Alexander Graham Bell. As it turns out, the Bel was too large a ratio for common use and the deci-Bel, or decibel, became the standard unit.
In radio, the logarithmic ratio is used, but it compares signal strengths — power, voltage, or current. The decibel is more useful than a linear ratio because it can represent a wider scale of ratios. The numeric values encountered in radio span a very wide range and so the dB is more suited to discuss large ratios. For example, a typical receiver encounters signals that have powers differing by a factor of $100,000,000,000,000$ ($10^{14}$ or 100 trillion!). Expressed in dB, that range is 140, which is a lot easier to work with than the preceding number, even in scientific notation!
The formula for computing the decibel equivalent of a power ratio is
$$\text{dB} = 10 \log (\text{power ratio}) = 10 \log \left( \frac{P_1}{P_2} \right)$$
or if voltage is used
$$\text{dB} = 20 \log (\text{voltage ratio}) = 20 \log \left( \frac{V_1}{V_2} \right)$$
For equations 1 and 2 to produce equivalent results, both of the voltages must be measured across equivalent impedances. Otherwise, impedance must be accounted for according to $P = V^2 / Z$.
Positive values of dB mean the ratio is greater than 1 and negative values of dB indicate a ratio of less than 1. For example, if an amplifier turns a 5 W signal into a 25 W signal, that’s a gain of $10 \log \left( \frac{25}{5} \right) = 10 \log (5) = 7$ dB. On the other hand, if by adjusting a receiver’s volume control the audio output signal voltage is reduced from 2 V to 0.1 V, that’s a loss: $20 \log \left( \frac{0.1}{2} \right) = 20 \log (0.05)$ $= -26$ dB.
If you are comparing a measured power or voltage ($P_M$ or $V_M$) to some reference power ($P_{REF}$ or $V_{REF}$) the formulas are:
$$\text{dB} = 10 \log \left( \frac{P_M}{P_{REF}} \right)$$
dB = 20 log (V_M / V_REF)
There are several commonly-used reference powers and voltages, such as 1 V or 1 mW. When a dB value uses one of them as the references, dB is followed with a letter. Here are the most common:
- dBV means dB with respect to 1 V (V_REF = 1 V)
- dBµV means dB with respect to 1 µV (V_REF = 1 µV)
- dBm means dB with respect to 1 mW (P_REF = 1 mW)
If you are given a ratio in dB and asked to calculate the power or voltage ratio, use the following formulas:
Power ratio = antilog (dB / 10) \hspace{1cm} (3)
Voltage ratio = antilog (dB / 20) \hspace{1cm} (4)
Example: A power ratio of $-9$ dB = antilog $(-9 / 10)$ = antilog $(-0.9) = \frac{1}{5} = 0.125$
Example: A voltage ratio of 32 dB = antilog $(32 / 20)$ = antilog $(1.6) = 40$
Antilog is also written as $\log^{-1}$ and may be labeled that way on calculators.
**CONVERTING BETWEEN DB AND PERCENTAGE**
You may also have to convert back and forth between decibels and percentages. Here are the required formulas:
dB = 10 log (percentage power / 100%) \hspace{1cm} (5)
dB = 20 log (percentage voltage / 100%) \hspace{1cm} (6)
Percentage power =
$100\% \times \text{antilog (dB / 10)}$ \hspace{1cm} (7)
Percentage voltage =
$100\% \times \text{antilog (dB / 20)}$ \hspace{1cm} (8)
Example: A power ratio of 20% = 10 log $(20\% / 100\%) = 10 \log (0.2) = -7$ dB
Example: A voltage ratio of 150% = 20 log $(150\% / 100\%) = 20 \log (1.5) = 3.52$ dB
Example: $-1$ dB represents a percentage power = $100\% \times \text{antilog } (-1 / 10) = 79\%$
Example: 4 dB represents a percentage voltage = $100\% \times \text{antilog } (4 / 20) = 158\%$
**Rectangular and Polar Coordinates**
Graphs are drawings of what equations describe with symbols — they’re both saying the same thing. Graphs are used to present a visual representation of what an equation expresses. The way in which mathematical quantities are positioned on the graph is called the *coordinate system*. *Coordinate* is another name for the numeric scales that divide the graph into regular units. The location of every point on the graph is described by a pair of *coordinates*.
The two most common coordinate systems used in radio are the *rectangular-coordinate* system shown in **Figure 1** (sometimes called *Cartesian coordinates*) and the *polar-coordinate* system shown in **Figure 2**.
The line that runs horizontally through the
---
**Computer Software and Calculators**
Every version of the *Windows* operating system comes with a calculator program located in the Accessories program group and a number of free calculators are available on-line. Enter “online” and “calculator” into the search window of an Internet search engine for more. If you can enter your calculation as a mathematical expression, such as $\sin(45)$ or $10\log(17.5)$, it can be entered directly into the search window at [www.google.com](http://www.google.com) and the Google calculator will attempt to solve for the answer.
Microsoft Excel (and similar spreadsheet programs) also make excellent calculators. If you are unfamiliar with the use of spreadsheets, here are some online tutorials and help programs:
- [homepage.cs.uri.edu/tutorials/csc101/pc/excel97/excel.html](http://homepage.cs.uri.edu/tutorials/csc101/pc/excel97/excel.html)
- [www.baycongroup.com/elf0.htm](http://www.baycongroup.com/elf0.htm)
- [www.bcsschools.net/staff/ExcelHelp.htm](http://www.bcsschools.net/staff/ExcelHelp.htm)
For assistance in converting units of measurement, the Web site [www.onlineconversion.com](http://www.onlineconversion.com) is very useful. The Google online unit converter can also be used by entering the required conversion, such as “12 gauss in tesla”, into the Google search window.
---
**Decibels In Your Head**
Every time you increase the power by a factor of 2 times, you have a 3-dB increase of power. Every 4 times increase of power is a 6-dB increase of power. When you increase the power by 10 times, you have a power increase of 10 dB. You can also use these power values as a power loss: Cut the power in half for a 3-dB loss of power. Reduce the power to $\frac{1}{4}$ of the original value for a 6-dB loss in power. If you reduce the power to $\frac{1}{10}$ of the original value you will have a 10-dB loss. The power-loss values are often written as negative values: $-3$, $-6$ or $-10$ dB. The following tables show these common decibel values and ratios.
| Common dB Values and Power Ratios | Common dB Values and Voltage Ratios |
|-----------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| $P_2/P_1$ dB | $V_2/V_1$ dB |
| 0.1 | 0.1 |
| 0.25 | 0.25 |
| 0.5 | 0.5 |
| 1 | 1.0 |
| 2 | 1.414 |
| 4 | 2 |
| 10 | 4 |
| | 10 |
You can also derive all the dB equivalents of integer ratios by adding or subtracting dB values. For example, to calculate the dB for a power ratio of 10/4 (2.5), subtract the dB equivalents for 10 and 4: $10 - 6 = 4$ dB. Similarly for a ratio of 10/2 (5), $10 - 3 = 7$ dB. The ratio of 5/4 (1.25) is $7 - 6 = 1$ dB and so forth. The same trick can be used with the voltage ratios.
---
**Figure 1** — Rectangular-coordinate graphs use a pair of axes at right angles to each other; each calibrate in numeric units. Any point on the resulting grid can be expressed in terms of its horizontal ($X$) and vertical ($Y$) values, called coordinates.
center of a rectangular coordinate graph is called the *X axis*. The line that runs vertically through the center of the graph is normally called the *Y axis*. Every point on a rectangular coordinate graph has two coordinates that identify its location, X and Y, also written as (X,Y). Every different pair of coordinate values describes a different point on the graph. The point at which the two axes cross — and where the numeric values on both axes are zero — is called the *origin*, written as (0,0).
In Figure 1, the point with coordinates (3,5) is located 3 units from the origin along the X axis and 5 units from the origin along the Y axis. Another point at (−2,−4) is found 2 units to the left of the origin along the X axis and 4 units below the origin along the Y axis. Do not confuse the X coordinate with the X representing reactance! Reactance is usually plotted on the Y-axis, creating occasional confusion.
In the polar-coordinate system, points on the graph are described by a pair of numeric values called *polar coordinates*. In this case, a length, or *radius*, is measured from the origin, and an *angle* is measured counterclockwise from the 0° line as shown in Figure 2. The symbol *r* is used for the radius and θ for the angle. A number in polar coordinates is written *r*∠θ. So the two points described in the last paragraph could also be written as (5.83, ∠59.0°) and (4.5, ∠243.4°). Unlike geographic maps, 0° is always to the right along the X-axis and 90° at the top along the Y-axis!
Angles are specified counterclockwise from the 0° axis. A negative value in front of an angle specifies an angle measured clockwise from the 0° axis. (Angles can also be given with reference to some arbitrary line, as well.) For example, −270° is equivalent to 90°, −90° is equivalent to 270°, 0° and −360° are equivalent, and +180° and −180° are equivalent. With an angle measured clockwise from the 0° axis, the polar coordinates of the second point in Figure 2 would be (4.5, ∠−116.6°).
In some calculations the angle will be specified in *radians* (1 radian = 360 / 2π degrees = 57.3°), but you may assume that all angles are in degrees in this book. Radians are used when *angular frequency* (ω) is used instead of frequency (f). Angular frequency is measured in units of 2π radians/sec and so ω = 2πf.
In electronics, it’s common to use both the rectangular and polar-coordinate systems when dealing with impedance problems. The examples in the next few sections of this book should help you become familiar with these coordinate systems and the techniques for changing between them.
**Complex Numbers**
Mathematical equations that describe phases and angles of electrical quantities use the symbol *j* to represent the square root of minus one (√−1). (Mathematicians use *i* for the same purpose, but *i* is used to represent current in electronics.) The number *j* and any real number multiplied by *j* are called *imaginary numbers* because no real number is the square root of minus one. For example, 2*j*, 0.1*j*, 7*j*/4, and −457.6*j* are all imaginary numbers. Imaginary numbers are used in electronics to represent reactance, such as j15 Ω of inductive reactance or −j25 Ω of capacitive reactance.
Real and imaginary numbers can be combined by using addition or subtraction. Adding a real number to an imaginary number creates a hybrid called a *complex number*, such as 1 + j or 6 − 7*j*. These numbers come in very handy in radio, describing impedances, relationships between voltage and current, and many other phenomena.
If the complex number is broken up into its real and imaginary parts, those two numbers can also be used as coordinates on a graph using *complex coordinates*. This is a special type of rectangular-coordinate graph that is also referred to as the *complex plane*. By convention, the X axis coordinates represent the real number portion of the complex number and Y axis coordinates the imaginary portion. For example, the complex number 6 − 7*j* would have the same location as the point (6,−7) on a rectangular-coordinate graph. Figure 3 shows the same points as Figure 1.
The number *j* has a number of interesting properties:
\[
\frac{1}{j} = -j \\
j^2 = -1 \\
j^3 = -j \\
j^4 = 1
\]
Multiplication by *j* can also represent a phase shift or rotation of +90°. In polar coordinates \(j = 1 \angle 90^\circ\).
**WORKING WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS**
Complex numbers representing electrical quantities can be expressed in either rectangular form (a + jb) or polar form (r,∠θ) as described above. Adding complex numbers is easiest in rectangular form:
\[
(a + jb) + (c + jd) = (a+c) + j(b+d)
\]
(9)
Multiplying and dividing complex numbers is easiest in polar form:
\[
a \angle \theta_1 \times b \angle \theta_2 = (a \times b) \angle (\theta_1 + \theta_2)
\]
(10)
and
\[
\frac{a \angle \theta_1}{b \angle \theta_2} = \left(\frac{a}{b}\right) \angle (\theta_1 - \theta_2)
\]
(11)
Converting from one form to another is useful in some kinds of calculations. For example, to calculate the value of two complex impedances in parallel you use the formula
\[
Z = \frac{Z_1 Z_2}{Z_1 + Z_2}
\]
To calculate the numerator \((Z_1 Z_2)\) you would write the impedances in polar form. To calculate the numerator \((Z_1 + Z_2)\) you would write the impedances in rectangular...
form. So you need to be able to convert back and forth from one form to the other. Here is the procedure:
To convert from rectangular \((a + jb)\) to polar form \((r \angle \theta)\):
\[
r = \sqrt{a^2 + b^2} \quad \text{and} \quad \theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{b}{a}\right)
\]
(12)
To convert from polar to rectangular form:
\[
a = r \cos \theta \quad \text{and} \quad b = r \sin \theta
\]
(13)
Many calculators have polar-rectangular conversion functions built-in and they are worth learning how to use. Be sure that your calculator is set to the correct units for angles, radians or degrees.
Example: Convert \(3 \angle 60^\circ\) to rectangular form:
\[
a = 3 \cos 60^\circ = 3 (0.5) = 1.5
\]
\[
b = 3 \sin 60^\circ = 3 (0.866) = 2.6
\]
\[
3 \angle 60^\circ = 1.5 + j2.6
\]
Example: Convert \(0.8 + j0.6\) to polar form:
\[
r = \sqrt{0.8^2 + 0.6^2} = 1
\]
\[
\theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{0.6}{0.8}\right) = 36.8^\circ
\]
\[
0.8 + j0.6 = 1 \angle 36.8^\circ
\]
**Accuracy and Significant Figures**
The calculations you have encountered in this chapter and will find throughout this handbook follow the rules for accuracy of calculations. Accuracy is represented by the number of *significant digits* in a number. That is, the number of digits that carry numeric value information beyond order of magnitude. For example, the numbers 0.123, 1.23, 12.3, 123, and 1230 all have three significant digits.
The result of a calculation can only be as accurate as its *least* accurate measurement or known value. This is important because it is rare for measurements to be more accurate than a few percent. This limits the number of useful significant digits to two or three. Here’s another example; what is the current through a 12-\(\Omega\) resistor if 4.6 V is applied? Ohm’s Law says 1 in amperes = \(4.6 / 12 = 0.3833333…\) but because our most accurate numeric information only has two significant digits (12 and 4.6), strictly applying the significant digits calculation rule limits our answer to 0.38. One extra digit is often included, 0.383 in this case, to act as a guide in rounding off the answer.
Quite often a calculator is used, and the result of a calculation fills the numeric window. Just because the calculator shows 9 digits after the decimal point, this does not mean that is a more correct or even useful answer. | 072ee171-ad15-4d69-a29a-f345588c3e5a | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.arrl.org/files/file/Antenna%20Book%20Supplemental%20Files/24th%20Edition/Radio%20Mathematics.pdf | 2024-05-18T04:13:22+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971057260.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20240518023912-20240518053912-00577.warc.gz | 602,574,830 | 4,368 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.990545 | eng_Latn | 0.992048 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
3068,
8982,
14324,
16679
] | [
2.984375
] | 3 | 2 |
Our urban forest comprises all trees, shrubs, and other vegetation within the City of Vancouver. Along with the Columbia River, trees are one of Vancouver’s most prominent natural features. Vancouver’s trees are not merely beautiful; the urban forest is critical to the healthful functioning of the city and greatly improves the quality of life for all residents. Use this guide to learn about some of the many trees that add to the charm of central Vancouver.
1: Silver Birch - N.E. corner of Idaho & 13th intersection
Native to Eurasia, this specimen of the ‘Laciniata’ variety displays deeply incised leaves and weeping branches. Many non-native birches in the area have been impacted by bronze birch borer insects but some varieties native to the continent like the ‘Dura Heat’ and ‘Heritage’ river birches have shown the best resistance.
2: Mixed Species - W. perimeter of M.L. King Elementary
Lining Boise St. are various oaks, maples, and Kentucky coffeetrees planted in 2004 and 2009 by King students. As they mature, these large-form shade trees will cool the street, slow traffic, and remove air pollutants.
3: Variegated Box Elder - 1110 Ogden Av., front yard
This unusual variety offers delightful pink and white new growth in spring and handsome green and beige foliage in summer. Box elders are known to self-seed easily and should be planted away from natural areas.
4: London Planetrees & Douglas-Fir - Idaho Ct. median
Planetrees are hybrids between two sycamore species discovered in London in 1645. They are commonly planted for their tolerance to heat, drought, and soil compaction. Behind the two planetrees is a Douglas-fir, an easily-recognizable Pacific Northwest tree which provides many crucial benefits to humans and wildlife.
5: Turkish Hazel - 5111 Idaho, front yard
The largest species of the hazels, these trees’ shade and fibrous roots make them a great choice along streets. These specimens were installed at the recent annual Friends of Trees neighborhood planting event.
6: Honeylocust - 4505 E. 15th, front yard W. of driveway
Native to the Midwest, these are among the last trees to leaf out in spring. This mature individual exemplifies its rounded shape and speckled shade. Seedless and thornless varieties are commonly available to plant.
7: Port-Orford-Cedar - 4005 E. 15th, front yard E. of house
This species native to southwest Oregon and northwest California displays a slender, dense, and glaucous, or blue-green, canopy that distinguishes it from other native cedars. Indigenous peoples used the branches as brooms and timber to construct sweat lodges, stools, and headrests. Due to disease and logging, this tree is severely threatened in its native range.
8: Northern Catalpa - 3708 E. 14th, front yard
Giant heart-shaped leaves, white, fragrant, and showy flowers, and a twisting trunk and branches make this a strong, unique, and popular tree. Native to small pockets in the Midwest, it is now planted across the country.
9: Norway Spruce - 3506 E. McLoughlin, side yard along 14th
Actually native to Eurasia, this tree has naturalized itself in North America, meaning it can reproduce on its own by seed. Fast growth and tolerance of soil variations make it a popular tree for windbreaks and elegant landscape accents. The dense branching pattern provides important winter shelter to wildlife.
10: Scarlet Oak - 3403 E. McLoughlin, front yard
Enormous oaks line McLoughlin throughout the neighborhood, dating back to the World War II years when a permanent 500-unit subdivision called Harney Hill was constructed to house workers, extending from present-day Grand Boulevard to approximately Idaho Street.
11: Pin Oak - 3011 E. McLoughlin, front yard
Pin oaks, scarlet oaks, and northern red oaks belong to the same family native to eastern North America. One of the faster-growing oaks, the single straight trunk and dense horizontal branching make this species stand out.
12: Coast Redwood - 1310 Harney Heights Ln., S.E. of driveway
This tree is a keystone species in its native ecosystem along the northern California and southern Oregon coast, where it thrives in year-round moist conditions to reach heights of over 300 feet. It represents the largest and one of the longest-lived trees in the world.
13: Tuliptree - 3506 E. 11th, front yard
Another formidable continentally native tree, this species is among the largest of the deciduous hardwoods. The name comes from its large yellow-orange flowers appearing in late spring, attracting many pollinators.
14: Noble Fir - s.w. corner of E. 11th & 13th intersection
This species is the largest true fir in North America. Tall and narrow, its glaucous foliage and upright-growing cones make this unique among other native conifers.
15: Mixed Species - St. Helens Park
While the park dates to 1960 when the St. Helens Terrace subdivision replaced Vancouver Housing Authority lands east of Harney Hill, its oldest trees weren’t planted until the early 1970s. In 2008 volunteers from the NAACP planted nearly 40 additional trees. Neighbors today continue a long tradition of stewarding the park.
For additional resources on trees, please contact:
Urban Forestry
360-487-8308 | email@example.com
www.cityofvancouver.us/urbanforestry | 21eba464-e161-4f29-a06d-96d43564f8ea | CC-MAIN-2024-51 | https://www.cityofvancouver.us/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/harney_heights_tree_tour_map.pdf | 2024-12-02T13:15:26+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066127559.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20241202125001-20241202155001-00867.warc.gz | 651,129,039 | 1,184 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.991653 | eng_Latn | 0.992698 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2711,
5265
] | [
3.125
] | 1 | 0 |
CrossFit Kids as a Physical-Education Curriculum: A Pedagogical Perspective
Phil Eich makes a case against traditional physical education, in which sports form the foundation but provide little motivation toward lifelong fitness.
By Phil Eich
May 2013
All great teachers want to improve the lives of the students entrusted to their care—the ultimate goal being that the lessons learned during the academic day will carry over into their lives outside school. Teachers want to improve and preserve the physical, emotional and academic wellness of their students.
As educators searching for the best methods and practices, we need to begin with an educational philosophy. Within the field of physical education, I believe there are two basic pedagogical models: traditional and literal.
**The Traditional Model**
The traditional model uses sports and games as a pedagogical foundation. Physical education in this model begins with an activity created outside the body (sports and games) in an effort to improve something inside the body (physical skills and fitness). Typically, the curriculum of the traditional model uses sports and games as units, with students learning various rules, strategies and techniques specific to each sport or game throughout their education. The theory behind this model is that exposure to and a basic proficiency in these activities will improve physical well-being and create a desire in children to participate in various health-improving activities outside the classroom and into adulthood.
**The Literal Model**
Literally, “physical education” means the teaching and learning of the use and care of the body, and so the literal model builds on one of the body’s most basic functions: movement. Traditionally, movements taught within the physical-education class are sport specific (swinging a bat, throwing a ball, shooting a basket). The literal model, however, uses the most basic movements of the body because they have the most direct and broad application to all life’s experiences. Foundational movements of the body—such as squatting, pushing and pulling—are found both in athletic environments as well as within the physical requirements of everyday life. In the literal model, the priority given to the foundational movements of the body will increase proprioception (the internal awareness of movement) and kinesthetic awareness (the external awareness of the body in time and space) as well as work capacity. Developing physical competency in these basic movements translates into increased fitness, improved physical abilities and injury prevention.
**A Foundational Comparison of the Traditional and Literal Models**
**The Traditional Model is Extrinsic**
Sports and games are an extrinsic construct imposed upon the human body. Rules, sport-specific skills and movement limitations are created outside the body and interact to create physical constraints that the body is forced to operate under in order to fulfill the criteria or achieve the goals of a specific sport.
While sports and games certainly are necessary, fun and beneficial, within the context of physical education, the traditional model’s foundational use of sports and games is inherently deficient because it attempts to use as a primary method of instruction these limited, extrinsic constructs. The infinite expressions of movement that the human body is capable of producing are not given opportunities for articulation because sports, by definition, carry with them physical limitations. For example, part of what makes baseball baseball is that one person throws a ball, one person swings a bat, a couple of people run, one person makes a catch. Swing, run, throw, catch.
Sports carry with them inherent physical limitations. Although many sport-specific skills have some transfer to life or general athletic movement, the use of sports as a primary mode of physical education creates a danger of overspecializing, which can limit physical development.
*Functional movements provide an alternative to the sport-specific physical skills most children learn in school.*
Teaching kids functional movement will be more conducive to long-term health than teaching them how to score a game of bowling.
For example, the exact skill of shooting a free throw is only found in basketball, but being able to throw a ball to a target some distance away certainly has athletic benefits. The danger to overall development is in specializing only in shooting a free throw or in failing to see that throwing various objects with accuracy will make one more suited to many sports and even some aspects of life. A common question in the classroom (usually to the dismay of teachers) is, “When we will use this in life?” If an educator honestly asks this question of sports and games as they are presented in the traditional model, the limited “outside the classroom” benefits of teaching children how to wave a ribbon stick or shake a parachute are immediately seen.
The limited “outside the classroom” benefits of teaching children how to wave a ribbon stick or shake a parachute are immediately seen.
Traditional P.E. is often only fun for kids who are good at specific sports. CrossFit Kids makes functional movement fun and prepares children for a lifetime of fitness.
Some will argue that learning sport-specific skills will make better baseball and basketball players, which will encourage children to participate in sports and therefore improve their physical lives—but remember, the goal is to promote a lifelong love and pursuit of physical health for every child, and it would be short-sighted to think that “being good at sports” is the only way to produce a value of physical health into adulthood. In fact, the most common forms of physical activity performed by adults are not sports but rather walking, gardening and yard work, and other forms of exercise (7).
**Sports and Games Cannot Be Differentiated According to Interest and Ability**
Before gym class has even started, the teacher using a sport as the primary vehicle of physical learning has created an interest/ability discrepancy: the kids who are able can and will; the kids who are unable can’t and won’t. Without a differentiation of instruction, there is no way to bridge the gap.
Sports and games cannot be differentiated to each individual child’s abilities in the class context. Here is a hoop, there is the ball; the ball needs to make it through the hoop. The children who play on the after-school basketball team or the “big kids” love basketball days in gym class—they know they will be successful because they practice often or are physically mature enough to succeed relative to others in their age group (i.e., the big kids always win). Children who haven’t yet developed the physical strength to even get the ball to the net have a bad day in gym class because they cannot be successful in the way that basketball primarily defines success—making baskets.
How does a teacher help the low-achieving child in this situation? There is no way to scale this sport to ability level—one is not able to lower the basket, slow the game down or give extra opportunities for practice. So, unable to differentiate instruction, the well-meaning teacher often offers support to the despondent child in the form of platitudes such as, “Just have fun,” not recognizing the triumph of human nature necessary to take enjoyment in doing something embarrassing (something adults have an even harder time with). This is especially true during years of childhood where these sports and games often serve primarily as a social activity.
**The Traditional Model Contributes to the Detrimental Effects of Early Sports Specialization**
In America, there are currently 30 million children participating in youth sports. In children 14 and younger, 3.5 million of those suffer a sports-related injury (14).
Why is this happening? It is currently the societal thinking that specializing a child in a sport at a young age will yield improved athletic results at a later age (4). Looking at the science of sports performance, this is simply not the case.
Typically, when children specialize in a sport, three things can happen. First, they improve at the sport faster than peers who are not specialized. This is to be expected as
practice makes perfect. However, as children grow older, their rate of improvement decreases and their proficiency begins to balance out with their peers because they lack a comprehensive movement “vocabulary” that can be applied to more advanced movement or used to improve current movement patterns. This idea of acquiring and expanding a physical vocabulary is similar to the necessity of vocabulary expansion in verbal communication. The fourth-grader who talks more than his or her classmates will often be better at communicating. But if that fourth-grader specializes in the vocabulary he or she possesses while ceasing to learn new words, new combinations of words and phrases, or different verbal structures, eventually the rest of the class will catch up and surpass the child in the ability to communicate.
The second possible outcome of early specialization is overuse injury (1,3,11,12). The combination of developing bones, muscles and joints; still-developing technique; and a rigorous, repetitive and sometimes year-long practice and competition schedule subjects the young athlete to an environment that whittles away physical health. Not only does this place the child at an unethical increased risk of injury, but also when injuries do occur, future athletic potential is limited as the athlete mentally and physically tries to cope with chronic injuries instead of improvement within a sport.
Third, athletes can psychologically burn out (4,15). Their chosen sport ceases to be enjoyable and they quit; here, athletic potential is not hindered by a physical injury but rather a mental one that could ultimately curtail all physical activity.
Subjecting the body to chronic overuse of some movements (and therefore overuse of specific muscles and joints) and chronic underuse of other movements disturbs the natural balance of the body. If all the major movements of the body are not performed and improved at an approximately equal rate, the body progresses out of
*Functional movements mimic patterns seen in daily life, and a good coach can easily scale these movements to the level of each participant in a group.*
balance with a limited physical vocabulary, increasing the risk of injury and limiting physical potential.
All this leads to a question: if traditional sports and games can’t be a successful pedagogical foundation, what can be?
The Literal Model Is Intrinsic
The literal model is intrinsic (inside the body) because it begins with and allows for the many expressions of natural, functional movement and holds that if functional movements are practiced and performed efficiently, increased fitness and physical potential will follow. In the classroom that builds on the literal model, all the body’s foundational movements—pushing, pulling, squatting, lunging, bending—are constantly and consistently performed by every student. These basic movements are not contrived, forcing the body to repeatedly do things it does not naturally do. These movements originate in the natural design of the body and are the most effective and efficient movements the body can produce. Rather than using sports, the educator applying the literal model begins with movements that are intrinsic and naturally occurring, regardless of physical context.
This philosophy of basing pedagogy on natural functioning is similar to the current push for “brain based” learning in other areas of education (2). Understanding how the brain operates allows for an integration of the natural functioning of the brain into an educator’s teaching—increasing learning speed, retention, and ultimately intellectual potential and achievement. The literal model of physical education begins with an understanding of the natural movements of the body, which then can be integrated into teaching—improving fitness, physical ability and athletic potential.
**The Literal Model Is the Natural Expression of Physical Learning**
My godson Michael is learning how to walk.
In the traditional model, his parents would stand him up and let him fall over and over again until he developed the strength to stand on his feet, the ability to balance himself and the coordination to place one foot in front of the other without falling. The thinking here is that in order to learn how to walk, one must practice walking. They would tell him all the rules of the game of walking—what to do and when to do some things and when not to do other things. Stand and fall, stand and fall, the cycle continues without any crawling or rolling or pushing off the floor—he is learning how to walk and so he must walk. After all this, if he does learn to walk, we will hope that his experience was fun enough that he will want to continue to walk for the rest of his life.
In the literal model, Michael teaches himself how to walk by experiencing many different movements in many different situations. He crawls. He pushes himself off the ground. He uses obstacles to pull himself up. He squats to pick something up off the ground. He will bounce up and down, and up and down, and up . . .
And when he is ready, his brain puts all these foundational movements together and says, “Ahh, this is how you do it.” Because Michael has experienced diverse yet basic movements, he now has the strength to stand, the balance to remain standing and the coordination to put one foot in front of the other. He walks.
We do not teach children how to walk; children teach themselves how to walk using movements they have personally experienced, with occasional guidance from people who have already mastered the skill. Here is the concept of physical constructivism. A constructivist standpoint in the classroom accepts that a learner can only create meaning from information through his or her own prior experiences (9). A consistently implemented literal-model curriculum gives children the wide and deep kinesthetic experiences that are the foundation for future motor learning. The child who effectively learned and performed lunging and jumping many times in many different ways will be able to learn sprint mechanics on the track faster than a child who hasn’t. The child who has practiced his or her balance and coordination with overhead squats and handstands will be able to learn change-of-direction drills on the football field faster than a child who hasn’t. These varied kinesthetic experiences that help children create meaning in their learning are simply not available to children experiencing the traditional model of physical education. Instead, the same small number of sport-specific movement patterns are hammered again and again in an effort to increase fitness or athletic ability. However, in this process nothing is being added to their physical vocabulary, and no new experiences are being gained that could inform future learning.
*Kids who have fun in a physical environment will likely be inclined to be active as they grow up.*
Michael used simple, basic movements to build a rich physical experience that allowed him to achieve the complex skill of walking. This use of something basic and known to build up to something complex and unknown is the physical version of Piaget’s scaffolding: the body progressively builds on known skills and abilities to create and learn better, more efficient, and more advanced skills and abilities (8). Introducing sport-specific skills to young children before they are ready is ineffective because it is pedagogically incorrect; it assumes a basic level of physical competency that many children simply don’t have. Using the literal model as a basis for a physical-education curriculum ensures that skills are being taught at a developmentally appropriate time—increasing safety as well as improving potential.
In order for effective, rigorous and long-lasting physical learning to take place, an educational framework based on the physiological functioning and cognitive learning of children is needed.
**GPP as a Framework**
**The Body in Balance**
The goal of the literal model is to improve general physical preparedness (GPP). This is the ability to perform any kind of physical work. In regard to educational practice, GPP is not simply teaching all children to be athletes, but how to use and take care of their bodies in any physical endeavor, athletic or otherwise.
Where a traditional curriculum primarily uses sport- and game-specific skills to elicit physiological change, the GPP curriculum uses the basic, natural movements of the body, often called “functional movements.” Functional movements are multi-joint movements that can be described as containing a universal recruitment motor pattern—in other words, they can be found in any kind of physical environment. As stated earlier, sport-specific movements can have transfer over to other sports or aspects of life, but the specificity of training only to throw a curveball exactly 60 feet 6 inches could be seen as having less transfer than learning how to sprint. Sports can encourage extreme specialization to the detriment of overall development.
By using all of the functional movements of the body, a student is able to improve fitness as well as gain neurological skills—balance, coordination, agility and accuracy—while protecting the body against injury. Because functional movements are produced across multiple joints and require the use of many different muscles of the body simultaneously, they inherently provide protective support while at the same time possess the ability to create greater physiological improvement than smaller, single-joint movements (6). With the GPP
---
*The ability to squat will serve these children well in sport and in life.*
approach to physical education, there are intentionally no movement limitations or specializations, drastically reducing risk of overuse injury, even as children become more physically capable by performing at a relatively high intensity level. Developing muscles and joints are strengthened in balance with one another, allowing the body to learn to protect itself by performing movement in the safest and most efficient way possible (5).
If GPP is effectively used as the foundation for our teaching, the educator has the opportunity to give children something incredibly powerful: the physical ability to do more of whatever they want to do or need to do, regardless of circumstance. Not only will increased GPP contribute to athletic potential and achievement on the court or field, but it will also contribute to children’s ability to play outside with their friends or physically defend themselves or escape a dangerous situation.
However, in order for the GPP framework to create lasting learning, an effective and progressive curriculum is needed.
**Three Basic Qualities of a Physical-Education Curriculum**
A teacher can have the most well-constructed lesson plan with the best information, but if it is not fun, kids won’t participate or be fully engaged.
First, in order to be effective, a physical-education program needs to be fun. The fact that children associate physical movement with fun cannot be overemphasized. A teacher can have the most well-constructed lesson plan with the best information, but if it is not fun, kids won’t participate or be fully engaged. Active engagement is the foundation of physical education, and there is no better way to actively engage kids than to convince them something is fun.
Second, the curriculum needs to be rigorous. It is not enough for a gym class to only be fun; it needs to give students many different skills that improve their lives, for the rest of their lives, while holding them to high standards of performance.
Third, through the engaging quality of fun and the educational benefits of rigor, a curriculum needs to help create a valuation of good health, fitness and physical activity that continues outside the classroom and into the rest of a child’s life.
**CrossFit Kids**
To understand how CrossFit Kids builds on the literal model of physical education, one needs to first look at the definition of CrossFit methodology: constantly varied functional movements executed at high intensity (6).
Constant variation—In order to achieve the high degree of movement proficiency required in CrossFit Kids, the movement requirements of every class period are different. This ensures that all functional movements of the body are...
being expressed in many different contexts and combinations, increasing GPP while helping to prevent the detriments of early specialization. This progressive and intentional diversity of physical movement has been shown to be one of the most effective methods of increasing long-term motor-learning retention (13).
Functional movement—CrossFit uses the most basic movements of the body—squatting, pushing, pulling, etc.—because they provide the most physiological benefits while being inherently safer than other movements (5). Performing a variety of tasks that use many parts of the body in a functional manner will provide more overall fitness than simply performing one arbitrary sport-specific movement 10,000 times to the exclusion of others.
High intensity—Intensity, or hard work, produces results. Greater intensity—whether it is lifting more weight or the same weight faster or simply “doing more of something” within a given period of time—is one of the ultimate goals of CrossFit Kids. The ability to produce more physical effort in a given amount of time is a primary indicator of fitness. Greater intensity, however, is safely and efficiently created when understanding of technique and proper performance of movement mechanics is mastered and repeatable consistently over a long period of time. In CrossFit Kids, until a child is ready, intensity takes a back seat to learning and ingraining good movement. Once a child becomes secure in good technique, the student can start progressing toward greater intensity—leading to a greater increase in fitness.
The eventual progression from mechanics to intensity is an important one. Not only does increased intensity integrate into a child’s natural desire to “go faster” or “throw further”—and therefore provide a context for motivation and continued success—but as educators, we also want to teach with the idea that our efforts will produce learning. One of the primary ways learning occurs is through progressive challenge.
At the beginning of CrossFit Kids, physical capacity is developed through the cognitive and psychomotor challenge of learning how to move in new and more efficient ways. Once those challenges are met, physical education continues by learning how to use efficient movement to move faster, execute more repetitions or perform under a heavier load. Going into the gym and “doing some push-ups” without quantitative or qualitative progress is not an education; it’s an activity. Working
Fun is already integrated into CrossFit Kids because it makes fitness a game. It creates a fun learning experience by using big, new, constantly varied movements over the entire duration of the class period—all within a success-driven and positively competitive environment. The foundational movements performed are often unfamiliar (even if they are natural and functional), and so the opportunity to do new things is immediately intriguing.
There is no “standing around and waiting for a turn” in CrossFit Kids. Every child is active all the time. For the physically proficient children, this is fun—they can do as much as they want as often as they want. For the less proficient children, this is fun because the pressure is off—the class isn’t staring and evaluating their performance. Kids are also met with challenges at their level and so experience the thrill of success every day. It has been this author’s experience that kids are likely to cheer a student’s first push-up as much as they root for another child to break the classroom push-up record because they realize, regardless of current level, success is fun for everyone.
With *CrossFit Kids*, children discover there’s a whole world of physical accomplishment outside traditional sports.
Moving in Functional Ways Is Fun
After my godson discovered he could move, he moved. Everywhere. He was constantly moving everywhere and in every way, laughing and smiling the entire time. He wasn’t moving because this was a game to be played or a sport to be won, but simply because the act of moving was fun. If he wasn’t sleeping, he was moving simply because movement in all its infinite variations gave him happiness. This ability of movement to bring happiness is sometimes referred to as “muscle joy” (16). In the world of children it is called “playing”; in the world of adults it usually (and unfortunately) goes by “relieving stress.” Opponents of the GPP approach to physical education will argue that kids won’t have fun “working out,” and personally, I agree—if the “working out” going on within a class lacks meaning or is not enjoyable.
Moving in Functional Ways Is Rigorous
Not only is this kind of “working out” fun for kids, but it also consistently prepares them to meet the physical reality of daily life—infinite combinations and variations of different physical movements.
In CrossFit, there is a never-ending supply of new skills to be learned or old skills to be practiced. For example, a child can move from “roll-up” push-ups to full push-ups to wall-assisted handstand push-ups to freestanding handstand push-ups. Once the squat is mastered, one can develop the ability to do more squats in shorter amounts of time. This combination of learning increasingly more complex movements and the necessity of practicing already-learned skills ensures a rigorous and progressive education.
The sport-based unit structure of the traditional model does not advance in this way—activities are generally not progressive, just different.
**Moving in Functional Ways Has Lifelong Applications**
The common element that students share is that, for the rest of their lives, they will have a body. CrossFit educates the students on how to use that body while improving the body’s ability to perform, regardless of environment or circumstance. The sport- and game-based curriculum teaches skills and hopes there is a carryover to the rest of a child’s life; CrossFit teaches skills and knows there is a carryover.
**The CrossFit Kids Curriculum**
The typical CrossFit Kids class is divided up into four periods—warm-up, skill, Workout of the Day (WOD), and game.
Whatever activity is used for the warm-up, it is fun and energetic, with every child being physically engaged. This “attention-getter” part of the lesson establishes excitement and momentum for the rest of the class period.
The skill portion of the class is where children learn a new movement or review, refine and practice movements already learned. This portion of the class contains the most direct instruction, but kids remain active and involved, performing the skill as the teacher observes and coaches the mechanics of each child.
In the WOD, children put their movement learning and fitness to the test. A workout might look something like this:
As many rounds as possible in 5 minutes of: 10 air squats, 5 push-ups, 3 broad jumps right into sprinting the length of the gym and back
Notice that the workout is short, creating the opportunity for high-intensity effort that produces results, as well as helping to maintain the attention and participation of the class. In the eyes of the child, this is just long enough to “stay fun,” is competitive enough to produce intensity, and contains enough elements to not be boring while remaining easy to understand. In eyes of the teacher, all children are learning to perform necessary physical skills while giving 5 minutes of their very best effort, all while having fun.
*In a CrossFit Kids class, skills are taught while the entire group is engaged. This is followed by a relatively short and very fun workout that tests what they have learned.*
One of the most beneficial attributes of a workout like this is that it automatically scales relative to each child’s ability level while still remaining challenging. The child with a high level of fitness and the child with a low level of fitness will both be working hard relative to ability but will simply end up with different scores at the end. The workout is also time for a teacher to assess movement mastery—if a child is unable to maintain technique at a high intensity, more work needs to be done during the skill period. If a child is able to maintain technique at high intensity, the teacher can begin to focus the student on technique refinement and advancing fitness.
Although the children have been playing in various ways up to this point, the final period is the first that is specifically referred to as a “game.” This is a CrossFit Kids game or a traditional game with a CrossFit twist. For example, in dodgeball, once a player is out, he or she typically stays out until the next game. In CrossFit Kids dodgeball, the player who is “out” can get back into the game by performing some kind of physical task—10 air squats, 10 push-ups, etc. This further emphasizes the fact that physical activity and hard work are important, not winning or “getting out.”
**CrossFit Kids Is Effective**
The CrossFit Kids curriculum is effective because it creates a physical learning environment that builds on the idea that all children have differing abilities and need to be challenged at their individual point of development in order for effective learning to take place. This differentiated instruction allows a child to continually and efficiently progress, minimizing the risk of frustration or stagnation. Every skill, every movement, every workout and every game can be scaled to a child’s ability (made easier or harder) so he or she is challenged by something difficult but not discouraged by something impossible. This not only allows for efficient and effective teaching and learning but also increases students’ desire to participate and challenge themselves.
CrossFit Kids uses the natural process of motor development to increase learning effectiveness and efficiency. Instead of confining a child’s development with rules and movement limitations of sports while running the risk of contributing to the detrimental effects of overspecialization, CrossFit Kids uses a child’s natural propensity for constantly varied movement by using constantly varied movement.
This curriculum provides the direct teaching and assessment of necessary physical skills and is able to monitor progress by providing quantifiable data: movement improves, workout times decrease, number of reps increase, new movements are able to be performed. Where improvement in the traditional physical education classroom is largely subjective, CrossFit lays the groundwork for success, achieves success and is able to prove success is happening. Children are able to perform more advanced movements more times and faster.
To a child, these successes are more than just a good grade, a pat on the back or a participation trophy; they are tangible evidence of accomplishment. The child who is unable to do a full push-up performs one full rep for the first time: success. The child who has done 10 full push-ups does 11: success. Finishing a hard workout: success. Children cheering on the final classmate to finish: success. This feeling of success while working hard and learning something of value is incredibly motivating to a child, and it is perhaps the best educational tool that CrossFit Kids offers.
Kids, like adults, want to do things well. CrossFit Kids gives children the best chance to be able to do things well because it equips them with foundational physical tools that can be applied to any future physical endeavor. It provides a pedagogically sound and effective physical education curriculum that is fun and rigorous and provides lifelong benefits to children.
**Improving Lives**
As teachers, we have an incredible privilege and responsibility to give the best of what we know to our students. CrossFit Kids provides teachers with the concepts and the curriculum necessary to improve the physical well-being of people from childhood through adulthood in meaningful, life-affirming ways. Where there is always a need for sports and games, using CrossFit to fulfill the literal model of physical education allows the teacher to contribute to the empowerment of every single student’s self-determination. Children can begin to live physical lives of choice unconstrained by the restrictions of poor health, unnecessary injury or lack of physical skill.
---
**References**
1. Brooks T. Injury rates in early sport specialization athletes. International Youth Conditioning Association. Sept. 1, 2011. Available at [http://iyca.org/injury-rates-in-early-sport-specialization-athletes/](http://iyca.org/injury-rates-in-early-sport-specialization-athletes/). Accessed March 6, 2013.
2. Caine G. Brain/mind principles of natural learning. Feb. 13, 2013. Available at http://www.cainelearning.com/RESEARCHFOUNDATIONS/Principles-Expanded.html. Accessed March 6, 2013.
3. Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness. Intensive training and sports specialization in young athletes. *Pediatrics* 106(1): 154-157, July 2000. Available at http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/106/1/154.full. Accessed March 6, 2013.
4. Farrey T. *Game On: How the Pressure to Win at All Costs Endangers Youth Sports and What Parents Can Do About It*. N.Y.: ESPN Books, 2008. p. 93.
5. Glassman G. Foundations. *CrossFit Journal*. April 2002. Available at http://library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/Foundations.pdf. Accessed March 6, 2013.
6. Glassman G. What Is Fitness? *CrossFit Journal*. Oct. 1, 2002. Available at http://library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/CFJ_WITrial_Feb2012.pdf. Accessed March 6, 2013.
7. Ham S, Kruger J, and Tudor-Locke C. Participation by U.S. adults in sports, exercise, and recreational physical activities. *Journal of Physical Activity and Health*, 6(1): 6-14, January 2009.
8. Hartman DH. Instructional scaffolding: A teaching strategy. November 2002. Available at http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~group4/Cano/Cano%20Paper.doc. Accessed March 6, 2013.
9. Hein G. Constructivist learning theory. 1996. Available at http://www.exploratorium.edu/if/resources/constructivistlearning.html. Accessed March 6, 2013.
10. John D and Tsatsouline P. *Easy Strength: How to Get a Lot Stronger than Your Competition—and Dominate in Your Sport*. N.Y.: Dragon Door Publications, 2011.
11. Medical News Today. Early sports specialization not a good idea, experts say. Nov. 6, 2006. Available at http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/55925.php. Accessed March 6, 2013.
12. PE4Life. Shocking statistics of the decline in kids’ health and activity! Oct. 27, 2009. Available at http://pe4lifeblog.blogspot.com/2009/10/kids-health-facts.html. Accessed March 6, 2013.
13. Schmidt RA and Wrisberg CA. *Motor Learning and Performance*. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2000. Pp. 257-263.
14. STOP. Sports Injuries. Available at http://www.stopsportsinjuries.org/. Accessed March 6, 2013.
15. Woods RB. A closer look at some trends in youth sports participation. Excerpt from *Social Issues in Sport* (2nd ed.). Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 2011. Available at http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/a-closer-look-at-some-trends-in-youth-sport-participation. Accessed March 6, 2013.
**Further Reading**
1. American College of Sports Medicine. Current comment from the American College of Sports Medicine: The prevention of sport injuries of children and adolescents. *Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise* 25(8 suppl): 1-7, 1993.
2. Chomitz VR, Slining MM, McGowan RT, Mitchel, SE, Dawson GF, and Hacker KA. Is there a relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement? Positive results from public school children in Northeastern United States. *Journal of School Health* 79(1): 30-37, 2009.
3. Coe DP, Pivarnik JM, Womack CJ, Reeves MJ, and Malina RM. Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. *Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise* 38: 1515-1519, 2006.
4. Faigenbaum AD, Kraemer WJ, Blinkie CJR, Cameron JR, Jeffreys I, Micheli LJ, Nitka M, and Rowland TW. Youth resistance training: Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. *Strength and Conditioning Journal* 23(Supplement 5): S60-S79, 2009.
5. Johnson SB and Jones VC. Adolescent development and risk of injury: Using developmental science to improve interventions. *Injury Prevention* 17: 50-54, 2011.
6. Valovich McLeod TC, Decoster LC, Loud, KJ, Micheli LJ, Parker, JT, Sandrey MA, and White C. The National Athletic Trainers’ Association position statement: Prevention of pediatric overuse injuries. *Journal of Athletic Training* 46(2): 206-220, 2011.
**About the Author**
Phil Eich is a fifth- and sixth-grade teacher in Bay City, Mich., and holds multiple CrossFit certificates. He is a member of the CrossFit Kids Educator Committee. | <urn:uuid:7e684ea4-5e46-4b9c-a383-8d1f941aeadc> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://library.crossfit.com/free/pdf/04_2013_Pedagogical_Eich_FINAL6.pdf | 2018-12-19T09:40:20Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376831933.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20181219090209-20181219112209-00176.warc.gz | 157,863,179 | 7,428 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.98755 | eng_Latn | 0.997715 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
565,
4105,
5296,
8321,
10464,
11601,
15255,
18009,
20720,
23197,
26071,
28347,
33344,
37493
] | [
3.703125,
3.265625
] | 2 | 0 |
The train station is rarely quiet and peaceful. But when 12-year-old Ranjan wakes at dawn, the rush-hour hasn’t yet begun.
05.30 Toothbrush sticks
The children at the station brush their teeth with sticks from the neem tree. Ranjan and his friends buy sticks for about one cent at the station.
06.00 Morning rush hour
The station starts to fill up with people on their way to work. Raja, 8, is ready to start begging from the passengers.
“I wear my dirtiest, most torn clothes. That way I earn more. In one day I can make about $0.60. I give the money to my mum. Foreigners give the most, but I try to beg from everyone. Some shout at me and say bad words. Then I walk away. There are lots of children begging and sometimes we fight. But we always become friends again.”
Raja is not the only one starting work in the morning rush hour. Suresh, 11, shines the shoes of an early-bird policeman.
07.00 Sibling love
Lots of children come to the station from the slums next to the railway line. Many bring their younger brothers and sisters. They can’t stay at home when their parents are at work, so they go with their big brother or sister to work or school.
Mahmina, 12, fixes her little sister’s hair on the platform.
08.00 The platform school begins.
The crowds of people at the station thin out – most people have arrived at work now. So the working children can also take a break and go to the first lesson of the day at the platform school.
Shayama dances with a friend at the platform school. “I’ve learned to dance by watching films!”
09.30 Tiger fight
The children have made funny and scary masks from papier maché. Here, a tiger is fighting a powerful God. The other children cheer them on.
Hiding behind the masks are Kanha and Jagan, both 8.
10.00 Puppet show
The teachers at the platform school often use puppet shows to make the lessons more fun. Ranjan and a classmate hold up a piece of cloth to create the stage.
11.15 Time for food
If the children don’t get to eat they have no energy for learning. That’s why the teachers give them chhathua, a dish made from flattened rice, peanuts, sugar and milk powder that’s a bit like rice pudding. For some of the children, that’s the only food they eat all day.
Of course, everyone washes up their own plate at the sink in the station.
11.45 Saturday bath
Every Saturday it’s time for the weekly bath. The teachers help to scrub, rinse and dry the children.
The school medicine box has everything from painkillers to bandages and de-worming tablets. If a child gets injured or is seriously ill, the teachers call the Ruchika doctors.
12.05 Games time
After school, lots of children have to run home and help their mothers make lunch. Others are able to stay at the station and play, as long as no big passenger trains come. Ranjan says he has over 300 friends at the station.
“My best friend is called Parama. We play together and help each other. Once I had an upset stomach and he took me to hospital. When he broke his leg I took him to the doctor and paid the medical bill with the last of my money.”
Ranjan and Rama climb trees.
12.00 Thanks, that’s it for the day!
When the lesson is over, the whole school gets packed up. Everybody helps to carry the school sign and all the materials to a small shed next to the train tracks.
16.00 Rush hour again
In the afternoon, people start to make their way home from work. The trains fill up with people and the children start work again. A crowded train has come into the station. Mithun prepares to jump on board with his broom.
17.30 Bottle jackpot
Mithun and his friends have run through the carriages and found empty bottles that they can sell. The temperature outside is over 40 degrees celcius and it’s hot and sticky in the carriages. A lot of passengers bring water to drink.
19.30 Finally quiet
The last packed train has left the station. The platforms are quiet and empty for once. Most of the children have run off home to eat dinner with their families. Ranjan, Rama and Bijay have earned enough today to be able to buy their favourite dish at one of the station’s food stands: chicken and rice.
21.00 Good night
The children who sleep at or near the station almost always sleep together. It feels safer that way. When it’s dark, both boys and girls run the risk of being beaten and raped, by both older children and adults. Ruchika staff walk around the stations in the evening to help children who are on their own get home to their families or to the children’s home. | 9a36ea2e-f85e-4add-9e09-d68b834d64d9 | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://worldschildrensprize.org/downloads/stories/adayintherailwaystation.pdf | 2021-10-26T20:48:05+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323587926.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20211026200738-20211026230738-00098.warc.gz | 764,018,847 | 1,043 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999267 | eng_Latn | 0.999309 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1547,
2605,
4517
] | [
2.890625
] | 1 | 0 |
Exploring the Strengths and Challenges of Co-creation of Impact Assessments/ Analysis In Rural Communities: Focus: Hotel con Corazón in Granada, Nicaragua
Johanna Q. Ulseth
SIT Graduate Institute
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones
Part of the Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Commons, Latin American Studies Commons, and the Organization Development Commons
Recommended Citation
Ulseth, Johanna Q., "Exploring the Strengths and Challenges of Co-creation of Impact Assessments/ Analysis In Rural Communities: Focus: Hotel con Corazón in Granada, Nicaragua" (2017). Capstone Collection. 3016.
https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/capstones/3016
This Thesis (Open Access) is brought to you for free and open access by the SIT Graduate Institute at SIT Digital Collections. It has been accepted for inclusion in Capstone Collection by an authorized administrator of SIT Digital Collections. For more information, please contact email@example.com.
Exploring the Strengths and Challenges of Co-creation of Impact Assessments/ Analysis
In Rural Communities:
Focus: Hotel con Corazón in Granada, Nicaragua
Johanna Ulseth
PIM 75
A Capstone Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Intercultural Service, Leadership and Management at SIT Graduate Institute in Brattleboro, Vermont, USA.
August 9, 2017
Advisor: Karen Blanchard
Consent to Use of Capstone
I hereby grant permission for World Learning to publish my Capstone on its websites and in any of its digital/electronic collections, and to reproduce and transmit my CAPSTONE ELECTRONICALLY. I understand that World Learning’s websites and digital collections are publicly available via the Internet. I agree that World Learning is NOT responsible for any unauthorized use of my capstone by any third party who might access it one the Internet or otherwise.
Author’s Signature: Johanna Ulseth Date: August 7, 2017
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to express my gratitude to the members of Hotel con Corazón and the community of Las Lagunas, for accepting me into their community, making me feel at home, sharing their stories and lives with me, and teaching me so much. I am extremely fortunate to have had such an amazing experience in such a beautiful country surrounded by wonderful people.
I would also like to acknowledge all of the people that participated in this research, taking the time to meet with me, answer my questions, and share all of their insight and experiences with me. The work that they do is inspiring.
I would also like to thank my advisor and professor of Intercultural Service, Leadership and Management at SIT Graduate Institute, Karen Blanchard. Karen’s support, advice, expertise and friendship helped me immensely throughout my time at SIT, during my work abroad, and my research process.
Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, sisters, and friends. I am forever grateful to them for their love, support and patience!
ABSTRACT
Hotel con Corazón, a boutique hotel and social enterprise located in Granada, Nicaragua, through its Foundation, invests 100 percent of its profits in local education programs to empower students, their families and the community to build brighter futures. The Foundation works within a rural locality 20 minutes outside of the city, where the majority of the 3,900 inhabitants live in moderate to severe economic poverty. Completing its eighth year of working in the Las Lagunas community, the Foundation was motivated to carry out an impact assessment in order to learn more about the experiences of the different groups of stakeholders involved and improve the programs.
From October 2016 to April 2017, I worked with the program staff at Hotel con Corazón to design and implement an impact assessment, a study that investigates changes brought about by an intervention (a program, project, activity, etc.) seeking to understand both the positive and negative effects. We intended to use an innovative methodology and research tool that was designed in the Netherlands, where I had spent the preceding three months learning about the process. In Nicaragua there are approximately 3,500 NGOs working towards alleviating and ending the social problems that many Nicaraguans face. Many of these NGOs are founded and run by foreigners and use a more top-down approach, instead of a bottom-up framework, utilizing local knowledge and expertise to create more sustainable solutions. Because of this experience, I framed this research paper around the central question: How can co-creation processes in impact assessments serve as a tool for empowerment, capacity building and sustainable solutions in rural communities?
The impact assessment included interviewing 100 stakeholders and also conducting a small focus group involving seven community members. After the evaluation was complete, I reviewed existing literature on the topics of co-creation and participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E), and interviewed several practitioners – both from Nicaragua and from the Netherlands – about their experiences with these methodologies and approaches in conducting collaborative evaluations in the community. Their stories illustrate the benefits and necessity of co-creation in conducting impact assessments in rural communities.
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Consent to use | 2 |
| Acknowledgements | 3 |
| Abstract | 4 |
| List of Abbreviations | 6 |
| INTRODUCTION | 7 |
| LITERATURE REVIEW | 16 |
| What is an impact assessment? | 16 |
| Why are impact assessments important? | 17 |
| Who should participate in impact assessments? | 18 |
| What is co-creation? | 21 |
| What are the critiques of participatory methods? | 22 |
| Rural realities | 24 |
| Gaps in the literature | 25 |
| RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY | 27 |
| Data collection methods | 29 |
| Interview participants | 29 |
| Interviews | 31 |
| Data analysis | 31 |
| Limitations | 32 |
| FINDINGS | 33 |
| Emerging themes | 33 |
| The Importance of Using Strengths-Based Approaches | 33 |
| The Principle of Learning and Growth | 36 |
| The Potential for Capacity Building | 39 |
| Trust: Building Unity in the Community | 41 |
| Local Accompaniment by Leaders | 43 |
| Time and Commitment | 44 |
| The Inclusion of Marginalized Groups | 45 |
| The “Pressure to Prove” | 47 |
| Participative Methodologies and Approaches | 48 |
| Breaking the Cycle of “Asistencialismo” | 49 |
| CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS | 50 |
| BIBLIOGRAPHY | 53 |
| ANNEX | |
| Annex 1: Interview Questions (p. 56) | |
| Annex 2: Impact Study Report (p. 57) | |
List of Abbreviations
IE **Impact Evaluation**: a study that explores the changes brought about by an intervention (a program, project, activity, etc.) and is different than many other types of evaluation because, instead of focusing on the intermediate outcomes of an intervention, impact assessments strive to understand the “positive and negative, intended and unintended, direct and indirect, primary and secondary effects produced by an intervention or program” (Rogers, 2012, p.2).
IA **Impact Assessment**: Impact assessment is another term for impact evaluation.
M&E **Monitoring and Evaluation**: Monitoring is the tracking of project outputs and outcomes as indicators of project effectiveness, or the extent to which the project achieves its stated objectives. (USAID). Evaluation in this context can be defined as the systematic and objective assessment of a planned, on-going or completed project, program or policy, its design, implementation and results. (OECD/DAC Glossary)
NGO **Non Governmental Organization**: A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit, citizen-based group that functions independently of government. NGOs, sometimes called civil societies, are organized on community, national and international levels to serve specific social or political purposes, and are cooperative, rather than commercial, in nature.
PM&E **Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation**: Participatory monitoring & evaluation (PM&E) is a process through which stakeholders at various levels engage in monitoring or evaluating a particular Project, program or policy, share control over the content, the process and the results of the monitoring and evaluation activity and engage in taking or identifying corrective actions. PM&E focuses on the active engagement of primary stakeholders. (Sswm.info)
PAR **Participatory Action Research**: a participatory, democratic process that seeks to bring together action and reflection, theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people in their communities. The characteristics of PAR are people-oriented, community involvement and collaboration, cooperation with each other to conduct the research project in order to find a solution to a problem, and implementation of action steps.
PIA **Participatory Impact Assessment**: The concept of participatory impact assessment (PIA) is a process of evaluation of the impacts of development interventions which is carried out under the full or joint control of local communities in partnership with professional practitioners. In PIA, community representatives participate in the definition of impact indicators, the collection of data, the analysis of data, the communication of assessment findings, and especially, in post-assessment actions designed to improve the impact of the development interventions in the locality.
INTRODUCTION
This research paper examines the importance of carrying out impact assessments as a means to understand change, assess effectiveness and to grow and learn. The research will explore the strengths and challenges of co-creating and conducting impact assessments through the lived experiences of practitioners and professionals who have implemented collaborative evaluations and assessments with rural communities.
From October 2016 to April 2017, I worked with Hotel con Corazón (Hotel with a Heart), a boutique hotel located in Granada, Nicaragua. This hotel also serves as a social enterprise, as “an operator in the social economy whose main objective is to have a social impact (address a social need or work towards social change) rather than make a profit for its owners or shareholders” (Carsou et al, 2016, p.3). Hotel con Corazón invests 100 percent of its profits into local educational programs to empower students, their families and the community to build brighter futures.
I was connected with this opportunity when I met the former managers of Hotel con Corazón while in Oaxaca, Mexico, doing an independent study in 2015. Because of my background in education and Spanish, pursuing my masters’ degrees in Intercultural Service Leadership and Management, interest in developing skills in monitoring and evaluation, and passion for hearing peoples’ stories, they recommended me to work on the design and implementation of an impact assessment in order to gain a better understanding of how the students, parents, tutors and other stakeholders were experiencing the programs and how these efforts may be changing their lives and the community at large.
Before arriving in Nicaragua, I spent three months in the Netherlands with Perspectivity, an organization that specializes in the facilitation of complex group processes and organizational
learning. The objective of my work with Perspectivity was to prepare to conduct the impact assessment in Nicaragua, and learn how to implement an innovative methodology and research tool called “Sprockler,” which uses story-based inquiries in research studies, monitoring & evaluation, and impact assessments. The methodology was designed by two professionals, Lisette Gast and Anne Van Marwijk, who worked for Perspectivity.
To provide a brief organizational background, Hotel con Corazón provides jobs and incentives (health benefits, a salary bonus for educational purposes/tuition) for a staff of 22, which includes receptionists, tour guides, housekeeping, chefs, maintenance, baristas and a manager on the hotel side. For the education programs, there are six tutors, a coordinator and manager. The hotel was founded by two Dutch entrepreneurs and has a board of directors located in the Netherlands, whose main responsibilities include fundraising, marketing, business and education development. The hotel’s educational and social side is called “Foundation Hotel con Corazón.”
For reference:
The tutors work within Las Lagunas, a rural locality 20 minutes outside of the city, where the majority of the 3,900 inhabitants live in moderate to severe economic poverty, existing on less than two dollars a day, with high levels of unemployment and many barriers to gaining access to quality healthcare, education, shelter and transportation (Cordero Jarquín, 2015). Hotel con
Corazón and the community work towards their vision of increasing the quality of life and ultimately breaking the cycle of poverty through a variety of educational strategies:
- Tutoring and extra-curricular activities
- Home visits and parent workshops
- Scholarships for secondary and university students
- Collaboration with other NGOs
The following is a visual representation of how the social enterprise functions:
After completing the eighth year of working in the Las Lagunas community, the board of directors and foundation wanted to take a closer look at whether or not their efforts were making a difference. There are also plans to open two more “Hotel con Corazóns” in the next few years, thus they wanted to demonstrate to future investors the value of the initiative and its programs.
To give a brief description of the framework that was chosen for the impact assessment, Sprockler utilizes storytelling to understand people’s experiences, and because people may interpret different stories in their own way, Sprockler asks the storytellers themselves to give meaning to their stories. It does this through the use of “bipoles” and “tripoles,” which are the special question types that “ask for intuitive and instinctive answers and allow the respondent to give answers in the grey areas between the multiple choice options” (sprockler.com). I was convinced that this was going to be an ideal methodology because this approach empowers the storyteller to have more ownership over his/her story and interpretation.
While in the Netherlands the developers of Sprockler showed me various examples of different Sprockler inquiries and project plans that they had used in other places. I carried out a Sprockler information session for the Hotel con Corazón board members so they could learn about the methodology, provide suggestions, and ideas and hopes for the project. My supervisor and I worked together to come up with what we believed were meaningful questions that would allow us to learn more about the impact of the program, and create a participatory process that would involve all groups of stakeholders: parents, scholarship recipients, primary and secondary students, teachers, tutors, and former participants. We wrote up a detailed plan for how we envisioned the project and different possibilities for who would interview who, where and when we could possibly hold the interview sessions, the questions that we could ask and activities we could use to introduce the project and how to conduct the inquiries. We e-mailed the team in
Granada with the project plan and a list of preparations that would need to be made before I arrived. We did this with the intention of helping and “making things easier on them.” We knew that the tutors, the educational coordinator and director were busy with classes and daily activities, as elections were just around the corner and it hadn’t yet been determined how long schools were going to be closed.
After sending the e-mail, we didn’t hear back from the team for more than a week. I was eager for a response, but assumed that they had a lot of things going on. When I finally received a reply from the education manager, she explained that the team was concerned and frustrated with the plan. They felt that the plan was not appropriate or relevant for the context, that the questions were not going to be understood by the participants, and it would be time consuming for the tutors to be involved as they have their regular responsibilities to attend to. We arranged a Skype session to discuss these concerns and how we could adapt the plan to the setting, and even though we were thousands of miles apart in distance, I could sense the tension and irritation from the group.
I realized that this was one of the biggest planning missteps that could have been avoided had we used better communication and taken the time to discuss our objectives for the project. If we had collaborated with the team and asked questions from the beginning, we could’ve worked together to discuss and decide on which methodology would be most suitable for the culture and location, designing a logistic plan that was actually feasible, and demonstrating that we really cared about their perspective and participation. This idea is also strongly emphasized in the article *New Trends in Development Education*, where Balikirev (et al., 2006) explains that:
Evaluators must understand the implications of their actions and be sensitive to the concerns of the project director, staff and other stakeholders. This understanding is achieved in an ongoing, two-way dialogue with the involvement of all the group members. While an evaluation should be rigorous in design, data collection and analysis,
the evaluator must remain open-minded and ready to welcome and adopt the flexibility required by stakeholders.
Upon reflection, I realized how important it is to first build relationships and trust, to collaborate and learn about the culture and context in order to have an effective and worthwhile impact assessment. In retrospect, I would have come to Nicaragua first to learn about and understand the reality and focus on building relationships. I would have asked questions about what type of methodology the team thought would help us achieve project objectives, as well as take into consideration the culture and comfort level of participants, what skills and abilities that the local team already has and wants to improve upon.
The dynamics of privilege and power was another aspect of this project that really stood out to me throughout this experience. Although the approach and project plan was designed with the best intentions, I believe that one of the frustrations that the team felt was a result of feeling that our ideas and methodologies were being imposed on them and that “we know better.” When I say “we,” I mean many of the Westerners who are involved in development work here. Nicaragua is the most impoverished country in Central America as a result of colonization, exploitation and corruption. There are now approximately 3,500 NGOS that exist in the country to work towards alleviating and ending the social problems that many Nicaraguans face. Many of these NGOS are founded and run by foreigners and use a more top-down approach, instead of a bottom-up framework, utilizing local knowledge and expertise to create more sustainable solutions. As I mentioned before, this was supposed to be a very participatory project, with all groups involved in the inquiry process. I didn’t think about whether or not people would feel comfortable or not carrying out the interviews because of the cultural and social environment.
When I arrived in Granada, they explained that they actually did not want to conduct any inquiries and felt that it would be better if I did them instead. Even though I knew that I would
most likely receive different answers had I been a member of the community, and that most of the interviewees would tell me what they thought I wanted to hear, I didn’t want to pressure the team to do anything that they didn’t want to do.
After doing more research on cultural characteristics, specifically reading Geert Hofstede’s studies on different cultural dimensions, I realized that Nicaraguans have a higher level on the Power Distance Index, between 85-95, meaning that they accept that people accept and feel comfortable with hierarchy and unequal distributions of power (geert-hofstede.com). Both the Netherlands and the U.S. have lower power distance and value equality and believe in the importance of discussion and sharing in the decision-making process. Becoming aware of this (after the fact) made it easier to understand why most of the individuals I worked with felt more comfortable having me in charge and not wanting to express their doubts, concerns or different ideas (especially if they are accustomed to always having a foreign supervisor make the decisions and lead). Had we co-created and collaborated on the project plan, perhaps the Hotel con Corazón education team would have taken more ownership and we would have been able to more effectively engage the community in all steps of the process.
Sprockler is a methodology and tool for adaptive learning that can and has been used in many different places around the world with people from many different backgrounds, age groups, culture and level of education. Although the project faced challenges in Granada, overall a lot of learning took place. The final impact report (see annex) includes some of the stories that were shared, illustrates the themes that emerged, and hopes and goals for the future. The full online interactive report can be explored at: http://sprockler.com/reports/hotelconcorazon/index-en-adults.php.
The initial interview process with stakeholders lasted a month as there were also difficulties in finding the time and space to carry out the interviews. We interviewed 55 students in primary school, 15 secondary students, 10 scholarship recipients, 3 ex-participants, 10 mothers, and 7 tutors. The majority of the interviews took place at the schools as transportation to houses would be time-consuming and challenging as they all lived very far. We noticed that many of the children and parents did indeed, have difficulties answering the questions. The scholarship recipients, all whom have a higher level of education, were able to answer the questions with more ease and demonstrated higher critical-thinking abilities. It seemed that many people felt pressure to “say the right thing” and only share positive stories. As expected, everyone shared encouraging stories about their experiences, with no suggestions for changes or improvement. At first this frustrated me, because I thought to myself, “Well, how are we going to improve if no one will admit what we are lacking or doing wrong?” My supervisor during my time in the Netherlands made a great point that we can focus on our strengths and what the program is doing well and build on that. We have to trust and respect the stories and information that people want to share, believe in their capabilities and not always feel the need to fix or change things. We must remember that everything can be seen as a learning experience and that people are doing the best that they can with what they have and know!
The tutors realized that many of the questions that we implemented required a certain level of critical thinking and reflection, which are skills that the majority of the students have not developed. This opened their eyes to the need for more activities to practice these skills and the importance of reflection for growth, learning and transformation, and that it is something that needs to be practiced – in class and with each other.
The other interviewers and I discussed this afterwards and realized that many people may have felt as if they were being evaluated or judged, that perhaps they didn’t feel comfortable sharing their stories with someone they had just met, or because of power dynamics.
Reflecting on the process I started to think about what could have been done differently to improve the process. Although it was participatory to a certain extent, it still felt like a “top-down” approach, rather than working with the groups of stakeholders to determine what we all wanted to learn from this project and engage everyone in all stages of the process. This experience motivated me to learn more about different approaches and frameworks for M&E in the international development field, methodologies that are based on collaboration and mutual learning.
Part of this unease about the consultative participation also stemmed from my own experience. Before attending SIT, I worked for seven years as an ESL instructor for children and adults in Mexico, Guatemala, Minnesota and South Korea. I learned through my time as an instructor that students were much more engaged, interested, motivated and successful when we “co-created” classes: deciding on topics that were of interest and what students needed and wanted to learn, creating and conducting self, group and teacher assessments and evaluations of our progress, and carrying out projects that involved everyone. And I, as the teacher, felt that this process benefited me just as much!
I knew that the results of the Las Lagunas impact assessment were going to be shared primarily with potential investors of two new Hotel con Corazóns, but I felt uncomfortable with the fact that this wasn’t a collaborative effort within the community. Although participants were able to share their stories and express their opinions about the project, their involvement still seemed passive and consultative, instead of being an engaging and transformative one. Because
of this experience, I became interested in learning more about effective and collaborative impact assessments.
**This is what led me to my research question:**
What are the strengths and challenges of co-creating impact assessments in rural communities, and furthermore, how can these co-creative processes serve as a tool for empowerment, capacity building and sustainable solutions?
**LITERATURE REVIEW**
This literature review seeks to provide definitions of the different concepts and to provide an overview of the current literature on this topic. I explored the M&E (Monitoring and Evaluation) concepts of impact assessments and co-creation, the characteristics of rural communities, and how Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) can be used as a means to empower and build capacity in these communities. I also briefly describe gaps in the literature.
**What is an impact assessment?**
It is important to note that there are different names for impact assessments, such as impact evaluations, impact analysis, and impact studies, but they all have overlapping definitions. Therefore, for the purpose of this research, I will use the term “impact assessment.”
In the guidebook, “Introduction to Impact Evaluation” by Interaction, a global development agency, it is defined as a study that explores the changes brought about by an intervention (a program, project, activity, etc.) and is different than many other types of evaluation because, instead of focusing on the intermediate outcomes of an intervention, impact assessments strive to understand the “positive and negative, intended and unintended, direct and indirect, primary and secondary effects produced by an intervention or program” (Rogers, 2012, p.2). In the article,
“Who Counts Reality: Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: A Literature Review,” Gaventa and Estrella, two researchers who specialize in community power studies describe the function of impact assessments as “…evaluating the impact of a given programme and the changes that have occurred as a result of program initiatives. Assessing project impacts can help distinguish whether or not (a) project interventions are in fact achieving their identified objectives, whether or not (b) program objectives remain relevant over time (c) the best action strategies have been pursued” (1998, p.7).
**Why are impact assessments important?**
Impact assessments are important for many different reasons. In general, these reasons can be put into two different categories: accountability and lesson-learning. According to the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), “…a properly designed impact evaluation can answer the question of why and how a program is working or not, assist in decisions about innovations and scaling up” (2013, p.1). Interaction, a global development agency, provides further justification for why impact assessments are necessary: “…to decide whether or not to continue or expand an intervention, to learn how to successfully adapt a successful intervention to suit another context, to reassure funders, including donors and taxpayers (upward accountability) that money is being wisely invested. And lastly, “…to inform intended beneficiaries and communities (downward accountability) about whether or not, and in what ways, a program is benefitting the community” (Rugers, 2012, p.3).
While reading many of the definitions and reasons for conducting impact assessments, the focus was principally “top-down,” with the emphasis being placed on the agency, the interventions and external donors, instead of on the most important factor of these evaluations – the people for whom they are supposed to serve. Some of the approaches demonstrate the use of
conventional impact assessment tools and techniques, including the hiring of an external evaluator or professionals to conduct an assessment to ensure objectivity and impartiality. Other perceived advantages of utilizing external consultants or evaluation teams include credibility for people outside the program or project (funding partners, stakeholders, etc.) and expertise; that an “external evaluator or team may possess certain evaluation research skills and knowledge that an internal evaluator may not (evaluationtoolkit.org). While using an external evaluator may be advantageous in some cases, literature shows that many organizations are now moving towards using a more internally-led, community-based, participatory methodology to carry out such assessments.
**Who should participate in impact assessments?**
As noted previously, Gaventa and Estrella describe a much more inclusive approach to impact assessment called PIA: Participatory Impact Assessment, wherein community members are involved in every step of the evaluation process.
“The concept of participatory impact assessment (PIA) is a process of evaluation of the impacts of development interventions which is carried out under the full or joint control of local communities in partnership with professional practitioners…. In PIA, community representatives participate in the definition of impact indicators, the collection of data, the analysis of data, the communication of assessment findings, and especially, in post-assessment actions designed to improve the impact of the development interventions in the locality” (2010, p. 6).
Estrella and Gaventa summarize the approach by outlining a selection of PIA tools and techniques. They explain that these strategies should:
- Complement the approach and philosophy of the organization.
- Be perceived by community participants as a way to help them address their questions and problems, not simply as information about them gathered by or for outsiders.
- Involve end-users in both data gathering and in analyzing data.
- Match the skills and aptitudes of participants.
- Adapt to fit people’s day-to-day activities and normal responsibilities.
- Provide timely information needed for decision-making.
• Produce results which are reliable and, even if not quantitative, credible enough to convince others.
• Be consistent in complexity and cost to match the level of evaluation called for.
• Reinforce community solidarity, cooperation and involvement.
• Be gender-sensitive.
• Only obtain information that is needed.
The case studies that Gaventa and Estrella share in their literature review demonstrate that when efforts are made by and with the community, there are many benefits. The concept of empowerment is a critical part of PM&E: “Empowerment is defined in terms of the degree to which ‘full participative’ involvement in every aspect of design, implementation, interpretation and resulting action is achieved” (Estrella, Gaventa, 1998, p.25). They emphasize the use of participatory evaluation methodologies as “transformative” as it can “empower people through an educational, learning process by which various social groups produce knowledge about their reality, clarify, and articulate their norms and values and reach consensus about further action (‘conscientisation’). (Ibid) Furthermore, literature explains that an evaluation process can be used to dismantle power structures and inequalities through motivating social change and action.
It was validating to come across the article, “Impact Evaluation Matters: Enhanced Learning Through Involving Stakeholders in Oxfam’s Impact Studies,” as the authors’ justification for impact assessments is based on the idea of empowerment. They explain that through impact assessments, and listening to the experiences and reflections of participants, everyone can critically review their work and the impact that was achieved together (Huisman, et al., 2016, p.2). In “Learning from Practice, Changing Lives,” ActionAid India also identifies impact assessments as a necessary element to strengthen organizations and projects and to foster a shared learning practice. However, these impact assessments must be “genuinely participatory: inclusive, empowering and oriented to the future” (p.3, 2012). ActionAid India, with its emphasis on a rights-based approach, believes that it is not negotiable to exclude
stakeholders/community members from the evaluation process as it holds the possibility of marginalized people’s empowerment through critical consciousness, organization building, capacity building and advocacy.
Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodology also has congruent underpinnings and has been largely used in rural communities to achieve the goal of sustainable development. PAR, defined by Peter Reason and Hilary Bradbury, is “a participatory, democratic process that seeks to bring together action and reflection, theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people in their communities” (Cruz, 2013). The characteristics of PAR are people-oriented, community involvement and collaboration, cooperation with each other to conduct the research project in order to find a solution to a problem, and implementation of action steps. Researcher Xunaxi Cruz highlights the idea that when the communities participating are involved in the process and in defining what they want to achieve, they will be more motivated and empowered to use their abilities to generate self sufficiency (2013).
Impact assessments and their different methodologies have evolved and grown to include a wider range of approaches in the past 30 years. From focusing mainly on quantifiable data, there is now much more of an emphasis placed on participation and humanistic approaches that not only rely on numbers in an attempt to understand the impact of a program, but now aim to involve the participation of the stakeholders in all steps of the process. PAR methods have become popular within the M&E world as well as conducting impact assessments. These methods strive to design and carry out research *with* the individuals whose “life world and meaningful actions are under study” (Bergold, J., Thomas, S., 2012). A survey of existing
literature demonstrates that there are many more powerful and important justifications to use participatory approaches to impact assessments and M&E:
- The recognition and a stronger placed value on local or community knowledge, wisdom and expertise
- Sustainability
- Accountability
- Capacity building
- Strengthening organizations and building unity
- Improved communication
- Representation of different stakeholders
**What is co-creation?**
Similar to the ideas of participation in M&E and impact assessments, the concept of “co-creation” – another term in the field of “co-processes,” which also includes co-design, co-production, co-construction (depending on what field is being discussed) – has become increasingly popular and relevant. Businesses, schools, NGOs, and corporations have recognized that the world is becoming increasingly connected and increasingly complex, and that in order to find solutions to world issues, it is important that people with different perspectives, backgrounds, experiences and knowledge come together to discuss, listen, collaborate and engage in order to promote meaningful change within communities and the larger world.
Some of the co-creation definitions that the literature includes are:
In the business realm, co-creation is seen as the interactions between customers/clients and providers. It is applicable to work within social enterprises or NGOs. “Co-creation is involving your customers or end-users in one or more stages of the innovation process. After all, a profound insight in the needs of your customers and users is crucial to successful products and services that create added value” (Sunldee, 2010).
“An approach to the design of products, processes, programs and business models that create sustainable improvements for people living in poverty at the base of the economic pyramid” (MIT Practical Alliance, 2016, p. 1).
“A co-process for the public good ‘deeply involving stakeholders in identifying all dimensions of the problem and designing and implementing solutions’ (Pfitzer, Bocksette and Stamp 2013) and “utilized particularly in the whole effort to improve outcomes for groups of individuals or communities, from start to finish” (Ghate, 2016).
In describing what co-creation processes entails, Ghate explains that the activities involved include “exchanging narratives, active and empathic listening, collaborative analysis and synthesis, and joint engagement in a range of participatory undertakings including the generation of new data” (2016). When reading the definitions given for participatory impact assessments, it is clear that the co-creative processes coincide, as they emphasize collaboration and partnerships throughout the entire evaluation process, as explained in “Learning from Practice, Changing Lives”: “…stakeholders, poor and marginalized members of the community in particular need to be involved in monitoring, reviewing, and evaluating what progress has been made within programs. They should decide on when and how to monitor, evaluate, analyze and communicate findings. By following this principle, impact assessments can be used as an empowerment program and management tool” (Action Aid India, 2000, p.4).
What are the critiques of participatory methods?
One of the main critiques of some participatory methodologies is that they are disguised as participatory, when in actuality their methods are used to persuade, inform, or manipulate beneficiaries or stakeholders who are seen to have less power - a more top down approach. Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation (1969) illustrates the eight different levels of engagement and type of participation. To demonstrate a few, there is manipulation on one end of the spectrum (where participants may have to automatically approve already made decisions) to the mid-range consultation (where participants may be asked to share their opinions but will not have much of a say in any decision-making) to partnership (where participants and staff work together to create outcomes) to citizen control (where participants are in charge of initiating and assuming full responsibility for change).
Another main theme I found while surveying the literature is the idea that the process of an impact assessment conducted by external evaluators is seen as more “extractive” than additive. That is to say, stakeholders or participants are used just as “consultants,” to share their lived experiences, but are not involved in analyzing the information and data collected, and once the study is finished, the community is rarely involved in making meaning of the findings and how to move forward with the next steps. Roche, author of “Impact Assessment for Development Agencies: Learning to Value Change,” indicates the need for full participation, as the “extended participation approach begins with the belief that poverty is primarily caused by injustice and inequality and that overcoming poverty is impossible without people’s full participation. This paradigm demands that outsiders relinquish control and act as catalysts for locally owned processes of empowerment and development (Roche, 1999, p.19).
Although participatory methods are now praised and recognized for their strengths and benefits, Robyn Eversole, in her article “Remaking Participation: Challenges for Community Development Practice,” provides an alternate, critical view of participation, and the need for development organizations to reframe and relearn how they view themselves. Much of the participatory methods and practices are still structured and owned by those who provide them, as compared with spaces that people create for themselves (2010, 36). Eversole asserts that “participatory development initiatives typically seat people’s participation firmly within ‘projects’ and ‘programs’ managed and funded by professionals in organizations. Whether these are projects to empower ‘disadvantaged communities’ narrowly, or ‘citizens’ broadly, experts and their institutions are still cast as the initiators, the developers, the agents of change” (2010, p.30).
If communities are actually able to empower themselves and transform to self-sustaining communities, then the idea of participation needs to be seen as multi-directional and practitioners need to see themselves as participants in the process as well. Eversole’s critique coincides with the principles of co-creative processes: that development organizations need to understand the importance of local communities “situated knowledge” as these communities are able to understand their reality, context and situation in a way that an outside “expert” cannot. Members of the community will be able to recognize what will or won’t work and what is best for them.
Gaventa supports this idea when he explains in his literature review that “The majority of development on PM&E surveyed describes participatory approaches within a project-related context, reflecting externally led approaches” (1998, p. 14). The authors note that few examples describe community approaches to M&E, especially those which address continuous monitoring of the wider natural environment and tracking of local changes.
**Rural realities**
Statistics show that 70 percent of people in rural areas live in extreme economic poverty. In many developing countries, such as Bangladesh, and some countries in sub-Saharan Africa, that number increases to 90 percent (Khan, 2001). People living in rural poverty face myriad challenges from meeting their basic needs to accessing resources and opportunities for personal and professional development, health care, education, water, shelter, communication and transportation.
In Majid Rahnema’s article, “Poverty,” he explains that the relatively new global construct of poverty is meant to perpetuate power dynamics and dependence, and the “new fetish of a healthy global economy destined to save all the world’s poor, not only helped the
pauperizing economic and political systems to reinforce and legitimize their positions, but also let their victims to perceive their own situations in the same terms” (Rahnema, p.163).
He described dependency as “the poor are assumed to be ‘underdeveloped and-momentarily at least-deprived of their capacity to define their own interests. It is up to those in a superior position of knowledge and power (governements, institutions, professionals, competent authorities) to assist them on their behalf. People’s participation is indeed welcomed whenever that could help the populations concerned to manifest their support for the professionally designed programs” (Rahnema, p. 163).
In Las Lagunas, Nicaragua, similar conditions of world poverty exist. Although rich in culture, community and family, the majority of the community live in very poor conditions with limited access to schools, job opportunities, health care and services. In Las Lagunas, eighty percent of the community has only a fifth grade level of education. Forty percent stay at home or are unemployed, 20 percent are in agriculture, and 10 percent are construction workers. The majority are making less than $2 a day (Cordero Jarquín, 2015). However, it is important to focus on the strengths and resiliency of these communities. I learned through my experience at Las Lagunas and Hotel con Corazón that by only focusing on the needs of the community and the challenges that they face portrays individuals as passive, incapable recipients in need of outside aid or help in order to thrive. Many organizations approach development work focused on needs, which then becomes internalized by community members. Community members need instead to see themselves as collaborators and ‘key actors’ in the program process with their own strengths and abilities to work towards change individually and collectively.
**Gaps in the literature**
The literature that exists on the variety of methodologies is extensive. However, the focus is primarily on the theories and approaches rather than on practice and qualitative information, such as case studies, to demonstrate the impact or effect that using these methodologies has had. As Gaventa and Estrella explain in their literature review on the topic that:
“…greater emphasis appears to be on the documentation of the findings and results of the participatory evaluation, rather than the process of carrying out PM&E (Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation) itself. While the documentation of PM&E processes is rarely highlighted in the literature it seems evident that these processes – in other words, the very nature of how PM&E is actually conducted – very much influences and shapes the outcomes of what is learned and what information is obtained from PM&E practice” (1998, p. 46).
If reflection is believed to be a key aspect of these methodologies and approaches, with community members of the program, results and how to improve, then there needs to be more of an emphasis based on the learnings and reflections in research and literature, in order to strengthen and improve programs, practices and accountability.
We can see from the literature the importance of understanding that no one situation, project or community will be the same; that a project, approach and process needs to be flexible and adapted to the specific situation and group. Therefore, it would be beneficial, if not necessary, to learn from the lived experiences of those people from the community, not only those who are seen as the experts, facilitators and professionals.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
As noted in the introduction, I became interested in understanding more about the strengths and challenges of co-creating impact assessments in rural communities through my work at Hotel con Corazón. After my experience assisting with the participatory impact assessment, I wanted to learn more from people who had an extensive background in the field and would be able to share their insight with me. The Pelican Listserv proved to be a valuable resource for me along the way, while working on the impact assessment, as well as starting on this research journey. Pelican Listserv is a “platform for evidence-based learning and communication for social change, which focuses on one central question: How can we learn more from what we do while at the same time having the biggest possible impact on the social change processes in which we engage?” (https://www.interaction.org/project/monitoring-evaluation/resources). Hearing other practitioners’ questions and experiences was inspiring and opened my eyes to all of the different methodologies, approaches and philosophies that are being used in contexts all over the world.
For this research study, the framework I wanted to pursue was storytelling. I was inspired by the Sprockler methodology because sharing and listening to stories is a way that people make meaning of their experiences. I decided to carry out a qualitative research study to learn more from the lived experiences of professionals in the field. While the existing literature allowed me to understand the different concepts in theory, I wanted to learn more about how they were actually put into practice and what kind of learnings came about as a result of utilizing them. In order to capture more in-depth and detailed narratives and insight from my participants, I decided to utilize a semi-structured interview method. This method uses open-ended questions
to allow conversations to develop and allow knowledge to emerge that may not have been thought of in advance (Hesse-Biber, Leavy, 2011).
The literature review process also allowed me to prioritize my topics and structure my interview questionnaire. The research is exploratory and descriptive as it uses the stories and examples of practitioners to highlight the strengths and challenges of co-creative impact assessments in rural communities.
At the time of starting the research process, I had only met a few people with experience in program evaluation in rural communities so was unsure of how I could connect with people to interview. While perusing the SIT capstone collection, I came across a paper that had been written 12 years ago by a graduate student who had worked at a Nicaraguan hotel as well. I thought it would be interesting and worthwhile to learn about her experience living in Granada. It turned out that she had remained in Granada and has been very involved in the community – and married a Nicaraguan man. Connecting with her proved to be extremely beneficial. She became a strong source of support, inspiration and insight, as well as helping to direct me to people who work in community development in rural communities. I originally intended to carry out four or five in-depth interviews, but during my beginning interviews, participants suggested that I speak to other practitioners in the field who would have valuable information to share. In research, this process is known as “snowball sampling” where initial subjects in the study refer other possible participants who have relevant information and experience regarding the research topic (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Through this process, I identified eight people to interview.
My research sample was one of convenience, as I spoke with people who were available, willing to participate in the research and whose general characteristics fit my study’s general objective – people who had experience working in rural communities using co-creative,
participatory approaches to conduct (impact) assessments (Hesse-Biber, Leavy, 2011, p. 55).
Before starting the process, I sent introduction letters to all of the potential participants informing them of my research topic and interest in interviewing them.
**Data collection**
Participants were informed of the purpose of my research, as well as the potential risks that could come from participating. Although I didn’t consider the topic to be a sensitive one, there were a few occasions that participants did not want some specific details to be shared about their work with certain projects as they were confidential. These details were excluded from the report/transcriptions. All participants gave permission to use their full names and background information in my final report. The interview questions were sent to participants once they agreed to be interviewed so that they could reflect and think about specific examples that they wanted to share prior to our interview. The definition that we agreed upon of “co-creative impact assessment” for the purpose of these interviews is the following: representative groups of community members should be involved in assessing or examining the changes of a project in every step of the process: creating a plan, data collection, analyzing results and sharing findings.
**Interview participants**
I interviewed eight people who had 10+ years working with rural communities in community development, M&E, and research with NGOs, governmental organizations, international development organizations and civic society organizations. They had a diverse range of experience in different sectors: Health, education, agriculture, sustainable tourism, public administration, systems innovations and conflict transformation. Six of the eight participants were Nicaraguan and two were Dutch. Although a research sample size of eight people could be considered small, I believe that their vast experience and range of knowledge
allowed a more holistic understanding of how co-creative, participatory approaches could be used in a wide variety of projects and fields.
| Name | Nationality | Background | Current Organization/ Position |
|-----------------------------|---------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. Yara Monjarrez | Nicaraguan | Rural Community Development/ Youth Empowerment | Opportunity International |
| 2. Paul Engel | Dutch | Facilitation of multi-stakeholder innovation for development, impact evaluation and endogenous capacity development | Director at European Centre for Development Policy Management |
| 3. Tomás Coulson Herrera | Nicaraguan | Education, Psychology, Rural Community Development | Community Connect, |
| 4. Franklin Hernandez | Nicaraguan | Rural Tourism, Agricultural Engineering | Coordinator of Rural Tourism Programs: UCA Cooperative Union of Agriculture/Farming |
| 5. Dra. Reyna Cordero Jarquín | Nicaraguan | Rural Community Development, Community Health, Medicine and Education | Clínica Apoyo, Chief Doctor |
| 6. María Belen Alvarez Mercado | Nicaraguan | Psychology, Education, Community Psychology and Rural Development | Education Coordinator, Hotel con Corazón |
| 7. Henry Espinoza | Nicaraguan | Community Development Research, M&E, Situation Analysis and diagnostics, Reproductive health | Researcher for Health Systems and Public Administration in Nicaragua |
| 8. Nele Bloomestein | Dutch | Design, Monitoring and Evaluation, Conflict Transformation, Education, Governance, Youth and Gender | Into Outcome Consultancy, Applying outcome measurement approaches for development evaluations |
Interviews
The interviews were conducted March to April 2017. The questionnaire was used in all interviews, but the informal, conversational approach to the interviews allowed participants to delve deeper into certain areas, as well as enable me to ask follow-up questions. They were conducted by me in Spanish, English or both, depending on which language the participant felt most comfortable speaking. In order to fully engage with participants and not rely on note-taking during the interview process, interviews were recorded. Interviews lasted from 45 minutes to 2.5 hours, as some people provided more in-depth information and had more time to meet.
Interviews were carried out wherever participants felt most comfortable and were able to meet in Nicaragua (Hotel con Corazón, offices, a health clinic in a rural community and a coffee shop) and Skype. All participants seemed very enthusiastic about the topic and provided narratives about their past experiences.
Data Analysis
Upon completion of interviews, I transcribed the interviews in order to study the data in further detail, compare, contrast and discover major themes among the responses. The transcription process was very worthwhile as I had to complete eight in-depth interviews in a short amount of time, re-listening and engaging with the stories in a more grounded manner, allowed for a deeper understanding of the data. Although the semi-structured interviews allowed for flexibility and a variety of responses, this made synthesizing the information challenging. I found many similarities and overlapping ideas and concepts throughout the responses. Creating “mind maps” and visual representations of the ideas allowed me to better understand how they were connected as well as organize my findings. I will present my findings using the most
prominent concepts discussed in interviews with experiences or stories from individual cases to illustrate the topic.
**Limitations**
I believe that the most significant limitation of my research is that I focused solely on interviewing professionals and practitioners in the field to learn about their experiences in the co-creative process of impact evaluations. In order to obtain a more holistic view of the research question, it is necessary to hear from people with diverse backgrounds, experiences and insight in order to find a sustainable solution that is designed to bring about the best outcome for everyone. To truly understand the individual and collective benefits of a co-creative process, it would’ve been beneficial to discuss insight and feedback and hear the perspectives from different groups of stakeholders, in particular those who live in the rural communities. Since the majority of the interviewees are Nicaraguan, many of their responses are context-specific, and because of the particular political climate and culture, some approaches and methodologies may not be applicable in other settings. Time constraint was another limitation, as I connected with participants only two weeks before leaving Nicaragua so I wasn’t able to meet with participants more than once and collect follow-up information, which could have clarified questions and doubts regarding certain themes in the interviews.
FINDINGS
Emerging themes
The stories shared by interview participants provide insight into the wide range of co-creative impact assessments, as well as into challenges for the field. In my survey, responses reflect that there exists a “great diversity in concepts, methods, and applications adopted” (Gaventa, 1998, p. 6). As noted previously, the interviewees were drawn from different sectors of the development field including agriculture, government, health, education, social enterprise and integrated community development. All of the themes presented were highlighted by the majority of the respondents, and as such, I will illustrate the underlining concepts through the stories and examples they shared. It’s interesting to note that many of the themes overlap and are interconnected.
The themes are as follows:
- The Importance of Using Strengths-Based Approaches
- The Principle of Learning and Growth
- The Potential for Capacity Building
- Trust: Building Unity in the Community
- Time and Commitment
- The Inclusion of Marginalized Groups
- The “Pressure to Prove”
- Participitive Methodologies and Approaches
- Breaking the Cycle of “Asistencialismo”
The importance of using strengths-based approaches
Yara Monjarrez, community development organizer from Opportunity International, works in six different rural areas of Nicaragua. She explained that she creates partnerships with communities to initiate projects where members of the community are treated as key actors and equal partners in their development plans and progress. As Opportunity International already has a link to communities through their agriculture initiatives (micro-financing loans and training for
yucca farmers), she then partners with communities where they already have a connection to work towards sustainable growth and transformation.
She explained, “We make business plans with the community based on their goals and dreams, then develop a plan TOGETHER based on what they want to achieve. How do we do this? First, with the community leaders and participants, we make a mapa de activos: what abilities, strengths, knowledge, resources and experiences already exist within the community.”
In the group they don’t talk about what the community needs, but rather they change the language to encourage positivity, teamwork, talk about goals and prioritize together. Community members engage in a dialogue about what is the most important to them. This process leads to long-term relationships and ownership of the project by the people involved. In one of her last projects, a community wanted to repair the doors on their school and church. Through this activity, the group came up with different ideas to raise money: organizing a raffle, selling food, collecting money and soliciting people within the community that would be able to do the woodwork, build and fix the doors.
Monjarrez stated that together with the group, “We evaluate the program halfway through to see how much progress is being made, what we could do to strengthen the efforts. The same project planners and community leaders look at their budget, the timeframe, the impact and discuss their progress before moving forward. Although it is important to continue focusing on the strengths, it is also necessary to investigate the weaknesses, possible negative impact and challenges being faced, and then look at how the strengths and resources that already exist can be used to overcome these obstacles.” Through this evaluation process, they counseled and advised themselves, realizing what else needed to be done before continuing on, building on their capacity to self-evaluate, increase community ownership and create an agenda for the next phase.
In this particular project, they realized that they needed the involvement of more community members to ensure the success of the project through fundraising, so decided to have an assembly to inform more people about their hopes to improve the community. Within two weeks, the group had fundraised the required money, organized themselves to divide the workload and by the end of the month, had completed the project. All of the doors were repaired, and they even had money remaining to put towards their next project. It is not surprising that after completing one project and evaluating it, participants are more enthusiastic and willing to work together to collaborate towards their next goal. “We start within the community and see what they can do without external forces in order to complete the project. They realize that they can do 80% of the work without any outside help and that is really uplifting and motivating,” she said. (Y. Monjarrez, personal communication, April 20, 2017).
Monjarrez explained to me that in the beginning of the process, many rural communities still have the attitude that they won’t be able to achieve their goals and objectives without the aid and assistance of outside organizations and help but with the focus on strengths and goals throughout every step of the process, from the initial goal-setting meetings, to the design of the business plan, budget, project implementation, to the monitoring and evaluation, individuals and communities have changed the way they see themselves, how they interact with each other and achieve their individual and collective aspirations.
This strengths-based approach and framework was emphasized by all the practitioners I interviewed. They stressed the importance of believing in the innate capabilities, wisdom, resources and experiences, individual and collective, of the communities. This belief is much more empowering, positive and beneficial than that of the traditional view in development work that looks to help address the problems within a community, focusing on needs and deficiencies,
rather than strengths, which communities begin to internalize and see themselves as people with needs that can only be met by external forces and institutions. According to Willets, et al., “The logical consequence of focusing on assets, capacities, and capabilities is to encourage a proactive role for the citizen, replacing the passive, dependent role of client in the welfare service delivery model of community development practice” (2014, p. 355). Expanding on this idea, implementing this framework can empower and encourage people, organizations and communities to “take personal and social responsibility and respond appropriately to their own health and livelihood needs in their own culture” (Willets, et al., 2014, p. 355).
**The Principle of Learning and Growth**
The principle of learning was another concept that was highlighted throughout my research and interviews. Creating an environment conducive to learning and open communication is a key aspect of the process. **Paul Engel**, rural development specialist, explained that “only those who learn are able to improve their performance and to adapt to changing settings.”
Engel has worked in many countries all over the worlds to improve agriculture initiatives in rural communities. He developed RAAKS: Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems, which is an “action-oriented methodology that helps stakeholders learn together, enhancing communication and information exchange in support of innovation.” RAAKS seeks to give ownership of change processes to local stakeholders, helping them to gain a better understanding of their performance of innovators and includes windows and tools for facilitating change processes.
Engel explained that through the use of a participatory, multi-stakeholder approach to assess the impact of a program is all about allowing people to share their knowledge and together
assessing whether progress is being made or not towards impact indicators. Looking at an impact assessment as a conversation with many people instead of a rigid, quantitative measurement will provide a lot more information and allow for greater learning. “Most of the time the framework and the indicators don’t provide a really good sense of where the change or impact actually is, especially if the people who designed the program aren’t from the community and don’t know what they are doing, which is often the case.” Therefore, by using a co-creative approach that facilitates an environment for people to share insights, to inquire and reflect, and come up with new creative approaches and ideas will come about and then (the community, facilitator, organization) can benefit from what people have learned during the project and apply this to new areas. (Engel, personal Communication, May 16, 2017). Respondents shared that through the experience of participating, sharing, asking questions, hearing different perspectives, reflecting, co-creating project plans and evaluations, learning will take place and this is where meaningful change can come about.
In Gaventa and Estrella’s aforementioned extensive literature review on participatory evaluation, they also explain that it can serve as a process of individual and collective learning, describing it as an educational experience for those various parties involved in a development program. “People become more aware and conscious of their strengths and weaknesses, their wider social realities, and their visions and perspectives of development outcomes. It is the learning process that creates conditions conducive to change and action” (Estrella & Gaventa, 1998, p.22).
Tomás Coulson Herrera, a psychologist and rural community development specialist, provided another thoughtful example of the concept of learning. When working with the organization FODECA, a cooperative for community initiatives, one of the primary projects
being carried out was a youth leadership program in six different rural areas. After a year of existence, the head of the program wanted to carry out an impact assessment. Because this organization was funded by a partner organization in Italy, they were being asked for statistics and more quantitative information. Herrera, however, wanted to try a different approach and knew that the youth would enjoy and benefit from leaving their communities and seeing a new place. He also believed that it would be transformative and beneficial to get the youth out of their comfort zone. With the youth groups, he explained that they were going to carry out activities to share what they had learned, what changes they had experienced since participating in the program, and whether project achievements had been made. Each group of participants went to another town to interview each other, record results, and participate in a group discussion about themselves, leadership and their communities.
Students learned that they felt much more confident, able and capable and had the capacity to make changes in their lives and communities. Discussing and sharing their stories was an empowering process as it provided the chance to learn and inspire one another. This process turned out to exceed Herrera’s expectations as some of the participants wanted to find out ways that they could help each other. This learning activity lead to the young students coming up with sustainable solutions and business ideas to share with each other. Each community group designed their own project, found a mentor to help train them and implemented their ideas. One of the examples that Herrera shared was the creation of a little school supply store in front of their local school, using recyclable materials from the schools (notebooks, paper, pencil holders, etc.). They provided discounts to the students and then donated the money to other causes (a social enterprise!), as well as developed the skills and abilities to lead the project on their own without the help from external sources or experts. The
impact of this project allowed them to build on their own ideas, confidence and contribute to their community (T. Coulson Herrera, personal communication, April 22, 2017).
**The Potential for Capacity Building**
Learning and capacity building are two concepts that can go hand-in-hand. “One of the main objectives of PM&E is to enhance the sustainability, replicability, and effectiveness of development efforts through the strengthening of people’s organizational capacities. It aims to enable people to keep track of their progress, by identifying and solving problems themselves and by building on and expanding areas of activity is recognized (CONCERN 1996).”
Franklin Hernandez has been working for 10 years as a community development specialist with UCA Agua y Tierra, a cooperative of rural communities that offer tourist activities and trips to share the beautiful environment and daily life with outsiders. Visitors can experience and learn more about agriculture, life and culture in rural areas of Nicaragua, which then provides locals with a sustainable source of income, thus improving the communities’ well-being and ability to meet their needs and prosper. The program, although first organized through international cooperation, is now completely managed and supported by the communities themselves, without any external assistance. In fact, the program has completely evolved since its inception. While the program began by solely focusing on providing lodging and meals in rural homes, people realized that there were many other ways that they could contribute to their livelihoods and developed other offerings, including cooking classes, tours of natural attractions in their communities, and selling art and handicrafts.
Hernandez explained that training and capacity-building was a very important part of this progress and transformation. While they didn’t have a strict evaluation or assessment protocol to measure the results or impact of the program, Hernandez would meet with the group on a monthly basis to see if program objectives and goals were being met. Through discussions,
workshops and group interviews, people directly involved in the program as well as other community members would come together to explore the results being observed in the environment, as well as changes in behavior, attitude, knowledge of the people and whether these changes were positive or not. Hernandez shared that people would take turns leading these meetings, practicing skills in planning, organizing, facilitating and conducting evaluations. Some of the trainings they received were formal, while some came about from practicing. “Many of the activities and workshops worked towards personal development. Many of the people I worked with were shy and unsure of themselves when speaking up, and over time they become more comfortable expressing themselves, sharing ideas, and trying new ways of doing things.” These processes have helped strengthen informal leadership skills, cooperation and collaboration within the community. The experiences that Hernandez shared reinforced much of the existing literature that demonstrates how co-creative evaluations processes have transformative potential:
“The process of learning in participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) is further perceived as a means for local capacity building. Participants in PM&E gain skills which strengthen local capacities for planning, problem solving and decision making. Participants obtain greater understanding of the various factors (internal and external) that affect the conditions and dynamics of their project, the basis for their successes and failures, and the potential solutions or alternative actions” (Gaventa & Estrella, 1998, p. 28).
Through the participatory evaluations and workshops, other community members decided to join the cooperative and become involved. With group brainstorming sessions and planning, implementing, ongoing trial and error and critically reflecting on projects, positive changes in the community were made through the actions of participants and people felt more empowered. When I asked Hernandez about the benefits of this project and process, he explained that in the beginning of the program, only a few people believed that this project would be successful and they weren’t convinced that they were capable of running their own businesses or that tourists
would be interested in learning more about their way of life. They didn’t see the value in it. The process of preparing, learning more about their own environment and how to teach people about it, creating a business plan and working together proved to be extremely beneficial. “Using their strengths, all families involved have managed to improve their socio-economic and personal situation. The income that they received as a result of tourism and their hard work allowed them to cover other necessities that they had as a family. Also this permitted the community to create new employment positions and opportunities within their community. The community also came together to use some of the money for collective purposes, putting it towards the construction of new infrastructure, such as a recreation center that can serve as a place for reunions and social activities, a space for everyone to use and that benefits the entire community. In fact, they also use this space to rent and to raise money for other things that they need.” (Hernandez, personal communication, April 22, 2016). This is an accurate example of how these processes allowed members of the community to come together to overcome obstacles, make their own decisions and works towards their aspirations.
**Trust: Building Unity in the Community**
Doctora Reyna Cordero of Rural Community Development, Community Health, shared with me that during her monthly meetings to discuss health issues within the community, people started off very hesitant to participate as there was a lot of division in the community. However, when they started to meet more often to talk and evaluate the progress of the program, they began organize themselves to come up with new solutions and plans for what to do on days that the local clinic was not open. Together they decided it would be important for them to be trained on how to make homemade remedies, administer shots, bandage wounds, etc. They improved communication amongst themselves established a stronger sense of unity throughout the process,
which improved relationships, and in turn, some of the health issues and concerns that the community was facing.
The individuals I interviewed from Nicaragua explained that one characteristic of rural communities in their country is there exists a large sense of distrust and lack of community organization because of the division between political parties, corruption, instability and the civil war that ended roughly 30 years ago. Participants in my interviews talked about the difficulties of building trust with the facilitators of the evaluation process and trust amongst the participants in order for people to be able to connect and work together. Everyone explained that through many of these group processes, they always started with team and trust building exercises and appropriate ice-breakers to create a comfortable atmosphere to allow people to get to know each other better, form relationships and establish a common ground. They emphasized the importance of using a variety of fun, creative methods as well to open up a space to get people “to think outside of the box,” hear a variety of perspectives and develop a sense of identity among the group members. When people feel at ease and trust one another, group efforts will be much more effective and enjoyable.
As we can see from the literature and the examples shared thus far, the use of participatory, co-creative methodologies for impact assessments require people to talk and listen, to recognize the strengths in each other and their community, and build upon those to achieve their goals. All of the practitioners that I interviewed explained that the concept of “trust” is one of the biggest strengths \textit{and} challenges of these processes. As in any place, in rural communities you will find that some are more united and close-knit than others; this could be a result of the culture, historical, political and social context, geographical distance between housing, etc.
The role of a facilitator was another area that was brought up in many of the interviews. Interview participants shared with me that co-creative evaluations would not be possible if the facilitator doesn’t hold certain qualities such as, first, being seen not as an expert, but as a participant and a learner as well. He or she needs to be open-minded and flexible, committed to the efforts and objective of the group, believe in the capabilities of the group, be motivating and a good listener, patient, have strong interpersonal skills, and a deep understanding of the culture and context of the people they are working with.
**Local accompaniment by leaders**
Another point made was that in order to build trust, it is essential to have “local accompaniment” and work with the community through informal and formal community leaders. Nicaragua, for example, is a very hierarchical society and rates very high on the Power Distance Index. There are members of the community that are more highly-respected and trusted. *María Belen Alvarez Mercado*, the education coordinator of Hotel con Corazón, worked with an organization to improve infrastructure and education initiatives in rural areas in Northern Nicaragua. Working with a community, it is always critical to hear the voices of different stakeholders and members, but she explained in order to do this, the first step in creating a partnership is always determining and speaking to its already established leaders. However, she was also noted that this process can also perpetuate an already-existing power structure if there is political or religious division in the community. She advised speaking to a variety of leaders to enable a wider participation.
“Speaking with leaders at the beginning of any process will facilitate that at an internal level you have allies and local collaborators. Local leaders can help bring together community members, invite people to participate, visit homes to speak with people, which will guarantee more trust. If people from rural communities see an outsider arrive, they won’t know why you’re there and won’t feel comfortable. But if you have
accompaniment from local leaders or members of the community, people will feel more trust to express themselves and what they are feeling. In terms of an evaluation, you can assure that more likely the data or information you receive will be more accurate and honest- and people will feel and know that they are a part of the process, instead of as an object of the process.” (María Belen Alvarez, personal communication, April 20, 2017).
**Time and commitment**
Although everyone that I interviewed stressed the time factor as a disadvantage of participatory approaches in impact assessments, they explained that the benefits most definitely outweigh it. **Henry Espinoza**, a researching and monitoring specialist, compared his experience conducting an external evaluation of a governmental health initiative to a participatory evaluation for an NGO working towards increasing awareness and education of reproductive health. While the external approach took only three weeks (participation with the community was more “consultative”), the co-creative evaluation involving people of all different ages in the development of indicators, data collection and analysis and sharing the findings lasted more than six months. Although time-consuming and at times exhausting, this process allowed the information and learning to contribute and stay within the community, rather than extract from it.
The literature on participatory evaluation and impact assessments also explains that one of the most significant challenges is the amount of time it takes, which is why so many organizations rely on external evaluators who have previous experience, knowledge and expertise to carry out the evaluations and processes so that they can conduct the assessment more quickly and efficiently. In the aforementioned topic of trust, the people I interviewed stressed that it takes time to build trust and relationships in communities. It takes time to hold regular discussions and dialogue to strive towards hearing the perspectives of different stakeholders. It takes more time to train people and find the most appropriate methodology and approach for the
situation and the group. It takes more time to come up with creative activities and processes. It takes more time to build the commitment and willingness of the group.
In the Community Tool Box description, they purport that even the drawbacks can be seen in a positive way: “…some of these disadvantages can be seen as advantages! The training people receive blends in with their development of new skills that can be transferred to other areas of life, for instance; coming up with creative ways to express ideas benefits everyone; once funders and policy makers are persuaded of the benefits of the participatory process and evaluation, they may encourage others to employ it as well” (http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/evaluate/evaluation/participatory-evaluation/main).
**Inclusion of marginalized groups: a challenge and benefit**
Nele Bloomestein, a Dutch M&E consultant who has worked in rural contexts all over the world, explained that one of the greatest strengths of using participatory methodology in evaluations is its capacity to include the voices and perspectives of groups that are normally not accounted for in many different settings as a result of political and social structures. Although it can present a challenge to initiate their involvement and participation because it isn’t traditionally accepted or allowed, when spaces are created that allow people to share their experiences, opinions, concerns and goals it can begin to shift paradigms and lead to the empowerment of marginalized groups. She went on to discuss how the participatory approaches she uses are “tailor-made” to the context, and take into consideration the power dynamics of any given situation and place. At times, this meant separating focus groups into male and female to ensure that women would be comfortable expressing themselves, as they may not be able to do so in a room full of men. Similar to what was discussed in the section about capacity-building,
through participation in these different processes, marginalized groups – in this case, the women could strengthen and develop skills that took their needs into consideration.
Bloomestein also talked about the importance of using methodologies that are appropriate for children; in her work with War Child Holland, an organization that strives to improve the psychosocial support, education and protection of children and adolescents who have experienced the trauma of war and armed conflict (https://www.warchildholland.org/our-work), all of the ongoing evaluations and feedback sessions of their programs are carried out by the children participating, with the guidance of facilitators, using games, focus groups, drawings and pictures, score-cards, reflection and dialogue. Children help to create indicators of success themselves of what it meant to “be empowered” and healthy within their community, thus they were able to give input into what they were observing within themselves, their peers and community. War Child carried out an evaluation of the actual participatory process and many facilitators, as well as participants themselves, shared that they “felt empowered being asked for their opinion and felt more confident expressing their ideas and recommendations” (Nele Bloomestein, personal communication, May 16, 2017). The programs adapt to the feedback given in order to increase effectiveness and works towards their mission of fostering psychosocial growth of the children they serve. Bloomestein’s philosophies and approaches coincide with what is in the literature review about participatory approaches that “stress the importance of involving relatively marginalized groups, such as the very poor, women, and children, people with disabilities, among others. According to these perspectives, participatory evaluation is about involving the least powerful, visible and assertive actors in evaluating development efforts.” (Gaventa & Estrella, 1998, p. 22).
The “pressure to prove”
Interview participants all expressed that the “pressure to prove” to funders and donors the impact of the different programs is also a challenge in using participatory approaches. Many people still believe in “cause and effect,” not taking into consideration the complexity and interrelated factors that may play a part in any community or development effort. In order to do this, one would need rigorous baseline studies and control groups, in-depth statistical analysis and test, yet the people I spoke with explained that this isn’t realistic or feasible in many situations. Thomas Herrera explained that in one of the initiatives that he worked on, families in a rural community were given chickens so that they could start producing their own eggs and sell them. The initiative did not last long because after a few months they realized that 1) people had not been trained to raise chickens, their diet consisted of mainly rice and beans so they ended up selling the chickens or killing them for meat, and 2) farmers in the area who had been making a living raising chickens were now not able to earn money and were forced to look for new ways to support themselves (T. Coulson Herrera, personal communication, April 22, 2017). His example showed the importance of doing continuous impact assessments as the community came together to discuss their experiences of the project and together, were able to create better, more sustainable solutions with the community.
Often, impact assessments aim to identify the long-term effects of a program or intervention, however, many aren’t able to account for all of the changes that may have occurred in dynamic environments. According to Adams, et al., in “Innovations in Impact Measurement,” “…to state that an intervention has impact, usually requires a high degree of certainty attribution, based on the existence of a relevant control group against which to judge a counterfactual (i.e. what would have happened anyway without the intervention)” (p.2015, p.6). This article goes on to explain that the term “social performance measurement” may be a better term for this process.
Parallel to this idea, the practitioners that I spoke with spoke of the need for a shift in perspective from viewing extensive impact studies as a “single event” and instead focus on the need to carry out more ongoing, continuous assessments and evaluations; of course, including the perspectives from a diverse group of stakeholders, in order to continually adapt and learn from their efforts, identify possible negative impacts, and then make changes based on the feedback that emerges.
**Participative methodologies and approaches**
Both personal interviews and the literature review demonstrate the need for approaches to impact assessments to be structured and adapted to the group, situation, content and context. Many of the people that I spoke with explained that in rural communities, levels of education and literacy may be lower, therefore, methods and approaches need to permit everyone the option of participating, even if they can’t read or write. As collaboration, team work, communication and organization are all means and goals of creating positive change in a community, efforts need to use tools and methodologies that allow people to practice these skills, facilitate action and collective solutions through participative processes.
- Mind Maps
- Focus Groups
- FODA (SWOT analysis)
- Learning exchanges with different communities
- Semi-structured interviews
- Mapping of the community
- Role-plays
- Storytelling
- Workshops
- Interviews
- Brainstorm activities
- Dialogue
Breaking the cycle of “Asistencialismo”
Many of the individuals I interviewed discussed the concept of “asistencialismo,” which is a term in Spanish that means dependence on charity or welfare based-initiatives, and has been described as the opposite of empowerment. Thomas Herrera and Yara Monjarrez both explained the difference between the two concepts using the phrase, “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day, teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.” In Nicaragua, the respondents explained that there are many NGOs and governmental organizations that, despite their good intentions to help serve the people and alleviate any suffering, many of their actions perpetuate this dependence on outside help and the belief that communities are not capable of achieving their goals and helping themselves. Through the use of participatory evaluations and impact assessments, community members can become empowered and work towards ending this cycle of “asistencialismo” when both people from the community and institutions realize that they must work together and listen to each other in order to work towards change.
When discussing this topic, one of the participants recommended a TEDTalk video titled “Want to Help Someone? Shut Up and Listen!” (2012), given by Ernesto Sirolli, about the importance of truly listening to people first in any “development or aid effort” as people have their own knowledge, passions, wisdom, creativity, energy and imagination. In Eversole’s article, “Remaking Participation,” she underlines the necessity of validating, listening to and understanding and embracing this “local” knowledge as well:
“Outsiders seldom have this deeply placed knowledge, and may to easily suggest ‘solutions’ that are inappropriate, unsustainable, or from a local perspective, clearly ignorant. The knowledge that ‘local people’ or ‘community members’ acquire from their lived experiences involves an ability to see and understand the nature of connections and interrelationships more clearly than professionals can do working from within the conceptual frameworks of their particular silos of expertise”(2010, p. 33).
During participatory evaluations and impact assessments, through dialogues and discussions, different ideas and solutions can emerge. Monjarrez explained that in a monthly gathering in one of the communities, the participants were frustrated because their water tank hadn’t been functioning correctly and one of the obstacles was the poor conditions of the roads that lead to the tank. Monjarrez asked them questions about what actions needed to be taken in order to solve this problem (rather than presenting ideas) and the people realized that it was their right to have access to clean, safe water and that the government should be providing this for them. They decided to speak with the leader of the municipality to demand that it be fixed, and when he ignored them, they found out where he was going to be in order to confront him and make sure that they received the resources they needed. A local television station found out, interviewed the community and covered the story. As a result of their action, coming together, self-advocacy and determination, the municipality repaired their roads and the water tank was fixed within a week. Monjarrez shared that other communities she worked with expressed their motivation to organize themselves and take action after hearing about this community’s efforts.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overall, the findings of my research confirm and support the importance of co-creation in impact assessments and participatory evaluations in rural communities. Impact assessments are an essential part of any program or project in order to evaluate effectiveness, for accountability, learning and growth. The stories, perspectives and experiences shared by practitioners in the field, backed by existing literature demonstrate that, when truly participatory and co-created with the community, they can bring people together, improve communication and trust, build individual and group confidence, strengthen and develop skills.
The findings show these processes can be improved and enhanced when the assessments are carried out continuously, rather than infrequently over long periods of time. The research
also suggests that using these approaches is less of a challenge when the initiative or project itself has been co-created and community-led, rather than designed and implemented by an external organization. The examples demonstrate the positive effects of developing projects (solutions) *with* the community with a strong focus on their aspirations, goals, strengths, and opportunities. When people have ownership and have taken part in the entire process, the findings show that it is easier to reflect, recommend solutions, take action and make sustainable changes. Creating better partnerships and learning how to participate in the community processes is another proposal, which can be done through understanding the political, social and cultural context, listening, building relationships, and valuing local knowledge. Although the time constraints and navigating power dynamics prove to be a challenge when utilizing participatory, co-creative methodologies, the benefits are definitely worthwhile.
As suggested in the literature review, there needs to be more discussion, research, and documentation into the learnings and real-life examples of participatory approaches. Using my experience with Hotel con Corazón, I learned that the evaluation process must also be monitored and evaluated, in order to make sure that the methodology is culturally and contextually appropriate, participants are able to share and obtain the information they need, that learning is taking place, and contributing to the community. It is only through this process that we can change and improve the approaches and foster a space where connection and growth can take place.
“Truly participatory development does not just teach, engage and empower communities, it teaches, engages and empowers the organizations that work with communities to see and do things differently.”
~ Robyn Eversole, *Remaking Participation*
Adams, et. al. *Innovations in Impact Measurement.* (2015). Retrieved from: [https://ssir.org/pdf/Innovations_in_Impact_Measurement_Report_Nov_2015.pdf](https://ssir.org/pdf/Innovations_in_Impact_Measurement_Report_Nov_2015.pdf)
Arnstein, S. (1969). ‘A Ladder of Citizen Participation’. Journal of the American Planning Association, 35: 4, 216-224. Retrieved from: [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944366908977225](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944366908977225).
Balakirev, V., et al. New Trends in Development Education. *Unicef Evaluation Working Papers* (2006). Retrieved from [https://www.unicef.org/ceecis/New_trends_Dev_EValuation.pdf](https://www.unicef.org/ceecis/New_trends_Dev_EValuation.pdf).
Bergold, J. And Thomas, S. (January 2012). Participatory Research Methods: A Methodological Approach in Motion. *Forum: Qualitative Social Research*. 13(1). Retrieved from: [http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1801/3334](http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1801/3334).
Bocksette,V., Pfitzer, M., & Stamp, M. (September 2013). Harvard Business Review: Innovating for Shared Value. Retrieved from: [https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value](https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value)
Cordero Jarquín, R. (2015). Situación de Salud de las comunidades de Laguna de Apoyo, Granada, atendidas por la Clínica Apoyo. Abril a Julio 2015. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua.
Dimensions of national culture. (n.d.) Retrieved from: [https://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html](https://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html).
Estrella, M. And Gaventa, J. (1998). Who Counts Reality? Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: A Literature Review. Retrieved from: [https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/Wp70.pdf](https://www.ids.ac.uk/files/Wp70.pdf)
Eversole, R. (2012) Remaking participation: challenges for community development practice. *Community Development Journal*. 47 (1): 29-41. Retrieved from: [https://academic.oup.com/cdj/article/47/1/29/268333/Remaking-participation-challenges-for-community](https://academic.oup.com/cdj/article/47/1/29/268333/Remaking-participation-challenges-for-community)
Fostering Effective Co-Design In Base-of-the Pyramid Markets. (March 2016) MIT D Lab and Practical Impact Alliance. Retrieved from: [https://impact-alliance.mit.edu/working-groups/fostering-local-innovation-and-co-creation](https://impact-alliance.mit.edu/working-groups/fostering-local-innovation-and-co-creation).
Gervin, D. (September 11, 2012). CDC Evaluation Coffee Break: Cultural Competence in Evaluation. Retrieved from: [https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/pubs/docs/cb_september_2012.pdf](https://www.cdc.gov/dhdsp/pubs/docs/cb_september_2012.pdf).
Ghate, D. (May 5, 2016). Can co-creation achieve better outcomes for people and communities? [Web log post] Retrieved from: https://i2insights.org/2016/05/05/co-creation-outcomes/.
Gosling, L & Edwards, M (2003) Toolkits: A Practical Guide to Planning, Monitoring, Evaluation and Impact Assessments, Save the Children. Retrieved from: http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/resources/online-library/toolkits-practical-guide-planning-monitoring-evaluation-and-impact
Greenhalgh, T., Jackson, C. Janamian, T., and Shaw, S. (June 2016). Achieving Research Impact Through Co-cration in Community-Based Health Services: Literature Review and Case Study. *Milbank Quarterly*. 94(2) 392-429. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4911728/.
Guijt, I. and Hilhorst, T. (June 2006). Participatory monitoring and evaluation: a process to support governance and empowerment at the local level: A guidance paper. Retrieved from: http://www.bibalex.org/Search4Dev/files/282315/114599.pdf.
Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy, Patricia Leavy. (2011). The Practice of Qualitative Research, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: Sage Publications.
Huisman, P. Linsesen, R. And Oudes, A. Impact Evaluation Matters: Enhanced Learning Through Involving Stakeholders in Oxfam’s Impact Studies. Retrieved from: https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/opev/Documents/IEM - Impact_Evaluation_Matters_Enhanced_Learning_Through_Involving_Stakeholders_in_Oxfam_s_Impact_Studies.pdf.
Impact Evaluations. (September 2013). USAID: From the American People. Retrieved from: https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1870/IE_Technical_Note_2013_0903_Final.pdf.
Khan, M. (March 2001). Rural Poverty in Developing Countries: Implications for Public Policy. *IMF: Economic Issues* (26). Retrieved from: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/issues/issues26/
Kramer, J. (September 3, 2015). The Problem with “Help” in Global Development. *Stanford Social Innovation Review*. Retrieved from: https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_problem_with_help_in_global_development
Metz, A. (December 10, 2015). Co-creation, co-design, co-production, co-construction: Same or different? [Web log post]. Retrieved from: https://i2insights.org/2015/12/10/building-consensus-on-co-processes/.
Parduhn, D. (June 2011). ‘Everyone is doing something and calling it PRA’ A Critical Reflection on Participatory Methods in Development. Retrieved from: http://www.hiidunia.com/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2011/10/%E2%80%98Everyone-is-doing-something-and-calling-it-PRA%E2%80%99-A-Critical-Reflection-on-Participatory-Methods-in-Development.pdf
Participatory Evaluation. (2016). Community Tool Box. Retrieved from: http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/evaluate/evaluation/participatory-evaluation/main
Que es el asistencialismo? (November 9, 2012). Sociología Necesaria. http://sociologianecesaria.blogspot.com/2012/11/que-es-asistencialismo.html
Rogers, P. J. (March 2012). Introduction to Impact Evaluation. *Impact Evaluation Notes*. Retrieved from http://interaction.org/impact-evaluation-notes.
Svidronova, M. (July 27 2015). How to empower co-creation: good NGOs that co-create with citizens. [Web log post]. Retrieved from: http://www.lipse.org/blogpost/item/8.
Sirolli, E. (September 2012). Ernesto Sirolli: Want to help someone? Shut up and listen! [Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.ted.com/talks/ernesto_sirolli_want_to_help_someone_shut_up_and_listen/transcript?language=en
Valters, C. (September 2015). Theories of Change: Time for a radical approach to learning in development. Retrieved from: file:///Users/johannaulseth/Downloads/TheoriesfChanges_time%20for%20a%20radical%20approach%20to%20learning%20in%20development_viaLisette%20(1).pdf
Wang, W; Bryan-Kinns, N; Ji, T. (2016). Using community engagement to drive co-creation in rural China. *International Journal of Design*, 10(1), 37-52. Retrieved from: https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/12764/Bryan-Kinns%20Using%20Community%20Engagement%202016%20Published.pdf?sequence=2
Willetts, J., et al. (2014) The practice of a strengths-based approach to community development in Solomon Islands, *Development Studies Research*, 1:1, 354-367, Retrieved from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/21665095.2014.983275
Annex 1: Interview Questions
The central guiding questions of my study were as follows:
1. Can you tell me about your background and experience? How did you get involved in this field? Your professional experience?
2. What has been your experience working in rural communities?
3. Can you describe your experience co-creating impact evaluations?
4. What have been the challenges of co-creation in rural communities?
5. What have been the strengths?
6. What have been the responses of the community? Have you observed/heard or been told of any longer term impacts of this co-creation or participation?
7. What does “empowerment” mean to you?
8. When co-creating an impact evaluation in a country/context different from your own, what do you think are the cultural and environmental factors that need to be taken into consideration?
9. What advice or recommendations would you give to someone who is planning on conducting or co-creating an impact study in a rural zone?
10. How have these experiences impacted you personally and professionally?
11. Is there anything that you would like to share that I did not ask?
EIGHT YEARS IN LAS LAGUNAS
Already eight years working in the community of Las Lagunas in Granada, Nicaragua, made us decide to take a closer look at whether our efforts are making a difference. We conducted an impact study to gain a better understanding of how our students and other stakeholders are experiencing our programs and how this may be changing their lives and the community at large. And we can proudly report that our work clearly has a positive impact, and together with all the people involved with Corazón, we are heading in the right direction, changing lives and the community.
The study consisted of three parts: a quantitative study to determine what former and current student participants are doing now and whether they have continued their studies. And two qualitative approaches to learn from participants’ experiences through storytelling and focus group discussions.
The study was designed and facilitated by Johanna Useth, a Master’s degree student from SIT (School for International Training) in the United States).
Hanna: “An impact study helps to understand change and to evaluate effectiveness. It was a privilege for me to be part of this process and to hear all the different perspectives. I am grateful for the experience of connecting with so many people and seeing first-hand what a team effort this project is and what a difference it has made. I’m especially thankful to all those who shared their stories and hopes for the future.”
FACTS & MISSION CON CORAZON
According to the 2015 United Nations Human Development Index Report, the primary school drop out rate in Nicaragua is 51.6%. In primary school, 3 out of 10 students are already one year behind their age group; and out of 100 that start the first grade, 40 don’t make it through the sixth grade. These statistics are attributed to a lack of education funding, inadequate facilities and resources, and insufficient teacher training. Furthermore, many students live in poverty and must leave school to find work to support their family.
The mission of Hotel con Corazón is to help people in developing countries build a brighter future by investing in education and work.
- We support children to finish their education all the way from primary school up to higher education - so that they increase their employment prospects.
- We stimulate local economic development by running a profitable business - a healthy enterprise that creates jobs and provides income and professional development for its employees.
THE CORAZON APPROACH
Foundation Hotel con Corazón strongly believes in the power of education in maximizing the potential of individuals. Therefore, 100% of our profits are invested in local education programs to empower students, their families and the community to build a brighter future.
We work towards our vision through a variety of strategies:
- Tutoring and extracurricular activities.
- Home visits and parent workshops.
- Scholarships for secondary and university students.
- Collaboration with other NGOs.
Through these ingredients we work together to increase the quality of life in the community and ultimately to breaking the cycle of poverty.
PRINCIPLES THAT GUIDE ALL OUR DECISIONS
- **Fun and Fresh:**
Contemporary, no-nonsense and having fun together.
A place to be you:
Simple luxury and genuine service to offer a home away from home.
“Couleur locale”:
International spirit in our hearts and local blood in our veins.
- **Good business:**
We want to make a healthy profit for a good cause.
ENJOY TODAY, CARE FOR TOMORROW
EIGHT YEARS IN LAS LAGUNAS
Already eight years working in the community of Las Lagunas in Granada, Nicaragua, made us decide to take a closer look at whether our efforts are making a difference. We conducted an impact study to gain a better understanding of how our students and other stakeholders are experiencing our programs and how this may be changing their lives and the community at large. And we can proudly report that our work clearly has a positive impact, and together with all the people involved with Corazón, we are heading in the right direction, changing lives and the community.
The study consisted of three parts: a quantitative study to determine what former and current student participants are doing now and whether they have continued their studies. And two qualitative approaches to learn from participants’ experiences through storytelling and focus group discussions.
The study was designed and facilitated by Johanna Useth, a Master’s degree student from SIT (School for International Training) in the United States).
Hanna: “An impact study helps to understand change and to evaluate effectiveness. It was a privilege for me to be part of this process and to hear all the different perspectives. I am grateful for the experience of connecting with so many people and seeing first-hand what a team effort this project is and what a difference it has made. I’m especially thankful to all those who shared their stories and hopes for the future.”
FACTS & MISSION CON CORAZON
According to the 2015 United Nations Human Development Index Report, the primary school drop out rate in Nicaragua is 51.6%. In primary school, 3 out of 10 students are already one year behind their age group; and out of 100 that start the first grade, 40 don’t make it through the sixth grade. These statistics are attributed to a lack of education funding, inadequate facilities and resources, and insufficient teacher training. Furthermore, many students live in poverty and must leave school to find work to support their family.
The mission of Hotel con Corazón is to help people in developing countries build a brighter future by investing in education and work.
- We support children to finish their education all the way from primary school up to higher education - so that they increase their employment prospects.
- We stimulate local economic development by running a profitable business - a healthy enterprise that creates jobs and provides income and professional development for its employees.
THE CORAZON APPROACH
Foundation Hotel con Corazón strongly believes in the power of education in maximizing the potential of individuals. Therefore, 100% of our profits are invested in local education programs to empower students, their families and the community to build a brighter future.
We work towards our vision through a variety of strategies:
- Tutoring and extracurricular activities.
- Home visits and parent workshops.
- Scholarships for secondary and university students.
- Collaboration with other NGOs.
Through these ingredients we work together to increase the quality of life in the community and ultimately to breaking the cycle of poverty.
PRINCIPLES THAT GUIDE ALL OUR DECISIONS
- **Fun and Fresh:**
Contemporary, no-nonsense and having fun together.
A place to be you:
Simple luxury and genuine service to offer a home away from home.
“Couleur locale”:
International spirit in our hearts and local blood in our veins.
- **Good business:**
We want to make a healthy profit for a good cause.
ENJOY TODAY, CARE FOR TOMORROW
**NUMBERS**
Fourteen secondary and 29 university students received scholarships. We are supporting 166 students since then through our collaboration with other NGOs.
- Since 2012, of the 29 scholarship recipients, seven have graduated and are working.
- In our scholarship program, three students decided to stop and are no longer studying. Four students no longer receive scholarships as they are working and are now able to pay their tuition themselves.
- 71% of all students that participated in the tutoring programs are still studying (65% of the girls, 76% of the boys), 19% have stopped and 10% we were unable to find any information.
| | 2008 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | Projected |
|--------------------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-----------|
| Elementary school (Las Lagunas) | 48 | 85 | 96 | 105 | 145 | 169 | 183 | 159 | 190 | |
| Secondary school (Las Lagunas) | | 7 | 10 | 37 | 32 | 32 | 32 | 35 | | |
| Secondary school scholarships | | | | | | | | | | |
| University scholarships | 1 | 2 | 4 | 12 | 19 | 15 | 19 | 15 | | |
| Via other NGOs | 11 | 11 | 21 | 11 | 22 | 21 | 12 | 26 | | |
| Employees’ education (and children)| 12 | 12 | 11 | 15 | 14 | 15 | | | | |
| **TOTAL** | **59** | **98** | **126** | **142** | **232** | **259** | **246** | **261** | **266** | |
**STORIES & FOCUS GROUPS**
“Can you share a story about something that has changed in your life since participating in tutoring classes?”
Starting in November 2016, we collected stories using an innovative research tool called Sprockler. More than 100 students, parents, tutors and other stakeholders were asked to share a story about an experience related to Hotel con Corazón. Interviews were carried out at both schools (San Pablo and Bertha Gutierrez), with scholarship recipients, graduates and drop-outs, both in the community and at the hotel. Afterwards each storyteller answered clarifying questions that allow larger patterns to emerge once all stories are collected. We also conducted focus group discussion to understand our impact in the community. We talked about strengths and challenges of the community, the role and impact of the hotel, and people’s hopes for the future. Seven people participated, including two community leaders, the clinic doctor, two mothers of tutoria participants, a father of two scholarship recipients, and one of the oldest members of the community. In this report we share the main insights of our research. If you want to read or listen to the stories of the students or other storytellers, visit the interactive report at www.reports.sprockler.com/hotelconcorazon
**WHAT DID WE LEARN?**
1: **Increased motivation:**
All groups of participants (parents, tutors, students and scholarship recipients) shared that they feel more motivated in their work, studies, and personal lives as a result of participating in the Corazon program. Some parents expressed their desire to return to school after seeing the advancement in their children in order to help them with their homework and make progress themselves.
“A special moment for me was when the secondary students took a special trip to visit the INTECNA technical college. That day I realized that I wanted to study auto-mechanics and started studying there! The tutors helped me to prepare for the entrance exam and taught me how to be more focused on my studies and that learning is an important part of life…” - Victor, student Las Lagunas and now scholarship student Automotive Transportation (19)
2: **Increased parent involvement:**
More parents are involved in their children’s education and participate in reunions and workshops. Community members noticed that there are many more parents that attend the monthly “school of the parents” at Hotel con Corazón than other school events.
“I want to be involved and make sure that my son has a better life and education than I did. I raised my son by myself and Hotel con Corazón has supported me to do that. Now I attend ‘parent school’ at my son’s high school and am not afraid to participate and speak up.” – Leyda, mother of Deyvi, secondary scholarship recipient
3: **Increase in knowledge:**
Many younger children expressed a change in abilities and an increase in knowledge. They explained that before coming to tutoring classes in the afternoon they were not able to read, write, add and subtract and now they are able to.
“I’ve learned a lot. I feel happy in English and in computer class. I have also learned many values, to respect and value. Coming here makes school easier. Also when they take us to new places outside our community and learn about our culture, it makes us feel proud of being Nicaraguan.” - Eddy, student (13)
4: **Increased pride and confidence:**
A change in abilities has also led to an increase in pride and confidence. Students said that they now know that they can succeed and learn even when “things are difficult.” Their pride is also evident in the tutors’ stories, who shared their excitement when some of their most challenging students learned how to read and write. Many tutors also expressed a personal change, becoming more confident in their teaching abilities and searching for new, creative teaching methods and strategies.
“Before tutoring classes, my son didn’t know how to read. Thanks to the tutors, he has learned to read and participate in the dynamics and games, in the abilities that he didn’t believe he had and to develop as a person and to love himself.” – Violeta, mother
5: **Increase in secondary school enrollment:**
The number of secondary students has increased dramatically. Students used to have to travel into the city to attend secondary school. Due to increased enrollment, San Pablo school has started offering Saturday classes for students.
“There are many more students staying in school. Before we didn’t have a secondary school, and now there are too many students in one classroom! Just a few years ago there were only 10 sixth graders and now there are 40!” - Rebeca, mother
6: **Applied learning success:**
Many scholarship recipients shared positive stories about being able to apply what they learn in school to an actual work environment, such as the hotel. Some of the scholarship recipients also talked about sharing their knowledge and giving back to the community through providing homework help and classes to reinforce what they are learning in school to secondary scholarship students in Las Lagunas on Saturdays.
“One of the crucial moments that I have experienced with Foundation Hotel con Corazón is that it has given me the opportunity to share a little of what I have learned throughout my life as a student
7: Noticeable town improvements:
Many people also shared that Hotel con Corazón together with other NGO’s has played a role in the improved infrastructure and maintenance of the schools. Los Amigos de Las Lagunas, a group of several NGOs (Community Development de La Mujer, CochNica, Clínica Apoyo and Hotel con Corazón) painted the school buildings and preschool classrooms, planted flowers, and donated new desks. Through these partnerships, we strengthen our own work and support each other on various projects to reach the wider community. The community now has its own clinic and a factory that provides jobs producing safer, more environmentally friendly stoves.
“Our community has improved and looks much better. People are taking better care of their community and there is less trash in our community now.” – Don Jose, community leader
8: Awareness of the importance of education:
Many people shared that they now have a stronger appreciation for the education that they are receiving, and believe that this enables them to develop personally and professionally and will contribute to their future success.
“The tutoring program serves to strengthen and enrich the education system. Here in Nicaragua there is a huge education deficit, especially in rural areas. This tutoring program is comprehensive and integral as it not only reinforces their homework and the course material they learn in the morning, but also strengthens their self-esteem and independent learning by taking them on excursions outside the community. Students tell me that this experience has changed their world!” – Doctora Reyna, Clínica Apoyo
ACTIVITIES
- Tutorias (after-school programs) and extracurricular activities
- Parent workshops and home visits
- Scholarships for secondary school and university students
- Collaboration with other NGOs
- Professional development training for tutors
OUTPUT
- 414 students in tutorias
- Weekly home visits and 2-monthly parent workshops
- 44 talented students study with a Corazón scholarship, both secondary school and university
- 161 students in secondary school or tutorias
- The tutees attend monthly workshops on various topics throughout the year
- University students tutor secondary school students
THEORY OF CHANGE
With the input from all of the people involved with the Hotel con Corazón foundation (founders, ex-managers, board, new entrepreneurs), we created for the first time a Theory of Change to demonstrate and better understand the link between the different activities and aspects of our programs and how we hope to achieve our long-term goals and desired impact. We aim to fine-tune this further next year.
SENSEMAKING
Together with some of the stakeholders we discussed some of the patterns that emerged from the stories.
**Positive change:**
Participants shared that the enthusiasm and encouraging responses did not come as a surprise because people have experienced positive change: better communication, stronger relationships, more opportunities and improved awareness and knowledge.
“The programs of Hotel con Corazón have made a great impression on everyone involved. People feel proud and happy of the progress that has been made.” - Victor, scholarship recipient
“These are all positive experiences. People believe that these programs have helped them to grow and to see things in a different way from what they have learned in other places.” - Maria Belén, Education coordinator
**Collective impact:**
Participants noticed that most stories represent a change on a more collective level – influencing families and the community as a whole. They noted that when individuals change, then most likely this improves family relationships and the community as well. They stressed the importance of family and unity in Nicaraguan culture, which is why home visits and involvement of parents has been critical to the success of the program.
**How does this story make you feel?**
**The change in my story affects...**
- An individual
- Families
- The community
**Beyond knowledge:**
The majority of the stories describe a change in knowledge and attitude. Tutors, parents and students shared that they were more motivated and learned important values, as well as new knowledge. Scholarship recipients shared that through their hotel experience, they were better able to apply and develop skills related to their knowledge.
“It is our hope that in the future, the students who graduate and attend the university won’t leave our community but return and help make a difference.” - Leyla’s mother
“We are humans and we have connections with other people; therefore, we must recognize that our attitudes and behaviors affect others.” - Blanca, university scholarship recipient, Veterinary Medicine
**The change that I describe in my story is mainly about a change in**
- Knowledge
- Skills
- Attitude
**Education is important because....**
- Economic opportunities
- Personal development
- Transmission of values
“This shows us that besides learning academic skills, we must also work on practicing different values such as respect, honesty, tolerance, and equality if we want to contribute to our country.” - Claudia, tutora
**Balanced education:**
Participants explained that all factors are connected and there is a balance between the three.
“This demonstrates that if a person doesn’t have values, then he or she will not be able to achieve full personal development, and thus will not be able to obtain economic opportunities to benefit themselves and their families.” - Leyla, mother
You will find more patterns and the stories behind it in the interactive Sprockler report: www.reports.sprockler.com/hotelconcorazon
**OTHER IMPACT**
In this impact analysis, we focused on the educational programs. Hotel con Corazón also initiates other activities that benefit the community.
**Social impact:**
The Hotel serves as a popular venue for social projects to convene and share ideas, expertise and experiences, including in 2016:
- The Reading Workshop for 80 adults from around the country.
- Positive Discipline Workshop for educators and parents.
- UP Nicaragua Girls’ Empowerment Retreat for two groups.
- Salsa classes where tourists and local meet.
**Economic impact:**
We are proud of our progress and contributions to the local economy:
- We provide jobs, good working conditions and support for a staff of 22.
- We fund the professional development of our employees by offering an extra 10% of their salary to be used towards education for themselves or their children. Since the program started, nearly half of the 45 employees have received this bonus. Two people have graduated with university degrees in tourism/hospitality management and systems engineering, and three of the tutors will complete their Master’s degree in Education in July 2017.
- We buy our fruits and vegetables from local vendors to support and stimulate the local economy.
**NEXT STEPS**
Based on the results of the study, we identified some areas that we want to continue to build upon in order to grow and improve. We will:
- Continue to foster our partnerships and relationships with parents, students and other local NGOs.
- Implement a structured training for the tutors in innovative education techniques both from external professionals who can carry out the trainings, as well as sending the tutors to trainings so that they can come back and train the others.
- Improve our monitoring and evaluation system and build upon our records system and data collection, including digitalizing everything for better access and communication with participants and former participants.
- Involve parents even more through interactive and participatory workshops based on their learning wishes.
- Improving our tutoring classes for secondary students increasing the amount of time we spend with them.
- Search a solution for our lack of adequate space for secondary tutoring. Include more empowerment workshops for secondary students about goal-setting, personal strengths, and vocational training.
- Strengthen relationships with teachers of San Pablo and Bertha Gutierrez so that we can grow together and have a deeper impact. | <urn:uuid:5127dd41-4cc7-4f84-8115-ea15339a496e> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4059&context=capstones | 2018-03-18T07:29:38Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645550.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20180318071715-20180318091715-00058.warc.gz | 78,837,011 | 24,967 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.959864 | eng_Latn | 0.996306 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
1017,
1429,
1976,
3022,
5365,
8442,
11363,
13234,
14718,
15141,
17283,
19474,
21610,
23520,
25530,
27526,
29281,
31274,
33508,
35675,
37580,
39807,
41736,
43675,
45531,
47439,
49109,
51026,
53061,
55035,
57252,
59075,
60498,
62191,
64224,
66305,
... | [
1.0390625,
2.25
] | 2 | 0 |
Next up, on WELM, a song so nice we clued it thrice! (It should be apparent, though, how many times it appears in the answer itself.)
... You act like you never had love and you want me to go without the tube that sticks in me just like a jauntily sauntering, ambling shambler ...
At 21:00, Paul Revere leaps on his horse in Charlestown, and rides at constant speed through every Middlesex village and farm, ringin’ those bells and firin’ those warning shots, reaching Lexington four hours later. Every hour on the half hour, round the clock, a Redcoat patrol leaves Lexington and (astonishingly) follows the exact same course in reverse, at the same speed. If Revere defiantly counts off these patrols as he encounters them, when do the Redcoats cower before the mighty cry of “Six!”?
IN
× EMO
_____
EON
ON
IN
_____
MAIN
ACROSS
1. Scatter liquid soap on the surface with a whip (6)
7. Left phone-user fixed in place like carpet, again (6)
8. Wee youths at gym (6)
DOWN
1. Medieval laborer waves to the audience (4)
2. Bit from Serenity being performed on the radio (5)
3. Eureka — bass is Moby Dick’s nemesis (4)
4. Son draws with pens (5)
5. Stick damaged luge (4)
6. Current that spins old-time singer Nelson (4)
Top mark
Vase
Work, as dough
G-less, R-less, etc.
Inner essences
Put off
Fetes
Double-curve
NXGIFI
RHEYZP
TJDQET
TLQSUI
THE TIGER DIDN’T EAT HIS BOATMATE’S ENTIRE HAND, JUST---
Answer:
On the other hand, Paul Revere’s preferred method for conveying information to people was to ____________________________. (6 2 4)
Listen as well to this verse, because
It describes the ride of William Dawes,
Who on seeing the lamps in the church numbered twain
(Not alert Mr. Clemens, but two), grabbed his rein,
Bit and saddle, and (thinking his horse was an ass)
Stole a fish and then rode it to Lexington, Mass.
William Dawes’s dramatic midnight ride on fishback, of course, has been commemorated ever since through the tradition of stealing fish from the Massachusetts State House.
To solve this puzzle, modify each sentence by inserting one fish into its underlined word; then match each modified sentence on one side to a modified sentence on the other side that contradicts it. (The two sentences that have already been modified are not a matched pair.) One fish in each matched pair will contain an R or B as appropriate (colorwise) for its side; this letter’s position indicates what letter to select from the other fish in the pair.
GOP
We should get rid of every easily-led deer.
Marine samples must be warmer than Wesson, say.
Our nation is being deluged with tons of brass-playing lingerie enthusiasts.
Let us astonish our college graduates and seers.
If the rodents from the underworld have a surge, we are all doomed.
Name-brand items are coming from China and Mongolia, full of ink and all.
Anyone who cons a French novelist or English poet must be punished.
No one has offered Mr. Izzard wine barrels or suits.
The quaver mentioned is a point of contention among Mexican cattlemen.
Having that posed will enhance the image of the potato dish Mr. Baba adds dairy product to.
Young women have often thawed upon seeing that Boney had.
DEM
You need to cool and chill its solid counterpart.
Manic pens do not contain distilled spirits.
You rarely see people with tulips and weapons that fire bean curd.
Many of us have tossed a terrific voucher or caddie.
This high-class commercial will sell masters just fine with no trimming.
Only a reference from Prince Will’s mum could get people on a ring over an extremely distant celestial object.
Mr. Dangerfield’s pear is not responsible for any lasing.
We all ought to comfort the great Huron, et al.
It is wrong to damage noblemen or slums.
The government needs guile experts who crack ciphers.
We can safely tack an extra fee onto the rates once contained.
ANCHOVY BASS CARP CHAR CHUB COD COHO DAB FUGU GAR GOBY HADDOCK
HALIBUT KOI PERCH SARDINE SCROD SHAD SKATE SMELT SOLE TUNA
Q2 When choosing steeds, William Dawes put his faith ___________________________. (2 4 2 3)
Now comes the tale of Betsy Ross,
Who, as a seamstress, was quite boss.
Her skill seemed to be inherent,
Perhaps she was fabric’s parent.
It’s a little known fact that Betsy Ross’s original flag had ten stars and two supermassive black holes, as seen below. Follow the clues to determine where ten stars are hidden on the swath of fabric below. From each vantage point Betsy can see horizontally and vertically as far as she can until her line of sight is interrupted by a star, another vantage point, or either hole in the middle of the board. Adjacent means directly touching, diagonally included. No vantage point can share a square with a star. Columns and rows include the holes.
1. I can only see one star, but can see 17 unoccupied squares.
2. I can see two stars and have an unobstructed view to the bottom of the swath.
3. I cannot see any stars.
4. I can see two stars.
5. I can see three stars and ten unoccupied squares.
6. I can see one star, but know that I am adjacent to two others.
7. I see two stars and am adjacent to a third.
8. I see two stars.
9. I see two stars, one of which is a star touching a hole, the other is towards the top.
10. I can see two stars.
Extra clues:
A. There are only one row and two columns (which happen to be adjacent) that do not have any stars.
B. No stars are adjacent to another.
C. Two stars are adjacent to each of the holes.
D. There are three stars that touch the edge of the fabric.
E. Two columns and one row have two stars. Every other one has zero or one.
Q3 How did Betsy Ross depict the black holes? She ___________________________. (4 6)
Now, Ethan Allen was a guy
Whose surname goes with DIY.
He led Vermont’s Green Mountain Boys
But later manufactured toys
(Like Arctic craftsman Santa) you
Can build and take apart anew.
Few historians realize that Ethan Allen and his men were such accomplished furniture makers that they were able to capture Fort Ticonderoga by taking it apart armed only with their woodworking tools.
Follow in their footsteps by solving this puzzle. For safety, please use the enclosed protective eyewear when operating jigsaws or any other cutting instruments.
Q4 Ethan Allen was best known for _____________________________. (8 2 5)
Four if by Yankee Clipper (continued)
Come now and hear of Rose Kennedy’s life:
Though known as a faithful and dutiful wife,
She’s known to have made an oration in church
On the husband who sometimes left her in the lurch.
Like many political wives, Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy had to put up with a lot, including her husband’s secret and not-so-secret infidelities. But Rose had her own secrets and deceptions — even some she buried in her private garden. Alas for her, the blooms that came up sometimes showed that all was not right below the surface…
In a Rows Garden puzzle, answers go into the grid in two ways: each Row of the garden contains two answers reading from left to right (except for Rows A and L, which each contain one 9-letter answer reading across the nine producing spaces). The Bloom clues are divided into three lists: White, Yellow, and Pink. Bloom clues are given in grid order within each list, but the 6-letter answer to each clue can be placed into its corresponding hexagon starting in any space and reading either clockwise or counterclockwise. Use the Row answers to figure out how to fit them in.
Q5 When Joseph Kennedy asked what Rose was growing in the garden, ___________________________. (3 4 3 4)
Five if by Wheelbarrow (continued)
**Rows**
A. Rose Kennedy, for one
B. Teachers at prom, say Mike Brady and Carol Brady, e.g. (hyph.)
C. Set a new date for Aircraft capable of vertical take-off (2 wds., hyph.)
D. Apocalyptic quartet What the Red Sox have with the Yankees (2 wds.)
E. One of the Platonic solids Cornered for conversation
F. 1993 Al Pacino film (2 wds.) Part of a fancy table setting (2 wds.)
G. Literary assistants Attraction with a Panda Cam (3 wds.)
H. Old-fashioned One of two Midsummer Classic participants (2 wds., hyph.)
I. Potential problem for a take-off Erin Brockovich Oscar winner (2 wds.)
J. Tar Heels’ foes (2 wds.) Magazines and newspapers
K. Lengthening unnecessarily (2 wds.) Unsaid?
L. Inappropriately crude
**White Blooms**
- Drink after an earlier drink
- Small lump of tissue
- Jack tie ___
- Arterial inserts
- Rock salt
- Paul of legend
- Intrude (2 wds.)
- Synagogue singer
- Hoed for questioning
- Hiking paths
- Creek
- Filling completely
- Place to plug in
- Tenser stroke
**Yellow Blooms**
- Mesh (with)
- They come in flights
- Bow wielder
- Group of people
- They made Elmer’s glum products
- Cad
- Grease high school
- Line
**Pink Blooms**
- Make evil plans
- Oscar winner McDaniel
- Bardem of Skyfall
- One of a mariachi’s pair
- Attaches with thread (2 wds.)
- Steal a lot
- Sleeping
- People from Stockholm
- Minty drinks
- Top of a dress
Leafy lunches
Tailor for (2 wds.)
Says suddenly, with “out”
Not dead
Violent protester, perhaps
On the docket
Hear of Phileas Fogg, who pre-dated the T
And went all the way from Brookline to JP
He was framed for a robbery at B of A.
He saved Princess Aouda from those folks in Bombay;
Made it back just in time, with moments to spare
Taking cash from the wager he won fair and square
Phileas Fogg spent 80 days traveling around Boston, using a variety of means of transport. Fortunately, he was able to count on each of the many vehicles he used*. Boston street planners used his route to create the street grid of Boston, with its delightful array of one-way streets and no-left-turn corners.
---
1. This is the place I
2. They'll be riding
3. To go to way up in
4. They took all the and put 'em in a
5. So me and for me
*Yeah, we REALLY love modes of transportation here at Phlogizote central. Don't let that fool ya. When you get the meta, you'll know it.*
Six if by Sundry (continued)
6. On a cloud of music I drift in the stars.
7. Your house is only another house.
8. Come, Mr. [three people] me.
9. A cloud of blue and a sea of green.
10. Ain't the kind of place to raise your children.
11. Livin' it up when I'm goin' down.
12. [four people]
13. Keep those clothes and hummin'.
14. There were plants and birds and rocks and things.
15. Don't in the singing.
16. It's a sweet trip to a candy store.
Q6. Phileas Fogg contributed to the war by _____________________________. (6 4 6)
Seven if by Fire Truck
Dearest of children, now hark as I mention
The tale of Ben Franklin, a man of invention.
If the U.S. had not had a founder who played
With the forces of nature in all that he made,
Neither firemen nor postmen in swimfins could light
Up a bifocalled stove with a rod-bearing kite.
Welcome to the King’s Chapel Burying Ground. There’s a statue of Ben Franklin nearby, since this is where he found the parts he needed for his greatest invention: Franklin’s monster.
Students: Please respect those buried here. All stones should be visible from the sidewalk outside the burial grounds or the paths within it; please do not walk on the graves.
- Begins with a woman’s first name
- Becomes a word meaning “less clean” if you change the second letter to be the same as the first letter and rearrange all the letters
- Becomes a conjunction if you delete all its repeated letters
- Contains only the letters in a word meaning “unbroken” (used multiple times)
- Could be something you’d find on Sylvester’s playground?
- Can be anagrammed into two synonyms if you delete the second letter
- Could be represented by the word DANDRUFF in a cryptogram
- If you add an A, can be anagrammed into the names of two Asian countries
- Can be reversed to get a phrase meaning “tear scrap”
- Becomes an expression of dismay if you shift its first letter one back in the alphabet
- Consists of two pronouns in a row
- Sounds like a word meaning “gaudy”
This puzzle requires site-specific information
*Your accent may vary.
Q7 Ben Franklin’s inventiveness was attributed to his _____________________________. (9 3)
Students: Please respect those buried here. All stones should be visible from the sidewalk outside the burial grounds or the paths within it; please do not walk on the graves.
Students: Please respect those buried here. All stones should be visible from the sidewalk outside the burial grounds or the paths within it; please do not walk on the graves.
In Memory of
Deac' Renzie
who Died June 4th
A. D. 1718
Aged 75 Years.
Here lies the Body of
William
son of Mr. Isaac and
Mrs. Martha
died Decemb'r 1707
Aged 2 Years
and 9 Months.
Here lies Buried the Body
of Mr. ______ Band
who departed this Life
August 1st 1734
Aged 75 Years of his Age.
This tomb received the remains of
HON. HENCKDAHL ______ in 1766
and of his son Lie. Col. JOHN ______ 1772
and SIST. ELIZA FRANCES Daughter of said Gen.
with their friends & families.
Students: Please respect those buried here. All stones should be visible from the sidewalk outside the burial grounds or the paths within it; please do not walk on the graves.
Now hear of the great Georges Seurat, mes enfants,
Whose skill with his pointillist points was si grand
You might never have noticed his “Isle of Grand Jatte”’s
Just a close-packed collection of separate dots.
So he built a whole cosmos from atoms this way
On blank canvas, *chez lui*, *quatorze* times a day.
Georges Seurat’s dot-based paintings, known for their use of negative space, were the result of his overarching dot-based philosophy; he believed that all knowledge, of art, science, letters, and numbers, was hidden in those dots, and the fate of the universe rested in how they clustered together. And that is why Seurat was the inventor of standardized testing.
A 1 1 7 1
B 2 1 2 2 1 1
C 3 3 2 1
D 3 4 3
E 1 1 2 1 1
3
2 1
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
3
4
1 2
2 2
2 1
1 1
2
1 2
1 2
2
Q8 Reviews of Seurat’s work often exhibited ___________________________. (8 7)
Hear now the story of how Crispus Attucks,
Through bravery blended with cold mathematics,
Saved Boston, our nation, and Earth, way back when,
In a fight between planets with little green men.
The Boston Massacre, of course, was actually a three-way fight between redcoats, colonials, and diminutive, viridescent Martian invaders; losses of Martian ships were (unlike the Martians themselves) enormous. The site marker formerly commemorated this by showing, in each of the thirteen “wedges” (numbered 0–12 clockwise, starting at the top), how many Martian ships remained in the corresponding sector of the sky after 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 minutes, and at the end of the six-minute battle. Alas, these numbers — one digit per brick — are completely gone now; but some still remained when this diagram was drawn.
To solve this puzzle, first fill in all the remaining “numbers of ships” with the help of (a) the numbers already given in the diagram, (b) the “ship destruction markers” (which indicate how much the numbers decrease as you move inward) and (c) the bricks in the real site marker (which tell how many digits each number has). Then read the innermost ring from sector 0 to sector 12 to find out where to look in the diagram to get the answer.
This puzzle requires site-specific information
Q9 The Martian invasion demonstrated that _____________________________. (4 2 5)
Nine if by UFO (continued)
SITE OF THE BOSTON MASSACRE
MARCH 5, 1770
Ship destruction markers:
Hear now (and possibly be chagrined) about trials that were judged by the stern witch Glinda. (Did you think she was always nice because She befriended young Dorothy, savior of Oz?)
It is a little known fact that there were additional witch trials held right here on Salem Street, where “Good Witches” tried “Bad Witches” for unlawfully using eye of newt and similar “organic” sources of magic to enchant brooms. Of course, the trials themselves used magical items to point out the guilty characters …
Instructions for completing this puzzle:
1. Fill the grid, with the aid of the Plummeting and Descending Gradually clues.
2. After completing step 1, look at the Descending Gradually answers that cross the shaded line; the initial letters of their clues will spell out the two kinds of magical items used in the trials.
3. Three additional entries in the grid are the three organic sources of magic used to enchant those items; the phrase at 9 & 10 Plummeting will tell you what these three are doing, gradually, in the grid.
4. In all, a total of eight magical items (some of one kind, some of the other) were used; you can find them in the grid (represented by letters) steeping in the three organic sources of magic. They point out certain characters immediately adjacent to them, two or three at a time; examine all those characters en masse to find the solution.
At the time, the Boston Glowing Globe commented that “the use of magical evidence by Judge Glinda really ________________________.” (6 2 4 7)
**Plummeting**
1. Rascal (5) / Belgrade resident (4)
2. -Ish, as a prefix (5) / $M^8A^6S^8H$ setting (5)
3. Hamilton’s slayer (4) / More like a lion in color (7)
4. ___ alai (3) / Pelt (3) / Me, ___, and I (6)
5. 1972 nuclear pact (4 1) / Besmirches (5) / ___ ipsa loquitur (3)
6. Earliest (5) / Keepsakes (9)
7. Sends by plane (8) / ___ Paulo (3) / Bert who played a Cowardly Lion (4)
8. Rarely-used metal club (3-4) / Far from difficult (4) / Ice shelter (5)
**9 & 10.** What three organic sources of magic are gradually doing in the grid (7 7)
11. Cheap (3-4) / Tree with peelable bark (5) / Result of tying (4)
12. Rater (8) / “Bali ____” (3) / Some nest eggs, briefly (4)
13. Brand of wee mints (3 4) / Desert-like (4) / Fleur-de-___ (3)
14. Series of steps (5) / Letters preceding a URL (4) / Butterfly-catchers (4)
15. Harden (3) / Preserve (6-3)
16. Scion (4) / Airport near Paris (4) / Insult (3)
17. Slangy denial (5) / Congo, once (5)
18. In ___ (surrounded by a void) (5) / Starting component of wine-words (4)
**Descending Gradually**
- Breaking waves (4) / Zanzibar, e.g. (4)
- Deep Space Nine’s shapeshifter (3) / Location (4) / Giga-giga- (3)
- Dorsal muscles (4) / Improvised knife (4)
- Florida city (5) / Directive preceding *con Dios* (4) / Megan from *Smash* (5)
- Giving up (8) / Line of bigheaded fashion dolls (5) / Yang’s counterpart (3)
- Houston ballplayer (5) / Old realm including Russia (4) / Apple products (6)
- Lake feeding Niagara Falls (4) / Neighborhoods with many theaters (?) (7)
- Loses one’s lunch (5) / Sign indicating theatrical success, briefly (3)
- Male kids (4) / Tina Fey’s old show, for short (3) / Actress Gershon, et aliae (5)
- Once more (4) / Shoo! (4) / Monsters, ___ (3)
- “Personal assistant” app (4) / Slangy greetings (3) / Water-carved gully (6)
- Rd. with landscaping (4) / Wall-building Pope (3 2) / Actor Kristofferson (4)
- Tenor Enrico, et al. (7) / Resting place of Mumtaz Mahal (4) / Non-big-studio (5)
- Two-___ (short film) (6) / “Della and the Dealer” singer Axton (4)
- Ultralight wood (5) / Not unaware of (4) / Commemorative stone pillars (6)
- Where a liege held sway (4) / Tau ___ (notably sunlike star) (4) / Herr’s mate (4)
- Wide-mouthed container (3) / Injury detectors (4) / Piece in quick triple time (7)
- Y’all, in Berlin (3) / Pitcher Martinez (5)
**[9 & 10 Plummeting] Gradually**
* Organic source of magic (9)
* Organic source of magic (5 6)
* Organic source of magic (6)
Listen still more, and you’ll hear as well
Of John Hancock, whose tower is really swell,
Who rode to a tavern to found a nation
(And not to indulge in, say, *fornication*).
A shaft stands erect on his grave; go there
To look on his monument and despair.
Here in the Granary Burying Ground, you
can see John Hancock’s memorial rising
boldly into the air. As you scan across it,
take a moment to look up and then down.
Like his signature, it’s pretty darn big —
but it’s a little-known fact that something
else about John Hancock was also pretty big.
**Big, Big Entries**
1000 × 6.02 × 10^23 atoms or atom groups (8)
Chamber wherein one toils (8)
Congratulation (12)
“Don’t joke about that subject yet” (3 4)
Furniture in honeymoon suites, archaically (5-4)
Lacking a fur covering (8)
Loss of sounds at the end of a word (7)
Making horizontal once again (10)
Power station burning solid fossil fuel (4 5)
Quality of being taut (9)
Tending to split people into factions (8)
Uses too much, as a muscle (10)
With “The,” singers of “Stayin’ Alive” (3 4)
**Big, Big, Big Entries**
Boringly repetitive (10) MONOTONOUS → MOUS
Clearly state what one thinks (about) (4 2 5)
“Clerical” term for a roast fowl’s hind end (6’1 4)
Edge of international waters (5-4 5)
Green liqueur tasting of candy canes (5 2 6)
Jackson and Biloxi’s state (11)
Like many charitable organizations (3-3-6)
Non-presence (10)
Owner (9)
Pioneer’s covered vehicle (9 5)
Quotation from Julius Caesar (4, 4, 4)
Translates for speakers of different tongues (10)
Vehicles from which books are borrowed (6 9)
WWII theater where the US fought Japan (7 5)
Q13 Many of his contemporaries commented about
Mister Hancock’s enormous _______________________. (3 7)
Hear now the story, my good friend,
Of the sweet flood in the old North End;
A candy tank failed in Keaney Square.
Soon Willy Wonka was known everywhere
As an expert in candy canes, not in prevention
Of horrid disasters requiring attention.
In the Great Candy Flood of 1919, a vat of Everlasting Gobstoppers exploded and Wonka’s factory spewed sweets all the way to Old North Church. Interesting, in most cases only a single piece of each type of candy was found in the churchyard. In the few instances where there more than one of a given candy was found, they were always together, plurally, rather than in multiple places.
Bear in mind that we at BAPHL are open and accepting of all races, creeds, and orientations; so color and flavor don’t matter. Treat all equally. Remember that a nourished mind is an active mind; you may find eating lunch helpful at this point.
Willy Wonka chose workers in his Boston factory using a _______________________. (8 4)
Now come hear the story of Samuel Adams,
A guy who would always put bros before madams.
"Hello, brewski seller!" each beer-loving dude
Would cry when he hauled out the ale he had brewed;
Then came chugging, and beer pong, which soon had his crew
Wearing bedsheets and speaking in tongues. (Wouldn't you?)
Belief between impression and knowledge
Theseus's labyrinth foe
Lever, pulley, or screw, for example
Refuse of stables used for fertilizer
Capable of change
Dalai Lama, for example
Provider of "honeydew" for ants
Series of dots showing an omission of words
Maine's official soft drink
Temporarily kept in custody
Secondary field of study at college
Multiplication or periodic, for example
Extra hair on a horse or lion
Type of campaign or agency
With "The," a news satire organization
Ate
One of the Stooges
Sn
Island home to an immigration museum
Female stable resident
Q17 What did Samuel Adams despise most? ___________________________ (5 2 3 10)
Your final exam requires you to relate what you’ve learned about each famous person with things in your immediate environment. You are not required to show your work. However, should you choose to do so, you may find the table on the next page useful.
First, revisit each initial reading and identify the key theme of the reading. Then find a similar theme in your immediate environment. You may find it easier to take pictures and work from those so not all students are crowded together in the same place.
Each famous person has a vehicle; you should be able to figure out how far each vehicle travels. Go that far from the theme you just discovered in your environment. You’ll need to use trial and error to determine whether to go up or down, and bear in mind that every line is important, whether it contains numbers, letters, or symbols.
Finally, use the new information that you learned about that person to match patterns and look for similarities in your new location.
**FINAL EXAM QUESTION**
Longfellow’s poem about putting lamps in the window was a _______________________. (4 5 4)
| Historical figure | Key theme | Distance | Pattern to match | "Environment" Item / Order | Similar to key theme | Count direction (up or down) | Matched Pattern | Similarity |
|-------------------|--------------------|----------|------------------|----------------------------|---------------------|------------------------------|-----------------|------------|
| John Q. Sample | words from poem | 16 | (Q16. Folks found John sexy because he) SERVED AS A MODEL | | | | | | | 75f5b749-2f21-4afe-8a09-2bae77c0e892 | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.baphl.org/7/puzzles/baphl7-norm-all.pdf | 2024-05-20T09:59:19+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058254.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20240520080523-20240520110523-00390.warc.gz | 597,757,284 | 6,351 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.940264 | eng_Latn | 0.997491 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"swh_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown"... | true | rolmOCR | [
1543,
4072,
5677,
6303,
6342,
7538,
9045,
9900,
10441,
12066,
12243,
12896,
13073,
13939,
15322,
15421,
16941,
19405,
21128,
22090,
23067,
24166,
24766
] | [
1.6953125,
2.90625
] | 1 | 0 |
OVERVIEW
The COVID-19 infection has made “social distancing” a common phrase. It means that we should keep a “physical distance” of at least six feet from other people. Why six feet? That is the typical maximum distance that tiny respiratory droplets travel in the air after someone sneezes, coughs, talks or sings.
Some people infected with SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19, do not feel sick. However, they still can pass the virus to someone else. Physical distancing is one of the best ways to keep the virus from reaching and infecting other people.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Students will measure distances of 6 feet using standard and non-standard units.
SCIENCE, HEALTH AND MATH SKILLS
• Measuring
• Comparing
• Observing
• Communicating
NGSS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING PRACTICES
• Analyzing and interpreting data
• Using mathematics and computational thinking
TIME
• Set Up: 5 minutes
• Activity: Two 45-minute classes
MATERIALS FOR SCIENCE INVESTIGATION
Teachers
• How Close Is Too Close? Slide Deck (www.bioedonline.org)
• Computer or projector
Students
• How Close Is Too Close? Student Page (electronic or hard copy)
• Ruler or measuring tape
• Household or classroom items that can be used to measure distance
• Tape or sticky notes
SET UP AND TEACHING TIPS
This activity begins with a class discussion guided by slides. Students then use household or classroom objects to conduct non-standard measurements of six feet. You may assign the hands-on portion of the activity as homework. If students do not have a ruler or tape measure at home, have them download a printable ruler (https://www.avery.com/resources/avery-printable-ruler.pdf).
PROCEDURE
ENGAGE
1. Project the title slide of the How Close Is Too Close presentation and read the question.
How can social distancing slow the spread of COVID-19?
Ask students what they know about “social distancing.” Encourage them to share their ideas.
EXPLORE AND EXPLAIN
2. Use the slides to guide a discussion with students.
SLIDE 2
2. COVID-19 is spread mainly from person to another.
People who are closer than six feet apart can spread the virus to each other.
Why six feet?
How do you think scientists decided on that distance?
Explain that scientists have learned the virus that causes COVID-19 is spread through person-to-person contact. Virus particles contained within tiny droplets of saliva and mucus are released into the air when people talk, shout, laugh, sing, cough or sneeze. Ask, Why do health experts recommend that we keep a distance of six feet apart?
Direct students’ attention to the image and explain that scientists have found that droplets from a sneeze, cough, talking etc. can travel about six feet in air.
SLIDE 4
4. These droplets can land in the mouths or noses of other people nearby.
Ask, Where can these droplets go? Into the mouths, noses and eyes of others! Once a virus enters the body, it can infect a person’s respiratory system and can cause illness.
Remind students that some people infected with the virus may not look or feel sick. It might take several days for them to develop COVID-19 symptoms, but they still may be able to pass the virus to others during this time. Some people develop few or no symptoms, but they also can spread the virus. This is why it is important to wear a mask and practice physical distancing when around other people who do not live in your household. These steps help to prevent disease.
EXTEND
3. After the slideshow say, *We know that COVID-19 is spread through person to person contact. Physical (or social distancing), which means keeping at least 6 feet from others, is one way to limit the spread of the virus. What does 6 feet look like if you can’t measure it?*
4. Explain to the class that they will use household items to see just how far apart they should stand from others?
5. Project the student page and review the instructions together. You, the teacher, can assign due date for work completion.
EVALUATE
6. Have students describe how they used alternative units of measurement to estimate six-foot distances. Or, if they complete this portion of the activity as homework, have students make a drawing or have someone at home take a photo of their unique non-standard measures.
7. Conduct a discussion with students about ways in which they can maintain their social contacts but remain physically distant. Accept all answers. Possibilities include seeing others outdoors at a safe distance or meeting using video calls or conferencing.
THE SCIENCE
According to the CDC, COVID-19 spreads mostly among people who are in close contact. “Close contact” usually means being within six feet of another person for longer than 15 minutes. The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads when an infected person coughs, sneezes, laughs, talks or sings. These actions spray tiny, invisible droplets of saliva or mucous into the air. The droplets can contain virus particles which, in turn, can land in the mouths, noses or eyes of people nearby. New studies have found that people who are infected can spread COVID-19 even if they are not experiencing symptoms. This is why it is important to maintain an appropriate physical distance from people not living in your household, and to wear a face covering (mask) over your mouth and nose. In general, it is safest to avoid crowded places and gatherings where it may be difficult to maintain physical distancing.
RESOURCES
• Scientific American. Human Body Ratios. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/human-body-ratios/.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Social Distancing. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/social-distancing.html.
The COVID-19 infection has made “social distancing” a common phrase. It means that we should keep a “physical distance” of at least six feet from other people. Why six feet? That is the typical maximum distance that tiny respiratory droplets travel in the air after someone sneezes, coughs, talks or sings.
COVID HEALTHY ACTIONS, COMMUNITY KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENCE
A SCIENCE-BASED CURRICULUM FOR THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
We are grateful to Laura and John Arnold and other community donors for their generous support, which enabled development of the COVID HACKS curriculum materials. We also thank the many scientists, educators and physicians from Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) who provided content, feedback and technical reviews.
The information contained in this publication is for educational purposes only and should in no way be taken to be the provision or practice of medical, nursing or professional healthcare advice or services. The information should not be considered complete and should not be used in place of a visit, call, consultation or advice of a physician or other health care provider. Call or see a physician or other health care provider promptly for any health care-related questions.
The activities described in the various components of the curriculum are intended for students under direct supervision of adults. The authors, Baylor College of Medicine (BCM) and any sponsors cannot be responsible for any accidents or injuries that may result from conduct of the activities, from not specifically following directions, or from ignoring cautions contained in the text.
The opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this publication are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of BCM, image contributors or sponsors. Photographs or images used throughout project related materials, whether copyrighted or in the public domain, require contacting original sources to obtain permission to use images outside of this publication. The authors, contributors, and editorial staff have made every effort to contact copyright holders to obtain permission to reproduce copyrighted images. However, if any permissions have been inadvertently overlooked, the authors will be pleased to make all necessary and reasonable arrangements.
• Author: Lollie Garay
• Web and Design Director: Travis Kelleher
• Copy Editor: James Denk
• Graphic Design: Jose Chavero Rivera
• Technical Reviewers: Mayar Al-Mohajer, Yuriko Fukuta
• Project Director and Series Editor: Nancy Moreno
No part of this guide may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic or electronic process, or in the form of an audio recording; nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use without prior written permission of Baylor College of Medicine. Black-line masters, student pages and slides reproduced for classroom use are excepted.
© 2020 Baylor College of Medicine. All rights reserved.
OVERVIEW
COVID-19 spreads through droplets that are sent out into the air when an infected person talks, coughs, sneezes, sings or laughs. Some of these droplets can travel as far as 6 feet away.
It’s possible for someone to be infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 and not feel sick. That’s why it’s important to keep a safe distance of about 6 feet from other people who do not live in your household.
How far is 6 feet?
PART 1
USING NON-STANDARD MEASURES
1. Using a ruler or measuring tape, mark off a 6-foot line on the floor. Use a piece of tape or a sticky note to mark the beginning and ending distance you measure.
2. Look around the classroom, house, yard or garage to find non-standard objects that you can use to measure distance. For example, how many spoons does it take to mark off 6 feet? Measurements must be made using only one kind of item (for example all spoons).
3. Use the items to mark out a 6-foot distance. If you’re doing this at home, make a drawing or have someone take a photo or of your unique form of measurement.
4. Now you know how far 6 feet is. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it’s important to keep a distance of about 6 feet from people who do not live in your household. How can you use this information to keep a safe distance from others if you are in a group? Let’s see how using our arms might help.
PART 2
ESTIMATING 6 FEET
1. Stand (or lie down) with your arms stretched out horizontally (from your sides), as shown in the illustration below.
2. Ask someone to measure the distance between the middle fingertip on one hand all the way across to the middle fingertip of the other. This is called your “arm span.”
- What is the measurement?
3. If your arm span measures 4 feet:
- How much farther would you need to stand to keep a safe distance from other people?
4. Knowing your arm span can help you estimate what 6 feet looks like!
FUN FACT
Did you know that your arm span is about the same measurement as your height? | a7b3ea2f-e7ec-443e-b56b-6d741744a430 | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.bioedonline.org/BioEd/cache/file/795FCCD7-B9D2-0C7B-8AC3608284D851EE.pdf | 2021-01-25T08:12:10+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703565376.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20210125061144-20210125091144-00467.warc.gz | 677,043,354 | 2,284 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99594 | eng_Latn | 0.99715 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1675,
3458,
6020,
8686,
10043,
10701
] | [
4.71875
] | 1 | 1 |
ECONOMIC INCLUSION, WHAT IS NEEDED?
Arden Duncan Bonokoski, Provincial Coordinator
Post-secondary Education is one of the pathways after high school to increase employability, social networks and set up young people to live a good life. Learning, exploring and developing a career identity is an important part of the post-secondary experience for all students. Students with developmental disabilities are no different and are challenging long-held expectations about belonging.
In Canada, the employment rate for people with a developmental disability is about 30%. There is an urgent need to address this drastic and often ignored socio-economic inequity. In this issue, you will read how across the province students and employers are collaborating and changing this outcome.
Last year I attended the Inclusion Alberta Family Conference and participated in a session focused on employment presented by Beth Keeton. She opened her presentation by sharing that the mission of her life’s work is to break the imaginary link between disability and poverty. A link that is pervasive across Canada. The clarity with which she communicated her mission resonated and has inspired us to communicate and inspire others through the work that is happening here in BC. Our aim is to break this link and support students to build a foundation that will lead to greater economic stability and a better life. One place to start is by debunking the myth that people with developmental disabilities either can’t or don’t want to work. But how?
To answer this question, we need to look towards the normative pathways that exist for Canadians without disabilities to secure employment, and embed people with developmental disabilities within those same pathways. For most of us, without disabilities, employment and a career are normative expectations. From the time we are young, the adults who care about us hold dreams for our careers and vocations. Kids as young as three are asked what they want to be when they grow up, they play make believe and pretend to work as school teachers or doctors and as they get bigger, are supported by family to perform chores or small jobs often in exchange for an allowance or some kind of pay. Upon reaching legal working age, families and communities invest in providing employment for young people so they can learn to work. Teachers have conversations about career goals which often include discussions of higher learning. Most of the time, kids who have developmental disabilities do not experience this normative pathway. Then, we expect them to know what they want to do and what they are good at once they are eligible for employment services at the age of 19. This strategy of embedding all kids in this normative pathway to employment has shown promise. In fact, the research suggests that young people with the label of developmental disability who have paid work during high school are twice as likely to be employed as adults, this mirrors what we know about the normative pathways for all young people.
Inclusive Post-secondary Education is one of the many extensions of this normative pathway that extend from high school. By embedding the students we work for, in the authentic student experience, they have the opportunity to learn about what they are interested in and to work towards a career that reflects their interests and abilities. These students are challenging long-held expectations that people with developmental disabilities are unlikely to find work and those who do can only hold entry level positions.
In order to support the vision for economic inclusion through our work, we need to be committed to dreaming big, holding high expectations for the capacity of community to include everyone, and to the process of embedding students in normative pathways. Over the last 18 years we have found that it is just as much work to support a student to find an entry level position that does not reflect their interests and abilities as it is to find a job for a computer science student in the technology sector.
The lessons we have learned are that we need to be creative about finding the ideal place of employment for the students we work for. By thinking big, we can find workplaces and customize roles that we may have never thought existed, like the quality assurance co-op position at the real-life underwater exploration engineering firm where a computer science student worked for a co-op term.
WHAT COMES NEXT?
By Jessica Humphrey, Parent
Last week, I went to a ‘check-in’ meeting at my daughter’s high school. Normally, I would panic about these kinds of meetings as it usually means ‘inclusion’ isn’t working and some kind of critical incident has occurred. This time, the meeting was with the Principal and the Integration Support Teacher. They wanted to know what the plan was for when my daughter, Rosie, finished high school- if there was a program of some kind I was exploring that they could support her transition to over the next year. All of a sudden, I grew quite giddy and went from being anxious about our meeting, to being very excited to answer their question.
I’d been waiting a long time to be asked the ‘what comes next?’ question from the school. Now I realize that people don’t ask that question because they assume her path is one that leads to segregation- a day program, or other ‘specialized’ activity for people labelled with intellectual disability. I feel very lucky to have learned about inclusive post-secondary when Rosie was 6 and so have known for some time that is was an option in our daughter’s future. Somehow, just knowing it was possible for Rosie to go to university (in the same way it was possible for her brother), made some of the hardest moments of my life fighting for her inclusion in K-12, worth every minute.
Knowing inclusive post-secondary is an option has made it all that much more important for Rosie to understand and believe she belongs in the same places and spaces as all the other kids. It has encouraged me to advocate for her inclusion in classes I never imagined she’d have an interest in, to modify assignments on the French Revolution and Shakespeare, and to facilitate friendships with kids in her class who now call Rosie one of their best friends.
“Yes”, I answered in the school meeting. “Rosie will be applying to study at the University of Victoria. Isn’t there a campus tour coming up?” I asked. If they were surprised, they didn’t let on. They asked good questions about how they could help with the application process, what courses she should take in grade 12 and where they should send her transcripts. It was the first time in a long time I left a school meeting with a smile on my face.
This week, totally unprompted, a UVic 2019/2020 Undergraduate Viewbook came home in Rosie’s bag with a note – Homework for Career Planning Course-Rosie to choose courses she might like to study at UVic. So many choices. Tonight, we’ll look through the options together. I can literally feel myself skipping down the normative pathway to adult life for our daughter.
CUSTOMIZED EMPLOYMENT:
THE BIGGER PICTURE
By Carmen Lee
Carmen has been working with the initiative for three years and has worked as an Inclusion Facilitator at Emily Carr University of Art and Design and now at the University of Victoria. One of the things she has learned as an Inclusion Facilitator is having a cool reusable mug is equivalent to ‘street cred’ on university campuses and is a great conversation starter.
Much like all university students, the students who access inclusive post-secondary find a variety of jobs during their time at school. For some students, they may experience their very first job, a job they absolutely love, aspects of work that are less desirable, or perhaps most importantly, the benefits of making money.
As a facilitator who has worked at Emily Carr University of Art and Design and now the University of Victoria, I’ve worked with students who have reached a number of career milestones and have seen how each opportunity has helped them pave way to the next.
For students who choose to work and study simultaneously, it is exciting to watch them grow and develop into their respective roles, build relationships with their coworkers, and to gain a clear vision for ‘what’s next’. Most importantly, I have had the opportunity to witness how various aspects of their education, employment, extracurriculars, and personal passions come together to help them develop a sense of who they are and how they fit into this world.
Every time I connect with a new employer, I am amazed at the creativity and thoughtfulness they bring to the table.
Customized employment takes a lot of thinking outside the box and unlearning everything we thought we knew about people with developmental disabilities. All of the employers that I have had the pleasure of working with have been able to think outside the box and assume responsibility fostering community in the workplace with finesse.
The ways in which we approach customizing a valuable role for a student can vary. I have worked with employers to modify existing roles or to create something completely new in order to match the student’s strengths and skills with the needs of the organization. I have come to understand that customized employment is a lot like finding the right piece to match the puzzle and this is a metaphor I often use to describe customized employment to potential employers. Albeit, there is a lot of time and consideration that goes into crafting each role for a student, the magic of it is watching everything fall into place as students begin work. The excitement that comes with starting a new job, learning about the work, and meeting new people.
I’ve quickly learned that the actual work is a small part of the greater picture. As students immerse themselves in their work, they come to understand things they like and dislike about the job and get a better sense of where they would like to go next. They meet people who introduce them to new things such as a fun hobby or a great place to grab a beer. They build positive relationships with their co-workers and hopefully make a few friends along the way.
Although working with each employer is different, the results are much the same. Through meaningful employment, students strengthen their sense of identity and become confident in the decisions they make. As valuable members of the workforce, they reap the benefits of having a sense of belonging and community. With each new opportunity, collaboratively crafted by employers and facilitators, countless possibilities open up for the future. It is our experiences in the present that help to set us up for what comes ahead in this journey called life.
A successful graduate of the Associate of Arts-First Nations Studies program at the Nicola Valley Institute of Technology was determined to find exciting and fulfilling work after completing her studies. This graduate’s dedication and willpower landed her a position at Merritt’s very own Kekuli Café Coffee & Bannock that was customized thoughtfully to highlight her strengths and maximize her contributions to this local business.
Kekuli Café has acquired a reputation for providing an authentic dining experience like no other, serving their amazing indigenous cuisine, and providing a warm and friendly environment. This community engaged business supports local talent during their “open mic night” in addition to housing various local artistic pieces throughout their interior. These unique elements captured the heart of the graduate who described to me, “How much this felt like home for her.”
A match was discovered, an application form was completed, a resume and cover letter were handed in and lastly, an interview was scheduled and completed.
Through a collaborative approach that focussed on the skills, knowledge and interests of the job seeker, while discussing and meeting the needs of the employer, a position was customized and this NVIT Alumni was hired for one to two shifts per week as a customer service associate.
As a new employee of Kekuli Café Coffee & Bannock her responsibilities included, maintaining a clean and safe environment for customers and staff, restocking and keeping the coffee bar area clean, clearing and cleaning dishes, welcoming and being mindful of customers’ needs and lastly working with staff to ensure all closing duties are complete. Although she is new to her position, her goal is to work towards becoming a floor hostess.
In order to gain some insight into what creating a customized employment opportunity was like, from the perspective of an employer, I sat down with Elijah to pick his brain about his experience:
Lisa: What was your first impression when I approached you about customized employment?
Elijah: “My initial thought was that I get to give someone an opportunity that I was never given and this really touched home for me. Because of the way I cared, the way I looked, and the way I talked, I was singled out and bullied for a long time and because of this it took a long time for me to understand how important it is to have a sense of belonging and how crucial this is to our development and well-being as we become adults… I understood that equity must be established before equality can be obtained and I was excited to be a part of this social change.”
Lisa: What were the barriers that first came to mind?
Elijah: “Owning your own business, you must consider the risks, for example labor cost or performance outcomes; however, after discussing how the collaborative approach works and taking the time to understand the process and supports that are put in place for the job seeker, myself, and my staff, I honestly couldn’t be happier and I began to envision what an opportunity like this will bring to the job seeker, staff and our community.”
Lisa: How did you work through the barriers and what supports were helpful?
Elijah: “I felt the job coaching provided insight about diversity that could have been missed otherwise and not with just me, but with staff and even customers. But mostly, the job coaching provided an inclusive and intentional support approach that was balanced in every which way especially during the training process and even as the facilitator transitioned out of the job coach role. An excellent example of how we worked through a barrier was when a book of visual aids was created by the facilitator and the job seeker to help with training. We saw this as a helpful tool for all new hires and look forward to incorporating it into our training”.
Lisa: From this alternative approach to hiring, in what ways were you able to minimize difference and what would you share about customized employment?
Elijah: “The best part about this approach is that there was a mutual understanding between the STEPS Forward facilitator and myself that every person has the potential to be someone and go somewhere and that a person can grow and excel by believing that the possibilities are endless. And what reflects this type of thinking is to focus less on what’s different about one person and more on how my roles and responsibilities might not allow for diversity within the work environment.”
This alternative approach allowed my staff and I to collaboratively create meaningful employment that fit this individual’s skills and interests. And to achieve meaningful employment it was important to keep the hiring process intact, create a job description that matched the skills and interests of the job seeker, provide proper training, and be mindful when setting up or communicating about staff meetings and staff functions. When you minimize difference, everyone is on the same page and my amazing staff all took the initiative to support and help train their new co-worker and by simply role modelling what they do every shift they were also reinforcing her training.
The experience and opportunity to work with Elijah speaks to the impact of being around innovative people and demonstrates the possibilities that are out there in community for students and alumni when we pay attention to the right match. As an Inclusion Facilitator, it was very important to see how the authentic post-secondary experience prepared this alumni to identify and secure work that is meaningful, and how meaningful inclusion has the power to raise expectations about what life can look like in our community. It was exciting to work collaboratively with Elijah and his staff who all contributed to helping create a sense of belonging within the organization. What I took away from the interview was insight into owning a small business in a small community and an appreciation of how Elijah’s passion for inclusion and building a sense of belonging made this opportunity possible.
Creating social change requires us to have faith in what is possible, and I am humbled to have been in the presence of the innovative people at Kekuli Cafe.
JUDITH MOSOFF SCHOLARSHIP
The Judith Mosoff scholarship recognizes high school students who are fully included in high-school and who plan to pursue an inclusive and coherent post-secondary education after graduation. Applicants are asked to describe how they are working towards this goal through inclusive academic and extracurricular opportunities in their school and through contributions to their community. School and community references are asked to describe how they are promoting inclusion through their work. Award recipients are acknowledged at their high school graduation ceremony. For more information visit:
www.bc-ipse.org/judith-mosoff-scholarship-fund.html | 3f7cb739-8387-4364-999b-f167eb01784a | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.bc-ipse.org/uploads/6/2/0/8/62081869/may_2019_newsletter__6_.pdf | 2021-01-26T04:45:44+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704798089.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20210126042704-20210126072704-00008.warc.gz | 674,117,120 | 3,374 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998646 | eng_Latn | 0.998766 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
781,
4461,
6287,
8696,
10794,
13431,
15298,
17709
] | [
2.1875
] | 1 | 0 |
WHITEWATER PARK TOOLKIT
A Paddler’s Guide to Championing a Local Project
Every Project Needs a Local Champion
Nationally, there are more than 1,000 rivers suitable for whitewater paddling, most of which are located off the beaten path and away from municipalities. Countless more, however, flow right through the heart of communities large and small. While many of these are not currently prone to paddling, with a little help they can be converted into destination whitewater play parks, becoming gathering places for their communities, enhancing the riparian zones, and even generating revenues for their towns.
But it takes a champion and a little elbow grease. Most of today’s in-stream whitewater parks were the result of a paddler or group of paddlers that had a vision for a local park and the passion to get the ball rolling.
Championing the development of a whitewater park for your community is not a simple process, nor is it the same from one community to the next. It takes tenacity, flexibility, and patience. Yet, armed with the right information and inspiration, you can be the spark that leads to a successful whitewater park in your community.
The purpose of this Whitewater Park Toolkit is to serve as a guide for whitewater enthusiasts, anglers, and other community stakeholders to advocate for the development of a local in-stream whitewater park in their community. It provides a general understanding of the process, player, and costs involved in building a fun, safe, and environmentally
CONTENTS
WHERE TO START 04–05
THE FEASIBILITY STUDY 07
THE WHITEWATER PARK DESIGN PROCESS 09–10
PROJECT FUNDING 13
THE ECONOMIC IMPACT STUDY 16
03 RIVER PARKS DEFINED
06 SITE CONSIDERATIONS
08 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
11–12 COSTS
14–15 MUNICIPAL AND COMMUNITY SUPPORT
17 ABOUT S2O DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
To start, let’s make sure we are talking the same language: a river park, or whitewater park, is a section of river that has been altered, through careful planning and construction, to offer recreational opportunities and create a place for a community to gather, host events, enjoy nature, and more. They can also be used for such ecological enhancements as restoring riparian habitat and improving fish passage.
By modifying the riverbed, or creating manmade channels, whitewater parks contain hydraulic features including waves, chutes, drops, and eddies that are attractive for recreational and/or commercial kayaking, rafting, surfing, stand-up paddling, and inner-tubing. Their size and scope varies considerably, ranging from small, single-feature play parks to large-scale, multi-million-dollar recirculating whitewater venues. Many are also the result of converting a deteriorating and dangerous low-head dam into a safe, fish-friendly, recreational attraction.
While S2O Design also creates fully pumped whitewater parks (imagine making a whole river from scratch), this Whitewater Park Toolkit is geared toward the development of in-stream whitewater parks — by either modifying the existing riverbed or diverting water channel from an existing channel — to create whitewater features.
WHERE TO START
Developing an in-stream whitewater park varies widely in complexity and cost depending on location, intended uses, economic conditions and the local political environment. It is helpful to get a design professional on-board, at least for a discussion, sooner rather than later.
An initial feasibility study is very affordable, but often requires buy-in from your local community before you can start. This means that you may need to do a little politicking.
In general, the development of a successful whitewater park requires three vital components:
1. A suitable site
2. Funding
3. Community and stakeholder support
When advocating for a new whitewater park, it’s important to understand the overall benefits the project can deliver:
**Making the Case for Whitewater Parks**
**Quality of Life** — River-based parks inspire a community to reconnect with its river in ways not previously available, delivering opportunities for outdoor recreation, leisure, community events, and more. When paired with adjacent land development and waterfront revitalization efforts, they become gathering places that attract walkers, families, picnickers, and spectators, in addition to the in-stream uses of kayaking, rafting, surfing, wading, and floating.
**Environmental** — River modification usually includes the restoration or rehabilitation of in-stream and riparian habitat. This improves river system and ecosystem functions, and can support flood mitigation strategies.
**Economic** — Whitewater parks across the country are generating substantial economic impacts for their host communities as users spend money at local restaurants, lodging and retail establishments. These venues open the doors to other recreational opportunities such as zip-lining, rock-climbing, concerts and festivals, hiking and biking, attracting a broad array of users and corresponding revenues. A whitewater park’s economic contribution depends largely on the park’s scale and market size, with smaller parks shown to generate incremental spending in the $500,000 to $750,000 range per year while larger parks contribute as much as $19 million annually to local economies.
**Branding** — Whitewater parks provide communities with a closer connection to their rivers and become focal points for outdoor lifestyle experiences. They serve as destinations for outdoor recreation-based tourism, supporting a community’s overall image and brand.
SITE CONSIDERATIONS
While many factors affect site selection, a whitewater park project should:
- Preserve the natural aesthetic qualities of the river
- Improve the natural functions of the reach
- Be constructed at appropriate sites for human impact
- Be sited to minimize recreational conflicts with anglers and other users
Many things make a particular site feasible, but the most basic qualities are flow and drop. Every whitewater park needs enough flow to be fun to paddle and enough drop to create attractive features for boaters and floaters. Other key factors include land ownership, river access, floodplain risk and bank stability.
If a site has the necessary flow and drop, then the battle is half won. But, there are still myriad other factors that can affect the feasibility of a specific site. The best way to evaluate a project’s potential is to have a design professional look at the site.
The Feasibility Study
This is the first must-do part of a whitewater park project because it ensures that a project has the right ingredients for success. It determines whether a particular project is possible and, if so, how it could look and function, what it will take to get the project done, and its approximate cost.
The goal of The Feasibility Study is to determine, in general, how a project could look and function, the challenges it presents, and the resources needed for it to be successful. It also helps determine land and funding requirements as well as implementation timelines and tasks.
Deliverables include a comprehensive report, design documents including a conceptual design and cost estimates, tasks required to complete a project, and permit requirements. This preliminary phase of a project is powerful as it provides the materials necessary to pursue funding and grants, and provides decision makers the information they need to make informed decisions about whether — and how — to move the project forward.
Whitewater parks typically require an individual (404) permit. This can include a lengthy public review process that entails reviewing the project’s environment impacts, including both in-stream and riparian zone, as well as impacts to affected stakeholders. Typically, federal/municipal departments, such as the Department of Environmental Conservation, Fish and Wildlife and others are consulted as a part of this process.
The primary objective for a whitewater park is to create a fun and dynamic place to kayak, float, wade, and play in the river, while achieving additional goals such as habitat improvement, lowhead dam removal, fish passage, flood mitigation, and more. A successful river park should also provide recreation opportunities for all visitors, not just those who choose to enter the river. When possible, it should also be constructed from natural materials that complement the overall restoration project.
The design and development process requires a thoughtful, detailed, organized approach to see a project come to fruition. Determining the right size and scale for a river park depends on several factors, including the community’s vision and level of support, available budget, and land ownership issues.
Preliminary requisites for project design and development include a comprehensive site plan, programming plan, and conceptual design. These tools help guide a project through approvals and financing and define budgets for fundraising, land purchase, and total design costs.
Finding a development team that is experienced in start-up and operations is essential to the success of any project.
The Whitewater Park Design Process
START
01 | Flood Modeling
Creating an effective existing conditions model allows for the application of specific dimensions to concepts and to further refine cost predictions. This phase requires some surveying and computer modeling. This can be done separately or as the first step of Preliminary Design.
02 | Preliminary Design
Preliminary Design is tasked with completing the necessary actions to finalize design functionality and layout, and to gather and process the data necessary to undertake detailed design. It often includes surveying, baseline modeling, defining constraints and objectives, and completing design documents to the permitting level.
03 | Permitting
Whitewater parks typically require a number of individual (404) permits, which can be a lengthy review process that includes assessments of the park’s impacts to the environment both in-stream and riparian zone, as well as impacts to affected stakeholders. Obtaining these approvals can require several tasks, including detailed site surveys; wetland delineations; historic structures and/or culturally significant resources; threatened and endangered species surveys; a Proposed Conditions flood model; and the issuance of design drawings stamped by a licensed professional engineer.
04 | Detailed Design
Detailed Design is about getting to the nuts-and-bolts of a project — detailed calculations and modeling. The level of computations and modeling is determined by the type of project; some projects can be accomplished with 1- and 2-dimensional modeling while others require detailed physical models.
05 | Construction Documentation
This is the “after-design” phase, where documents are created that help define the project for the contractor(s), including all sections, details, specifications and bid items. Often the whitewater park designer will work with the client or the community to navigate these processes.
06 | Project Bidding and Construction
The project goes to bid by the project owner and a contractor is selected and contracted.
07 | Construction Oversight and Inspection
This is the messy work. The design team and contractor(s) work together to construct the project to exacting specifications. The design team will often have representatives in the field virtually full-time to ensure an accurate build that is aesthetic and functional.
08 | Course Commissioning
The final phase is where everyone gets to get wet! Paddling experts get in the water and test the project, tuning wave characteristics and project features until the project is fully functional and meets the design objectives.
Understandably, the cost of whitewater park development varies greatly from project to project, ranging from $50,000 - $100,000 for smaller, single-feature parks to tens of million dollars for large, multi-feature recirculating parks like the National Whitewater Center in Charlotte, N.C., and Riversport Rapids facility in Oklahoma City.
Completed in spring 2019, the new Eagle Whitewater Park in Eagle, Colorado, which includes four features and multiple bankside improvements, was built for around $7 million; and the new Poudre River Whitewater Park in Fort Collins, Colorado, which replaced an outdated diversion dam, was completed for $11.5 million. These costs included large streamside elements such as bathrooms, parking, and other features that invite the community to the park.
**Sample Whitewater Park Development Costs:**
- **Lyons Valley River Park** (Lyons, CO) .......................................................... $610,000
- **Canon City Whitewater Park** (Canon City, CO) ........................................... $920,000
- **Glenwood Whitewater Park** (Glenwood Springs, CO) .................................... $1,350,000
- **Meadow/Laverne Johnson Park** (Lyons, CO) ................................................ $1,438,000
- **Eagle Whitewater Park** (Eagle, CO) .............................................................. $7,000,000
- **Poudre Whitewater Park** (Fort Collins, CO) .................................................. $11,500,000
The primary factors affecting a potential whitewater park’s cost include:
**Project scope** — Some projects are created in locations ideally suited to small-scale improvements while projects with a larger scope require multiple structures. These can also necessitate a phased development approach, with manageable portions of the project completed per phase.
**River width** — Typical drop structures are founded on arched structures anchored into the bed and banks of the river. Arches are typically exponentially more expensive the wider they are. An efficient drop structure is typically located in a narrow part of the river to help mitigate project costs.
**Nature of the soils** — Structures built on unstable soils often require extensive construction to provide a stable platform for a drop structure. In some cases, this includes expensive enhancements such as sheet-pile cut-off walls.
**Proximity to sensitive ecosystems** — Parks planned in critical habitat areas are more difficult to design and permit and often require extensive review periods and costly redesign. Where possible, select a site that is already impacted that could benefit from such amenities as fish passage, low-head dam removal and bank stabilization. This can also make permitting and approvals easier to attain.
**Public process** — Some parks require an extensive public process — involving work with local municipalities, task forces, various permitting agencies and pertinent stakeholders — adding cost and time.
Funding a whitewater park can be a project’s biggest hurdle. Funding solutions typically come from a mix of grants, municipal financing, taxes, private investors and traditional financing.
While determining financial support options can happen on a parallel track with preliminary concept development and cost analysis, having a complete design study along with market, economic and environmental impact analyses is key to successfully navigating this phase of a project.
A volunteer citizen’s committee can be established to gain support for private fundraising, and/or grant/foundation support. It’s also common to seek a location where the local or federal government can help incentivize the project, to restore or enhance a riparian zone or remove an outdated and
**Case Studies**
**Eagle Whitewater Park, Eagle, Colo.**
A central part of the Town of Eagle’s River Corridor Plan established in 2015, the $7 million Eagle River Park was vetted through an extensive public process and a cooperative effort with Colorado Parks and Wildlife. The project was funded largely through a 0.5% sales tax approved in 2016 to fund park and trail improvements. Additional funding came from Fremont County, a Great Outdoors Colorado (GOCO) grant, private donors and local business sponsorships.
**Poudre Whitewater Park, Fort Collins, Colo.**
The $11.5 million Poudre Whitewater Park in Fort Collins, Colo., was accomplished through a collaboration of several local partners and stakeholders. The project’s scope included converting the Coy Diversion Dam into a usable park that fosters fish migration; creating both high- and low-flow river features; and extensive bank restoration and reconfiguration to bolster animal habitat and improve stormwater management. The project was funded through both public and private sources, including a comprehensive voter-supported capital improvement tax initiative; support from the city’s Storm Water, Natural Areas and Parks & Rec departments; and private donations.
Creating coalitions and building community support is vital to any municipal project and whitewater parks are no different. To successfully advocate for a whitewater park in your community, you must first introduce the idea and vision to the greater community in order to generate common understanding and enthusiasm for the project and initial buy-in.
Begin the process by identifying key stakeholders, influencers and decision makers, including community leaders, advocacy groups, local clubs and associations. Use these resources to define the opportunity, identify any obstacles to the project’s completion, and educate the broader community about the park’s benefits.
Create a plan that provides opportunities to engage the public and generate support. This can be done through public open houses, educational events, a dedicated project website, social media platforms, a project-specific newsletter and email campaigns.
Municipal support is crucial, which can often mean first pitching the idea to the city or town council. Many such efforts also originate from local nonprofit or advocacy groups, as in Steamboat Springs, Colo., where local nonprofit Friends of the Yampa River spearheaded their whitewater park. “We brought the idea to the city, and they then helped with all the permitting. It was a combined effort by various groups,” says FOY president Kent Vertrees.
Be prepared! It takes persistence and patience to lay the framework for a proposed park and get it in front of the right decision makers. But persevere and your community can join the nearly 100 others in the country that have successfully built a whitewater park for the betterment of their communities.
Case Study: Montgomery, Alabama
Even large-scale whitewater parks can get their start from a single champion. According to a story in the Montgomery Advertiser, a new $50 million whitewater park in Montgomery, Ala., owes itself largely to the efforts of local advocate Megan McKenzie.
Local officials agreed that the government-backed whitewater park and outdoor fun center will redefine the area as a young professional and family destination. Its main attraction is a 25-acre central park that will feature rafting and kayaking along a man-made whitewater course that twists through restaurants, shops, a beer garden, an outdoor concert venue and a hotel and conference center. The wider, 120-acre site will feature a climbing tower, zip lines, mountain biking, rope courses, and more.
McKenzie got the project rolling after hearing her sister’s stories from a recent trip to the National Whitewater Center in Charlotte, N.C. “I’m just this random woman who had an idea and literally put together the shabbiest PowerPoint,” she told the Advertiser.
McKenzie first met with city development officials where she explained the idea and showed a rough presentation along with videos from Charlotte. They “got the vision” and sent her up the chain to the County Commission and then the mayor’s office. Other leaders and groups, public and private, soon joined the push.
McKenzie compared it to a relay race, with people carrying the baton forward then handing it off to someone else for the next stretch. “The project happened because everyone jumped on board and paddled in the same direction,” she said.
Furthering the grassroots effort was McKenzie’s mother, Ellen McNair, vice president of corporate development for the Montgomery Area Chamber of Commerce, who helped chaperone the complex dynamics of different partnerships.
“Coming up with the project idea was the easiest part of the process,” said McKenzie. “I could tell you so many stories of individual leaders that made bold moves on the projects behalf.”
The Economic Impact Study
According to the Outdoor Industry Foundation, more than 17.8 million Americans participate in paddlesports. For most, a high-quality whitewater park is worth traveling for, with premier whitewater parks attracting well over 100,000 user days each year. The resulting economic boost is seen by local businesses—restaurants, hotels, gas stations, retail stores, outdoor outfitters and campgrounds—and in local sales tax revenues.
S2O Design has undertaken numerous economic studies for a variety of municipalities seeking to understand and quantify the benefits of creating a whitewater park in their communities. A typical economic impact study details the overall economic stimulus to a local region generated by a proposed whitewater park. It provides an overview of the river structures for a proposed park, the types of commercial and non-commercial uses (rafting, kayaking, canoeing, tubing) and levels of use. It examines the direct, indirect and induced impacts of the project, including specific influences on local businesses, tax revenues and job creation, and summarizes potential future benefits. Such an analysis guides civic leaders, developers, funding bodies and local stakeholder groups in making informed decisions regarding a project’s development.
ABOUT S2O DESIGN AND ENGINEERING
S2O Design and Engineering is the world’s leading whitewater design firm. We specialize in both in-stream and pumped whitewater projects, as well as river engineering and restoration. S2O’s principals have served as lead designers of some of the world’s most high-profile whitewater projects, including the US National Whitewater Center in Charlotte, N.C., the country’s largest and most successful pump-driven whitewater course; the Lee Valley Whitewater Centre, venue of the 2012 Olympics; and the Riversport Rapids Whitewater Center in Oklahoma City. The S2O Design team has designed and built a variety of in-stream recreation projects — including the Durango Whitewater Park (CO), Boise Whitewater Park (ID), and Camphill River Park (Wanaka, NZ), and has led numerous river restoration projects, including development of Denver’s River Mile River Restoration Project, the Canyon City River Master Plan, and St. Vrain Creek Watershed Master Plan (CO).
Scott Shipley
S2O Design was founded by Scott, a 3-time Olympian and 3-time World Cup whitewater kayak champion. He is an International Whitewater Hall of Fame inductee and was voted a top-ten athlete of the year three times by the USOC.
Scott holds a bachelor’s and master’s degree in Mechanical Engineering from Georgia Institute of Technology and is a Licensed Professional Engineer, registered in many states around the country.
Services
Park and Watershed Masterplanning
Whitewater Park Design
Feasibility and Conceptual Design
Whitewater Park Economic Impact Studies
Whitewater Park Business and Operations Planning
Whitewater Park Permitting
Final Design and Construction Documentation
Construction Oversight and Inspection
1-D, 2-D, CFD and Physical Hydraulic Modeling
Stream Restoration
Bank Stabilization
Diversion Structures
River Access and Boat Ramps
Fish Passage and Aquatic Habitat Enhancements
Diversion Structure Design | 29018762-e605-4378-8b52-e8d0921e0ada | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://s2odesign.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/S2O-Design-Whitewater-Park-Toolkit.pdf | 2020-04-10T04:58:47+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371886991.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200410043735-20200410074235-00479.warc.gz | 666,389,885 | 4,569 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.953981 | eng_Latn | 0.997499 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
72,
1516,
1830,
3130,
3768,
5570,
6483,
7946,
9148,
10769,
11781,
13266,
14774,
16780,
18470,
20493,
21789,
23720
] | [
2.1875,
1.9375
] | 1 | 0 |
AAC Functional Communication
(Including Symbol Sentence Strip)
I Can Tell Others Where My Body Hurts!
Purchase of this product entitles you to use in your own classroom/assignment only. You may make copies of individual pages for use in your class/assignment, but do not copy and/or share any portion of this product with any individual including parents or teachers unless otherwise specified on the individual page. Copying or sharing with other professionals, distributing the file via the internet, or claiming this product as your own is strictly forbidden.
Please direct others interested in using this product back to the original source.
View more of our products with these quick links.
IMPORTANT INFO FOR MAC USERS
If the file does not advance properly on your MAC the following info may solve your issue.
The Preview app is the standard way a PDF opens when it is downloaded on a Mac. In the Preview app, the answer slides are skipped (or the question slides if you manually move to the answer slide). However, when it is opened in a different PDF program (like PDF Assistant Lite, or Adobe PDF Reader), the issue is resolved and the file functions as it was designed. To open the file in a different program, locate the file on the computer and click with two fingers to open the menu. Select “open with” and choose a different program.
For instructions for iPad installation download our resource titled IPAD INSTALLATION FOR INTERACTIVE PDFs
This book was created due to a parent’s request. The parent wanted so much for her child to be able to tell her when she was hurting, and what part of her body was in pain. This book provides practice using AAC methods for a child to learn how to inform others when he/she is in pain.
If your student has an AAC book/board/device, have the device available for use while reading the book. If your student does not have a symbol set, they may use the digital sentence strip symbols to state “Ouch! My … hurts!”, with you providing the voice for their words.
Read a page using lots of inflection and tone to indicate pain, concluding with asking the question, “What did he/she say?” Touch each word in the question strip as you read.
The student should use his/her AAC system, or touch the images on the sentence strip, to respond, “Ouch! My … hurts!”
After saying the sentence, the student gets to put a band-aid on the body part. Touch the band-aid to advance to a page with the band-aid in place. Have the student say use his/her AAC system to again say the sentence, or have the student touch the sentence strip images as you or they say the sentence. (And, you might want to reply, “It’s all better now!”)
NOTE: Some of the body parts are places you would not actually place a band-aid. Use those pages (tongue, ear) as an opportunity for discussion of why/why not.
AAC FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION
(Including Symbol Sentence Strip)
I Can Tell Others Where My Body Hurts!
He ate pizza. It was too hot!
He burned his tongue.
He said,
“Ouch! My tongue hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch, my, tongue, hurts
my
tongue
He was riding his bike. He fell and scraped his knee!
He said, "Ouch! My knee hurts!"
What did he say?
- ouch
- my
- knee
- hurts
my
knee
He ate too much candy!
Now his stomach hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My stomach hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch my stomach hurts
my
stomach
He fell off the swing! Now his arm hurts.
He said, "Ouch! My arm hurts!"
What did he say?
- ouch
- my
- arm
- hurts
my
arm
He came off the slide too fast!
Now his leg hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My leg hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch, my, leg, hurts
my
leg
He smashed his finger in the door!
Now his finger hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My finger hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch my finger hurts
my
finger
She was too loud! Now his ears hurt.
He said, "Ouch! My ears hurt!"
What did he say?
- ouch
- my
- ears
- hurt
my
ears
hurt
He stepped on a Lego brick!
Now his foot hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My foot hurts!”
What did he say?
[Images: ouch, my, foot, hurts]
my
foot
He dropped a book on his toe!
Now his toe hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My toe hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch my toe hurts
my
toe
A bee stung his hand!
Now his hand hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My hand hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch my hand hurts
my
hand
He pricked his thumb on a thorn!
Now his thumb hurts.
He said,
“Ouch! My thumb hurts!”
What did he say?
ouch my thumb hurts
my
thumb
He bumped his head on the cabinet door! Now his head hurts.
He said, "Ouch! My head hurts!"
What did he say?
- ouch
- my
- head
- hurts
my
head
AAC FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION
I Can Tell Others Where My Body Hurts!
CREDITS
©2018 Tech 'n Talk SLPs | 9d75c481-1d41-467c-8d8f-0b2b88f18ad5 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.yonkerspublicschools.org/cms/lib/NY01814060/Centricity/Domain/959/NO%20PRINT%20DIGITAL%20ouch%20my%20body%20hurts%20interactive.pdf | 2022-08-07T15:41:48+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570651.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20220807150925-20220807180925-00507.warc.gz | 960,154,195 | 1,178 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.954284 | eng_Latn | 0.999345 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"en... | true | rolmOCR | [
103,
700,
1464,
2839,
2942,
3073,
3085,
3219,
3229,
3355,
3368,
3488,
3497,
3620,
3629,
3764,
3776,
3891,
3907,
4040,
4050,
4171,
4180,
4296,
4305,
4435,
4446,
4586,
4596,
4700
] | [
3.15625
] | 1 | 0 |
Welcome and thank you for coming.
Agenda
- The End of Year Assessment process - a short whistle-stop tour.
- An opportunity to look at examples of the tests taken by the pupils
- An opportunity to ask any questions that you might have
Houghton Regis Primary School
KS2 SATs 2018
Y6 information Session
KS2 SATs →
Key Stage 2 SATs
The new national curriculum was assessed for the first time in May 2016 so this will be the fourth year that the new style of tests are undertaken.
This year’s Key Stage 2 tests are timetabled for Monday 13th May to Thursday 16th May 2019.
Key Stage 2 SATS Timetable
Mon 13th May – Thurs 16th May
Monday 13th May 2019
English SPAG - Paper 1 and Spelling
Tuesday 14th May 2019
Reading Paper
Wednesday 15th May 2019
Mathematics Paper 1: arithmetic
Mathematics Paper 2: reasoning
Thursday 16 May 2019
Mathematics Paper 3: reasoning
What are SATs?
- KS2 SATs (National Curriculum Tests) are tests children take at the end of Year 6. SATs test children on what they have learnt between Year 3 and Year 6.
- KS2 SATs are mandatory tests from the National Curriculum assessment programme. All state schools in England are required to provide the tests.
- They are marked externally and the results sent to schools.
Reporting the results
Scaled Scores
• All test outcomes at KS2 will be reported as scaled scores and you will be told whether or not your child has met the expected standard.
• The national (expected) standard will be 100.
• Raw scores (the number of marks awarded for each subject) will be translated to scaled scores using a conversion table devised by the DFE.
• You will be given your child’s scaled score and whether they have reached the expected standard set by the Department for Education ('NS' means that the expected standard was not achieved and 'AS' means the expected standard was achieved).
Reporting the results
Scaled Scores Examples:
- A child awarded a scaled score of 100 is judged to have met the 'national standard' in the area judged by the test.
- A child awarded a scaled score of 110 is judged to have exceeded the national standard and demonstrated a higher than expected knowledge of the curriculum at the end of the key stage.
- A child awarded a scaled score of 94 is judged to have not yet met the national standard and indicates that the child may need more support to help them reach the expected standard.
Reporting Results
- The test results will be available mid July.
- As already mentioned, a child’s attainment at the end of Year 6 will be clearly reported to parents.
- High schools will use the information to set initial targets for the children. However, they will also conduct their own assessments to ensure that groupings and activities are tailored to meet the learning needs of all individuals.
- OFSTED use the SAT results as a key indicator of a school’s effectiveness.
- Children’s progress, as well as their achievement, will be measured and reported on in school performance tables.
The English Tests
- Reading - 50 marks - 1 hour
- Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling Test - 50 marks - 45 minutes
- Spelling test - 20 words - 15 minutes
- Writing - A Teacher Assessment of writing ability will be made in May/June 2019.
The Reading Test
For this test there will be one reading book and one answer booklet.
The test will last for **one hour** (including reading time).
There will be a total of 50 marks available.
There will be a range of texts including fiction, non-fiction, and poetry.
Marks will be awarded as follows:
- Multiple choice or other selected responses: 10% - 30%
- Short responses: 40% - 60%
- Extended responses: 20% - 40%
Areas will include:
• retrieval
• inference
• summarising
• vocabulary
Into your pitiful shell, so brittle and thin
In this line, the word brittle is closest in meaning to...
Tick one.
shiny. □
soft. □
delicate. □
rough. □
Some questions will test the children on their understanding of vocabulary.
The iguanodons are described as *inoffensive brutes*...
Look at the paragraph beginning: *I do not know how long*... (page 8).
Explain how the descriptions of the iguanodons in this paragraph support the idea that they were both *inoffensive* and *brutes*.
Use evidence from the text to support your answer.
Others will require the children to deduce answers by using words or phrases as evidence.
Circle the correct option to complete each sentence below.
(a) The story is told from the perspective of...
Professor Summerlee. Lord John. Malone. Professor Challenger.
(b) At the start of the extract the men entered the forest...
carefully. quickly. fearfully. noisily.
(c) There, they came to a patch where the stream was...
smaller. bigger. faster. slower.
(d) The ferns here were spaced...
regularly. randomly. carefully. equally.
Some questions will ask the children to find literal answers from the texts.
Grammar and Punctuation
The Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling Test:
- There is a specific focus on knowing and applying grammatical terminology with the full range of punctuation tested.
- Technical terms in grammar will be tested.
- There will be one test paper for grammar, punctuation and vocabulary and one test paper for spelling.
- The grammar test will last for **one hour** and there will be a total of 50 marks available.
- In the grammar test, two thirds of the marks will be for multiple choice questions. The remaining questions will require pupils to write a longer answer.
Areas will include:
• Word classes
• Features of sentences
• Complex sentences
• Standard English
• Vocabulary–Punctuation
Circle all the **pronouns** in the sentence below.
They bought new jumpers for themselves and a warm scarf
Tick one box in each row to show how the **modal verb** affects the **meaning** of the sentence.
| Sentence | Modal verb indicates certainty | Modal verb indicates possibility |
|-----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| It will be very cold tomorrow. | | |
| John might have missed the train. | | |
| Ann can speak six languages. | | |
| You could finish your work by the end of the lesson. | | |
There are 20 spelling sentences. The spelling words are tested within the context of a sentence. As the sentences are read out to the children, they fill in the correct spellings on their copy of the text.
1. Sara wanted to be an explorer and _______________ new lands.
2. The spy was sent on a secret _______________.
3. For PE lessons, your clothes should be _______________ and comfortable.
4. The _______________ showed which way to go.
5. China is a large _______________.
6. Laura won a medal for _______________.
7. Not all berries are _______________.
8. Sit up straight to improve your _______________.
2018 Spelling test
- 20 sentences with words to fill in.
- The 2018 test paper spellings included:
- thumb
- trouble
- portable
- attention
- vague
- council
- cautious
- essential
- adventurous
- descendant
Writing
Writing is assessed differently to all other areas. There is no writing SAT. Instead throughout the year:
- Teachers assess children’s writing in a range of different genres,
- Children's grammar, punctuation and spelling skills will be assessed as part of their writing along with their creativity and writing style,
- Schools will moderate their judgements with other local schools and may be moderated by their Local Authorities too.
Writing will be judged against the following criteria set by the DfE:
**Working towards the expected standard**
The pupil can:
- write for a range of purposes
- use paragraphs to organise ideas
- in narratives, describe settings and characters
- in non-narrative writing, use simple devices to structure the writing and support the reader (e.g. headings, sub-headings, bullet points)
- use capital letters, full stops, question marks, commas for lists and apostrophes for contraction mostly correctly
- spell correctly most words from the year 3 / year 4 spelling list, and some words from the year 5 / year 6 spelling list*
- write legibly.\(^1\)
Writing will be judged against the following criteria set by the DfE:
**Working at the expected standard**
The pupil can:
- write effectively for a range of purposes and audiences, selecting language that shows good awareness of the reader (e.g. the use of the first person in a diary; direct address in instructions and persuasive writing)
- in narratives, describe settings, characters and atmosphere
- integrate dialogue in narratives to convey character and advance the action
- select vocabulary and grammatical structures that reflect what the writing requires, doing this mostly appropriately (e.g. using contracted forms in dialogues in narrative; using passive verbs to affect how information is presented; using modal verbs to suggest degrees of possibility)
- use a range of devices to build cohesion (e.g. conjunctions, adverbials of time and place, pronouns, synonyms) within and across paragraphs
- use verb tenses consistently and correctly throughout their writing
- use the range of punctuation taught at key stage 2 mostly correctly^ (e.g. inverted commas and other punctuation to indicate direct speech)
- spell correctly most words from the year 5 / year 6 spelling list,* and use a dictionary to check the spelling of uncommon or more ambitious vocabulary
- maintain legibility in joined handwriting when writing at speed.²
Writing
For writing, we will then report our decisions at the end of the year in terms of children:
• working towards the expected standard
• working at the expected standard
• working at greater depth within the expected standard
Maths KS2 Curriculum
- Fluently use the four operations (add, subtract, multiply and divide) including with decimals.
- Identify common factors and multiples.
- Read, write and order numbers up to 10,000,000 and 3 decimal places.
- Fraction manipulation.
- Recall and find equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages.
- Simple algebra calculations.
- Read and interpret various graphs and tables.
- Read and convert metric units.
- Calculate the area and perimeter of rectangles, parallelograms and triangles.
- Problem solve using the volume for cuboids.
- Draw 2D shapes using given dimensions.
- Categorise 2D and 3D shapes using their properties.
- Measure and draw angles.
- Calculate missing angles in triangles, quadrilaterals and on straight lines.
Maths Tests
There will be three papers: 1 arithmetic paper and 2 mathematical reasoning papers.
Questions in the arithmetic test will cover:
- mental calculations
- straight forward addition and subtraction
- more complex calculations with fractions
- long division and long multiplication
Gridded paper will be provided in answer spaces for questions on the arithmetic paper and for some questions on paper 2.
Maths Tests
Arithmetic Test
- There will be 36 questions in the arithmetic test worth a total of 40 marks.
- The test will last 30 minutes.
Mathematical Reasoning Papers
- There will be two mathematical reasoning papers.
- Each paper will be of 40 minutes duration with a total of 35 marks per paper available.
What can we tell from past SATs papers?
- SATs papers test the four operations in context.
- Pupils need to be able to use formal methods but also identify which of these is needed for a worded question.
- 2018 SATs paper tested ‘true’ fluency –which can also be expected for 2019 SATs.
- ‘True’ fluency is the art of using and applying number facts rather than just recalling them.
16 $1,440 \div 12 =$
20 $5,756 + 8,643 =$
26 $\frac{1}{4} \times \frac{1}{8} =$
What is 444 minutes in hours and minutes?
| hours | minutes |
|-------|---------|
Write the two missing digits to make this long multiplication correct.
\[
\begin{array}{c}
& 4 & \square \\
\times & \square & 6 \\
\hline
& 2 & 4 & 6 \\
+ & 8 & 2 & 0 \\
\hline
& 1 & 0 & 6 & 6 \\
\end{array}
\]
The mass of a 10p coin is 6.5g.
The mass of a 5p coin is half the mass of a 10p coin.
What is the mass of these six coins altogether?
What can we tell from past SATs papers?
As with the previous years, it is likely to be technically possible to achieve the expected standard without using any Year 6 Maths content!
SATs do not just test content taught in year 6. Test frameworks make it clear that over half of the marks each year will be drawn from the Year 3-5 content domain.
| Year group | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
|------------|------|------|------|
| 3 | 16% | 7% [-9%] | 9% [+2%] |
| 4 | 14% | 26% [+12%] | 18% [-8%] |
| 5 | 27% | 25% [-2%] | 26% [+1%] |
| 6 | 43% | 41% [-2%] | 47% [+6%] |
Access Arrangements
- Some pupils with specific needs may need additional arrangements to be put in place so that they can take part in the key stage 2 tests. Access arrangements are adjustments that can be made to support these pupils. We must consider whether any of our pupils will need access arrangements before we administer the tests.
- Access arrangements should be based primarily on normal classroom practice and they must never provide an unfair advantage. The support given must not change the test questions and the answers must be the pupil’s own.
Access Arrangements
Access arrangements might be used to support pupils:
• who have difficulty reading
• who have difficulty writing
• with a hearing impairment
• with a visual impairment
• who use sign language
• who have difficulty concentrating
• who have processing difficulties
These children may benefit from:
• additional time
• scribes
• a reader
• test modifications
How have we been preparing?
- Continuous Assessment - identifying the gaps and helping to fill them
- Focused (timed) arithmetic lessons
- Focused SPAG lessons (Spelling, Punctuation & Grammar)
- Guided and Independent Reading
- Writing Assessments carried out regularly – pupils involved in this process
- Practising previous SATS papers
- Teaching ‘test techniques’ and vocabulary
- Home Learning to support teaching & learning in school
- Booster groups and intervention groups
- Keeping up to date with information provided by the DfE
How can I support my child at home?
- CGP books for homework
- Mathletics
- Love of reading
- AR reader
- Look, cover, check for spellings
- Playing word games such as - Hangman
Any Questions? | 326309fa-143d-4b1d-a1c2-b9a142a6c1f0 | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | http://www.houghtonregisprimary.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/Key-Stage-2-SATs-Information.pdf | 2022-01-17T07:43:42+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320300343.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20220117061125-20220117091125-00634.warc.gz | 96,373,802 | 3,319 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.926603 | eng_Latn | 0.998666 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"dag_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
236,
316,
576,
870,
1253,
1865,
2404,
3006,
3246,
3673,
3746,
3982,
4385,
4920,
5510,
5635,
6553,
7174,
7404,
7852,
8503,
9852,
10086,
10849,
11265,
11579,
11964,
12050,
12354,
12491,
13095,
13660,
14041,
14582,
14762,
14778
] | [
3.671875
] | 1 | 0 |
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Introduction
This chapter shall begin with the background to the study, the statement of the research problem, the research questions, and purpose of the study, the assumptions, significance of the study, limitations of the study, delimitations and definition of terms as well as the summary of the chapter.
Background of the study
From the medieval era people with disabilities were not accepted in the communities in which they were born into, they had to suffer many unkind situations. They were killed, abandoned and even forced to live in isolation. Hardman et al (1997) states that people with disabilities were seen as having special powers and treated kindly. Their having special powers according to a few such as Hindus did little to help as only a few of them were treated as Gods.
The type of disabilities people had varied back then and still vary from those who are intellectually challenged, visually impaired, those with physical disabilities and those with hearing impairment among many other different types of disabilities.
For those who were hearing impaired or deaf their disability was and is still an invisible disability because it cannot be seen by merely looking at a person but the problems they face are very serious. Chiinze and Tambara (2000) say the loss of hearing isolates the individual from family, friends and the community as a whole because in a world controlled by the ability to hear sounds and speaking using verbal language is a critical link in the development of communication. They could not be heard or spoken to by the people around them.
There was a change however when some enlightened individuals such as educators saw the potential that was in the disabled people mainly those with hearing impairment. Educators saw that neglect, ill-treatment, inadequate support and inappropriate schooling methods led to lack of communication systems which affected the deaf in their ability to communicate. It was not until the 1960’s that the humanitarian movements concerned about civil and social rights brought about changes in the care and treatment of people with disabilities. It was realized that the
hearing-impaired even though they did not have a voice needed to communicate, take part in activities and be heard even to share jokes and laugh with friends and family.
Changes were brought about gradually as sign language became a means of deaf people to communicate. This did not only include sign language but a total communication system which improved the means of communication for the deaf. Through this means of communication the deaf became empowered to be actively involved and also participate in every day issues that concern people.
With the introduction of sign language this did not imply that all their problems were over for the deaf and hard of hearing still face challenges with communication. Hearing people listen and hear without thinking and obtain information through many modes and sometimes incidentally. In most cases the deaf are left out of conversations and rely on what they can pick if there is no one to interpret for them because most hearing people do not use sign language.
Deaf and hard of hearing students face challenges of being labelled, sidelined and stigmatized let alone being victimized due to barriers in communication. It is because of this that one feels the deep anguish and distress that the deaf and hearing impaired face due to communication barriers.
In the primary school level children learn through communication. This kind of communication done through play, sharing, group work discussions as well as through the process of socialization. Through lack of communication the child misses out on language development and fails to perform well not because of low intelligence quotient, but because of a breakdown in the means of communication.
Although there has been an increase in awareness programs, introduction of new technologies and gadgets there are still challenges that the hearing impaired face. People in society still have some misconceptions about people with disabilities not sparing those with hearing impairment as they fail to adequately communicate with them. People with hearing impairment are found everywhere, like every person they like to speak and be spoken to. They love to share jokes, listen to the news, share and communicate their views as well as being heard and answered on any platform that they choose. It is with sorrow that the hearing impaired are found lacking in means of communication which would enable them to speak. These challenges that the hearing impaired face are what has motivated the writer to undertake this study of investigating further
the problems faced by the hearing impaired that is the hard of hearing and deaf with specific reference to communication in the primary school.
**Statement of the problem**
Most individuals with hearing impairment face challenges especially in communication as they cannot do so by use of oral or spoken language. This makes them depend mainly on others who use the same signed system, but the problem is that only a limited number of people are conversant in this means of communication hence creating barriers between those who are hearing impaired and those who are not.
**Research questions**
i. What are the problems that people with hard of hearing face due to barriers in communication?
ii. In what ways are hearing impaired people affected by difficulties in communication?
iii. What are the attitudes of teachers and fellow students towards children with communication difficulties?
iv. Is the school willing to introduce means and ways to eradicate communication barriers in the primary school?
v. What can be done to close the communication gap between the hearing and the hearing impaired?
**Purpose of the study**
The study aims to:
i. Shed more light on the fact that people who are deaf and hard of hearing have problems in communication and that they have a need to communicate effectively with their peers and those in society.
ii. Educate society on the fact that people who are hearing impaired can be able to communicate effectively with them if necessary steps to help them are taken
iii. Expose the problem faced due to lack of communication.
iv. Find ways of improving communication between the hearing and the hearing impaired.
**Assumptions**
The study assumes that people with hearing impairment have challenges that they face in the primary school. It is also assumed that views held of the hearing impaired by teachers and primary school students are negative due to barriers caused by communication problems. Deaf and hard of hearing primary school students have communication problems and these bring a chain of other problems that arise from the difficulties in communication between them.
**Significance of the study**
The findings of this study may help to make society aware of the extent to which deaf people face problems in communication and how these problems can be addressed. It is also the writer’s hope that the findings of this study may also be used to establish the extent to which administrators, educators and parents could work together to help in the communication of the hearing impaired and thus bring benefit.
As mentioned above different stakeholders will benefit such as the children who are hearing impaired begin to perform better after realistic solutions that work are implemented in their schools they could better perform. The pass rate of the hearing impaired children may rise and their schools will have a good reputation in the teaching of the hearing impaired. The administrators will also benefit in that it will be easier to allocate classrooms which have hearing impaired learners to teachers without worrying that teachers will refuse to take classes or accept them with disgruntlement.
Teachers would also benefit as they will also be able to communicate effectively with children who are hearing impaired breaking down the communication barriers that hinder the children from communicating effectively. Work in the classroom situation would also progress as all children will be able to participate in activities allocated for them and there will not be too much deviation from instruction giving techniques. Children will basically receive instruction on the same level reducing the teachers’ workload. Parents will benefit in that they will have the
assurance that their child is learning well communicating and that the possibility of failure has been minimized for their child.
**Limitation of the study**
The researcher was inhibited from the thorough collection of data due to insufficient time to conduct the research as well as finding the problems.
The researcher had to use his spare time and on other circumstances had to give appointments to some teachers involved in the research.
A few of the teachers were not enthusiastic to complete the questionnaires as they seemed to be busy with personal duties.
Some questionnaires were not returned in time as per arrangement, the researcher made some follow-ups.
**Delimitations**
The study is concerned with the problems faced by the deaf and hard of hearing students and other challenges they may face in the primary school. The study covered Sakubva Primary School, Nzeve Deaf Children Centre and Chikanga Primary school in Mutare urban which are institutions identified with hearing impaired children.
**Definition of terms**
Disability is a condition characterized by loss of physical function or difficulty in learning and social adjustment that significantly interferes with normal growth and development.
Hearing impairment is the loss in hearing the intensity of sounds.
Hearing Aid is device that is used as sound amplifying device by persons who are classified as Hard of Hearing who have residual hearing
Oral language is a language that employs the use of speech in conveying meaning in communication.
Hard of hearing is when audition is deficient but remains somewhat functional. Generally with the hearing aids the person has residual hearing sufficient to enable successful processing of linguistic information through audition.
Deafness is a condition that prevents one from registering information related to language through the use of sound.
Communication is the sharing of information, thoughts and/or feelings and opinions through mutually understood symbols or codes between two or more people.
Sign Language is a manual form communication that uses gestures, facial expressions, body movement and lip pattern to express meaning without the use of audition and/or speech.
Barriers are conditions that make hindrances or create difficulties in progress and achievement on certain objectives.
Summary
The first chapter gave an overview of the study. The writer gave the background to the study and the statement of the problem. It cited the problems faced by people with disabilities from the medieval era. Highlights of what the study hopes to achieve was also given. The aim is that communication will improve and challenges reduced for the deaf in the primary school and radiating into society as a whole. In the next chapter, the writer will carry out literature review related to the study in order to gain insight on what other authorities have written about the problems faced by the deaf due to communication barriers.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter presented the research problem of the study. This section attempts to review some of the literature concerning the problems faced by hearing impaired children in the primary school with specific reference to communication.
2.2 Problems faced by the hearing impaired in the primary school
Hearing impaired people go to school like any other children but they experience many problems due to the disability they have. These problems are worsened by lack of proper help and support that is not given.
According to Wang (2008) many children fail to communicate as they cannot hear what the teacher and other children will be saying and so cannot instantly respond. This becomes a problem due to the fact that they cannot ask the teacher to repeat what they have said in order for them to get better understanding which is essential for effective communication. Wang (2008) goes on to say that the hearing impaired children shy away and will not even ask for special devices such as the hearing aid or a microphone to amplify sound because they want to be the same as other children. This is a serious barrier as assistive devices or hearing aids are what help these children with residual hearing to access sound which is essential for communication.
This surely brings to light the problem that they face of not wanting to present themselves as having a disability because they just want to be seen as not being different to the other children in the primary school. Having a hearing aid removes the uniformity they so much desire with other children. The greater problem here is that communication is hindered because the children do not have adequate tools or necessary aids that improve the child’s ability to hear or hearing enhanced, Green (2007) goes on to say that the hearing impaired feel a sense of inadequacy when drawing attention to their disability. This feeling creates a barrier in communication as hearing aids are worth a lot in the communication process as they amplify sound enabling sound to be heard.
In pursuit of this discussion Martin (1997) says all this has social consequences for the children with hearing impairment. Many of them keep to themselves and prefer not to take an active part in the classroom activities. These activities are essential for breaking down communication barriers, but in this sense a barrier is created as the children fail to communicate through activities which are essential in the communication process. Activities also help the hearing impaired acquire language but if there is no active involvement of the child the language for communication is not acquired. Martin (1997) also goes on to say that the hearing impaired watch passively and will not give their contribution even though they may have a valuable contribution which they may fail to communicate to the class.
Due to lack or the inability to communicate simply with others barriers are created. Children with hearing impairment end up having learning difficulties. Ysseldyke et al (2000) describe these as a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological process involved in understanding or in using language spoken or written which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations. Research done by Gandari, Kaputa and Ndoro (2003:30) has shown some of the symptoms of learning difficulties the hearing impaired face. These being linguistic immaturity, inability to use oral and written language attention and behavioral difficulties and social inappropriateness. Authors Gandari, Kaputa and Ndoro (2003:85) go on to add that some of the hearing impaired have poor articulation of sound, confusion of similar sounds such as r’ and l’ tend to occur. This also implies that there are problems in the pronunciation of words. Once words are pronounced wrongly they may face ridicule from their peers who may laugh at them thus creating a big communication barrier. Due to these problems the hearing impaired may not be taken seriously and again be viewed as dull which may not be the case.
Another barrier that presents itself in the communication by the hearing impaired is that some speak very softly or too loud. Due to lack of sound access which allows them to hear the different pitches of sound they also speak in a mono tone, quietness where they may tend to continue to ask for repetitions or drawing of unnecessary attention due to the loudness of their voice. None of the other children in the class will want to communicate with them.
Not only do the hearing impaired have problems in oral communication. Several studies by Myklebus (1973) and Wesley (1983) have shown that hearing impaired children in the primary
school commit more to punctuation and capitalization errors than their hearing peers. This problem results in the hearing impaired being frustrated. This poses as a barrier to communication as it prevents the learner from scoring high marks as marks are subtracted for these errors. This also creates a bigger barrier in communication as meaning is lost due to wrong sentence construction and language structures. Syder (1992) also adds by saying the hearing impaired have difficulty in fluency and putting words together. Mercer and Mercer (1989) also highlight that the hearing impaired who face difficulty in communication are therefore excluded from social exchange of everyday life.
Besides the punctuation and errors that the hearing impaired makes handwriting is another problem that the hearing impaired have and this poses as a barrier to communication as people also communicate through form of writing. Good handwriting is necessary if one is to express himself well.
Helliman (1989) says that in all the ways of communication handwriting is considered the most concrete of the communication skills because it can be directly observed, evaluated and preserved. Poor handwriting is a barrier in that it is hard to preserve the work that the hearing impaired learner has written if it is not legible and the information being conveyed may not be understood or retrieved for future references. It is however important at this juncture to note that not all hearing impaired learners have bad handwritings as the time spent would have gone to naught if no meaningful information can be used to progress in school work. Owens (1992) also adds to these points by saying that note taking requires legible handwriting, listening, comprehending, retaining information while continuing to process new information and important points into useful formats. He goes on to add that this also requires speed.
Research has shown that students who are deaf or hard of hearing have differing access to sound and this depends on many different factors. This is a barrier in communication as the access to sound may not be frequent. Wang (2008) says sound gives access to spoken language. This means that because sound is not sufficient to the hearing impaired learners then the learner’s spoken language is also affected negatively. The learning process in the primary school takes place in different environments the hearing impaired suffer as they are not able to communicate in such an environment as the sound they would like to hear is drowned in the noisy environment. Wang (2008) goes on to say that if the access to sound is impeded then access to
spoken language is also affected to some degree. This therefore means that if spoken language is impeded development of written language would and is impacted upon negatively.
Another problem that the hearing impaired face due to lack of communication or other communication barriers is the lack of attention to the problems that hearing impaired learners have in the primary school by teachers and administrators. Most of the times it has been seen that teachers tend to concentrate on children that do not have a disability who they can easily communicate with and get a quick oral response. Syder (1992) says that lack of attention to the hearing impaired child’s problems often results in the child from failing to communicate and is shunned in school.
Once the teacher pays little attention the child does not feel a sense of belonging. The child may face abuse and social problems but may not be able to communicate these problems because there are no willing ears to listen to him. Due to this problem the hearing impaired learner’s progress fails as he is not able to communicate his/her problems in order to get a solution to lighten the burden of the problems. Syder (1992) also goes on to say because the child cannot communicate he tends to be tired and has frequent headaches. This implies that the hearing impaired learner acquires problems that he/she does not manufacture due to barriers in communication.
As times moved on and progressed sign language was introduced and seen as an ingenious way for the hearing impaired to communicate and have a voice. It became the most natural form of communication for the hearing impaired student. However, a barrier in communication is present due to the use of sign language. It is not like the English language that is spoken universally.
According to Lucas (1990), Lane and Grosjean (1980) and Wilbur (1987) in Chimedza and Mutasa (2003) sign language has been viewed as a bona fide language with its own syntax and semantics and pragmatics. Chimedza and Mutasa (2003) go on to say that sign language does not have its own writing and things told in Zimbabwe Sign Language are written in Shona and English. The problem arises that children in regular school are not able to socialize and communicate freely with other children who cannot use sign language. They only communicate with sign language users, this is a strong barrier in communication as they are hindered from socializing and getting to know who they want. In the case where the child has been integrated to
the regular classroom communication is limited to the child and specialist teacher making participation of the child in the group activities quite difficult.
There are inequalities in communication process and the hearing impaired learner gets information mainly through sign language. No incidental learning brought about through hearing occurs to the hearing impaired learner, thus when other children discuss hearing impaired has nothing to communicate.
Sign language is a physical way of language it is also a barrier in communication for the hearing impaired. This is so because it is hard to communicate in secret whilst communicating in sign language. Children who are hearing impaired tend to shy out and not say exactly what they would want to say for fear that they may be heard and laughed at. Due to barriers in communication the hearing impaired learner also loses confidence in him/herself. Confidence is essential as it enables the child to venture into use of language in the process of communication.
Although the hearing impaired face challenges in communication it is not the only barrier that poses as a barrier to them. Belveridge (2008) cites improper integration as a major problem that the hearing impaired face. Most of these children are placed in the classes where they are expected to perform just as well as those who are not hearing impaired. Due to this improper integration the child does not do well at all in school. They need to be integrated into the classroom that fully caters for the needs of an individual who is hearing impaired.
Whilst improper integration is a problem to the hearing impaired Belveridge (2008) goes on to say that the hearing impaired face problems of discrimination from the normal regular school. Wang (2008) says that most of the students are institutionalized away from the regular school. Once in these institutions the hearing impaired does not have a chance to interact and socialize with hearing students from other cultures. Due to lack of socialization learning about other cultures and how people relate to one another is limited.
Another problem that the hearing impaired face in the primary school is that teachers in the regular school are not trained to cater for the needs of the hearing impaired. Belveridge (2008) says that teachers panic, abandon and even get nervous as they do not have knowledge and skills to help and enable them to cater and handle the hearing impaired. This is a sorry situation
because when a child comes to school they expect to be shown the way to go in order to get an education.
Haves (2009) goes on to say that the provision of hearing aids and equipment for the hearing impaired is not adequate. Most schools do not provide these and most parents of children with sensory impairment do not have adequate resources to purchase this and this is a big problem for the hearing impaired. Teachers also have difficulties accessing equipment for the hearing impaired. The social services department facilities though they are available take long time for funds to be released.
While the teachers are not specifically trained to teach the hard of hearing and hearing equipment hard to obtain Badza and Chakuchichi (2000) are another problem. The two concur by saying the curriculum in Zimbabwe is meant for people without disabilities. This is a great problem as this leaves the hearing impaired without a specific curriculum tailored especially for them. They need to learn skills that prepare them for adult life and employment. Butler (1990) points out that the curriculum for the deaf that is available is not holistic without the inclusion of vocational skills. Teaching of vocational skills to the deaf enables them to function independently as adults by assuming overall responsibility for their conduct. Without this the hearing impaired has difficulties. Gearheart et al (1992) go on to say that when the curriculum is the same for different children there is no education taking place as it focuses on one specific group of students leaving those with other specific needs not being catered for. There is need for changes to be carried out.
2.2 Attitudes towards individuals with communication difficulties
Though the change has come about from the period of the medieval era where people with disabilities were treated cruelly people still have challenges in communication Gerston, Keating, Yovanoff and Hamiss (2001) say these attitudes are hard to change and may take a while before the communication barrier is broken.
Different people have different attitudes towards hearing impaired. Some teachers who teach the hearing impaired in the regular school have negative attitudes towards them because of their communication challenges. Foster (1987) says they have this attitude because they view the hearing impaired as having lower academic and behavioral expectations from society. This
attitude is harmful as it means that the teacher will not make extra effort to learn to communicate with the child more effectively, Gersten et al (2001) attributes this negative attitude to lack of interactive experiences on social basis. Some teachers also have negative attitudes because as Jarvis and Lantiffi (2006) say they are not adequately equipped to communicate with them. They get frustrated because they cannot communicate or converse with them and then they point fingers at the child blaming the child. They feel it is the child that has a problem and that the child should make an effort to be heard.
Seaver (2013) goes on to add that teachers also have negative attitudes because they want to produce good results and having hearing impaired children in their classrooms who cannot communicate is a barrier to this achievement thus they prefer to let other teachers who are capable to take these children. Wars often erupt in schools with administrators as teachers at times refuse to accommodate some of these children. This has been evidenced by the fact that some headmasters have refused to admit the hearing impaired into their schools. Some have even forced these children to transfer from their schools under the pretext that they need better schools which can better help them and also provide hearing aids for them. Seaver (2013) also brings up another point, he says that people still have negative attitudes towards the deaf who cannot communicate effectively because they view them as being sick and needing a cure so that they can hear and speak. The use of hearing aids worn by the hearing impaired makes this belief worse as children in the primary school believe that the aids are a form of treatment that when they are healed they will stop using these. Their peers also have negative attitudes because they cannot socialize easily with them for they are not able to use sign language as a form of communication.
Parents of children who learn with the hearing impaired also have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired. They feel that the students who are deaf have got nothing to share and impart to their children. Foster (1987) says parents view them as being inferior and backwards they are not able to communicate with them. In some regular schools parents even bar their children from socializing and communicating with the deaf for fear that their children will end up being like the hearing impaired.
Other parents have actually fueled this negative attitude. Foster (1987) says that some parents have removed their children from schools that have integrated the hearing impaired. This kind of
attitude stems from the fact that parents believe that if the hearing impaired cannot communicate then he/she has nothing beneficial to impart to the hearing child.
Administrators have also succumbed to these negative attitudes as parents have refused the establishment of resource units and deaf class at schools where their children go to. Other negative attitudes also come from communities which believe that the hearing impaired who cannot communicate are suffering because of curse and that they need salvation and exorcising that the evil spirits that hold their voices may leave. Seaver (2013) says that the families of the hearing impaired are accused of knowing the source of their child’s communication difficulty. These negative attitudes result in mockery and ridicule of the children and the parents themselves.
However while a lot of people have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired with communication difficulties others view it in a different way. Genstern et al (2001) say other people including peers, parents and teachers of the hearing impaired feel pity for them. This has led to their accommodation in the school, classroom and the communities in which they live in as a whole. This has proved to be helpful as it helps break the barriers. Through this they learn and communicate better. Jarvis and Lantiffi (2006) supports this by saying better positive attitudes are related to better positive outcomes. Some teachers who also take this attitude of having pity and feeling for children who have communication difficulties also contribute to better outcomes. The attitude of the teacher is essential for it enhances learning. Research has also shown that when teachers have positive attitude and are more knowledgeable and able to communicate with the hearing impaired life and communication becomes easier for the hearing impaired.
2.3 What institutions have done to close or eradicate the communication barrier
According to Seaver (2003) there has been a number of strategies that have been employed to try and break or eradicate the communication barriers.
I. There has been the introduction of special classes and resource units. The resource units take in children with special needs and a specially trained teacher is placed to teach the children with special needs. In some schools there are whole classes in regular schools which are specifically for the deaf.
II. Some schools have established sign language clubs where peers can learn to use sign language which thus improves communication between the hearing impaired and those without a disability.
III. Sign language training workshops are being held where teachers and other interested parties can attend and get to know more about the hearing impaired and their ways of communicating.
IV. Some institutions have qualified sign language interpreters who help as communication assistances or interpreters and thus make communication easier for the hearing and the hearing impaired as they can communicate fluently with both parties. Here through the interpreter questions can be asked and answers received without challenges.
V. In other institutions the hearing impaired are involved with assistive learning devices such as hearing aids, computers and other equipment to aid hearing, this helps in good communication and in breaking barriers to communication.
VI. Institutions in different places also organize opportunities for the hearing impaired to communicate. These include conferences and sporting events that are specially designed to cater for the deaf and hard of hearing to socialize with other peers and interact thus boosting and breaking communication barriers.
VII. Rehabilitation services are also provided. Some institutions employ counsellors and speech therapists who come in to assist the children to communicate. Once they have been helped the hearing impaired children can utilize the information learnt.
2.4 Means to close the communication gap
Whilst a lot is being done there are some means that can be implemented to close the communication gap. Braden (1994) lists the following as means that can be used to close the communication gap between the hearing impaired and those who are not impaired.
I. Use of direct concrete actionable language which the hearing impaired can understand in regard to actions used.
II. Use of visual aids such as pictures and diagrams for clarity.
III. The use of computers is effective to convey and communicate oral or written language.
IV. Information being communicated must be done in the correct form and context.
V. Express understanding and compassion as the child communicates and show that you are listening genuinely. Whilst showing compassion verify listener comprehension during conversation.
VI. Set specific goals of what you want the communication process to achieve.
While these are means to close the communication gap it is of great importance to note that it is not up to the hearing impaired to strive to learn to communicate with the hearing. The people who are hearing should also learn how to use sign language and total communication systems so that they can initiate conversations. It is not just to the hearing impaired to make themselves heard, Krupa (2012) also goes on to say qualified interpreters should also be made use of to break barriers. The use examples and role plays to teach the abstract can also be used to break or close the communication gap as children will be able to communicate what they have seen and understood. This means that it is most essential for teachers to plan their work in advance and prepare adequately before-hand to teach the hearing impaired. Krupa (2012) also goes on to say that teacher education should have a compulsory special needs education component to help equip teachers with skills to help them to communicate with the hearing impaired.
2.5 Summary
The chapter revealed the communication barriers that the hearing impaired face in the primary school. It also highlighted other problems other than communication problems they face which
affect their lives. Attitudes of people that interact with the hearing impaired were also focused on and strategies to eradicate these communication barriers were also highlighted. To end the chapter means and ways to close the communication gap were suggested.
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
For any research to be carried out successfully there is need for the methodology to be well planned and stated. This chapter focuses on the research methodology. This chapter describes in detail the procedures used and steps followed to collect data, present and analyze the results. The chapter discusses the research design and research method, the population of the study, the sample and sampling procedure, advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire, data collection, data analysis and the summary.
3.2 Research design
The researcher chose the qualitative research design. A qualitative research according to McLeod (1994 in Makore and Rukuni (2001) is a process of systematic enquiry into the meanings which people employ to make sense of their experience and guide their actions. McLeod (2000) in Rukuni and Makore (2001) adds that qualitative research aims to describe and interpret what things mean to people. This in turn will help answer questions and improve decision making.
However the qualitative research design has its own limitations. One of the limitations is that it is an expensive and time consuming process. Makore and Rukuni (2001) agree that the data analysis process takes a long time to complete.
Despite these shortcomings the researcher preferred it to obtain a more realistic feel of the world that cannot be experienced through numerical data. Bogdan and Taylor (1975) also go on to say that the qualitative research provides a holistic view of the subject under investigation. The qualitative research method allows the researcher to interact with the research subjects in their own language, environment and on their own terms.
3.3 Population
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2009) defines population as the total number of people living in an area. Now the population comprised of students and teachers from schools in Mutare urban area. From these schools the researcher chose to use pupils from the Nzeve Deaf Children’s Centre, Chikanga Primary and Sakubva Primary as these schools consist of students with hearing impairment and those without hearing impairment. These schools were also chosen because they also have specialist teachers for the hearing impaired and regular teachers who teach children without hearing impairment.
3.4 Sample and sampling procedures
To draw the sample the purposive sampling method was used. Sheskin (1985) states that in purposive sampling elements are chosen or selected for specific purpose and the sample chosen met the criteria required. Nzeve Deaf Children’s Centre is the only special school for hearing impaired children in Mutare urban while Sakubva and Chikanga Primary Schools have resource units with hearing impaired children. The sample comprised of 20 hearing impaired children from Nzeve Deaf Centre. From Chikanga Primary School 20 students were taken. These comprised 10 hearing impaired children and 10 were not hearing impaired, the same from Sakubva Primary School 20 students were taken 10 hearing impaired and 10 hearing. Eight teachers were taken from Nzeve 6 from Sakubva and 6 from Chikanga primary school including the school heads.
A total number of 80 people were used in the research. The total number of students taken from Nzeve Deaf Children’s Centre was larger because more students were found there while Sakubva and Chikanga had few.
To select the participants the children were placed in a line and every second child selected to participate in the research. The participants were then given a questionnaire to complete. This included both the hearing and non-hearing.
3.5 Instruments
The researcher decided to use a questionnaire as the research instrument. According to Tuckman (1994) a questionnaire is a way of getting data about people by asking them rather than observing their behaviors. The questionnaire comprises of open and closed questions on the subject matter that one would like to find out about or investigate. The questionnaire is then given to the participants who then respond to the questions as best as they can. Here the respondents do not give information about who they are but they just respond to the questions. Closed and open questions were given. Closed questions are those that require structured responses guided by the researcher while open questions were those that gave room for the respondents to give their own input in short phrases.
3.6 Advantages of the questionnaire
The first advantage of the questionnaire is that it can be administered to large numbers of people at the same time. Data can be collected and analyzed easily if the questions are well formulated and in easy and simple language that is easy for the respondents to understand. Because the respondents complete the questionnaire individually it eliminates the possibility of influence of bias from the researcher. It really leaves the respondent to answer the questionnaire personally and answers are also easy to interpret.
3.7 Disadvantages of the questionnaire
A questionnaire is not a very ideal method to those who are not able to read. This means that the researcher may have to interpret for the respondent. This may lead to distortion of the original question being asked. Bias towards a certain answer may also be introduced intentionally leading to a wrong impression or information. Interpreting questions can also be time consuming. Another disadvantage is that the respondent may also lack interest in responding to the questionnaire leading to a low response. Questionnaires are also expensive to produce especially if they are being administered to a large group.
3.8 Data collection
The research first of all made a request to the school heads of Sakubva and Chikanga Primary Schools and Nzeve Deaf Centre to visit them. The researcher then delivered the questionnaire by
hand using the pick and drop strategy. The researcher gave the questionnaire to the respondents and collected the following week.
3.9 Data Analysis
The presentation and analysis of data provides a platform where the understanding of processes can be tested and developed. It gives a view of how the respondents perceive their situation and experiences. Presentation of the results was done through the use of tables, graphs and pie charts.
3.10 Summary
The chapter described the research design and detailed the methods used in data collection. In addition, it discussed the advantages and disadvantages of the research methods. It also described the target population and explained the sampling techniques used to draw the samples. Furthermore the chapter dealt with the research instruments, data collection as well as the data analysis procedure.
Chapter 4
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the presentation of data obtained from the questionnaires used during the research. The findings were presented in the form of bar graphs, tables and pie charts. The results were analyzed to find out the challenges faced by the hearing impaired.
4.2 Questionnaires to teachers
A total of 20 teachers responded to the questionnaire with 8 special school teachers and 12 mainstream teachers.
4.2.1 Gender of the respondents
Table 1
| Gender | Frequency | Percentage |
|--------|-----------|------------|
| Male | 7 | 35 |
| Female | 13 | 65 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Fig 1 Pie Chart showing gender of respondents.
The implication is that more women than men were involved in contributing towards the research.
4.2.2 Age of respondents
Table 2
| Age of Respondents | Frequency | Percentages |
|--------------------|-----------|-------------|
| 20-29 | 2 | 10 |
| 30-39 | 8 | 40 |
| 40-49 | 6 | 30 |
| 50+ | 4 | 20 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Table 2 shows that the majority of teachers who taught hearing impaired children had an age range of 30-49 years constituting a frequency percentage of 70%. This indicates the hearing impaired were being taught by mature people.
### 4.2.3 Marital status
**Table 3**
| Marital Status | Frequency | Percentage |
|----------------|-----------|------------|
| Single | 3 | 15 |
| Married | 14 | 70 |
| Divorced | 0 | 0 |
| Widowed | 1 | 5 |
| Separated | 2 | 10 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Fig 2 bar graph showing the frequency of marital status of the respondents.
The bar graph shows that the greater number of respondents were people who were in stable marriages and had a feel of children and families. This implies that they were likely to be more patient and tolerant to children with hearing impairment.
4.2.4 Academic Qualifications of respondents.
Table 4
| Level of education | No of respondents | Percentage |
|--------------------|-------------------|------------|
| Standard 6 | 0 | 0 |
| Z.J.C | 0 | 0 |
| O’Level | 12 | 60 |
| A’Level | 8 | 40 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Table 4 reveals that most of the respondents had O’ level while less A’ Level, This shows that the majority of teachers generally held high levels of qualification and were in a better position to respond to the questions given.
4.2.5 Professional Qualifications of Respondents
Table 5
| Qualification | No of Respondents | Percentage |
|-------------------------------|-------------------|------------|
| C.E | 0 | 0 |
| DIP Ed | 6 | 30 |
| Bachelor of Education | 3 | 15 |
| B.Sc. Special Needs Ed | 8 | 40 |
| Masters in Ed | 3 | 15 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Table 5 shows that 40% of the respondents were qualified and have experience and training in teaching the hearing impaired, 30% of the respondents held a diploma in education. These went through training and got education on how children should be treated according to their differences.
4.2.6 Qualifications in Special Needs Education
Fig 3 Bar graph showing frequency of the respondents who had qualification in special needs education against those without.
The Bar graph shows that few teachers had qualifications in Special Needs Education. This impacted very much on the communication of the hearing impaired.
4.2.7 Teaching experience of respondents
Table 6 Years of teaching experience
| Years | Frequency | Percentage |
|---------|-----------|------------|
| 10 | 2 | 10 |
| 10-19 | 5 | 20 |
| 20-29 | 10 | 50 |
| 30-39 | 5 | 20 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Table 6 shows that more of the respondent teachers had 20-29 years of experience in teaching. This indicated that amongst those teaching the hearing impaired they had a lot of experience and were thus able to assist in activating and bringing about change in the teaching of the hearing impaired and communication problems.
4.2.8 Proportion of Respondents who have experience in teaching the Hearing Impaired
Fig 4 Bar graph showing propositions of teachers who had taught the hearing impaired against those who had not.
The graph shows that a greater proportion of teachers had some experience in teaching children who are hearing impaired. This implies that the responses they gave were most likely to be reliable.
4.2.9 Perceived problems faced by the hearing impaired children in communication according to the respondents.
All the respondents agreed that the major problem that they face is being understood and understanding other people if the mode of communication they use is different. This is so because the hearing impaired use sign language while other people use speech. This shows that there is a large gap in communication between the hearing and the hearing impaired.
4.2.10 Problems faced by the hearing impaired
Fig 5 Pie chart problems faced by the hearing impaired children.
The Pie chart shows that the greater number of hearing impaired children were perceived as having or facing emotional problems, this being 60%. This is due to the fact that they find it hard to socialize with people who cannot communicate using Sign language or the mode of communication they understand.
Fig 4.1.11 Respondents Opinion on whether all Teachers Should be Conversant In teaching Sign Language
Fig 6 Bar graph showing teacher perspective on the teaching of sign language
The Bar graph shows that the greater number of teachers which was 70% was for the motion that people should be conversant with sign language so that the barrier in communication can be closed.
4.2.12 Mode of communication by respondents when communicating with the hearing impaired
Table 6
| Mode of Communication | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------|-----------|------------|
| Sign Language | 8 | 40 |
| Gestures | 3 | 15 |
| Interpreter | 9 | 45 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
The table reflects that most of the respondents communicated in sign language, less use gestures and the majority rely on interpreters. This means that more needs to be done in order to bridge the gap between the hearing impaired and the hearing to improve communication.
4.2.13 Communication with the Hearing Impaired
All the 20 respondents agreed that there is a communication barrier between the hearing and the hearing impaired.
4.2.14 Closing the gap in communication between the hearing and the hearing impaired
Table 8
| Making Sign Language compulsory in school | 14 |
|------------------------------------------|----|
| Institutionalizing the deaf | 1 |
| Starting Sign Language clubs in schools | 5 |
| Total | 20 |
The table shows that the majority of the respondents are for the idea that the teaching of sign languages should be made compulsory in school. This indicates the respondents desire that there should be a reduction in the communication gap between the hearing and the hearing impaired. Others believed that sign language clubs could help while one was of the opinion that the deaf be institutionalized. This should not be so as advancements to help the disabled are being done.
4.1.15 Preferred group of students to be taught by the respondents
Table 9
| Group of children | Frequency | Percentage |
|-------------------|-----------|------------|
| Hearing Impaired | 5 | 25 |
| Hearing | 12 | 60 |
| Both | 3 | 15 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Fig 7 Bar graph showing preference of students the respondents prefer to teach
Most of the teachers preferred to teach hearing children as indicated by the bar graph. A total of 40% of the teachers would not mind teaching those who are hearing impaired. The percentage was low meaning that there is still need to break the communication barrier as it hinders the teachers from having an interest in teaching the hearing impaired.
4.2.16 Attitude of respondents towards hearing impaired children
Fig 8 Bar graph showing the attitudes of respondents towards the hearing impaired children.
The bar graph shows that a bigger percentage of the respondents believe that teachers have negative attitude towards the hearing impaired children. This indicates that these attitudes stem from the fact that they are not able to communicate with the hearing impaired children.
4.3 Questionnaires to the hearing impaired
4.3.1 Respondents’ gender
| Gender | Count |
|--------|-------|
| Male | 20 |
| Female | 20 |
| Total | 40 |
The gender of the respondents was balanced.
4.3.2 Respondents mode of communication
Table 10
| Mode of communication | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------|-----------|------------|
| Sign Language | 24 | 60 |
| Fingerspelling | 0 | 0 |
| Gestures | 0 | 0 |
| All of the above | 16 | 40 |
| Total | 40 | 100 |
The table shows that the majority of the respondents are more frequent users of sign language and only a few use all the above together. This means that these respondents were relevant for the study.
4.3.3 Respondents’ opinion on the fact that the hearing impaired children should learn with the hearing
Fig 9 Pie chart showing respondents opinion on the inclusion of the hearing impaired and hearing students.
The pie chart shows that half of the respondents agreed that hearing impaired students should learn together with the hearing students. This clearly indicates their need to communicate.
4.3.4 Respondents opinion on having friends that are hearing
Fig 10 Respondents opinion on the socialization with hearing impaired children
The bar graph clearly shows the hearing like to socialize and communicate with their hearing peers.
4.3.5 Respondents way of communication with the hearing
Table 11
| Mode of communication | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------|-----------|------------|
| Sign Language | 4 | 10 |
| Gestures | 28 | 70 |
| Interpreter | 8 | 20 |
| Total | 40 | 100 |
The greater percentage use gestures with the hearing as these are easier to understand. However, this means that there is a communication gap.
4.3.6 Communication with the hearing is easy
Fig 11 pie chart shows the opinion of the respondents on how easy it is to communicate with the hearing.
The pie chart shows that most of the hearing impaired children believe that it is not easy to communicate with the hearing. Only a small number agrees that it is easy. This indicates that the hearing impaired do face difficulties when trying to communicate.
4.3.7 Other problems faced by Respondents other than communication difficulties
Fig 12 Pie chart showing respondents opinion on other problems other than communication faced.
The pie chart shows that a large number of the children faced emotional problems while less face social problems. This shows that these emotional problems stem from depression stigma and low self-esteem when they fail to communicate.
4.3.8 Do All Teachers in your School use Sign Language
All the 40 respondents said that not all their teachers use sign language in communicating. Only their specific teachers use sign language. Other teachers in the school do not do so meaning that they miss out on what these teachers communicate informally.
4.3.9 Proportion of teachers who know Sign Language
Fig 13 Bar graph showing the percentage of teachers who know sign language against those who do not.
A greater percentage of the teachers do not know sign language posing a problem in communication with the hearing impaired children.
4.3.10 Teachers attitude to hearing impaired children is negative
Fig 14 bar showing the opinion of the respondents towards the attitude of teachers towards hearing children.
The bar graph shows that 60% of hearing impaired children believed their teachers have a negative attitude towards them. This indicates a rift between them and their teachers.
4.3.11 Respondents opinion on how negative attitudes of the hearing people affect them.
Fig 15 Pie chart showing how the respondents were affected by negative attitude.
The pie chart shows that the majority of the respondents feel that negative attitudes affected them both emotionally and educationally. This therefore creates a barrier in communication as well as educationally.
4.3.12 Respondents opinion on what can be done to close the communication gap.
Table 12
| Solution | Frequency | Percentage |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------|------------|
| Educate people on Sign Language | 0 | 0 |
| Educate people on the need for the hearing impaired to communicate | 8 | 20 |
| Carry out awareness campaigns | 0 | 0 |
| All of the above | 32 | 80 |
| Total | 40 | 10 |
The table shows that the majority of the respondents concur that educating people on Sign Language, the need of hearing impaired to communicate and carrying out awareness campaigns can bridge the communication gap between the hearing and the hearing impaired.
4.3.13 Respondents’ opinion on inclusion of Sign Language as a compulsory subject in schools.
All the respondents agreed that Sign language should be compulsory in schools. This indicates the hearing impaired students yearning to be able to communicate effectively with everyone in general.
4.4 Questionnaire for hearing students
4.4.1 Gender of respondents
| Gender | Frequency |
|--------|-----------|
| Male | 12 |
| Female | 8 |
| Total | 20 |
4.4.2 Respondents’ mode of communication
Table 13
| Mode of communication | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------|-----------|------------|
| Speaking | 18 | 90 |
| Sign Language | 0 | 0 |
| Both | 2 | 10 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Fig 16 Pie chart showing the mode of communication of the respondents.
The pie chart shows that a greater percentage of children only communicate through the means of speaking while only a few use both sign language and speaking. This in itself shows that the hearing impaired face a challenge when trying to communicate with people who use speech.
4.4.3 Do respondents enjoy learning with the hearing impaired?
Fig 17 Pie chart showing opinion on learning with hearing impaired children.
From the pie chart 50% of the hearing seemed to be intolerant to learning with the hearing impaired children. However, the rest did not agree. This shows marginalization of the hearing impaired.
4.4.4 How do the respondents communicate with the hearing impaired?
Table 14
| Mode of communication | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------|-----------|------------|
| Sign Language | 18 | 10 |
| Finger Spelling | 0 | 0 |
| Gestures | 2 | 90 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
Most hearing students can communicate with the hearing impaired through gestures. This implies that though there is no audial communication through speaking, the hearing do want to communicate with the hearing impaired. But this is difficult though as gestures may mean different things.
4.4.5 Respondents’ opinion on whether all children should communicate with the hearing impaired if provisions are made for them to do so.
Fig 18 Bar graph showing respondents opinion on whether all children in schools should communicate with the hearing impaired.
The majority of the respondents agreed that schools should make a provision that enables the hearing impaired and the hearing to communicate effectively.
4.4.6 Respondents’ opinion on what can be done to improve communication between the hearing impaired and the hearing.
Table 15
| Solution | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------------------------------|-----------|------------|
| Making Sign Language compulsory in school | 12 | 60 |
| Bringing in more teachers to teach Sign Language | 6 | 30 |
| Encourage the hearing impaired | 2 | 10 |
| Total | 40 | 100 |
The table shows the number of the hearing students who are of the opinion that sign language should be made compulsory in schools is greater while the rest say more teachers should be brought in to teach sign language. This implies that both groups of children want sign language to be introduced to have more effective communication with the hearing impaired.
4.4.8 Hearing children have negative attitude towards the hearing impaired.
Fig 20 Pie chart showing attitude of hearing children towards the hearing impaired
The pie chart shows that generally 50% of the children believed that hearing children have a negative attitude towards the hearing impaired. This poses a barrier to communication as they will not have the zeal to communicate with them thus increasing the gap in communication.
4.4.9 Respondents opinion on how the teachers and children’s attitudes towards the hearing impaired can be improved.
Table 16
| Solution | Frequency | Percentage |
|-----------------------------------------------|-----------|------------|
| Excluding the hearing impaired | 2 | 10 |
| Teaching the hearing Sign language | 18 | 80 |
| Encourage the hearing impaired to speak | 2 | 10 |
| Total | 20 | 100 |
The responses show the children’s willingness to learn Sign language so that they can be able to communicate effectively with their peers.
4.5 Summary
In this chapter the researcher presented, analyzed and interpreted the research results. It revealed that whilst teachers used under the investigation were well qualified and mature, a few had knowledge on how to handle and communicate with the hearing impaired. It is also shown that the hearing people generally have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired. This attitude seems to stem from the fact that the hearing do not know what to do when faced with hearing impaired people. This is because they are unable to communicate with them. The chapter also highlighted some measures to be taken to bridge the communication gap.
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter attempts to summarize the findings of the study. In this chapter the findings were presented followed by the discussion, the conclusions drawn as well as the recommendations put forward.
The researcher noted the following as the major findings. It emerged that there was indeed a communication barrier between the hearing and the hearing impaired. From the responses the problems that the hearing impaired face are social, educational and emotional. One could observe that teachers and fellow hearing students have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired. It was revealed that the hearing impaired have problems in socializing, interacting and being understood by the people around them. In spite of all the adverse findings school children and teachers are willing to learn language so as to bridge the communication gap. The introduction of compulsory sign language learning, training more specialized teachers and introducing sign language clubs were stated as means to break the communication barrier that the hearing impaired face.
5.1.2 Discussion
The research found out that there is indeed a communication problem between those who are hearing impaired and those who are not. This is because the modes of communication are different. The hearing speak while the deaf use many ways to communicate though mainly sign language. Belveridge (2008) also goes on to say that the use of sign language itself is a barrier as other people do not use it. It is like he is equating sign language to being the same as speaking Chinese language to a native Ndebele speaking person. He or she will not be able to comprehend.
Social, emotional and educational problems were found to be some of the problems the hearing impaired face. This results from being unable to share their thoughts and views about the things they see around them. Martin (1997) agrees with the researcher when he says that lack of
communication for the hearing impaired has social consequences. He goes on to say that due to lack of communication the hearing impaired watch passively and will not give their contribution even though they have a valuable contribution which they may fail to communicate to the class. The barrier here is the ability to use a mode of communication which can be understood by everyone.
The researcher also found that teachers have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired. This is mainly due to the fact that most primary and secondary school teachers are not able to use sign language to communicate with those individuals that are not able to hear. The negative attitudes also stem from the view that Foster (1987) puts when he said teachers have this view because they perceive the hearing impaired as having lower academic expectations. The Ministry of Education is also advocating for better results and high pass rate expectations from the teachers which only fuels the negative attitude as they do not want to spend more time helping them. Geinsten Al (2001) also attributes this negative attitude to lack of interactive experiences on a social basis. Once teachers have this negative attitude it also affects the child’s learning process as he/she will face problems. Syder (1992) says lack of attention to the hearing impaired child’s problem often results in the child failing to communicate and shun schooling and all efforts of getting an education come to naught. Being understood is another problem the children with hearing impairment were found to be having. In most cases because of the differences in the mode of communication when the hearing impaired use sign language that are not understood by those who do not know it. This is supported by Lucas (1990), Lane and Crosrean (1980) and Wilbur (1987) in Chimedza and Mutasa (2003) who say that sign language has been viewed as a bona fide language with its own language syntax, semantics and pragmatics. This, therefore means that if one needs to use or speak it they should learn it.
The research findings also revealed that though there is a barrier in communication, teachers and school children were willing to learn sign language as one of the major ways of closing the communication gap. This will actually enable both parties to socialize, interact and share views and ideas as well as getting to understand each other without problems.
Amongst the ways to break the communication barrier it was agreed upon that sign language should be compulsory in schools and should be taught as a subject just like English and Science.
This really shows that there is a real need for people to communicate with one another without there being hindrances to the communication process.
5.1.3 Conclusions
- The major conclusion based on the findings of the research is that the hearing impaired people face problems due to communication barriers. It was found that the problems are social, emotional and educational including the inability to be understood by people who do not use the same signed systems.
- The research revealed that teachers and some school children have negative attitudes towards the hearing impaired.
- The findings also revealed that most individuals viewed the learning of sign language as one major means of closing the communication gap between the hearing and the hearing impaired.
- The research also revealed that the introduction of compulsory sign language learning was or is another way to break the communication barrier.
Recommendations
The findings of the research suggest that the following recommendations be implemented in order to help alleviate the problems faced by the hearing impaired.
- To improve communication between the teachers and the hearing impaired individuals the teacher training course should have a course where teachers are taught basic sign language so that they may be able to communicate with the hearing impaired.
- Staff development and in service training programs should be held frequently in schools on the needs of the hearing impaired and how the effects of having negative attitude towards them affect them.
- Sign language should be made compulsory and taught in schools so that the hearing children can use sign language not only at school but in their communities and societies because hearing impaired people are universally found and these like everyone else like to communicate.
Sign language clubs can also be introduced in schools so that children can go to these clubs and socialize with the hearing impaired.
Teacher’s attitude towards the hearing impaired need to be positive to help them learn better.
Administration should monitor the welfare of the hearing impaired and initiate programs that promote harmony and a permitting environment for them to learn, interact and socialize freely.
Government also needs to develop and implement policies that cater for the needs of the hearing impaired such as recruiting and training more special education teachers so that they can be placed in schools even in the most remote parts of the country.
References
Badza A and Chakuchichi, D.D (2000) Curriculum Issues, Harare, Zimbabwe Open University
Beveridge, S (1995) Special Education Issues in Schools London, Routledge.
Bodgan, C and Taylor J (1992) Experience for the Deaf, Boston, Allyn & Bacon
Braden, J. P (1994) Deafness, Deprivation and IQ, New York, Plenum Press
Butler, S.R (1990) the Exceptional Child an Introduction to Special Education, Toronto, Harcourt Bruce Javonich Publishers
Chiinze, M.M and Tambara, C.T (2000) Introduction to Disability and Special Needs Education, Harare, Zimbabwe Open University
Chimedza, R.M and Mutasa, J (2003) Some Development, Cultural and Linguistic Aspects of Deafness, Harare, Zimbabwe Open University
Foster, M (1990) The Hearing Impaired Child, London, Andover Medical Publishers
E, Ndoro E and Kaputa T.N (2003) Introduction to Research Methods, Harare, Zimbabwe Open University
Gearheart B.R, Wieshahn M and Gearheart C.L (1998) The Exceptional Student in The Regular School 4thEd, Ohio, Merrill Publishing.
Gersten R, Keating J, Yavanoff S and Hamiss J (2001) Lost Opportunities, Boston, Allyn, Boston
Green J (2007) Deafness and Language, New York, Willey and Son
Appendix 1
Questionnaire to the teachers and school heads
This is a questionnaire for heads of schools and teachers information to obtain on the communication of hearing impaired people in Mutare Urban. Would you please provide honest information by ticking the appropriate box or filling in information in the space provided?
1. What is your gender?
Male □ Female □
2. Age
20 – 29 □ 29 – 39 □
40- 49 □ 50+ □
3. Marital Status
Single □ Married □
Divorce □ Widowed □
Separated □
4. Highest Academic Qualifications
Standard 6 □ ZJC □
O’ Level □ A’ Level □
B.A/ BSc Gen □ B.A/ BSc (Hon) □
5. Professional Qualifications
C.E □ Dip Ed □
Bed □ Med □
6. Are you professionally qualified in Special Needs Education?
Yes □ No □
7. What is your teaching experience in years?
>10 □ 10-19 □
30-39 □ 20-29 □
8. Have you ever taught children with hearing impairment?
Yes □ No □
9. What problems do they face in communication?
Being understood □ Understanding □ All of the above □
10. What other problems do they face?
Social □ Emotional □ Physical □
11. Should all people be conversant in Sign Language?
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I strongly Disagree □
12. What mode of communication do you use when you want to communicate with the Hearing Impaired?
Sign Language □ Gestures □ Finger Spelling □ Interpreter □
13. Would you say there is communication barrier between the Deaf and the Hearing?
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
14. If so how do we close that gap?
By making Sign Language learning compulsory in schools □
Institutionalizing the Deaf □
Starting Sign Language Clubs in schools □
15. Which students would you prefer teaching?
Hearing Impaired □ Hearing □ Both children □
16. The attitude of teachers towards People with Hearing Impairment is negative
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
Questionnaire for the Hearing Impaired
1. What is your gender?
Male □ Female □
2. Which mode of communication do you commonly use to communicate?
Sign Language □ Finger spelling □
Gestures □ All of the above □
3. Do you like to learn with hearing students?
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
4. Should you have friends that are not hearing impaired?
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
5. How do you communicate with them?
Sign Language □ Fingerspelling □
Gestures □
6. Communicating with the hearing is easy
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
7. Besides communication difficulties what other problems do you face?
Social □ Physical □ Emotional □
8. Do all teachers use Sign Language?
Yes □ No □
9. Do teachers who do not know Sign Language communicate with you?
Yes □ No □
10. Teachers attitude towards you are negative
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
11. How do negative attitudes of people towards hearing impairment affect you?
Emotionally □ Educationally □ All of the above □
12. What do you think can be done to close the communication gap?
- Teach people Sign Language
- Educate people on the need for the hearing impaired to communicate
- Carry out awareness campaigns
- All of the above
13. Sign Language should be taught in school as a compulsory subject
- I Agree
- I Disagree
- I Strongly Disagree
Questionnaire for Hearing Students
1. What is your gender?
Male □ Female □
2. What is your mode of communication?
Sign Language □ Speaking □
3. Are you fluent in Sign Language?
Yes □ No □
4. Learning with hearing impaired is enjoyable
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
5. Do you communicate with them?
Yes □ No □
6. How do you communicate with them?
Sign Language □ Finger spelling □
Gesture □ All of the above □
7. It is easy for all school children in school to communicate with the hearing impaired
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
8. What can be done to improve communication between the hearing and the hearing impaired?
Bring more teachers to teach sign language □
Making Sign Language compulsory in schools □
Encouraging the hearing impaired to speak □
9. The attitude of teachers towards hearing impaired children is negative
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
10. The attitude of the hearing towards hearing impaired children is negative
I Agree □ I Disagree □ I Strongly Disagree □
11. How can their attitude be improved?
- Removing the hearing impaired from regular schools
- Teaching them Sign Language
- Encouraging Hearing Impaired to speak | 4ab7b6a7-1321-4005-bf6f-e1ec95c80e5f | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://umdeaf.org/download/tmakaya4.pdf | 2023-06-06T03:51:17+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224652207.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20230606013819-20230606043819-00270.warc.gz | 665,837,417 | 14,548 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.986212 | eng_Latn | 0.998929 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
2192,
4743,
6322,
8487,
10020,
11460,
13554,
16250,
18901,
21437,
23923,
26351,
28999,
31099,
32979,
35090,
35353,
37077,
39013,
41246,
42101,
42802,
43326,
43984,
44986,
45872,
46203,
46868,
47734,
48153,
48528,
49370,
50556,
50988,
51637,
52247... | [
3.328125,
1.8515625
] | 1 | 0 |
Victory in Europe Day
Great Wood were honoured to take part in the 75th Anniversary of VE Day by attending the 2 minute silence in Tean. The Royal British Legion had done an amazing job decorating the High Street. The 11am silence was beautifully held and wreaths were laid by Councillor Colin Pearce. Carley Mellor laid a wreath on behalf of Tean RBL and Elsie laid a wreath on behalf of all the Tean children. It was well attended and everyone respected the social distancing protocols. Well done to those who attended and led the service.
We have loved seeing what our families have been up to, to honour VE day, fantastic!
Our VE Day Poster competition entries, winners will be announced next week.
Happy Birthday!
Happy 5th Birthday to Genevieve, we hope you had a fantastic day!
Happy 6th Birthday to Nicola, she is having a Frozen themed party at home.
Please send us your child’s birthday pictures to email@example.com so we can wish them a very Happy Lockdown Birthday!
Week Three Anagram Answers
1. victory
2. war
3. soldier
4. fight
5. peace
6. sacrifice
7. freedom
8. home
9. trenches
10. flag
11. nation
12. great
13. Britain
14. surrender
15. heroes
#clapforourcarers
I'M JOINING THE NATION IN SAYING THANKS TO OUR KEY WORKERS THIS THURSDAY AT 8 PM
Please have a go at our Great Wood challenges. Answers will be in next weeks newsletter.
Great Wood - Crossword
Across:
3. When we are perusing a book
8. A subject for numbers
9. Machine for sums
10. Used for writing with
11. Used to colour with
12. Keeps your place in your reading
14. Work that we do at home
15. Where all the books live
17. A study of the past
19. Used for sticking things
Down:
1. What we write on
2. French, German, English
4. Solution to a problem
5. Holds the meanings of words
6. Mum and Dad
7. People we like to be with
12. A bag for your back
13. Can contains a story
15. Time where we learn
16. Before teenagers
18. Food for playtime
Great Wood - Household Scavenger hunt
We have a new challenge for you this week. We are holding a scavenger hunt! We have a list of ten things, that you should be able to find in your house. Collect these items and put them on a tray or a table and take a photograph of them. Send your photograph to school at firstname.lastname@example.org. The best collections will be featured in next week’s newsletter. Please ask your parents before collecting your items.
Here is your scavenger hunt list:
A pencil
A book that you are reading
A coffee cup
A photo in a frame
A drawing done by you
A biscuit, or a cake
A key
A DVD
A teddy
A label with your name on it
Happy hunting!
NSPCC
For some children, school was a refuge.
Worried about a young person in a domestic abuse situation right now?
National Domestic Abuse Helpline
0808 2000 247
NSPCC Helpline
0808 800 5000
In an emergency call 999
STAY ALERT
CONTROL THE VIRUS
SAVE LIVES
Create your own miniature garden
Here is your next Great Wood activity. We want you to create your own miniature garden. All you need to use are all the little things that you already have in your garden. When you have finished your masterpiece, take a photo of it and send it into us at email@example.com. We will be featuring some of your creations in the newsletter and maybe you will find your work of art on the Great Wood website.
Materials that you might want to use;
A small plastic container, or lid from your recycling bin
Pebbles
Leaves
Soil
Small flowers
Stones
Twigs
Bark
Sand
Grass
Plus anything else that you can find. Maybe you would like to give your miniature garden a theme, using anything that you might have in your craft box.
Here is one that we created to show you, but your design is completely up to you. Please ask an adult’s permission before you bring outside, inside!
Go and get creative and have loads of fun!
We love seeing what you have been up to during isolation, keep sending us your pictures!
Isabella Reception - Isabella has been enjoying lots of outside activities.
Isabella Year 1 - Has been busy growing butterflies, which she has now released.
Albert Reception - Albert has been having a go at the home learning and his big brother Ethan has been helping him! He has enjoyed decorating the front of his house with rainbows and enjoyed daily exercise with his family.
Lacey Reception - Lacey enjoyed doing the scarecrow hunt in her village as part of their VE day celebrations. She has also been enjoying her daily exercise and drawing beautiful pictures.
Josie Year 2 - Josie and her sister helped build a Guinea pig run, lots of measuring and using tools. They even got to paint it, along with a little bit on their grass and themselves! They did a great job!
Olivia Year 5 - Olivia is happily baking away, which her family are enjoying. She walks by the river and feeds the ducks, she has also been practising some yoga and having water fights with her brother and sister.
Nicola Year 1 - Nicola has continued to work hard at home. She made a new outfit for her Garcon doll, she drew some more beautiful pictures and he even been reading to her little brother and teaching him new words!
Jacob Year 3 - Jacob has been celebrating VE Day, decorating his house with balloons bunting, he also enjoyed having afternoon tea in the garden with his family.
Jack Year 2 - Jack has enjoyed learning about VE day. He made a WW2 bacon and egg pie and dressed up in army items that had been in the family for many years.
We love seeing what you have been up to...
Eleanor Year 4 - Eleanor has been busy in the kitchen, creating a two course meal for her family, all on her own, looks yummy!
Ava Year 1 - Ava has enjoyed learning about VE day. She celebrated with her family by having a picnic, dressing up, making a flag and she also enjoyed having foam play.
Lola Year 1 - Lola has enjoyed reading her favourite book 'Little red riding hood' and writing a book review this week. She has also been enjoying her daily exercise and even had a go at doing some Yoga too! Lola has also enjoyed spending VE day with her family, for the VE day celebrations.
Noah Reception - Noah has been having lots of fun at home, he has made a day of the week and weather box and he has enjoyed making goo with his big sister Georgia. The family all had lots of fun celebrating VE day.
Casey Reception - Casey has been learning lots of new skills at home. He has been helping his dad to wash up, made delicious cakes and a trifle. He claps for careers each week and enjoyed celebrating VE day with his family.
Summer WildArt Competition
The RSPB are once again teaming up with the Cameron Bespolka Trust to bring you WildArt 2020 and this year we’re even bigger! We’re on the lookout for talented young artists to enter our exciting competition.
What to do
Create a piece of art inspired by nature – let your imagination run WILD! There are 2 categories to choose from this year – REAL LIFE – entries using the more traditional approach of paints, pastels, acrylics, pens or pencil and our new GO WILD category – for those of you who want to ‘go wild’ in every sense of the word. To enter this category, experiment with textiles, sculpture, recycled and eco-friendly materials, and collages – anything goes!
To Enter
Please email a photo of your artwork to firstname.lastname@example.org with the heading WildArt 2020 Competition, and don’t forget to tell us your age and category selection! If your submission makes the shortlist, we’ll be in touch with further details after the competition closes. WildArt is split into three age groups: under 8s, 8-12, and 13 years and over.
Don’t forget to send an email to your class email or school office email address so we can upload them to our school website and put on the school newsletter. We will not forward to RSPB, please send them directly.
The deadline for the completion is 28th August, however we would love to see them much sooner so please start drawing/making them over the May Half Term. Send them in when you are happy with your finished entry, we can’t wait to see them.
The prizes!
For each category, the winner of each age group will receive an art gift voucher worth £100. There are also RSPB runner-up prizes for each category and age group too, so plenty of chances to WIN! The winning, runner-up and highly commended artwork will be displayed at The Society of Wildlife Artists Natural Eye exhibition from 28 October to 8 November 2020.
A special Richie Richardson award (and £100 book voucher) will be given for the most accurately drawn animal. The winning and runner-up artwork will also be printed in Wild Times, Wild Explorer or Wingbeat magazine.
The rules
We must receive entries for the competition by Friday 28th August 2020. If shortlisted, we will require the actual artwork. If you want your artwork returned, please supply a self-addressed stamped envelope with the correct postage and packaging.
When taking a photo of your artwork to send to us, please make sure you use natural lighting. Dark or unnatural light can result in distorted image colour/appearance.
We aim to inform all winners within 21 days of the closing date.
All entrants must be under 19 and should ask permission from a parent, or guardian before entering.
Prizes are subject to availability. If, in circumstances beyond our control, we are unable to provide the stated prize, we will try to arrange an alternative prize of a similar value. No cash alternative will be offered.
The RSPB reserves the right to cancel the competition at any time, if deemed necessary, or if circumstances arise outside of the Society’s control.
Good luck from the Great Wood Team
Last Year’s Winners
All information can be found at: https://www.rspb.org.uk/fun-and-learning/for-kids/rspb-kids-competitions/wild-art/ | c6bf0d51-d8a9-4b01-ac29-4758b4c543d1 | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | http://www.tmpf.staffs.sch.uk/media/4621/gw-summer-term-4-140520.pdf | 2022-07-07T06:40:57+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104683708.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20220707063442-20220707093442-00319.warc.gz | 104,167,353 | 2,254 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998405 | eng_Latn | 0.998898 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
628,
1285,
1951,
2890,
3848,
5471,
6547,
8664,
9803
] | [
2.125
] | 1 | 0 |
Article 27: Every child has the right to an education.
Article 24: Every child has the right to the best health care possible, safe water to drink, nutritious food, a clean and safe environment, and information to help stay well.
French phrase: Non, merci.
Dear Parents, Carers and Children
In this, our first full monthly newsletter of the academic year, it is a timely opportunity to share our ‘return to school’ experiences so far.
You should feel proud that our learners have adapted well to new routines and systems. From the classroom layout, to the dining hall, to the playground zoning system. It is business as usual, with significant modifications. Most importantly, our learners are already immersed in the buzz, drama and joy of learning.
Adjustments made to the curriculum, across all year groups, are addressing knowledge and skills gaps. We are steadily reviving our Parkhill Way and, above all, we are encouraging our learners to talk, talk, talk! Talk the language of learning. Become an autonomous learner. Know how to build on your learning and be able to articulate how to achieve this.
Most Pupil Voice groups are up and running again. Look out for news and updates from the FCC (Festivals and Celebrations Committee), the Art Ambassadors, Science Ambassadors, Parkhill Parliament, LQT (Lunchtime Quality Team), Rights-Respecting Ambassadors, Librarians, Official Helpers, JTAs, MFL Ambassadors, PE Ambassadors, Digital Leaders, PAs to the HT, Eco Warriors. It should go without saying, that it is our learners who truly influence the running of the school!
As a community, we know that challenge lies ahead, in the weeks and months to come. For the wellbeing and sake of all, we must continue to work together and face each issue with wisdom, common sense and calm. Our learners, your children and their future come first.
Together with all staff and governors, I wish you a safe time ahead.
Stay Well and Enjoy Learning!
Mrs D. Hughes-Mulhall
Headteacher
Our Website – www.parkhilljunior.com
Important dates, information and so much more can be found on the website. Please pay regular visits. Updates are frequent and feature aspects of our school curriculum and school life.
We are settling into our new school! We have met our teachers and those who come in and teach us our other subjects, such as French and P.E. It is such an exciting time for us!
**French**
In our first French lesson, we have been learning some of the letter sounds as well as some class instructions with Mademoiselle Karine. We look forward to learning some more phrases so we can teach our friends and family at home!
**PE**
In PE, we have been learning the skills and techniques of how to perform a standing long jump as well as learning the different muscle groups (quads, calves and hamstrings) that help us jump with power!
**Roald Dahl Day!**
It was our first dress up day at Parkhill Junior School to commemorate the wonderful writing of Roald Dahl. We had an array of Willy Wonkas, Matildas and Fantastic Mr Foxes!
Coming up… Coming up…. Black History and Culture month!
Reminder: homework is to be completed on Google Classroom.
It has been a tremendous start to the autumn term for Year 4! The children have impressed all the adults with how Rights-Respecting they are and what autonomous learners they have shown themselves to be! The resilience demonstrated by the children has been impressive. We have exciting times ahead of us and are looking forward to making this year the best one yet!
**PE – Dance and Athletics**
The children have been working with a coach from PTC sports and a dance teacher.
“Dance is great fun and exciting. I really enjoy the athletics because it is challenging.” -Harleen 4P
**English**
We have been reading an adventure book that links with our topic of Ancient Greeks: *Who let the Gods Out*. “I am really enjoying the book and I am looking forward to seeing if Elliot and Virgo have an adventure!” -Amara 4K
“I am enjoying learning about fronted adverbials. I am interested in learning about Greek mythology and am learning so much by reading ‘Who let the Gods Out’” -Rosshnavi 4S
**Art and Music**
This term in art we are creating Greek pots. We need to design them before we make them. “I love art because I get to do my favourite activity which is drawing.” -Nabihah 4B
“It was fun singing because I love singing!” -Khadya 4D
In other news…
Please remember to complete homework through Google classroom; the deadline for submission is Tuesday evening. Spelling tests are in class every Friday. Please ensure long hair is tied back for PE lessons and that the children are not wearing jewellery.
*Keep up the fantastic work Year 4!*
Ms Porter, Miss Dunn, Ms Sondh and Mrs Krizsanyik
Enjoy Learning!
What a pleasant start to this term. The Year 5 team, have been very impressed with the way the children have settled into their new routines and learning very quickly and safely. Fabulous!
Year 5 had a fabulous time when we dressed up as a character from the famous author Roald Dhal’s books. There was so much yellow in school, everyone had a huge smile on their face. We all had a terrific time and learnt so many interesting facts about him. ‘Roald Dhal day was really fun, it was nice to dress up and to share one of our favourite books.’ – Eliza 5DO
In class, we were able to see many Tudor portraits and we were amazed at the detail in them, considering they are over 500 years old. We studied what they wore and discussed why they wore them. “My drawing of King Henry VIII looked very evil. I made sure when I drew his face that his expressions looked stern!” - Reiden 5N
Year 5 (for outdoor P.E) are learning how to do the long jump with the correct jumping, landing and take-off techniques. We have learnt how to mark out our own jumps and are now moving on to the triple jump. “Now I know the different ways of jumping further and to sprint like an athlete.” - Danyaal 5A
Well done for making such a great start to the year. We are looking forward to all the exciting learning which is coming up in the months ahead.
Although it has been a different start to the autumn term this year, it has been wonderful to see the Year 6s return to school and ready for learning. The children have impressed all the adults with how Rights Respecting they are both in and outside of the classroom! We have lots of exciting times ahead of us and are looking forward to making our last year at Parkhill, the best one yet!
**Roald Dahl Day**
It was fantastic to see the Parkhill spirit back in school when we dressed up for Dahlicious day. The year group was full of Willy Wonkers, Matildas, Grand High Witches, Miss Trunchbulls and not to forget Charlie Buckets!
Some of us decided to wear yellow which was, of course, Roald Dahl’s favourite colour.
**Swimming**
We have been very excited to start our swimming lessons. Remembering to bring our bags with all the necessary equipment has been really important but it has been worth it.
“I can’t wait until next week when we can go and I can learn how to swim,” Kira 6C
**Keep up the fantastic work Year 6**
Ms Castellanos, Ms Uppal and Mrs Wakefield
We will continue to Enjoy Learning and Growing Together!
| Dates | Event |
|-----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 6th October 2020 | 3S Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 7th October 2020 | 3O Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 8th October 2020 | 3H Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 9th October 2020 | World Mental Health Day (in-school activities) |
| | 3M Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 12th October 2020 | Individual School Photographs |
| | 4K Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 13th October 2020 | 4D Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 15th October 2020 | 4S Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 16th October 2020 | 4P Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 19th October 2020 | 5DO Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 20th October 2020 | 5N Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 23rd October 2020 | 5A Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| | Day Glow Day – dress up day |
| 26th October to 30th October 2020 | Half Term Holiday |
| 2nd November 2020 | Staff Training Day – School closed to children |
| 3rd November 2020 | 6U Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 5th November 2020 | 6W Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 6th November 2020 | 6C Parents Evening 1:00pm -5:00pm |
| 13th November 2020 | Children in Need – Spotacular Dress up day |
| 20th November 2020 | 11 Million Takeover Day – in class only |
| 25th November 2020 | No Pens Wednesday |
| 26th November 2020 | Vaccinations |
| 27th November 2020 | Festival of Light – in class only |
| 18th December 2020 | Last day of term – 3:30pm finish time for Years 3 and 4 |
| | Last day of term – 3:45pm finish time for Years 5 and 6 |
| PLEASE NOTE NEW FINISHING TIMES. | |
| 21st December 2020 to 1st January 2021 | Holidays |
| 4th January 2021 | Staff Training Day – School closed to children | | ac957d64-7a4b-4c21-b3a2-f8a9ca884c4d | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://parkhilljunior.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/October-2020-Head-Teacher-Newsletter.pdf | 2020-10-29T17:26:03+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107904834.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20201029154446-20201029184446-00141.warc.gz | 461,688,662 | 2,276 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998311 | eng_Latn | 0.998341 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2212,
3156,
4773,
6105,
7233,
10276
] | [
2.328125
] | 1 | 0 |
A. Lesson Goal:
By the end of the training session, workers will:
- Recognize potential eye hazards on the job.
- Understand proper first-aid treatment for different types of eye injuries.
- Be able to administer appropriate first aid for eyes in an emergency.
B. OSHA Regulation: 29 CFR 1910.133, 29 CFR 1910.151, and 29 CFR 1910.1200 plus regulations for specific substances that could damage the eye.
C. Have Handy
- Your company’s policy and procedures for dealing with medical emergencies in the workplace.
- Samples of eye protection used in your department.
- List of potential eye hazards in your department.
- First-aid kit.
D. Background for Instructor:
1. Introduction
Any eye injury is a serious concern. Most eye injuries require medical attention, and the call for emergency medical assistance should usually go out immediately. First aid while waiting for emergency medical help to arrive, however, can minimize damage, keep the victim calm, and help to treat the problem. Responding quickly with appropriate first aid for an eye injury can make the difference between a quick recovery and permanently impaired vision. That’s why it is important for your employees to be familiar with the proper first aid for a variety of potential eye injuries. Of course, most injuries can be avoided if employees wear the proper eye protection on the job. This is a point you should emphasize at the beginning of the session.
2. Particles in the Eye
Employees should take the following steps in the event someone gets a particle in the eye:
- Do not rub the eye.
- Lift the upper eyelid outward and down over the lower lid, and let tears wash out the particle.
- If that does not work, flush the eye with water until the particle comes out.
- If the particle still does not wash out or if pain or redness continues, bandage the eye lightly and get medical attention.
3. Chemical Splashes or Burns
Chemical splashes or burns are extremely serious injuries that can cause permanent eye injuries. Quick action is required:
- Hold the eye open and use the emergency eyewash to flush with water for at least 15 minutes.
- Call for emergency medical assistance.
- Check the material safety data sheet (MSDS) for information about the chemical and supply this information to emergency medical personnel.
4. **Light Burns**
In the event of a burn caused by intense light (such as a laser beam or infrared radiation from welding), employees should remember the following information:
- You may not feel anything for up to a day.
- Then you may experience a gritty sensation, light sensitivity, redness, or swelling.
- Keep eyes closed and get medical attention.
5. **Blow to the Eye**
First aid for blows to the eye involves the following steps:
- Apply a cold compress without pressure for 15 minutes to reduce pain and swelling.
- Get medical attention at once if pain continues or if vision is affected.
6. **Penetrating Object in the Eye**
If the eye is cut, punctured, or penetrated, the first step is to call for emergency medical assistance immediately. Then:
- Do not remove, move, or put pressure on any object that has penetrated the eye.
- Immobilize the object by placing a paper cup or soft, bulky dressing around the object and securing it in place with a bandage.
- Bandage both eyes so that the victim will keep the injured eye still.
7. **Cuts Near the Eye**
When administering first aid for cuts near the eye:
- Bandage loosely and get medical attention.
- Don’t rub the eye.
**E. Examples and Practical Exercises:**
- Review your company’s policy and procedures for dealing with eye injuries in the workplace (including use of the emergency eyewash if you have one).
- Discuss potential eye hazards in your department.
- Display various types of eye protection used in the department and briefly explain the circumstances under which each type should be worn.
- Show employees a first-aid kit, tell them where they can find such kits in the work area, and go through the contents of the kit, pointing out items that may be required to administer first aid for eye injuries.
A Safety Meeting Outline
Note: If your company has an emergency eyewash station, hold your training session nearby to demonstrate its proper use.
A. Introduction 2 minutes
1. Any eye injury is a serious concern.
2. Responding quickly with appropriate first aid for an eye injury can make the difference between a quick recovery and permanently impaired vision.
B. Medical Treatment 2 minutes
1. Most eye injuries need prompt medical attention.
2. First aid is not meant to be a substitute for professional help.
3. In most cases, while someone is giving first aid, a co-worker should be calling for emergency medical assistance.
C. First Aid for Eyes 10 minutes
(Distribute and review Handout 4126-25, or use as an overhead slide.)
D. Discussion 5 minutes
1. What should you do if you or a co-worker gets a particle in the eye?
2. What should you do in the event of a chemical splash or burn?
3. What should you do if you or a co-worker gets a blow to the eye?
4. What should you do if an object penetrates someone’s eye?
5. What is the proper first-aid treatment for cuts near the eye?
E. Summary 2 minutes
1. Treat all eye injuries seriously, and take immediate action to administer appropriate first aid.
2. Call for emergency medical assistance.
3. Remember that the first rule of first aid is “Do no further harm.” If you’re not sure about what to do, simply calm and reassure the patient while you wait for emergency medical help to arrive.
F. Wrap-Up 3 minutes
1. Thank employees for their participation.
2. Ask for final questions and answers.
3. Issue and collect session evaluation form.
First Aid for Eye Injuries
Most eye injuries need prompt medical attention. While help is on the way, however, you can help by calming and reassuring the victim and providing appropriate first aid. A quick response to an eye injury can make the difference between a speedy recovery and permanently impaired vision.
Particles in the Eye
- Do not rub the eye.
- Lift the upper eyelid outward and down over the lower lid, and let tears wash out the particle.
- If that does not work, flush the eye with water until the particle comes out.
- If the particle still does not wash out, or if pain or redness continues, bandage the eye lightly and get medical attention.
Chemical Splashes or Burns
- Hold the eye open and use the emergency eyewash to flush with water for at least 15 minutes.
- Call for emergency medical assistance.
- Check the material safety data sheet (MSDS) for information about the chemical and supply this information to emergency medical personnel.
Light Burns
- You may not feel anything for up to a day.
- Then you may experience a gritty sensation, light sensitivity, redness, or swelling.
- Keep eyes closed and get medical attention.
Blow to the Eye
- Apply a cold compress without pressure for 15 minutes to reduce pain and swelling.
- Get medical attention at once if pain continues or if vision is affected.
Penetrating Object in the Eye
- Call for emergency medical assistance immediately.
- Do not remove, move, or put pressure on the object.
- Immobilize the object by placing a paper cup or soft, bulky dressing around the object and securing it in place with a bandage.
- Bandage both eyes so that the victim will keep the injured eye still.
Cuts Near the Eye
- Bandage loosely and get medical attention.
- Don’t rub the eye.
First Aid for Eyes Quiz
After the following statements, write T for True or F for False:
1. If you or a co-worker gets chemicals in the eye, you should cover the eye and seek medical attention. ____
2. The proper first aid for a blow to the eye is to apply a steak to the eye. ____
3. The best way to get a particle out of your eye is to rub it until the tears wash the particle out. ____
4. If a particle still does not wash out or if pain or redness continues, bandage the eye and get medical attention. ____
5. If an eye is cut or punctured, apply a cold compress and get medical attention. ____
6. Most eye injuries require prompt medical attention. ____
7. If an object penetrates the eye, you should apply pressure around the object to stop bleeding. ____
8. Proper first aid for cuts near the eye involves washing the cuts with soap and warm water before applying a sterile dressing. ____
9. Unlike other eye injuries, blows to the eye rarely require medical attention. ____
10. Most eye injuries can be prevented if you wear appropriate eye protection on the job. ____
1. If you or a co-worker gets chemicals in the eye, you should cover the eye and seek medical attention. **F**
You should immediately flush the eye with water for at least 15 minutes and have someone call for emergency medical attention while you are flushing the eye.
2. The proper first aid for a blow to the eye is to apply a steak to the eye. **F**
The proper first aid for a blow to the eye is to apply a cold compress.
3. The best way to get a particle out of your eye is to rub it until the tears wash the particle out. **F**
Never rub the eye. Instead, try lifting the upper eyelid outward and down over the lower lid, and letting tears wash out the particle. If that doesn’t work, flush the eye with water until the particle comes out.
4. If a particle still does not wash out or if pain or redness continues, bandage the eye and get medical attention. **T**
5. If an eye is cut or punctured, apply a cold compress and get medical attention. **F**
Call for emergency medical assistance immediately. Bandage both eyes so that the victim will keep the injured eye still.
6. Most eye injuries require prompt medical attention. **T**
7. If an object penetrates the eye, you should apply pressure around the object to stop bleeding. **F**
Call for emergency medical assistance. Do not remove, move, or put pressure on an object penetrating the eye. While waiting for help to arrive, immobilize it by placing a paper cup or soft, bulky dressing around the object and securing it in place with a bandage, and then cover both eyes.
8. Proper first aid for cuts near the eye involves washing the cuts with soap and warm water before applying a sterile dressing. **F**
Bandage the area loosely and get medical attention.
9. Unlike other eye injuries, blows to the eye rarely require medical attention. **F**
Blows to the eye require medical attention if pain continues or vision is affected.
10. Most eye injuries can be prevented if you wear appropriate eye protection on the job. **T** | <urn:uuid:adbc82d4-cfcd-43e2-b817-76b61e8cea76> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | http://www.fresnostate.edu/adminserv/facilitiesmanagement/ehsrms/documents/FirstaidforEyes4126.pdf | 2018-10-23T18:27:30Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583516892.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20181023174507-20181023200007-00302.warc.gz | 476,018,448 | 2,290 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99609 | eng_Latn | 0.997574 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2129,
4113,
5719,
7484,
8573,
10598
] | [
2.203125
] | 1 | 1 |
Evaluation of Disabled STEAM -Students’ Education Learning Outcomes and Creativity under the UN Sustainable Development Goal: Project-Based Learning Oriented STEAM Curriculum with Micro:bit
Shih-Yun Lu 1, Chu-Lung Wu 2,* and You-Ming Huang 3
1 Department of Fine Arts, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung City 403454, Taiwan; firstname.lastname@example.org
2 Department of Special Education, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung City 403454, Taiwan
3 Department of Digital Content and Technology, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung City 403454, Taiwan; email@example.com
* Correspondence: firstname.lastname@example.org
Abstract: This research aims to discuss the impact of the STEAM curriculum on students with learning disabilities and their learning outcomes and creativity. Teaching for creative thinking is the strategy to deliver a STEAM-structured curriculum and to reach the SDG4 targets. The content is designed in line with project-based learning (PBL), while the micro:bit and paper cutting are used as materials to support it.
Methods and Procedures: The single-case research approach (A-B-M) was applied to study three students with special educational needs in primary school. The entire curriculum takes up to 10 weeks with 12 STEAM lessons with activities. The independent variable was the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum, and the dependent variables were the learning outcomes and TTCT results of pre-tests and post-tests for creativity. There were immediate learning outcomes and retention effects found on the three participants.
This paper addresses that the STEAM curriculum had a positive impact on their creativity, which gives affirmative feedback on the curriculum.
Conclusion: This PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum under the SDG4 targets gave students with disabilities creativity competency and positive learning outcomes in these case studies. These teaching materials enable teachers to deliver the STEAM curriculum to students with learning disabilities.
Keywords: STEAM education; project-based learning; creativity; students with learning disabilities; sustainable development goal
1. Introduction
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) is the education goal. It aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
Target 4.4: by 2030, there will be a substantial increase in the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs, and entrepreneurship.
Target 4.4: by 2030, especially in skills acquisition, beyond work-specific skills, emphasis must be placed on developing high-level cognitive and non-cognitive/transferable skills, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity, teamwork, communication skills, and conflict resolution, which can be used across a range of occupational fields.
Target 4.5: by 2030, eliminate discrimination and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, especially those in vulnerable situations or other statuses; they should have access to inclusive, equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities.
Science technology has developed in the 21st century, and it is crucial to integrate education with competency-based learning, creativity, and the skill of problem-solving in order to keep the country innovative and competitive. Additionally, it provides what is needed in the social economy [1]. STEM education is considered as the national strategy in the US [2], where it is implemented to cultivate interdisciplinary talents for the country [3]. Yakman [4] mentions that students would understand the culture better and appreciate aesthetics under STEAM, with the additional subject of Arts to STEM. This is achieved by building on science and mathematics, delivered to students through technology, logical thinking, and art performance [4].
According to Executive Yuan, the number of students with special educational needs in primary school has been balanced over the last 10 years. However, the number of students with learning disabilities has increased every year. It is now the first category on the list of special educational needs [5]. General students have abundant and up-to-date resources, such as self-education, core competencies, and multicultural education. On the contrary, students with special educational needs lack resources, as well as support from their families [6,7].
Explicit behaviors, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, are the problems that students with learning disabilities encounter. This links to the issues of concentration, expression, thinking, memory, and so on [8]. Therefore, these students fall behind in STEM education [9,10]. Apart from medical support, Basham and Marino [11] state that providing appropriate and flexible learning strategies is also helpful for their learning. In view of multicultural education, leading students to find an effective or even their own learning method is the most straightforward way to improve their learning outcomes [11]. STEAM education could meet the requirement, as it provides a diverse and innovative learning environment. Students with special educational needs could discover their own learning techniques for acquiring skills.
In the past 10 years, most of the research on STEAM education concentrated on studying general students, or even the teachers or interns, rather than students with special educational needs [6,7,12–14]. Ehsan [15] reviewed 44 research papers regarding STEM and students with autism. The subjects covered were mathematics (31), science (12), technology (1), and engineering (0). Only 21 of them mentioned positive outcomes. Instead of studying STEM lesson planning and design, the 44 research papers only looked into the performance of a single skill. Given the fact that there is a lack of study on the integrated STEM education towards students with special educational needs, this study aimed to boost their cognition and stimulate their creativity with the STEAM curriculum (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics), together with skill development such as hands-on skills and problem-solving. This is relevant to SDG4 Target 4.4.
In order to design the STEAM curriculum, the researchers anticipated that utilizing PBL (project-based learning) as the teaching strategy to study students with special educational needs could improve their cognition and creativity. The structure was: (1) setting the goal, (2) designing eliciting questions, (3) plan evaluation, (4) planning, and (5) managing the process. The micro:bit by BBC was used as the material in class together with the activity of paper cutting. The result of this research could be set as an example to develop the STEAM curriculum in the future. This study aimed:
- To discuss whether there would be immediate and retention effects when applying the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum to students with learning disabilities.
- To determine whether the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum affects their creativity.
- To comprehend the feedback from participants after the intervention of the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum.
### 1.1. STEAM Curriculum
STEAM education is derived from STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics), with the addition of Arts. It is a thematic teaching approach of interdisciplinary competencies [16]. In STEM education, students are expected to (1) participate in projects,
(2) deliver logical reasoning, (3) cooperate, and (4) make decisions and analyze. By carrying these abilities, students are equipped for pursuing higher education and contributing to society [17]. Fan and Yu [18] are grateful to STEAM education, because through it, the productivity and economy in the United States are stimulated. Sharing the same perspective, Zollman [19] agrees that STEAM education enhances national and social development, strengthens military capability, boosts the economy, cultivates talents, and so on.
Currently, there are various theories and design models for developing the STEAM curriculum, such as project-based learning (PBL), design-based learning (DBL), and 6E Learning [20]. This study focused on students with special educational needs; hence, PBL was chosen due to its flexibility. It allows the researcher to easily amend it to meet the capability of students.
1.2. Paper Cutting
Another type of art, paper cutting is akin to a unique language. The more we understand, the deeper meaning will be unveiled. Li [21] identified three major categories in paper cutting: objects metaphor and symbolization, homophones, and theme.
Paper cutting is one kind of ancient folk art in China. Society and technological development diversify the culture. Recently, there is an increasing number of researchers devoted to the study related to paper cutting. Wang [22] used the brainstorming approach of creative thinking and SWOT analysis to design wallpaper. Later in 2015, Yang [23] conducted action research to discuss the impact of paper cutting lessons on juniors in primary school regarding creativity. The researcher mentions that students could understand better the form of paper cutting, as well as the folk culture. Additionally, the result of TTCT (Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking) shows improved creativity. With the help of digitalization and knowledge exchange, paper cutting could be preserved and introduced worldwide. A new type of art blended with western culture would be created.
1.3. Creativity
Creativity is a complex behavior of human beings that involves a wide range of aspects. It is affected by external social development, as well as educational background. Different presentational fields lead to different types of creativity [24]. The study of creativity became popular when Guilford, the president of the American Psychological Association, first introduced it [25]. Rhodes [26] addressed four factors for designing a curriculum for creativity: personal character, creative process, creative product, and creative environment. These are the indicators to enable teachers to evaluate creativity presented by students. The purpose of implementing creative thinking in class is to trigger motivation. Students are encouraged to exploit their imagination and think innovatively [24]. Williams’ Taxonomy by William [27] introduced a model that focuses on the cognitive and affective domain. The cognitive domain is considered the ability of divergent thinking, which includes fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. The creativity assessment is needed to evaluate and review the result of the curriculum in cultivating students’ creativity.
1.4. Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)
Creativity is characterized by fluent, flexible, and original thinking, which can be used as indicators to evaluate creator characteristics [28]. Despite being criticized for its lack of predictive validity and discrimination validity, TTCT remains the most common assessment of creativity in the United States and 35 other countries around the world [29]. Li [30] revised the reliability and validity of the Figural TTCT in Taiwan and reported a scorer reliability of 0.911–0.991, a test-retest reliability of 0.401–0.724, 6 weeks after, and an alternate-form reliability of 0.598–0.951, all of which reached the 0.05 significance level. In terms of validity, concurrent validity was established based on the creative thinking activities of the Williams Creative Thinking Test; the correlation coefficient ranged between 0.574 and 0.812 and reached the 0.05 significance level.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Participants
Considering the budget and manpower, participants of this study were students from a primary school located in Taichung City, Taiwan. There were a total of 3 students who needed to meet the following criteria:
(a) Students are identified as those who have learning disabilities and are arranged in a resource class.
(b) Students attend added and pull-out lessons while in the resource class.
(c) Students understand basic instruction and can complete daily living activities independently without having problems with sight, hearing, or fine movement. For example, they can reach a specific book and take it, or clean a desk.
(d) Students with no experience of STEAM.
Once the students were selected, the researcher explained the process of the experimental teaching and risk to their parents. Once they consented, the students officially participated in the study with fake names for privacy.
The details of the three participants can be found in Table 1.
Table 1. Details of the three participants.
| Name | Ama | Bella | Candy |
|------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| Grade (age)| 6th grade (12 years old) | 6th grade (12 years old) | 6th grade (12 years old) |
| Gender | Female | Female | Female |
| Test | Verbal Comprehension 83 | Verbal Comprehension 79 | Verbal Comprehension 85 |
| | Perceptual Reasoning 63 | Perceptual Reasoning 78 | Perceptual Reasoning 77 |
| | Working Memory 89 | Working Memory 75 | Working Memory 94 |
| | Processing Speed 70 | Processing Speed 65 | Processing Speed 73 |
| Special education | Pull-out lessons for Chinese and Mathematics | Pull-out lessons for Chinese and Mathematics | Pull-out lessons for Chinese and Mathematics |
| Learning habit | Active in learning. Interested in learning with Q&A. | Active in learning. Interested in practical operation but easily distracted by the external environment. | Active in learning. Sensible in images. Knows how to take notes in class strategically. |
| Experience of STEAM | No | No | No |
2.2. Independent Variable
The independent variable was PBL-oriented STEAM. The students were asked to complete 12 lessons, starting from easy to difficult. There were 2 lessons per week of 40 min each. The teacher amended the content of the lessons if needed based on the students’ performance.
PBL Curriculum Design Process
Setting a Goal and Planning
Arts and Technology are the core subjects of the curriculum. Together with Mathematics, Engineering, and Science, students complete tasks to create their artworks. After the STEAM curriculum design, paper cutting is more than just a skill-based activity—it is a part of the arts training included in the STEAM curriculum that can enhance the demonstration of creativity. The analysis of content and teaching aims are explained in the following sections.
Designing “Eliciting Questions”
1. How can you apply technology to paper cutting?
2. How can you use sounds and movement to control the light?
3. How can you control the artwork of paper cutting?
Curriculum Assessment
The assessment enables the teacher to understand students’ learning progress and review the curriculum to decide if amendments are needed.
Project Planning
There are 4 teaching activities designed based on Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, and Arts (Figure 1).
**Figure 1.** Teaching plan.
Process Management
The teacher evaluates upon the completion of each activity and revises the curriculum to be suitable for the students with special educational needs.
2.3. Dependent Variables and Evaluation
Learning outcomes and creativity demonstrated after the STEAM curriculum were considered the dependent variables. The former was reviewed by conducting an evaluation, in which the teacher was able to check each step. There were a total of 16 steps in the evaluation form. The more tasks the students performed during the activities, the better the performance they delivered. Students received 2 points for each step they completed individually, 1 point with the assistance of the teacher, and 0 points if they failed.
TTCT was used to review creativity before and after the completion of the STEAM curriculum. There were 3 activities to check 5 creative characteristics: fluency, originality, title, elaboration, and openness.
2.4. Experiment Design
This analysis is built on the withdrawal design of the single-case approach to discuss the learning outcomes and creativity of the 3 participants after participating in the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum. This study employed a single-subject withdrawal design as the research framework because of the small sample size and large individual differences, which renders the implementation of quantitative research difficult. Single-subject research—a quantitative experimental design commonly used in the event of a limited sample size—comprises baseline, treatment, and maintenance phases with repeated measurements of causality. The proposed intervention was found to exhibit favorable reliability and validity [20].
2.5. Procedures
The researcher explained the following information before the experimental teaching started: (1) It is voluntary to participate in the study. There will not be any consequences for leaving anytime during the research. (2) The result of the evaluation (accuracy) is only for research purposes. It will not affect their impression at school, nor their academic record. (3) The lessons will be recorded. If the participants feel uncomfortable, they can ask to terminate the curriculum.
2.5.1. Baseline Stage
The baseline measure aimed to evaluate the initial STEAM performance without the students being trained or taught. In line with the withdrawal design of single-case approach, there were 3 tests at this stage. The researcher collected data using the STEAM evaluation form and then analyzed it with TTCT for the pre-test. No clues were given by the researchers or observers to the participants when completing the tasks. When three successive data points were stable in the baseline trend, the STEAM curriculum began.
2.5.2. Teaching Intervention Stage
At this stage, participants were asked to take part in at least 6 lessons. Lessons lasted for 40 minutes, with the first 20 minutes for demonstration and practice. The rest of the time, the activities were assessed. Learning effect was evaluated after each intervention to assess its immediate effect. The researcher and observer were not allowed to hint.
2.5.3. Retention Stage
Two weeks after the teaching intervention, the students completed the evaluation for learning outcomes and retention. There was no teaching involved during the interval. As was done in the baseline stage, no clue was given. However, the participants were encouraged verbally.
2.6. Reliability
An inter-observer agreement (IOA) was conducted for reliability. There was another observer evaluating the results on the 3 participants at 3 stages, and which were then compared with the original data. The calculation was based on the below formula.
\[
\text{IOA} = \frac{\text{the amount of consistency}}{\text{the amount of consistency and inconsistency}} \times 100\%
\]
The result of all the participants at all stages was 100%.
In terms of the consistency in the progress, the external observer reviewed the video taken 3 times and reported any discrepancies. The result of this evaluation was 100%.
2.7. Feedback
The participants were interviewed after the experimental teaching in order to receive their feedback. Information was collected by inquiring the participant’s experience during the curriculum. The questions were: (1) Do you like this teaching method? (2) Do you feel your creativity has improved? (3) What have you learned from the curriculum? (4) What are the differences compared with the general curriculum? (5) What impressed you the most? (6) What is the least interesting part? (7) What is your overall feedback?
2.8. Analysis
Visual Analysis was chosen for data analysis within and between stages. The results indicate the stability, trend, and learning outcomes individually and in a small group.
3. Results
All the participants obtained immediate effects after the curriculum. The students were able to make code for the micro:bit independently (Figure 2), and their works of paper cutting are shown as Figure 3. Looking into the accuracy made, the points increased from an average of 2.4 in the baseline stage to 16.8 in the intervention stage. The data in the retention stage are the highest at 26.8. Hence, this curriculum had an immediate as well as retention effect on the students performing in STEAM education (Figures 4–6).
Figure 2. Making code for the micro:bit.
Figure 3. Students’ work.
Figure 4. Evaluation of STEAM curriculum (Ama).
Figure 5. Evaluation of STEAM curriculum (Bella).
3.1. Ama
The data in the baseline stage are average performance (2.76), trend stability (100%), and while in the intervention stage, both are at 100%. The trend is stable at the first stage before moving to the next. It keeps moving positively and steadily (average accuracy = 15.57, range: 8–26, variation + 18). As shown in the retention stage (M), both performance and trend stability on the STEAM curriculum are steady. Overall, the data in the retention stages are the highest (25.33). It evinces that after the STEAM curriculum, Ama managed to keep her performance.
Moreover, the variation increases by 6 points from stages A to B. The trend reflects positively with performance (+ 13) and overlap percentage (0%). It indicates that the STEAM curriculum affected Ama immediately and positively. The variation from B to M is −2, together with average performance (+ 9.66) and overlap percentage (100%). It demonstrates that Ama is capable of retaining her performance.
3.2. Bella
Looking at the diagram of Bella, the trend goes down before the intervention stage. However, it goes up directly and steadily in stage B (stage variation = 2, overlap percentage = 0%, average accuracy = 16.83, range: 2–27). The data show an immediate effect. Concerning M, the performance on STEAM and trend stability are balanced. The variation from B to M is + 0 (overlap percentage = 100%). It indicates that Bella could retain her problem-solving ability after participating in the STEAM curriculum.
3.3. Candy
On the diagram of Candy, the trend keeps steady before stage B (stage variation + 4, overlap percentage = 0). In stage B, the trend moves positively. The average accuracy is 18 (range: 6–28). This result evinces that the teaching intervention affected Candy immediately. The variation from B to M is 0 (overlap percentage 100%, average performance = 28). Based on this result, Candy could keep her performance after the curriculum.
3.4. The Impact of STEAM to Creativity
This study adopted the revised TTCT by Li [30] to discuss creativity before and after taking the STEAM curriculum. There were a total of two tests to understand how creativity changes among the participants. The pre-test was completed before the curriculum, while the post-test was completed after the curriculum in the form of an interview (Table 2).
Table 2. Revised TTCT results (pre-test and post-test).
| Participants | Ama | Bella | Candy |
|--------------|-----|-------|-------|
| Creativity | | | |
| Flexibility | | | |
| Pre-test | 65 | 65 | 78 |
| Post-test | 89 | 78 | 99 |
| Originality | | | |
| Pre-test | 73 | 70 | 78 |
| Post-test | 93 | 78 | 86 |
| Title | | | |
| Pre-test | 61 | 64 | 55 |
| Post-test | 69 | 73 | 69 |
| Elaboration | | | |
| Pre-test | 67 | 76 | 76 |
| Post-test | 76 | 87 | 87 |
| Openness | | | |
| Pre-test | 74 | 73 | 78 |
| Post-test | 89 | 89 | 89 |
| Mean | | | |
| Pre-test | 68 | 70 | 73 |
| Post-test | 83 | 81 | 86 |
Overall, the three participants changed positively after taking the STEAM curriculum. The data are: Ama (mean + 15, percentile rank +12), Bella (mean + 11, percentile rank + 19), and Candy (mean + 13, percentile rank + 1). There was a significant impact among the three participants on flexibility, originality, and openness, rather than title and elaboration.
3.5. Process of Learning and Improvement
3.5.1. Positive Feedback towards STEAM Curriculum
According to the information collected in the interviews, the three participants are open to an interdisciplinary curriculum. They commented that it is intriguing and diverse, as they could learn about circuit boards and programming. They are also willing to try new things after taking the STEAM curriculum.
Instead of lectures, they prefer lessons with hands-on activities. The latter could trigger their motivation and increase their interests.
3.5.2. Self-Assurance and Confidence Are Improved
The participants mentioned that the curriculum improves their problem-solving ability, which makes them feel more confident and helps them stay calm when encountering obstacles. They are motivated throughout the class. They believe that they could apply creativity in other areas of learning. On top of that, the STEAM curriculum changes the way they think and affirmatively changes their self-assurance.
4. Discussion
4.1. Discovery
This research aims at discussing whether the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum could positively affect the learning outcomes and creativity of students with learning disabilities. The result is affirmative. There were immediate and retention effects found among the three participants. This echoes the research performed by Hart and Whalon [31] showing that the appropriate strategy and teaching methods could improve learning in students with special educational needs in STEAM learning. Additionally, the three participants changed their behavior in class.
Ama started to think and try to find solutions for the tasks. It helped her to obtain more points in the evaluation. On the other hand, Bella managed to stabilize her emotions when the curriculum started. She did not give up as many times as she used to. As for Candy, she was able to use the knowledge she learned in class to solve the problems. These changes relate to the practical teaching strategy of this curriculum. This is in line with the suggestion made by Wright et al. [32].
4.2. Creativity
When the curriculum began, the creativity among the three participants started to change. Due to the differences in learning ability and thinking processes, the results were different for each student.
Ama improved the most in flexibility, originality, and openness. Originality and openness were demonstrated when she designed the background of her paper cutting, and used the hand gesture to control LEDs. The ability to incorporate various sceneries to the background and using hand movements to enhance it indicates flexibility.
Bella was able to draw several shapes, such as polygons, and use different types of lines, such as dotted lines, to reflect on the background of her paper cutting. In this case, Bella developed more in terms of openness.
As for Candy, she started to use shapes and lines to design her artwork. Other than that, she took notes of words and phrases heard in class and reviewed them afterward. In this case, Candy expanded more in flexibility and title.
4.3. UN Agenda 4.4
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) is the education goal that aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. The core connotations of SDG 4 are as follows: all people, irrespective of socioeconomic background, place of residence, sex, and ethnicity, should have equal access to educational resources and quality education, thereby ensuring that everyone’s talent and potential can be fully realized. In addition, the UN hopes to cultivate lifelong learning skills to realize the philosophy of and achieve a lifestyle of sustainable development. Focusing on quality education for students with special needs, this study aligns with Target 4.4 of SDG 4—“By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship.” Specifically, the UN aims to ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities and socially/financially vulnerable children. The proposed curriculum can enhance information technology skills, artistic ability, and technical and vocational skills among students with special needs.
5. Conclusions
This paper addresses that the PBL-oriented STEAM curriculum benefits students with learning disabilities. The results of this study indicate immediate and retention effects. STEAM is an interdisciplinary curriculum that might be difficult in terms of hands-on courses. The design of the STEAM course in favor of participants with learning disabilities had a positive outcome. They gained the concept of STEAM, which may cultivate their creativity, resulting in the ability to impact their future development, as well as extend their problem-solving ability with confidence, which is relevant in this research of how to reach SDG4 Target 4.4. Researchers should consider a wider range of participants and thoroughly understand the learning outcomes and creativity competency results of implementing STEAM. Students’ interests, academic knowledge, and life experiences should be taken into account in developing the curriculum. In addition to the PBL discussed in this research, researchers should also consider various models of STEAM curricula tailored to their needs.
From the perspective of clinical teaching, this study proposed a curriculum design model for teachers to follow. The result is attributable to package teaching, and that implies the effect of a single factor is infeasible.
**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, S.-Y.L.; methodology, C.-L.W.; software, Y.-M.H.; validation, S.-Y.L., C.-L.W., and Y.-M.H.; formal analysis, Y.-M.H.; investigation, Y.-M.H.; resources, S.-Y.L.; data curation, Y.-M.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-M.H.; writing—review and editing, S.-Y.L.; visualization, S.-Y.L.; supervision, S.-Y.L.; project administration, S.-Y.L.; funding acquisition, S.-Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to express our special thanks to the students who participated in this study. We are very grateful to them.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Chang, J.C.; Lin, K.M. A review of the U.S. STEM education—the experience and praxis of the state of Ohio. *J. Technol. Hum. Educ. Q.* **2019**, *5*, 1–25. [CrossRef]
2. Chong, B.C.; Chang, L.F. The role and enlightenment of the "change equation" in the reform of American STEM education. *China Audio-visual Educ.* **2014**, *4*, 18–86.
3. The White House. Preparing a 21st Century Workforce—Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education in the 2014. Budget. Available online: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp (accessed on 24 August 2018).
4. Yakman, G. STEAM Education: An overview of creating a model of integrative education. *Pupil’s Attitudes Toward Technology* **2008**, *19*, 335–358.
5. Ministry of Education. *109 Special Education Statistical Annual Report*; Ministry of Education: Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020.
6. Chang, K.H. The Number of Special Education Students Has Increased by 10,000 in the Past Ten Years. *Scholars Call for Increased Parental Education*. United News Network. Available online: https://udn.com/news/story/6885/4523218 (accessed on 21 January 2021).
7. Chang, L.C. Cultivate In-Service Teachers to Use 6E Teaching Model for STEAM Course Design and Team teaching. Master’s Thesis, Department of Natural Science Education, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020.
8. Montague, M.; Enders, C.; Dietz, S. Effects of cognitive strategy instruction on math problem solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. *Learn. Disabilities. Q.* **2011**, *34*, 262–272. [CrossRef]
9. Aronin, S.; Floyd, K.K. Using an iPad in inclusive preschool classrooms to introduce STEM concepts. *Teach. Except. Child.* **2013**, *45*, 34–39. [CrossRef]
10. National Center for Education Statistics. *National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2011 Science Assessments*; United States Department of Education: Washington, DC, USA, 2013.
11. Basham, J.D.; Marino, M.T. Understanding STEM education and supporting students through universal design for learning. *Teach. Except. Child.* **2013**, *45*, 8–15. [CrossRef]
12. Syu, J.Y. The Investigation of the Creativity in STEAM Curriculum for the Senior Year Grades Elementary School—A Case Study of the Interactive Lamp by Paper Carving with Micro: Bit. Master’s Thesis, Department of Digital Content Technology, National Taichung University of Education, Taichung City, Taiwan, 2019.
13. Boakes, N.J. Cultivating design thinking of middle school girls through an origami STEAM project. *J. STEM Educ. Res.* **2020**, *3*, 259–278. [CrossRef]
14. Danah, H. Creating STEAM with design thinking: Beyond STEM and arts integration. *STEAM J.* **2017**, *3*, 11.
15. Ehsan, H.; Rispoli, M.; Lory, C.; Gregori, E. A systematic review of STEM instruction with students with autism spectrum disorders. *Rev. J. Autism Dev Disord.* **2018**, *5*, 1–22. [CrossRef]
16. Fu, Y.W. A Professor’s Reflection on the Progress of Integrating ‘STEAM Course Design’ into the ‘Teaching Materials and Methods of Science and Life Technology in Elementary School’ Course. Master’s Thesis, Department of Natural Science Education, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020.
17. *Maryland STEM: Innovation Today to Meet Tomorrow’s Global Challenges*; Maryland State Department of Education: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2012.
18. Zollman, A. Learning for STEM literacy: STEM literacy for learning. *School Sci. Math.* **2012**, *112*, 12–19. [CrossRef]
19. Zheng, W. *China STEAM Education Development Report*. Science Press: Beijing, China, 2017.
20. Ledford, J.R.; Lane, J.D.; Gast, D.L. Dependent variables, measurement, reliability. In *Single Case Research Methodology*, 3rd ed.; Ledford, J.R., Gast, D.L., Eds.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2018.
21. Li, X.X. *Paper Cut Art*; Jiaotong University Press: Xi’an, China, 2005; ISBN 7560518656.
22. Wang, Y.D. The Creation and Research of Auspicious Creative Paper Cutting Wall Stickers Applied to the Interior Decoration. Master’s Thesis, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien County, Taiwan, 2014.
23. Yang, B.F. An Action Research on the Development of School Children’s Creativity through Paper Cutting Course – A Case Research on the Second Grade Students of the Elementary School. Master’s Thesis, Huafan University, New Taipei City, Taiwan, 2015.
24. Runco, M.A.; Sakamoto, S.O. Experimental studies of creativity. In *Handbook of Creativity*; Sternberg, R.J., Ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1999; pp. 62–92. [CrossRef]
25. Hong, C.L. A Study of the Application of STEAM in the Insect Pop-up Books Curriculum Design. Master’s Thesis, National Taipei University of Education, Taipei City, Taiwan, 2020.
26. Rhodes, M. An analysis of creativity. *Phi Delta Kappan*. **1961**, *42*, 305–310.
27. Mao, L.Y.; Guo, Y.W.; Chen, L.; Lin, X.T. *Creativity Research*; Psychological Press: Taipei, Taiwan, 2000.
28. Wallach, M.A.; Torrance, E.P. Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking: Norms – Technical Manual. *Am. Educ. Res. J.* **1968**, *5*, 272–281. [CrossRef]
29. Millar, G.W. *The Torrance Kids at Mid-Life: Selected Case Studies of Creative Behavior*; Ablex Publishing: Westport, CT, USA, 2002.
30. Li, I.M. *Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in Graphs*; Psychological Press: Taipei, Taiwan, 2006.
31. Williams, F.E. *Classroom Ideas for Encouraging Thinking and Feeling*, 2nd ed.; D.O.K: New York, NY, USA, 1970.
32. Hart, J.E.; Whalon, K.J. Using video self-modeling via iPads to increase academic responding of an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. *Educ. Training Autism Dev. Disabil.* **2012**, *47*, 438–446. | 2ab9c832-d987-4961-a825-27a9bb34b440 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/sustainability/sustainability-14-00679/article_deploy/sustainability-14-00679.pdf?version=1641638749 | 2022-08-20T05:55:03+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573908.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20220820043108-20220820073108-00147.warc.gz | 356,688,615 | 7,844 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.935702 | eng_Latn | 0.993723 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
3253,
7579,
11725,
15519,
18049,
21172,
21341,
23673,
26987,
31085,
36046,
37181
] | [
2.21875,
1.375
] | 1 | 0 |
EPAF
Extension Professional Associations of Florida
2013 Professional Improvement & Administrative Conference
Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida
Presentation of Extension Programs
Twenty-seventh Annual Proceedings
EPSILON SIGMA PHI- Alpha Delta Chapter
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENTS
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF EXTENSION 4-H AGENTS
FLORIDA EXTENSION ASSOCIATION OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS
Support for publishing the EPAF Proceedings is provided by the Administration of the Florida Cooperative Extension Service
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
IFAS Extension
Extension Professional Associations of Florida
"Driving the Change: Extension Professionals... The Next 100 Years"
Sawgrass Marriott Golf Resort & Spa, Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida
27th PRESENTATION OF ABSTRACTS
Poster Abstract Presentation Session:
Tuesday, August 27th, 2013
10:30 am – 12:00 pm
Oral Abstract Presentation Session:
Wednesday, August 28th, 2013
8:00 am – 4:00 pm
EPAF Abstract Committee & Editors:
Lisa Krimsky (Miami-Dade County)
Brooke Saari (Okaloosa & Walton Counties)
Holly Abeels (Brevard County)
EPSILON SIGMA PHI – ESP
Katherine Allen (Suwannee County) .......................................................... Players C
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENTS – FACAA
Leslie Baucum (Hendry County) ........................................................ Champions B&C
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF EXTENSION 4-H AGENTS- FAE4-HA
Sarah Whitfield (Camp Ocala) ........................................................ Champions A
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES – FEAFCFS
Cathy Rogers (Suwannee County) ........................................................ Champions H
FLORIDA ASSOCIATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS – FANREP
Lisa Krimsky (Miami-Dade County) ........................................................ Players B&C
EPAF offers our thanks to:
• The Chairs and members of the ESP, FACAA, FAE4-HA, FEAFCFS, and FANREP Abstract Committees who had the difficult task of reviewing and selecting the abstracts to be presented.
• All Extension faculty who submitted abstracts – continue the excellent work!
• UF/IFAS Extension Administration for your continued support of the EPAF Annual Conference!
# Table of Contents
| Topic | Page |
|--------------------------------------------|------|
| Map of Facilities | 3 |
| Poster Presentations | 4-5 |
| Abstracts | 6-16 |
| Oral Presentations Schedule at a Glance | 17-20|
| Professional Development, Marketing, Technology, International | 21-22|
| Abstracts | 23-30|
| Agriculture and Horticulture | 31-32|
| Abstracts | 33-43|
| 4-H and Youth | 44-45|
| Abstracts | 46-53|
| Natural Resources | 54-55|
| Abstracts | 56-63|
| Family and Consumer Sciences | 64-65|
| Abstracts | 66-74|
| Notes | 75 |
| Council of Presidents & EPAF Board of Directors | 76 |
Visit the EPAF website at [http://epaf.ifas.ufl.edu/](http://epaf.ifas.ufl.edu/) for an online version of this abstract book.
Conference archives include previous year’s abstracts.
MAP OF CONFERENCE FACILITIES
| Author(s)* | Abstract |
|-----------|----------|
| N. Baltzell, H. Kent, K. Blyler | Residential Camps Help Youth Branch Out with STEM |
| B.V. Bennett | A.S.K. 4-H: Adapting Programs for Special Needs Youth |
| K. Blyler, H. Kent | Putting 4-H Science into ACTION Through Initiative 7 |
| J. Bosques, J. Cohen, Y.C. Newman, J. Ullman | A Growing Need for Small Farm Livestock Education |
| J. Cohen | Certifying Your Backyard for Wildlife |
| N. Crawson | 4-H Food, Fun, and Reading Program |
| J. Gillett-Kaufman, V. Lietze, J. Bradshaw, K. Gioeli | Spreading the Word: New Strategies for Hydrilla IPM Are Investigated |
| Y. Goodiel | Mechanics of a Master Gardener Plant Sale Fundraiser |
| R. Madhosingh-Hector, W. Sheftall, H. Copeland, K.C. Ruppert | Sustainable Floridians™ - A Statewide Educational Program |
| C.A. Kelly-Begazo, K. Lenfesty, T. Gaver, M. Ritenour | Evaluation of Spanish-language Component for Citrus Global Gap Training Performed By UF/IFAS Indian River Citrus Extension Working Group |
| C.A. Kelly-Begazo, K. Lenfesty, T. Gaver, M. Ritenour | Analysis of Demographic Information Offered by Citrus Packinghouse and Field Workers in the Indian River Citrus Area During the 2011-2012 Citrus Global Gap Training Period |
| J. Mayer, R. Larosa, C. Weston | Successful Urban 4-H Programs |
| Author(s)* | Abstract |
|-----------|----------|
| E. Powell, H. Ober | Managing Nuisance Wildlife in Residential Landscapes |
| S. Spriggs, M. Rometo | School Garden Collaboration |
| B. Saari, L. Krimsky, H. Abeels | Seafood At Your Fingertips |
| N.R. Samuel, G. Flecker | Creating a Safe Environment for Master Gardener Volunteers and Clientele |
| M.E. Sowerby, J.E. Hogsette | Precision Trapping of House Flies on Dairies Using Fly Density Indices |
| K. Stauderman, K. Bryant, J. Taufer | Marketing Food Check-out Week® in Volusia County |
| J. Sullivan, J.R. Denman | Beekeeping Education in Osceola County |
| E. Thralls | Increasing the Visibility of Master Gardeners in Orange County |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Residential Camps Help Youth Branch Out with STEM
N. Baltzell*, State 4-H Camp Coordinator; H. Kent*, NW Regional Specialized 4-H Agent; K. Blyler*, State 4-H STEM Coordinator
Objectives: Traditionally, residential camp has served as a delivery mode to teach not only interpersonal skills, but science content and skills related to the field of natural resources. The objective of this program was to introduce more engineering and technology education into traditional camp tracks to increase STEM literacy among Florida 4-H campers. Methods: Camp schedules were altered to allow for longer classes (two hours for three consecutive days). Classes were designed using nationally reviewed inquiry-based curriculum that incorporated positive youth development principles. Camp staff received six hours of training on the curriculum and were supplied with teaching kits. Results: As a result of these camping programs, 57.1% of 1,245 youth reported that their knowledge about rocketry and physics (Newton's Laws of Motion) increased greatly as a result of rocketry classes; 55.3% reported that their knowledge of the engineering design process increased greatly as a result of junk-drawer robotics classes. Conclusions: Although residential camp is a very effective way to teach youth about environmental sciences, it is an equally effective delivery mode for more non-traditional science project areas focused on engineering and technology and to reach a larger audience with STEM literacy skills.
A.S.K. 4-H: Adapting Programs for Special Needs Youth
B.V. Bennett, Madison County
Objectives: To expand educational programs targeting the specific needs of special needs youth in an inclusive environment. Agents and other adult volunteers will be exposed to statistical research and methods for adapting programs for special needs youth. Methods: A partnership was formed with the Madison Autism Parents (MAP) support group in order to develop a 4-H Club that would specialize in meeting the specific needs of special needs youth. Results: This partnership paired with Extension resources and services has expanded awareness of special needs youth, their specific needs, and the importance of supporting inclusive 4-H activities. Most significantly, the formation of the club has allowed for the creation of BUDDY Camp: an overnight camp focusing on Building Understanding of Diversity thru Dynamic Youth that provides a typical 4-H camp experience tailored for special needs youth. Conclusions: Since the formation of the Always Support Kids (ASK) 4-H Club, several parents have enrolled their kids (both special needs and neurotypical) in 4-H activities. The Madison 4-H County Council and Leadership Club have made it a club goal to mentor and conduct activities geared specifically towards special needs youth while incorporating the younger neurotypical 4-H members as peer-to-peer teachers/junior mentors. Not only does this show the successful efforts of UF/IFAS and Florida 4-H programming to truly be an equal opportunity institution, it is great proof of the positive influence on the development of all youth to be considerate, contributing citizens.
Putting 4-H Science into ACTION Through Initiative 7
K. Blyler*, State 4-H STEM Coordinator; H. Kent*, NW Regional Specialized 4-H Agent; J. Levings, State 4-H Educational Design Specialist; B. Broaddus, 4-H Agent Hillsborough County; W. Cherry, 4-H Extension Agent Calhoun County; J. Dillard, CED and Extension Agent Washington County; S. Kraeft, 4-H Extension Agent Wakulla County; J. Mayer, 4-H Extension Agent Palm Beach County; T. Roland, 4-H Extension Agent Collier County; G. Sachs, 4-H Extension Agent St. Johns County; S. Sachs, 4-H Extension Agent Duval County; A. Stewart, 4-H Science Extension Agent Marion County
Objectives: The Florida 4-H Science Action Team (SAT) is a sub-committee of the Initiative 7 Team with strong ties to the STEM Super Issue. This team serves to provide statewide leadership for the 4-H Science Initiative, which includes professional development for faculty and volunteers, evaluation, marketing, resource development, and strategies for recruiting science rich volunteers. Methods: The SAT has implemented a series of professional development opportunities for faculty and volunteers, and is working to develop relevant support materials to implement and evaluate 4-H science programs with meaningful outcomes and high public value. This presentation will give an overview of the SAT progress and future plans to help faculty build capacity for 4-H science. Results: Year two of the YEAK study as well as Waves 6-8 of the Tufts University Study on Positive Youth Development support the case for 4-H science. As faculty recruit and train volunteers to deliver high context, science rich programs, they will achieve similar impacts which include not only an increase in science content knowledge, but also an increase in science process skills, science literacy, and aspirations towards science related careers. These outcomes strongly align with both Initiative 7 and the STEM Super Issue and are extremely relevant to our stakeholders. Conclusions: 4-H science programs have the potential to increase the interest of youth in pursuing education and careers in the STEM fields. The SAT is positioned to provide leadership to help faculty implement science programs by providing professional development, resources, evaluation tools, and powerful marketing messages.
A Growing Need for Small Farm Livestock Education
J. Bosques*, J. Cohen, UF/IFAS Extension Marion County, UF/IFAS Central Florida Livestock Agents Group; Y.C. Newman, UF/IFAS Agronomy Department; J. Ullman, UF/IFAS Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Objectives: Small Farms in Marion County and Florida represent over 90 percent of agricultural operations. Providing up-to-date, research based educational opportunities for small farmers in pasture management is a priority in this county due to economic and environmental reasons.
Methods: A three part pasture management school series was designed covering topics such as basic plant physiology, forage varieties for Central Florida, weed control and grazing strategies. Four classes and a field trip were conducted as part of this course. A total of 28 people attended the Small Farms Pasture Management School. Their animal species of interest were small ruminants (12%), poultry (8%), bovine (35%), equine (35%) and swine (12%). Forty five percent of the audience farmed 1 to 10 acres, 20 percent farmed 11 to 20 acres and 21 to 50 acres while 15 percent had 50 acres or more.
Results: Survey response rate was eighty-nine percent (n=25). One hundred percent (n=22) would consider implementing pasture management practice changes discussed during the meetings. Examples of practice change include: grazing management (n=8), winter forage production (n=6) and weed management (n=8).
Conclusions: The survey results indicated a significant need for more educational programs targeting small farmers and ranchers in the State of Florida. Further educational needs identified were: manure management (n=7), farm and pasture mathematics such as calculating fertilization rates (n=6), animal nutrition (n=3) and weed control (n=3). The survey also indicated that the Small Farms Pasture Management School had an average value of $917.85 to the attendees.
Certifying Your Backyard for Wildlife
J. Cohen, UF/IFAS Marion County Extension
Objectives: Marion County, “Horse Capital of the World”, is home to approximately 50,000 horses, residing on more than 1,000 farms; it is also home to the largest first magnitude freshwater spring. Unfortunately, the larger farms in the county are continually bought and parceled into small, urban housing associations, having only quarter to half acre lots for yards. Ironically, individuals moving into these homes tend to be quite “far removed” from the existing natural ecosystems and habitats once found in abundance on the land. The objectives of this course were to 1. Teach urban homeowners ways to peacefully coexist “with” their environment, 2. Create awareness and understanding about how each can to live together.
Methods: A Power Point presentation workshop was developed and presented to one of the largest housing associations in the county. Individuals not residing in the housing were also invited to take the class. It was offered two times in the fall, with approximately 10-13 individuals participating in each of the two courses offered for the first year.
Results: Results of the surveys showed one hundred percent (n=23) learned the steps needed to certify their backyard for wildlife and one hundred percent (n=23) learned the steps required to prepare their yards to be more wildlife friendly. One hundred percent (n=23) reported that, as a result of the course, they now have a better understanding how to make their backyard more “wildlife friendly”, and one hundred per cent (n=23) understand the importance of using native vegetation.
Conclusions: Results/impacts showed improved understanding and awareness regarding peacefully coexisting “with” the environment and how wildlife and urban homeowner.
4-H Food, Fun, and Reading Program
N. Crawson, Holmes County
Objectives: Youth will demonstrate increased ability to identify foods and healthy food choices and increased levels of physical activity to develop improved practices for health and well-being as a result of the 4-H Food, Fun, and Reading. Methods: Experiential learning activities facilitated through five classroom session outlines, with each session focusing on a different food group of MyPlate and physical activity. Children learn about healthy food choices and exercise by an interactive classroom discussion on the MyPlate, the reading of storybooks with food-related themes, participating in the making of healthy snacks, and the provision of take-home materials to reinforce concepts and achieve mastery. Results: Since 2008, 3,703 first-grade students have been impacted. Essential life skills including communication, problem solving, and decision making were addressed. For 2012 alone, the following impacts have been documented: 77.3% of the 535 youth that participated in the program scored an average gain of 2.5 points on their post-test questionnaire, demonstrating increased levels of food identification; 100% of the eight teachers involved in the program rated the program effectiveness as “Outstanding.” They reported students’ improved awareness of the MyPlate and were clearly able to identify food items/groups in the school lunch environment. 63% of the thirty returned parent surveys stated that they saw changes in their child’s behavior. Conclusions: This experiential learning program successfully increased nutritional knowledge of students, parent and teacher satisfaction, school participation, and 4-H awareness.
Spreading the Word: New Strategies for Hydrilla IPM Are Investigated
J. Gillett-Kaufman*, V. Lietze*, J. Cuda, Entomology and Nematology Department; J. Bradshaw*, Citrus County Extension; K. Gioeli*, St. Lucie County Extension; W. Overholt, Indian River REC; R. Hix, FAMU; J. Shearer, US Army Engineer Research Development Center
Statewide, the invasive freshwater plant hydrilla causes damaging infestations that choke out native plants, clog flood control structures, and impede waterway navigation and recreational usage. Objectives: To develop and demonstrate an integrated reduced risk solution for hydrilla control and to encourage resource managers to adopt new IPM tactics. Methods: Partnering research and extension faculty are evaluating a new IPM strategy that involves integrating herbivory by a naturalized insect (hydrilla tip miner) with a native fungal pathogen and low doses of the herbicide imazamox for long-term sustainable hydrilla management. A needs assessment survey identified suitable information delivery platforms for stakeholders who visit Florida freshwater bodies for recreational and occupational purposes. Results: Experiments confirmed that temperature conditions in Florida’s freshwater systems will support establishment of hydrilla tip miner populations throughout the state. Resource managers are advised that careful selection of imazamox concentration, fungal dosage, and hydrilla tip miner density is critical to successfully reducing hydrilla biomass. Because survey respondents indicated the internet as their preferred information source, a web-portal, which includes learning lessons and a newsletter, was launched and has been visited 13,847 times between June 2011 and March 2013. Conclusions: Ongoing collaboration between research and extension faculty will help spread the word about novel tactics available for hydrilla management. For technology transfer, we will develop a Hydrilla IPM Guide that includes current and novel approaches to sustainable hydrilla management. We expect to distribute this guide at EPAF in 2014.
Mechanics of a Master Gardener Plant Sale Fundraiser
Y. Goodiel, UF/IFAS Martin County Extension
Objectives: Conduct a successful Master Gardener Program fundraiser to support programming and scholarships for local youth. Methods: For more than 15 years, the UF/IFAS Martin County Master Gardener volunteers have conducted plant sale fundraisers. With each iteration, volunteers contribute suggestions for improvement and gain knowledge and experience. For the past two years, facilitators were recruited to lead the various plant sale crews. The facilitators organize crew members volunteering through the on-line Volunteer Management System. At least once during fundraiser planning, a facilitators’ meeting is held, to clarify each crew’s role and responsibilities. In 2012, the Master Gardener President created a planning checklist, which is used from a few months in advance all the way through to the week of the event. Press releases are distributed to internet, television, radio, magazine, and newspaper outlets; and flyers are distributed via the Master Gardener contact list, local libraries, Extension office, and Master Gardener outreach events. Following each plant sale, feedback is sought from all participants and used in planning the next event. Results: Each year our plant sale fundraiser improves, due to the valuable and insightful suggestions and efforts of our volunteers. Conclusions: Some of the keys to a successful plant sale fundraiser are as follows: 1) start planning early; 2) establish crews to plan and implement event areas/features; 3) publicize via a variety of media outlets; 4) share successes and listen attentively to critiques, to identify strengths and potential improvements and to empower and engage volunteers; 5) incorporate recommended improvements; and 6) celebrate everyone's efforts.
Sustainable Floridians™ - A Statewide Educational Program
R. Madhosingh-Hector, Pinellas; W. Sheftall, H. Copeland, Leon; K.C. Ruppert*, Program for Resource Efficient Communities; E. Foerste, Osceola; J.P. Gellerman, E. Linkous, Sarasota
Objectives: The Sustainable Floridians™ program encourages individuals and communities to become more resilient. Objectives include developing an educated citizenry, increasing participants’ knowledge about sustainability at all levels, providing information that identifies Florida-specific actions for conserving resources, motivating the participants to implement those actions, and creating opportunities for community level leadership in sustainability education. Methods: The course is very participatory with a variety of teaching methodologies employed including use of multi-media presentations, supplemental readings and a textbook. Participants are engaged in group discussion, group and individual reflection, and personal action over the course of six to eight weekly sessions. Results: Graduates usually participate in either a community service project or commit to donating volunteer time within 12 months of their graduation date. In Leon County, graduates are serving as facilitators for local EcoTeams, which are discussion circles organized under the sponsorship of Sustainable Tallahassee, a partnership umbrella NGO. In Pinellas County, the 66 graduates to date have donated more than 1,800 volunteer hours—a dollar equivalent of $33,588. Conclusions: The Sustainable Floridians™ program has proven instrumental in filling the need for sustainability education in the five pilot counties and is on the cusp of expanding to additional counties. The participatory course materials allow county faculty to explore a range of educational materials that encourage sustainable practices and improve the economic, environmental and social conditions of households and communities.
Evaluation of Spanish-language Component for Citrus Global Gap Training Performed by UF/IFAS Indian River Citrus Extension Working Group
C.A. Kelly-Begazo*, Indian River County; K. Lenfesty, T. Gaver, St. Lucie County Extension; M. Ritenour, Indian River Research and Education Center, UF
Citrus producers and packinghouses in the Indian River Citrus consortium export a large percentage of their fresh fruit to European and Asia markets. Citrus Global GAP (Good Agricultural Practices) training is a requirement for all packinghouse and field employees, including contracted harvesting crews. The UF/IFAS Indian River Citrus Extension Working Group offers 4 subjects; Personal Hygiene, Food Hygiene, Worker Protection Standards and Identification of Citrus Diseases and Decontamination.
**Objectives:** 1.) Assist the citrus industry in meeting its obligation for training under the Citrus Global GAP agreement; 2.) ascertain if the current program is successfully imparting the necessary information to native Spanish speakers; 3.) determine if participants will be making behavior changes; and 4.) determine if participants will be change agents by sharing this knowledge.
**Methods:** A survey was developed and distributed to training participants during the 2011-2012 packing season.
**Results:** Of the 390 Hispanic participants 92% stated that they had acquired new knowledge and 98% declared that the information had direct importance in their everyday lives. Ninety percent responded that they would utilize their newly-gained knowledge and 99% stated that they would share this information with others.
**Conclusions:** Survey results indicate that participants will increase personal hygiene and help co-workers do the same in order to protect food safety. Based upon the results of this survey, the current program is competent in distributing the necessary information in Spanish, assisting in the behavioral changes of the participants and helping the citrus industry meet its obligation under the Citrus Global Gap agreement.
Analysis of Demographic Information Offered by Citrus Packinghouse and Field Workers in the Indian River Citrus Area During the 2011-2012 Citrus Global Gap Training Period
C.A. Kelly-Begazo*, Indian River County; K. Lenfesty, T. Gaver, St. Lucie County Extension; M. Ritenour, Indian River Research and Education Center, UF
The citrus industry is a multi-billion dollar business that has been the backbone of many Floridian communities. This industry has been threatened by pest and diseases, low crop yields, decline in fruit prices and a labor force that is insecure. There has been an incentive to create a robust guest worker program, but to date, that has not been achieved. One of the reasons for this is the lack of communication and misinformation that exists about this labor force.
**Objectives:** Gather demographical information about participants that might help the training instructors understand their audience better, improve programmatic methodology, increase topic understanding and encourage behavioral changes.
**Methods:** The Indian River Citrus Extension Working Group developed a questionnaire that was distributed to 390 Spanish-speaking packinghouse and field workers during the 2011-2012 Citrus Global GAP training programs.
**Results:** The majority of the training participants were male (62%), with the average age of 40 years (17-68 years). Ninety-two percent were originally from Mexico, and only 5% were from the United States. Seventy-three percent said that they were legal residents of the United States and only 9% said that they traveled to other states to work. Forty-seven percent of the participants stated that they lived in Fellsmere (Indian River Co.), 29% lived in Ft. Pierce (St. Lucie Co.) and the last 24% stated that they lived in Vero Beach (Indian River Co.).
**Conclusions:** Survey information pertaining to participant demographics will help adapt the current Spanish language program to better serve its audience.
Successful Urban 4-H Programs
J. Mayer*, Palm Beach County; R. Larosa*, Broward County; C. Weston, Miami-Dade County
Objectives: 4-H Agents from District 13, which includes the counties of Palm Beach, Broward and Miami-Dade, will share best practices and successful strategies for the development of relevant, adaptive youth programming that meets the unique and changing needs of children and families within urban communities. Methods: A brief snapshot of three successful programs will demonstrate strategies that engage underserved and underrepresented youth, and expand children’s services through multidisciplinary internal and external partnerships. In addition, presenters will highlight NAE4-HA’s peer reviewed, national, online “Directory of Successful Urban 4-H Programs”. The directory provides a wealth of case studies that workshop participants may adapt to their needs. Results: Extension’s success depends upon our ability to develop programs and resources that consider a wide variety of characteristics unique to urban areas, such as population growth and rapidly changing socio-economic demographics. Participants will gain new ideas, techniques and resources that will help them serve diverse, urban youth. Conclusions: The purpose of this presentation is to share knowledge and enhance participants’ skills in developing relevant, adaptive youth programming that meet the unique and changing needs of children within urban communities.
Managing Nuisance Wildlife in Residential Landscapes
E. Powell*, M. Goodchild, Walton County; H. Ober*, Wildlife Ecology & Conservation; S. Jackson, Bay County UF-IFAS Extension Florida Sea Grant; K. Rudisill, Bay Co UF-IFAS Extension; M. Orwat, Washington County UF-IFAS Extension; T. Friday, UF/IFAS Santa Rosa Extension; A. Bolques, FAMU
Nuisance wildlife in the landscape is a growing problem. Agents and one specialist worked together to address the problem. A grant was used to fund the educational effort and used to purchase traps for demo and develop educational materials to control wildlife in residential landscapes. Objectives: 1) Homeowners reduce nuisance wildlife by using proven trapping methods. 2) Develop educational materials to increase homeowners’ knowledge of identifying and controlling unwanted wildlife. Methods: Workshops were held in 3 counties across the Northwest Florida Extension District during spring 2012. The first two events were attended by local clientele. The third event was advertised as an in-service training for Extension agents and open to all counties throughout the state to participate via polycom. A video was developed to demonstrate how to properly set and use traps along with a series of EDIS publications. Results: Over 100 homeowners and 8 extension agents gained knowledge on the subject. Five new EDIS pubs were developed. These publications were developed to lead readers through a step-by-step process of determining which species was responsible for the problem, and considering a series of potential solutions that vary in cost and efficiency. The video has been posted on YouTube. Ninety-one % of the clientele gained knowledge for preventing wildlife damage. Conclusions: Traps were distributed to agents in 5 different counties in the Northwest Extension District so hands-on demonstrations can be showcased to local clientele. This program has led to a reduction in nuisance wildlife and a better understanding how to manage these pests.
School Garden Collaboration
S. Spriggs*, Dr. M. Rometo*, UF/IFAS Extension Sarasota County
Objectives: In keeping with Extension's focus on involvement of stakeholders and internal collaboration, Sarasota staff launched a pilot salsa garden program in Spring 2013. Led by the Community and School Gardens Coordinator, representatives from 4-H, FCS/FNP, Agriculture, and Master Gardeners participated. Additional partnerships included Farm to School, local businesses, teachers and principals with the local School District and a private Montessori school. Curriculum from Gardening for Grades and Junior Master Gardener were incorporated. Facebook and local media were involved for program awareness. Methods: Following approval of grant funding from Master Gardeners, a calendar of events was scheduled. Dates included garden installation with 4-H, planting and garden related lessons with Master Gardeners, and nutrition lessons taught by FCS during a Cinco de Mayo finale. Ag staff contributed with program development and seed timing advice. Area businesses provided discounts and donations for necessary supplies. Teachers were taught how to make the garden relevant to State Standards through Gardening for Grades. Results: Pre and post tests were administered to document knowledge gained. Teachers have been grateful to have access to these educational tools, and have reported high test scores and behavior improvement. Over 70 students have directly benefitted through increased agricultural awareness, with parents, teachers and hundreds of other students at the schools indirectly impacted. Master Gardeners enjoyed being engaged through youth education and students were highly enthusiastic learners. Conclusions: School gardens have provided a positive method for staff collaboration and involvement of community partners.
Seafood At Your Fingertips
B. Saari*, Okaloosa/Walton County; L. Krimsky, Miami-Dade County; H. Abeels, E. Shephard, Brevard County; B. Fluech, Collier County; B. Mahan, Franklin County; E. Courtney, Okaloosa County; K. Zamojski, Leon County; C. Adams, S. Otwell, Florida Sea Grant; J. Merrifield, C. Sandoval, Wild Ocean Seafood Market
The Seafood at Your Fingertips program was created by a multi-disciplinary team consisting of professionals in the seafood, marine, nutrition and industry fields. Objectives: Provide extension agents in Florida with updated, easy-to-access information regarding seafood, which will result in increased consumer awareness and consumption. Methods: Through the use of focus groups and a statewide survey, the program was designed with input from the consumer in order to provide appropriate information in educational tools created for this program. Program tools include outreach education modules that are given as a resource kit for extension educators to teach their clientele about Florida seafood nutrition, preparation, seasonality and purchasing. Extension educators will be given training through webinars on the resource kit and its content as well as guidance on teaching the curriculum. Additionally, a mobile application was created for the general consumer to assist in purchasing and handling of seafood and promoting seafood consumption. Results: By combining education modules, public displays, and the mobile application with the community teaching expertise of extension professionals, this program has provided a wide-reaching Florida Seafood promotion opportunity. Workshop participants have shown behavior changes in consumption patterns and overall knowledge of Florida seafood has increased. Conclusions: Seafood extension programming can now be regionally tailored yet conducted statewide, in multiple discipline areas, and allow the program to reach a great audience of consumers throughout the state where we did not previously have an impact.
Creating a Safe Environment for Master Gardener Volunteers and Clientele
N.R. Samuel*, UF/IFAS Marion County Extension; G. Flecker*, Florida State University
The Marion County Master Gardener (MG) Association is a registered nonprofit with 130 members engaged daily in multiple activities with varying levels of associated risks. Routine activities include: volunteering in the plant clinic, demonstration gardens, and operating small equipment. Direct contact with Florida MG coordinators and a search of other State MG websites revealed that risk management (RM) appeared to be simply a policy statement on worker’s compensation and MGs taking due diligence in the information provided to the public.
**Objectives:** The purpose for developing the RM Plan was to examine the risks related to the activities conducted and how they can be mitigated to create a safe environment.
**Methods:** The MG Coordinator facilitated a focus group session with five MGs. All possible risks were identified and each was examined based on scope, nature, stakeholders involved, and quantification. Risks were placed in a risk impact probability chart with risk treatment and control mechanisms, and potential action for improvement, and then strategies and policies to mitigate identified risks were developed. The plan was reviewed by extension administration before approval and adoption by the MG Board.
**Results:** Risk mitigation strategies implemented to date include: new money counting policy, refrigerator designated for food only, and notation of allergies and next of kin on annual renewal forms.
**Conclusions:** Development of a RM plan has heightened safety awareness amongst volunteers, created a safe working environment, and reduced liability for the nonprofit and supporting organizations.
---
Precision Trapping of House Flies on Dairies Using Fly Density Indices
M.E. Sowerby*, Suwannee County Extension; J.E. Hogsette, USDA-ARS-CMAVE
House flies are a health hazard and general nuisance for livestock and humans. Traps with house fly specific baits have been found effective for farm fly trapping, but where should they be placed to optimize capture?
**Objectives:** Determine if an instantaneous fly density index made with an 18-inch square Scudder grid sampling device correlates with the number of flies actually trapped at that location.
**Methods:** One to four Captivator Traps were placed in each of three attractive locations on two northeast Florida dairies. Before trap placement, a fly density estimate was obtained by placing a Scudder grid on each potential trap site and counting the house flies resting there after 1 minute. A Captivator Trap was placed at that location and captured flies were counted after 24 hours. After counting, bait was replaced and traps were set at the same sites after first obtaining a fly density index. Original trap locations were not changed and trapping continued for 4 weeks.
**Results:** Regression analysis indicated no correlation exists between a fly density index and numbers of flies trapped at the same site. Number of flies trapped in groups of traps varied from one trap to another over time.
**Conclusions:** Results show how quickly localized groups of house flies can change locations. If a density index is high, it might be expected that many flies will be trapped at that site. However that is not always true. If several traps are placed around one site, e.g. calf pens, the traps do not necessarily capture similar numbers of flies. Also numbers of flies captured by each trap can vary daily from low to high. Data indicate the best method for trapping flies in localized areas is to use groups of traps instead of just one.
Marketing Food Check-out Week® in Volusia County
K. Stauderman*, K. Bryant, J. Taufer, Volusia County Extension, UF
Florida farmers are committed to producing safe and abundant food. UF/IFAS Extension along with Volusia County Farm Bureau and Florida Strawberry Growers Association (FSGA) help consumers find solutions to eating healthy with local produce. **Objectives:** The success of this event is a measure of consumer’s motivation to learn about Florida fresh produce and attendance to educational demonstrations held at the farmer’s market. Additionally, it is to bring about awareness of produce through ‘Jammer,’ a strawberry mascot used in marketing Florida strawberries. **Methods:** Agents worked with media publishing articles in the local newspaper on Florida mascots including ‘Jammer,’ the FSGA mascot. They engaged local growers to supply produce, demonstrate freshness, taste and quality of cooked kale and fresh strawberries while addressing its nutritional benefits. Finally, Jammer was procured to meet and greet patrons at the market which provided educational literature for both adult and youth to promote Florida strawberries. **Results:** Patron participation doubled from previous years; youth attended making the event an educational field day. Customers were motivated and engaged in the educational talks. Stakeholders remain committed to another year in partnership. Children and adults enjoyed the interaction with Jammer and vendors were thrilled with the support for their commodity. The local newspaper and the Volusia County Farm Bureau newspaper published a feature article along with the Florida Farm Bureau on its web site. **Conclusions:** Through this event, clients increased awareness of Florida strawberries and produce, while enhancing their motivation and participation to learn about solutions to feeding their families healthy foods.
Beekeeping Education in Osceola County
J. Sullivan, UF IFAS Extension, Osceola County; J.R. Denman, Advanced Beekeeper, Osceola County
**Objectives:** Beekeeping enhances the viability of agriculture. Pollination by honey bees in Florida adds an estimated crop production value of $20 million annually. Managed European honey bee colonies decrease the potential for more dangerous African honey bees to establish. Human health and the beekeeping industry are at risk from improperly managed colonies and failure to follow regulations. Florida beekeepers increased by 95% since 2008, demonstrating the popularity of beekeeping as a profession and hobby. The UF IFAS Extension in Osceola County began providing education to increase beginning beekeepers’ knowledge of beekeeping practices and regulations and to increase the number of registered beekeepers in the County. **Methods:** The Agent and a volunteer beekeeper created a Beekeeping Education Series: Beekeeping: Is it for me? seminar; Intro to Beekeeping seminar; Build Your Own Beehive workshop. In ten months, eleven events were taught. The Kissimmee Valley Beekeeping Association was formed to provide ongoing education for beekeepers. A Beekeeping Mentorship Program was initiated to train beginning beekeepers who will mentor others after completing the program. **Results:** 295 people participated in beekeeping programming. “Intro to Beekeeping” participants completing pre/post surveys (N=43) increased their knowledge of beekeeping practices and regulations by 34%. Four new beekeepers established and registered hives since participating in beekeeping education, demonstrating follow-through with recommendations as they establish colonies. **Conclusions:** Osceola County beekeeping education is meeting a demand for beekeeping education, ensuring that honey bees remain an agricultural asset.
Increasing the Visibility of Master Gardeners in Orange County
E. Thralls, UF/IFAS Extension Orange County
Objectives: Orange County has about 275,000 owner occupied households. About 97% of the owner occupied households meet the challenges of maintaining Florida landscapes and gardens without the assistance of a UF/IFAS Extension trained Master Gardener because they are not aware that the Master Gardener Program exists to serve them. Methods: The Master Gardener Advisory Committee was asked to find ways to “increase the visibility of Master Gardeners in Orange County”. An aggressive e-mail campaign to veteran Master Gardener Volunteers netted 47 possible solutions that were grouped on commonality/similarity, then prioritized. Results: The Advisory Committee determined a trailer was the best solution. Master Gardener Volunteers held a fund raiser and purchased the Mobile Plant Clinic (MPC) to “increase the visibility of Master Gardeners”. The MPC is a traveling billboard with graphics that promote UF-IFAS Extension branding, smart phone readable Quick Response (QR) coded web addresses for the County Extension Office, Solutions for Your Life, and Facebook, and telephone numbers and addresses of other Plant Clinics that Master Gardeners staff in the county. The MPC was deployed to three venues in Orange County during the month of January 2013 and reached 181 visitors who have not used the services of the UF/IFAS Extension in Orange County. Conclusions: The MPC is achievable within limited resources and readily “increases the visibility of Master Gardeners in Orange County”. Future deployments are scheduled.
| TIME | ESP | FACAA | FAE4-HA |
|-------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | **Players C** | **Champions B & C** | **Champions A** |
| 8:00 am | Web Conferencing: Creating Engaging Learning Experiences in a Non-Traditional Classroom
L. Leslie*, E. Courtney*, J. England*, et al. | Growing Gourmet Mushrooms for Fun and Profit
A. Gazula*, C. Saft*, C. Olson, M.E. Smith, S. McCoy, S. White | Pretty Girl Talk
K. Jackson*, J. Lilly, Sr.* |
| 8:20 | Who Is Reading My Flyer? Free Online Marketing Tool
E.V. Campoverde | Using Blue Dye Marking Technique to Illustrate Water and Nutrient Movement through Sandy Soils to Homeowners and Master Gardeners
W.L. Wilber*, A.C. Gazula | Third Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties
S. Crawford*, T. Prevatt |
| 8:40 | Educational Technology – Report on Successes and Opportunities
S. Toelle | Turf Tuesdays: A Multi-County Turf Program Hosted Through Interactive Videoconference
M. Orwat*, R. Trawick*, et al. | Camp Counselors and State Camp Staff Partner to Reduce Risk at Camp
M. Boston*, S. Prevatt*, N. Baltzell |
| 9:00 | Encouraging and Engaging Youth Through Technology: Utilizing Turning Technologies® for Animal Skill-a-Thons
X.N. Diaz*, J.M. Shuffitt | Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Program Follow-Up Survey in Northeast Florida
T.B. DelValle*, A.R. Lamborn*, et al. | The Power of Collaboration in Nutrients for Life
J. Jump*, J. Breman, B. Hochmuth*, N. Demorest*, D. Barber |
| 9:20 | Utilizing County Facilities to Extend Extension Programming
R. Madhosinigh-Hector*, M. Campbell, L. Carnahan, L. Miller | Chemical Control of Blackberries in Bahiagrass Pasture
A. Fluke*, L. Lindenberg, J. White | How To: Developing Life Skills in Teens, through High School Enrichment
A. Tharpe*, L. Wiggins* |
| 9:40 | Break | Break | Break |
| 10:00 | Getting Out of Dodge: Professional Development Leave for County Faculty
C.A. Kelly-Begazo | Developing a Continuing Education Program for the Limited Certification for Urban Landscape Commercial Fertilizer Applicators
S. Haddock | Farm City Days Youth Day: Raising Agricultural Awareness Among Fourth Grade Osceola County Students
G. Murza*, et al. |
| 10:20 | Using Technology to Expand the Master Gardener Help Desk to Other Locations
J.V. Morse | 2013 Florida Citrus Growers’ Institute:
C.E. McAvoy*, G. England, W. Oswalt, M. Zekri, S. Futch, T. Gaver | 4-H Robotics for Everyone
N. Crawson*, H. Kent* |
| 10:40 | A Participatory Co-Management Strategy for the use of Fish Aggregation Devices in Dominica and St. Vincent
J.E. Hazel*, C. Sidman, K. Lorenzen, R. Sebastain | Empower Ocala Garden Project: Relationship Building Strategies to Increase Minority Participation in Urban Horticulture Extension Programs
N. Samuel*, A. Moore* | Training 4-H Volunteers Across County Lines
M. Taylor*, M. Brinkley*, W. Cherry* |
| 11:00 | Measuring Agricultural Paradigms Held by University of Florida IFAS Extension Agents
L. Sanagorski | Northwest Florida Agricultural Innovator Recognition Program
D. Mayo*, L. Johnson, J. Ludlow, et al. | Hillsborough 4-H Safety and Ethics Training Series: Horse Program
B. Yancy*, B. Broaddus |
| 11:20 | Florida Agriculture Leadership Series
K. Johnson, Jr. | Demystifying Small Field Fertigation
D.B. Nistler*, J. DeValerio*, B. Hochmuth, E. Simonne | Water Conservation or Bust! A Game for Water Education
S. McGee*, A. Yasalonis |
| 11:40 | Break for Lunch | | |
| TIME | FANREP | FEAFCS |
|--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 8:00 am| Experience Extension through Volunteerism | Safety Doesn't Happen by Accident: Using Extension Programs to Prevent Vehicle-related Injury and Death |
| | L. Carnahan | G. Hinton |
| 8:20 | Planning for the Future of Recreation Boating Access to Charlotte County Waterways 2010-2050 | Women and Money: Stepping Out on Solid Financial Ground |
| | E.A. Staugler*, R. Swett | L. Spence*, M. Gillen* |
| 8:40 | The Miami-Dade Adopt-A-Tree Program: | Pressure Canning Basics 101 |
| | A.G.B. Hunsberger | J. Corbus |
| 9:00 | Impact of Russian Thistle (Salsola spp.) on Florida Coastal, Urban, Agricultural, and Natural Areas | Creating a Web-Based Financial Challenge |
| | D. Griffis | E. Courtney*, M. Gutter, R. McWilliams*, B. O’Neill |
| 9:20 | Development and Use of Criteria and Performance Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning and Management in the City of Tampa | Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer Training Program: NE Florida Multi-County Approach |
| | R.J. Northrop*, M.G. Andreu | M. McAlpine*, J. Coreless*, J. Cooper*, N. Parks*, J. Schrader*, M. Thomas*, A. Simonne* |
| 9:40 | Break | Break |
| 10:00 | Commercial Fishing Perceptions of Marine Debris in Southeast Florida | Collaborative Partnerships Improve Child Nutrition and Earn Statewide Recognition |
| | L. Krimsky*, M. Watson | G. Hinton*, V. Mullins |
| 10:20 | Pinellas County Goes Gold! | Who Gets the Plate? Who Gets the Rod and Reel? |
| | R. Madhosingh-Hector | L. Spence |
| 10:40 | Watershed Education for Elected Officials, Resources Managers and Concerned Citizens | Take Charge of Your Diabetes: A Diabetes Self-Management Program for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes in Marion County |
| | S. McGee*, L. Miller*, B.J. Jarvis*, L. Barber* | N. Gal*, L. Bobroff*, D. Diehl* |
| 11:00 | Challenges With New Master Volunteer Programs | Expanding Small Business Opportunities through Education on Florida's Cottage Food Legislation |
| | M. Campbell*, R. Madhosingh-Hector* | D.C. Lee*, A. Meharg* |
| 11:20 | Mastering the Classic Art of Fly Fishing While Inspiring Youth | The Empower Ocala Garden Project: |
| | V. Spero-Swingle*, H. Abeels | A. Moore*, N. Samuel* |
| 11:40 | Break for Lunch | |
| TIME | ESP & FEAFCs | FACAA | FAE4-HA |
|--------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 pm| Spotlight Tampa Series Presenting Florida-Friendly Landscaping (FFL) Television Segments L.A. Barber*, V. Overstreet | Cattle Management 101 M.S. Hittle-McNair*, S.D. Eubanks*, M.J. Goodchild*, M.A. Meharg, C.M. Simon, J.D. Atkins, J.G. Bearden, P. Vergot | Utilizing I 4-H National Youth Science Day Experiment to Promote STEM Literacy Among Youth B. McKenna |
| 1:50 | Effective Evaluations: Standardized Templates and Tabulation N. Crawson*, J. Dillard*, W. Cherry* | University of Florida IFAS Extension Partnerships Supporting Tri-County Irrigation Programming H. Mayer*, M. Orfanedes*, L. Sanagorski* | Eating from the Garden L. Wiggins |
| 2:10 | "Garden Talk" WTIS 1110 AM L. Barber*, S. Haddock, N. Pinson | Urban Farming Program Demonstrates Sustainable Practices for Increasing Local Food Production R. Tyson | Backyard Bark Beetles J. Hulcr*, S.M. Steininger |
| 2:30 | Scan And Learn: QR Codes In the Florida Botanical Gardens T. Badurek | Northwest Florida Water Management Summit: Educating the Green Industry to Conserve Water Through Practical Use and Utilization of Technology S. Dunning | Regional Events - Gaining Confidence & Raising Money - All in One T. Prevatt*, S. Crawford |
| 2:50 | Passport around the World, a Food and Diversity Experience G. Negron | Engaging Commercial Horticulture Professionals to Understand Why Landscapes Fail S. Haddock | Dog Days K. Popa |
| 3:10 | Farm Fresh from Seminole - Marketing Local Produce through Online Education M. Lollar*, R. Law | Strengthening Feed Production Capacity in Tamale, Ghana B. Bactawar | Youth Plant Show and Sale Improves Life Skills Among Youth Horticulturalists S.T. Steed, B. Broaddus |
| TIME | FANREP | FEAFCFS |
|-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 pm | Partnerships for Successful Extension Programming: The Polk County Water School Model
S. McGee*, N. Walker* | National Food and Nutrition Practices in Adult Care Homes
A.L. Ford*, N.J. Gal*, W.J. Dahl |
| 1:50 | Citizen Scientists Documenting Bay Scallop Trends in Southwest Florida
E.A. Staugler*, J.E. Hazell | Successful Educational Programming at Wakulla County Food Pantries
S. Swenson*, G. Harrison |
| 2:10 | Promoting Resiliency in Coastal Communities
L. Carnahan*, R. Madhosingh-Hector* | Sew Much Fun Day Camp
A. Griffin*, P. Peacock, A. Crossely |
| 2:30 | Panhandle Outdoors LIVE
M. Orwat*, R. O’Connor*, et al. | Therapeutic Gardening Experiences for Special Needs Youth Through Extension Programs
L. Johnson*, E. Bolles*, A. Hinkle, D. Lee |
| 2:50 | Recreation and Watershed Education: Let’s Go Kayaking!
S. McGee*, M. Carnevale | Weekend Food Security: Bridging the Monday thru Friday Gap
R.M. McWilliams |
| 3:10 | Arbor Day: A Collaborative Educational Approach
E. Alvarez | Fabulous Foods: A Multi-County Back to the Basics Approach
M. Brinkley*, S. Swenson*, K. Zamojski* |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 7:50 | Moderator | Introductions and Procedures |
| 8:00 | L. Leslie, E. Courtney, J. England, A. McKinney, M. Gutter | Web Conferencing: Creating Engaging Learning Experiences in a Non-Traditional Classroom |
| 8:20 | E.V. Campoverde | Who Is Reading My Flyer? Free Online Marketing Tool |
| 8:40 | S. Toelle | Educational Technology – Report on Successes and Opportunities |
| 9:00 | X.N. Diaz, J.M. Shuffitt | Encouraging and Engaging Youth Through Technology: Utilizing Turning Technologies© for Animal Skill-a-Thons |
| 9:20 | R. Madhosingh-Hector, M. Campbell, L. Carnahan, L. Miller | Utilizing County Facilities to Extend Extension Programming |
| 9:40 | | Break |
| 10:00 | C.A. Kelly-Begazo | Getting Out of Dodge: Professional Development Leave for County Faculty |
| 10:20 | J.V. Morse | Using Technology to Expand the Master Gardener Help Desk to Other Locations |
| 10:40 | J.E. Hazell, C. Sidman, K. Lorenzen, R. Sebastain | A Participatory Co-Management Strategy for the Use of Fish Aggregation Devices in Dominica and St. Vincent |
| 11:00 | L. Sanagorski | Measuring Agricultural Paradigms Held by University of Florida IFAS Extension Agents |
| 11:20 | K. Johnson, Jr. | Florida Agriculture Leadership Series |
| 11:40 | | Break for Lunch |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 | L.A. Barber, V. Overstreet | Spotlight Tampa Series Presenting Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (FFL) Television Segments |
| 1:50 | N. Crawson, J. Dillard, W. Cherry | Effective Evaluations: Standardized Templates and Tabulation |
| 2:10 | L. Barber, S. Haddock, N. Pinson | “Garden Talk” WTIS 1110 AM |
| 2:30 | T. Badurek | Scan and Learn: QR Codes in the Florida Botanical Gardens |
| 2:50 | G. Negron | Passport Around the World, a Food and Diversity Experience |
| 3:10 | M. Lollar, R. Law | Farm Fresh from Seminole – Marketing Local Produce through Online Education |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Web Conferencing: Creating Engaging Learning Experiences in a Non-Traditional Classroom
L. Leslie*, Hillsborough County; E. Courtney*, Okaloosa County; J. England*, Lake County; A. McKinney, Duval County; M. Gutter, Family Youth and Community Sciences
Objectives: 1) Participants will increase knowledge and self-efficacy in the areas of personal health and finance. 2) Participants will adopt positive behaviors that lead to improvement in their health and finances. Methods: People want learning experiences that transcend brick & mortar classrooms. In response, a team of faculty developed & taught engaging web conferences. The goal was to motivate participants to make positive behavior changes. The team used a variety of methods to hold participants' attention, reduce multi-tasking, and facilitate participant involvement. The team members co-taught the online classes and used invited guest speakers for certain subjects. The team developed multi-media presentations that included customized graphics, skits, and audience polls. Agents used chat questions that facilitated discussion among participants as well as with the speaker. Participants included faculty from other states who participated regularly and contributed much to those chats and shared resources. Presenters demonstrated interactive online tools that participants could use to get customized answers. Financial management webinars were approved for continuing education credit. Following the webinars, participants received additional resources and post-evaluations. Results: 19 webinars were taught. 467 educational contacts were achieved. 187 of the participants completed an after session evaluation. 164 reported increased knowledge (88%) & 62 (33%) increased self-efficacy. 67 returned follow-up evaluations and 25 (37%) of the respondents reported they had adopted 1 or more positive behavior practices. Conclusions: Web conferences can be designed to motivate participants to make positive behavior changes.
Who Is Reading My Flyer? Free Online Marketing Tool
E.V. Campoverde, UF/IFAS Miami-Dade County Extension
Objectives: To present a new free and user-friendly online tool to help marketing Extension programs. Methods: The only requirement is having access to a computer with an internet connection and a program/class to advertise. Visit the Smore website at http://www.smore.com and register as a user, experiment with the drag-and drop editor and choose colors, layout, theme, pictures or videos and a font available. Results: Using the free Smore website to develop online flyers to advertise educational programs in conjunction with traditional media to attract prospective clients to Extension classes has helped to reach new audiences. The flyer continues to be viewed even after the class is over, even on smartphones. This free online flyer generating website is easy to use and creates user-friendly reports that allow us to duplicate a successful formula for programs that were not popular in the past and also to have greater exposure to future clients. The analytics update continuously and provide information about the number and geographic location of each viewer. For example: one program’s flyer had 600 visitors at 55 different locations. Conclusions: Creative marketing of County and State Extension programs are vital if they are to be successful. Graphic designers and marketing specialists are rarely able to help promote County Extension programs. Smore is a free online marketing tool which is both time and cost-effective because it is easy to use and require no previous skills experience. Can be shared with Facebook pages and emails to clients. The social analytics have a huge potential for Extension, as they provide a way to measure the audience response to these promotional announcements of our educational programs.
Educational Technology – Report on Successes and Opportunities
S. Toelle, Duval
Objectives: To survey the use of educational technology by Family and Consumer Sciences Agents in the NEAFCS southern region. The survey questioned types of electronic devices and programs used for educational purposes, effectiveness of these, maintenance of the technology media, and creative uses. Methods: Qualtrics, was utilized to create a survey to investigate the objectives. It included 32 questions. The Qualtrics program generates a web link that was sent to the NEAFCS state affiliate presidents to distribute to FCS agents in their states. Qualtrics provides immediate analysis. Results: 229 FCS agents completed the survey, with 10 southern states represented. Only 64% of agents felt confident with their technical skills. Of all the devices, the laptop and projector severely outscored all other options though reports of its effectiveness varied. PowerPoint was nearly the only application used, with a smattering of other programs. Regarding social media, 64% reported using any form, with 96% of those using Facebook. 76% of agents have an active website, but 57% of those websites are maintained by someone other than the agent. The most common forms of promoting their programs are word of mouth (84%) and flyers or posters (85%). Conclusions: Although a variety of technological devices and programs are available for educational delivery, most agents stick with the laptop and projector, utilizing PowerPoint. Most are not comfortable beyond these tools. Training and resources need to be available to update educational delivery for a society that is becoming more technologically savvy and instantaneous with their demand for information. Abstract presentation will feature creative uses of technology by survey respondents.
Encouraging and Engaging Youth Through Technology: Utilizing Turning Technologies© for Animal Skill-a-Thons
X.N. Diaz*, J. M. Shuffitt, UF/IFAS Extension Marion County
Objectives: Marion County Youth Fair had over 1,000 non-duplicated animal exhibitors in 2012; 30% participated in species skill-a-thons. By utilizing Turning Technologies©, Extension Agents can modify traditional skill-a-thons into an efficient and entertaining PowerPoint format appealing to youth. (1) Implement an efficient method for evaluation of participants’ knowledge gain. (2) Incorporate new technology to increase participation. (3) Reduce amount of time required for coordination, implementation and evaluation. Methods: By utilizing Turning Technologies©, agents designed specific questions and diagrams adapted to rabbits, lambs, poultry and goats for three age divisions. Skill-a-thon design improved measurement and evaluation of knowledge acquired in these project areas. This technology was designed to gather and tabulate answers automatically, reducing the number of staff and time required for calculation. Participants were given transponders for recording answers electronically allowing them to have an interactive experience when compared to traditional tests. Results: Extension Agents and show coordinators who have used this evaluation method responded positively to Turning Technologies© applicability to skill-a-thons for all species. Ninety percent of youth (n=274) reported competing in this contest was enjoyable and released the tension compared to traditional skill-a-thons test. Conclusions: Show coordinators requested this type of skill-a-thon for their shows including: dogs and swine for 2014. In addition to motivating more animal exhibitors to participate in skill-a-thons, Turning Technologies© is an innovative way to evaluate and minimize the number of volunteers needed and time required to complete the contests in a timely manner.
Utilizing County Facilities to Extend Extension Programming
R. Madhosingh-Hector*, M. Campbell, L. Carnahan, L. Miller, UF/IFAS Pinellas County Extension
Objectives: To leverage the UF/IFAS presence in the county, Pinellas County Extension partnered with Pinellas County Government to assume management of the educational centers at Weedon Island and Brooker Creek Preserves. The goal was to develop, deliver, and evaluate educational programs that would increase visitor attendance and complement the natural attributes of the county-owned facilities. Methods: Faculty utilized a combination of educational hikes, in-classroom trainings, workshops and hands-on citizen science. Programs focused on natural resources in the coastal and upland environment e.g. water quality, coastal habitats, urban forests, and plant and wildlife identification. Faculty actively engaged with existing volunteers and support organizations through volunteer training and community events. Results: In 2012, faculty delivered 201 educational classes with 5275 participants; 131 guided hikes with 1262 participants; and supported five special events, each with more than 100 people in attendance. Customer satisfaction surveys revealed that 86% of participants rated hikes as “Excellent” and 90% (n=368) rated educational classes as “Excellent” or “Very Good”. Faculty also provided supervision and training for volunteers who collectively donated more than 11,000 hours or $205,260 to support programs and operations at the centers. Conclusions: The wide variety of programs offered at the centers highlight the resources available to county residents through UF/IFAS Extension; contribute to increases in center attendance; increase visibility of UF/IFAS Extension in the county; and solidify that the educational centers exist for the benefit of the public.
Getting Out of Dodge: Professional Development Leave for County Faculty
C.A. Kelly-Begazo, Indian River County
Professional Development Leave (PDL) is available to all county faculty with permanent status and at least six years of continuous full-time employment with the university. PDL enables county faculty the opportunity for professional renewal, travel, study, complete formal education and other professionally valued experiences. Objectives: 1.) Learn about the administrative process and apply for PDL; 2.) Obtain appropriate approvals for PDL from county and university administration; 3.) Plan and execute PDL for six months in Honduras; 4.) Share information and knowledge gained about the process with peer and encourage their participation. Methods: Agent proposed a six-month PDL from February - July 2013 In Honduras with the following goals. Increase skills in reading and writing Spanish, create modules in Spanish for small vegetable producers to use with Hispanic audiences, improve currently used Spanish modules for citrus Global Gap and to analyze data taken from Spanish-speaking participants during the 2011-2013 citrus packing season. Results: Agent was able to complete proposed program due to the support of IFAS district director and immediate county supervisor. Conclusions: The process for obtaining PDL for county faculty is not clearly defined or understood by most directors or county and university administrators. Advanced planning (1-2 years before execution) for county faculty wishing to take PDL is advisable. Immediate supervisors need to be fully vested in the PDL plan of execution or success can be delayed or derailed.
Using Technology to Expand the Master Gardener Help Desk to Other Locations
J.V. Morse
Objectives: To expand the Master Gardener Help Desk to another location without having to send a horticulturist to the location with them. This was a new location and we did not expect to have huge crowds. With our limited resources we could not afford to have a staff member at the remote location to help the MGs answer questions. Methods: An area was set up in the remote location with a computer (including a web camera) and a digital photographic microscope, as well as some key resources for reference such as IFAS card decks and books. The Skype program (free) had been added to the computer the Master Gardeners (MG) were using as well as to the computers of all of the horticulture staff, along with web cameras ($15 ea). We held a training session with staff and MGs on Skype and added our accounts to the program so we could call each other easily. Results: MGs who were not willing to be at a remote location from staff, felt comfortable enough knowing they could reach us and consented to staff the remote location. Plant samples could be identified via the Skype video and the digital camera could also be plugged into Skype so horticulturists could see what the microscope was showing. Microscope pictures as well as digital camera pictures could also be sent to horticulturists via email for identification. Conclusions: Using different types of technology such as Skype, a digital microscope and camera and email allowed MG staffing of remote locations from the main office. MGs were comfortable enough to staff these locations when they had this type of back up system. This allowed us to keep our horticulture staff at our main location. These technologies can be used to expand the MG help desk to other locations.
A Participatory Co-Management Strategy for the Use of Fish Aggregation Devices in Dominica and St. Vincent
J.E. Hazell*, Lee County; Dr. C. Sidman, Florida Sea Grant; Dr. K. Lorenzen, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Science; R. Sebastain, Fisheries Division, Dominica
Objectives: The Dominica Fisheries Division partnered with the St. Vincent and Grenadines Fisheries Division, the UF Florida Sea Grant Program (FSGP), and the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism to evaluate catch success and benefits by fishers who use fish aggregation devices (FADs). The project initiated with one year of data collection on fish weight and species caught on FADs by fishers at three sites in Dominica. Methods: In December 2012 the FSGP traveled to Dominica to hold stakeholder meetings at each data collection site. The meeting objectives were to (1) thank fishers for providing catch information, (2) share the results of the data collection, and (3) solicit input from FAD fishers about options to improve fishing success. Over 100 stakeholders attended the meetings which included a presentation of the analyzed data and small group discussions aimed at soliciting fisher input. Results: Project partners gathered information on FAD options, management challenges, and co-management opportunities. Two common subjects discussed were (1) the need for more FADs, and (2) the need to foster greater communication and cooperation among fishers. Conclusions: Two new FADs have recently been deployed in the vicinity of one study site. Data collection efforts at that site will be expanded to include the new FADS, allowing the project team to test the effect of these additional FADs on catch success and profitability. In addition, the project team has developed a Daily Activity Planner to foster greater communication amongst fishers at a second study site. Follow-up meetings will be held at both sites. Project results will be applied to the Agent's work with Florida fisheries.
Measuring Agricultural Paradigms Held by University of Florida IFAS Extension Agents
L. Sanagorski, Palm Beach County
Objectives: The objectives that guided this study were: 1. Revise a tool to be used to measure and evaluate agricultural paradigms; 2. Describe University of Florida Extension faculty’s demographic and background characteristics; and 3. Document Florida Extension faculty’s agricultural paradigms. Methods: An electronic survey was administered to a random sample of 188 UF Extension faculty members in all disciplines to identify and document their paradigmatic preferences. The survey utilized paired Likert-type responses representing polar opinions on the alternative/conventional agriculture continuum. Participants were also asked to provide demographic information and self-identify with a specific paradigmatic group. Results: The Sustainability Score mean was 80.64 (SD=12.74), slightly above the median value of 72 between the most sustainable and conventional potential scores. The range of Sustainability Scores for all respondents was 40 to 114. A significant difference was identified in the scores between the Moderates (M=78.91, SD=9.76) and Sustainables (M=87.38, SD=13.21); t (64)=2.93, p = 0.005. The effect size of this difference, as measured by Cohen’s d, was .73, interpreted as a medium effect (Cohen, 1988). Conclusions: This study generated a valid and reliable instrument useful in quantitatively measuring attitudes, and identified three distinct agricultural preferences. Florida Extension faculty were found to align with mostly moderate or sustainable paradigms, indicating promise for furthering sustainable agriculture education. Summary of characteristics and implications for Extension faculty and administration's future use of this data and instrument will be revealed in the final presentation.
Florida Agriculture Leadership Series
K. Johnson, Jr., DeSoto County Extension Director
Objectives: To provide leadership development resources to emerging leaders (18-35 years old) in the agricultural sector. To provide the participants with: an increase in knowledge of their individual leadership traits, styles, and preferences, an increase in knowledge of public speaking to advocate for agricultural, an increase in knowledge in the lifelong learning model, personal interaction with current agricultural leaders, provide opportunities for continued leadership development. Methods: This program was developed as: a four part series, held one day per month, based on materials developed in partnership with the Wedgworth Institute & the Ag. Ed. and Comm. dept., sessions on Leading, Speaking, Learning, Serving, in conjunction with a 6 county Farm Bureau associations. Results: Engaged 10 emerging leaders across a large spectrum of ag enterprises, allied trades, and FFA/JFCA members. An increase in knowledge for 90% of the individuals. Evaluated using course pre and post tests and post surveys for each session. 80% of the participants said they would be more likely to engage in leadership roles in their associations. 50% have taken on greater responsibilities in their associations. 10% have used the skills in public speaking to engage political leaders to advocate for their association and agricultural. Conclusions: This program was in response to the call from industry to provide education that would help fill the void of skills and abilities of the next generation of potential agricultural leaders. This program leveraged knowledge from various faculty members including professors, and extension agents in order to provide a wide swath of information resources and experience.
Spotlight Tampa Series Presenting Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ (FFL) Television Segments
L.A. Barber*, V. Overstreet, UF IFAS and Hillsborough County Extension Service
Objectives: Increase exposure for UF/IFAS County Extension offices state-wide, resulting in horticulture related knowledge gain and Extension Service contact by viewership; increase implementation of water conservation alternatives (microirrigation and mulch), appropriate landscape maintenance practices and environmental conservation (decreased stormwater runoff, pollution and erosion) while considering decreases in staff/time resources. Methods: Targeted audiences for Spotlight Tampa, City of Tampa TV (CTTV) viewing area are Hillsborough, Pinellas, Sarasota, Polk, DeSoto, Pasco, Citrus, Highlands, Manatee and Hernando Counties to whom we are presenting horticulture-related education; e.g. benefits of microirrigation; mulch: types of, how to and reasons to mulch; and transplanting and enjoying holiday plants for years to come. Topics are selected based on the time of year so information is timely and relevant. Results: Spotlight Tampa has the 4th highest viewership of all CTTV programs, with 40.2% of those surveyed having seen or regularly watching the show. Spotlight Tampa runs more frequently than any of CTTV’s shows at 12 times each week and place all Spotlight stories on YouTube, which can easily be tracked. We have received very positive feedback from the CTTV’s viewers about the information provided, have seen increased attendance at our workshops and seminars, in the number of walk-in clients, telephone calls, emails and website hits from these viewers. Conclusions: Partnering with regional media enables us to reach more residents while utilizing fewer resources resulting in client knowledge gain and behavior change. This process can be utilized throughout the state.
Effective Evaluations: Standardized Templates and Tabulation
N. Crawson*, Holmes County; J. Dillard*, Washington County; W. Cherry*, Calhoun County
Objectives: Standardized tools to measure program impacts are essential to continually evaluate the effectiveness of 4-H programming. By creating and adopting a standardized set of evaluation tools, 4-H Agents can aggregate collected data for a more solid report of measurable impacts. The ease in which the tools can be implemented will reduce the time Agents spend creating evaluations, end the number of varying formats and ease the process of combining collected data. Consistent use of a standardized template will allow the tracking of behavioral changes in youth and volunteers who remain in 4-H over time. Methods: A standard evaluation template was created. Resources such as rating scales and verbiage for measurable objectives were created to aid Agents in quickly and efficiently adapting the evaluation template to meet the specific needs of the program. The standard evaluation template includes statements and open-ended questions to collect both quantitative and qualitative data on internal and external components of programs without the need to distribute additional materials. Results: By creating consistent, reliable and efficient evaluation tools for programming, Agents will become more proficient in administering evaluations. Data collected will become more useful through the tabulation tool by allowing Agents to make changes to programming where needed, show positive impacts, and potentially increase funding sources. Conclusions: Additional evaluation tools in the form of youth, parent, and volunteer questionnaires as well as pre/post surveys to capture both quantitative and qualitative data are being created to share with all county 4-H programs to avoid the unnecessary overlap of evaluation creation.
“Garden Talk” WTIS 1110 AM
L. Barber*, S. Haddock, N. Pinson, UF IFAS and Hillsborough County Extension Service
**Objectives:** Reach larger audiences with timely and pertinent environmental horticulture and other Extension programming area information in view of limited resources. **Methods:** By partnering with a local area radio station (WTIS 1110 AM) interested in airing a weekly gardening program, “Garden Talk”, we are able to spend our recording time once and reach a significant number of people on occasions that best suit their listening time, whether live or archived shows. **Results:** WTIS provides free air time for “Garden Talk”. The normal charge is $100 per half hour. To date, our in-kind financial benefit from the station exceeds $6,100 of air time. Productivity has increased because one recording reaches a larger targeted audience. There are 48,000 listeners for each 30-minute show, and 700 listeners per day for archived shows. These educational radio programs are process improvements compared to teaching methodologies where we reach 6, 20, 50 or 100 people, e.g. an educational event, workshop or conference. We have recorded more than 44 segments to date. **Conclusions:** There has been a marked increase in resident contact from WTIS listeners. We have made “Garden Talk” a regional program by including Pinellas, Polk and Pasco Counties and our local Specialist to present while we host the shows we aren’t presenting. By using this marketing media, we are able to provide resource efficient, high quality environmental education to more area residents via live and archived shows than we could during several months of face-to-face programming. This can easily be replicated throughout the state.
Scan And Learn: QR Codes in the Florida Botanical Gardens
T. Badurek, Pinellas County Extension, UF
**Objectives:** The objective of this project was to create a system that uses QR (Quick Response) codes to increase knowledge gain by visitors to the Florida Botanical Gardens. QR codes are two dimensional barcodes that contain virtually any kind of data, including links to websites, text, videos, etc. These QR codes were placed on existing botanical signs in the Gardens. The QR codes can be scanned by visitors’ mobile devices which link them to an online resource for further information, such as a University of Florida publication or website. **Methods:** First, a QR code generator was chosen. The chosen generator is free and creates traceable codes that record which codes are being scanned and how often. Next, a team of Master Gardener volunteers created a database of existing signs and coordinating documents and websites. Finally, the team worked together to create the QR codes which were then printed on heavy duty, waterproof, UV-resistant, adhesive paper for installation on signs. The results include a database of botanical signs in the Florida Botanical Gardens and QR codes for those that link to University of Florida publications. Funding for materials and technology for the project was provided through an Extension Program Enhancement Grant. These codes were installed in the spring of 2012. **Results:** These QR codes have been scanned over 1235 times. This represents 1235 fact sheets that were accessed on site by various users. A local college field botany class uses them regularly to learn more about the plants. **Conclusions:** QR codes are very flexible, easy to create, simple to track, and therefore could be applied to any demonstration landscape to educate visitors with a minimum investment.
Passport around the World, a Food and Diversity Experience
G. Negron, Osceola County Extension
Objectives: (1) Increase knowledge of making healthful food choices and the benefits of being physically active (2) Experience a “virtual” visit to other countries and cultures. Methods: A six lesson nutrition education series was held at Saint Cloud Civic Center with children ages 5-10 year olds. Through a virtual trip around the world, participants learned concepts and skills in Food and Nutrition, Social Studies, Science, Health, Physical Education, Math and Language Arts. Topics included food groups, nutrients, food labels, and use of a passport, facts about different countries (languages, currency, and flags) and traditional foods. An Olympic game was held to celebrate the World Olympics and emphasize the importance of physical activity. In closing, participants traveled virtually to six continents where guests dressed in traditional attire from Walt Disney World International Program stamped their passport, shared facts of their country and culture, followed by savoring dishes representing different countries. Results: 75 children participated, knowledge in using food labels to make healthful choices increased from 40% to 80%. Twenty six guests representing countries in Africa, Americas, South America, Asia, Australia and Europe from the Walt Disney International Program participated. Conclusions: Through this comprehensive educational program and collaborative partnership we maximized participants understanding of educational concepts as well as celebrated the cultural and language differences in Osceola County; 19.5% of County residents are foreign born and 45.4% speak a language other than English.
Farm Fresh from Seminole – Marketing Local Produce through Online Education
M. Lollar*, R. Law, UF/IFAS Extension at Seminole County
Objectives: Farmers are oftentimes unable to develop an ideal market for their products. This is especially true with the production of various niche and exotic produce. Farm Fresh from Seminole gives the public an in-depth look into these unique growing practices and provides instruction on cooking with these crops. Methods: Farm Fresh From Seminole is a television series in which each episode begins with a tour of a Seminole County farm and a discussion of the growing practices and techniques with the featured farmer. The host then brings the produce back to the extension kitchen to prepare a dish. In the kitchen, the host welcomes the county Family and Consumer Sciences agent to provide healthy facts about the featured produce. Each episode concludes with the farmer returning to sample the dish. The series is filmed by Seminole County Government Television (SGTV) and airs on the SGTV channel. The videos can also be found online at: http://www.seminolecountyfl.gov/extensionservices/videos.aspx Results: The first episode, “Seminole Pumpkin”, aired on cable television in November of 2012 and has been available on the Seminole County Extension website since its initial airing. The second episode, “Citrus”, is available online and can be viewed at the URL listed above. SGTV is aired on Bright House Networks channel 199 and airs in households throughout Seminole County. Conclusions: Farm Fresh From Seminole provides a fresh look into what’s growing in Seminole County and teaches residents how to cook with unique local produce. Promoting local produce through this television series provides farmers with an additional marketing outlet. The Seminole pumpkin farmer featured in episode one sold out of pumpkins in 2012.
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 7:50 | Moderator | Introductions & Procedures |
| | A. Gazula, C. Saft, | |
| 8:00 | C. Olson, M.E. Smith, S. McCoy, S. White | Growing Gourmet Mushrooms for Fun and Profit |
| 8:20 | W.L. Wilber, A.C. Gazula | Using Blue Dye Marking Technique to Illustrate Water and Nutrient Movement through Sandy Soils to Homeowners and Master Gardeners |
| 8:40 | M. Orwat, R. Trawick | Turf Tuesdays: A Multi County Turf Program Hosted Through Interactive Videoconference |
| 9:00 | T.B. DelValle, A.R. Lamborn | Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Program Follow-Up Survey in Northeast Florida |
| 9:20 | A. Fluke, L. Lindenberg, J. White | Chemical Control of Blackberries in Bahiagrass Pasture |
| 9:40 | Break | |
| 10:00 | S. Haddock | Developing a Continuing Education Program for the Limited Certification for Urban Landscape Commercial Fertilizer Applicators |
| | C.E. McAvoy, G. England, | |
| 10:20 | W. Oswalt, M. Zekri, S. Futch, T. Gaver | 2013 Florida Citrus Growers’ Institute: Back to Basics-Citrus Nutrition and Root Health Sessions Offers Citrus Producers Options for HLB Infected Trees |
| 10:40 | N. Samuel, A. Moore | Empower Ocala Garden Project: Relationship Building Strategies to Increase Minority Participation in Urban Horticulture Extension Programs |
| 11:00 | D. Mayo, L. Johnson, J. Ludlow | Northwest Florida Agricultural Innovator Recognition Program |
| | D.B. Nistler, | |
| 11:20 | J. DeValerio, B. Hochmuth, E. Simonne | Demystifying Small Field Fertigation |
| 11:40 | Break for Lunch | |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 | M.S. Hittle-McNair, S.D. Eubanks, M.J. Goodchild | Cattle Management 101 |
| 1:50 | H. Mayer, M. Orfanedes, L. Sanagorski | University of Florida IFAS Extension Partnerships Supporting Tri-County Irrigation Programming |
| 2:10 | R. Tyson | Urban Farming Program Demonstrates Sustainable Practices for Increasing Local Food Production |
| 2:30 | S. Dunning | Northwest Florida Water Management Summit: Educating the Green Industry to Conserve Water Through Practical Use and Utilization of Technology |
| 2:50 | S. Haddock | Engaging Commercial Horticulture Professionals to Understand Why Landscapes Fail |
| 3:10 | B. Bactawar | Strengthening Feed Production Capacity in Tamale, Ghana |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Growing Gourmet Mushrooms for Fun and Profit
A. Gazula*, UF/IFAS Extension Alachua County; C. Saft*, UF/IFAS Extension Suwannee County; C. Olson, UF/IFAS Extension Taylor County; M.E. Smith, Department of Plant Pathology; S. McCoy, NE District Regional Specialized Extension Agent; S. White, Coordinator of Educational and Training Programs, UF/IFAS Suwannee Valley Agricultural Extension Center
Florida’s climate is conducive to growing shiitake and oyster mushrooms. However, very few farmers in Florida grow mushrooms using either the synthetic or natural log culture techniques.
**Objectives:** Develop educational materials and 1) annually deliver three small scale shiitake and oyster mushroom production programs for small farmers, Master Gardener volunteers, and gardeners. 2) Annually, 100 class attendees will increase their knowledge of small scale shiitake and oyster mushroom production by 50%. 3) Annually, class attendees will produce 100 pounds of oyster or shiitake mushrooms.
**Methods:** Agents utilized a multi-faceted approach to education including traditional classroom instruction, peer-reviewed publications, and experiential learning through hands-on activities, demonstrations, and farm visits. The 2-8 hour programs include lecture style PowerPoint presentations followed by demonstrations of growing either/both shiitake and oyster mushrooms and hands-on inoculation activities. Program attendees received over 600 inoculated oyster or shiitake mushroom kits and logs. Also, after the programs agents have provided educational support to the attendees.
**Results:** 516 small farmers and gardeners have attended 14 workshops on small scale shiitake and oyster mushroom production, processing and marketing. The average knowledge gain was 79%. Following completion of the workshops, attendees have grown around 1,050 pounds of oyster mushrooms and 3,740 pounds of shiitake mushrooms valued at $38,320 ($8/lb).
**Conclusions:** Due to the experiential learning methods of hands-on demonstrations and take-home inoculated oyster and shiitake mushroom kits, class attendees have successfully established mushroom production systems.
Using Blue Dye Marking Technique to Illustrate Water and Nutrient Movement through Sandy Soils to Homeowners and Master Gardeners
W.L. Wilber*, A.C. Gazula, UF/IFAS Alachua County Extension Service
In Florida Friendly Landscaping™ programs horticulture agents stress the principle “Water Efficiently” to homeowners and Master Gardeners. This principle teaches residents to conserve water and protect the environment from non-point source pollution through run off and leaching of plant nutrients. Current UF/IFAS recommendations call for ½ inch-¾ inch of irrigation water per application. Calibration of irrigation systems and sprinklers is strongly encouraged so homeowners know how much water is being applied to turf of landscapes. Often clients do not calibrate their systems and guesstimate the amount of water being applied.
**Objectives:** As a result of viewing the blue dye demonstration in a landscape setting 90% of homeowners will adopt appropriate irrigation amount to conserve water and prevent nutrient runoff and leaching and 90% will calibrate their irrigation system.
**Methods:** A water soluble spray pattern indicator blue dye demonstration was done with Alachua County Master Gardeners and a group of homeowners to illustrate how water and nutrients move through our soils.
**Results:** All the participants (n=40) responded that the demonstration made an impact on their understanding of water movement in Florida’s sandy soils. And 100% (n=40) reported that they would calibrate their irrigation systems to apply ½ to ¾ inch to make certain they were irrigating appropriately and to ensure the water applied was within the root zone of their turf or landscape plants.
**Conclusions:** Visually demonstrating water movement in landscape soils convinces homeowners to adopt efficient irrigation methods, and to calibrate their irrigation systems.
Turf Tuesdays: A Multi County Turf Program Hosted Through Interactive Videoconference
M. Orwat*, Washington County Extension, UF; R. Trawick*, Jackson County Extension, UF; R. Carter, Gulf County Extension, UF; A. Bolques, Gadsden County Extension, FAMU; L. Williams, Okaloosa County Extension, UF; J. McConnell, Bay County Extension, UF; E. Bolles, Escambia County Extension, UF; R. Leon-Gonzalez, West Florida Research and Education Center, UF; S. Eubanks, Holmes County Extension, UF; M. Derrick, B. Thaxton, Santa Rosa County Extension, UF
Objectives: To develop and increase proficiencies in turf management by focusing on soil pH, soil structure, turf type, turf selection, fertilization, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and lawn weed control. Class participants will demonstrate a willingness to reduce water use and fertilizer runoff by following UF / IFAS irrigation and fertilization Best Management Practices (BMPs). Methods: Turf Tuesdays was a district wide evening class series, taught in spring 2013, for homeowners. The information delivered through the class series consisted of practical knowledge to assist homeowners in managing the complex challenges climate, insect, and disease pose to turf culture. Cultural methods derived by the Florida Yards and Neighborhoods program were used in the development of the curriculum for this series. This series was organized and implemented by Northwest District Extension Agents and UF Specialists through videoconference, which enabled the team to maximize effort and productivity while minimizing travel. Four two hour classes comprised the series. Each session had a total of over 90 participants across seven counties of the Northwest Extension District. Results: Pre and Post tests indicated that 90% of participants gained knowledge in turf cultural techniques with over 80% indicating they will change their practices of fertilization or irrigation to comply with turf BMPs. Conclusions: The Turf Tuesday’s series would be easily adaptable to programs and clientele in other extension districts and states. UF research has demonstrated that following turf BMPs will reduce fertilizer runoff, thus improving water quality throughout the state. Participants indicated a willingness to follow these BMPs through post-surveys.
Florida-Friendly Landscaping™ Program Follow-Up Survey in Northeast Florida
T.B. DelValle*, E.E. Harlow, Duval County Extension; A.R. Lamborn*, Baker County Extension; J.T. DeValerio, Bradford County Extension; D.N. Demorest, Columbia County Extension; R.L. Jordi, Nassau County Extension; K.D. Fuller, St. Johns County Extension; C.S. Saft, Suwannee County Extension; W.L. Wilber, Alachua County Extension
Objectives: Develop standardized follow-up evaluation tool to measure impact of Florida-Friendly™ Landscaping (FFL) Programs delivered by Horticulture Agents in Northeast Florida.
Methods: Agents developed questions with the help of Drs. Esen Momol, Michael Dukes, and Glenn Israel to measure practice changes and adoption of FFL practices. Questions were arranged in categories: fertilizer, pesticide, irrigation, and right plant right place. Program participants were asked in exit survey if they would participate in follow-up survey. Survey was created using Survey Monkey and sent to clients 3 to 6 months after the educational program.
Results: 132 individuals completed the survey in 2011 and 158 responded in 2012 for a total of 290. Of the 290 responses, 153 (53%) indicated they made one or more changes to make their landscape more Florida-friendly, 92 (32%) started with changes but were not finished, 31 (11%) will make changes over the next 12 months, and 13 (4%) will not make any changes. 237 participants responded to adoption of fertilizer practices, 228 to adoption of pesticide practices, and 227 to adoption of irrigation practices. For example, of the 227 participants responding to adoption of irrigation practices, 54 (24%) use a rain shutoff device, 103 (45%) use a rain gauge to track rainfall, 78 (34%) calibrated sprinkler system to deliver between ½” and ¾” water, 126 (56%) manually turned irrigation system off when adequate rainfall, and 114 (50%) adjusted irrigation run times based on seasonal weather changes.
Conclusions: Electronic surveys electronically are an effective tool that can be used by Extension to measure adoption of FFL practices and responses can be pooled to demonstrate state-wide impacts.
Chemical Control of Blackberries in Bahiagrass Pasture
A. Fluke*, UF/IFAS in Osceola County; L. Lindenberg, Dow AgroSciences LLC, Range and Pasture in Brevard County; J. White, Soil and Water Technician in Osceola County
Objectives: Blackberries are over populating pastures in Osceola County, creating a loss of grazing acreage for cattle producers. After treatment we will demonstrate the efficiency of PasturegardTM for blackberry control in Bahiagrass pasture, determine the best timing for application, and evaluate the economic implications of the particular control method used.
Methods: Over a 2 year period we will apply PasturegardTM to two plots. Plot 1 will receive two fall applications and Plot 2 will receive a fall and then spring application. Two Bahiagrass pastures were observed pre-trial and visually evaluated for blackberry coverage. Plot 1 (20 acres) had an estimated 50% blackberry coverage. Plot 2 (10 acres) had an estimated 60% coverage of blackberries. Both plots were treated with PasturegardTM at a rate of 1.5 pints per acre. A surfactant was used and the producers were taught to calibrate the sprayer to ensure an accurate application. Plot 1 was treated in October of 2012 and will be re-treated in October of 2013. Plot 2 was sprayed on the same October 2012 date and will be re-treated in May of 2013.
Results: Thus far in the trial, in Plot 1, after one fall application of PasturegardTM the live blackberry coverage was 10%, or 80% control. In Plot 2, the live blackberry coverage was 10% after treatment, or 83% control. Treatment resulted in 13 additional acres available to graze.
Conclusions: PasturegardTM, applied in the fall at a rate of 1.5 pints to the acre, provided 80% or better control of blackberry in Bahiagrass pastures, thus appearing to be a viable method of control.
Developing a Continuing Education Program for the Limited Certification for Urban Landscape Commercial Fertilizer Applicators
S. Haddock, UF/IFAS Hillsborough County Extension Service
Objectives: Florida Statutes 482.1562 and 403.9338 require that all commercial fertilizer applicators obtain a limited certification for urban landscape commercial fertilizer certification from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumers Services (FDACS) by January 1, 2014. The certification is renewed every four years by completing four hours of continuing education units (CEUs) at least 90 days prior to certification expiration. The primary program objective was to develop easily accessible avenues for applicators to renew their certifications. A secondary objective was to provide supplemental Green Industries Best Management Practices training to reinforce water conservation and water quality issues.
Methods: Three article modules, each with a pre and post test, educate applicators on non-point source pollution, urban storm water run-off, managing urban storm water runoff, and fertilizer regulations. Five video modules, each with a pre and post test, educate applicators on the Green Industries Best Management Practices, non-point source pollution, watering wisely, fertilizer facts, and spreader calibration. The modules are available on-line and on DVD. A successful score on question sets earns the applicator CEUs toward certification renewal. The videos are also designed to be used as an introduction to in-the-field and hands-on trainings which, again, earns the applicator CEUs toward certification renewal.
Results: 100% of individuals seeking avenues for certification renewal approved of the method and accessibility. 97% of individuals reading the articles and viewing videos showed knowledge gain.
Conclusions: The program provides an easily accessible method for horticulture professionals to obtain the CEUs.
2013 Florida Citrus Growers’ Institute: Back to Basics—Citrus Nutrition and Root Health Sessions Offers Citrus Producers Options for Huanglongbing (HLB) Infected Trees
C.E. McAvoy*, Sumter County Extension; G. England, Lake County Extension; W. Oswalt, Polk County Extension; M. Zekri, Hendry County Extension; S. Futch, Hardee County Extension; T. Gaver, St. Lucie County Extension
Objectives: Increase the knowledge level of at least 75% of over 300 citrus professionals who attended the 2013 Florida Citrus Growers’ Institute on overall citrus tree health, water and nutrition management when trees are infected with HLB or citrus greening disease.
Methods: For the ninth consecutive year, with grant and industry funding, the Florida Citrus Extension Agents planned and conducted a one-day program in April 2013 focusing on the key production challenges facing citrus producers. Over 300 citrus professionals (industry representatives, managers, and growers) participated in the program. Key topics of this year’s program included tree health, water and nutrition management when trees are infected with HLB. Similar to previous years, presentations (video and PowerPoint) are posted on the Florida Citrus Agents website.
Results: According to the post-program survey (n=79 of 325 attendees), 85% to 88% gained knowledge related to citrus nutrition and tree health management, respectively. Survey results indicate that 34% of those surveyed plan on changing or improving their nutritional or tree root health production strategies related to knowledge gained through these two sessions.
Conclusions: The tree health and citrus nutrition sessions at the 2013 Florida Citrus Growers’ Institute was successful in providing strategies on the nutritional management of citrus trees infected with HLB. The webpage containing videos of the presentations from previous programs has over 600,000 hits. These video presentations provide an opportunity for those who could not attend the program to obtain critical information on citrus production issues related to HLB.
Empower Ocala Garden Project: Relationship Building Strategies to Increase Minority Participation in Urban Horticulture Extension Programs
N. Samuel*, UF/IFAS Extension Marion County; A. Moore*, Agricultural Education and Communication Department, University of Florida
The U.S. Census Bureau projects that the current minority population will become the majority by 2042. Extension should therefore position itself to become versed in program delivery to minorities. The Empower Ocala Garden project was designed for low income minorities residing in the food desert surrounding the Marion County Extension Office.
**Objectives:** Increasing minority participation in the urban horticulture program and food security, and providing exposure to other extension activities.
**Methods:** This was the first time many Master Gardeners (MG) were working with such a group, so buy-in was necessary. A needs assessment involved visiting nearby apartments and churches to talk with residents and property managers. The project team held relationship building activities for those interested fall 2012 prior to spring planting. Twelve families were each given a small vegetable plot in the Extension demonstration gardens. Participation was encouraged with reminders via mail and phone, giving transportation as needed, and Extension partnering with Ocala Housing Authority to provide volunteer hours for attending sessions.
**Results:** The needs assessment showed people had an interest in gardening but lacked knowledge. The families engaged in project activities and successfully grew a vegetable garden. Based on verbal feedback and observations participants are now confident about growing a garden; use correct horticulture terms and practices; have access to fresh vegetables; attended other MG activities, and two youth will attend Marion Sprouts Summer Camp.
**Conclusions:** This non-traditional audience needs much time and effort to obtain long-term engagement, but it is worth the effort to watch growth during the process.
Northwest Florida Agricultural Innovator Recognition Program
D. Mayo*, Jackson County Extension; L. Johnson, Escambia County Extension; J. Ludlow, Calhoun County Extension; P. Vergot, Northwest Florida Extension District; L. Andrews, D. Shuler, Farm Credit of Northwest Florida
Agriculture Extension Agents and Farm Credit personnel collaborated for two years to recognize innovative farmers from 13 counties. Agents nominated an honoree from each county. From this distinguished group, an “Innovator of the Year” was selected to represent Northwest Florida. **Objectives:** Provide recognition of innovative farmers who work closely with Extension Agents, provide leadership to the Agriculture Industry, and the communities where they live. Increase awareness of the diversity and innovation of modern agriculture by sharing their stories with regional media, and the general public to build a new appreciation for the business of agriculture in their area. **Methods:** Agents nominated a farmer for recognition, interviewed their candidate, wrote up their story including pictures, and submitted it to be judged by a panel of judges, so that an Agricultural Innovator of the Year could be selected. An award luncheon was held in the home county of the previous year’s Innovator of the Year to allow for a farm tour and in-depth look at their unique farming operation. An awards booklet made up of the nominees story and pictures, along with their contact information was provided to everyone in attendance. Also a multi-media presentation was made by each Agent providing an overview of the innovation and leadership of these individuals. The final effort of the project is to share their stories through local media and social media. **Results:** 22 ag innovators were recognized in the first two years of the project, and their stories were shared through the media. **Conclusions:** Honoree surveys indicated: 100% felt the program was worthwhile, 96% gained new ideas, and 87% planned to make contact with other honorees.
Demystifying Small Field Fertigation
D.B. Nistler*, Clay County; J. DeValario*, Bradford County; B. Hochmuth, Suwannee Valley Agricultural Extension Center; E. Simonne Ph.D., District Extension Director
With an increasing number of farmers growing fruit and vegetables on small acreage for specialty local markets, a need for fertilizer efficiency has emerged. These farmers commonly grow several crops at different stages of development simultaneously in order to have a variety of produce to sell to customers at weekly intervals. This situation forces farmers to schedule plantings accordingly and be prepared to make several fertilizer calculations because of their diverse crop demands. **Objectives:** Create and disseminate an applicable guide that enables farmers with diverse small field cropping systems to fertilize their crops effectively. **Methods:** A group of IFAS Faculty, compiled information and lessons learned at the farm level, recognized the need for a guide that would help farmers address their fertilization needs. The agents used the guide to assist farmers in developing customized fertigation plans tailored to their farms. **Results:** A publication was created (Fertigation for Vegetables: A Practical Guide for Small Fields, HS 1206) and disseminated that illustrates a practical step by step process for fertigating diverse small field cropping systems. Using the document as a guide, custom fertilizer plans were made for four Bradford County and two Clay County farms, resulting in simpler fertilizer calculation and application decisions. **Conclusions:** This guide will help farmers correctly interpret fertilizer recommendations and calculate accurate fertilizer amounts, resulting in a greater likelihood that the farmer will practice recommended BMP fertilizer application rates because fertigation events are based on crop nutrient requirements.
Cattle Management 101
M.S. Hittle-McNair*, M.J. Goodchild*, Walton County Extension; S.D. Eubanks*, Holmes County Extension; M.A. Meharg, Escambia County Extension; C.M. Simon, Covington County Extension; J.D. Atkins, Santa Rosa County Extension; J.G. Bearden, P. Vergot, Northwest Extension District
Cattle Management 101 is a beginner program developed for small farmers with little or no beef cattle experience. **Objectives:** 1) Provide basic level knowledge and skill in cattle production to small farm clientele. 2) Clientele will increase knowledge and life skills in the following areas of cattle production: cattle breeds, genetics, nutrition, forage management, herd health, reproduction, facility development and management, marketing, poisonous plants, equipment, and beef quality assurance. **Methods:** The Cattle Management 101 course consisted of five two hour sessions, held over a two month period. The course was offered to five counties via internet enabled interactive videoconference equipment. The course was designed to deliver basic knowledge, skills, and resources to small and beginning cattle farmers. A tradeshow on the final night allowed participants to meet their local beef cattle industry representatives and see equipment, tools, and supplies first hand that were discussed during the series. **Results:** A total of 49 participants were registered for the program. The survey reported 85% of the clientele gained knowledge of the beef cattle and the industry. Of the 47 respondents, 89% reported a greater understanding of beef cattle genetics, reproduction, and herd health, 85% have greater confidence in establishing or expanding their cattle herds, 93% had a greater understanding of the importance of Marketing, Facilities, and Equipment, and 91% had a greater understanding of beef cattle Best Management Practices and Beef Quality Assurance. **Conclusions:** Cattle Management 101 was a successful course that facilitated education of new and beginning farmers with limited experience in cattle production.
University of Florida IFAS Extension Partnerships Supporting Tri-County Irrigation Programming
H. Mayer*, Miami-Dade County; M. Orfanedes*, Broward County; L. Sanagorski*, Palm Beach County
Objectives: 1. conduct educational programming to encourage water conservation by property managers and landscapers in Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties 2. offer CEUs for professional certifications including Community Association Managers, International Society of Arboriculture & Florida Nursery Growers & Landscape Association in order to support professionals in maintaining their credentials 3. offer the most up-to-date irrigation technology information such as Soil & Evapotranspiration (ET) Based Smart Irrigation Systems 4. explain Florida law regarding irrigation systems and 5. familiarize participants with Irrigation BMPs to save water and improve water quality.
Methods: Three irrigation symposiums were conducted by extension agents from 3 counties and a private firm during 2012 and 2013. The format for the symposiums included Powerpoint presentations taught by Extension faculty and irrigation specialists supplemented with displays by irrigation vendors and in one case, a panel of smart system early adopters.
Results: Total of 116 attendees participated in these free pilot symposiums, through which CAM, ISA and FNGLA CEUs were issued. Knowledge gains using pre- and post-tests averaged 17%. Participants rated their satisfaction with the classes at an average of 4.7 (1=very dissatisfied - 5=very satisfied).
Conclusions: Developing cross-county partnerships with Extension and private entities can be an innovative approach to environmental education. Extension can program more effectively and to a wider audience when it works across county lines and in conjunction with the private sector. Providing results-oriented BMP education to property managers represents a new and potentially huge opportunity for Extension.
Urban Farming Program Demonstrates Sustainable Practices for Increasing Local Food Production
R. Tyson, UF/IFAS Extension Orange County
Orange County, Florida, is rapidly urbanizing with a population of 1.2 million. It had a long tradition of diverse agricultural production until recently. In 1998, 20,000 acres of local vegetable production was shut down due to concerns about phosphorus laden water discharges into Lake Apopka. The County moved overnight from a net exporter to an importer of vegetables.
Objectives: To identify, demonstrate and encourage the adoption of sustainable agricultural production methods that can be used in and around urban centers by farmers and market gardeners to take advantage of local markets.
Methods: Activities and teaching methods over the last 3 years include research / demonstrations, exhibits, seminars and workshops, tours, TV and web videos, as well as journal, fact sheet and newsletter articles.
Results: Publications were viewed widely by state and national audiences. Annual Urban Farming Workshops averaged attendance of 117. Post program surveys indicated 92% of attendees will be more efficient and change growing practices to save time or money as a result of the knowledge gained. The Homegrown Food Coop in Orlando is reporting local food producer participation increasing from 5 to 60 producers and membership in the Coop increasing from 10 to 800 members over the last five years.
Conclusions: Impacts for local food hubs and producers are significant with increasing activity and are expected to be reflected in the 2012 USDA Census of Agriculture data as increases in number of local farms and farm produce sales.
Northwest Florida Water Management Summit: Educating the Green Industry to Conserve Water Through Practical Use and Utilization of Technology
S. Dunning, Okaloosa County
The Water Management Summit of NW Florida is an annual workshop organized by the Panhandle Chapter of the Florida Irrigation Society and the UF/IFAS Okaloosa County Commercial Horticulture Agent. The one-day event brought together industry workers, product suppliers, and university researchers. **Objectives:** The goal of the summit was to provide education to all facets of the landscape/irrigation industry on practical techniques and research driven technology, therefore enabling them to make conscientious decisions regarding water use in the landscape. **Methods:** Speakers from the Water Management District, UF, irrigation supply businesses, and state agencies presented information on regulations, issues and research to an audience consisting of landscape businesses, pest control operators, irrigation installers, golf course superintendents, and municipal employees. "Smart" technology devices and on-line resources in addition to more efficient traditional techniques were introduced. Vendors from local supply businesses displayed products, providing an opportunity for hands-on experience with the technologies introduced. A program evaluation survey was conducted at the conclusion of the event. **Results:** 100% of the respondents expressed a knowledge gain on water management and its effect on the lawn care industry. 91% stated that they already did or intended to utilize the information received at the event. An average of 73% declared that they would use the recommended application practices, implement "smart" technology and update their clientele on the advantages of making the changes. **Conclusions:** The partnership of UF Extension and Research with industry shows promise as an agent of change. The 2014 Water Summit is planned.
Engaging Commercial Horticulture Professionals to Understand Why Landscapes Fail
S. Haddock, UF/IFAS Hillsborough County Extension Service
**Objectives:** Commercial horticulture professionals performing maintenance on properties often inherit poorly performing landscapes. Poor performance is defined as a landscape that is difficult or impossible to maintain using standard maintenance and best management practices. In many cases professionals do not understand the cause of failure and may resort to pesticide applications or improper cultural practices to attempt to solve an unknown problem. **Methods:** The program objective was to develop traditional in-class room and in-the-field trainings to educate professionals on underlying causes of landscape failures. Presentations and field training were developed to address issues encountered in urban development, regulatory and design compromises, improper plant and irrigation installation, wrong plant/wrong place, nutritional deficiencies, and unusual pests that affect long term landscape success. The secondary objective was to educated landscape professionals how proper management practices can positively impact Florida’s water quality and conservation efforts. Presentations include Why Landscapes Fail, Why Turfgrass Fails, and Why Palms Fail. Presentations are supplemented with Fact Sheets that address specific issues, planting guides, irrigation audit forms, and soil test information. **Results:** 98% of horticulture professionals attending programs showed knowledge gain. 92% of horticulture professionals indicated that they would change at least one landscape management practice as a result of attending the program. **Conclusions:** Educating horticulture professionals on underlying factors that may impact landscape performance is crucial to the development of a landscape management plan.
Strengthening Feed Production Capacity in Tamale, Ghana
B. Bactawar, Union/IFAS Extension Office
Alhassan Farm produces guinea fowl. It is the first farm to set up a feed mill in Tamale, Northern Ghana. However, this farm was challenged with the lack of knowledge and experience in feed formulation as indicated by poor growth of the birds and eggs that broke easily. Technical support was urgently needed to help kick start this operation. A request was made to Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteer Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI/VOCA) for technical assistance.
**Objectives:** To review, update and develop four (4) feed formulations for guinea fowl, and three (3) staff members would learn to use the formulation spreadsheets.
**Methods:** Visits were made to ingredient suppliers, producers and industry representatives to understand the issues. A manual was prepared on feed processing and prevention of mold growth. Three (3) staff members were trained to use the spreadsheets. One ration was fed to laying birds.
**Results:** Four (4) rations were formulated. Three (3) of the staff knew how to use the spread sheets to formulate rations. The owner reported a ten (10) percent increase in egg production and observed the eggs stopped breaking.
**Conclusions:** Based on the discussion I had with the Secretary of the Guinea Fowl Association, improvement in feeding and controlling worm infestation in the guinea fowl industry would reduce mortality mainly in guinea fowl chicks. There are over twelve thousand (12,000) guinea fowl producers in Northern Ghana. The improvement in productivity through the availability of quality feeds would lead to more financial returns to the farmers, thereby reducing poverty as well as adding value to the grain and oil seed sector in Northern Ghana.
## 4-H and Youth
### Champions A
**Sarah Whitfield, FAE4-HA Abstract Chair**
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|--------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 7:50 | Moderator | Introductions & Procedures |
| 8:00 | K. Jackson, J. Lilly, Sr. | Pretty Girl Talk |
| 8:20 | S. Crawford, T. Prevatt | Third Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties |
| 8:40 | M. Boston, S. Prevatt, N. Baltzell | Camp Counselors and State Camp Staff Partner to Reduce Risk at Camp |
| 9:00 | J. Jump, J. Breman, B. Hochmuth, N. Demorest, D. Barber | The Power of Collaboration in Nutrients for Life |
| 9:20 | A. Tharpe, L. Wiggins | How To: Developing Life Skills in Teens, through High School Enrichment |
| 9:40 | Break | |
| 10:00 | G. Murza | Farm City Days Youth Day: Raising Agricultural Awareness Among Fourth Grade Osceola County Students |
| 10:20 | N. Crawson, H. Kent | 4-H Robotics for Everyone |
| 10:40 | M. Taylor, M. Brinkley, W. Cherry | Training 4-H Volunteers Across County Lines |
| 11:00 | B. Yancy, B. Broaddus | Hillsborough 4-H Safety and Ethics Training Series: Horse Program |
| 11:20 | S. McGee, A Yasalonia | Water Conservation or Bust! A Game for Water Education |
| 11:40 | Break for Lunch | |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 | B. McKenna | Utilizing I 4-H National Youth Science Day Experiment to Promote STEM Literacy Among Youth |
| 1:50 | L. Wiggins | Eating from the Garden |
| 2:10 | J. Hulcr, S.M. Steininger | Backyard Bark Beetles |
| 2:30 | T. Prevatt, S. Crawford | Regional Events – Gaining Confidence & Raising Money – All in One |
| 2:50 | K. Popa | Dog Days |
| 3:10 | S.T. Steed, B. Broaddus | Youth Plant Show and Sale Improves Life Skills Among Youth Horticulturalists |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Pretty Girl Talk
K. Jackson*, J. Lilly, Sr.*, Jefferson County Extension
Objectives: Pretty Girl Talk (PGT) has four core objectives. The first objective is to annually have 25% (n=30) of girls who attend PGT report increased knowledge about how to live healthier lifestyle. The second objective is to annually have 10% (n=12) of girls who attend PGT report an intention to adapt a more positive behavior after attending PGT. The objective is to annually have 50% (n=29) of the girls will identify a service or a program that they would like to receive more of or participate in during the year. The fourth objective is to annually have 100% (n=6) of teen leaders who help coordinate the PGT event will have hands on experience with goal setting, planning/organizing, wise use of resources, and recording keeping. Methods: PGT is a one day workshop where a variety of classes are taught on the following topics: healthy lifestyle choices, stress management, disease prevention, personal safety, self-esteem, self-responsibility, character, managing feelings and/or self-discipline. Teen leaders in partnership with trust adult community member hold weekly/monthly meetings to plan the event. Results: Surveys of participants have shown the following results: 97% reported increased knowledge about how to live healthier lifestyle, 44% reported an intention to adapt a more positive behavior after attending pretty girl talk, 42% reported an intention to adapt a more positive behavior after attending pretty girl talk and 100% of teen leaders who help coordinate the PGT event actively participated in hands on activities requiring goal setting, planning/organizing, wise use of resources, and recording keeping. Conclusions: PGT fosters civic engagement among youth leaders and caring adults to provide research.
Third Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties
S. Crawford*, Hendry County Extension; T. Prevatt, Glades County Extension
The Third Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties is a cooperative effort between Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties, UF/IFAS/Hendry County Cooperative Extension Service, UF/IFAS/Glades County Cooperative Extension Service, and Hendry County Economic Development. Five – six sophomore or junior youth from each of the public high schools in Glades and Hendry Counties as well as Kings Academy located in Hendry County were selected to participate. Youth were selected by either the school principal or the career resource advisor on the basis of their leadership abilities. Objectives: The community-wide leadership program is designed to develop leadership potential and to acquaint participants with community needs, problems, and resources through interaction with community leaders and decision makers. Methods: Six week day sessions were conducted that included topics of defining leadership skills and successful teamwork, local government and the judicial system, agri-business, water and environment, careers, and a community service project. Each day began with an overview and conclusion of the day as well as the topic of the upcoming session. Results: The five month program consisted of 21 participants attending the Third Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades Counties. The participants represented Clewiston High School, Kings Academy, LaBelle High School, and Moore Haven High School. As a result of the program, 86% (18) of participants successfully graduated. Conclusions: Participation in this program continues to grow and is viewed by the community as a great program. With tremendous amount of support from the community the Fourth Annual Youth Leadership Hendry/Glades will begin in November, 2013.
Camp Counselors and State Camp Staff Partner to Reduce Risk at Camp
M. Boston*, S. Prevatt*, Leon County; N. Baltzell, State Camp Director
Objectives: While summer camp provides countless opportunities for youth to gain skills in cooperation, responsibility, and self-worth, there can also be many potential dangerous or "high risk" areas on camp grounds that go undiscovered or just simply ignored. These areas if not properly addressed could pose a serious safety threat to youth as well as adults that attend camp. The objective of this program was to provide a platform for Leon County Camp Counselors to assist State Camp Staff in implementing a risk analysis of camp grounds and aid in developing a plan of how potential risk can be avoided or minimized. Methods: Camp Counselors were divided into small groups of four or five and paired up with state camp staff members. The state camp staff members led each group to a specific area on the camp grounds, challenged the counselors to visualize camp activities and programs that occur each summer and answer the following questions: What are the possible risks as it relates to the camp activities in this specific location? Can risk be reduced, or avoided in this activity? What adjustments need to be made to make the area more safe? Results: As a result of the risk analysis performed by the staff/counselor lead groups, the counselors identified 11 areas where risk can be reduced, and five where risk can be avoided all together. Results of risk analysis by counselors and state staff will minimize insurance claims during camp from accidents and decrease daily visits to the camp nurse. Conclusions: This "high risk" exercise will be shared with other county camp clusters in hopes of keeping campers safe and decrease visits to the emergency room during their week of camp.
The Power of Collaboration in Nutrients for Life
J. Jump*, N. Demorest*, D. Barber, Columbia; J. Breman, Emeritus; B. Hochmuth*, Multi-County SVAEC
Ft. White High School is situated on soils within the Itchetucknee Springs Basin, an area of critical concern for the Suwannee River Water Management District. Nutrient management and water management are intertwined by affecting plant growth through their interactions. Objectives: 90% of youth participating in Nutrients for Life will make positive choices by demonstrating responsibility, critical thinking skills, financial literacy, and goal setting/achievement, and team work as demonstrated during the programs. Methods: A team of Extension agents worked with a local agriculture instructor and 60 high school students. Agents taught plant, soil, nutrient best management, and food safety in classroom settings, and used an in-field demonstration. The community was invited to an open house just before harvest and students showcased what they had learned. Six (6) food safety classes were held in conjunction with a taste test to demonstrate proper food handling procedures. Results: Knowledge gain was demonstrated as students, explained their experiment and the scientific processes to attendees. Youth participated in all data collection and four subsequent community event presentations. Students were asked to list the four ways to keep food safe: 95% (n=55) of the students listed all four steps correctly. Nearly 1,500 pounds of greens were donated to local charities, thus adding the element of service learning. The program received $10,000 in awards to continue, and the community received national recognition. Conclusions: Agents collaborating across programmatic lines can affect not only their participants but also the community as a whole.
How To: Developing Life Skills in Teens, through High School Enrichment
A. Tharpe*, L. Wiggins*, Taylor County
The number of our nation’s youth exhibiting at-risk behavior points to a lack of skills necessary for adulthood—skills in working with others, understanding self, communicating, making decisions, and leadership. These skills are required by adults for everyday living and are often called leadership life skills. **Objectives:** To teach youth grades 9th -12th basic life skills as it relates to nutrition, leadership development, team building, sun safety, and the importance of agriculture and how it affects their everyday lives. **Methods:** The 4-H Agent met with the Assistant Principal at Taylor County High School. Working together, they agreed to have local County Extension Agents, come in once a month to teach life skills. Through, this enrichment program, 4-H reached 345 youth grades 9th -12th and taught them how to cope with their environment by making responsible decisions, having a better understanding of their values, and being better able to communicate and get along with others. This enrichment also taught them how to live a healthy lifestyle by focusing on nutrition tips to incorporate into their daily lives, as well as, agricultural information that taught them where food comes from and how to create a small garden. **Results:** As a result of conducting monthly life skill lessons on leadership development and team building, 80% of 345 Taylor County High School youth demonstrated responsibility and making positive choices as reported through success stories, evaluations, and qualitative interviews. Youth talked about how they were getting along better with peers and working on their decision making skills.
Farm City Days Youth Day: Raising Agricultural Awareness Among Fourth Grade Osceola County Students
G. Murza*, A. Fluke, E. Foerste, J. Sullivan, J. Pelham, L. Royer, K. Miliiffe, G. Negron, University of Florida/IFAS Extension Osceola County
**Objectives:** To expose students and teachers to the various agricultural industries prominent in Osceola County and their impact on their lives. Fifty percent of teachers completing the survey will rate the quality of the learning stations as very good or excellent; 50% of teachers completing the survey will rate the overall quality of the event as very good or excellent; and 50% of respondents will show knowledge gain as shown by self-reporting of at least one fact learned from participating in their assigned stations. **Methods:** Fourth grade students and their teachers are assigned to groups and led on an assigned "track" to various stations that focus on a different aspect of agriculture. They participate in discussions and hands-on activities while teachers receive materials to be used in the classroom. 4-H and FFA youth Ambassadors lead groups on these "tracks" throughout the five hour event. Surveys assessing program quality and knowledge gain are given to teachers to complete toward the end of the day with their students, allowing time for discussion and reflection. Packets containing additional ag-related Extension resources (e.g. Florida Ag in the Classroom; 4-H in the Classroom) were provided to the teachers. **Results:** Fourteen of 36 surveys were returned, representing 14 teachers and 252 students. All 14 respondents rated the quality of the learning stations and overall quality of the event as very good or excellent. All teachers shared three new facts learned. **Conclusions:** FCD Youth Days helped educate and raise awareness among participants of the agricultural industries prominent in Osceola County. Additional resources help teachers continue discussion in the classroom.
4-H Robotics for Everyone
N. Crawson*, Holmes County; H. Kent*, NW Regional Specialized 4-H Agent
Objectives: Nearly 400,000 youth participate in robotics through 4-H, but few counties in Florida offer robotics programs. “Robotics for Everyone!” is a statewide approach to educate faculty and volunteers about the benefits of 4-H robotics programs, and build capacity for training and developing financial resources and partnerships to implement new robotics programs. Methods: “Robotics for Everyone!” helps faculty understand how to implement robotics across different 4-H delivery modes and age divisions both competitively and cooperatively. It provides support for volunteer recruitment, training, marketing, and fund development to support 4-H robotics at the county level and is flexible enough to be implemented in any county on a small or large scale. Results: Robotics is an effective way for volunteers to teach the engineering and design process through an inquiry-based approach to problem solving. Research has shown that robotics programs promote math and science careers; engage youth in cross-curricular disciplines; develop problem solving skills; and promote cooperative learning. In addition, female students are more likely to appreciate learning with robots than with traditional STEM teaching techniques and robotics may be effective for at-risk or under-served youth populations. Conclusions: The use of robotics appears to be an excellent mechanism to engage and motivate youth in STEM activities and to channel them into the 4-H Science pipeline. In addition, it can attract new science content rich volunteers to the 4-H program. By understanding the resources available and the costs involved, faculty and volunteers will build capacity for implementing or enhancing robotics programs.
Training 4-H Volunteers Across County Lines
M. Taylor*, Gulf County; M. Brinkley*, Liberty County; W. Cherry*, Calhoun County
Objectives: Increase the number and diversity of adult volunteers that will gain the knowledge and skills to provide safe and secure environments for 4-H youth by completing the application, screening, training, appointment, and evaluation process in compliance with UF/IFAS 4-H Extension Policies through multi-county training opportunities. Methods: Polycom and Adobe Connect technologies are used to train 4-H adult volunteers in a variety of topics including club development, risk management, emblem usage, etc. The adult participants interact via technology and experience hands-on activities in their localities, but still share ideas, thoughts, and questions via the form of technology in use. Agents share teaching responsibilities and materials including a uniform 4-H Volunteer Leader Notebook. Results: Participating counties were rural and agents felt that sharing training expertise would be beneficial for local volunteers. However, travel funds and distance between counties were limiting factors. In answer, agents created a Multi-county 4-H Adult Volunteer Training Workshop Series which was conducted via polycom and which will use Adobe Connect for future sessions. This cooperative effort allowed agents to train more efficiently, reach a 19% (n=21) larger audience, and allowed volunteers to interact with and learn from people with similar responsibilities in other counties. Conclusions: Participants were able to receive quality 4-H volunteer training and interact with volunteers from other counties without traveling from their home counties. The information was well received, and the adults enjoyed hearing different agent speakers and discussing questions and topics with other agents and volunteers.
Hillsborough 4-H Safety and Ethics Training Series: Horse Program
B. Yancy*, B. Broaddus, Hillsborough County Extension
Objectives: Hillsborough County 4-H’s ongoing horse safety and ethics training series promotes safety awareness education and practices while providing horse safety resources and activities to 4-H youth, volunteers, and parents. Youth and adults will reinforce ethical behavior by modeling honesty, fairness, consistency, sportsmanship, leadership and teamwork. Methods: Agents separate youth from adults during all trainings. During the 2011-12 4-H year horse industry professionals shared knowledge of horses, horse safety, and their professions. Hands-on activities with live horses and discussion on ethical scenarios engaged participants. During the 2012-13 4-H year, agents presented horse and rider safety, horse behavior, ethics, and pillars of character. Youth and adults discussed good sportsmanship, ethical scenarios, and personal experiences. Participants divided into smaller groups to create their own 4-H horse program code of conduct. Results: Over the past two years 140 adults and youth participants attended the trainings. 100% (n=140) reported learning at least one new safety practice or technique while working with horses. 76% (n=140) reported their intention to model higher ethical practices at 4-H Horse events. Conclusions: Within two years, this training has improved safety, sportsmanship, leadership and communication among 4-H horse clubs. Annual trainings will further promote horse health and safety, ethics, sportsmanship, cooperation, leadership, and teamwork. Future formats will include youth leadership development through teaching opportunities by senior level 4-Hers and youth made safety and ethics videos. This training series will also be adapted to fit other species in the upcoming 4-H year.
Water Conservation or Bust! A Game for Water Education
S. McGee*, A. Yasalonis, Polk County
Objectives: The objective of this game is to effectively educate 50-120 fourth graders about water availability, where our water comes from, residential water use (consumption), and water conservation in less than 20 minutes. After participating in the activity and the rest of Agri-Fest, students will indicate via a pre/posttest that they learned the percentage of the earths’ freshwater available for consumption and at least one water conservation technique. Methods: Students are split into groups of 10-25 students depending on the total number in the group and sent to one of six stations. When the students are in their station the extension agent will work through an introduction that includes vocabulary (conservation, water budget, consumption) and an introduction to the topic. At each station, students will find 50 unused gallon jugs (the water budget) and a bucket filled with ‘water use’ and ‘water conservation’ cards. A teacher or volunteer helps the students work through the cards ‘using’ and ‘conserving’ water gallons (the jugs) from their water budget. As the students work through the game, they will eventually run out of jugs to move out of their budget. Results: This game is in its second year and has been played with approximately 6,000 fourth graders. Changes made this year in response to teacher feedback regarding the introduction and overly rambunctious game play were successful. Several teachers have requested the game cards for use in their classrooms. Student pre/posttests are still being analyzed for objectives success. Conclusions: In response to an extremely limited classroom setting, the “Water Conservation or Bust” game has been a successful addition to Polk County Agri-Fest’s lineup.
Utilizing the National 4-H Youth Science Day (NYSD) experiment is an effective tool in soliciting the interest of youth in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) related skills. The National 4-H Youth Science Day experiment is geared toward assisting youth in exploring STEM related careers. In order to reach a broader audience of youth in Seminole County this agent collaborated with Seminole County Schools during their National Teach-In at a local middle school. The experiment was facilitated with 6th – 8th grade youth in their science classes.
**Objectives:** 80% of 4-H School Enrichment participants (ages 11-12) will participate in the annual National 4-H Youth Science Day Experiment (STEM literacy, Workforce development) as documented through post test evaluation of school enrichment participants.
**Methods:** 4-H Agent utilized NYSD Experiment 4-H “Eco-Bot” Challenge. Curriculum emphasized methods used by environmental scientist to assist in cleaning up environmental disasters such as a toxic spill. The experiments were facilitated in small groups in each of the classrooms.
**Results:** 58 youth participated in the National Youth Science experiment. Of the youth surveyed, 81.6% (n=51) believed that the experiment made them more interested in science. Also, 65.3% of the youth surveyed stated that the experiment helped them "some or a lot" in learning how to use science for problem solving.
**Conclusions:** Research by Dr. Robert Tai suggests that a non-formal science education is more likely to increase a student's aspiration towards science related degrees and career choices (Planning Early Careers in Science, R.Tai et al., 2006;2010).
---
**Eating from the Garden**
L. Wiggins, Taylor County Extension
**Objectives:** Through a year-long nutrition and gardening program students learned how the food we eat relates to plants, they learned how to plant, maintain and harvest fruits and vegetables, students learned about MyPlate Food groups, the importance of eating lots of fruits and vegetables, and the importance of physical activity and water.
**Methods:** This school garden and nutrition program provided hands-on, problem-based environmental and science education for two-hundred and fifty-two third grade youth. Weekly classes were taught by Extension Staff and Master Gardeners using the Eating from the Garden curriculum, at the school. Raised bed gardens were planted, maintained and harvested by the students and were used as a teaching tool.
**Results:** As a result of the program, the students learned about gardening techniques and planted/maintained their own garden plot of fruits and vegetables. They also learned about the MyPlate food groups and especially the importance of eating a rainbow of fruits and veggies. The kids engaged in physical activity through gardening and most importantly learned to prepare several yummy, healthy recipes that they truly enjoyed eating each week. After participating in the nutrition and gardening program, the student’s knowledge about the benefits of eating fruit and vegetables significantly improved from 53% to 84%. The students also reported eating healthier snacks and being more active after participating in the program.
**Conclusions:** Faculty and teachers surveyed about the program reported this as being the best enrichment program ever at the school. The teachers reported also noticing students bringing healthier snack choices and trying more fruits and vegetables during lunch time.
Backyard Bark Beetles
J. Hulcr*, S.M. Steininger
Objectives: 1: To provide and educational program on Forest Entomology that county faculty can use for their educational efforts. 2: To develop and deliver a new Citizen Science program that educates hundreds or possibly thousands of participants on forest entomology. Backyard Bark Beetles is a Citizen Science program designed to develop and improve understanding of forest pests, particularly invasive ones, among general population. The target audience is rural and suburban public, mostly youth. The need: Forest pests are everywhere, but for the public they are a media creation rather than real organisms, since few people have actually seen one. Measurable objectives will include the number involved participants, and gain in knowledge measured by a pre/post test. Methods: Children, coached by County faculty and other educational networks, deploy a simple soda-bottle beetle trap in their backyards. The UF Forest Entomology team analyzes the catch and returns results to participants through an interactive website: www.backyardbarkbeetles.org. A previous program on ants with identical framework attracted >10,000 participants. The program is just being developed; the following networks are invited to participate: The Florida Cooperative Extension, Florida 4-H, LEEF, CFEOR. Results: 1) Fully funded by the National Science Foundation. 2) An interactive website is near completion. Conclusions: County faculty will be involved, and will benefit: The program is being developed with feedback from county faculty to assure that they can use it to increase their educational impact and public engagement. Particularly valuable will be engagement of faculty in rural areas, and those specialized on youth, such as 4-H.
Regional Events – Gaining Confidence & Raising Money – All in One
T. Prevatt*, Glades County Extension; S. Crawford, Hendry County Extension
Three years ago in Glades County the 4-H youth showed and sold their animals and that was it. At that time only 3 youth left the county lines to experience 4-H on a regional or state level. In addition fundraising was difficult for clubs since Glades is a small county with a limited funding base. To solve both of these issues we started holding regional or statewide events in our own backyard. Objectives: To provide youth a safe place close to home participate in multicounty activities in order to improve life skills such as: self-esteem, teamwork, cooperation, social skills, and to foster confidence in our youth. Methods: We held a 3D archery match in our county and invited youth from around the state. This allowed our youth to experience a multicounty event without leaving their familiar surroundings. In addition to the 3D archery shoot the club also provided a concession stand and a fun shoot for the adults. Results: We had 45 youth from 4 different counties come and compete at our event. Our youth and their families were able to see the social benefit of participating in a multicounty event. In addition though entry fees and concession sales the club was able to earn a little bit of money to travel to other events throughout the year. In addition after our 3D match our swine leader whose son had participated decided to put on a multi county swine prospect show with our neighboring county (Hendry). Conclusions: Two years after our first regional event we have held 2 3D tournaments and 2 prospect shows, raised a total of over $1,600 profit from the events, exposed both adults and youths to multicounty competitions, and have had a total of 39 youth participate in different out of county events this past year.
Dog Days
K. Popa
Objectives: This camp was used to increase the knowledge of at least 50 percent of the 4-H aged youth involved in the program about dogs, including basic dog care, training, exercise and breeds as well as to promote better pet care in the community. In addition to educating youth about animal science, youth involved should also learn about food science, food preparation and food/kitchen safety. Methods: This program utilized an educational PowerPoint presentation which addressed Dog Obedience, Agility, Body Language, Grooming, Breeds, as well as body parts. The PowerPoint presentation is an educational tool used as a supplement to hands on activities and mini field trips. Educational games such as Dog Breed Bingo required youth to recall knowledge gained throughout the camp. The Educational Fact Sheet How to: Choose the Best Dog for You, addresses various qualities which one should address before choosing a dog for their family and can be utilized by youth as well as adults. Hands on activities such as baking dog treats and making dog toys, visiting the local animal shelter and visiting the local groomer and touring the facility led to a greater understanding of pet care. Results: Eighty percent of the youth involved in the day camp showed an increased knowledge of dog breeds as well as animal care, health and nutrition. Sixty six percent of youth showed an increase in knowledge regarding kitchen and food safety. Conclusions: Through this day camp, we hope that youth not only gained knowledge, but that this camp will help youth educate others about proper dog care, thus altering behaviors and lessening the number of dogs ending up at the shelter.
Youth Plant Show and Sale Improves Life Skills Among Youth Horticulturalists
S.T. Steed, B. Broaddus, Hillsborough County
Objectives: The objective of the Youth Plant Show and Sale is to challenge youth to grow and market wholesale quality ornamental plants for profit while having a positive impact on desirable life skills. Skills were assessed with a novel evaluation method. Methods: This year all participants of the Youth Plant Show and Sale were asked to fill out a new 16 questions before/after evaluation tool that gauged level of skill or knowledge change in different life skills. The questions assessed skills in plant production knowledge, managing, planning, thinking, and communication among others. Results: The youth plant show and sale had 79 youth participants who successfully raised 155 plant lots that met the Florida Fancy or #1 grade according to the Florida Grades and Standards for Nursery Plants. Youth earned $29,560 for their plant projects at the auction. 58 before/after surveys were turned in. This youth program realized an average of 14% positive increase of 16 measured life skills among participants. The least increased skills were decision making and setting goals with a positive 8% and 9% change per student respectively. The most improved skills after the project was knowledge of Florida Friendly Landscape Principles and applying pesticides correctly with an average of 20% and 22% increase respectively per student. Conclusions: The new evaluation tool greatly decreased the time to extract results from the student projects. The method was extremely effective in gathering participant self-assessment change. It allows the agent to gather relevant programmatic impacts and refine major youth program to better serve youth interested in ornamental plant production.
## Natural Resources
### Players B & C
Lisa Krimsky, FANREP Abstract Chair
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 7:50 | Moderator | Introductions & Procedures |
| 8:00 | L. Carnahan | Experience Extension through Volunteerism |
| 8:20 | E.A. Staugler, R. Swett | Planning for the Future of Recreation Boating Access to Charlotte County Waterways 2010-2050 |
| 8:40 | A.G.B. Hunsberger | The Miami-Dade Adopt-A-Tree Program: A Reforestation Program to Replace Lost Urban Canopy Due to Disasters |
| 9:00 | D. Griffis | Impact of Russian Thistle (Salsola spp.) on Florida Coastal, Urban, Agricultural, and Natural Areas |
| 9:20 | R.J. Northrop, M.G. Andreu | Development and Use of Criteria and Performance Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning and Management in the City of Tampa |
| 9:40 | Break | |
| 10:00 | L. Krimsky, M. Watson | Commercial Fishing Perceptions of Marine Debris in Southeast Florida |
| 10:20 | R. Madhosingh-Hector | Pinellas County Goes Gold! |
| 10:40 | S. McGee, L. Miller, B.J. Jarvis, L. Barber | Watershed Education for Elected Officials, Resources Managers and Concerned Citizens |
| 11:00 | M. Campbell, R. Madhosingh-Hector | Challenges With New Master Volunteer Programs |
| 11:20 | V. Spero-Swingle, H. Abeels | Mastering the Classic Art of Fly Fishing While Inspiring Youth |
| 11:40 | Break for Lunch | |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 | S. McGee, N. Walker | Partnerships for Successful Extension Programming: The Polk County Water School Model |
| 1:50 | E.A. Staugler, J.E. Hazell | Citizen Scientists Documenting Bay Scallop Trends in Southwest Florida |
| 2:10 | L. Carnahan, R. Madhosingh-Hector | Promoting Resiliency in Coastal Communities |
| 2:30 | M. Orwatt, R. O’Connor | Panhandle Outdoors LIVE |
| 2:50 | S. McGee, M. Carnevale | Recreation and Watershed Education: Let’s Go Kayaking! |
| 3:10 | E. Alvarez | Arbor Day: A Collaborative Educational Approach |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Experience Extension through Volunteerism
L. Carnahan
Objectives: The UF/IFAS Florida Sea Grant Extension Agent in Pinellas County provides college students with experiential, service-learning opportunities that increase knowledge, build skills, and offer a life-changing experience in Florida’s environment. Methods: The agent worked with 22 students from The Ohio State University’s BUCK-I-SERV (Students Engaged in Responsible Volunteering) program in December 2011 and 2012. Students learned about near-shore and coastal habitats, local wildlife, ethical fishing and marine issues. Training included classroom seminars plus “teachable moments” during field hikes and guided canoe trips. Service work included environmental restoration, removal of marine debris and conducting a youth fishing clinic. Results: Students assisted with restoration of 23 acres of habitat at county preserves; mentored 15 at-risk youth at a fishing clinic; and developed 3 YouTube videos. Since inception of this partnership, OSU students have donated 756 hours of service, valued at $14,000 ($18.66/hr). Through pre/post-tests, student knowledge of natural resource issues increased 26%. All students demonstrated practical skill at exotic plant removal, species ID and ethical angling. Conclusions: Students reported increased likelihood to volunteer with an environmental organization (92%), share information with others about ethical fishing practices (100%) and organize a volunteer event to benefit the environment or community (71%). This program helps students diversify their academic skill set and participate in a meaningful service-learning experience. In turn, such partnerships enable Extension agents to conduct beneficial, cost-saving projects and impactful educational programs.
Planning for the Future of Recreation Boating Access to Charlotte County Waterways 2010-2050
E.A. Staugler*, Charlotte County; R. Swett, Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
Objectives: The goal of this project was to provide Charlotte County with a planning instrument that specifies the type, quantity, and location of public access facilities needed to meet anticipated future demand. Methods: The study included conducting an inventory of land-side infrastructure and water access adjacent to parcel locations; developing supply-demand characteristics of boating access; evaluating the suitability of potential sites to expand marinas, ramps, docks and mooring fields; identifying regulatory policies that affect development and use of the County’s marine resources; and presenting the findings to the Board of County Commissioners for adoption as a plan amendment to their comprehensive plan. Results: In 2050 the county can expect 8,000 additional registered vessels, most within the 16-<26’ range. Currently, 53% of Charlotte County residents who boat, gain access to the water from a residential dock, while 35% use a boat ramp and 12% a marina (wet or dry slip). When examining who uses boating facilities located in Charlotte County, we find that County residents constitute 53% of those who use a boat ramp and the remaining 47% are non-residents. Likewise, 51% of in-county marina patrons are County residents, while 49% are non-residents. Conclusions: When planning for the future, the projected increase in demand indicates that Charlotte County will need to add 600-1600 marina slips and 15 ramp lanes. The document also includes an analysis of suitable sites for managed mooring fields, for expanding existing marinas and boat access facilities. Charlotte County's Board unanimously approved the report findings in early 2013.
The Miami-Dade Adopt-A-Tree Program: A Reforestation Program to Replace Lost Urban Canopy Due to Disasters
A.G.B. Hunsberger, Miami-Dade County Extension
Objectives: Miami-Dade County has an average tree canopy cover of less than 10%, compared to the national average of over 30%. This low tree canopy coverage is due to losing 1/2 million trees to the Citrus Canker Eradication Program and countless trees lost from hurricanes. To help replace lost tree canopy, we partnered with another Miami-Dade county department and the county received a $6,000,000 grant which was used to create the “Adopt-A-Tree” Program. This allows county homeowners to “adopt” two trees per year. Tree adoption events are held throughout the county. Methods: UF/IFAS Miami-Dade County Extension faculty conducted grades & standards workshops for nursery growers, developed bilingual (English and Spanish) educational materials, and Master Gardeners staffed “adoption” events. As part of the “adoption” process, homeowners must attend an educational component before receiving trees. This includes a hands-on demonstration of correct planting procedures. Extension’s educational materials are distributed to participants as part of the program. Results: Since 2001, over 220,000 people have been taught basic tree care; over 164,000 trees have been distributed. Program participants were surveyed one to two years post-adoption. An average of 79.2% trees survived, 96% of participants stated that the program met or exceeded their expectations, and 94% said that the educational materials were useful. Conclusions: In addition to the main goal of reforesting the county, this program has produced several additional effects: increased public awareness of the Extension office as an educational resource and increased knowledge of proper tree care. This by far the largest urban reforestation project of its kind in Florida.
Impact of Russian Thistle (Salsola spp.) on Florida Coastal, Urban, Agricultural and Natural Areas
D. Griffis, UF IFAS Volusia County Extension
Objectives: To educate local government elected officials and employees, sea turtle volunteers, ocean front property owners, and beach visitors on the identification and control of Russian Thistle (Salsola Spp.). Methods: A power point presentation was developed and presented to five different clientele groups including the New Smyrna Beach City Commission, the East Central Florida and Central Florida Cooperative Invasive Species Management Areas. Onsite field identification training and plant removal programs were conducted on three occasions. Trainings were conducted in Daytona Beach Shores, Ponce Inlet and New Smyrna Beach. One herbicide demonstration was conducted on an ocean front condominium with a 95% dune cover of Russian thistle. Results: Eighty-four people (N=84) 100% increased their knowledge of Russian thistle and (N=84) 100% would be able to identify Russian thistle when encountered on the beach. Forty seven garbage bags of plant material were removed from the beach. Conclusions: Russian thistle is a potentially dangerous invasive plant that has the potential to out compete native dune plants, disrupt sea turtle nesting and cause harm to beach users as a result of the severe thistle thorns found on Russian thistle. Working with an ocean front condominium that had a 95% dune cover of Russian thistle, a demonstration herbicide spray control was undertaken. Using Rodeo at label directions, 100% of target species was controlled with no impact on existing native vegetation. In the fall of 2012, tropical storm Sandy resulted in rather severe erosion of Volusia County beaches. With the sand removal, Russian thistle was also removed. Populations were reduced. In the spring of 2013, the plant has returned.
Development and Use of Criteria and Performance Indicators for Strategic Urban Forest Planning and Management in the City of Tampa
R.J. Northrop*, UF IFAS Hillsborough County Extension; M.G. Andreu, Ph.D., UF IFAS School of Forest Resources and Conservation
Objectives: Develop a strategic plan for sustainable urban forest management for the City of Tampa that can be formally integrated into the City’s legal framework and set operational.
Methods: Through a deliberative and iterative process, involving government, business and community groups we developed a set of management criteria and performance indicators for urban forest sustainability. Criteria define essential environmental, economic and socio-cultural elements against which urban forest sustainability is judged.
Results: The Criteria and Performance Indicators have been used to amend the city’s comprehensive plan, make adjustments to current zoning ordinances and landscape regulations.
Conclusions: The strategic plan has been embraced by the city’s government agencies and has been incorporated into its legal framework. The basic structure of the strategic plan and process for its development now serve as a model for urban forest planning throughout Florida and the southeastern United States (USDA Forest Service).
Commercial Fishing Perceptions of Marine Debris in Southeast Florida
L. Krinsky*, Miami-Dade; M. Watson, San Diego Coastkeeper
Results from a related study shows that 60% of all debris along the Florida Keys Reef Tract (FKRT) is composed of trap gear. This indicates the need for outreach efforts targeting commercial trap fishermen; however trap fisheries vary markedly between counties. Miami-Dade does not have any commercial fishing association or organization, while the Monroe fishery is very heavily organized.
Objectives: In order to accurately develop outreach efforts which will minimize derelict fishing gear in the FKRT we first needed to understand perceptions held by the commercial fishing industry from both counties.
Methods: 8 structured interviews were conducted. Each respondent was given the same set of questions concerning marine debris presence and analyzed according to the emotional response; positive, negative or neutral.
Results: Participants from both counties acknowledged the presence of debris though there was agreement that it isn’t necessarily a problem. Despite this, both groups were interested in potential removal efforts with the primary reasoning being to benefit their industry’s sustainability and health. The biggest difference in perceptions between the two counties was in understanding the regulations surrounding derelict trap gear. Responses from Miami-Dade participants showed an uncertainty and severe misunderstanding about the regulations in place regarding derelict trap removal.
Conclusions: These results indicate that commercial fishermen are interested in participating in debris removal events and that educational efforts targeting Miami-Dade County commercial fishermen focusing on regulations, rights, penalties and potential benefits in mitigation efforts are necessary.
Pinellas County Goes Gold!
R. Madhosingh-Hector, UF/IFAS Pinellas County Extension
Objectives: The Florida Green Building Coalition (FGBC) designates Green Cities and Green Counties for outstanding environmental stewardship and uses Silver, Gold or Platinum rankings. Pinellas County was the first Green Local Government certified at the Silver level in 2006.
Methods: Agent utilized the FGBC tool to facilitate county department audits through face-to-face meetings and telephone calls. Agent also promoted policy development to support green practices, conducted program evaluations, and developed a website to highlight sustainable practices.
Results: In 2013, Pinellas County received 55% of 399 applicable points earning not only a Gold certification level but also bragging rights as the first local government to be re-certified with FGBC. The county earned innovation credits for fertilizer ordinance, solar flashers and re-timed traffic signals. The county increased scores in the following categories: 35% in Building and Development, 23% in Human Resources and 25% in Administration. The county constructed 2 LEED certified buildings, enacted a green building ordinance, developed a Green Business program, offered GreenStar employee training, and hosted county initiatives on the Green Pinellas website.
Conclusions: Green governments gain recognition and publicity for their efforts but also function better through cost reduction and internal efficiencies. The voluntary, performance based certification program allows local governments to establish sustainable practices using existing programs and policies while still promoting innovation.
Watershed Education for Elected Officials, Resource Managers and Concerned Citizens
S. McGee*, UF/IFAS and Polk County Extension Service; L. Miller*, UF/IFAS and Pinellas County Extension Service; B.J. Jarvis*, UF/IFAS and Pasco County Extension Service; L. Barber*, UF/IFAS and Hillsborough County Extension Service
Objectives: Increase participants’ awareness/knowledge of local & regional water issues; regulatory stakeholders’ responsibilities; science available from UF/IFAS Extension & the influence water issues have on public policy. For elected officials, utilize knowledge gained to make sound policy decisions for future planning & development.
Methods: 3 water schools were presented, each with a slightly different format. Basic methods involve in-class presentations by topic experts & educational field tours. Manatee & Tri-County Water Schools (Pinellas, Hillsborough & Pasco County) are 2 full days. The 1st day includes expert presentations, class activities & a panel discussion; the 2nd involves field tours exploring the path water takes from aquifer through use & back to treatment. Polk County’s Water School is a 7 week seminar with 1, 3-hour class weekly. Course consists of 5 content sessions with professional presentations & 2 field tours. The 1st tour is similar to other water schools, following the water path & the 2nd is a field tour following the Peace River from Polk County to the Charlotte Harbor Estuary.
Results: Post-evaluation data indicates participants gained knowledge & understanding of water systems & their inter-connectedness to human activities within the watershed; learned about resources available to communities & governments to make better choices on water management & acknowledged the need to consider potential impacts of future policy decisions on local & regional water supplies.
Conclusions: It is imperative for UF/IFAS Extension to become the leading educational authority on the future of water in our state. Water School formats can be adapted to any community issue at local, regional & state levels.
Challenges With New Master Volunteer Program
M. Campbell*, R. Madhosingh-Hector*, UF/IFAS Pinellas County Extension
Objectives: The Sustainable Floridian Master Volunteer program offers a structured educational program focusing on sustainability awareness. The program seeks to increase participants’ knowledge about sustainability and create opportunities for community level leadership.
Methods: Classroom training, multimedia presentations, discussion groups, formal and informal surveys. Participants also engage in ongoing training, mentoring through monthly meetings, and donate required volunteer hours.
Results: Since program launch in 2011, 66 participants enrolled and donated more than 1500 volunteer hours. A 2-year program survey conducted in 2013 assessed program challenges and volunteer return per participant. Although 64% of respondents (n=25) donated the required number of hours, participants cited the following barriers: over-commitment on volunteer activities (29%), lack of interest in current volunteer opportunities (29%) and interest in course knowledge not volunteerism (24%). Though 76% indicated that the volunteer requirement did not influence their participation in the program, 52% stated the program should require volunteerism. Barriers to attendance at monthly meetings included meeting time (54%), other commitments (46%), and distance to travel (31%).
Conclusions: Going forward, the program should strive to provide meaningful volunteer engagement opportunities. Additionally, the program should adopt a flexible approach for required number of hours and volunteer hour reporting. Continued upper-level learning opportunities through cross training with other Extension programs is an important component of program success.
Mastering the Classic Art of Fly Fishing While Inspiring Youth
V. Spero-Swingle*, H. Abeels, Brevard County
Objectives: Programs that inspire youth to be active in their environment and create a strong connection with nature, such as fishing, are an essential element in 4-H Youth Development. A survey of 619 participants in a national fishing education program done by Siemer and Knuth (2001) found that youth who participated in programs that included fishing were more likely to show environmentally responsible behavior due to the knowledge they gained in relation to the sport. In addition to improving the attitudes towards the environment, being outdoors is essential to the overall health of youth.
Methods: The UF/IFAS Brevard County Extension Service 4-H program partnered with the Backcountry Fly Fishing Association to develop a youth fly fishing program geared towards 12-18 year olds. Fly fishing has been around since the late 19th century in North America and requires practice and skill not usually necessary for other fishing methods. In fly fishing, the line rather than the lure is cast and this technique is one that, by design, needs to be practiced and is easier to learn if someone can guide and teach.
Results: Through collaboration with Backcountry, Brevard County 4-H created a basic Fly Fishing and Tying program. Through a combination of classroom teaching and hands-on outdoor activities, proper fly fishing techniques such as casting, knot and fly tying, and making flies, are taught. Youth also learn about the different species of fish they can catch on the fly, angling ethics, sportsmanship, the environment and natural resources.
Conclusions: Youth are confident in their fly fishing techniques and have learned about their environment while having fun, spending time with other youth, and developing relationships.
Partnerships for Successful Extension Programming: The Polk County Water School Model
S. McGee*, N. Walker*, Polk County
**Objectives:** Planning for significant programs at the county level often require extensive partnerships and shared funding. Water School’s objective is to share information with elected and informal community leaders regarding water issues and science-based information for informed public decision making. The objective of this abstract is to share planning and collaboration information garnered through planning Polk County Water School 2012.
**Methods:** Water School, through collaboration with state, multi-county/regional, and county partnerships is offered free of charge to all participants. As the result of collaborative planning and funding, participants can attend a multi-week seminar that includes two field tours and expert presentations.
**Results:** Water School’s planning committee consisted of members from nine community partners who dedicated eight months of their time to planning a wonderful course. In addition, Water School received funding from seven organizations and was able to feature seven webinars and two field tours. As a result of all this effort, Polk County Water School had 43 participants who attended at least five sessions necessary to graduate and reached a total of 75 individuals.
**Conclusions:** Lessons learned through this process can be applied to any extension program that can use its resources to fulfill community partners’ educational requirements. Polk County Water School is not new; however, the partnerships and collaborations developed in 2012 are a fantastic step forward to unleashing future extension potential.
---
Citizen Scientists Documenting Bay Scallop Trends in Southwest Florida
E.A. Staugler*, Charlotte County; J.E. Hazell, Lee County
**Objectives:** Once abundant in southwest Florida, bay scallop populations essentially disappeared decades ago. Improvements in water quality, increases in seagrass acreage, and efforts to stock scallops have led to hopes that bay scallops might return. In order to document the health and status of bay scallop population, citizen science initiatives are being carried out in SWFL Florida. These initiatives have been developed to educate citizens in fun meaningful ways, create bay scallop ambassadors, and identify areas within southwest Florida estuaries suitable for restoration projects.
**Methods:** Citizen scientists conduct adult bay scallop surveys after attending a pre-event training to learn scallop and seagrass identification and field survey and data collection procedures. Volunteers then board boats and proceed to pre-assigned grids to deploy transects and count scallops. Upon return to dock they turn in the gear and datasheets, fill out an evaluation and receive lunch and an event t-shirt. Adopt a scallop volunteers are trained onsite when they receive bay scallops. Monthly volunteers pull cages measure scallops and record data. Bay scallop volunteers also assist with other monitoring and restoration activities throughout the year.
**Results:** Over 300 citizens volunteer on Sea Grant led bay scallop projects annually. More than 60% of volunteers from 2009-2012 have obtained at least a 2 magnitude increase in understanding of bay scallop and seagrass heath as indicated through program evaluation.
**Conclusions:** Citizen Scientists provide an effective means of collecting quality scientific data. The results of these combined efforts have led to the release of bay scallop larvae into two SWFL estuaries in 2012.
Promoting Resiliency in Coastal Communities
L. Carnahan*, R. Madhosingh-Hector*
Objectives: Coastal communities are increasingly vulnerable to hurricanes, storm surge, and coastal flooding. This project will assess disaster preparedness of coastal communities, increase participant knowledge about community resiliency, and build capacity to successfully address community resiliency. Methods: Extension agents facilitated workshops for local community leaders utilizing the Coastal Resilience Index (CRI) low-cost self-assessment tool. The CRI, developed by Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant, gauges a community’s ability to recover after a disaster. The tool identifies vulnerabilities and strategies for critical facilities and infrastructure, transportation, mitigation, community and business plans, and social systems. This project is part of a larger effort to assess community resiliency in states that border the Gulf of Mexico. This project can easily be replicated throughout Florida, and is supported through a regional network of trained facilitators. Results: Extension agents facilitated CRI assessments for 4 governments in Pinellas County. Key staff in these departments participated in the process: emergency management & response, city planning, public works, and administration. Governments were ranked High, Medium, or Low for their ability to recover after a disaster in each category. Conclusions: Overall Pinellas County governments have worked hard to prepare themselves for disasters, as is reflected by CRI scores. All (100%) participants reported increased knowledge of subjects explored in tool. As a result of this process, participants (60%) plan to implement new preparedness strategies, as well as improve inter-departmental and external collaborations.
Panhandle Outdoors LIVE
C.T. Stevenson, L. Johnson, R. O’Connor*, Escambia County Extension; B. Saari, Okaloosa/Walton County Extension; W. Sheftall, Leon County Extension; M. Orwat*, Washington County Extension; C.M. Verlinde, Santa Rosa County Extension; L.S. Jackson, Bay County Extension; W. Mahan, Franklin County Extension; S. Dunning, Okaloosa County Extension; J. Ludlow, Calhoun County Extension
UF IFAS Natural Resource agents from northwest Florida developed “Panhandle Outdoors LIVE” (POL), a series of ten day-long ecological field trips to highlight the region’s biodiversity. The excursions incorporated the excitement of a guided ecotour (kayaking, hiking, snorkeling) with educational topics. Objectives: Annually, 50% (103/205) of adults participating in the ten Panhandle Outdoors LIVE field trips will demonstrate increased awareness or report positive behavior changes in the areas of ecology, plant and animal identification skills, water conservation, stormwater management, and healthy lifestyles as reported by surveys. Methods: Agents designed a flyer and eventbrite site to centralize information and registration, http://panhandleoutdoorslive2012.eventbrite.com/ along with the itinerary, curriculum, materials (including plant and wildlife field guides), maps and surveys for their tours. They led portions of their trip and partnered with landowners and government agency staff to guide tours, provide transportation, and deliver educational information, along with granting access to hard-to-reach locations. Results: In 2012, 205 participants from 11 Florida counties and five states participated in the POL programs. 11% of participants were new to IFAS Extension. Of 103 returned surveys, 100% gained new knowledge as a result of attending the trips. 57% (59) said they would incorporate behavior changes based on information learned during the POL trips, and many noted their skills in scientific observation and canoeing improved. Conclusions: Agents and partners involved reach new clientele in a creative way and many participants attended multiple trips, broadening understanding of ecosystems in the district.
Recreation and Watershed Education: Let’s Go Kayaking!
S. McGee*, Polk County; M. Carnevale, City of Winter Haven
Objectives: The objective of the watershed kayak tour program is an increase in Environmentally Responsible Behavior (ERB) as a result of the knowledge and awareness gained regarding the interconnectedness of Florida ecosystems. In addition, this program aims to increase the number of "1st time participants" of the Polk County natural resources extension project. Methods: The 2013 kayak tours will occur once a month (May - August) for 2-3 hours depending on location and topic area. Locations in the Peace River watershed that are compatible with group kayaking have been identified and reviewed by the Natural Resources Extension Agent and the City of Winter Haven's Natural Resources Division for environmental significance regarding aquatic vegetation, wildlife habitat, stormwater and urban impact, and development pressure. Currently, the kayak tours will visit two locations (Peace River and Lake Elbert); however, additional tour locations are being researched. Results: Results of the 2012 pilot program were successful; results included requests for additional tours from participants and a "letter to the editor" from an impressed citizen. Results for 2013's tours will be available by the end of August and will include preliminary results for the participant focus groups. The focus group questions are designed to develop understanding regarding motivations for participating in environmental education (EE) and the potential impact one-day EE can have on ERB. Conclusions: Pending the results of follow up research, one day kayak trips or other outdoor recreation may be a viable option for reaching new extension audiences. This model can be applied to any extension program area by focusing on the fun and bringing the fun!
Arbor Day: A Collaborative Educational Approach
E. Alvarez, UF/IFAS Extension Sarasota County
Sarasota County officials engaged Extension in a discussion regarding Arbor Day. County staff and Advisory Board members felt that traditional tree plantings did not achieve the goal of public awareness of proper tree care. UF/IFAS Extension Sarasota County partnered with the county and the International Society for Arboriculture (ISA) to deliver programs on tree management in urban landscapes. Objectives: Observe Arbor Day with education on tree care and promote tree care in a holistic way by delivering consistent messaging to the public and industry. Methods: A one-hour class for the public was taught by Sarasota County Extension faculty. A half-day lecture and demonstration workshop for industry professionals was taught by Sarasota County Extension faculty, the director of a local botanical garden, county arborists, and the president of Florida ISA. Professional CEUs were offered. Bound sets of pruning cue cards were printed for attendees. County Commissioners issued a proclamation to support tree education. Results: 66 attendees, including 27 city and county staff. 100% of attendees reported the classes as very useful, indicated an increase in knowledge level and a desire to attend future programs. Behavior change surveys will be conducted in three months. Significant positive feedback was received from attendees and county staff. Conclusions: Opportunities exist for training partnerships between Extension and government staff. A significant need exists for quality tree care programs for professionals. Better program promotion to the public is needed. The success of this program has resulted in plans to deliver similar programming on a regular basis, and to expand public outreach to improve participation.
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 7:50 | Moderator | Introductions & Procedures |
| 8:00 | G. Hinton | Safety Doesn’t Happen by Accident: Using Extension Programs to Prevent Vehicle-related Injury and Death |
| 8:20 | L. Spence, M. Gillen | Women and Money: Stepping Out on Solid Financial Ground |
| 8:40 | J. Corbus | Pressure Canning Basics 101 |
| 9:00 | E. Courtney, M. Gutter, R. McWilliams, B. O’Neill | Creating a Web-Based Financial Challenge |
| | M. McAlpine, J. Coreless, J. Cooper, N. Parks, J. Schrader, M. Thomas, A. Simonne | Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer Training Program: NE Florida Multi-County Approach |
| 9:40 | Break | |
| 10:00 | G. Hinton, V. Mullins | Collaborative Partnerships Improve Child Nutrition and Earn Statewide Recognition |
| 10:20 | L. Spence | Who Gets the Plate? Who Gets the Rod and Reel? |
| 10:40 | N. Gal, L. Bobroff, D. Diehl | Take Charge of Your Diabetes: A Diabetes Self-Management Program for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes in Marion County |
| 11:00 | D.C. Lee, A. Meharg | Expanding Small Business Opportunities through Education on Florida’s Cottage Food Legislation |
| 11:20 | A. Moore, N. Samuel | The Empower Ocala Garden Project: A Model for Hunger Alleviation and Program Parity |
| Time | Speaker(s)* | Abstract |
|-------|------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1:30 | A.L. Ford, N.J. Gal, W.J. Dahl | National Food and Nutrition Practices in Adult Care Homes |
| 1:50 | S. Swenson, G. Harrison | Successful Educational Programming at Wakulla County Food Pantries |
| 2:10 | A. Griffin, P. Peacock, A. Crossely | Sew Much Fun Day Camp |
| 2:30 | L. Johnson, E. Bolles, A. Hinkle, D. Lee | Therapeutic Gardening Experiences for Special Needs Youth Through Extension Programs |
| 2:50 | R.M. McWilliams | Weekend Food Security: Bridging the Monday thru Friday Gap |
| 3:10 | M. Brinkley, S. Swenson, K. Zamojski | Fabulous Foods: A Multi-County Back to the Basics Approach |
*For a complete list of authors see the full abstract.*
Safety Doesn’t Happen by Accident: Using Extension Programs to Prevent Vehicle-related Injury and Death
G. Hinton
Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of injury and death statewide for both children and adults. Lack of restraint use and misuse are critical issues in keeping children safe in cars. Reducing misuse through child passenger safety educates parents, saves lives, reduces injury potential and produces significant cost savings. **Objectives:** 1) Caregivers of children birth to 8 years will correct errors and demonstrate mastery of correct restraint installation procedures. 2) Local professionals will successfully complete child passenger safety technician (CPST) certification and offer services to caregivers. **Methods:** The Extension agent educated caregivers in child passenger safety through individual “curbside” sessions where caregivers learned best practices for how to correctly install their own child restraints. Car seats were provided for a donation which is used to fund FCS and child passenger safety activities. The agent served as lead instructor for 5 child passenger safety certification classes and helped local CPSTs with continued education in child passenger safety. The agent also serves as a resource for both caregivers and certified technicians (CPSTs). **Results:** In $2 \frac{1}{2}$ years, the agent inspected car seats of 130 caregivers, finding approximately a 90% misuse rate. After learning correct installation, the caregivers demonstrated mastery with their own vehicles and seats. A total of 44 individuals became nationally certified child passenger safety technicians (CPSTs), expanding services to caregivers in the Florida panhandle. **Conclusions:** Child passenger safety programs provide parents with education and resources to prevent injury or death to their most important passengers.
Women and Money: Stepping Out on Solid Financial Ground
L. Spence*, Marion County; M. Gillen*, Assistant Professor, Family, Youth and Community Sciences
Uniquely positioned, Extension has responded to the need for financial education in a women’s correctional institution. The changing roles and responsibilities of re-entering offenders presents a multitude of obstacles and opportunities. These concerns span the life-cycle, pervading incarceration and family transitions. This program provided ninety-one women with information and encouragement about being financially successful as they prepare to rejoin society, many for the first time as adults, having spent years or decades in prison. **Objectives:** Participants will 1.) learn about unique money issues facing women, 2.) identify and set financial goals, 3.) develop household spending plan, 4.) order and review at least one credit report. **Methods:** Participants met two hours per week for five weeks to learn about money communication and behaviors, financial goal setting, budgeting, and credit. To strengthen their skills and change behaviors that in the past may have rendered them insecure, ill-informed, indifferent, unaware, or unable to save, participants role played and completed worksheets in and outside of class. **Results:** Post evaluations indicated 1.) one hundred per cent learned about unique money issues facing women today, 2.) one hundred per cent identified and set financial goals, 3.) ninety-seven per cent developed household spending plans, and 4.) ninety-five per cent ordered at least one credit report. **Conclusions:** Participation in financial management educational programming increased participants’ confidence in their ability to be productive members of society, whereby strengthening self, family, and community.
Pressure Canning Basics 101
J. Corbus, Washington and Holmes Counties
The current economic climate, renewed interest in home gardening, and a desire to prepare an emergency food supply have sparked interest in learning home food preservation methods. Many adults have little or no experience using a pressure canner and are fearful of the apparatus exploding. To address these issues, Washington/Holmes Extension offers hands-on beginners pressure canning classes. **Objectives:** Annually, 50% of 30 persons who complete a beginners canning class will increase their knowledge of safe food preservation methods as indicated by increasing their test scores from pre to post by at least 30 percent. **Methods:** The FCS Agent and a Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer taught eight bi-monthly 4-hour beginners pressure canning classes to a total of 141 persons in Washington and Holmes Counties. Methods included a PowerPoint presentation, displays, and hands-on learning activities. Participants learned basic food safety and food preservation skills while preserving various vegetables using a pressure canner. **Results:** One hundred twenty-four of 141 persons completed both the pre and posttest with an average improvement of 53% in posttest scores over pretest scores; 109 planned to preserve low-acid foods during the next year; 35 were “somewhat confident,” 58 were “confident,” and 31 were “very confident” about using a pressure canner after completing the class. A follow-up survey will be administered to measure how many participants have pressure canned foods since completing the class. **Conclusions:** A thorough overview of the pressure canning process and hands-on experience in preparing jars for processing reduce fear, increase understanding of, and raise confidence in pressure canning foods safely.
Creating a Web-Based Financial Challenge
E. Courtney*, UF/IFAS Okaloosa Extension; M. Gutter, UF/FYCS; R. McWilliams*, UF/IFAS Walton Extension; B. O’Neill, Rutgers University
**Objectives:** 1) Develop and market an on-line five week “America Saves Financial Challenge;” 2) Motivate 100 individuals to take positive financial action to save, reduce debt, build wealth, and “start small, think big,” 3) $500,000 will be reached indirectly through marketing and media outreach. **Methods:** People like to know how they are doing compared to others and make progress toward their desired goals. The online financial challenge, the first of its kind, was developed to promote and track financial behaviors over a five-week period, patterned after the Small Steps to Health & Wealth Challenge. Online venue provided participants ability to see their progress and compare to others. Development and implementation was funded by a grant from America Saves. Individuals completed online registration and daily submission of positive financial actions completed (for point accumulation). Marketing was developed and used to promote the program using social media, etc. **Results:** 111 registered, with 49 completing financial actions. Each individual completed an average of 99 positive financial actions during the program. A survey was sent one week after program ended and was completed by 16: 75% reported Challenge experience was very positive & motivational; 66% saved $251 or more. **Conclusions:** An on-line financial challenge can promote positive results for participants and provide daily motivation to encourage traditional program clientele to adopt positive financial actions. Further development will increase participation and results.
Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer Training Program: NE Florida Multi-County Approach
M. McAlpine, Nassau; J. Coreless*, J. Schrader*, Clay; J. Cooper*, St. John’s; N. Parks*, M. Thomas*, Duval; L. Bobroff, K. Shelhutt, A. Simonne*, FYCS
Six Northeast Florida counties implemented a Multi-County Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer (MFNV) Training Program for selected individuals to assist with Extension Family and Consumer Sciences educational programs in nutrition, food safety, food preservation, and food preparation programs. **Objectives:** Volunteers will enhance Extension Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) programs while improving the health and well-being of Northeast Florida residents; gain knowledge and demonstrate understanding in nutrition, food safety, principles of food preparation and food preservation techniques. **Methods:** Twenty four individuals attended a nine-week series of classes, @ six hour each week. Pre and post-tests, post program evaluation and a ten minute presentation were used to assess knowledge gains and behavior changes. **Results:** All participants received a safe food handling certificate (SafeStaff®) and the title “Master Food and Nutrition Volunteer.” Average increase in knowledge gained was 22%, and 91% improved food safety practices and personal nutrition and physical activity. These MFNV have donated 123 hours to enhancing FCS programs to assist with 21 events reaching 1,390 individuals by judging canned and baked goods at county fairs (2 fairs; 400 people), developing and disseminating health and nutrition information at school and community health fairs (8 events; 800 people), and assisting with school enrichment programs (10 classes; 180 children) and one adult diabetes training program (10 people). At $18.66 per hour, these MFNV hours are valued at $2,295.18. **Conclusions:** The MFNV enhanced FCS Extension programs and improved the health and well-being of Northeast Florida residents.
Collaborative Partnerships Improve Child Nutrition and Earn Statewide Recognition
G. Hinton*, V. Mullins, Santa Rosa County
Santa Rosa County nutrition education is a joint project of UF/IFAS Extension Service, Sodexo School Food Service, the health department and school system. The agencies offer stand-alone programs and work together to build the scope and impact of nutrition education. The collaboration increases opportunities for county-wide impact and statewide recognition. **Objectives:** To increase student knowledge of good nutrition. To increase knowledge and encourage behavior change through family-based education. To create positive nutrition-focused environmental/policy change. **Methods:** UF/IFAS Extension and Sodexo coordinate to provide experiential, evidence-based nutrition education to elementary students in 14 schools and 4-H offers after-school nutrition education classes. Family education includes nutrition newsletters and parent-night events with interactive nutrition stations. Each partner agency works with the schools to implement policies that promote healthy lifestyles. Agencies share their efforts through the School Health Advisory Council to reinforce gains and avoid duplication. **Results:** Students showed increased knowledge on nutrition education post-tests. Parents reported knowledge gain and a majority indicated that they planned to begin making healthier food choices. Santa Rosa was recognized by the Florida Commissioner of Agriculture for having 14 schools out of 47 statewide to receive Healthy US Schools Challenge (HUSSC) awards. In 2012, Santa Rosa also became one of the first three counties to receive the Healthy School District Gold Award. **Conclusions:** Interagency partnerships facilitate the combination of resources, avoid duplication, and increase the scope and impact of nutrition education.
Who Gets the Plate? Who Gets the Rod and Reel?
L. Spence, Marion County
Passing on sentimental objects impacts relationships regardless of financial worth, heritage, cultural background, or age. *Who Gets the Plate, Who Gets the Rod and Reel?* informs participants about how to develop a plan to transfer non-titled property, whereby reducing stress associated with end of life issues. **Objectives:** Participants will 1.) Identify at least two sentimental objects and indicate to whom the items should transfer, 2.) Select distribution method(s) that fit their goals, 3.) Discuss the transfer process in advance. **Methods:** To raise awareness for end of life programming, applicant joined forces with a local hospice. Seven, ninety-minute programs were conducted throughout the area. 139 participants learned about the Florida Statute, matching sentimental objects with an intended recipient, identifying a rationale for the match, telling the story behind the object, how to select a distribution method to fit their goal, and different ways to broach the subject with loved ones. In class, participants completed “What Does Fair Mean to Me?” and “The Story Behind this Object” worksheets. **Results:** Post evaluations indicated 1.) one hundred per cent (n=139) of participants identified at least two sentimental objects and indicated to whom the items should transfer, 2.) Eighty-three per cent (n=115) selected distribution methods that fit their goals, and 3.) Seventy-seven per cent (n=107) intend to discuss the transfer process in advance. **Conclusions:** Objects of sentimental value provide continuity, bridge generations, and strengthen relationships. Individuals, families, and communities benefit from the stories about sentimental objects, as they represent a piece of living history.
Take Charge of Your Diabetes: A Diabetes Self-Management Program for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes in Marion County
N. Gal*, UF/IFAS Extension Marion County; L. Bobroff*, D. Diehl*, UF/IFAS Family, Youth and Community Sciences
Type 2 diabetes affects an estimated 26 million Americans. It contributes $245 billion to the nation’s health care bill. Diabetes self-management education (DSME) helps persons with diabetes make positive lifestyle choices that can reduce risk of debilitating health complications and improve quality of life. **Objectives:** Objectives were to: monitor blood glucose; take medications as directed; increase activity; plan appropriate meals; increase practice of American Diabetes Association Standards of Care; improve blood glucose control; and lower blood pressure. Target audience was adults with type 2 diabetes. **Methods:** Take Charge of Your Diabetes is a comprehensive, eleven session DSME program taught by the Agent with local health professionals. Teaching methods include: group discussion, hands-on-activities, home assignments. **Results:** In 2012, 51 participants learned to manage their diabetes by addressing medical issues, nutrition, self-care, and exercise. Evaluation was based on self-reports, and measurements of weight, blood pressure, and hemoglobin A1c levels, which indicate average blood glucose over time. Data were collected at baseline, end of program, and three-month follow-up. From pre-test to follow-up, participants engaged in more diabetes self-management behaviors in all areas; statistically significant increases in seven of nine practices. A1c scores and weight were significantly reduced. Economic impact based on cost savings for consumers relative to hospital programs, projected health care savings, and value of volunteer time indicates an economic benefit of over $135,000. **Conclusions:** Given increasing rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes, this is a timely program that meets a critical community need.
Expanding Small Business Opportunities through Education on Florida’s Cottage Food Legislation
D.C. Lee*, A. Meharg*, Escambia County Extension
The downturn in the economy left many people without jobs and little opportunity for career training. Florida’s Legislature changed state law in 2011 to allow individuals to manufacture certain goods in their homes without having a licensed. Escambia’s FCS and Small Farms Program teamed up to provide education on starting your own cottage food business.
**Objectives:** 1) To increase knowledge of the cottage food legislation and requirements for compliance, 2) To increase knowledge in food safety, food handling, and basic production/preservation practices, and 3) To increase use of basic business planning practices and marketing plans.
**Methods:** The team hosted five programs in 2011-12 with attendance of 200 people from a seven counties through in person and video conferencing instruction. The first programs focused on introduction to the new law. The next programs included: food preservation, marketing, and food safety.
**Results:** In 2011 and 2012, at least five businesses began operation after attending a program. Most attendees had been baking or canning for family, but indicated they now possessed the skills to expand to a food business. The local farmer’s market has expanded the number of cottage food vendors by 25%. 50% of participants were currently manufacturing goods for sale and considering expanding to include more items. 90% of participants indicated they increased their knowledge in the basics of the law and how to start an operation.
**Conclusions:** The program has been able to offer business opportunities to residents. Now the manufactured food business is open to anyone that can follow the guidelines. We hope to see continued growth over the next few years into licensed manufactured food businesses.
The Empower Ocala Garden Project: A Model for Hunger Alleviation and Program Parity
A. Moore*, Agricultural Education and Communication Department, University of Florida; N. Samuel*, Marion County Extension
Objectives: The Empower Ocala Garden project was created to increase parity of participation and serve residents of subsidized housing in the “food desert” surrounding the Marion County Extension office. The Ocala Housing Authority partnered with the project. Land was allotted at the office and 12 households given plots and plant materials. Bi-weekly trainings on gardening skills were conducted over a four month period. The project’s impact was assessed by measuring participants’ knowledge and attitude changes of gardening and vegetable consumption. Methods: Participants completed a pre-test post-test questionnaire before and after the four-month period. Each question was ranked from one (low) to five (high) to assess four attitudinal and nine knowledge indicators. Changes between pre- and post-test means and percent change were calculated to show program impact for each indicator. Results: Positive changes in attitude were found. Attitudes on gardening increased by 14.6%, growing a garden by 7.8%, growing a home garden by 12.5%, and eating garden vegetables at home by 10.0%. Knowledge scores also showed positive changes. Overall knowledge increased by 15.5%. Among specific indicators, knowledge of preparing garden soil improved by 29.4%, composting by 20.3%, planting vegetables by 17.3%, and maintaining gardens by 22.2%. Conclusions: The Empower Ocala Garden project produced changes in attitudes on vegetable gardening and increased participants’ gardening knowledge. These results can elicit behavior changes such as home gardening and increased vegetable consumption while potentially increasing participation in extension programs by this audience, thereby meeting the project’s long-term objectives.
National Food and Nutrition Practices in Adult Care Homes
A.L. Ford*, W.J. Dahl, Food Science and Human Nutrition Department; N.J. Gal*, Marion County Extension
Objectives: To determine the food and nutrition practices, and education needs of adult care homes (home-like settings for individuals needing long-term care) as a baseline for developing extension programming to improve the nutritional well-being of frail older adults. Methods: Contact information for adult care homes was obtained from the certifying/licensing agency’s website from each state. A national survey was carried out targeting individuals responsible for menu planning and food preparation. The 29-item survey, through telephone interview, included questions on food and nutrition education, supplement use and menu planning. Results: Response rate was 46% (n=501), with 51% being owners of the facility. Most homes using menus did not have a RD involved in creating/evaluating it and infrequent use of supplements was reported. Food safety education was received by 67% of homes, meal planning (60%), texture-modified food preparation (51%), special diets (69%), however 19% received no food and nutrition education in the past 2 years. A strong need was indicated for education on special diets (74%), meal planning (64%), preparation (57%), and the nutritional needs of the elderly (69%). The major barrier identified by respondents was lack of time for education, specifically onsite education. Conclusions: There is a significant need for food and nutrition education in the nation’s adult care homes. Extension programming to meet this educational need may result in improved nutritional well-being of frail older adults and individuals needing texture-modified diets in care.
Successful Educational Programming at Wakulla County Food Pantries
S. Swenson*, G. Harrison, Wakulla County
Objectives: To provide those who frequent the Wakulla County food pantries the opportunity to learn how to utilize gardening to provide healthy food during times of struggling with economic challenges. Methods: The Container Gardening/Cooking series was a multi-agent series involving the Extension Agriculture and the Family and Consumer Sciences Agents. The series was piloted at one site to evaluate its effectiveness. Each class included an educational session on how to plant two of six vegetables through a container or hydroponic method and a review of healthy eating practices. Each participant planted two vegetables per class reflective of the presentation. The participants then dined on several dishes featuring the items planted. Reusable dishes and napkins were utilized to encourage the saving of both money and nonrenewable resources. Participants discussed how their future behavior would change based on the experience. Results: Seventeen participants increased their knowledge about gardening, sustainability, and nutrition. The participants have asked for a continuation of the series to include fall gardening practices and nutrition. Through the sharing of expertise between Agents, a better-rounded curriculum was provided. Community-building between an often unreached Extension clientele and Extension Agents resulted. Conclusions: Increasing the gardening practices of those who are experiencing economic challenges is an excellent example of teaching a person a skill instead of only providing an end product. This multi-Agent project provided such a venue.
Sew Much Fun Day Camp
A. Griffin*, Jackson County Extension; P. Peacock; A. Crossely
Objectives: 4-H Initiative 7: Preparing youth to be responsible citizens and productive members of the workforce. Annually, 90% percent of all youth participating in “Sew Much Fun” day camp will develop life skills in managing - wise use of resources and self-discipline and commitment to finish projects as a result of workshops, day camps, competitive events and project curricula measured through pre/post-tests, project reports, and skill-a-thon scores. Methods: The FCS Agent, 4-H Program Assistant, and 1 volunteer taught 15 youth basic sewing skills, how to operate a sewing machine, using resources and created 3 sewing projects during “Sew Much Fun” Day Camp (3 all day sessions, 15 youth). Teaching the youth to sew their own items helps them learn to use resources that they already have on hand such as towels for swimsuit wraps or old jeans for bags. Youth learn that not everything has to be bought from a retail store which could save money. Results: 15 (100%) of 15 youth, surveyed after participating in the “Sew Much Fun” day camp shared in their surveys that participation in 4-H programs helped them learn about sewing and sewing machine safety. One child indicated she planned on asking her mom for a sewing machine of her own. Another child said she was going to ask her mom if she could use her mom’s sewing machine to make items at home. Conclusions: Youth are better equipped with life skills required to manage and use resources they have available to them. The accomplishment that youth feel from creating something functional leads to an increase in self-discipline to complete projects.
Therapeutic Gardening Experiences for Special Needs Youth Through Extension Programs
L. Johnson*, E. Bolles*, A. Hinkle, D. Lee, Escambia County Extension
**Objectives:** Therapeutic gardening experiences were used by Extension Agents to strengthen specific motor skills, enhance communication and listening skills, reinforce academic knowledge, and improve interactive social skills of youth with physical and cognitive disabilities.
**Methods:** Two teaching strategies were implemented by Extension Agents to reach individual students and small groups under the guidance of trained therapists. The first was weekly ‘On the Job’ semester sessions that focused on job training skills such as following directions, professionalism, teamwork, and positivity. Youth learned concepts through gardening experiences of planting, weeding, mulching, composting, and other garden maintenance tasks. Activities occurred in a specialized outdoor garden designed for special needs persons. The second teaching strategy involved interactive subject matter classes for small groups to reinforce classroom lessons of plant science, genetics, earth science, energy, and geography. Classes include discussions and hands-on experiences. Each class ended with a healthy lifestyle or nutrition lesson.
**Results:** Twelve interns completed the semester long ‘On the Job’ training and information from school therapists indicated that the students met or exceeded skills needed in preparation for after high school community involvement. Five students now have community jobs. Eighteen interactive classroom sessions reached 83 youth. Teacher inputs indicated that knowledge and awareness of students was both improved and reinforced following lessons.
**Conclusions:** Cooperative efforts with trained therapists have allowed Extension to develop and teach successful gardening programs for special needs youth.
---
Weekend Food Security: Bridging the Monday thru Friday Gap
R.M. McWilliams, Walton County Extension
Currently, 1 in 6 children are living in food-insecure homes. Food insecurity/hunger can account for developmental risks and poor academic performance. Schools provide a means of obtaining food while in session but those children living in food-insecure homes may not have access to food when not in session. ‘Backpack Buddies’ at Paxton was started to reduce the effects of childhood hunger by providing food over the weekend to children in food-insecure homes in rural Paxton and surrounding areas.
**Objectives:** Implementing Backpack Buddies will bridge the gap between Friday and Monday when food may not be available, and thereby provide some food security for the participants.
**Methods:** Teachers identified children that were not eating on the weekend. Extension used several sources of media to raise awareness of food insecurity in the community. Through community support food, monies and backpacks were donated to start the program. Backpacks were packed with donated foods and nutritional education.
**Results:** As community awareness rose creative partnerships were formed securing funds so area food bank could provide packaged foods, no longer relying on food donations to support the program. Post evaluation results: 83% of teachers value program as good/excellent; 100% of teachers reported improved behavior in the classroom and improved grades.
**Conclusions:** This program can be adapted for use in different food insecurity situations across extension. Through extension education and community partnerships food security can be increased for school-aged children as well as provide an outlet for nutrition education to families. It is necessary to continue partnership with food bank to improve nutritional values of food packed.
Fabulous Foods: A Multi-County Back to the Basics Approach
M. Brinkley*, Liberty County; S. Swenson*, Wakulla County; K. Zamojski*, Leon County
Objectives: To provide a series of Back to the Basics food and nutrition classes meeting the needs identified in the Strategic Planning Listening Sessions. To provide hands-on learning opportunities teaching basic cooking skills, nutrition, food safety and sustainability. Methods: Fabulous foods is a multi-county series of cooking classes. The topic changes each month and is offered in each of the three counties. Each class is designed to include a nutrition and food safety lesson, a sustainability message and a hands-on opportunity for participants to practice and learn new cooking skills. Participants get to taste the fruits of their labor and discuss the new skills they have learned. Results: One hundred and sixty five participants increased their knowledge of nutrition and food safety. Participants gained awareness about how to incorporate sustainable practices into their daily life. Community-building among county citizens resulted from sharing the experiences of preparing and sharing a meal. Conclusions: Listening sessions indicated a need for people to learn basic cooking skills. This multi-county project responded to the need. Hands-on cooking classes are an effective method for attracting audiences and teaching people nutrition, food safety and sustainability skills. Based on the response, another series is planned for fall of 2003 with two additional agents participating.
NOTES
Members of the Extension Professional Associations of Florida are encouraged to prepare program abstracts for 2014. Abstracts are ranked for selection based on a scoring system that emphasizes objectives and measurable results. The **abstract title** should briefly identify the subject and indicate the purpose of the program. The abstract should be a brief, factual summary of the content of the program and should include:
- **objectives** of the educational effort/program
- **methods used**
- **the results**
- **conclusions** or interpretation of the program’s significance
- the body should not exceed 250 words.
**CONTENT**
Abstracts should describe a creative method implemented or an innovative subject researched by the author(s) as part of an Extension program.
**ENTRIES FOR 2014**
The Call for Abstracts is made by electronic mail in April or May. Format and entry instructions will be specified then.
*Prepare now for the 2014 annual meetings!* | 154fe9fe-c9ee-409b-8f8f-372fe69706ef | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://extadmin.ifas.ufl.edu/media/extadminifasufledu/epaf/docs/pdfs/abstracts/2013AbstractBookFINAL.pdf | 2022-10-05T22:46:28+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030337668.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20221005203530-20221005233530-00137.warc.gz | 273,965,294 | 43,071 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.943511 | eng_Latn | 0.992298 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"... | true | rolmOCR | [
630,
2316,
3518,
3548,
4865,
5622,
8788,
11099,
14845,
18634,
22409,
26435,
29903,
33750,
37463,
41213,
42849,
47252,
51263,
53634,
55089,
57230,
58244,
62090,
65870,
69381,
73227,
76884,
80647,
84221,
87829,
90526,
91786,
93951,
95827,
98122,
... | [
1.1171875,
3.125
] | 1 | 0 |
The element carbon is one of the most basic building blocks of life on earth. It is found almost everywhere—in plants, animals, pencils, diamonds, soil, and even soda pop. Carbon is able to easily bind with other atoms to form different chemical compounds; this is why carbon exists in so many forms. Carbon can dissolve in water, form chains of atoms to create sugars, and form solid materials like coal and limestone. Carbon in living things can be released through respiration, consumed as food, or transformed into fossil fuels over millions of years. In the atmosphere, carbon exists mainly as carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is called a greenhouse gas because it can trap some of the sun’s heat in the atmosphere. Without carbon dioxide’s natural ability to trap heat in the atmosphere, life as we know it could not exist.
Carbon on Earth is found in the atmosphere, soil and rocks (the lithosphere), water (the hydrosphere), and in living organisms (the biosphere). The activities of living organisms, volcanoes, weather, and many other processes can cause carbon atoms to move from one place to another. This pattern of movement is called the carbon cycle.
Burning fossil fuels breaks the bonds that hold carbon atoms together inside those fuels, and carbon is released into the atmosphere. Scientists have found that the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere has increased nearly 35% since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Methane, another compound that contains carbon, has increased by 150%. Earth’s average global temperature has also increased by more than one degree Fahrenheit over this time period. This sounds like a small increase, but it is enough to cause major changes to earth’s climate and ecosystems. Most climate scientists agree that earth’s rising temperature is largely due to the increase in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere resulting from burning fossil fuels.
**How It Works**
This activity is a way to compare the carbon cycle before the industrial revolution with the carbon cycle after humans began burning large quantities of fossil fuels. This is a great way to communicate important ideas about climate science and the carbon cycle.
**How to Do It**
1. Read through all of these steps before you start! Make a copy of the Record on page 48 for each Player. Photocopy pages 43 - 47 onto card stock for the cubes. Make the Game Cubes by cutting two pieces for each Cube from the photocopies of pages 43 – 47. Fold and assemble the pieces to form the Cubes as shown in Figure 1. Tape all of the edges where part A joins part B.
2. Each Player will begin at one station as chosen by the Player or Game Leader. There can be more than one Player at each station. The Game Leader places one of the cubes and one of the plastic containers at each station, then puts the green beads in the container at the Biosphere station, the blue beads in the container at the Hydrosphere station, the clear beads in the container at the Atmosphere station, and the black beads in the container at the Lithosphere station.
3. The Game Leader gives one pipe cleaner and one Game Record to each Player. Have the Player twist a knot or small loop onto one end of the pipe cleaner, and write the name of their starting station on the Game Record.
4. The Game Leader tells the Players they will represent carbon atoms in the carbon cycle. They will travel around the Earth following the journey of a carbon atom in the pre-industrial world – before we began burning lots of fossil fuels.
5. When the Game Leader says, “Go!” each Player places one bead from their station on the pipe cleaner.
6. Each Player rolls the cube at their station to find out where to go next. The Player then moves to the station shown on the cube, and records the name of the new station on the Game Record. If the cube says, “STAY”, the Player goes to the back of the line for that station and waits to roll the cube again. While they are waiting to roll the cube, they should take another bead from the station and put it on their pipe cleaner.
7. Each time the Player moves to another station, they do the same thing: Take a bead, roll the cube, and move to the next station (or go to the end of the line and repeat), and record the name of the next station on the Game Record.
8. Players move from station to station for at least 10 minutes or long enough for Players to begin stacking up in the lithosphere line. This may take up to 15 minutes.
9. When most Players have visited the lithosphere several times, the Game Leader says, “Stop.” Wherever Players are in line, they should take a bead from that line without rolling the cube and then sit down. This is the end of round one.
10. Ask the Players what color beads they have on their pipe cleaner and what happened to them during their trip. Did they see any patterns? For instance did they stay at any place more than once? Did anyone go back and forth between two stations (for example, biosphere and atmosphere)? What may explain this? Instruct Players to make a bracelet out of their pipe cleaner by twisting the end through the loop on the other end.
**Game Leader Tip:**
After round one, many Players will have a high portion of black beads on their pipe cleaners. This represents coal, natural gas, oil—all carbon molecules in the lithosphere. Deposits of carbon have accumulated over time from the remains of plants and animals. Over millions of years, these deposits have become transformed into fossil fuels.
11. The Game Leader exchanges the Pre-industrial Lithosphere (L1) cube for the Post-Industrial Lithosphere cube (L2).
12. The Game Leader gives each Player a new pipe cleaner, and says that they are moving into the Industrial Age. This is the beginning of Round 2. Players should twist a loop into the end of the pipe cleaner before proceeding.
13. Have Players pick a station at which to begin their journey.
14. Again, Players pick up a bead from their station and roll the cube. They will move from station to station again for at least 10 minutes or long enough for Players to begin stacking up in the atmosphere line. This may take up to 15 minutes. Each time the Players change stations, they should record the name of the station on the Game Record.
15. When most Players have visited the atmosphere several times, stop round 2. Wherever Players are in line, they should take a bead from that line without rolling the cube and then sit down.
Ask the Players what kinds of beads they have on their pipe cleaner and what happened to them in their trip/journey. How did this second round compare with their first journey through the carbon cycle? Did anyone find himself or herself “stuck” in one place? What may explain this?
**Game Leader Tip:**
Although the amount of carbon in the atmosphere has increased significantly over the last 150 years, it’s important to emphasize that the amount of carbon on the earth has not changed. Carbon has simply moved from one place to another.
Although you cannot predict exactly what combinations of beads the Players will put on their pipe cleaners, you can be fairly certain that after the second round, more of the beads will be from the atmosphere. This represents the build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that is a direct result of the burning of fossil fuels.
If lines at a station get really long, this activity works best if Players take their beads before they arrive at the cube. If you have volunteers, station them along the longest lines of Players and have them distribute the beads while the Players wait their turn to roll the cube. It may also help to have two cubes for each station to minimize the wait time.
**Want To Do More?**
Players may create a storyboard, poster, or cartoon about their journeys through the carbon cycle. Players may research and record the processes involved in getting them from one place to the next in the carbon cycle. Did they notice any patterns in the beads on the pipe cleaners? For example, an alternating green-clear bead pattern could represent the cycling of carbon between plants and the atmosphere.
Players may graph the numbers of visits for each of the four spheres in the pre-industrial and post-industrial cycles, and create a master graph that incorporates the data from everyone’s journeys in the pre-industrial and postindustrial cycles.
For an animated description of the carbon cycle, go to [http://epa.gov/climatechange/kids/basics/today/carbon-dioxide.html](http://epa.gov/climatechange/kids/basics/today/carbon-dioxide.html).
For more information, contact Roberta M. Burnes (email@example.com), Environmental Education Specialist, Kentucky Division for Air Quality, Frankfort, KY
Human activities have changed the way that carbon is distributed in Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Discover Your Changing World with NOAA
Biosphere cube
Fire releases carbon dioxide
Go to Atmosphere
Carbon is used by plants and animals in the cells.
STAY
Biosphere
Carbon enters the soil when plants and animals die.
Go to Lithosphere
Cut along dotted lines
Biosphere
Fire releases carbon dioxide
Go to Atmosphere
Biosphere
Carbon enters the soil when plants and animals die.
Go to Lithosphere
Biosphere
Fire releases carbon dioxide
Go to Atmosphere
Human activities have changed the way that carbon is distributed in Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Pre-industrial Lithosphere cube 1
Carbon remains in the soil as organic matter and in sediments containing fossil fuels.
STAY
Pre-Industrial Lithosphere
Cut along dotted lines
Pre-Industrial Lithosphere
Decomposition, soil microbes, & volcanic eruptions release carbon dioxide.
Go to Atmosphere
STAY
Pre-Industrial Lithosphere
Carbon remains in the soil as organic matter and in sediments containing fossil fuels.
STAY
Pre-Industrial Lithosphere
Carbon remains in the soil as organic matter and in sediments containing fossil fuels.
STAY
Pre-Industrial Lithosphere
Carbon remains in the soil as organic matter and in sediments containing fossil fuels.
Human activities have changed the way that carbon is distributed in Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Incredible Carbon Journey Game Record
Record your journey through the carbon cycle on this page. Beginning at one end of your pipe cleaner, write the “sphere” you visited for each bead on the pipe cleaner.
Green beads = Biosphere
Blue beads = Hydrosphere
Clear beads = Atmosphere
Black beads = Lithosphere
| Round 1 | Round 2 |
|---------|---------|
| 1. | 1. |
| 2. | 2. |
| 3. | 3. |
| 4. | 4. |
| 5. | 5. |
| 6. | 6. |
| 7. | 7. |
| 8. | 8. |
| 9. | 9. |
| 10. | 10. |
| 11. | 11. |
| 12. | 12. |
| 13. | 13. |
| 14. | 14. |
| 15. | 15. |
| 16. | 16. |
| 17. | 17. |
| 18. | 18. |
| 19. | 19. |
| 20. | 20. |
| 21. | 21. |
| 22. | 22. | | f122dfd6-e3ba-4b22-ab1c-35113b865fe6 | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.fergusonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Incredible-Carbon-Journey.pdf | 2022-05-24T11:32:33+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662572800.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20220524110236-20220524140236-00222.warc.gz | 857,216,971 | 2,463 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.976376 | eng_Latn | 0.997867 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2620,
4503,
8755,
8885,
9355,
9485,
10154,
10284,
11125
] | [
4.3125
] | 2 | 1 |
INFRASTRUCTURE
30 Class Rooms | Science Lab | Spacious Library | Math Lab | Robotic Lab | Audio Visual & Smart Classes | Computer Lab | Art & Craft Studio | Indoor Activity Hall | 3 Storied Boys Hostel | 2 Storied New Boys Hostel | 3 Storied Girls Hostel | 2 storied New Girls Hostel Staff Quarters | Skating Rink | Swimming Pool | Play Grounds | Cricket Ground | Basketball Court | Football Ground | Volleyball court | Badminton Court | Athletic Ground | Hockey Ground | Tennis Court | Principal’s Residence Dining Hall with a capacity of 350 Students | Mineral Water Plant | Indoor Auditorium | Sports Room | Dance Studio | Staff Quarters | Music studio
HEALTHCARE
The School has residential medical assistants. A Doctor visits the School once a week. In case of emergency, students are taken to Healing Touch Hospital, Secunderabad.
YOGA & MEDITATION
It is obligatory for all the children to participate in morning prayer and meditation every day. The practice of Yoga is mandatory for all the children.
HOSTEL
All the students have to live in the hostels on the campus. Separate ventilated dormitories with lockers and common washrooms are provided. Hot water facility through solar water heating system is provided. The resident teachers, apart from matrons and wardens, are assigned the task of taking care of the students living in the hostels. There is 24*7 power backup on campus.
CHILD CENTRIC VALUE BASED EDUCATION
▶ 25 acre spacious campus
▶ Limited Strength - 30 per class
▶ Highly Qualified & Experienced Teachers
▶ Use of Information Technology (Multimedia, Internet)
▶ Abacus Classes
▶ Innovative Teaching Methods
▶ Participative Learning
▶ NTSE, Olympiad, NCSC, NGC, INSPIRE, NCC
▶ Career Counseling and guidance
▶ Focus on Creativity & Communication Skills (regular competitions in drawing, painting, essay writing, debate and quiz)
▶ Special Coaching for Co-curricular Activities
▶ Professional Coaching for Sports & Games
▶ Playgrounds as per National Standards
▶ Excellent Hostels for Boys & Girls
▶ Highly Hygienic, Nutritious and Tasty Food
LOCATION MAP
FOR ANY FURTHER INFORMATION AND GUIDELINES, KINDLY FEEL FREE TO CONTACT THE SCHOOL OFFICE
Shantiniketan Vidyalaya™
AN INSTITUTION OF KPR EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY
Chanakyapuri, Shamirpet, Hyderabad-500 078,
M: 09573346656, 08885531565
Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
website: www.shantiniketan.net
Shantiniketan Vidyalaya is a CBSE Co-educational English medium, residential school. The school has been established to impart quality education and develop a comprehensive personality in the children. The purpose of education is the development of a totally integrated personality with positive, creative and responsive qualities. We follow the principle of Swami Vivekananda as quoted “We want the education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet”. Our intention will always be to translate Swami Vivekananda's vision into reality.
**CURRICULUM**
The school offers the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) curriculum which will enable the child to stand up to the demands of the increasingly competitive world of tomorrow. Integrated coaching in Science & Math which also covers the State Board curriculum is carried out in Grades VIII – X. Teaching at the school is not a routine activity. Instead, the best possible teaching methods (activity oriented) and advanced technological aids are used to create and sustain the interest of students. The curriculum and methodology enable students to achieve quality in thinking, perspective and analysis. The three R's taught to the students are not only reading, writing and 'rithmetic. In Shantiniketan, the three R's also stand for Respect for Elders, Renewal of Faith in oneself and Rejuvenation of Childhood.
**LIBRARY**
The library is the nerve center of any educational institution and more so in a residential school. The library has a rich collection of books, audio & video material on various subjects. The best possible journals and magazines are made available in the library. The teachers guide and motivate the students to develop reading habit. We make sure children reflect views on the book taken from library. We have an online school library.
**LABS**
The school has a computer, arts, robotic and science lab managed by experts for the school students. The computer centre provides necessary computer training to the students in various subjects. Computers are used as one of the teaching devices to sharpen the knowledge of the students. And a specially designed art & Craft lab to help students in creative learning. Robotic lab helps the students in the futuristic learning. Science lab helps students in practical learning and allows them to think beyond with the help of subject matter experts.
**EDUCATIONAL TOURS**
The school organizes educational tours to the places of importance. The students have been taken to Karnataka, Visakhapatnam, Kulu Manali, Dehradun, Shimla, Gantok, New Delhi, Rajasthan and Kerala. Local trips have also been organized to places like Ocean Park, Mount Opera, Ramoji Film City, Nagarjuna Sagar, Wonderla and Saraswati Temple at Basara. Student reports on the tours are often published in the Newspapers. Educational tour provides enough exposure to the students.
**CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND SPORTS**
Today the School has won several prizes in Inter School competitions in National level especially in Group Dance, Karate (Martial Arts) Yoga, Essay writing, Flower arrangement, Singing, Skating, Swimming. Inter House competitions are conducted in Dance, Music, Elocution, Science Exhibition, Recitation, Quiz, Rangoli, Volleyball, Basket Ball, Football, Cricket, Cross country, Athletics etc. Our children participated in national and state level competitions who also won many medals. | <urn:uuid:39012093-c89c-4075-a3e9-7587123011b8> | CC-MAIN-2019-13 | http://www.shantiniketan.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/broucher.pdf | 2019-03-22T06:53:15Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912202635.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20190322054710-20190322080710-00420.warc.gz | 355,503,534 | 1,282 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.974213 | eng_Latn | 0.992602 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2382,
5886
] | [
2.109375
] | 1 | 0 |
Adam’s Toy
Author: Iman Hamdy
Illustrator: Husam Hasan
Fortunately, today’s sharing time was about adventures. Everyone talked about their adventures except Adam.
Unfortunately, Adam’s life lacked adventure, so he didn’t say a word.
Fortunately, class ended and Adam went back home.
Unfortunately, Adam felt sad as he sat alone. He wished he had an adventurous life like his friends.
Fortunately, Adam had a big imagination, so he pretended to go on lots of adventures.
Unfortunately, Adam was tired of imaginary adventures and so he took out all the money in his piggy bank and off he went to the toy store.
Fortunately, Adam found a new toy that he liked and he also found some bright helium balloons. He asked the storekeeper to tie the balloons to the toy.
Unfortunately, Adam tripped as he left the toy store and fell down. The helium balloons flew away with the toy.
Fortunately, one of his friends was riding by on his bicycle so Adam borrowed it and followed his toy as fast as he could go.
Unfortunately, one of the tires on the bicycle went flat.
Fortunately, Adam’s grandpa was driving by in his old car. Adam pointed up at his toy and jumped in the car as Grandpa followed the toy.
Unfortunately, Grandpa’s car ran out of gas and Adam was sad again.
Fortunately, a bus was going by and Adam jumped on without a second thought.
Unfortunately, the driver asked Adam for the fare. Adam didn’t have any money as he had spent it all in the toy store. So the driver asked him to get off the bus.
Fortunately, Adam heard the “chuga chuga choo!” of a train, so he ran after it and jumped into the last car.
Unfortunately, the train suddenly stopped because of a problem with the brakes.
Fortunately, Adam looked around and saw a fisherman on a sailboat. After Adam explained the situation, he finally agreed to help Adam get his toy back.
Unfortunately, a terrible wind blew away the sails of the boat and Adam had to put on a life jacket and jump into the sea.
Fortunately, a ship showed up. Adam waved to the ship and it rescued him.
Unfortunately, the ship sailed in the opposite direction and he could not follow his toy.
Fortunately, he saw a hot air balloon on the deck so he snuck into it and filled it with hot air. Then he flew into the sky. Adam saw his toy and reached out to grab it.
Unfortunately, a plane passed by and caught the balloon strings and flew up and away.
Unfortunately, he went back home without a new toy but...
Fortunately, Adam did come back with a wonderful adventure. At the next sharing time, his friends asked him about his adventures and what he learned from them.
It was then that he answered, “I’ll never tie helium balloons to a toy again!”
THE END | 79f10099-74f7-4fe3-98c9-90650dc344a3 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://data.booksie.org/3asafeer/1367.pdf | 2020-10-23T01:53:04+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107880519.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20201023014545-20201023044545-00295.warc.gz | 282,607,863 | 588 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998675 | eng_Latn | 0.999449 | [
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",... | true | rolmOCR | [
55,
164,
235,
286,
388,
475,
615,
768,
881,
1008,
1067,
1205,
1274,
1352,
1516,
1626,
1707,
1860,
1984,
2059,
2150,
2321,
2408,
2467,
2628,
2708,
2717
] | [
3.375
] | 2 | 0 |
The operations performed in the field after sowing but before harvesting the crop are called as intercultural operations.
Interculturing is described as breaking the upper surface of soil, uprooting the weeds (unwanted plants), aerating the soil, thereby promoting the activities of microorganism and making good mulch, so that moisture inside the field is properly retained from evaporation. These operations are accomplished by means of many tools and equipments, such as hoes, cultivators, harrows, rotary hoes etc. HAND HOE
Hand hoe is the most popular manually operated weeding tool use in the farm. It consists of an iron blade and a wooden handle. The operator holds the handle and cuts the soil with the blade to a shallow depth of 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut and soil is stirred. The handle is short (30-40cm long) hence the operator uses the tool in bending posture. The coverage is 5-7 cents per day. Hand hoe
HOE COME RAKE The hoe cum rake is multipurpose hand tool, which consists of a flat blade on one side like powrah and prongs on the other side. The blade and prongs are either made from single stock with an eye in the centre or joined to an eye by welding. A wooden handle is fitted to the eye for operation. The flat blade is used for digging and rake side for weeding and collection of weeds and trashes. The hoe cum rake is a secondary nursery bed preparation tool and is used for lighter operations. The flat end of the tool is operated with impact action and rake end by Hoe cum rake
LONG HANDLE WEEDERS Hand hoes exert greater strain on the operator because of the short handle with necessitates the operator to do weeding job in bent posture. To avoid this nowadays long handles are used in hoes and hence they are called as long handle weeders. The popular long handle weeders available are a) star type weeder b) peg type weeder. These weeders are also called as dry land weeders since they are used in dry lands
a) Star type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-15 %). One limitation is that it works well in line sown crops and not in broadcasted fields. It consists of a blade for cutting the weeds, a fulcrum wheel for push-pull movement and a long handle for easy operation. Long handle reduces strain on the operator. The radial arms of the fulcrum wheel is cut in to star like projections and hence the name star type weeder. Star wheel is designed for loamy soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
b) Peg type weeder: It is suitable for weeding in dry lands. It can be used in garden lands also when the soil moisture is low (10-15 %). One limitation is that it works well in line sown crops and not in broadcasted fields. It consists of a blade for cutting the weeds, a fulcrum wheel for push-pull movement and a long handle for easy operation. Long handle reduces strain on the operator. There are pegs welded on the periphery of the wheel hence the name peg type weeder. Peg type wheel is designed for clayey soils. The operating width of the blade is 120 mm. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day. Both star type and peg type weeders are also called as dry land weeders.
c) Wheel hoe The wheel hoe is a widely accepted weeding tool for weeding and intercultural in row crops. It is a long handled tool operated by pushes and pull action. The general construction of wheel hoe comprises of a wheel, tool frame, a set of replaceable tools and a handle. Different types of soil
working tools such as straight blade, V-blade, sweep, shovel, etc. can be used for different works namely weeding, soil mulching, stirring, etc. Long handle reduces drudgery to operator. Wheel reduces energy requirement for pushing. All the soil working components of the tool are made from medium carbon steel. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
d) Cono weeder
Cono weeder is useful for uprooting and burying weeds in line planted rice fields in wetlands. It disturbs the topsoil and increases aeration. This facilitates better growing environment to the crop. The weeder consists of a long handle, two numbers of truncated conical rollers, and a float. The rollers are fitted at the bottom of the handle in opposite direction one behind other. The conical rollers have serrated blades on the periphery. When the weeder is operated in between two rows of standing crop, the rollers uproot the weeds and bury them. Cono weeder operation triggers root growth. The float prevents the unit from sinking into the soil. Soil should be moist and little firm at the time of using the weeder. The coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
CULTIVATORS
It is an implement for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or discs to work between crop rows. This can be used for seed bed preparation and for sowing with seeding attachment. The times may have provision for vertical adjustments also. The cultivator can be
1) Disc cultivator,
2) Rotary cultivator,
3) Tine cultivator.
Disc cultivator
It is a cultivator fitted with discs.
Rotary cultivator
It is a cultivator with tines or blades mounted on a power-driven horizontal shaft.
Tine cultivator
It is a cultivator fitted with tines having shovels.
The cultivator stirs the soil, and breaks the clods. The tines fitted on the frame of the cultivator comb the soil deeply in the field. A cultivator performs functions intermediate between those of plough and the harrow. Destruction of weeds is the primary function of a cultivator.
The following are a few important functions performed by a cultivator.
1. Destroy the weeds in the field.
2. Aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
3. Conserve moisture by preparing mulch on the surface.
4. To sow seeds when it is provided with sowing attachments.
5. To prevent surface evaporation and encourage rapid infiltration of rain water into the soil.
Depending upon the type of power available for the implement, the cultivator can be classified as
1) Tractor drawn,
2) Animal drawn.
Tractor Drawn Cultivator
It may be
1) Trailed type
2) Mounted type.
Trailed type cultivator
It consists of a main frame which carries a number of cross members to which tines are fitted. At the forward end of the cultivator, there is a hitch arrangement for hitching purpose. A pair of wheels are provided in the cultivator. The life is operated by both wheels simultaneously so that draft remains even and uniform. The height of the hitch is adjusted so that the main frame remains horizontal over a range of depth setting. The tines in each row are spaced widely to allow free passage of the soil and trash around them. The tines in subsequent rows are staggered so that the implement can cover the entire width nicely. The depth of working is set roughly by adjusting the tine in their clamps and the final depth control is done by a screw lever. Usually the tynes are damaged due to turning the implement at the
headland without lifting it up. Care should be taken to lift the tines off the ground before turning.
Mounted Cultivator Tractors fitted with hydraulic lift operate the mounted type cultivators. A rectangular frame of angle iron is mounted on three point hydraulic linkage of the tractor. The cross members carry the tines in two staggered lines. For actual cutting the soil, different types of shovels and sweeps are used. A few important shovels and sweeps are:
a) Single point shovel
b) Double point shovel
c) Spear head shovel
d) Sweep
e) Half sweep
f) Furrower.
Depending upon the type of soil and crop, shovels are chosen for use on the cultivators. Usually tractor drawn cultivators are of two types, depending upon the flexibility and rigidity of tines:
(i) Cultivator with spring loaded tines
(ii) Cultivator with rigid tynes.
**CULTIVATOR WITH SPRING LOADED TINES**
A tine hinged to the frame and loaded with a spring so that it swings back when an obstacle is encountered, is called spring loaded line. Each of the tine of this type of cultivator is provided with two heavy coil springs, pre-tensioned to ensure minimum movement except when an obstacle is encountered. The springs operate, when the points strike at roots or large stones by allowing the tines to ride over the obstruction, thus preventing damage. On passing over the obstruction, the tines are automatically reset and work continues without interruption. The tines are made of high carbon steel and are held in proper alignment on the main frame members. This type of cultivator is particularly recommended for soils which are embedded with stones or stumps. A pair of gauge wheel is provided on the cultivator for controlling the depth of operation. The cultivator may be fitted with 7, 9, 11, 13 tines or more depending upon the requirements.
Tractor drawn cultivator - spring loaded tines
**CULTIVATOR WITH RIGID TINES**
Rigid tines of the cultivators are those tines which do not deflect during the work in the field. The tynes are bolted between angle braces, fastened to the main bars by sturdy clamps and bolts. No springs are available with these cultivators. Spacing of the tines is changed simply by slackening the bolts and sliding the braces to the desired position. Since rigid tines are mounted on the front and rear tool bars, the spacing between the tynes can be easily adjusted without getting the tines choked with stubbles of the previous crop or weed growth. A pair of gauge wheel is used for controlling the depth of operation.
Rigid tyne cultivator
**TYPES OF SHOVELS AND SWEEPS USED IN TINE CULTIVATORS.**
Shovel type blades:
a) Duplex shovel or spear head shovel – for sleeve type tines
b) Single point shovel – spring tooth
c) Double point or reversible shovel – for spring tooth
Sweeps blades:
a) Full sweep
b) Half sweep right
c) Half sweep left
d) High speed sweeps
Type of soil, crops and weeds influence the use of a shovel or a sweep. Shovels and sweeps should be operated as shallow as possible to prevent pruning of roots from the plants thereby injuring the crop. Sweeps should be set almost flat. When the point is resting on the floor, or ground., the outer tip of the wing should be elevated only 3-6 mm above the floor. The shovels and sweeps should be set in between the crop rows 5 cm away and at equal distances on each side of the row to avoid any damage to the standing crop. Setting of blades in a cultivator
When the cultivator has two rows of blades, then the blades are arranged in a staggered way between the two rows.
**ANIMAL DRAWN CULTIVATOR**
a) Sweep
It is an intercultural implement used for removing shallow rooted weeds in between crop rows. It consists of V shaped blades with bevel edged wings called sweeps. The blades are fitted to the tines by means of counter sunk bolts and nuts.
and the tines are fitted to a frame. By skimming action under the soil at a shallow depth of 2 to 3 cm, the sweep blades cuts the weeds. By the cutting action the blades break the capillary passages in the soil and provide soil mulch for moisture conservation. The coverage is 1.75 to 2.5 ha/day. The salient features of the unit are: * Suitable for all row crops and soils; provides soil mulch and conserves soil moisture Animal drawn sweep b) Junior hoe It is an intercultural equipment used for weeding between the rows of standing crops. It consists of six numbers of curved tines fitted with reversible shovels and attached to a framework with hitching arrangement. The tines are arranged in three rows in staggered way, A handle and beam are fixed to the framework for guiding and attaching the unit to the yoke of the animals. The spacing between the shovels can be adjusted according to the row spacing of the crop. The curved nature of tines gives spring action when struck against stones or roots and releases the tines from the obstacle. The coverage is 1.5 ha per day. Junior hoe c) Duck foot cultivator It is a type rigid cultivator which is used mostly for shallow ploughing, destruction of weeds and retention of moisture. It consists of steel frame and rigid tines to which sweeps are attached. The implement is attached to the tractor with three point hitch system and is controlled by hydraulic system. The sweeps are fabricated from high carbon steel. Number of sweeps can be reduced according to requirement. Usually this cultivator is about 225 cm long; 60 cm wide with 7 sweeps.
ENGINE OPERATED WEEDER It is used for both intercultural and secondary tillage operations namely stirring the soil, uprooting the weeds, breaking clods, covering seeds etc It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene run), a pair of ground wheels, a cultivator frame with sweep or shovel blades, steering clutch, main clutch, handle, a tail wheel and other control levers. The engine power is transmitted to ground wheels through belt-pulley and sprocket - chain mechanisms. Ground wheels act as traction wheels and pull the cultivator when moving; The tines to be set between rows with sufficient space away from plant stems. To avoid any damage to plants. The tail wheel is provided at the rear of the cultivator frame by raising or lowering of which the operating depth of the blades can be altered. The field capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day. The salient features of the unit are: * Useful for weeding in row crops like tapioca, cotton, sugarcane, maize, tomato and pulses whose rows spacing is more than 60 cm * Can be used for weeding in orchards, coconut and arecanut fields. ENGINE OPERATED ROTARY TILLER It is a walking type tiller used for plains and hilly regions. It is used for both intercultural and secondary tillage operations namely stirring the soil, uprooting the weeds, breaking clods, covering seeds etc It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene run), a rotor with L blades, rotor drive mechanism, handle and other control levers. When engine power is transmitted to rotor, the rotor rotates and till the soil. The rotor rotates in the forward direction and hence there is a forward push facilitating the forward movement of the tiller. The field capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day. The salient features of the unit are: * Useful for weeding in row crops like tapioca, cotton, sugarcane, maize, tomato and pulses whose rows spacing is more than 60 cm * Can be used for weeding in orchards, coconut and arecanut fields. * Suitable for hilly regions also * Depth of cut is 8-12 cm Engine operated rotary tiller Tractor operated rotary tiller Model questions 1. Define inter cultivation in agriculture. Mention some tools and implement used in inter cultivation 2. Explain about blade harrow 3. Explain about junior hoe 4. Explain about engine operated weeder 5. Mention the conditions where in you will use junior hoe 6. Name two implements used for conserving soil moisture in dry lands 7. List the types of weeders 8. Mention a neat sketch and explain the components of cono weeder their 9. Differentiate star
and peg type weeders. 10. state the advantages of long handled weeder A11. Junior hoe is primarily used for a. breaking clods b. seed bed preparation c. weeding d. none A 12. The main advantage of using long handle weeders is a. Less drudgery to operator b. Less area of coverage d. Cheaper cost of weeder d. Traditional tool
Crop protection :: Plant protection equipments :: Classification
- Pests and disease incident on the crops / plants are to be overcome by the application of poisonous chemicals.
- As the technology advances and newer crop varieties are introduced newer insects, pests and diseases are also growing up and methods are devised to control them.
- Many chemicals used for plant protection cannot be handled by human operators directly.
- Also, that needs to be applied in fine particles.
- This necessitates the use of suitable machines.
Sprayers
- The Sprayer is one which atomises the spray fluid (which may be a suspension, an emulsion or a solution) into a small droplets and eject it with little force for distributing it properly.
- It also regulates the amount of pesticide to avoid excessive application that might prove wasteful or harmful.
- The mechanical appliances that are used for distributing the dust formulations of pesticides are called as dusters.
Types of sprayers
- Sprayers are classified into four categories on the basis of energy employed to atomise and eject the spray fluid as
- hydraulic energy sprayer
• gaseous energy sprayer
• centrifugal energy sprayer and,
• kinetic energy sprayer
Hydraulic energy sprayer
• Hydraulic Energy Sprayer is one which the spray fluid is pressurised either directly by using a positive displacement pump or by using an air pump to build the air pressure above the spray fluid in the air tight container.
• The pressurized fluid is then forced through the spray lance, which controls the spray quantity and pattern.
Gaseous energy sprayer
• In Gaseous Energy Sprayer high velocity air stream is generated by a blower and directed through a pipe at the end of which the spray fluid will be allowed to trickle by the action of gravity through a diffuser plate.
Centrifugal energy sprayer
• In the Centrifugal Energy Sprayer the spray fluid fed under low pressure at the centre of a high speed rotating device (Such as flat, concave or convex disc a wiremesh cage or bucket, a perforate sieve or cylinder or a brush) is atomised by centrifugal force as it leaves the periphery of the atomiser.
• The droplets are carried by the air stream generated by the blower of the sprayer or by the prevailing wind, if the sprayer is not provided with a fan.
Kinetic energy sprayer
• In Kinetic Energy Sprayer the spray fluid flows by gravity to a vibrating or oscillating nozzle which produces a coarse fan shaped spray pattern.
• This is used for application of herbicides.
Types of sprayers
• Depending on the source of power it can be classified as manually operated and power operated dusters.
• The manually operated dusters are (i) package duster (ii) plunger duster (iii) bellow duster and (iv) rotary duster.
(i) Package dusters
• In some pesticide dusts are packed in containers that serve as a hand applicators and may be discard after use.
• They are mostly provided with rubber, leather or plastic section which, on getting squeezed, provides a puff of air that emits the dust in a small cloud.
• The simplest type of package duster is worked by pressing it between the fingers.
(ii) Plunger dusters
• The consists of an air pump of the simple plunger type, a dust chamber, and a discharge assembly consisting of a straight tube or a small exit pipe whose discharge outlet can be increased or decreased by moving a lid provided at the end of the dust chamber.
The air from the pump is directed through a tube into the container where it agitates the dust and ejects it from a discharge orifice or tube.
The amount of dust can be controlled by the speed of the operation of the pump.
These are useful for spot application in restricted areas and for controlling ants, poultry pests, and pest of farm animals.
(iii) Bellow duster
- In the bellow may be made from rubber, leather, or plastic.
- On squeezing, it puffs the air that expels the dust in a small cloud.
- Hand-held bellow duster has containers of capacity from 30 g to 500 g.
- The bellows can be operated either directly by hand or by handle provided for that purpose.
- The knapsack duster has the container capacity of 2.5 to 5.0 kg.
- The air blast developed by the bellow draws the dust from the hopper and discharges through the delivery spout intermittently.
- These dusters are suitable for spot treatments.
(iv) Rotary duster
- A consists basically of a blower complete with a gear box and a hopper. It is operated by rotating the crank.
- The cranking motion is transmitted through the gear box to the blower.
- A drive is taken for the dust agitator located in the hopper.
- The rotary duster may be hand carried type or shoulder mounted or belly carried type.
- The feed is controlled by a feed control lever, which operates a slide to control the aperture at the bottom of the hopper.
Some of the recommendations of WHO (1974) for this duster are:
- The sheet hopper should not be less than 0.63 mm thick.
- The concave bottom of the hopper permits all the dust to move towards the feeding aperture.
- The fan should be capable of displacing 0.84 m³ of air per minute at a speed of 35 rpm.
(v) Power dusters
- The resemble the rotary duster in construction, except that the power to drive the blower through the gear box is tapped from an external power source which may be an engine or P.T.O. shaft of the tractor or flywheel of the power tiller.
- The power-operated centrifugal energy knapsack sprayer also can be converted into a power duster, by allowing the dust fluid into the air stream, near the point of attaching the pleated hose, in the blower elbow.
Uses of spraying and dusting equipments
- The spraying and dusting equipments are used for the following purposes:
- For the insecticides application to control insect pests on crops and in stores, houses, kitchens, poultry farms, barns, etc.
- For the insecticides application to control insect pests on crops and in stores, houses, kitchens, poultry farms, barns, etc.
For the acaricides application to control phytophagous mites.
For the fungicides and bactericides application to control the plant diseases.
For the herbicides application, to kill the weeds.
For the hormone sprays application to increase the fruit set or to prevent the premature dropping of fruits.
For the application of plant nutrients as foliar spray.
For applying the powdery formulation of poisonous chemicals on the crops and for any other purposes.
Hand sprayer
The hand sprayer is a small, light and compact unit.
The capacity of the container varies from 500 to 1000 ml.
This is generally used for spraying small areas like kitchen gardens.
It is a hydraulic energy sprayer.
It has a hydraulic pump inside the container, with cylinder, plunger rod and valve assembly.
By operating the plunger up, the spray fluid in the container is pressurised during the downward stroke.
The pressurised fluid is then let out through a nozzle, and sprayed into fine droplets.
If the pressure to be built inside the container an air pump with cylinder, plunge and plunger rod is required.
When the plunger is pulled up, the air is sucked into the cylinder and when pushed down the air bubble is released into the container with 80% of its volume filled with the fluid.
The air reaches the space above the free fluid surface and presses the fluid.
The pressurised fluid is drawn up through a trigger cut off valve to the nozzle, where it is atomized and sprayed.
In some other type, air pump and the container are separate pieces and the pump is attached to the container in such a way to release the pressurised air through an orifice at the top of the container.
The fluid is lifted through an office at the top of the container.
The fluid is lifted through a capillary tube due to surface tension developed by the high velocity air at the outlet and sheared away by the air and sprayed as droplets.
Knapsack sprayer
Any sprayer which is carried on the back of the operator.
The commonly used manually operated knapsack sprayer has a pump working inside the container.
The plunger works inside the replacement well; the pump is made of plastic for easier maintenance.
The pump can be operated through the appropriate handle with the sprayer carried on the back.
An agitator is also provided with the pressure chamber to agitate the fluid so that the particles in suspension will not be allowed to settle down.
A delivery tube is attached on the other end of the pump which carries the pressurised fluid to the spray lance.
The flow to the nozzle is controlled by a trigger cut-off valve.
In the case of compression knapsack sprayer, an air pump is used to build air pressure above the free surface of the spray fluid in the container and normally the pumping of the air will be done by keeping the unit on ground and then sprayed till the air pressure comes down.
The unit is again brought back to the ground for pumping air and then the spraying is contained as before.
The spray fluid, which does not require any agitation only can be sprayed by using this type of sprayers.
Rocker sprayer
The rocking sprayer has a pump assembly, fixed on a lever, a valve assembly with two ball valves, a pressure vessel and delivery hose with spray lance.
When the plunger is pulled behind by pulling the lever from the container is sucked through the strainer and enters the pump.
The movement of the lower ball valve is arrested by the upper ball valve.
When the lever is pushed towards the pump, the suction chamber by opening the upper ball valve.
The operation is continued till the entire suction pipe, ball valve assembly, delivery hose and a portion of pressure vessel is fitted with spray fluid and the pump operator finds it difficult to push the piston forward, due to the downward pressure developed by the entrapped compressed air in the pressure vessel.
Thereafter, the trigger cut off valve will be opened to allow the spray fluid to rush through the nozzle and get atomized.
Usually 14 to 18 kg/cm² pressure can be built in the pressure chamber and hence can be conveniently used for free spraying.
Bucket sprayer
- The bucket sprayer is designed to pump the spray fluid directly from the bucket.
- The hydraulic pump will be put inside the bucket and held properly.
- As the plunger is pulled up, the fluid enters through the suction ball. When pressed down, the suction valve closes and the fluid enters the pressure assembly.
- As the plunger is continuously worked, pressure is built in the pressure vessel.
- As soon as the required pressure is built up, the spraying will be done.
- A pressure of 4 kg / cm² is developed in most of the models.
Foot sprayer
- This is a modified version of rocker sprayer.
- The pump is fixed in a vertical position with no rocking motion.
- The plunger moves up and down when operated by foot.
- A ball valve is provided in the plunger assembly to prevent the plunger and getting pressurized in the pressure vessel.
- During the upward motion of the piston fluid enters the pressure vessel and during downward movement of the piston, the fluid enter the pump.
- The pressure developed is about 17-21 kg/cm².
Power sprayer
- All the sprayers which impart the mechanical energy to the spray fluid before spraying is called as a power sprayer.
- The most commonly used type of power sprayer is the backpack sprayer.
- In construction, it has a back pack stand on which the engine is mounted.
- Engine of 1.2 to 3 hp capacity, the spray fluid tank is mounted.
- A pleated hose is attached to the blower elbow to which a shear nozzle is fixed to allow the spray fluid to enter the storage tank, with a valve control.
From the top of the blower casing, an air hose is taken into the spray fluid tank, which carries a little quantum of air to press the spray fluid during operation.
In operation, the engine is started by keeping the unit on the ground and then carried by the operator.
The blower sucks the air behind the backrest and forces it into the pleated hose.
The valve of the shear nozzle is opened or the shear nozzle with selective opening and discharged through the nozzle.
The high velocity air shears off the droplets and atomizes by the impact of diffuse and delivers it on the plant the surface.
An air current of 2.7 to 9.1 m$^2$/minute is delivered at a velocity of 175 to 320 kmph.
The spray fluid tank capacity varies from 7 to 12 litres.
The fuel tank capacity varies from 0.75 to 2.25 litres.
The spray fluid discharge can be varied from 0.5 to 5 lit/minute.
A power sprayer can be used as a power duster by making the following changes.
- Chemical filler cap is removed to dismantle that strainer with the air pipe.
- The liquid delivery pipe below the chemical tank is dismantled and removed with the shear nozzle.
- The tank is thoroughly cleaned to remove possible traces of moisture left inside.
- The dust agitator tube is fixed at the bottom of the chemical tank.
- This tube has holes at the bottom to prevent the entry of dust into the agitator and clogging it.
- Dust intake tube is inserted into the chemical tank at the discharge and this tube has no. of large size holes on its periphery.
- Dust intake tube and the blower elbow are connected by using the dust outlet pipe, which is a pleated hose.
Battery or ULV sprayer
ULV sprayer was invented as a result of the desire to reduce the volume of the spray fluid for application and to eliminate the water as a medium to carry the pesticide.
The basic requirements of ULV spraying are:
- The narrow and controllable droplet spectrum (100-250 μm for sprayers and 0.1 to 50 μm for aerosols)
- The accurately controllable emission rate and
- The non-volatile pesticide formulation of suitable viscosity and density.
The reduction in volume of the spray fluid decreases the time spent in travelling to recharge the sprayer, in fetching water, in mixing the pesticide and filling the tank. In a day of 8 hour about 8 ha can be covered in ULV spraying against 3 ha with power sprayer.
A battery operated ULV sprayer has a long handle at the horse power D.C. motor is fitted with a spinning disc and a cover.
A HDPE bottle is fixed close to the motor, in such a way that spray fluid is allowed to trickle at the centre of the spinning disc in operation.
Centrifugal energy imparted fluid comes out of the nozzle and atomizes.
The hand held ULV applicators are so designed to release the spray droplets at 1 m away from the body of the operator.
Further, it is recommended that they should be operated only when the spray cloud would be blown away from him by the breeze so as to minimize the risk of contamination.
After spraying, the atomizer must be flushed with paraffin to remove the residual pesticide.
Inefficient cleaning would leave the pesticide deposit in the feeder stem to completely or partially block the flow of the pesticide.
This consists of a metal elbow matching the suction opening and the blower and the outer diameter of the pleated hose.
This unit is closely fitted with the blower suction opening with the help of an extension frame work identical to the back pack stand.
To the pleated hose attachment opening of the elbow a pleated hose is attached rigidly.
In between the two pleated hoses a screen, an insect collector and valve to control the size of the opening are provided in a Tee section.
In operation the low pressure created at the blower inside is transmitted through the below and pleated hose which helps in sucking the lighter objects like insects and dust from a distance of 0.5 to 1.0 m away from it.
The sucked insect of dust will be filtered by the screen and dropped into the collection bowl.
1. Drain off any liquid still in the tank.
2. Add 1 kg of washing soda per 45 litres of water, which will serve as a cleaning detergent. Spray this liquid through the nozzle on waste land.
3. Add fresh water in the tank and spray with and then without nozzle on the waste land.
4. Wash the outside of the sprayer. Remove the nozzle and filters and store safety after cleaning.
5. Ensure the absence of water in the pump and lubricate the parts.
HARVESTING & THRESHING EQUIPMENT
HARVESTING It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants. Harvesting action can be done by four ways: 1) Slicing action with a sharp tool. 2) Tearing action with a rough serrated edge 3) High velocity single element impact with sharp or dull edge. 4) Two elements scissors type action. Manual harvesting involves slicing and tearing action.
Harvesting can be done by: (i) Manually operated tool (ii) Animal drawn machine (iii) Mechanically operated machine. There are a few related terms in connection with harvesting, which are as below:
Mower: It is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath.
Reaper: It is a machine to cut grain crops.
Reaper binder: It is a reaper, which cuts the crops and ties them into neat and uniform sheaves.
Swath: It is the material as left by the harvesting machine.
Sickle: It is a curved steel blade having a handgrip and used for harvesting by manually.
Windrow: It is a row of material formed by combining two or more swaths.
Windrower: It is a machine to cut crops and deliver them in a uniform manner in a row.
Sickle: Sickle is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting other vegetations. It essentially consists of a metallic blade and a wooden handle.
Sickles are classified into two classes: (i) Plain and (ii) Serrated. Blade is the main metallic part of the sickle. It is desirable to make the blade made of carbon steel. The blade is made in a curved shape. The teeth of serrated sickle are made sharp for efficient working in the field. The handle of the sickle is made of well-seasoned wood. The forged end of the blade for fixing the handle is called tang. The plain or serrated edge in the inner side of the blade is called cutting edge. Protective metallic bush fitted at the junction of the blade and the handle to keep the tang tight in the handle is called ferrule. Harvesting by sickle is a very slow and labour consuming device. Sickle
Mower: Mower is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath. There are different types of mower used in different ways such as: (i) Cylinder mower (ii) Reciprocating mower (iii) Horizontal rotary mower (iv) Gang mower and (v) Flail mower.
Cylinder mower: It has rotating helical blades arranged in horizontal cylindrical form. With the rotation of blades, forage or grasses are cut continuously.
Reciprocating mower: It is a mower with a knife having sections that reciprocate against stationary fingers. It is most common type of mower used everywhere.
Horizontal rotary mower: It is a mower with high speed knife rotating in the horizontal plane. Due to rotation of knife, the grasses and forage are cut in uniform way.
Gang mower: It is an assembly of two or more ground driven cylinder mowers.
Flail mower: It is a mower with high speed swinging knives, operating either in a horizontal plane or around a horizontal cylinder.
Conventional Type of Mower The conventional mower mainly consists of: (i) Frame (ii) Power transmitting unit (iii) Cutting bar (iv) Shoes (v) Ledger plate (vi) Wearing plate (vii) Knife (viii) Grass board and (ix) Pitman. Frame The frame provides space for gears, clutch and bearings. The lever for lifting the cutting bar is attached to the frame. A flywheel is used to store energy to provide steady speed to the cutting mechanism. Power transmitting unit The power-transmitting unit consists of axle, gears, crank wheel, crankshaft and pitman. Tractor drawn semi-mounted or mounted type mowers are operated by P.T.O. shaft. In this case, the cutting mechanism is driven independently of the forward speed of the mower. A shaft is connected with the P.T.O. shaft which drives a pulley with the help of an universal joint. This V pulley rotates another smaller pulley on the crankshaft of the machine and reciprocating motion is transmitted to the cutter bar. Cutter bar It is an assembly comprising of fingers, knife guides, on wearing plates and shoes. It is used for cutting grasses and forage. It is made of high grade steel. It works like a knife. The knife is a metal bar, on which triangular sections are mounted. The knife section makes reciprocating motion and cuts the plants. There are knife guards, provided on the cutter bar. The knife stops at the centre of the guard on each stroke. There are ledger plates provided with the knife guard, on which the knife moves. Knife clips hold the sections down against the ledger plates. Knife clips are placed with wearing plates spaced 20 to 30 cm apart.
Cutter bar Shoe - A shoe on each end of the cutter bar is always provided to regulate the height of cut above the ground. The inner shoe is larger in section and is placed at the inner end of the cutter bar. The outer shoe is placed at the outer end and is smaller in section.
Ledger plate - It is a hardened metal inserted in a guard (finger) over which knife sections move to give a
scissor like cutting action.
Wearing plate - It is a hardened steel plate attached to the finger bar to form a bearing surface for the back of the knife.
knife - It is the reciprocating part of the cutter bar, comprising of knife head, knife back and knife sections.
Knife section - It is a flat steel plate (triangular shape) with two cutting edges.
Knife head - It is the portion of the knife which is connected to the pitman.
Knife back - It is the strip of steel to which knife sections are riveted and the knife head is attached.
Grass board - Grass board is provided at the cutter end of the mower which causes the cut plants to fall towards the cut material. Shoes are provided for easy and smooth sliding of the cutter bar. Pitman - Pitman is a type of connecting rod which is pinned to the crankshaft with the help of a pin. It transmits reciprocating motion to a knife head. Wooden pitman is commonly used for the mowers.
Breaking of knives - Breaking of knives is a common trouble in operation of a mower. It is caused due to play in bearings and worn knife head holders. Non-alignment is an important cause for breaking the knife because when the mower is out of alignment, it works on a certain angle which is always harmful.
Alignment of mower: Under working condition of the mower, the standing crops exert pressure on the cutter bar tending to push it backward. In correct operating position, the crankpin, knife head and the outer end of the knife should be in a straight line. This line should be at right angle to the direction of travel of the mower. For achieving this object, the cutter bar is set at about 88° to the direction of motion i.e. inward lead of 2° is given to it in order to overcome the back pushing action of the crops. When the cutter bar is properly aligned, the knife and the pitman run in a straight line. This gives better cutting in the field. Generally 2cm lead per meter length of cutter bar is recommended.
Registration of mower: A mower knife is said to be in proper registration when the knife section stops in the centre of its guard on every stroke i.e. the centre of the knife section is at the centre of the guard, when it is in operating condition. Adjustment is commonly made by moving the entire cutter bar in or out with respect to the pitman. If mower is not well registered, there is unbalanced load, uneven harvesting and excessive clogging of crops on the knife. Registration of mower
Vertical conveyer reaper (Self operated/Tractor mounted): It is mostly used for harvesting paddy and wheat. The reaper is front mounted at the tractor, which can be lowered and raised by the hydraulic control. It is powered by the PTO of the tractor. Crop is guided by the star wheel to the cutter bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is conveyed to the side by the conveyor belt. Its capacity may be 0.4-0.6 ha/h.
Self operated VCR Vertical conveyer reaper (Power tiller operated): It can be used for harvesting wheat and paddy. The reaper is front mounted on the power tiller. Power is transmitted from the engine fly wheel to the reaper either through V belt or by providing gear box and propeller shafts. Crop is guided by the star wheels to the cutter bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is conveyed to the side by the conveyor belt Cutter bar length may be 100-160 cm. The capacity may be 0.25-0.35 ha/h.
Reaper binder: It cuts and binds the crop simultaneously. It cuts the crop at the height of about 10 cm from the ground level. The harvesting capacity is 0.25-0.35 ha/h. Groundnut digger shaker: It is used for digging of groundnut crop. It is a tractor mounted PTO operated machine, suited for harvesting of both erect and spreading varieties of groundnut crop, grown in all types of soil. It consists of digging blade and
a spike tooth conveyor. Potato digger elevator: It is used for digging and windrowing the potatoes. The equipment is a PTO operated single row machine. The machine consists of cutting blade and elevator roller chain of iron bars. The potatoes are dug by the blade and lifted to a conveyor which is under periodic shaking. The potatoes are delivered at the rear of machine and collected manually. It is a tractor rear mounted PTO driven machine. Its capacity may be 0.15-0.2 ha/h. It can be operated by a 20-25 hp tractor. The groundnut vines are loosened by the blade and whole crop is lifted and shaken by conveyor chain to remove all the soils. Thereafter the vines free of soil are dropped and windrowed behind the machine. The vines are collected manually.
THRESHING Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total grain loss should not be more than 5 per cent, in which broken grain should be less than 2 per cent. Clean un-bruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life. Traditional threshing methods Trampling of paddy under feet, beating shelves of rice or wheat crop on hard slant surface, beating crop with a flail, treading a layer of 15 to 20 cm thick harvested crop by a team of animals are traditional methods followed by farmers depending upon capacity, lot size and situation. Tractor in many places is now used in place of animals for treading. Introduction of animal drawn olpad thresher reduced the drudgery of the operator and gave comparatively higher output per unit time. In all above methods the threshed materials are subjected to winnowing either in natural wind flow or blast from winnowing fan for separation of grain from straw. Threshing wheat by traditional method involves drudgery and takes more time to obtain required quality of bhusa. Due to these, mechanical threshers are widely accepted by the farmers.
Different parts of a thresher and their functions A mechanical thresher consists of the following parts i. Feeding device (chute/tray/trough/hopper /conveyor) ii. Threshing cylinder (hammers/spikes/rasp-bars/wire-loops/syndicator) iii. Concave (wovenwire mesh/punched sheet/welded square bars) iv. Blower/aspirator v. Sieve-shaker/straw-walker.
Working principle of a thresher: During operation, the crop material is slightly pushed into the threshing cylinder through the feeding chute, which gets into the working slit created between the circumference of the revolving drum having attached spikes and the upper casing. The speed of the spikes is greater than the plant mass due to which they strike the latter which results in part of the grain being separated from straw. Simultaneously, the drum pulls the mass through the gap between the spikes and the upper casing with a varying speed. The angle iron ribs on the other hand, restrain the speed of the travelling of stalks clamped by the spikes. Due to this the spikes move in the working slit with a varying speed in relation to the shifting mass of material, which is simultaneously shifted, with a varying speed with respect to the upper casing. As a result, the material layer is struck several times by the spikes against the ribs, causing threshing of the major amount of grains and breaking stalks into pieces. As the material layer shifts towards the progressively converging slit of lower concave, its size reduces. The vibration amplitudes, therefore, decrease where as the speed of the layer increases. This causes mutual rubbing of the ear stalks, as well as rubbing of the ears against the edges of the concave bars and causes breaking of stalks depending on the concave clearance. Since the system is closed, the thicker stalk, which cannot be sieved through the concave, again joins the fresh stalk and the same process is repeated until the stalk size is reduced to the extent that it can pass through the concave apertures. Thus fine bruised straw is produced. The effective threshing process means that the loss of un-threshed kernels ejected with the straw through the concave and the loss of grain damage should be low and the amount of the material passed through the concave should be high. Power thresher
Adjustments Various adjustments are required before starting threshing operation.
The machine is to be installed on clean level ground and is to be set according to crop and crop conditions.
The adjustments necessary to get best performance from the machine are (i) concave clearance, (ii) sieve clearance, (iii) sieve slope, (iv) stroke length and (v) blower suction opening.
Besides these, cylinder concave grate, top sieve hole size and cylinder speeds for threshing different crops are important for a multi-crop thresher.
Different type of thresher and their suitability for crops The type of thresher is generally designed according to the type of threshing cylinder fitted with the machine. The major type of threshers commercially available is as follows:
i. Drummy type It consists of beaters mounted on a shaft which rotates inside a closed casing and concave.
ii. Hammer mill type It is similar to dummy type but it is provided with aspirator type blower and sieve shaker assembly for cleaning grains.
iii. Spike-tooth type Spikes are mounted on the periphery of a cylinder that rotates inside a closed casing and concave. It is provided with cleaning sieves and aspirator type blower.
iv. Raspbar type Corrugated bars are mounted axially on the periphery of the cylinder. It is fitted with an upper casing and an open type concave at the bottom of the cylinder. The cleaning system is provided with blower fan and straw walker.
v. Wire-loop type Wire-loops are fitted on the periphery of a closed type cylinder and woven wire mesh type concave is provided at the bottom.
vi. Axial flow type It consists of spike tooth cylinder, woven-wire mesh concave and upper casing provided with helical louvers.
vii. Syndicator type The cylinder consists of a flywheel with corrugation on its periphery and sides, which rotates inside a closed easing and concave. The rims of the flywheel are fitted with chopping blades.
Factors affecting thresher performance The factors which affect the quality and efficiency of threshing are broadly classified in three groups:
i. Crop factors: Variety of crop, Moisture in crop material.
ii. Machine factors: Feeding chute angle, Cylinder type, Cylinder diameter, Spike shape, size, number Concave size, shape and clearance
iii. Operational factors: Cylinder speed, Feed rate, method of feeding, Machine adjustments.
COMBINE It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick up attachment.
The main functions of a combine are: (i) Cutting the standing crops (ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit (iii) Threshing the crops (iv) Cleaning the grains from straw (v) collecting the grains in a container.
The whole machine is composed of the following components: (1) Header (2) Reel (3) Cutter bar (4) Elevator canvas (5) Feeder canvas (6) Feeding drum (7) Threshing drum (8) Concave unit (9) Fan (10) Chauffer sieve (11) Grain sieve (12) Grain auger (13) Tailing auger (14) Tail board (15) Straw spreader (16) Return conveyor (17) Shaker (18) Grain elevator (19) Grain container.
Header is used to cut and gather the grain and deliver it to the threshing cylinder. The straw is pushed back on the platform by the reel. Small combines use scoop type headers, while large combines use T type headers with auger tables. Harvesting is done by a cutting unit, which uses a cutter bar similar to that of a mower. The knife has got serrated edge to prevent the straw from slipping while in operation. There is suitable cutting platform which is provided with a reel and a canvas. The reel is made of wooden slats which help in feeding the crops to the cutting platform. The reel gets power through suitable gears and shafts. The reel revolves in front of the cutter bar, while working in the field. The reel pushes the standing crops towards the cutting unit. The reels are adjustable up and down as in or out. The cutter bar of the combine operates like a cutter bar of a mower. It cuts the standing crops and pushes them towards the conveyor. The conveyor feeds the crop to the cylinder and concave unit. The grain is swept underneath the augers and conveyed behind them. The threshing takes place between the cylinder and concave unit of the combine. The basic components of the threshing unit of the combine are similar to a power thresher. As soon as the crops are threshed, the threshed materials move to a straw rake. These rakes keep on oscillating and separating the grains. The cleaning unit consists of a number of sieves and a fan. The cleaning takes place on these sieves with the help of the fan. The un-threshed grains pass through tailing augur and go for re-threshing. The clean grains pass through grain elevator and finally go to packing unit. Grains are collected in a hopper provided at suitable place. The fan is adjusted such that the chaff etc is blown off to the rear side of the machine. The size of the combine is indicated by the width of cut, it covers in the field.
A combine may be (i) Self propelled type and (ii) P T O driven type. Combine
Threshing:
The operation of detaching the grains from the ear head, cob or pod is called threshing. It is basically the removal of grains from the plant by striking, treading or rupturing. The traditional method of threshing using manual labours requires 150-230 man-h/ha. Threshing is normally done after the grain moisture content is reduced to 15 to 17%. In various parts of world, threshing is accomplished by treading the grains under the feet of animals or under the tractor tyres, striking the grains with sticks, pegs or loops and removing the grains by rubbing between stone or wooden rollers on a threshing floor or between the rasp bar and a concave of combine. The threshing can be achieved by three methods: Rubbing action, Impact and Stripping.
Threshers are the most important component of farm mechanization. If threshing is not done timely, all efforts made by farmers and inputs given to crop goes wasted. Traditional method of threshing by animal is very slow. It gives low output. Due to low output, the cost of operation is high and there is a huge loss of grains because of rodents, birds, insects, wind, and untimely rain and fire hazards. Wheat threshers overcome these difficulties to a great extent. Wheat threshers are of two type viz. animal-drawn and power threshers. In animal-drawn threshers, olpad thresher is a common machine used in different parts of the country. Power wheat thresher is a machine, which thresh the wheat crop and performs several other functions such as:
- Feed the harvest crop to the threshing cylinder,
- Thresh the grain out of the ear head,
- Separate the grain from the straw,
- Clean the grain, and
- Make ‘bhusa’ suitable of animal feeding.
During the last two decades in the country, power threshers have become quite popular. The famous Ludhiana thresher was first introduced in India during 1956-57. The thresher was tractor operated type and used mainly for wheat. It was a very good machine, which threshed, cleared and bagged the grain, at the same time it made the quality straw (bhusa). Further development work took place during the period from 1965 onwards for low horsepower threshers. The most widely used design, spike tooth cylinder thresher was commercially marketed in the country around 1970. This simple design has been able to maintain the cost of machine low as the total weight of machine was greatly reduced. The output capacity also improved. These threshers are available in various sizes operated by 3-40 hp power sources. The grain output is 20-25 kg/hp-h. Beater type threshers take comparatively more power than spike tooth threshers.
Spike tooth/peg tooth type thresher has cylindrical drum having five to six rows of spikes or pegs mounted on periphery of drum. Threaded mild steel bolts or spikes of same material are used. Thresher with spike is better than bolts as former takes less energy as compared to later. Threshing is accomplished due to impact and rubbing action. The separation is affected through aspiration of material falling through concave. Cleaning is done on a set of oscillating sieves provided in the machine. The fan and cylinder are mounted on the same shaft that makes construction simpler as compared to beater type threshers. The drive to the oscillating sieves is provided from main shaft with the help of crossed belt.
Types of Power Threshers
1. According to crops being threshed
- Single Crop
- Multi-crop
2. According to functional components
- Dummy
- Regular (Through-put)
- Axial flow
3. According to types of threshing cylinder
- Syndicator
- Hammer Mill or Beater type
- Spike tooth type
- Rasp bar type
Main Components of Thresher
(i) Drive pulley
(ii) Fan/blower
(iii) Feeding chute
(iv) Spikes
(v) Cylinder
(vi) Concave
(vii) Flywheel
(viii) Frame
(ix) Towing hook
(x) Upper sieve
(xi) Lower sieve
(xii) Transport wheel
(xiii) Suspension lever
(xiv) Can pulley
(xv) Shutter plate
Principles of threshing: The threshing mechanism, which separates the grain from the stalks, consists mainly of a revolving cylinder and the concaves. A feeder beater is usually located in front of the cylinder and at the upper end of the elevator-feeder to assist the elevator-feeder in feeding the grain to the threshing mechanism. Most threshers are provided with the rasp-bar type cylinder and concaves. The grain is rubbed from the stems without materially cutting the straw. Tooth-type cylinder and concaves are available on some combines. Adjustments are provided for varying the speed of the cylinder to suit the kind of crop being harvested. V belt variable-speed drives are used on most combines. The straw is thrown back onto the separating mechanism, while the grain falls through the concaves onto a grain pan or grain carrier and is conveyed to the cleaning mechanism.
Axial Flow Thresher: The crop in this thresher is fed into the cylinder through a feeding chute located at one end of the threshing drum. In a multi-crop thresher, threshed wheat crop passing through concave is cleaned by a set of sieves and a blower or aspirator. Axial flow of paddy crop is facilitated by the use of louvers provided on the upper concave. The straw is thrown out of the threshing unit by paddles. The cleaning and separation of grain is accomplished by a set of sieves and a blower or aspirator.
Functional components of threshing unit: A power thresher essentially consists of feeding unit, threshing unit, cleaning unit, power transmission unit, main frame and transport unit (Fig. 1). The operation of conveying the cut crop into threshing unit is known has feeding. Normally, one of the two types of feeding units ‘throw-in-type’ or ‘hold-on-type’ is used in power threshers (Fig. 2). In ‘throw-in-type’ feeding unit, the cut crop is pushed into threshing cylinder, where as in ‘hold-on-type’ the heads is only pushed into the cylinder and straw is manually or mechanically held. Throw-in-type feeding device is quite common in the threshers, which may be a feeding hopper or feeding chute.
Feeding Hopper: In this type of feeding device there is a hopper, placed on the top of the threshing cylinder. Generally hopper type of feeding units have a rotating star wheel mechanism between the hopper and threshing drum to facilitate the uniform feeding of crop to the drum. The initial cost of this system is high, hence is mostly used on a large thresher e.g. axial flow thresher of large capacity.
Threshing Unit: The threshing is accomplished by the impact of the rotating pegs mounted on the cylinder, over to the ear heads, which force out the grain from the sheath holding it. In the threshing of wheat crop, the straw is also bruised and broken up by the impact, thus converting it into ‘bhusa’ (straw). Threshing unit is mainly consists of a cylinder and concave. There are different types of threshing cylinders (Fig. 3) such as:
- Spike tooth/peg type cylinder
- Rasp bar type cylinder
• Angled bar type cylinder
• Wire loop type cylinder
• Cutter blade or syndicator type cylinder
• Hammer mill type cylinder
Spike tooth type cylinder: In this type of threshing drum, there is a hollow cylinder, made out of MS flat. Over to its entire periphery, a number of spikes/pegs of square /round bars or flat iron pieces are welded or bolted. Now days, in most of threshers, round peg with adjustable length are used. These spikes are staggered on the periphery of the drum for uniform threshing. The crop is fed along with the direction of motion of the rotating drum. The spike tooth cylinders are available in various sizes. A spike tooth cylinder with spikes of flat front and streamlined back has lower energy consumption.
Rasp bar type cylinder: In this type of cylinder, there are slotted plates, which are fitted over to the cylinder rings, in such a way that the direction of slot of one plate is opposite to another plate. This type of cylinder is commonly used in threshers. It gives better quality of bhusa and it can be used for a wide variety of crops viz.-wheat, paddy, maize, soybean etc.
Wire loop type cylinder: In this type of threshing drum, there is hallow cylinder, over which a number of wooden or MS plates are fitted. On these plates, number of wire loops is fixed for threshing purposes. This type of cylinder is common in the manually operated paddy threshers. Holding the bundle against the loops of revolving cylinder does threshing of paddy crop.
Fig. 3: Different types of threshing cylinders.
Chaff cutter/Syndicator type thresher: This is essentially an adoption of chaff cutter for threshing (Fig. 4). The crop is fed as is done in case of chaff cutters. After passing through a set of rollers, crop is cut into pieces. Varying the set of gears can vary the size. Three to four serrated blades are fastened on the radial arm of the flywheel. Threshing is done mainly due to cutting helped by rubbing and impact. The main advantage of syndicator thresher is that it can handle crop with higher moisture content. However, chopping knives need to be sharpened every 3-5 hours of operation. The machine is more prone to accidents due to positive feed rollers.
Hammer mill type cylinder: It uses beaters to do the required job of threshing. The shape of this type of cylinder is different from the above-discussed cylinder. The beaters are made of flat iron pieces and are fixed radically on the rotor shaft. Generally feeding chutes are used with hammer mill type threshing cylinder. The cut crop is fed perpendicular to the direction of motion of rotating beaters. This type of thresher requires more power as compared to spike tooth type of thresher.
Concave: Cylinder and concave together make the threshing unit. It separates the grain from the crop and removes grain from the straw. Concave is provided in the thresher to hold the fed crop inside the threshing chamber and allows only grain and small amount of chaff to pass through it. The threshing takes place only in this space. It is a curved unit, made of iron steel or iron bar, fitted near the threshing cylinder. The clearance between cylinder and concave is adjustable, depending upon the size and type of grain. The concave clearance for wheat is 5 to 13 mm and for paddy is 5 to 10 mm. As the concave clearance is reduced, the threshing efficiency increases but losses increase and vice versa. The concave clearance at the inlet is less as compared to outlet. There are different types of concave, which are used in thresher.
Screen type concave: It is made of MS rod. It is semicircular in shape and sometimes made with wire also. The screen allows the material after threshing to pass through its perforation.
Perforated concave: In this, perforations are made in a mild steel sheet. The concave is closed from both the ends by iron sheet. The size of perforation is made as per the size of grain of a crop.
Cleaning unit: This unit is provided to separate the grain from chaff. It further uses sub units, like aspirators or blowers, sieves and sieve shaking mechanisms to separate out grains from chaff. The thresher that is provided with aspirator unit is usually called aspirator type thresher. Those threshers fitted with blower which blows air in horizontal direction is called drummy threshers.
Blower or Aspirator: After threshing unit carries out threshing, the cleaning and separation of straw from grain is required. The fan is generally installed on the main shaft over which cylinders, flywheel and
driven pulley are mounted. Fan lifts/sucks the lighter material chaff and other plant portion and throw away from the outlet. Rest of the separation-cum-cleaning is done by screen with its oscillating motion.
Screens: Most of the power threshers are equipped with two screens. Top screen is provided so as to pass the grain to second screen and chaff etc is taken out from it. Other screen sieves out the smaller grain or weeds seeds and delivers the cleaned grain towards outlet. The size of screen hole is selected on the basis of grain size. These screens are effective when kept under oscillation.
Shaking mechanism: The screens are oscillated or shaken with a crank attached to the screen. This crank is powered from main axle either by belt or by rod. The circular motion of the main shaft is converted into oscillating motion of screen, which shakes it and separates the grain from other foreign material and chaff. The separating effectiveness depends on the frequency of strokes of crank, which is adjustable.
Power transmission unit: Threshers are usually powered with tractors and sometimes with electric motors or diesel engine also. After installing the thresher into the threshing floor in the field, tractor PTO shaft is coupled with a flat pulley. A corresponding matching pulley of appropriate size is provided over to the thresher main shaft. These pulleys are connected with a proper rating of flat belt and thresher is operated. Blower fan is provided into the main shaft of the thresher, which rotates and does the required job. The screens are oscillated with the help of a v-belt and a crank wheel, powered with main shaft of thresher. A heavy flywheel is also provided on the main axle of the thresher. It is very important part of any thresher. It is provided to store the energy to supply continuously and equally to the entire threshing cylinder. It is made up of cost iron, and fitted on one end of the main shaft of thresher.
Main frame: A very strong frame is provided in the thresher on which all the functional parts are attached. The frame is made usually of heavy angle iron sections. It should be strong enough to sustain vibrations of machine, during its operation in the field.
Transport wheels: Thresher is provided with wheels at its legs, so that transportation can be done easily. These wheels are made mostly with cost iron but new and large capacity threshers are equipped with pneumatic wheels for better performance during transportation.
Thresher adjustments: The following adjustments can be done on a stationary power thresher:
Cylinder and concave clearance: In order to get cleaned grains and proper threshing, it is very important to set the proper clearance between tip of cylinder and concave. On an average, concave clearance is kept about 25 mm at the mouth, 10 mm at the middle and 15 mm at the rear end. Start operating the thresher, by keeping proper recommended speed, and check if any grain is left in the ears. If it is so, reduce the concave clearance gradually, until drum is threshing cleanly. Too close concave setting is likely to crack some of the grains.
Cylinder speed: The drum of the thresher should be rotated at proper speed for better threshing and cleaning efficiency. Normally, manufacturers specify the cylinder speed for different crops. The cylinder speed can be checked using tachometer. Operator should check the speed occasionally under load for proper functioning of thresher. The cylinder peripheral speed for wheat is kept between 1520 to 1830 m/min and for paddy between 370 to 920 m/min.
Fan adjustment: Fan(s) fitted on thresher must provide the proper amount of blast. The shutter(s) at each end of fan should be adjusted properly so that it could provide blast sufficient enough to remove chaff and light materials without grain. Watching the sample and adjusting the blast can help in getting the desired results.
Drummy Thresher: These threshers were very popular in the beginning when threshers were introduced because of its simplicity and low cost. The radially arranged arms known as beaters are mounted on the shaft (Fig. 5). These are made of mild steel square section with mild steel flat welded or bolted at the top. The beaters revolve inside an enclosed casing. Ribs are provided inside of upper half of the cover in
order to have better threshing. The lower half (known as concave) has rectangular openings made out from square bars. The crop is fed through feeding chute. Crop receives impacts from the rotating beaters till size is reduced to pass through concave. The clearance between beater and concave is kept about 18-20 mm. The crop should be well dried before feeding in the thresher. A wet crop raps around the beater shaft and machine becomes overloaded. These threshers do not have provision for separation and cleaning of grains. The threshed material is later separated and cleaned by small pedal type blower.
Fig. 5: Beater type drummy thresher.
Olpad thresher: ‘Olpad’ threshers (Fig. 6) are also used for threshing wheat crop. A pair of bullocks pulls it around over the dried crop spread in a circular form on the threshing ground. Threshing is continued till the entire material becomes a homogeneous mixture of grain and ‘bhusa’ (chaff). It consists of about 20 circular grooved discs each of 45-cm diameter and 3-mm thickness placed 15 cm apart in three rows. An operator’s seat is provided on the frame to control the movement of animals. All discs are mounted staggered to give more effective cutting of the straw. It has 3 or 4 wheels to facilitate its movement from one place to other. Threshing by this thresher is fairly efficient and cheap but is quite slow with low output capacity. This machine can be used for threshing wheat, barley, gram etc.
Paddy Threshers: Paddy thresher of pedal operated type (Fig. 7) consists of mainly a well-balanced cylinder with a series of wire loops fixed on wooden slates. It has got gear drive mechanism to transmit power. While cylinder is kept in rotary motion at high speed, the paddy bundles of suitable sizes are applied to the teeth. The grains are separated by combining as well as by hammering action of threshing teeth. Paddy is threshed due to impact and rubbing action between threshing drawn loops and concave screen. The grains are cleaned with the help of a fan and cleaned grain goes down through the grain outlet at the bottom of the thresher. They are available in different horse power range.
Fig. 6: Olpad thresher
Fig. 7: Pedal operated paddy thresher.
Multi-crop Threshers: Since, the Indian farmers raise variety of crops as per the suitability of particular region, climate and soil conditions, there was need to thresh all these crops for timelines of operation. Developing a multi crop thresher has solved this problem. It can thresh crops like wheat, moong, paddy, grain, soybean etc. For these crop requirements are different, as in the case of wheat bruised straw (bhusa) is the main requirement. For paddy, farmers need long straw. For pulses, seed damage should be minimal; as damaged seeds lower the quality and causes spoilage in storage. The crop factors such as moisture content, grain size, grain-straw ratio, condition of straw etc influence the design consideration of main components of threshers. The farmer is primarily interested in end product, low cost, durable and reliable machine. The suitable multi crop threshers for cereals and pulses are commercially available in the country.
A multi-crop thresher (Fig. 8) attains the axial movement of the crop while handling paddy and all crop material is made to move through the concave in case of wheat. The main components of multi-crop threshers are: feeding chute, threshing cylinder, aspirator blower, paddy chaff outlet, wheat straw outlet, hopper, and cam for oscillating sieves, oscillating sieves, transport wheel, frame, main pulley and louvers. The axial flow of material can be accomplished by providing seven louvers with spacing of 150 mm in the hexagonal casing. The clearance between louvers and tip of cylinder spikes is 20 mm. For wheat threshing, the first three louvers are placed with ribbed casing and side plates are fixed with top casing and concave to prevent material flow in the second portion. The direction of rotation of threshing cylinder is opposite for wheat than paddy. That is why; straw outlet of aspirator blower is repositioned. The top sieve has holes of 9-mm diameter for wheat and 5 mm for paddy grains. The lower sieve has holes of 1.5-mm diameter common for both the crops. The upper sieve can be changed easily depending upon crop to be threshed. The cylinder-concave clearance in the first section of threshing system (i.e. facing the feeding chute) has to be more while handling paddy than wheat. The machine output is 500 kg/h for wheat and 700 kg/h for paddy.
**Fig. 8:** Axial flow paddy thresher.
High capacity (Harambha) threshers: It is a basically a chaff-cutter type thresher. It consists of a threshing cylinder, concave, two aspirator blowers, reciprocating sieves, feeding chute, feeding conveyor, feed rollers, safety lever in the feeding chute and flywheel. A platform is attached to the main frame of thresher, on which a person stands and feeds the crop into thresher. All the crop materials are fed through the conveyor of feeding chute and feed rollers move the crop into threshing cylinder. A safety
lever provided in feeding chute prevents the entrapping of hands by the feed rollers. Threshing cylinder has two chaff-cutter type blades and beaters. Chaff-cutter blades cut the crop into pieces and beater helps to detach grain from crop. All the threshed materials pass through the concave where it is subjected to aspiration action of blower. Light materials like chopped straw are blown away and grain etc. fall on a set of reciprocating sieves. The clean grain is collected in trolley through auger elevator. It can be used to thresh the crop having high moisture content also. The machine is operated by PTO of a 35-hp tractor and is mounted on two pneumatic tyres for easy transportation. It can thresh 1.5-2.0 tonnes/h.
Sunflower thresher: It consists of a threshing cylinder, concave, casing fitted with louvers, cleaning system, feeding hopper and frame (Fig. 9). The cylinder concave clearance is 40 mm and is uniform throughout its length. The diameter of cylinder is 65 cm and length 150 cm. The first part of cylinder of length 133 cm has flat bars for crop threshing and the 2nd portion of length 17-cm has straw throwing blades. The cylinder casing is of hexagonal shape and is fitted with 7 louvers. The louvers help the crop to move axially and the crop is rotated three and half times for complete separation of grains. The cleaning system has a blower and two sieves. The opening of top sieve is 16 mm and of lower sieve 6 mm. Recommended cylinder and blower speeds are 300-350 rpm and 1200-1400 rpm respectively. A tractor or 7.5 hp motor can operate machine. The machine has a capacity of 600-900 kg/h of clean grain.
**Fig. 9:** Sunflower thresher in operation.
**GRAIN COMBINES, TERMINOLOGY, ADJUSTMENTS, LOSSES, TROUBLE SUITING**
A combine is farm machine that combines the reaper and thresher to harvest the standing crop, thresh it and clean the grain from straw in one operation. According to source of power used combines may be classified as self-propelled combines (Fig. 1) and tractor operated (Fig. 2) or trailed type combine. Self-propelled combines use a propelling power source to do various operations. In tractor operated combine, the power is being optioned through detachable tractor. Only at the time of harvesting tractors are attached and rest of the times it can be used for other farm operations.
The present day combine harvesters are being mostly used for harvesting two major crops namely wheat and paddy. Other crops can also be harvested with combines like, sunflower, maize, soybean, pulses etc,
with slight changes in the combine. A combine harvester consists of header platform, reel, cutter bar, crop divider, platform auger, feeder conveyer, cylinder, concave and grate, fan, chaff sieves, straw walkers, grain sieves, grain auger, tailing auger, grain elevator, grain container and grain unloading auger (Figs. 3 and 4).
Fig. 1: Self-propelled combine in operation.
Fig. 2: A grain combine with 55-hp tractor mounted on it.
**Cutter bar assembly:** The cutter bar assembly comprises of finger bar, fingers, knife guides, wearing plates, outer shoes and main shoes that is non-reciprocating part of the cutting mechanism (Fig. 5). The cutting unit of a combine uses a mower type cutter bar. The knife on the combine uses serrated edge sections. The length of stroke is often longer and sometimes the section passes over two guards in one stroke. The knife section edge is serrated to help keep the straw from slipping while it is being cut. The serrated sections cannot always be sharpened and are generally replaced when they become dull. The cutting platform of combine should be adjustable to operate at a height, from 7.5-90 cm above the ground level. The platform is also provided with a reel and a canvass carrier.
Fig. 3: Details of a self-propelled combine.
1. Crop divider
2. Reel
3. Knife
4. Auger conveyor
5. Feeding conveyor
6. Concave
7. Blower
8. Grain auger
9. Grain elevator
10. Ear auger
11. Grain collector
12. Ear collector
13. Straw walker
14. Rake
15. Sieves
16. Deflector
17. Straw guide drum
18. Tank filling auger
19. Tank auger
20. Grain tank
21. Threshing cylinder
Fig. 4: Details of a tractor operated combine harvester.
The reel consists of a number of wide slats or arms with battens arranged parallel to the cutter bar to hold the crop being cut by the knife and to push and guide it to feeder conveyor auger. The reel may be of spring type or slat type. Its height and speed are adjustable. A clearance of about 12.5-25.0 cm between the reel and cutter bar is suitable for all purposes. The reel gets power through suitable gears and shafts. The reel revolves in front of cutter bar while working in the field. The cut crop is then fed to cylinder and threshing takes place between cylinder and concave units of machine. The basic components of threshing unit of combine are similar to that of power thresher (Fig. 6). The threshed material then moves to oscillating straw walker, which separate the grain from straw. The amount of grain not separated at any point along the walker length can be determined by
\[ R_L = e^{-bL} \]
Where,
\[ R_L = \text{decimal fraction of the grain onto the walker that is not separated at distance } L \]
\[ L = \text{distance along the walker from the effective point of delivery of material onto the walker} \]
\[ b = \text{constant (function of feed rate, grain-straw ratio, crop variety and condition, walker design etc.)} \]
If the walker is divided into uniform length increments, the amount of seed separated in any increment is a constant percentage of amounts of seed onto that increment. The effective delivery point on the walkers is 150-230 mm from the front end of walkers. If walker loss for a given crop condition and feed rate and seed rate onto the walker are known, the value of \( b \) can be calculated.
The cleaning unit (Fig. 7) consists of a number of sieves and fan cleans the grain. The un-threshed grains pass through tailing auger and go to cylinder for re-threshing. The grain passes through an elevator and collected in a hopper or directly unloaded to the trailer. The fan is adjusted such that the chaffs are blown off to the rear of the machine. The size of the combine is indicated by the width of cut it covers in the field. Some adjustments are always necessary on combines before being used for harvesting of crop. These adjustments are:
**Cutter bar height:** The height of the forward tip of any knife section above the plane on which the combine is standing expressed in millimeters, is called cutter bar height. This height is adjustable and ranges from 75-900 mm. The crop is cut just low enough to cover nearly all the heads. If straw is to be saved cutting may be at a lower height.
**Reel speed:** It is essential to keep the reel speed in proper relation to the forward speed of the combine. If reel speed is more, grain shattering from heads occurs. If reel speed is lower then grain may fall on the
cutter bar. Hence speed of reel should neither be more nor less. The speed of reel can be adjusted by changing the reel-driving sprocket.
**Feeding:** The tension of upper and lower feeder canvass is kept tight enough to prevent slippage. If they are too tight, there will be wastage of power and excessive wear will take place.
**Cylinder-concave clearance:** The gap between the tip of the cylinder to inner surface of the concave is called cylinder-concave clearance. The method of adjusting clearance varies with different machines. In some of the combines, raising or lowering the cylinder changes the cylinder-concave clearance, whereas, in other cases, the height of concave assembly is adjusted to change the cylinder-concave clearance. Close clearance results in more breaks up of the straw, which decreases the effectiveness of separating and cleaning unit. The spacing between concave and cylinder at front is usually adjusted from 2-30 mm and at rear 2-18 mm. With close type concave, the normal setting of concave is closer to the cylinder at the front rather than rear. With open type concave, the concave is normally closer at rear than at front.
**Chaffer opening:** This is upper sieve on which grass and chaff mixture falls for initial cleaning. The sieve is oscillated so that grains pass through chaffer openings and chaff and un-threshed materials thrown at rear of the machine. The chaffer opening should be provided such as to float chaff away without blowing out grain, but coarse heavy material should be retained and discharged at the rear.
**Shoe sieve opening:** The opening should be just large enough to permit free passage of grain. Adjustable shoe sieve with smaller lips and openings are the most common.
**Tailing gate height:** Tailing gate is a device provided at the rear of the cleaning unit to prevent un-threshed material from passing out of the combine. It can be adjusted by raising the tailboard at the end of the chaffer extension if necessary to prevent threshed grain from being blown out.
**Platform:** The platform holds the cutter bar and feeding mechanism.
**Cutting platform auger** moves the cut grain to the centre of the platform where the retractable fingers feed the crop into the feeder conveyer.
**Feeder convener:** The feed conveyor or feed rake is designed to feed the crop in a steady even flow into the threshing unit.
**Feeder beater** takes the crop from the feed conveyer and feed it uniformly to the threshing unit.
**Threshing unit:** The function of this section of combine is to thresh the grain from the heads. This is done by passing the grain between a rapidly revolving cylinder and a stationary surface underneath which is called the concave. The grains are separated from the pods by impact, rubbing or squeezing actions between cylinder and concave.
**Threshing cylinder:** The threshing cylinder may be of different types
1. Rasp bar type - having corrugated bars
2. Angle bar type - right angle bar with rubber facing
3. Spike tooth type - pegs or spikes on it.
**Concave:** The concave is the stationary part that the cylinder works against in the threshing action. The concave is a grate composed of rods and bars or wires. It is at the concave grate and finger grate that as much as 90% grain is separated from the crop. The separated grain falls through the grate on to the shoe pan where it is delivered to the cleaning unit. The straw and the remaining grain pass on to the separation unit.
Cylinder beater: The beater behind the cylinder slows down the material coming from the cylinder tears apart the straw and delivers the material to the straw rake or straw walker. The beater helps in cleaning the straw from the cylinder thus preventing cylinder wrapping and feedback.
Separating Unit: The separating unit agitates the straw after it comes from the threshing unit. This shakes out the loose grain remaining in the straw and delivers it to the cleaning unit. The straw is carried out of the combine by the rack.
One piece straw rack: The straw rack is a one piece unit with risers pointed toward the rear of the combine. The straw rack is mounted on cranks located at the front and rear which give it an oscillating motion. As the crank moves rearward and upward the straw is tossed up and to the rear. As the rack returns forward and downward the straw stays in mid air for a short time and then falls in to the section of the rack nearer the end of combine. In this way the straw moves step by step out of the combine.
Walker type straw rack: Some large combine may use a walker type straw rack which operates on the same principle as the rack. The straw walker has three or more narrow sections placed side by side. Each section is mounted on multiple throw cranks located at the front and rear. The crank throws for section are equally spaced around the circle of rotation thus the sections do not operate as a unit as one piece rack does.
Grain return pan: It is located under the straw rack. It catches the grain as it falls through the rack and moves forward to the grain pan.
Grain return conveyor: In place of grain return pan some combines will use a conveyor to catch the grain and move it forward.
Grain pan: The grain pan is located under the forward part of straw rake behind and below the cylinder. Its function is to catch the grain from the concave and cylinder grates and from grain return pan or conveyor for delivery to the cleaning unit.
Cleaning unit: The function of cleaning unit is to separate the clean grain and deliver it to the grain tank, return tailings to the cylinder for re-threshing, and move the remaining material out of the combine. This is accomplished by means of gravity and air blast.
Adjustable chaffer: The adjustable chaffer act as a sieve. It is made up of a series of cross pieces mounted on rods and fastened together so they can be moved at the same time to adjust the size of the openings.
Chaffer extension: This is an extension of chaffer having adjustable lips. The un-threshed portion of gain heads fall through the chaffer extension into the tailing anger.
**Sieve:** The sieve likes chaffer except that the lips and openings are smaller. The final job of cleaning is done here.
**Cleaning fan:** The fan furnishes a blast of air. The strength of air blast is controlled by wind board. The function of the air blast is to keep the material alive on the chaffer and sieve. The air blast should be strong enough to lift the chaff slightly off the chaffer and sieve, but not strong enough to blow grain out of the combine.
**Tailboard:** The tailboard keeps the un-threshed material from being carried out of the rear of the machine while still allowing the chaff to in blow cut. It may be raised or lowered as needed.
**Material Handling:** The grain auger collects the clean grain and angers it to the clean grain elevator which delivers the clean grain to the grain tank. Crop flow in combine is given in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8: Crop flow in combine
INTRODUCTION
Shrinking water resources owing to over exploitation of ground water in Punjab threatens the maintenance of agricultural productivity. As a result, the water table is falling in 90% area of the state. Most of this area falls in the Central part of the state. With the inception of Green revolution in the Sixties, the water table started declining and the area having water table below 30 feet depth has increased from 3% in 1973 to 90% in 2004. During 1993-2003, the average fall of water table in the Central Punjab was 50cm per annum. However, in some of the areas, the fall of water table is even more than 80-100 cm per annum. Out of 141 blocks of the state more that 100 blocks are over exploited. In the Central part, out of 70 blocks, the water table in 40 blocks has gone down below 50 feet depth and in these blocks, submersible pumps are being installed to replace centrifugal pumps. It is projected that by 2023 in Central Punjab, the water table depth will be below 70 feet in 66% area, below 100 feet in 34% area and below 130 feet in 7% area. Correspondingly in each district, the percent area below 70 feet depth will be 100% in Moga & Sangrur, 80% in Patiala, 70% in Ludhiana, 60% in Kapurthala & Jalandhar.
To arrest this dangerous trend of ground water exploitation, there is an urgent need to conserve irrigation water through various on-farm water conservation practices. Land Leveling through Laser Leveler is one such proven technology that is highly useful in conservation of irrigation water.
LASER GUIDED LAND LEVELING
As per studies, a significant (20-25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice fields. Fields that are not level, have uneven crop stands, increased weed burden and uneven maturing of crops. All these factors lead to reduced yield & poor grain quality.
Laser land leveling is leveling the field within certain degree of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field. Unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the germination, stand and yield of crops. Farmers also recognize this and therefore devote considerable time resources in leveling their fields properly. However, traditional methods of leveling land are cumbersome, time consuming as well as expensive.
Why Laser Leveling?
- Land looks leveled but even then wide topographic variation exists
- Wide variability in crop yields at field/ village/ block/ district/ regional level
- For Better distribution of water
- For Water savings
- For Improvement in nutrient use efficiencies
- Option for Precision Farming
- Higher crop productivity
OBJECTIVES OF LAND LEVELING
Effective land leveling is meant
1. To optimize water use efficiency
2. To improve crop establishment
3. To reduce the irrigation time
4. To reduce effort required to manage crop.
Laser leveled land:
1. Saves 25-30% of water
2. Improves crop establishment and improves Yield.
3. Reduces weed problems
4. Improves uniformity of crop maturity
5. Decreases the time to complete tasks
6. Reduces the amount of water required for land preparation.
A) YIELD: Research conducted by PAU has shown a large increase in rice yield due to proper field leveling. The following table is self-explanatory:
| Year | Rice Yield(t h/a) |
|------|-------------------|
| | Leveled Fields | Unleveled Fields |
| 1996 | 3.40 | 2.67 |
| 1997 | 2.27 | 1.46 |
| 1998 | 2.72 | 2.36 |
| 1999 | 2.72 | 2.19 |
| Average | 2.34 | 2.00 |
It clearly shows that for the same rice varieties and the same fertilizer input, the average increase in crop yield was 24% or 530 kg h/a.
Yield and irrigation water saving for Laser leveled and traditionally leveled plots for rice crop under replicated experiments at PAU, Ludhiana
| Sr. No. | Leveled (tha) | Unleveled (tha) | % age increase in yield | % Saving in Irrigation time/water |
|---------|---------------|-----------------|------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Site 1 | 8.78 ± 0.33 | 7.73 ± 0.21 | 13.60 | 26.15 |
| Site 2 | 8.30 ± 0.46 | 7.53 ± 0.39 | 10.30 | --- |
| Site 3 | 7.60 ± 0.21 | 7.00 ± 0.25 | 8.57 | 25.00 |
| | Mean | | 10.82 | 25.57 |
B) WEED CONTROL: Improved water coverage from better land leveling reduces weeds by up to 40%. This reduction in weeds results in less time for crop weeding.
C) FARM OPERATION: Laser leveling makes possible the use of larger fields. Larger fields increase farming area and improve operational efficiency. This increase in farming area gives the farmer the option to reduce operating time by 10% to 15%.
D) SEEDING PRACTICES: Laser leveled larger fields reduce the time taken for planting, for transplantation and for direct seeding.
E) EFFICIENT WATER MANAGEMENT: An unleveled field means extra water storage in fields to accomplish puddling in paddy field. Moreover, land leveling effectively terraces fields allowing water in the higher fields to be used in the lower fields for land preparation, plant establishment & irrigation.
F) ECONOMICS: The initial cost of laser land leveling is high but if the appropriate ploughing techniques are used, re-leveling the whole field should not be necessary for at least eight to ten years. Measurements taken in fields in the second and third year after leveling have shown very little variation in surface topography. Other benefits are:
- Being able to direct seed
- Plough the field on time
- Harvest evenly ripened crop
- Reduced weeding cost.
To sum up the objectives of laser land leveling:
- More level and smooth soil surface
- Reduction in time and water required to irrigate the field
- More uniform moisture environment for crops
- Reduced consumption of seeds, fertilizers, chemicals and fuel
- Improved field trafficability (for subsequent operations)
THE PROPOSAL
One Laser leveler costs about Rs. 4 Lacs and a 50 HP Tractor costs about Rs. 4 Lacs. Thus, the cost of 1 Laser Leveler & Tractor Set is Rs. 8 Lacs. Individual farmers cannot afford to incur this cost. Therefore, it is proposed that a group of farmers, i.e., Farmers’ Interest Group (FIG) be formed who will be assisted to purchase the equipment. An assistance of 75% of the cost is provided on the equipment comprising of 1 Laser Leveler & a 50 HP Tractor. The FIG shall level their own fields and also can do custom hiring to level the fields of other farmers. 500 Laser levelers and Tractors are required to level more than 2 lakh hectares area in the next 5 years.
Project Cost
The total cost of the Project for 5 years shall be 40 Crores. The State Govt. shall provide 30% as 75% assistance for 500 machines (1 Laser Leveler & a 50 HP Tractor) and the beneficiaries shall bear the balance cost of Rs. 10 Crores. These machines shall help in precision leveling of more than 2 lakh hectares of cropped area in the next 5 years.
For the Year 2007-08, the requirement of funds is proposed as under:
| No. of Sets (Laser Leveler + Tractor 50 HP) | 100. |
|---------------------------------------------|------|
| Total Cost of 100 Sets (@ Rs. 8 Lacs per set) | Rs. 8 Crores. |
| Assistance proposed under ACA @ 75% of cost | Rs. 6 Crores. |
| Share of FIGs | Rs. 2 Crores. |
Benefits of the Project
The assistance shall be provided to the FIGs who shall not only use the machines on their own but shall also operate on custom hiring on the fields of other farmers. Each machine shall be able to level an area of more than 400 hectares benefiting a total area of 40000 hectares through these machines during the year 2007-08. The major benefits of the Project shall be as follows:
1. **Water Saving**
The Laser Leveling of fields saves 25-30% of water. Taking into consideration the Paddy-Rice rotation, there is a saving of 2625 cum per hectare after leveling the field. Therefore, there shall be a saving of 105 MCM (Million Cubic Metres) of water by leveling 40,000 hectares through these machines in one year.
2. **Increase in Yield**
The Laser Leveling of fields helps in increased yields by 10%. This increased yield shall help in additional income of Rs. 6000/- per hectare. Therefore, there shall be a cumulative additional income of Rs. 24 Crores in 1 year by 100 machines.
3. **Energy saving**
Saving of 105 MCM of water on 40000 hectares shall lead to less requirement of irrigation to the fields thereby saving of 125 lakh Units of Electricity valued at Rs. 5 Crores in 1 year.
4. **Other benefits**
Apart from above, other benefits of Laser Leveling include Weed Control, Labour saving, Time saving, Land saving etc. as described earlier.
Effective land leveling reduces the work in crop establishment and crop management, and increases the yield and quality.
1. Higher yield
Good field leveling increases the rice yield considerably. In two experiments conducted at different localities, a strong correlation was found between the levelness of the land and crop yield. (see chart)
2. Better weed control
Land leveling increases yield to a large extent because it improves weed control. Improved water coverage from better land leveling reduces weeds by up to 40%. This reduction in weeds results in less time for crop weeding. A reduction from 21 to 5 labor-days/ha is achieved. This represents a reduction of up to 16 person-days per hectare or a 75% decrease in the labor required for weeding.
Weeds under water (left) and complete eradication of weeds (right)
3. Larger farming area
Good land leveling enables larger fields. Larger fields increase the farming area and improve operational efficiency. Increasing field sizes from 0.1 hectare to 0.5 hectare increases the farming area by between 5% and 7%. This increase in farming area gives the farmer the option to reshape the farming area and can reduce operating times by 10% to 15%.
4. Faster seeding/Less work
Leveling reduces the time needed for transplanting and for direct seeding. Land leveling provides greater opportunity to use direct seeding. The possible reduction in labor by changing from transplanting to direct seeding is approximately 30 person-days per hectare.
Direct seeding on a level field
5. Better use of water
Rice farmers using animal or 2-wheel tractors rely on water to accumulate in the field before starting land preparation. The higher the difference between the highest and lowest portions of a rice field, the more water is needed to achieve complete water coverage. Good leveling may reduce total water requirement to grow the crop by up to 10%.
Fertilizer Distributor
A broadcast seeder, alternately called a broadcaster, broadcast spreader or centrifugal fertilizer spreader (Europe), is a farm implement commonly used for spreading seed, lime, fertilizer, sand, ice melt, etc., and is an alternative to drop spreaders/seeders.
ATV tow spreaders normally have a larger capacity to enable the coverage of larger areas.
The smallest are handheld with a hopper of several liters and which operate via hand cranking. A bit larger are push units with the spinning disk powered by gearing to the wheels. The next size up is designed to be towed behind a garden tractor or ATV. Very similar in size to the tow behind units are broadcast seeders that mount to the three-point hitch of a compact utility tractor, these are ideal for landscape and small property maintenance. Still larger are commercial broadcast seeders/spreaders designed and sized appropriately for agricultural tractors and mount to the tractor's three point hitch. The broadcast seeders that are mounted to a three-point hitch are powered by a power take-off (P.T.O.) shaft from the tractor. At the largest size are pull behind or chassis mounted units for agricultural use that can spread widths of up to 90 feet.[2][3]
How they work
View of a tractor-operated broadcast seeder moved by three-point hitch and driven by PTO shaft
The basic operating concept of broadcast spreads is simple. A large material hopper is positioned over a horizontal spinning disk, the disk has a series of 3 or 4 fins attached to it which throw the dropped materials
from the hopper out and away from the seeder/spreader. Alternately a pendulum spreading mechanism may be employed, this method is more common in mid-sized commercial spreaders for improved consistency in spreading. The photos clearly show the material hopper. Hoppers are commonly made of plastic, painted steel, or stainless steel. Stainless steel is usually used in large commercial units for strength and because granular fertilizer is often quite corrosive.
Some seeders/spreaders have directional fins to control the direction of the material that is thrown from the spreader. All broadcast spreaders require some form of power to spin the disk. On hand carried units, a hand crank spins gears to turn the disk. On tow behind units, the wheels spin a shaft that turns gears which, in turn, spin the disk. As is partially visible in one of the photos, with tractor mounted units, a mechanical P.T.O. shaft connected to the tractor and controlled by the tractor operator, spins the disk. There are some seeder/spreaders made for garden size tractors that use a 12 volt motor to spin the dispersing disk and yaw. Broadcast spreaders can also be used under drones.
**Puddler**
**Objectives**
- Decrease weeds
- Decrease percolation as a result of soil dispersion.
- Level the soil for better planting conditions and/or for snail control (where a problem)
**Key Points**
- Power requirements of the order 7k W/n at 7.2 km/hr
- Puddlers should be used only when necessary for snail and water management.
- Note: Rotopuddlers (e.g., those used at IRRI) can be used with a "Laser" guided System.
**Land preparation**
Puddle the land, level it and remove the water after 24 hours (for clayey) or 12 hours (for sandy/loamy soil) before the transplanting. In black or clayey soils the settlement is critical as the loosened soil can bury the seedlings planted.
Just before the operation of transplanter, a thin film of water is necessary to ensure the free movement of transplanter and avoid adhering of soil to the moving parts of the transplanter.
Performance: There will be a net saving of 40 per cent over the manual transplanting. It can transplant about one hectare in a day of 8 hour run. The transplanter performs with missing hills of 2-3 per cent.
Available Transplanters Now a days mechanical transplanting of paddy is also recommended and practiced in some places.
**Land Levelling**
Levelling helps in bringing undulated field left over after puddling into levelled field
To maintain uniform depth of water in main field
To increase water use efficiency by maintaining shallow depths of water upto panicle initiation stage.
Maintenance of shallow water depth is possible only when the land is perfectly levelled.
Shallow planting is possible only at shallow water depth which helps in better seedling establishment which helps in term for early tillering.
Better utilization of nutrients by managing uniform depth of water throughout the field
Perfect levelling helps in complete draining of water - facilitates easy harvesting of crop without loss of grain.
If a pulse is sown after paddy uniform establishment of pulse crop can be achieved
Oxygen diffusion is more uniform
Reduction of deep percolation of water and inputs to a certain extent.
**Puddling With Full Cage Wheel**
Rice is a main crop in India. Preparation of wetland for rice plantation is an important stage. To mulch the soil properly and mix the same in wet condition, full cage wheel is used. Especially in the area where deep water puddling is done, full cage wheels are used. It gives good traction in wet soil and mixes soil optimally.
Standardization is the process of developing, promoting and possibly mandating standards-based and compatible technologies and processes within a given industry.
Standards for technologies can mandate the quality and consistency of technologies and ensure their compatibility, interoperability and safety. [Standards organizations](#) such as [ANSI](#) (American National Standards Institute), [IEEE](#) (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and [IETF](#) (Internet Engineering Task Force) exist to promote standardization and endorse official standards (also known as [de jure](#) standards) for given applications.
Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing [technical standards](#) based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments.\(^{11}\) Standardization can help maximize [compatibility](#), [interoperability](#), [safety](#), [repeatability](#), or [quality](#). It can also facilitate [commoditization](#) of formerly custom processes.
Standardization is the process of implementing and developing technical standards for mass production, compatibility, interchangeability and safety.
List of organizations for tractor testing:
1. Director, Central Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute, Tractor Nagar, Budni (MP)-466445.
Tel. 07564-34729 Fax 234743
email- fmti-mp[at]hub[dot]nic[dot]in
2. Director, Northern Region Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute, Tractor Nagar, Sirsa Road, HISSAR- 125 001 (HARYANA)
Telefax: 01662-27684
e mail- fmti-nr[at]hub[dot]nic[dot]in
3. Director, Southern Region Farm Machinery Training Testing Institute, Tractor Nagar, P.O. Garladinne-515 731, Distt. Anantpur (Andhra Pradesh)
Telefax: 08551-286441
e mail - email-fmti-sr[at]hub[dot]nic[dot]in
4. Director, North Eastern Region Farm Machinery Training & Testing Institute, Biswanath Chariali –784 176, Dist SONITPUR (ASSAM)
Telefax: 03715-222094
email- fmti-ner[at]hub[dot]nic[dot]in | 94c9f198-2dec-4fd2-9d9e-e14917c5e8c5 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://gpsirsa.ac.in/images/Econtent/1599477941FMI%20%20E%20contents%20sep%202020.pdf | 2022-12-01T14:14:58+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710813.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20221201121601-20221201151601-00739.warc.gz | 323,307,655 | 22,797 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.966019 | eng_Latn | 0.998482 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
3535,
6926,
10790,
14941,
16404,
18707,
21266,
23530,
25385,
27213,
30168,
32598,
36504,
40341,
44951,
47930,
51624,
53702,
56392,
56890,
59093,
61419,
65749,
67212,
67976,
70897,
73493,
74726,
75156,
76804,
77929,
81419,
84056,
84965,
87363,
888... | [
2.0625,
1.3515625
] | 1 | 0 |
The Reenergize Undergraduate Research Program in Its Second Year
Dr. Dan G. Dimitriu, San Antonio College
Dan G. Dimitriu has been practicing engineering since 1970 and taught engineering courses concurrently for more than 20 years at various institutions. In 2001, he joined San Antonio College full-time as the Coordinator of its Engineering program. He has been involved with several engineering societies and became a member of the Two-year College Division of ASEE in 2002. His research interests are in engineering graphics, design, alternative fuels, plastics, and engineering education.
Mr. Klaus Bartels, San Antonio College
Klaus Bartels is an Adjunct Faculty member at San Antonio College (SAC) in both the Mathematics Department and the Physics/Engineering/Architecture Dept. He was born near Buenos Aires, Argentina and immigrated to the U.S. in 1956. He grew up and went to college in the Boston, MA area. He has a B.S.E.E. from Tufts University (1972) and an M.S.E.E. from M.I.T. (1975). He served as a Communications-Electronics Engineer/Officer in the USAF from 1975 to 1999, retiring as a colonel. He worked part time as a Flight Director at the Challenger Learning Center of San Antonio from 2000 to 2009, and has been teaching remedial math and engineering classes at SAC since 2000. He has been involved in various engineering summer programs at SAC, including instructor for Robotics Camps for 3rd to 5th graders (2012 - 2014), and instructor/coordinator for the Early Development of General Engineering program for high school students (2007 - 2015). Since 2011 he has also served as faculty adviser for numerous undergraduate research projects involving solar and hydrogen fuel cell technologies at SAC.
Mr. Steven F Lewis, San Antonio College/Alamo Colleges
Steven Lewis served as a training manager for Lockheed and Raytheon corporations around the world and spent a total of 27 years primarily in Colombia, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Mexico. He assumed the leadership role at the Service, Trade, and Industry Center of Alamo Colleges/San Antonio College in 2006 and quickly expanded the scope of the center by launching the Alamo College Green Training Initiative. In order to strengthen the initiative, Mr. Lewis collaborated with the college grant office to submit a successful proposal to the United States Department of Urban Development in 2010 for construction of the William R. Sinkin Eco Centro. He since served as director of Eco Centro while collaborating with Texas State University on the Re-Energize grant and EverGreen grants in overseeing undergraduate research projects.
The Re-Energize Undergraduate Research Program in Its Second Year
Abstract
The initiation of the Re-Energize Undergraduate Research Program was presented in a previous ASEE paper at the 2016 Annual Conference in New Orleans. It started as a network of renewable energy education and research labs fully contained and established at each of the four participating member institutions. The main goal of this collaborative effort is to share effective new green technology content and impart skills to faculty members of this network in order to strengthen their capacities and arm them with additional resources to support their efforts in recruiting and retaining students, and in particular, minorities, in STEM programs offered at their institutions.
Our two-year college, San Antonio College (SAC), as part of this network is working on developing and implementing new undergraduate research projects related to green technologies for the entire duration of this partnership. Our college made a commitment to
1) encourage our STEM faculty to attend Re-Energize professional development opportunities to learn and include green energy educational modules into our STEM curriculum;
2) seek space to establish a "start-up green lab" on our campus with Minority Science and Engineering Improvement Program pass through funding from the four-year institution so that faculty can conduct classroom demonstrations and our students can perform undergraduate research. This initiative is meant to diversify and continue our undergraduate research program as we include our William R. Sinkin Eco Centro facility into this program.
3) promote additional related outreach and educational Re-Energize efforts to support our students and encourage them to seek successful careers in STEM and green energy-related fields and to
4) participate in on-going evaluation and research efforts related to this program.
Numerous reports demonstrate that undergraduate research programs at four-year institutions have been responsible for increasing retention and graduation of their students. Our previous results indicate that two-year institutions can also initiate successful programs with similar
results. This paper presents in detail the results of the second-year partnership between the participating institutions to continue developing new directions for summer undergraduate research programs at our community college, offers recommendations, and outlines future plans.
**Career Growth Projections for Engineers**
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) indicates that demand for engineers will continue to show a steady growth during the 2014-2024 period and expects greater-than-average growth from several individual engineering fields with rates ranging from 23.1% for biomedical engineers to 5.3% for mechanical engineers\(^{[1]}\). The increasing employment of engineers in service industries, research and development, and consulting is expected to generate most of the employment growth.
The National Science Foundation in a 2015 Survey of Graduate Students and Post-doctorates in science and engineering\(^{[2]}\) found that from 2008 to 2013 STEM graduate students in the U.S. who were U.S. citizens or permanent residents rose 3.1%. Of these, 25.8% were Hispanic and 7.8% were African-American.
San Antonio College, being a minority serving institution, has a stated mission to attract and engage minorities on a path toward higher education. A high level of achievement in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education is essential if the U.S. is to maintain a leading role in space science, aeronautics, cybersecurity, and technology in general. As shown in previous papers, for the last fifteen years San Antonio College has been on a continuously ascending path to attract and retain more students, in particular minorities, into the STEM fields as well as striving to align its engineering program with the engineering programs offered by the surrounding area four-year institutions\(^{[3],[4]}\). At the same time, this college’s engineering faculty made every effort to provide the highest quality education for our students\(^{[5]}\).
A previous ASEE paper\(^{[6]}\) described a new partnership, called “Re-Energize,” that is expected to help several two-year colleges develop their own research capabilities in renewable energy in collaboration with Texas State University.
The Re-Energize program plans to establish a creative research and development (R&D) and professional development (PD) ecosystem. This ecosystem will empower institutions of higher education who prepare students in engineering and engineering technology in Central Texas to
continue to do so with enhanced and focused knowledge, facilities, and student programs. Re-Energize addresses the learning needs of faculty and students via a systems approach and aims to serve as a replicable and scalable national model.
The previous paper presented the results of the first year of the program. This paper presents the results of the second year of the program.
**Re-Energize Project: Results of the Second Year (1 Oct 15 to 30 Sep 16)**
**Objective 2:** Provide awareness, training, and financial support to attract and motivate students from the minority institutions to consider education and career opportunities in STEM.
*Activity 2.3:* Texas State will facilitate a day-long tour for the participating students to Texas State labs and facility with STEM-oriented educational and entertainment programs.
In Year 2, one SAC faculty member and seven students visited Texas State University in February 2016 for a day-long tour of renewable energy demonstration/research laboratories and engineering manufacturing facilities. Texas State faculty and graduate students also provided an update on the Re-Energize program, including research and scholarship opportunities. Comparison of student surveys done before and after the TxState tour showed a significant increase in students’ desire to learn more about sustainability and environmental issues, as well as a significant increase in their knowledge of solar and wind energy technologies.
**Objective 3:** Design and develop a replicable renewable energy laboratory to carry out the training and hands-on activities proposed in the Re-Energize program. A replica of the lab will be established at Eco Centro to operate independently once the training is completed.
*Activity 3.2:* San Antonio College will nominate selected members of STEM faculty and encourage as well as support them to attend the designated Re-Energize professional development activities to learn and adopt green energy educational modules.
In Year 2, one faculty member (physics/astronomy) attended the one-week Re-Energize training seminar at Texas State University in May 2016. During the week, Texas State faculty and industry representatives provided a detailed overview of the Re-Energize program including partner institution responsibilities, as well as instruction on sustainable/renewable energy systems and demonstrations of solar, wind, and rainwater catchment systems. Texas State also
provided a tour of their engineering/manufacturing lab facilities. Three STEM faculty (two engineering and one environmental) attended the training in Year 1.
In Year 2, SAC faculty continued the use of educational modules/activities that were developed during Year 1 for use in engineering and math classes. These modules/activities improved student awareness and learning in sustainability and renewable energy systems. These modules included renewable energy application problems for use in exams as well as a sustainability team design project. The sustainability project is the most complex and ambitious in regards to student learning outcomes. This team project requires students in our Introduction to Engineering classes to modify a builder’s existing new home design to improve its sustainability by reducing its resource consumption and/or improving energy efficiency. Student teams developed written design proposals and gave oral presentations on their more sustainable new home designs. These designs, two of which were done in collaboration with Habitat for Humanity, included two or three sustainability features such as improved insulation, xeriscape landscaping, solar photovoltaic (PV) electric systems, higher efficiency HVAC systems, geothermal systems, sustainable building materials, and rain harvesting systems. This project is most aligned with the following course student learning outcome: *As part of a team, design a simple engineering device, write a design report, and present the design*. Based on students’ project grades, 91% of students met this student learning outcome by completing this sustainability project. The detailed requirements/guidelines for this team project are provided as Appendices 1 and 2.
**Activity 3.3:** San Antonio College will utilize the funding provided by Texas State and designated for the establishment of a start-up green lab incorporating technical collaboration with Texas State.
As year one was drawing to a close, it became apparent that there was a need for a dedicated room other than the shipping container in which experimentation related to hydroponics food production could take place. A laboratory was set up to house the rack prototype, instrumentation, and equipment assembly kits. Design strategy meetings and development of additional prototypes take place in the lab.
During the first year of the Re-Energize grant, six students and a college staff member developed a prototype hydroponics grow rack using PVC pipes and a simple wooden structure. The
objective was to come up with a design that could be replicated at low cost in developing countries (Fig. 1). The prototype is housed in the lab and has served as a structural starting point for modification and refining during years two and three of the Re-Energize hydroponics project.
Even though Year 1 Re-Energize project activity focused heavily on structural aspects of the grow rack, students took into account the need to control many operational factors that directly affect the health of plants in protected environment agriculture. Instrumentation including a pH, CO₂ and turbidity sensors were factored into the design (Fig. 2). The scope of sensor use expanded in year two with the planned buildout of the grow racks in the dedicated shipping container.
Given the multi-faceted nature of lab work, students engaged in lab projects divided into teams. Team specialties include lighting, programmable monitoring devices, seed propagation and structural design. Assigned team leaders keep records of their project and coordinate with team members to schedule work sessions on a weekly basis. One important advantage offered by the lab as opposed to the containerized hydroponic project is that it can be used for public demonstrations, accommodating groups of visitors from the community and area schools.
The lab offers a wide enough variety of student activities to engage students from most STEM departments. Students involved to date represent the college departments of biology, chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. Specialized grow lights allow students to conduct experiment comparing growth of plants when exposed to specific light spectrum mixes and intensities (Fig. 3). It is well equipped with instrumentation including this liquid conductivity probe and a PAR sensor for light measurement (Fig. 4).
**Activity 3.4:** San Antonio College agreed to participate in on-going evaluation and research efforts related to this program.
The following paragraphs describe the projects that fall under this activity:
**Hydroponics Projects**
During Year 2 of the hydroponics project, the focus of activity expanded from rack prototype development to design of all support systems for the shipping container that houses the project. Design concepts evolved thanks to input from affiliated institutions of higher education including Texas State University, University of Texas San Antonio and Wageningen University in the
Netherlands. The turnkey approach used by those institutions had to be pared back in order to accommodate the team’s goal of creating a low-cost containerized hydroponics system that can be assembled using materials readily available in developing nations.
In April of 2016 students, staff and faculty involved in hydroponics projects at San Antonio College and Texas State University engaged in a collaborative planning session when they gathered for the combined EcoExchangeEdu and Re-Energize grant event held at the William R. Sinkin Eco Centro facility of San Antonio College. The scope of higher education collaboration on the hydroponic and other environmentally-related projects expanded with the participation of Coastal Bend College, Palo Alto College and Southwest Texas Junior College. Based in part on concepts exchanged at the event, the San Antonio College team moved forward with the design, construction and placement of support arches and crossbeams for the interior of the hydroponics container that reinforce side walls while providing stability for the grow racks to be placed against the two side walls of the container (Fig.5). In addition, Texas State University came away with design concepts for vertical agriculture experimentation at their agricultural facility.
As the support structure went into place, the students engaged in support infrastructure design were able to flesh out details related to the electrical system, the nutrient transmission system, and climate control. The scope of higher education collaboration expanded at that point to include students with relevant majors from the University of Texas in Austin and University of Texas in San Antonio. The team and support staff met with Alamo Colleges’ electricians to
define specifications needed to contract with a local electrical contractor for the installation of a 200-amp meter loop. The loop was installed and a bid went out to run conduit from the meter to the container. This time-consuming process of designing the electrical system, sending out to bid, and then monitoring installation proved to be a valuable learning experience for the hydroponics team.
As the second year drew to a close, the opportunity arose for students to develop a remote-controlled cart to be used in moving environmental monitoring sensors throughout the grow chamber of the hydroponics shipping container (Fig. 6). The sensor data and control of the vehicle will be monitored from a workstation separated from the plants by a barrier. This layout facilitates data gathering while minimizing exposure to harmful plant diseases or pests that would be introduced if humans had to repeatedly enter the grow area. Two prototype carts were successfully designed and developed during the summer. These designs will be refined to produce a final operational hydroponics remote monitoring vehicle as the project progresses through Re-Energize Year 3.
**Fig. 6 – Prototype Remote-Controlled Hydroponics Monitoring Vehicle**
Late in year two, one of the hydroponics team members combined forces with several others to create a vertical hydroponics unit on one of the exterior walls of the hydroponics container (Fig. 7). The need to create an exterior demonstration unit stems from the restrictions on human access to the interior of the hydroponics container. The exterior unit allows team members and
staff of the William R. Sinkin Eco Centro facility to demonstrate vertical agriculture to the numerous tour groups who visit the facility. The system components incorporated into the interior grow chamber are demonstrated in reduced form using the exterior unit.
The achievements of the hydroponics team during years one and two came to fruition in mid-2016 with the announcement that Texas State University’s USDA EverGreen grant proposal was funded, thus paving the way for several more years of collaboration between the two institutions. The EverGreen grant is a joint project of the Ingram School of Engineering and Department of Agriculture at TxState as well as San Antonio College and Palo Alto College. It strengthens the collaboration between the three institutions involved and creates a pipeline for talented STEM students at Alamo Colleges to pursue further scholarship-funded studies at Texas State University. EverGreen’s goal is to find innovative solutions for the global food-water-energy nexus while simultaneously increasing the number of Hispanic students with advanced technical degrees at the food-water-energy intersection. As year 3 of Re-Energize was about to begin, students from San Antonio College traveled to the Texas State campus to meet with counterparts and discuss implementation strategies (Fig. 8). Ongoing collaboration between the two institutions exposes undergraduate students at the college to graduate research projects at Texas State, thus establishing a cross-pollination of ideas that strengthens the hydroponics teams at both institutions.
Solar Electric Vehicle Project
During Year 1, eight engineering and chemistry students and two faculty advisors converted an old, worn-out gas utility cart into a solar-electric vehicle. This project was primarily funded through a National Science Louis Stokes Alliances for Minority Participation CIMA Alliance grant along with donations from Alamo Colleges. The solar-electric cart has four 12-volt batteries, two 230-watt roof-mounted photovoltaic (solar) panels (one on a slide mount), and a four horsepower, 48-volt DC electric motor (Fig. 9).
This difficult and complex project produced a functional solar-electric vehicle. However, due to time constraints, vehicle performance was not tested, and certain desired capabilities were not incorporated. During 2016 spring semester a team of 4 engineering students finished this project including research, troubleshooting, design, fabrication, installation, testing, and documentation of various vehicle modifications, and upgrades (Fig. 10). The team installed a stronger electric motor mount that is adjustable (Fig. 11) and a DC-to-DC converter for accessories.
Fig. 9 - Solar-Electric Cart (2015)
Fig. 10 - Solar-Electric Cart Project Team (2016)
Fig. 11 - Solar-Electric Cart – Electric Motor Mount (2016)
In addition, they repaired the parking brake, installed a protective plexiglas panel over the electrical components, and added storage compartments on both sides of the vehicle for holding flyers and educational materials (Fig. 12).
**Fig. 12 - Solar-Electric Cart – Plexiglas Protective Cover and Side Storage Compartments (2016)**
Performance testing of the vehicle determined solar panel output, battery charge time in sunny conditions, and the cart’s top speed and range with fully charged batteries. The SAC Mathematics Engineering and Science Achievement (MESA) Center\(^{[7]}\) is using the vehicle to promote STEM programs at various events at SAC to increase students’ interest in STEM careers. It has been a showcase project for the SAC undergraduate research program\(^{[8]}\) while also promoting sustainability, renewable energy technology, and the Re-Energize program (Fig. 13).
**Fig. 13 - Solar-Electric Cart – Promoting Renewable Energy and STEM on Campus (2016)**
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle Project
During Year 1 of the Re-Energize program, a team of more than 20 energetic engineering students (mostly Hispanic) from San Antonio College established the SAC Motorsport Team (Fig. 14). Their goal is to design and build a prototype hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) to compete in the prestigious Shell Eco-Marathon Americas tournament (shell.com/ecomarathon) in Detroit in April 2017 (Fig. 15). Shell Eco-Marathon challenges student teams from around the world to design, build, test and drive ultra-energy-efficient vehicles. This project has generated more interest and participation by SAC STEM students than any previous undergraduate research project.
In Year 2 the SAC Motorsport Team with assistance from SAC faculty, industry contacts, and the Texas State University students and faculty worked hundreds of hours researching, designing, and selecting equipment/materials for the HFCV; i.e., wheels & tires, steering and suspension, frame and body (Fig. 16), motor and motor controller, and the fuel cell. The team also worked hard getting equipment/parts donations and raising funds for this extremely complex and expensive project.
During Year 2 the team also procured most of the equipment/parts needed to build the vehicle, including the expensive Hydrogen Fuel Cell Stack (HFCS) that will provide electrical power for the vehicle. To compete effectively in Shell Eco Marathon there was a need to better understand how the H-1000XP Hydrogen Fuel Cell Stack (HFCS) performs under different circumstances to find its most efficient operational configuration. To do this, four SAC Motorsport team members tested the HFCS in a summer, 2016 undergraduate research project (Fig. 17).
**Fig. 17 – Hydrogen Fuel Cell Stack Performance Test Setup**
HFCS performance was tested with two different variables being controlled; i.e., the hydrogen gas supply pressure and HFCS output load. During testing, the supply pressure varied from 7.25 psi to 9.25 psi and output loads varied from 87 Watts to 867 Watts. At the same time, fuel (hydrogen) consumption in liters/min was measured. With this data, charts were produced showing the fuel efficiency in Watts/liter/min for different input gas pressures and output power levels. Test results showed that HFCS fuel efficiency at output power loads of 87, 125, and 164 watts was highest at lower input gas pressures (7.25 to 8.5 psi), and dropped substantially at higher gas pressures. At the four highest output loads (214, 401, 553, and 867 watts), the fuel efficiency was fairly constant at input gas pressures of 7.75 psi and above (Fig. 18).
The objectives of this research project were met; i.e., a better understanding of HFCS performance and determining its most efficient operational configuration. This information will be used to improve the fuel efficiency of the Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle. During Year 3, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle will be constructed, including the frame, body, wheels, steering, and electrical system; and, after local testing, will then compete in the Shell Eco-Marathon in Detroit in April 2017. This marquee Re-Energize and SAC undergraduate research project promotes sustainability and energy efficiency. In addition, this project will continue to be used to recruit students into STEM fields/programs and help train the engineers of tomorrow.
**Research Project Surveys**
Surveys of students involved in the preceding Re-Energize research projects were taken to assess the students’ opinions regarding their project experience. The survey results of a representative sample of the students involved in these projects is shown in Table 1. As seen, there was universal agreement that the research projects were very interesting and were also enjoyable. In addition, the results indicate the students felt competent in the research work they did and were satisfied with their performance.
Conclusions
In Year 1 of this collaborative effort, San Antonio College ramped up quickly with equipment acquisitions, faculty training, student recruitment, and research team formation and project execution. In Year 2, our student participation in Re-Energize activities increased by 76% (from 21 to 37 students), and we added a fourth “green-energy-trained” faculty member to the program. In addition, Year 2 saw more students involved in Re-Energize-supported undergraduate research projects. These students completed the solar electric cart project and made major progress in the hydroponics and hydrogen fuel cell vehicle projects. As indicated from student surveys, students involved in Re-Energize undergraduate research projects rated their experiences in these projects extremely high. In Year 2, SAC also continued the successful use of educational modules/activities that were developed during Year 1 for use in engineering and math classes. Finally, Year 2 brought increased collaboration between SAC and TxState which will continue for several years with the awarding of USDA’s EverGreen grant in 2016 that will provide scholarships for studies in sustainable technologies for underrepresented minorities.
San Antonio College was successful in meeting both the Year 1 and Year 2 objectives of the Re-Energize program and is well-positioned for executing Year 3. SAC and the other Re-Energize institutions are united in strengthening their capacities to use renewable energy technologies and activities to support efforts to increase recruitment and retention of students, especially minorities and females, in STEM programs offered at their institutions.
References
1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, *Career Outlook 2016 Edition*, <https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/>
2. NSF’s 2015 Survey of Graduate Students and Post-doctorates in Science and Engineering, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) [formerly the Division of Science Resources Statistics (SRS)], <http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2015/nsf15318/nsf15318.pdf>
3. *Forging Stronger Ties between Community Colleges and Four Year Universities*, by Dan G. Dimitriu and Jerry O’Connor, ASEE Conference, Salt Lake City, UT, June 2004
4. *Community Colleges Can Help Universities During ABET Accreditation Efforts*, by Dan G. Dimitriu and Jerry O’Connor, ASEE Conference, Louisville, KY, June 2010
5. *The Need for a Quality Control System for Community College Engineering Education*, by Dan G. Dimitriu and Jerry O’Connor, ASEE Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, June 2007
6. *The Re-Energize Undergraduate Research Program at Our Community College*, by Dan G. Dimitriu, Klaus Bartels, Steven F. Lewis, and Bahram Asiabanpour, ASEE Conference, New Orleans, LA, June 2016
7. *The Five Years Evolution of a MESA Program*, by Dan G. Dimitriu and Jerry O’Connor, ASEE Conference, Atlanta, GA, June 2013
8. *Initiation of an Undergraduate Research Program*, by Dan G. Dimitriu and Jerry O’Connor, ASEE Conference, San Antonio, TX, June 2012
Appendix 1
ENGR 1201 – Team Project #1 — Guidelines
Sustainable New Home Design
☐ **Goal:** Prepare a proposal for modifying an existing new home design to improve its sustainability by reducing its resource consumption and improving energy efficiency
☐ **General Project Requirements:**
- Obtain an existing San Antonio builder’s design, including floor plans and specifications, for a typical, middle income 3 or 4-bedroom new home
- Select **two (min) or three (max) ways** to change the home’s design to increase its sustainability and/or reduce resource consumption, yet still be affordable for middle income families
- Examples of sustainability measures that can be incorporated into the design include:
- more sustainable building materials
- more efficient HVAC or water heating systems
- more efficient appliances
- alternative energy systems (solar, wind, biofuel, or geothermal)
- xeriscape landscaping
- rainwater harvesting
- Prepare a written report and oral PowerPoint presentation detailing your proposed design
☐ **Written and Oral Report Requirements:** (Note – much more detail must be provided in the written report. The oral presentation will include the most important aspects of the written report/proposal.)
- Description of the existing new home design to include:
- Name of builder, floor plan, dimensions, lot size, primary building materials, total cost
- Energy efficiency specs. for house (e.g., HVAC, water heater, insulation, appliances)
- Estimated average annual utilities usage and cost for family of four for electricity, water, and gas (if used in the home)
- Limitations of current design as regards to sustainability and efficiency
- Description of each change/improvement you propose for the home to include:
- Description of the improvement and list of equipment and materials required
- Description of how the improvement would be implemented and how it would operate
- Drawings and/or diagrams of the improvement as incorporated into the home design
- Benefits and limitations of each design change/improvement
- Additional initial implementation cost and additional annual maintenance cost (if any)
- Cost analysis including dollar savings per yr. on utilities and payback period in yrs.
☐ **Administrative Requirements:**
- Oral presentation:
- 6 - 12 mins (each person does equal portion; grade reduced if time limit busted)
- Must use a minimum of 6 PowerPoint ® slides during the presentation
- Include Title, Overview, and Conclusion slides
- Written report:
- 8 to 12 pages typed (double spaced) including title page, references, and diagrams
- Include a title page with your team name, team logo, title, report date, and typed name of each team member – also, each member must sign by his typed name
- Include a table of contents page as well as introduction and conclusion paragraphs
- Use chapter designators/topic titles (Ex: Intro., Existing Design, Improvements, etc.)
- Add name of person responsible for each paragraph at beginning of each para.
- Gantt chart for research/design/documenting/acquiring materials/building/selling home
- Number pages and include a list of references (including title, author, and date)
- Use the guidelines sheet as a check sheet (√) and staple it at the end
Last revision: 23 Jan 16
Due Date: ___________________
## Appendix 2
### Team Project #1 – Sustainable New Home Design
#### Grade Sheet
**Name:** ___________________________ **Team:** ___________________________ **Date:** _______________
### Written Report Grade Sheet:
| Item Description | Max. Points | Points Earned |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|---------------|
| Title page with title, team name/logo, date, course #, and teammate names and signatures | 2 | |
| Table of Contents with topic titles and page numbers for each topic | 2 | |
| Report length of 8 to 12 pages typed (double spaced) including title page & references page | 2 | |
| Pages properly numbered and topic titles (chapter designators) used | 2 | |
| Annotated name of the specific person responsible for each paragraph in the report | 2 | |
| List of reputable references (minimum 3) including title, author, and date for each reference | 2 | |
| Guidelines sheet stapled at the end of the report and used as a check sheet (V) | 2 | |
| Included separate introduction and conclusion paragraphs that have appropriate information | 2 | |
| Correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure | 4 | |
| Existing new home design description – builder, floor plan, dimensions, lot size, materials, cost | 5 | |
| Existing new home design – energy efficiency specs for HVAC, water heater, insulation, appliances | 5 | |
| Existing new home design – estimated average annual utilities usage [electricity, gas, water] | 5 | |
| Existing new home design – estimated average annual utilities cost [electricity, gas, water] | 5 | |
| Existing new home design – limitations with regards to sustainability and efficiency | 5 | |
| Description of improvements – list of equipment and materials required | 5 | |
| Description of improvements – describe how it will be implemented and how it would operate | 5 | |
| Description of improvements–drawings/diagrams of improvement incorporated into home design | 10 | |
| Description of improvements – benefits and limitations | 10 | |
| Description of improvements–additional costs for implementation & annual maintenance (if any) | 5 | |
| Description of improvements – cost analysis: $/yr savings on utilities and payback period in years | 10 | |
| Step-by-step project timeline [Gantt chart] for researching, designing, documenting, acquiring equipment/materials, building, and selling your sustainable home (not a team project Gantt chart) | 10 | |
| Certification from SAC Writing Center of assistance obtained on written or oral report | 5 (optional) | |
| **Total:** | **105** | |
### Oral Report Grade Sheet:
| Item Description | Max. Points | Points Earned |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|---------------|
| Duration between 6 and 12 minutes (each individual between 1.5 and 3 minutes) | 10 | |
| Oral delivery [eye contact, voice clarity/strength, enthusiasm, hand gestures, pace] | 45 | |
| Content [understandable, slides readable and not too busy, covered required material] | 45 | |
| **Total:** | **100** | |
**Written Report Grade + Oral Report Grade**
**Overall Project Grade:** | 7b76c59d-8511-43c3-9224-c8221f44feba | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://peer.asee.org/the-reenergize-undergraduate-research-program-in-its-second-year.pdf | 2024-05-30T04:31:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971059418.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20240530021529-20240530051529-00618.warc.gz | 379,500,826 | 7,150 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.961275 | eng_Latn | 0.995376 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2615,
4804,
7302,
9756,
12294,
13614,
14749,
16587,
18274,
19863,
21133,
22288,
23467,
24941,
26225,
27896,
29296,
32737,
36911
] | [
1.109375,
2.3125
] | 1 | 0 |
Acids dissolve in water (H₂O) and form ions. The following table consists of a list of ternary acids. Complete the anion and the cation columns and answer the given questions.
| Acid | Name of the Acid in Aqueous Solution | Cation | Anion | Polyatomic Anion Name |
|----------|--------------------------------------|----------|--------|-----------------------|
| HClO₃ | Chloric acid | H₃O⁺ | | |
| H₂SO₃ | Sulfurous acid | | | |
| H₂SO₄ | Sulfuric acid | | | Sulfate |
| H₃PO₃ | Phosphorous acid | 3H₃O⁺ | | Phosphite |
| H₃PO₄ | Phosphoric acid | | PO₄³⁻ | |
| HNO₃ | Nitric acid | | | |
| HNO₂ | Nitrous acid | | NO²⁻ | Nitrite |
| H₂CO₃ | Carbonic acid | | | |
a) How do ternary acids differ from binary acids in their structure?
b) What number does the prefix “ter” refer to? ________
c) When the polyatomic anion name ends with “-ate”, the acid name ending is ________ .
d) When the polyatomic anion name ends with “-ite”, the acid name ending is ________ .
e) If the prefix “hydro-” were used to name a ternary acid, what problem would it cause to name HClO₃?
f) Write a rule for naming ternary acid.
g) Predict the formula for chlorous acid ________ .
Acids dissolve in water (H₂O) and form ions. The following table consists of a list of ternary acids. Complete the anion and the cation columns and answer the given questions.
| Acid | Name of the Acid in Aqueous Solution | Cation | Anion | Polyatomic Anion Name |
|----------|--------------------------------------|---------|---------|-----------------------|
| HClO₃ | Chloric acid | H₃O⁺ | ClO₃⁻ | Chlorate |
| H₂SO₃ | Sulfurous acid | 2H₃O⁺ | SO₃²⁻ | Sulfite |
| H₂SO₄ | Sulfuric acid | 2H₃O⁺ | SO₄²⁻ | Sulfate |
| H₃PO₃ | Phosphorous acid | 3H₃O⁺ | PO₃³⁻ | Phosphite |
| H₃PO₄ | Phosphoric acid | 3H₃O⁺ | PO₄³⁻ | Phosphite |
| HNO₃ | Nitric acid | H₃O⁺ | NO₃⁻ | Nitrate |
| HNO₂ | Nitrous acid | H₃O⁺ | NO²⁻ | Nitrite |
| H₂CO₃ | Carbonic acid | 2H₃O⁺ | CO₃²⁻ | Carbonate |
a) How do ternary acids differ from binary acids in their structure?
Ternary acid contains three elements (H, O, and another element), whereas binary acids contain two elements (H and another element).
b) What number does the prefix “ter” refer to? Three (3)
c) When the polyatomic anion name ends with “-ate”, the acid name ending is “-ic”.
d) When the polyatomic anion name ends with “-ite”, the acid name ending is “-ous”.
e) If the prefix “hydro-” were used to name a ternary acid, what problem would it cause to name HClO₃?
It would be called hydrochloric acid, which is a binary acid with the formula HCl.
f) Write a rule for naming ternary acid.
They must contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another type of element.
g) Predict the formula for chlorous acid HClO₂. | c5bab77e-8c15-4613-b981-2b25680c88aa | CC-MAIN-2024-46 | https://www.chemistrylearner.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Chemistry-Naming-Acids-Worksheet-With-Answers.pdf | 2024-11-03T03:17:25+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027770.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20241103022018-20241103052018-00565.warc.gz | 677,412,711 | 927 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993826 | eng_Latn | 0.993676 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1638,
3549
] | [
4.25
] | 1 | 0 |
GRONG GRONG NSW
Name: War Memorial Commemoration Hall and School of Arts
Address: Balaro Street, Grong Grong, NSW 2652
The Town:
Grong Grong is a small farming village located about 500 kilometres west of Sydney in the Shire of Narrandera, part of the Riverina region of New South Wales. The village is 82 kilometres north-west of Wagga Wagga and 22 kilometres east of the town of Narrandera at an elevation of 162 metres. Grong Grong is situated just off the Newell Highway which now bypasses the village, the highway having been realigned for safety reasons in 2017. It is a short distance east to the towns of Matong, Ganmain, Coolamon and Marrar along the Canola Way in the neighbouring Coolamon Shire.
It was during an expedition approved by the Governor Sir Ralph Darling in 1829 to further explore the rivers of western New South Wales that Charles Napier Sturt came to the region. He ‘camped next to a lagoon situated close to where the homestead of Berembed Station’ was later to be established by John Lupton in 1832. ‘During his stay [Sturt] surveyed the country to the north. With him though he brought small pox, which had a devastating effect on the local Wiradjuri people killing as many as 60% of their population’. (1)
The Narrungdera clan of the Wiradjuri people called the region Garrongoorung, meaning ‘bad camping ground’. According to folklore, ‘in the 19th century, the local tribe used to camp on the river until a large albino cod took a child – the tribe didn’t camp there again’.
The Government opened up Crown Land in the 1830s and selected squatters paid an annual license fee of £10 (pounds) to work the land. Although the abundant native kangaroo grass was a highly nutritious fodder plant, droughts, floods and fires caused many early settlers to abandon their land.
In 1861, the Government passed the Crown Lands Occupation Act allowing the ‘selection’ of between 40 and 320 acres of crown land in the Narrandera* region for one pound per acre. Twenty years later in 1881, with the extension of the New South Wales railway line southwest from Sydney to Hay and the Victorian rail service north to Wodonga, many more people were attracted to the Narrandera region. They took up selection blocks, prospected for gold and established businesses to fill the needs of a growing community.
The aboriginal name Garrongoorung was anglicised to Grong Grong and in 1881, when the settlement store originally situated near the Murrumbidgee River moved closer to the rail line, the town of Grong Grong was established.
The town grew steadily and by the 1920s Grong Grong had 680 residents and boasted ‘two pubs, a post office, bakeries, a butter factory, sale yards, slaughter yards, butchers, four black smith shops, one store and two shops, a school, police station, two stock and station agents, a bank, stables, sports club, train station, a couple of dance halls…’ and more. It wasn’t until the 1940s that ‘the Northern Riverina County Council put water through the area and in 1948 electricity was made available.’
Historically, the main industries in the region were agricultural – grazing, cropping, forestry and fishing. There was also some mining in the area - gold was discovered to the north of the town in 1894. Renewed interest over recent years in exploring the Grong Grong tenement for gold deposits was reported in 2017 as this location ‘adjoins the existing Barellan gold tenement for a combined area of 702 square kilometres’.
Although the adjoining Coolamon Shire is one of the richest agricultural and pastoral districts in the Riverina, since the rural recession of the 1980s and perhaps because of the subsequent deregulation of crop prices, population numbers in Grong Grong have been falling. The Pig Improvement Company (PIC) is a specialist pig-breeding unit set up by Dalgety Australia in the 1980s on a property 4 kilometres south of the township and it provides some support to Grong Grong. Nevertheless, the infrastructure of the town continues to be challenged with the loss of the primary school, police station, bank and businesses.
* Note that the spelling of the name Narrandera changed about 1949. In this account the current spelling is used throughout, except for the title in such as the Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser (1893-1953); or where a quotation from an existing text uses the former spelling.
Figures in the 2016 Census show 250 residents listed in the Grong Grong area and the road sign as you drive into the town claims a population of 150 living in town. The median age for the area is 46 and with a growing number of young families returning to combine the joys of a rural lifestyle with work made possible by the inter-net, local residents are quietly optimistic about the future of the town. The Grong Grong Progress Association describes the town with its ‘community spirit and proximity to major centres’ as a ‘perfect place to raise a family or to enjoy retirement’. The imaginative Grong Grong Earth Park built on disused land along the rail corridor with gardens, playscapes, picnic grounds, and interactive displays about the district is a testament to the community spirit that survives in this tiny town.
**Establishment:**
As early as 1907, “an attempt was made by the people of Grong Grong district to bring into being a Mechanics’ Institute, or School of Arts, and a sum of £20 was raised and placed in a trust” for that purpose. (7)
No further progress seems to have been reported until Saturday, 2 July, 1921 when, in response to a circular signed by Messrs Harris, Shoemark, Kennedy, Miller, Garnsey, Kelly, Walker and Guest, a large gathering assembled at the Public School and a meeting was convened ‘for the purpose of raising funds to erect a Schools of Arts and Public Hall in Grong Grong’.
*Mr. G. Miller occupied the chair and there were present Messrs W. Bicket, P. Harris, G. Rosewarne, V. Gawne, H. Shoemark, F.P. Kelly, H. Garnsey, J. McQualter, W. Shannon, J. Kennedy Jnr, G. Mitchell, E. Ashwin, B. McLennan, G. McNeill, Mesdames Harris, Garnsey, Bicket, Gawne, McQualter and Misses A. Gawne and S. Roberts. An apology was received for the absence of Mr W. Guest. After discussion, it was resolved that all present, including Mr Guest, be formed into a committee, with power to devise ways and means of raising funds.*
*The movement to obtain a School of Arts and Public Hall in Grong Grong comes at an opportune time. There is no doubt that the town has felt the need of this most useful institution for many years but the earlier efforts toward this objective have withered through lack of public interest. The period of the war of course did not permit of a revival in this direction but now the public is at last aroused to a sense of its obligation it is hoped that the movement will receive an impetus from the town and district, which will see the institution an accomplished fact with the next twelve months’.* (8)
The town moved quickly and at a meeting held the next month, chaired by Mr Guest, ‘several ladies and gentlemen not present at the previous meeting were added to the committee’. It was decided that ‘the allotment of land originally granted as a site for the School of Arts was unsuitable for that purpose and arrangements were made for securing a block more centrally situated.’ Fund-raising was discussed and along with a carnival to be held during the first week
of October, a ‘subscription list was opened up and over £40 was subscribed’. Mr F. Gawne offered a ‘£25 donation towards the funds, provided that nine others [were] prepared to offer a similar amount’. (9)
As well as a general subscription list, a bazaar and queen competition were planned to raise the main part of the building funds – an amount of £2,000 was anticipated for completion of the building.
On 12 August, 1921, the *Daily Advertiser* (Wagga Wagga, NSW) also reported the meeting and listed Mr. W. Guest as President with Mr J. Kennedy Jnr and Mr H. Shoemaker as Joint Secretaries and Mr. Garnsey as Treasurer.
As President of the School of Arts Committee, Mr W. Guest travelled to Sydney in November 1921 ‘to interview the Minister for Education with reference to a subsidy for the proposed School of Arts’ but no government funding seems to have resulted from his efforts.
The need for a Public Hall in Grong Grong was felt even more because the Commercial Hotel had caught fire and was ‘closed through lack of lighting and other various reasons, and so public functions [were] at a standstill. It [was] hoped that after the harvest the School of Arts proposal [would] receive a fresh impetus and the building [would] only be a matter of months.’ (10)
Despite this enthusiastic prediction and although tenders had been called with a closing date of 28 January, the *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* on 8 February 1923 reported that ‘no tenders had been received’.
The local press regularly reported on the progress of the proposed Commemoration Hall and School of Arts and by August 1923, a plan for the building was submitted by Mr Guest and accepted by the Committee subject to modifications.
Plans were ambitious. ‘The building will have an attractive appearance with overhanging gable roof supported by massive round pillars. A spacious entrance porch will give access on the right to the library and reading room, and on the left to the committee room and reading room. A vestibule with cloakrooms on either side will lead to the main hall, which will be 60 feet by 40 feet and provide twice as much floor space as the present hall. A cinema operating room is to be constructed above the vestibule. The large stage, 40 feet long and 20 feet wide has been specially designed to serve as a supper room, for all the stage fittings shall be moveable. The kitchen will adjoin the supper room and electric light is to be installed throughout.’ The amended plan was to be submitted to the architect to ‘take out the quantities and prepare an estimate of the cost’. (11)
The article went on to report that the Committee ‘was empowered to draw up a suitable and attractive programme’ in aid of the building fund for the new hall. Included were ‘flag races, bending races, musical chairs for motorcars, etc., as well as the usual flat races’. However, ‘the absorbing topic of the day’ was the forthcoming bazaar that had ‘various stallholders ...displaying an abundance of enthusiasm and energy and a keen spirit of friendly rivalry’.
The next week, the Wagga Wagga *Daily Advertiser* also reported on the proposed building plans adding that a Market Day run by Miss Kennedy and Mesdames Butler, Mitchell and McQualter had raised £23 and commented that, *if hearty cooperation and earnestness are any criterion*, a substantial sum should be raised at other planned fundraising activities. The reporter’s confidence was well founded as evidenced when the *Daily Advertiser* reported on 9 October 1923 that an amount of £831/10/9 was raised at a Bazaar on behalf of the Soldiers’ Commemorative Hall and School of Arts and that with donations, a grand total of £1300 had been raised. *It is a splendid result for the little town and shows the fine spirit of the people*.
An article in the *Narandera Argus* on 5 October 1923 covered the Bazaar more fully reporting that Mr G. G. Miller, secretary, had ‘expressed his pleasure at the result, and said that for a town of the size and population of Grong Grong, he was sure the effort had never been equalled in New South Wales or Australia’. He referred to a recent windstorm that had caused great destruction making it more imperative than ever that the township should have a new hall. *Five copies of the plans are being prepared gratis by Mr Smart, of Sydney, himself a returned soldier and architect of the Hay Memorial High School* who was giving his services in the interest of the soldiers of the district. (Although the writer hasn’t been able to verify it as fact, this could be Charles Smart (1882-1950) who was with Bates Smart, architects, from 1907-1950.)
Listed also in the report was an amazing array of ‘articles disposed of in connection with the bazaar’ including a gramophone, afternoon tea set, case of pipes, biscuit barrel, horse, bridle, box of cigars, eiderdown, pickle cruet, travelling rug, bag of potatoes and a tin of kerosene.
Tenders were called in December 1923 and advertised in the *Sydney Morning Herald* as well as the regional newspapers for the ‘Erection of a school of arts and hall at Grong Grong. Brick or reinforced concrete. Plans at the Shire Hall, Narandera, Literary Institute, Wagga, and Country Promotion League, Imperial Arcade, Sydney.’
**Building Contractors**
*TENDERS are invited and will be received by the undersigned up to 28th JANUARY, 1924, for the ERECTION OF A SCHOOL OF ARTS AND HALL at GRONG GRONG; walls brick, or an alternative tender reinforced concrete (conformity with plans etc.). Two tenders may be submitted, viz., one for the whole structure, and one for the main hall and rear appointments shown on plan. Plans and specifications may be seen at Shire Office, Narandera, Literary Institute, Wagga, Country Promotion League, Sydney, or the undersigned.
Lowest or any tender not necessarily accepted.*
J. KENNEDY, JUN.,
Hon. Sec. Commemoration Hall.
On 1 April the following year, the *Narandera Argus* reported plans for the new hall had been approved and Mr J.H. Robertson of Narrandera was entrusted with the work of drawing up the amended plans and providing specifications.
John Hill Robertson was born in Sydney in 1870 and died in Narrandera in 1955. He was a member of an illustrious family of architects. His father, Albert Louis Robertson, practiced in Sydney and his older brother, Louis Spier Robertson, later established his own firm there. John Hill Robertson came to Narrandera in 1909 as Government Architect, driving in his horse and buggy to the towns of the Riverina and sleeping in a tent, which he used as his office by day. By this means he surveyed for the Government the farms which were allotted to the veterans of World War I. He later embarked on private practice and for many years he was the only architect covering a large area of the Riverina. As a result, many of the important buildings in the area are designed by J.H. Robertson. (12)
Although there had been some scaling down of the Committee’s original plans, the School of Arts section was still to consist of a library and a reading room (each 18 feet by 14 feet) but would not include provision of a billiards room as at first intended. The main hall would be 52 feet by 32 feet and the stage 22 feet deep to serve as a supper room when required. Dressing rooms on either side of the stage would be provided and the kitchen would adjoin the stage. Provision was also to be made for a cinema operating room.
**Laying of the Foundation Stone:**
At a general meeting held on 11 June 1924, the Committee considered two propositions for the laying of the foundation stone, ‘one being that it be laid by the Queen of Grong Grong, (Miss Woolard) and the other, that a prominent member of the returned militia be invited to perform the function. After considerable discussion, the latter proposal was adopted and it was agreed to ask Major General Cox to officiate’. It was further decided that a circular letter of invitation be forwarded to ‘all residents of the district and prominent Narandera citizens, and also to old time residents of Grong Grong’ and ‘it was fervently expected that all who have the interest of the returned soldiers, the memory of deceased soldiers, and the welfare of the town and district at heart, will be present at this epoch making ceremony’. (13)
The Major General duly consented to be present to perform the ceremony on 23 June 1924, the Prince of Wales’ birthday.
Attended by a couple of hundred residents and visitors, the Foundation Stone Ceremony held on the appointed date was reported as a ‘red letter day’ in the history of Grong Grong. Fulsome in its praise, the paper said that ‘the laying of the foundation stone of the School of Arts and Commemorative Hall at Grong Grong … will stand for all time as tangible evidence of Grong Grong’s appreciation of the great services rendered to their country by the soldiers who enlisted from the town and district.’ (14)
All did not run smoothly at the ceremony. Highly decorated and known ‘as a spirited leader’, Cox had earned the affectionate nickname of ‘Fighting Charlie’. Nevertheless Cox was not without his critics, ‘some of whom disliked what they saw as vanity and a seeking after popularity’. (15) And despite his being ‘the most popular Senate candidate in New South Wales at the last Federal elections’ (15) perhaps some returned soldiers at the gathering shared
this opinion of Cox because it was reported that the ‘ceremony [was] marred by the action of a small section of diggers who had been averse to the General performing the ceremony. They presented him with a petition, ‘apparently requesting him to desist.’ The Major General read the petition but ignored it, rallied, and placed the stone in position, declaring it ‘well and truly laid’. (16)
The inscription reads
*This stone was laid by Major General C. F. Cox CB CMG DSO June 23rd 1924*
The stone was prepared by Mr F. Lindley, monumental mason, of Narrandera, who generously donated it to the Hall Committee. (17)
Major General Charles Frederick Cox CB, CMG, DSO, VD had seen action in the Boer War, and in World War 1 in the Dardanelles where he served with the (dismounted) Light Horse Brigades. He was wounded and sent back to hospital just days after arriving at Gallipoli in 1915 but returned later to continue service in the campaign until the evacuation of the peninsula. He served later with the Anzac Mounted Division in Egypt, the Sinai, Palestine, and Syria, including action at the battles of Magdhaba and Beersheba. Returning to Australia after the end of the war, he served with the Australian Military Forces commanding the 4th Light Horse Brigade in 1920, and the 1st Cavalry Division in 1921-23. He was elected to the Upper House of the Australian Parliament in 1919 and served as a Nationalist Senator until 1938. (18)
Fundraising continued throughout the year with, amongst other activities, a garden fete held in the local school ground during October 1924 featuring ‘picking a wife per medium’, ‘blowing bubbles in the good old country style’, and ‘a cooking competition’. Funds raised at stalls run by Mesdames Bicket, Kelly, Kennedy, Bellman, Harris, Butler, McQualter and others were donated to the School of Arts furnishing fund and ‘any persons wishing to make donations of chairs’ were asked to do so ‘in good time before the order is given for the furniture’. (19)
The Building:
The building opened in 1924. Entrance doors lead into the vestibule opening on either side to a Library and Reading Rooms. A spacious Hall and Stage extend beyond the doors of the vestibule.
Within a year of tenders being called the building, which could be described as Inter-War Free Classical in style, was completed and although Mr Smart of Sydney was earlier credited with drawing up the original design, a report of the Official Opening in the *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* named Mr J.H. Robertson of Narrandera as the architect and Messrs Hayes and Dixon as the contractors.
The official opening held on Wednesday 19 November 1924 was reported the following Friday in the *Narandera Argus* as a brilliant function. ‘No less than 400 sat down to a sumptuous banquet catered for by the ladies. It was a unique gathering, representative of all parts of the district, and everyone present was filled with enthusiasm and pride at the beautiful and substantial building…’ So many attended that there ‘was not enough room in the hall to seat the whole company at one sitting’ and arrangements had been made to ‘hold a dinner for one class and a dance for the younger people’. The hall was ‘beautifully decorated with greens and streamers and lighted with Aladdin lights’ and the ‘Arcadia Orchestra (Narandera) supplied the music’.
Mr George Henry McNeill occupied the chair, declared the building open and proposed the toast to the King. He asked Messrs Carr and Atkinson to unveil the memorial tablets in the porch on either side of the entrance to the Hall. The tablets, which had been donated by Mr F. Lindley of Narrandera, were of marble and engraved in gold with the names of 51 residents of the Grong Grong district who had served in the Great War. Eight of those named had ‘not been spared to return’ and in honouring them, Mr Hankinson (Narrandera) went on to give a long speech about the achievements of the A.I.F. and ‘was pleased to see that the deeds of those who enlisted from Grong Grong were to be kept green by the erection of the Commemoration Hall and School of Arts.’
Many more toasts were proposed – to the Returned Soldiers, to the Visitors from Narrandera, Coolamon, Matong, Ganmain and other centres, to several old boys who had spent their schools days in Grong Grong, to the British Empire to the accompaniment of Rule Britannia, to the district, to the ladies responsible for the excellent dinner, and finally to the Press.
The formalities ended with Mr J. Kennedy (Hon. Secretary) reading the balance sheet. Constructed of brick, the building, together with furnishings and lighting, cost approximately £3,000 and at the time of the Opening liabilities were in the vicinity of £1,031.
**Social History: 1924 - 1953**
To raise more funds to furnish and stock the Library and Reading Room, a concert and dance was held in the Commemoration Hall on Wednesday, 15th April, 1925. The importance of a School of Arts to the township of Grong Grong was passionately put in an article in the Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser of 24 April 1925: ‘Grong Grong is on the threshold of a new era, for never has the town before possessed a library and a reading room. Many people have long felt the need for both, and are happy to see realization of their desires; but it is the younger generation of boys and girls who are going to derive incalculable benefit from the institution’.
▶ The Library
It is still stocked with books, board games and other equipment used regularly by the local residents.
The Hall lived up to expectations. In a chapter about the Hall in *‘Grong Grong. The Spirit of a Small Town’*, the Grong Grong History Committee records the many plays performed in the early 1930s by the Dramatic Society including ‘Tilly from Bloomsbury’, ‘The Ghost Bird’, ‘Are You A Mason?’ and ‘The Best People’.
The Country Women’s Association (CWA), Diggers, Scottish Society and local churches all held their balls in the hall and in 1932 the Footballers’ Plain and Fancy Dress Ball attracted a big crowd. There were flower shows and regular dances, prize-givings and juvenile fancy dress balls. To prepare for functions, the dance floor was rubbed with sawdust, kerosene and candle wax.
Harry Choy, who with his brother Percy owned the local garage, ran picture shows every Saturday night with Laurence (Mo) Evans working the projectors. *‘A staircase led up from the committee room up to the projection room where the films were shown onto a screen.’* Because projectors used carbon arc lamps and there was danger of fire with celluloid film, the projection room had metal walls and a tin floor. There were two square holes in the wall for the projector and a rectangular hole *‘for the projectionist to view what was happening’*.
The annual School of Arts ball was an attractive event and was run on different lines each year. Although numbers were down during the Depression years, in 1931 *‘attendance was satisfactory in view of the times’*. The Ball took the form of a Black Cat Ball with the *‘mysterious appearance of his ghostliness, the Ghost’* and *‘the boiling of King Depression in a cauldron, around which a couple of little fairies danced’*. (20)
The institution was still feeling the economic restraints of the times when as President, Mr J. Kennedy outlined the activities of the School of Arts at the Annual General Meeting of 1936. A sports carnival and dance had been an outstanding success and plans were in place for something similar to be held for Eight-hour Day in early October. *‘Improvements to the water supply were carried out during the year and also to the picture loft, and talkies are now screened regularly.’*
The Grong Grong Dramatic Society had been ‘a great help not only from a pecuniary aspect but also for popularising the hall and the education of younger people.’ (21)
In 1939, the annual ball was held in June, three months before Australia entered World War II. The Hall was decorated in pastel shades of blue, lemon and pink and the Ganmain Revellers’ Orchestra provided the music. ‘The Jolly Miller proved a most popular number and was repeated more than once. Some of the novelty having worn off the Lambeth Walk, it was not so prominent a feature, but the Palais Glide is apparently going to take more lasting hold on dancers’. (22) Advertised a week earlier on 12 April and promising patrons ‘an enjoyable evening’, it appears that the Grong Grong Ball went ahead in 1940. However, at the Annual Meeting on 26 February 1941, it was resolved that the fortnightly dances which were proving exceedingly popular would be held in preference to the ball – ‘the ball involving a lot of work for a small return’. (23)
Not many big functions were held in the Hall during the war years and revenue was derived mainly from picture shows and socials. The local branch of Country Women’s Association (CWA) raised money towards a suitable supper room extension to the hall but the work was put on hold. The District News reported that ‘many soldiers had been farewelled and some welcomed home and given their certificates. A number are still to be entertained, and preparations are being made to secure a date that will be suitable for the majority’. (24)
A District News article in the Narandera Argus of Friday 20 May 1949 reported that in the twenty five years since its opening, the Commemoration Hall and contents had been well cared for by successive committees of management. The hall was free of debt with ‘sufficient surplus to allow the material for some minor repairs to the building and appointments’.
**Building Additions - War Memorial Fund:**
A well-attended public meeting convened by the Grong Grong War Memorial Committee was held in the School of Arts and Commemoration Hall on Wednesday, 12 August 1953, to consider proposed alterations and additions to the Hall to include a club room for ex-servicemen and a supper-room annex to the Hall. Costs would be covered by a War Memorial Fund and ‘when completed, these additions [would] not only fill a long felt want, but make the Grong Grong hall something to be proud of’. A full report on the history of the hall was presented by Mr K.J. Bicket who also outlined the proposed additions. Mr R.H. Cuthbert reported the legal position and certain technicalities arising that faced the Committee of the War Memorial Fund, stating that the Department of Education and the Chief Secretary would have to give consent. The School of Arts and Commemoration Hall committee, as the only borrowing authority, would become the Advisory Committee for the building work and this request would be presented to that committee at its next meeting. After general discussion and consideration of the lowest tender, received from Mr H.S. Dixon for £6225/10/-, a motion moved by Mr Stapleton and seconded by Mr Guymer read that ‘All funds now held by the War Memorial Fund be transferred to the School of Arts and Commemoration Hall Fund when required’. (25)
Liquid assets of the Grong Grong War Memorial Fund amounted to £3019/2/3 at the time of the meeting and Mr Bicket estimated that an extra £3500 would be needed to complete the hall. This amount would be made available by a loan through the Bank of New South Wales. Mr Snare moved ‘that a collection be made throughout the district by the Advisory Committee for cash and interest free debentures to augment present funds’. (26)
The hall committee obtained the services of architects Louis S. Robertson of Sydney and his brother John Hill Robertson of Narrandera to finalise the plans for the proposed additions.
Outline plans for the additions to the building, including a separate entrance and porch to the extension (in green at left) and extensive supper room and kitchen accommodation.
The original building plan (at right in grey) shows the Hall, with entry porch, vestibule, and library and reading room either side of the entry
Wing Commander William Brill, DSO, DFC & Bar unveiled the foundation stone for the additions on June 23rd 1954.
William Lloyd Brill DSO DFC and Bar, or Billy Brill, as he was known to the locals, was born in nearby Ganmain as the fourth of seven children and farmed his parents’ property ‘Clearview’ until joining the RAAF in 1940. He trained as a pilot at the RAAF base at Narrandera and later in Canada. Posted to the UK as a bomber pilot, Brill had a distinguished war record serving in Nos 460, 463, and 467 Squadrons of the RAAF, flying first Wellington and later Lancaster aircraft in bombing raids over Europe. He remained in the Air Force after the war commanding air bases at Rathmines, Canberra, and Townsville before serving two terms as Director of Personnel Services for the RAAF. He died of a heart attack in October 1964 at the age of 48 during a posting with the Department of Air in Canberra. (27)
The Grong Grong History Committee records that after the alterations to the building were made, ‘the hall became a great place of entertainment. Fund raising activities in the form of Pork and Port Nights, Mock Weddings and Prawn and Chicken Variety Nights took place.’
However, in 1959, with repairs to the hall roof and clubrooms, as well as replastering and repainting needed for some of the rooms, funds were short and the debt for the additions was not being reduced. The Hall Committee proposed a number of innovative activities including an annual Gymkhana that was held on blocks behind the golf course and set up from scratch by volunteers. Local station owners also allowed the Hall Committee to crop some of their land in an effort to clear the debt. ‘All work on this project, together with machinery, fuel, seed, fertilizer, and cartage, was voluntary or donated’. (28) It was a wonderful community effort and later a new toilet block was added in the 1970s.
Currently (2018):
Over the years, the Hall has been the venue for regular billiard mornings, piano lessons, dramatic and musical society productions, badminton competitions, line dancing, dancing classes, bush dances, old time dances, games nights, picnic races under lights, debutante balls, fundraisers, market days, weddings and wakes. The spacious hall, together with its extensive facilities, including a large supper room and a modern kitchen recently installed with funding from a government grant, provide excellent accommodation for the many functions held there.
As in the 1930s, amateur plays became popular again in the 1980s and 1990s and the Grong Grong - Matong Musical & Dramatic Society staged numerous musical shows including Guys and Dolls, The Continental Quilt, The Secret Service Show, Bye Bye Birdie, Annie get your Gun, South Pacific, Oklahoma, The Pajama Game, and Grease. Costumes and props still exist and attest to the high standard of the productions.
Each show was commemorated with a bottle of vintage port labelled and dated for the particular musical.
- The Ticket Office – moveable, and used as required.
An Over-50s Club meets fortnightly in the reading room of the School of Arts and the Grong Grong Progress Association and Grong Grong Hall Committee arrange special events and regular outreach meetings for the community.
In 2015, there was the realisation of a project to provide new Honour Rolls to be erected in a position that would be publicly accessible, rather than closed inside the building. Money for this project came from the Centenary of Anzac NSW government funding, together with private donations from local citizens. The new memorials were unveiled on 20 June 2015, the weekend date being closest to that when the foundation stones for both the original building commemorating World War 1 servicemen and the addition for those who fought in World War 2 were unveiled: 23 June 1924 and 23 June 1954.
One name has been added to the WW I memorial, formerly missing from all of the three rolls that had been earlier produced for servicemen from Grong Grong. As well, the Honour Rolls include corrections to the spelling of some names. Ninety names of WW1 diggers are listed, including sixteen noted as killed in action. The prime mover behind the project, Mr Mick Batchelor, arranged for a display of military memorabilia in the School of Arts as part of the commemoration ceremony.
The Honour Roll for WW I includes a plaque affixed below to commemorate four local servicemen who were awarded the Military Medal (MM).
The community has also re-instated an Anzac Service, held outside the Commemorative Hall, with local children placing wreaths woven from rosemary, sage and bay leaves under the Grong Grong and District Honour Roll of the Great War 1914–1918. Descendants of members of the Light Horse, on horseback and in full uniform, provide the guard. The story behind one of the names on the Roll is related as part of the ceremony. It is planned to continue this recognition for one serviceman each year.
Inside the Hall, a display of Light Horse, World War I and II memorabilia tells the history of the town’s contribution.
The Narrandera Shire Council in a statement of heritage significance lists the War Memorial and Commemoration Hall & School of Arts at Grong Grong as ‘the finest building in the town’ because of ‘its aesthetic qualities and contribution to streetscape’. It is the town’s heart and the centre of activity, much appreciated by local residents.
The story of the Grong Grong Hall reflects the ‘can do’ personality of a tiny but vibrant town and the role that the School of Arts movement played in developing community values and unity.
**A Footnote:**
Although it still raises local eyebrows, no story of Grong Grong would be complete without mention of the town’s claim to be the home of the Neenish Tart. In an article headed ‘Mystery of the Neenish Tart’, the *Narrandera Argus* of 29 October 2016 related the long held belief that this Australian icon originated in the kitchen of one Mrs Ruby Neenish of Grong Grong when she ran out of cocoa and topped her tarts with half each of brown and white icing. Some locals had hoped to erect a ‘Big Neenish Tart’ as a tourist attraction but the story was debunked when a former resident, Douglas Evans, owned up on ABC radio in July that year to fabricating the story in a letter he had written to the *Sydney Morning Herald* in 1988. The origin of the Neenish Tart remains a mystery.
Acknowledgements:
My grateful thanks to those who have assisted my research for this account of the Commemorative Hall and School of Arts at Grong Grong:
- Fiona McPherson, archivist at the offices of the Narrandera Shire Council
- Gemma Meier and Stan Alkemade, residents of Grong Grong
References:
1. *Information Sheet* - Grong Grong Progress Association
2. *Grong Grong: The Spirit of a Small Town* - Grong Grong History Committee – Brotherhood Books ISBN:00010000011961)
3. ………. Ibid
4. *Information Sheet* - Grong Grong Progress Association
5. Trove, *Sydney Morning Herald* (NSW 1842 1954) - 15 October 1894
*Gold Discoveries at Grong Grong*
6. *Narrandera Argus* - 31 January 2017
7. Trove *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser (NSW: 1893 – 1953)* – 17 September 1953 in an article by ‘Observer’ – *A Panorama of Progress in Grong Grong.*
8. Trove .. *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* – 12 July 1921
9. …………Ibid – 2 August 1921
10. …………Ibid – 1 November 1921
11. …………Ibid – 17 August 1923
12. Biographical information: John Hill Robertson - www.genealogy.com
13. Trove .. *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* - 17 June 1924
14. ……………Ibid – 27 June 1924
15. *Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB) Vol 8* 1981
A.J. Hill, ‘Cox, Charles Frederick (1893-1944)’.
16. Trove.. *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* – 27 June 1924
17. …………Ibid – 17 June 1924
18. *Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB) Vol 8* 1981
A.J.Hill, ‘Cox, Charles Frederick (1893-1944)’
19. Trove .. *Daily Advertiser (Wagga Wagga)* – 25 October 1924
20. Trove .. *Narandera Argus and Riverina Advertiser* – 11 September 1931
21. ………..Ibid – 29 May 1936
22. …………Ibid – 30 June 1939
23. …………Ibid – 28 February 1941
24. …………Ibid – 16 April 1946
25. …………Ibid – 20 August 1953
26. …………Ibid – 20 August 1953
27. *Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB) Vol 13* 1993
Brian Eaton, ‘Brill William Lloyd (1916-1964)’.
28. *Grong Grong: The Spirit of Small Town* … op cit
Photos: Marlena Jeffery and Helen Creagh
Archival Photos: Google: Sir Ralph Darling
Charles Sturt;
ADB: Major General CF Cox;
Wing Commander William Brill
Contributor: Marlena Jeffery National Vice President Association of ADFAS
Member ADFAS Canberra
ADFAS Canberra May 2018 | 68dfd638-dc6b-4fd4-8994-9b1fe7123001 | CC-MAIN-2024-38 | https://www.artsnational.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Grong-Grong-NSW.pdf | 2024-09-08T18:27:03+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-38/segments/1725700651017.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20240908181815-20240908211815-00617.warc.gz | 620,443,673 | 8,537 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.924918 | eng_Latn | 0.997654 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1240,
4383,
7418,
10480,
13317,
16816,
18817,
20178,
21300,
22373,
24530,
27833,
29688,
32028,
33241,
35188,
37170,
37451
] | [
2.625,
1.625
] | 2 | 0 |
RA60 Disk Drive Maintenance Course
Workbook I
RA60 Disk Drive Maintenance Course
Workbook I
Videotape Lessons 1 Through 5
A Portion of Course EY-1173E-V0-VU01
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY
Prepared by Educational Services
Digital Equipment Corporation
Copyright (c) 1983, Digital Equipment Corporation
All Rights Reserved
The material in this manual is for information purposes and is subject to change without notice.
Digital Equipment Corporation assumes no responsibility for any errors which may appear in this manual.
Printed in U.S.A.
Class A Computing Devices
Notice: This equipment generates, uses, and may emit radio frequency energy. The equipment has been type tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class A computing device pursuant to Subpart J of Part 15 of FCC Rules which are designed to provide reasonable protection against such radio frequency interference when operated in a commercial environment. Operation of this equipment in a residential area may cause interference, in which case, the user at his own expense may be required to take corrective measures.
The following are trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation, Maynard, Massachusetts:
| Dec | DECnet | OMNIBUS |
|-----------|-----------------|-----------|
| DECUS | DECsystem-10 | OS/8 |
| DIGITAL | DECSYSTEM-20 | PDT |
| Digital Logo | DECwriter | RSTS |
| PDP | DIBOL | RSX |
| UNIBUS | EduSystem | VMS |
| VAX | IAS | VT |
| UDA50 | MASSBUS | RA80 |
| HSC50 | RA60 | RA81 |
# CONTENTS
| Lesson | Page |
|-------------------------|------|
| **Lesson 1: Part Location** | 1 |
| Introduction | 3 |
| Objectives | 3 |
| Resources | 3 |
| Summary | 5 |
| Exercises | 13 |
| Solutions | 14 |
| **Lesson 2: Drive Installation** | 15 |
| Introduction | 17 |
| Objectives | 17 |
| Resources | 17 |
| Summary | 19 |
| Exercises | 28 |
| Solutions | 30 |
| **Lesson 3: Drive Operation** | 31 |
| Introduction | 33 |
| Objectives | 33 |
| Resources | 33 |
| Summary | 35 |
| Exercises | 44 |
| Solutions | 46 |
| **Lesson 4: Part Replacement** | 47 |
| Introduction | 49 |
| Objectives | 49 |
| Resources | 49 |
| Summary | 50 |
| Exercises | 65 |
| Solutions | 67 |
## LESSON 5: HAND-HELD TERMINAL
| Section | Page |
|--------------------------|------|
| INTRODUCTION | 70 |
| OBJECTIVES | 70 |
| RESOURCES | 70 |
| SUMMARY | 72 |
| EXERCISES | 76 |
| SOLUTIONS | 77 |
### ILLUSTRATIONS
| FIG. NO. | Description | Page |
|----------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| 1 | Front and Exterior of RA60 | 7 |
| 2 | Rear View of RA60 Drive Cabinet | 8 |
| 3 | RA60 Diskwell Area | 9 |
| 4 | RA60 Front Internal Parts | 10 |
| 5 | RA60 Rear Internal Parts | 11 |
| 6 | RA60 Power Supply Assembly | 12 |
| 7 | RA60 Rear Safety Labels | 22 |
| 8 | RA60 Slide Drive Restraint Mechanism | 23 |
| 9 | Rear View of RA60 READY Cap | 24 |
| 10 | Voltage and Frequency Range Configurations | 25 |
| 11 | Location of Head Locking Pin | 26 |
| 12 | I/O Bulkhead Connector | 27 |
| 13 | RA60 Control Panel | 39 |
| 14 | RA60 Cover Latch Button | 40 |
| 15 | RA60 Disk Pack Bottom Cover Removal | 41 |
| 16 | Mesh Canister Cover with Disk Pack Teeth | 42 |
| 17 | Drive Cover Removal | 52 |
| 18 | Installation of the Absolute Filter Clamp | 53 |
| 19 | Spindle Motor Connectors | 54 |
| 20 | Logic Module Locations | 55 |
| 21 | Power Supply Connectors | 56 |
| 22 | Removal of the Transformer Assembly | 57 |
| 23 | Location of the Cap/Rectifier Assembly | 58 |
| 24 | Physical Head Location | 59 |
| 25 | Installation of the Head Insertion Tool | 60 |
| 26 | Close-up of the Preamp Module | 61 |
| 27 | Drive Connector Overview | 62 |
| 28 | DC Fan Location | 63 |
| 29 | The Hand-Held Terminal | 75 |
| 30 | Shift Key Functions | 75 |
LESSON 1: PART LOCATION
INTRODUCTION
This videotape lesson introduces the RA60 Disk Drive and shows the location of all drive parts.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to locate all the RA60 Field Replaceable Units (FRUs).
RESOURCES
The resources required for this lesson are:
- Videotape player
- Video monitor
- RA60 videotape
- RA60 Disk Drive User Guide (EK-ORA60-UG)
- RA60 Disk Drive Service Manual (EK-ORA60-SV)
NOTE
At this time, look at the RA60 Part Location videotape module.
PART LOCATION
SUMMARY
The RA60 Disk Drive has the following features.
- Removable media
- 205 megabytes of data storage (16 bit format)
- Operates on the SDI cable
Figure 1 shows the front and exterior drive parts.
- Front bezel
- Control panel
- Front cover latch button
- Front cover
- Rear cover
Figure 2 shows the rear of the drive and cabinet parts.
- Rear cabinet door
- I/O bulkhead
- I/O bulkhead connector
- SDI cables
- Power controller
- Power controller circuit breaker
- Drive circuit breaker
- DC fans
Figure 3 shows the drive diskwell parts.
- Diskwell assembly
- Disk spindle
- Read/write heads
PART LOCATION
Figure 4 shows the drive front internal parts.
- Absolute filter
- Spindle motor assembly
Figure 5 shows the drive rear internal parts.
- Positioner motor
- Preamp module
- Logic cage
- Drive logic module
- ASCII port connector
- SDI interface module
- Post amp/data separator module
- Transformer assembly
- Power supply assembly
- Cap rectifier assembly
Figure 6 shows the following three power supply assembly modules.
- Motor control module
- Regulator module
- Heat sink module
NOTE
At this time, answer the exercise questions.
Figure 1 Front and Exterior of RA60
Figure 2 Rear View of RA60 Drive Cabinet
Figure 3 RA60 Diskwell Area
Figure 4 RA60 Front Internal Parts
Figure 5 RA60 Rear Internal Parts
PART LOCATION
Figure 6 RA60 Power Supply Assembly
EXERCISES
1. How is the front cover of the RA60 Disk Drive opened?
A. By pushing the cover latch button when power is either on or off
B. By turning the hex lock key clockwise
C. By pushing the cover latch button when power is on
D. By turning the hex lock and pushing the cover latch button
2. Where is the absolute filter located?
A. At the rear of the drive
B. Under the positioner motor
C. On the inside of the front bezel
D. Under the diskwell assembly
3. Where is the preamp module located?
A. On the positioner motor assembly
B. In the logic cage
C. On the heat sink assembly
D. On the chassis side wall
SOLUTIONS
1. C. The front cover may be opened by pushing the cover latch button, but only when the drive power is on. The button will not release the cover if the power is off or if the spindle is still turning.
2. D. The absolute filter is mounted on the bottom of the diskwell assembly.
3. A. The preamp module is mounted onto a bracket at the front of the positioner motor assembly.
NOTE
Continue to Lesson 2, Drive Installation.
LESSON 2: DRIVE OPERATION
INTRODUCTION
This videotape lesson shows the service person how to prepare and install the RA60 Disk Drive for customer operation.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to describe the installation procedure using the RA60 Disk Drive User Guide as a reference.
RESOURCES
The resources required for this lesson are:
- Videotape player
- Video monitor
- RA60 videotape
- RA60 Disk Drive User Guide (EK-ORA60-UG)
- RA60 Disk Drive Service Manual (EK-ORA60-SV)
NOTE
At this time, look at the Drive Installation videotape lesson.
SUMMARY
Drive Cabinet Capacity
Each RA60 drive cabinet can hold up to three disk drives. This may be a mixture of RA60s, RA80s, and RA81s.
Safety Labels
There are three safety labels located on the back of the RA60 Disk Drive. Refer to Figure 7.
- Label 1 gives the current drive voltage and frequency settings.
- Label 2 cautions the service person to extend the cabinet stabilizer foot before sliding the drive to its service position. Refer to Figure 8.
- Label 2 also cautions the service person to reengage the slide restraint mechanism after working on the disk drive.
WARNING
If the slide restraint mechanism is not locked after servicing the drive, the cabinet can accidently tip over on an operator trying to load a disk pack. The slide lock prevents the drive from being slid beyond the operator position.
- Label 3 cautions the user to find out what voltage and frequency the drive is set for before applying power. As mentioned earlier, the voltage and frequency setting is given on Label 1.
Future disk drives will have two new safety labels on the diskwell assembly. One label, on the front right side of the diskwell, cautions the operator to remove the disk pack only after disk rotation has stopped. Normally, a cover interlock prevents the operator from opening the cover before disk rotation has stopped. If the interlock fails, the label gives a warning in several languages.
The second label on the diskwell assembly will be located on the inside rear wall of the diskwell. This label cautions the drive installer to remove the head locking pin. This is a new feature planned for future drives to allow the head locking pin to be removed through the diskwell opening, rather than from
DRIVE INSTALLATION
inside the drive. When the locking pin is removed from the locked position hole, it is stored in the adjacent storage hole. A disk pack cannot be loaded into the drive while this carriage locking pin is still in the locked position.
READY Indicator Cap
The READY indicator cap on the drive control panel serves as both a READY indicator light and as the drive unit address plug. The drive unit address is set by cutting off plastic tabs on the rear of the READY cap. Figure 9 shows the rear view of the READY cap. Note the binary values assigned to the plastic tabs. You may program any number from 0 to 251 into this plug. Software requirements make the numbers from 252 to 255 invalid. It is important to note the drive number you wish to use before you break off the plastic tabs because the process is irreversible. If it is done incorrectly, obtain a new READY cap.
Voltage and Frequency Range
The voltage and frequency range of the RA60 may be changed internally for either 120 volt 60 hertz operation or 240 volt 50 hertz operation. Figure 10 shows the voltage switch and frequency plug configuration for both ranges.
Head Locking Pin
The head locking pin keeps the read/write heads from sliding forward during shipment. The location of the head locking pin is shown in Figure 11. During installation, remove the head locking pin from its shipping hole and place it in its storage hole.
Engineering is planning to redesign the carriage assembly so that the head locking pin may be removed through the diskwell opening rather than by removing the rear cover. In this new design, the head locking pin will be located on the front of the carriage assembly. During installation, the pin must be unscrewed from its locked position and screwed into the storage hole. Until this is done, a disk pack cannot be mounted into the drive.
SDI Cables
The external SDI cables plug into the bottom of the I/O bulkhead connector shown in Figure 12. The internal SDI cables plug into the top of the I/O bulkhead connector. Note that the I/O bulkhead connector is removed from the I/O bulkhead bracket to ease the installation of the external SDI cables. Note also that the RA60 does not require power sequencing cables like the RA80 and RA81 Disk Drives. This is because the RA60 uses a dc spindle motor that requires significantly less start up power than the other two drives.
Diagnostics
After the RA60 drive has been installed, the drive ROM-based diagnostics will check out the drive sanity when you power up the drive.
Next, you should test the drive operation under system control. This is done by running the four subsystem diagnostic tests. On VMS systems, these are called EVRLA. On PDP-11 RSTS systems, these are called CZUDC. These diagnostics run under their respective diagnostic supervisor programs.
The four subsystem diagnostic tests are:
- Test 1: UDA50 diskless test
- Test 2: Runs the drive-resident diagnostics
- Test 3: Performs a drive seek test
- Test 4: Performs a read/write test on the diagnostic cylinders only
After running the four subsystem diagnostic tests, run the subsystem exerciser program (UETP or DBEXER) for your appropriate operating system.
Figure 7 RA60 Safety Labels
Figure 8 RA60 Drive Slide Restraint Mechanism
DRIVE INSTALLATION
Figure 9 Rear View of RA60 READY Cap
Figure 10 Voltage and Frequency Range Configurations
Figure 11 Location of the Head Locking Pin
Figure 12 I/O Bulkhead Connector
EXERCISES
1. Which disk drives may be used in the RA60 drive cabinet?
A. Only RA60 Disk Drives
B. Only RA60 and RA80 Disk Drives
C. Only RA60 and RA81 Disk Drives
D. All three types of RA drives may be mixed
2. What should you do to keep the drive cabinet from tipping when installing an add-on disk drive?
A. Make sure that the cabinet is resting on its leveller feet instead of the wheels.
B. Tilt the front of the cabinet up slightly.
C. Extend the cabinet stabilizer foot forward.
D. Have two persons hold the cabinet while the new drive is added.
3. How is the drive unit address plug programmed?
A. With tabs on the back of the READY indicator cap
B. With jumpers on the backplane
C. With jumpers on the control panel
D. With microswitches on the drive logic module
4. How do you change the frequency range of the RA60 drive?
A. With a switch on the regulator module
B. By installing a new transformer assembly
C. By interchanging the position of the two frequency plugs on the transformer assembly
D. With the voltage range switch on the transformer assembly
5. What is the first thing you should check if a newly installed RA60 will not load the read/write heads onto the disks?
A. Check if the motor control module is bad.
B. Check if the head locking pin was left in its shipping hole.
C. Check if the drive logic module is bad.
D. Check if the heat sink module is bad.
SOLUTIONS
1. D. The RA60, RA80, and RA81 Disk Drives may all be mixed in the same drive cabinet.
2. C. Extend the cabinet stabilizer foot to prevent the cabinet from tipping when you are installing an add-on drive or when you are servicing a drive.
3. A. The drive unit address is programmed by cutting off plastic tabs on the back of the READY indicator cap.
4. C. The frequency range of the RA60 is changed by interchanging the position of the two frequency plugs on top of the transformer assembly.
5. B. The first thing to check is whether the head locking pin is still in the shipping hole on the positioner motor assembly. This is the easiest of the corrective actions you can take, and in the case of a newly installed drive, it is the most likely cause of the problem. Remember that on the new RA60s, the head locking pin will be on the front of the positioner motor assembly rather than on the top.
LESSON 3: DRIVE OPERATION
INTRODUCTION
This videotape lesson describes the functions of the control panel switches and indicators. It also shows how to load and unload an RA60 disk pack.
OBJECTIVES
At the completion of this lesson, you will be able to describe the function of each control panel switch and describe how to load and unload an RA60 disk pack.
RESOURCES
The resources required for this lesson are:
- Videotape player
- Video monitor
- RA60 videotape
- RA60 Disk Drive User Guide (EK-ORA60-UG)
- RA60 Disk Drive Service Manual (EK-ORA60-SV)
NOTE
At this time, look at the Drive Operation videotape lesson.
SUMMARY
The control panel consists of the following five switches and one plug. Figure 13 shows a close-up of the control panel module.
- RUN/STOP switch
- FAULT switch
- READY cap
- WRITE PROTECT switch
- PORT A switch
- PORT B switch
RUN/STOP Switch
After the disk pack is loaded, push the RUN/STOP switch to initiate the disk spin-up sequence. The RUN/STOP indicator will light immediately and stay on as long as the spindle is turning. Release the RUN/STOP switch to initiate the spin-down sequence. The RUN/STOP indicator will go off only after the spindle has stopped.
If the RUN/STOP switch is released during the middle of a read or write operation, the drive will complete all outstanding read and write commands issued by the disk controller before spinning down.
If the RUN/STOP switch was already pushed before power is applied, the switch must be reset by releasing it and pushing it in again before you can start the spin-up sequence.
FAULT Switch
If the FAULT indicator is not on, you may push in the FAULT switch to perform a control panel lamp test. All the indicators will stay on as long as the FAULT switch is held in.
The FAULT indicator will light whenever there is a serious fault condition in the drive. The FAULT indicator may go off by itself if the fault cause was software correctable with a DRIVE CLEAR command. If the fault is not software correctable, the FAULT indicator will stay on until the physical cause of this condition is removed.
When the FAULT indicator is on, you may display the blinking hexadecimal fault code in the control panel indicators by pushing the FAULT switch once. Tables interpreting these control panel hexadecimal fault codes are found in the RA60 User Guide, RA60 Service Manual, and RA60 Maintenance Guide. The blinking fault code will remain displayed until the FAULT button is pushed a second time. If successful, the fault will be cleared and the FAULT indicator will go out. If unsuccessful, the FAULT indicator will stay on and the failing unit must be replaced.
READY Cap
The READY cap serves both as a drive ready indicator and as a drive unit address plug. The READY indicator will light after the RUN/STOP switch has been pushed and the drive has completed a successful spin-up sequence. This process takes about 45 seconds. The READY light indicates that the drive is ready to receive read and write commands. The light will go off when the drive is performing seek operations or when the RUN/STOP switch is released to spin-down the disks.
As shown in the drive installation lesson, the READY cap also serves as a drive unit address plug. The drive unit address is selected by cutting off the plastic tabs on the back of the READY cap.
WRITE PROTECT Switch
Push in the WRITE PROTECT switch to disable the write circuitry and prevent the data from being written on the disk. The WRITE PROTECT indicator should light whenever the WRITE PROTECT switch is pushed in, and the indicator should be off whenever the switch is released.
PORT A and B Switches
The RA60 is a dual ported drive that can be controlled from two disk controllers. The PORT A and B switches determine which disk controller can have access to the drive. Push in the PORT A switch to make the disk drive available to a controller through
port A. Similarly, push in the PORT B switch to make the drive available to a controller on port B. If both PORT switches are pushed, the drive will be available to either disk controller when it is not busy on the other port. When both PORT A and B switches are released, the drive is not available to any disk controllers.
Loading the RA60 Disk Pack
The steps for loading the RA60 disk pack into the drive are as follows.
1. Push the cover latch button on the front of the drive and raise the front cover. Refer to Figure 14.
2. Pick up the disk pack by its handle and remove its bottom cover by squeezing the two slides together underneath it. Refer to Figure 15.
3. Lower the disk pack onto the spindle hub.
4. Hold the storage canister with one hand and rotate the pack handle to the right about three revolutions until it is snug.
5. Give one last twist to the pack handle and lift the storage canister off the pack.
6. Close the front cover of the drive, making sure that it is properly latched.
7. Push in the RUN/STOP button and wait for the READY indicator to light. The drive will then be ready to receive read and write commands.
Unloading the RA60 Disk Pack
The steps for unloading an RA60 disk pack from the drive are as follows.
1. Release the RUN/STOP switch to spin-down the disks.
2. Wait for the RUN/STOP indicator light to go off, an indication that the disks have stopped rotating.
3. Push in the cover latch button on the front of the drive and raise the front cover.
4. Pick up the disk pack storage canister by its handle and lower it over the disk pack in the diskwell.
DRIVE OPERATION
5. Twist the canister slightly until it locks into the ring of teeth near the center of the disk pack. Refer to Figure 16.
6. Hold the plastic canister with one hand while rotating the pack handle to the left for six full revolutions. The current RA60 does not have a spindle lock like other drives, so you will not hit a stop when twisting the pack handle to the left. Future RA60s will have a spindle lock.
7. Raise the disk pack out of the diskwell by the pack handle and restore the bottom pack cover on the canister by squeezing the bottom slides.
8. Close the front cover of the drive when not in use to keep dust out.
DRIVE OPERATION
Figure 13 RA60 Control Panel
Figure 14 RA60 Cover Latch Button
Figure 15 RA60 Disk Pack Bottom Cover Removal
Figure 16 Mesh Canister Cover with Disk Pack Teeth
EXERCISES
1. Which of the following statements is true if the RUN/STOP switch was pushed when drive power is applied?
A. The RUN/STOP switch must be released and pushed again to spin-up the drive.
B. The drive will spin-up automatically on power up.
C. The drive will pause 30 seconds before spin-up after power is applied.
D. The RUN/STOP switch will have to be reset while power is off.
2. How do you display the control panel fault code after the FAULT light comes on?
A. Push the RUN/STOP switch once to display the fault code.
B. Push the WRITE PROTECT switch once to display the fault code.
C. Push the FAULT switch once to display the fault code.
D. Push the FAULT switch twice to display the fault code.
3. What is indicated when the READY light is on?
A. That disk power is on
B. That the disks are in the process of spinning up
C. That the disk spin-up sequence is complete and the drive is ready to read and write
D. That the drive is performing a seek command
4. Which indicator cap serves as a drive unit address plug?
A. The RUN/STOP indicator cap
B. The READY indicator cap
C. The FAULT indicator cap
D. The WRITE PROTECT indicator cap
5. What is the state of the drive when both PORT A and B are pressed in?
A. The drive is accessible to a disk controller only through port A.
B. The drive is accessible to a disk controller only through port B.
C. The drive is accessible to a disk controller on both port A and B.
D. The drive is not accessible to disk controllers on either port.
6. What is the proper way to load a disk pack on an RA60?
A. Hold the canister with one hand and turn the handle counterclockwise.
B. Hold the canister with one hand and turn the handle clockwise.
C. Hold the canister with both hands and turn the canister clockwise.
D. Hold the canister with both hands and turn the cannister clockwise.
SOLUTIONS
1. A. The RUN/STOP switch must be released and pushed again if it was already pushed before the drive power was applied.
2. C. If the FAULT light is already on, the FAULT switch need only be pushed once to display the blinking hexadecimal fault code.
3. C. When the READY light is on, it means that the disk spin-up sequence is complete and that the drive is now ready to read and write.
4. B. The READY indicator cap is the only one that serves as a drive unit address plug.
5. D. When both drive port switches are in their out positions, the drive is off-line and not available to any disk controllers.
6. B. Hold the canister with one hand and turn the handle clockwise.
NOTE
At this time, continue to the next lesson.
LESSON 4: PART REPLACEMENT
INTRODUCTION
This videotape lesson shows the service person how to remove all the RA60 field replaceable units (FRUs). Before you view the video segment on part replacement, open your RA60 Service Manual to Chapter 2. Take a few minutes to review this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to identify the procedures in the RA60 Service Manual for the removal of all the FRUs within the RA60 Disk Drive.
RESOURCES
The resources required for this lesson are:
- Videotape player
- Video monitor
- RA60 videotape
- RA60 Disk Drive Service Manual (EK-ORA60-SV)
NOTE
At this time, view the Part Replacement videotape sequence and then return to your workbook summary on the next page.
SUMMARY
This lesson has shown you how to remove all the FRUs in the RA60 Disk Drive. While you are not expected to memorize the procedures you have seen, you are expected to know how to use your RA60 Service Manual as a reference on service calls. There is useful information in the this manual, so use it to your advantage to properly maintain the RA60.
The following are a few points you should remember when removing the FRUs shown in the video portion of this lesson.
- Before you remove any FRU, turn off the power to the drive.
- When you use any procedure requiring the front cover to be lifted or removed, turn off the drive power after you lift the cover.
- Before removing any FRU, consult the part replacement flow chart in the service manual to see what other FRUs must be removed first.
- Use the illustrations given in this workbook to help you locate the FRUs in the RA60.
- Refer to Figure 17 to see how to gain access to the inside rear of the drive.
- When replacing the absolute filter, make sure that the filter clamp is installed in the position shown in Figure 18.
- When removing the spindle motor assembly, refer to Figure 19 for the location of the connectors.
- Refer to Figure 20 for the logic module locations in the logic cage.
- Refer to Figure 21 for an illustration of the power supply assembly connectors.
- Refer to Figure 22 for removing the transformer assembly.
- Figure 23 shows the location of the cap/rectifier assembly.
- Refer to Figure 24 to determine the physical location of the head number you wish to replace.
PART REPLACEMENT
- Refer to Figure 25 for use of the head insertion tool.
- Refer to Figure 26 for a close-up of the preamp module.
- Refer to Figure 27 for an overview of all the connector locations in the disk drive.
- Refer to Figure 28 for the locations of the dc fans.
NOTE
At this time, complete lesson 4 exercises.
PART REPLACEMENT
Figure 17 Drive Cover Removal
Figure 18 Installation of the Absolute Filter Clamp
Figure 19 Spindle Motor Connectors
Figure 20 Logic Module Locations
PART REPLACEMENT
Figure 21 Power Supply Connectors
Figure 22 Removal of the Transformer Assembly
Figure 23 Location of the Cap/Rectifier Assembly
Figure 24 Physical Head Location
Figure 25 Installation of Head Insertion Tool
Figure 26 Closeup of the Preamp Module
Figure 27 Drive Connector Overview
Figure 28 DC Fan Location
EXERCISES
1. Which is the correct sequence for removing the front bezel?
A. Remove the two screws on each side of the front bezel without sliding the drive forward.
B. Slide the drive forward and remove four screws from behind the front bezel.
C. Raise the front cover, slide the drive forward, and remove six screws from behind the front bezel.
D. Remove six screws from the front of the bezel without sliding the drive forward.
2. How is the absolute filter held in place?
A. With two screws
B. With a filter clamp
C. By force fit
D. With two metal clips
3. Which assemblies must be removed to replace the spindle motor assembly?
A. The front cover, front bezel, absolute filter, and diskwell assembly
B. The front cover and diskwell assembly
C. The front cover, diskwell assembly, and positioner motor assembly.
D. The front cover, front bezel, and diskwell assembly.
4. Which assemblies or parts must be removed to replace the post amp/data separator module.
A. The rear door, rear cover, and preamp module
B. The rear cover, rear shield, and drive logic module
C. The rear cover, rear shield, and SDI interface module
D. The rear cover, rear shield, and the P1 connector
5. Which of the following is the correct top to bottom order of the head cable plugs on the preamp module?
A. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
B. 0, 1, 4, 5, 2, and 3
C. 0, 1, 5, 4, 2, and 3
D. 0, 1, 4, 5, 3, and 2
SOLUTIONS
1. C. The correct sequence for removing the front bezel is to raise the front cover, slide the drive forward, and then remove six screws from behind the front bezel.
2. B. The absolute filter is held in place by means of a filter clamp.
3. A. To replace the spindle motor assembly, remove the rear cover, rear shield, front bezel, absolute filter, and diskwell assembly.
4. D. To replace the post amp/data separator module, remove the rear cover, rear shield and the P1 connector on the post amp/data separator module.
5. B. The correct top to bottom order of the head cable plugs on the preamp module is 0, 1, 4, 5, 2, and 3. Engineering chose this order to keep the A and B type head cables from crossing each other.
NOTE
At this time, continue to the next lesson.
LESSON 5: HAND-HELD TERMINAL
INTRODUCTION
This lesson introduces the field service diagnostic terminal. It explains the functions of the hand-held terminal buttons and some of the internal operations. The hand-held terminal is used to enter and display results of diagnostic tests on the RA60 Disk Drive. The terminal comes in the spares kit accompanied by an instruction card. The fault isolation lesson will give you more information on how the terminal is used to diagnose RA60 problems.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this module, the student will be able to identify the baud rate of the hand-held terminal and describe the purpose of each button.
RESOURCES
The resources required for this lesson are:
- Videotape player
- Video monitor
- RA60 videotape
- RA60 Disk Drive User Guide (EK-ORA60-UG)
- RA60 Disk Drive Service Manual (EK-ORA60-SV)
NOTE
At this time, view the Hand-Held Terminal videotape sequence.
SUMMARY
In your spares kit, you will find a hand-held terminal like the one shown in Figure 29. This terminal is used to communicate with the unit you are troubleshooting. It has a standard ASCII keypad and operates at 300 baud full duplex. It operates on an EIA RS-232 protocol connector located in the disk drive and requires an external five volt supply. Some other characteristics are:
- Two line LED display with 16 characters each
- Keypad with 4 characters per key
Character Keys
All of the keypad buttons have four characters on them. The center bottom character on each button is entered by pressing only that button. To enter one of the top three characters on a button, you must use the shift keys.
Shift Keys
There are three shift keys located on the right side of the hand-held terminal shown in Figure 30. One of these shift keys must be pushed simultaneously with a character key to enter one of the top three characters on a button.
The top shift key is used to enter the left-most character on the character button. The middle shift key is used to enter the middle character and the bottom shift key is used to enter the right-most character. Figure 33 gives a summary of this shift key use.
For example, to select a W, you must hold in the top shift key while you press the W character button. To select an X, you must hold in the middle shift key while you press the X character button. To select a Y, you must hold in the bottom shift key while you press the Y character button. The 9 character requires no shift key.
Delete Key
If you enter the wrong character by mistake, erase it by pressing the delete key. This key functions like the delete key on a hardcopy printer.
Control Characters
Selecting a control character is done differently than you would expect. Unlike a VT100, you do not hold the control key as
you press the other character. On the hand-held terminal, you press and release the control key and then select the character.
For example, to select a control "C"
1. Press and release the control key,
2. Hold in the bottom shift key,
3. Then press the C key.
**Internal Buffer**
Even though the hand-held terminal only displays 32 characters, the terminal has an internal buffer of 2,000 characters.
**Scroll Key**
The scroll key is a three position switch which is spring loaded to return to the center position. The scroll key allows you to move through the internal buffer 16 characters at a time.
When the scroll key is pushed down once, the display is scrolled up through the buffer by 16 characters. Push down and release the scroll key again to view another 16 characters.
Push on the scroll key again to cause the display to scroll down through the buffer by 16 characters.
**Arrow Keys**
The arrow keys move the display from one carriage return to another. The up arrow moves the display up through the buffer to the previous carriage return. The down arrow moves the display down to the next carriage return.
**Top and Bottom Keys**
The other keys that control the buffer are the top and bottom keys. These characters are located on the lower right hand key. The top key will move the display to the top of the internal buffer. The bottom key will move the display to the bottom of the internal buffer.
**Escape Key**
The ESC key is a standard ASCII character. It is not used on the hand-held terminal.
**X Off Key**
The X OFF key stops data from coming into the internal buffer. The X stands for transmit and X OFF represents transmit
HAND-HELD TERMINAL
off. Use this key to examine the buffer at your convenience.
X On Key
The X ON key allows data to come into the internal buffer again.
Continue Key
The continue key puts the terminal in a mode so it will not automatically send an X OFF character to the device when the buffer has been filled. This allows the data to stream through the buffer without stopping.
Clear Key
The clear key puts the terminal in a mode that automatically sends an X OFF to the device when the buffer is full. This is the default mode when power is applied to the terminal.
Case Key
The case key has no function on this model of the terminal.
NOTE
At this time, complete the module exercise.
Figure 29 The Hand-Held Terminal
Figure 30 Shift Key Functions
EXERCISES
1. To select one of the characters on the top of the keys you must
A. Press the scroll key.
B. Input a control C.
C. Hold in one of the shift keys while you press the character key.
D. Press the character key then press one of the shift keys.
2. To select the number 9
A. Press the top shift key and the 9 key.
B. Press and hold in the middle shift key while you press the 9 key.
C. Press the bottom shift key and the key.
D. Press the 9 key.
3. The hand-held terminal operates at
A. 300 baud full duplex
B. 600 baud full duplex
C. Receives at 300 baud, transmits at 1200 baud
D. A variable transmit and receive speed
4. The display scroll switch
A. Backs up or advances the display within the 2K buffer.
B. Corrects mistakes in keyboard entries.
C. Is used after typing a command string.
D. Causes the left-most character to be displayed.
SOLUTIONS
1. C. Hold in one of the shift keys while you press a character key to enter a character in the top row on the key.
2. D. To select the number 9, press the 9 key.
3. A. The hand-held terminal operates at 300 baud full duplex.
4. A. The display scroll switch backs up or advances the display within the 2K buffer.
NOTE
This completes the video portion of this course. At this time, continue on to the next workbook.
Digital Equipment Corporation • Bedford, MA. 01730 | 94ab3351-38b1-4dd3-a7bc-083f4d3737ea | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://manx-docs.org/collections/antonio/arc-db/EY-1173E-WB-0101.pdf | 2024-05-20T18:36:14+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058293.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20240520173148-20240520203148-00365.warc.gz | 341,106,039 | 8,618 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.924826 | eng_Latn | 0.996297 | [
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unkno... | true | rolmOCR | [
46,
250,
1626,
2715,
6222,
6247,
6742,
7363,
7918,
7955,
7997,
8026,
8062,
8097,
8150,
8801,
9239,
9266,
9819,
11535,
13934,
14743,
14773,
14820,
14932,
14976,
15010,
16129,
16448,
17362,
17389,
17990,
18946,
21283,
22894,
23540,
23622,
23669... | [
1.734375,
2.5625
] | 1 | 0 |
Cassava is highly perishable, in fact, within 4 days of harvest, the majority of tubers spoil and are no longer fit to eat. It is important that harvesting takes place quickly and the tubers are pulled from the ground undamaged to minimise crop losses, both as yield and economically.
**KEY POINTS**
- Farmers should harvest only the amount of crop that is needed for his market and should harvest close to the time that it is needed.
- Manual harvesting is labour intensive and should be done in a careful manner to minimize harmful impact on the tubers.
- Farmers on commercial farms have modified equipment to assist in the harvesting activity.
**Small Holding Farm**
Cassava planted on small plots are usually harvested by hand. The tops are cut off leaving a 60-90 cm piece of trunk still attached to the buried tubers.
This stalk is used as a lever to gently rock the tubers back and forth while the soil is loosened with a fork. If this method is applied with care, most of the tubers will be harvested undamaged.
Manual harvesting is very labour intensive, requiring skill and patience to not rock too vigorously and break all the tubers. The soil type and moistness must also be considered; harvesting is a lot easier on a sandy loam than a heavy clay, and generally easier on damp soil than dry soil. No special equipment is needed and since each plant is harvested individually, the tubers can remain in the ground until needed. This allows the farmer some leeway with markets; he can harvest when market prices are highest and only harvest the amount that can be sold.
Farmers can also use a lever to help uproot the tubers with minimal damage.
**Planters and Harvesters**
There are several machines that can be used for mechanised planting and harvesting of cassava. The machines are usually classed by the number of furrows they plant (and harvest) at a time, the one and two furrow models are suited for the Caribbean.
The machines require flat land that has already been ploughed and rotovated with the one row model being most tolerant of slopes. A tractor is required to pull the machine and to provide power to the cutting blades. One worker is needed to feed stakes for each row being planted. A two row cassava planter can plant up to 6 ha (14 acres) per day. Some machines allow fertiliser to be applied at the same time as planting.
A mechanical harvester uproots the cassava from the soil, removes most of the soil from the tubers which are then manually separated from the stem. Some machines can harvest 5 ha/day; it would take 22-51 man-days to harvest 1 hectare.
Mechanisation reduces the number of workers needed, an important consideration in Trinidad and Tobago, where labour is both expensive and in short supply.
**Commercial**
Most of the un-mechanised, commercial farmers harvest their cassava in a similar manner. Due to the scale of the operation, entire rows are harvested at the same time. Commercial farmers employ labour to harvest and the cost can be quite high since it is estimated that it takes between 22 to 51 man-hours to harvest a hectare (ha) of cassava.
**Mechanical Harvesting**
**Modified Tractors**
There are modifications some farmers have made to mould board ploughs that allow them to use the tractor to harvest the cassava. This has proven to be quite helpful, but it is done on an individual basis with each modification unique to that particular farmer and soil condition.
**SUMMARY**
*Harvesting is a critical activity since the tubers cannot withstand any damage and still remain viable.*
*Successful harvesting can be done manually semi-manually or mechanically, but land preparation is the key to harvesting tubers without damaging them.*
**References**
1) Shadrack K.A., Ahmad A. and Byju G. 2018. Review of various harvesting options for cassava. In: Vidurenga W. ed. Cassava. InTechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.71350. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/cassava/review-of-various-harvesting-options-for-cassava.
2) Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI). 2011. Commercial cassava production. CARDI Technical Bulletin Issue 5. 16 pgs.
3) Ospina Patiño, B., Cadavid, L. F., García, M. and Alcalde, C. 2012. Mechanized systems for planting and harvesting cassava (*Manihot esculenta* Crantz) In: Ospina, B. and Ceballos, H. eds. Cassava in the third millennium: Modern production, processing, use and marketing systems. pp. 374-394. CIAT, CTA.
*This fact sheet was produced under the project “Cassava Industry Development – Market Assessment and Technology Validation and Dissemination”. Funding was provided by the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The project was executed by the FAO in close collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries of the Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.* | dbe0e63f-aedc-4351-bd74-e75c48f8596e | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://agriculture.gov.tt/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Harvesting-methods-of-Cassava-for-both-printing-and-online-viewing-2.pdf | 2022-08-10T22:33:09+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571222.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20220810222056-20220811012056-00209.warc.gz | 121,979,421 | 1,091 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997461 | eng_Latn | 0.99729 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1025,
4920
] | [
2.421875
] | 1 | 0 |
THREE DAVIS BROTHERS IN THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES
William Ayres Davis was the first member of the William "Billy" Davis family to join the Confederate Army. He was 20 years old.
Ayres was enlisted in Elizabethtown Oct. 19, 1861 for three years by Capt. John A. Richardson, a physician and a friend of his father. He served as a private in Co. I, 36th Regiment under Captain John T. Melvin.
Hoyle Coston Davis, Ayres' brother, enlisted in Wilmington, Nov. 3, 1861 for two years, and was paid $50 bounty. He was 22 years old and had been working in his cooper shop, making four barrels a day. He joined his brother's regiment—Co. I, 36th Regiment, North Carolina Artillery at Fort Fisher. Uncle John Davis said Coston was the largest man in Bladen County, not fat, but big with enormous hands, and was noted for his strength.
John Richardson Davis wanted to join his older brothers. He ran away from home three times to enlist, and finally was successful when he enlisted for three years at Ft. Fisher in Captain Richardson's Co. (Bladen Artillery) North Carolina Volunteers, on Mar. 16, 1862. He was not yet 13, but he lied about his age. He joined his brother's regiment as Private, Co. I, 36th Regiment, North Carolina Troops, at Fort Fisher. He was 5' 6" tall, had blue eyes, auburn hair and florid complexion.
These Davis brothers were sons of William "Billy" Davis and Patience "Pasey" (Hall) Davis. Billy, who was almost 50 years old, lived on a farm near White Oak, North Carolina. White Oak is situated on Harrison Creek, an eastern branch of Cape Fear River, between Elizabethtown and Fayetteville.
Billy's oldest daughter Sophia was married. Children at home in 1862 were: Sallie, age 25; Nancy, 24; Mary, 16; Frances "Fanny" 14; Orphey, 12; Harrietta Caldonia, age 7; and two sons, Edmund Blake Davis, age 9; and the baby Rayford Hall Davis, age 4.
The loss of the services of his three older sons put the burden of the field work on his daughters. This was the fate of women all over the South. Sallie's husband was away in the war, and her son George was born that year. Nancy assumed the responsibility as overseer, and helped her father manage the planting, hoeing and harvesting of the crops (mostly corn and cotton) with the help of her younger sisters. There may have been slaves, I have no record of them.
The comradeship of the three brothers, Coston, Ayres and Rich, made separation from home easier to bear. They were accustomed to hard work and rough living. Many of their friends were also in the camp at Fort Fisher.
At first they were occupied with enlarging and reinforcing the Fort. Forty heavy guns were mounted to protect the blockade runners, which were the lifeblood of the Confederacy. The large majority of the blockade runners sailed under the British flag, commanded by British naval officers on leave of absence, seeking a fortune. Some made a profit of 700 percent! Blockade runners were not allowed to arm themselves, so had to rely on land guns to protect them from the Northern fleet.
Cotton was the main export. It was purchased in the South for 3¢ to 8¢ a pound, and brought from 40¢ to a dollar a pound in England. Munitions, machinery, leather, wool blankets, wool cloth for uniforms, drugs and medicines were the most important imports brought into the South on the return trip. North Carolina not only imported enough for her own troops, but distributed such to the troops of other Confederate States.
Wilmington was the most active and favored port for the blockade runners. The Cape Fear River had two entrances, only six miles apart, but large ships at sea going around the shoals from one entrance to the other had to travel about 40 miles. At first the Union Fleet did not have enough ships to blockade the port successfully. In 1861, the Union Fleet captured, burned or ran ashore one out of 10 blockade runners; in 1862, one out of 8; in 1863-64 one out of six; and by 1865, one out of two.
The Artillery unit to which the Davis brothers were attached had the responsibility of protecting the blockade runners as the ships tried to outmaneuver the Union Fleet, or were driven upon the beach. At first they cheered tightly when the blockade runners were successful, but as the war wore on and the blockade runners increased in number and their chance of survival fell, it became a grim business and not a game. If the Davis brothers served any place other than Fort Fisher, I do not have a record of it.
In July 1862 Coston came down with typhoid fever and was sent to the General Military Hospital No. 4 in Wilmington by his Capt. John T. Melvin, who had been a friend and neighbor in White Oak. Up to
this time, Coston had been present at each muster (held every two months) to receive his pay. He returned to duty, but never fully recovered his strength.
I have no record for him in 1863 until December, when he became ill again. Yellow fever was epidemic among the troops, and he was sent to Wilmington. Nancy, Coston's sister, took a river boat down the Cape Fear River to nurse him back to health, but this big, strong man had been so weakened by the ravages of disease and war, that all Nancy's ministrations could not help him regain his strength, and on Dec. 8, 1863 he died.
Nancy with the help of her brothers and their friends placed her brother's body in a special coffin (he was too big for an average coffin) and accompanied it on the long, sad journey back up the Cape Fear. A fearful blizzard was blowing, and the journey which ordinarily took 7 or 8 hours, was torturously slow, due to the weather and the slowness of "wooding up" with wet wood stacked at intervals along the shore. The icy wood burned with difficulty and caused engine breakdown. Doggedly the boat wound around horseshoe bends far into the night. It was 2 a.m. when they arrived at Dawson's Landing above Elizabethtown, which was as close as the steamboat could come to White Oak.
Uncle John said the Captain of the steamboat said afterwards, "One of the hardest things I ever had to do was go off and leave that girl and her burden on that landing in that terrible blizzard. I blew my whistle for 15 minutes, hoping someone would come down and get her, but I finally had to go on."
Somehow Nancy survived that night, and the next day a neighbor's wagon carried her and her brother home to their family. Coston was buried in an unmarked grave in Grassy Branch Cemetery, four miles north of White Oak.
Back at Fort Fisher the war continued and intensified. The pay vouchers for Ayres and Rich for July and Aug are the only records I have been able to find for them in 1864 until December, when the Confederate troops braced for the heaviest naval bombardment of land fortifications that had ever taken place until that time. It began on Christmas Eve and continued on Christmas Day. The Union landing party was driven off and the Union Navy retreated.
The Northern Fleet, with many reinforcements returned Jan. 13, 1865 and on Jan. 15, after bloody hand to hand fighting, the Confederates were finally overpowered and surrendered.
Wilmington and environs slowly fell before the steady onslaught of the armies of the North. A steamboat was commandeered on Jan. 21 and sent up the Cape Fear. The people along the river didn't need television to bring the news. The steady sound of the steamboat's whistle and the sight of the Star and Stripes streaming in the breeze brought the message. Fort Fisher had fallen and the Yanks were once more in possession of their homeland.
Both Ayres and Rich were captured Jan. 15, 1865 when Fort Fisher surrendered, and were sent to Elmira New York Prison, where they arrived Feb. 1, 1865.
Just to be in the army (North or South) during the Civil War was dangerous enough. Many more died of disease and malnutrition than in combat. To be a prisoner of war intensified that danger, for the fighting men had priority and there was very little left for the prisoners. The hospital surgeon at Elmira had complained about the desperate condition of the war prisoners—the high incidence of disease and death, the filth, the lack of food and medicine, no adequate shelter and clothing, or even straw to sleep on.
Ayres who was very ill was fortunate. He was chosen as one to be exchanged for a Union prisoner in a Southern prison hospital, and was transferred to the James River exchange on Mar. 2, 1865. The Southerns sent him to Jackson Hospital in Richmond, Virginia on Mar. 19, 1865. He was transferred to the GSA General Hospital #11 in Charlotte, North Carolina March 27, 1865. Diagnosis: Chronic diarrhoea. He was released May 8, 1865. The war had been over since Apr. 9, 1865. He was weak, but well enough to go home.
Rich remained at the prison in Elmira until after the war was over. On June 12, 1865 he took the Oath of Allegiance to United States and was released from prison. He walked home from Elmire, New York, a distance of approximately 500 miles.
Both Ayres and Rich married within 2 or 3 years of returning home and took up the peace-time problems of supporting and raising a family.
John Richardson Davis died at the age of 79 and his tombstone in White Oak Baptist Churchyard reads:
"JOHN RICHARDSON DAVIS
4-18-1844 died 2-3-1923
An Upright Man
A Confederate Soldier"
Ayres married Caroline Sykes. They remained in Bladen County and raised 8 children, 5 sons and 3 daughters. In 1901 he applied for a North Carolina Confederate Pension. I do not know if he received it or not.
About 1917 he had a stroke which left him paralysed on one side and unable to speak, so his grandchildren never heard the war stories he might have told.
Although I have tried every source I can think of--family and public records--I have been unable to find when and where Ayres died. There is a grave in the White Oak Baptist Churchyard that is said to be his, but it has the wrong marker. It says "William Davis Company A, 26th N. C. Infantry, C.S.A." This was the marker for William W. Davis born in Jefferson, Ashe Co. N. C. and he was never at Ft. Fisher. Our William Ayres Davis was born in Bladen County, fought at Ft. Fisher with the 36th Artillery.
Doc Parker says that is definitely Ayres' grave, because he remembers attending the funeral and seeing him buried there, and if anyone should know, he should. I was glad to have found someone to set the record straight.
"Farewell, Grandpa Ayres, may you rest in peace."
Our grandmother Nancy Jane Deittris's Uncles. Her mother, Harriet Caldonia's brothers. | 2acd06b7-bf3b-4fe4-95ae-8ce1fa85f22c | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://nccivilwarcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2021.02.25-Three-Davis-Brothers-In-The-Ci.pdf | 2021-11-30T15:39:46+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964359037.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20211130141247-20211130171247-00197.warc.gz | 491,986,850 | 2,471 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999159 | eng_Latn | 0.99924 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2549,
4668,
7529,
9281,
10512
] | [
2.546875
] | 1 | 0 |
ACTIVITY BOOK
END DISCRIMINATION
GRADES 5 - 6
NAME: _______________________
www.textpledge.us
ABOUT TEXT PLEDGE
Text Pledge is a nonprofit in Greater Grand Rapids, MI, that seeks to change the world one pledge at a time. Our pledges focus on ending some of the worst social issues affecting our communities, from distracted driving to acts of violence. Each pledge challenges members to practice compassion, and speak up when they witness injustice. We encourage you to help others in times of crisis. Together, we can make the world a kinder place.
Our pledge program includes the following elements available on our website www.textpledge.us and the Text Pledge App available on iOS/Google Play.
NATIONAL SMART CARD
EMERGENCY HOTLINES AND RESOURCES
FREE DOWNLOAD
NATIONAL STATISTICS
UPDATED MONTHLY TO REFLECT THE IMPACT OF EACH PLEDGE TOPIC IN OUR WORLD
VISIT OUR WEBSITE
EDUCATION PROGRAMS
ACTIVITY BOOKS FOR AGES KINDERGARTEN THROUGH GRADE TWELVE. AVAILABLE ON THE TEXT PLEDGE WEBSITE AND THE MOBILE APP.
DOWNLOAD OUR MOBILE APP
WWW.TEXTPLEDGE.US
A Message From Our Founder
People come with their own shapes, colors, backgrounds and beliefs.
Discrimination happens when someone is treated differently because of how they look, how they act, or what they believe. The world is not free from discrimination. Compassion and empathy is lacking in today’s world. When something this basic is in short supply, it becomes extremely valuable.
In this lesson, we will explore the topic of discrimination and identify behaviors that challenge it.
Crisis lines are always available at TextPledge.us
Happy Learning!
Ms. Naomi
Founder at the TextPledge Project
DO YOU KNOW THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISCRIMINATION?
Discrimination is the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of ethnicity, age, sex, or disability. Draw a line to match each definition with the types of discrimination.
- **Gender Discrimination**: When someone is treated unfairly and different because of their gender.
- **Racial Discrimination**: When someone is mistreated because of their race or the color of their skin.
- **Religious Discrimination**: When people treat others badly because of their beliefs or how they practice their religion.
- **Age Discrimination**: When people are treated unfairly because of how old they are.
- **Disability Discrimination**: When someone is treated differently due to a visible or invisible or intellectual disability.
Discrimination can occur without intention. It is important to proactively create environments of mutual respect. Draw a line to match each definition with the correct terminology.
Ensuring that everyone has the resources and support they need to succeed, even if it means providing different resources or opportunities based on individual needs.
the practice of including or involving people from a range of different social and ethnic backgrounds and of different genders, sexual orientations, etc.
the practice or policy of providing equal access to opportunities and resources for people who might otherwise be excluded or marginalized, such as those who have physical or intellectual disabilities and members of other minority groups.
Treating everyone the same way and giving everyone the same resources or opportunities, regardless of their differences.
Discrimination can occur without intention. It is important to proactively create environments of mutual respect. Draw a line to match each definition with the correct terminology.
- **Antisemitism**: Intolerance or dislike of Jewish people, often leading to discrimination.
- **Prejudice**: Negative beliefs or attitudes held about an entire group of people.
- **Discrimination**: Unfair treatment of a person or group based on their beliefs or background.
- **Stereotype**: A fixed, oversimplified idea about a particular group of people.
Affirmative Action for All
Have ever heard the term affirmative action? Did you know affirmative action exists in your schools? Continue reading to discover some of the affirmative action opportunities available to students.
Extra Help in School:
Imagine a student who has difficulty understanding certain subjects because they didn't have access to good teachers or resources in their previous school. Perhaps they have a learning disability. Affirmative action might mean that this student gets extra tutoring or help from teachers to catch up with their classmates.
Special Programs:
Some schools have programs specifically designed to help students from disadvantaged backgrounds. These programs might offer extra classes, workshops, or resources to support these students academically and socially. For example, many schools offer a free lunch program so students are nourished throughout the school day.
Scholarships and Grants:
Affirmative action can also mean providing scholarships or grants to students who come from low-income families or underrepresented backgrounds. This helps them afford college and pursue their dreams despite financial obstacles.
Equal Opportunities in Sports:
In sports teams, affirmative action could mean ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to participate, regardless of their background. This might involve providing sporting equipment, extra training, opportunities for students who haven't had as much access to sports programs.
Accessible Facilities:
Making sure that public places like schools, parks, and buildings are accessible to everyone, including people with disabilities, is another form of affirmative action. This ensures that everyone can participate fully in their community.
United way-call-211 Find any assistance you need now!
Accessible technology has helped make the world a better place for all, not just people with disabilities. Below is a list of accessible technologies. How many of these do you use? Check the box if you benefit from accessible technology.
- Ramps & Elevators
- Automatic Doors
- Cross walks and signals
- Captions and Subtitles
- Voice Recognition
- Universal Design Principles
- Text to speech or speech to text
- Adjustable text sizes
- Touchscreens
- Audiobooks
United way—call 211 Find any assistance you need now!
Imagine a big colorful rainbow. Each color of the rainbow represents different kinds of people. LGBTQIA is like a way of saying that there are lots of different kinds of people who love and live in different ways. Are you familiar with the terms below?
L stands for Lesbian, which means a woman who loves another woman.
G stands for Gay, which means a man who loves another man.
B stands for Bisexual, which means someone who loves people of both their own gender and other genders.
T stands for Transgender, which means someone who feels like they are a different gender than the one they were born as.
Q stands for Queer, is a way to describe someone who feels like they don't fit into the usual categories of boys liking girls or girls liking boys. They might feel like they're a special mix or just different.
I stands for Intersex, which means someone who is born with a variation in their physical sex characteristics, like chromosomes, hormones, or reproductive organs, that don't fit typical definitions of male or female.
A can stand for Asexual, which means someone who doesn't feel a strong desire for romantic or sexual attraction to anyone, or Ally, which means someone who supports LGBTQIA people even if they're not LGBTQIA themselves.
United way-call-211 Find any assistance you need now!
The words in our previous activity are used by many people to describe their identity. Take a moment to reinforce this terminology. Locate the words below.
LESBIAN BISEXUAL QUEER ASEXUAL
GAY TRANSEXUAL INTERSEX ALLY
The following events, among others, have played pivotal roles in shaping LGBTQ rights movements and Pride celebrations, highlighting the ongoing struggle for equality and acceptance.
Use your internet research skills to uncover the dates of these historically significant events. Add the dates where prompted in the timeline.
Compton’s Cafeteria Riots
Stonewall Riots
Election of Harvey Milk
1980's
Aids Crisis
1993 -
Don’t Ask Don’t Tell Policy
Oberfell vs. Hodges
Transgender Military Ban
Congratulations!
You have completed the activity book. Taking this pledge is just one symbol of your commitment to make the world a kinder place.
What happens next?
Students can continue to make a difference through the following actions:
- Reflect and practice self-awareness.
- Speak up and confront social issues and injustices.
- Know where to find resources and support.
Complete our survey for a chance to win Text Pledge swag!
Share your thoughts about our activities! We want to know how to make them better.
Looking for Answers?
Scan this code to view the answer key for this activity book
Commit to all ten pledges
1. STOP DISTRACTED DRIVING
2. END DISCRIMINATION
3. END ACTS OF VIOLENCE
4. PREVENT BULLYING AND CYBER BULLYING
5. RAISE MENTAL HEALTH AWARENESS
6. STOP DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND ASSAULT
7. END DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE
8. STOP HUMAN TRAFFICKING
9. PROTECT ANIMAL RIGHTS
10. PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT
www.textpledge.us
Copyright © 2024 Text Pledge | bd10dee0-aa6b-4124-ac01-debf2ae59cf5 | CC-MAIN-2024-51 | https://textpledge.us/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Copy-of-Activity_Discrimination_G5-G6.pdf | 2024-12-10T12:18:53+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-51/segments/1733066058729.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20241210101933-20241210131933-00898.warc.gz | 506,276,738 | 1,890 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.936559 | eng_Latn | 0.996244 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
95,
1063,
1671,
2497,
3363,
3906,
5703,
6224,
7538,
7762,
8264,
8788,
8872,
9246
] | [
3.328125
] | 3 | 0 |
Many of us have participated in a Christmas Bird Count. In fact, some of us have spent years scheduling our holiday travel around them! I’ve often imagined some Audubon scientists scrutinizing the data somewhere, but I’ve never really thought too much about it between January and November... until now.
You’ve probably heard the news that National Audubon recently released a report that analyzes 40 years of CBC data and draws connections between climate change and the long-term movement of bird populations across our continent. The report found that while average winter temperatures rose by an average of more than 5°F over the last 40 years, birds species by-and-large have moved farther north during winter. Of all 305 species studied, the average movement north was 35 miles, while about 20% of birds moved more than 100 miles farther north!
The most dramatic effect was on land birds, with impacts on Utah species like the Rough-legged Hawk (178 miles northward), the Clark’s Nutcracker (124 miles northward), and the Hairy Woodpecker (135 miles northward). With continued global warming, there will come a time when some of our more common north-Utah birds become rare. On the flip-side, in southern Utah, there are birds that were unusual 40 years ago that are now becoming increasingly common. Great Egret (110 miles north), Ring-necked Duck (219 miles north), and the Greater Yellowlegs (124 miles north) are some of the birds that have moved farther into Utah from southerly states.
The implications of these data are clear: the climate is changing and the changes are already observable in birds – they are once again the canaries in the coal mine. If we care about preserving nature as we know it and passing it down for future generations to enjoy it as we have, we need to make a serious attempt at changing our ways. In particular, we need to look at how we and our neighbors use energy, our main contributor of global warming pollution. We also need to find ways to use and waste less energy, perhaps by switching over to alternative sources of energy that produce less pollution and damage our planet less.
To learn more information about the CBC report and to learn how you can do something to help, please go to birdsandclimate.org.
Inside this Issue
- Local Bird Spotlight: 2
- Audubon Calendar: 3
- BAS News: 4
- Audubon Contacts: 5
The Clover and the Plover
The Plover and the Clover can be told apart with ease,
By paying close attention to the habits of the Bees,
For ento-molo-gists aver, the Bee can be in clover,
While ety-molo-gists concur, there is no B in Plover.
-Robert Williams Wood
As winter grinds on, it becomes more and more challenging for me to get bundled up and go out for a day of birding. The relentless cold and gray; boredom from the lacing and unlacing of countless boots; and of course the valley’s unique air quality all contribute to this phenomenon. As the first signs of spring begin to appear, however, a new challenge: the rewarding challenge of finding and identifying the birds that don’t come to our feeders and stay hidden in the hard-to-reach places.
Early March in Cache Valley seems a million miles from summertime, but between southern Mexico and Ecuador, Swainson’s Thrushes are beginning to fatten up in preparation for their spring flight back to forests from California to Maine, Alaska to Utah. At this stage, the Thrushes prefer to feast on insects that they find climbing woodland plants or crawling along on the forest floor; they’ll even take insects on the wing, something that is unusual among Thrushes.
The males begin the migration first, probably to get to their territory first, but the trip north is long and slow compared to many other birds. The Swainson’s feed during the day and migrate overnight and their nightly range is estimated to be between 100 and 150 miles. If food is insufficient, or if there is bad weather, they may choose to shorten or even skip a flight. During this time, the Thrushes can be vulnerable to a host of predators, but one of the worst appears to be man-made. Swainson’s Thrushes, for reasons that aren’t completely clear, die in unusually high numbers from collisions with human structures like buildings (windows) and radio towers.
After two months of migration at this pace, the earliest Swainson’s Thrushes arrive in Utah in early May. The females begin arriving in Utah in late May or early June. In the meantime, the males have been singing at each other and chasing each other to claim their territory. This doesn’t change when the females arrive, as the males will often try to drive the females away at first, as if they were intruders. The females will persist and the males will eventually accept them and begin the process of nesting in the forests around Cache Valley.
So now imagine it is the end of spring or sometime in the summer and you’d like to take on the challenge of finding a Swainson’s Thrush. All of the spotted Thrushes share several characteristics: they are slightly smaller than Robins, they have brownish-grayish heads and backs, white to off-white bellies, variably spotted breasts, and some sort of eye-ring. There are three Thrushes in our region. The Hermit Thrush, Veery and Swainson’s Thrush all fit into the basic description above. Features that identify the Swainson’s Thrush as distinctive from the other two are a bold buff-colored eye-ring and lores that give the appearance of “spectacles.”
You may not have a good chance to get a clear view of the Thrush you’ve found in the forest. Thrushes are known for being fairly secretive and living in dense, dark forests. The challenge of identifying these birds may leave you dependent on your listening skills. The songs of these two birds can be an easier way to differentiate between them - if you can learn them first. My words won’t do the songs justice and you’ll really have to go out into the field to experience them, but to describe the songs as simply as possible, the Hermit Thrush song consists of a steady, clear whistle followed by a warbling flourish. Conversely, the song of the Swainson’s is a tumbling, spiral of ascending notes.
Once you learn their songs, you will start hearing countless Thrushes on your walks in wooded areas around the valley. Your heightened awareness might even lead you to see one of these challenging birds. Just make sure you get out sooner rather than later as these birds will finish their breeding cycle and begin their slow migration south in late July!
Audubon Calendar
March 2009
5 Board of Trustees Meeting BAS Trustees meet at 7 p.m. at the Cache Valley Learning Center, 75 S. 400 West, Logan. Enter through the building’s west doors. All are welcome to attend.
7 Sings of Spring II This is a continuation of our February 14th trip to look for early spring birds in the Benson-Amalga area. We will also be heading up the mouth of Birch Canyon east of Smithfield. We will be searching for early spring flowers and the very rare Say’s Phoebe. Meet at 8 a.m. at the parking lot between Caffe Ibis and the Logan Fire Station (50 East 150 North). Dress warmly and bring something to warm to drink and something to snack on. The trip will most likely be finished by 2 p.m.
12 General Meeting Join us at our same great location, the Cache Valley Learning Center (75 S. 400 West), when Cindy Johnson, a wetland ecologist and environmental consultant, will be presenting on Cache Valley wetlands. She’ll explain what qualifies as a wetland, how to identify a wetland, what types of development are permitted in wetlands, and what to do to find out if activity in a wetland is legal or not. The meeting will start at 7 p.m. Enter through the building’s west doors. All are welcome to attend and refreshments will be provided by Crumb Brothers and Caffe Ibis. We hope to see you there.
21 Birds of Hyrum Dam, Wellsville Pond, and the Old Mendon Road. We may find newly arriving birds such as Osprey, loons, Red-breasted Merganser, and other ducks as we look at some valley hotspots. We may also find songbirds such as Tree Swallows, Mountain Bluebirds, and herons at the rookery. Meet at 8 a.m. at the parking lot between Caffe Ibis and the Logan Fire Station (50 East 150 North). Dress warmly and bring something to warm to drink and something to snack on. The trip will most likely be finished by 2 p.m.
Golden Eagle Audubon Society Annual Banquet and Auction
Saturday, March 14, 2009
Owyhee Plaza Hotel, Boise, ID
$35 Per Person
Social Hour – 6 pm
Dinner Served – 7 pm
“Wings of the Imagination: Why We Need Birds” Why is it that some birds of daylight sing their most glorious songs at night? How can a bird build an intricate, detailed nest, and then use it for only one season? Why can we find birds thriving both in verdant jungles and in the most desolate landscapes? What can we learn from the ability of birds to adapt to changes in their surroundings?
Drawing on a lifetime of experiences from Africa to the Antarctic to American back yards, Kenn Kaufman explores the mysteries of bird life and the ways that they can add to our understanding of our place in the world.
In this richly illustrated talk, he suggests that our encounters with birds not only increase our sense of wonder but also can increase our ability to communicate with our fellow humans.
For more information, visit the Golden Eagle Audubon Society’s website at www.goldeneagleaudubon.org
Recent Immigrants to Utah, the Moose
If you’ve spent much time in the forests and wetlands of northern Utah, you may have been lucky enough to have seen one of North America’s most magnificent animals, the Moose.
The Moose is the largest member of the deer family, and one of the largest mammals to have survived the last Ice Age. Utah’s subspecies of Moose is known as the Shiras, or Wyoming Moose. Although the smallest subspecies of Moose in North America, it can grow to be nearly six feet tall and weigh as much as 1,000 pounds. Bull Moose can grow a rack of antlers that reaches four feet across.
One might assume such an ancient and enormous animal has long existed in Utah, but the Moose is one of Utah’s newer immigrants. The first Moose in Utah were seen about 100 years ago, and the total population may have been less than 100 animals as late as the 1950s. Today, there are about 4,500 Moose throughout northern Utah. So how did the Moose become so plentiful in such a short time?
The Moose’s immigration to Utah looks like a case of perfect timing. Many of the Moose’s predators like Grizzly Bears, Wolves and Mountain Lions had been largely exterminated. At the same time, logging was replacing mature forests with new meadows and scrub that Moose prefer. The combination of young growth and wetlands provided the ideal habitat for Moose to thrive.
On top of these favorable conditions, human management has helped the Moose expand. Overwhelming demand for Moose hunting has fostered strategies to encourage population growth. More recently, there have been attempts to speed up the expansion of Moose by transplanting them to new mountain ranges.
It’s to say that the 1900s were the century of the Utah Moose.
Despite success in the last hundred years, Moose face challenges in the next hundred. Maturing woodlands will be able to support fewer Moose. Old predators are rebounding and will take their toll. But the most difficult challenge the Moose may face is climate change. The Moose evolved to survive in extreme cold climates. If temperatures continue to rise, the Moose will retreat higher into the mountains and further north until one day this recent visitor returns to Wyoming.
The next time you visit the mountains, pay close attention to the water and you too may be lucky enough to see the Moose.
by Jason Pietrzak
The above artwork of the bull moose is an original piece done by an artist named Mark Matson. Mark has generously given Bridgerland Audubon permission to publish this piece, entitled Decision Time, in this issue of the Stilt. To see more of the artist’s work or to contact Mark, please visit his website at www.markmatsonart.com. Thank you Mark.
Bird’s Eye Review
An article a friend sent me online was worthy of mention this month. The article is entitled “OSU Researcher Uses Warblers’ Birdsong to Aid Species” and can be found at this internet address: http://www.oregonlive.com/environment/index.ssf/2008/07/osu_researchers_uses_warblers.html. It was originally published in the Oregonian on 24 July, 2008. The purpose of the article was to spotlight one researcher’s attempt to lure the Black-throated Blue Warbler to nest in a particularly unattractive (for warbler standards) habitat by simply playing the late season Black-throated Blue Warbler song the previous Autumn. To his surprise, the next Spring brought many warblers either attempting to or successfully nesting in this unappealing locale.
Welcome to BAS
New Members
Wallace O. Bloss
Shirley Braatz
Barbara Campbell
Cathy Clayton
Ira Don
Andrea Eggett
Gabriela Ibarra
Logan Library
Melisa Mileham
Caroline Shugart
Utah State University Library
The Wellings
Dale Azevedo
Linda F. Baker
Leanna Ballard
Leroy B. Beasley
E Schupp & J Boettinger
Ian Campbell
Allyson A. Davis
Mr. Keith L. Dixon
Kurt A. Fornoff
Renewing Members
Alene S. Fornoff
Mr. Al Forsyth
John Gallagher
Mr. & Mrs. T. J. Gordon
Marilyn Hammond
Mr. Lyle Henderson
Rebecca Huffman
Nathan & Chris Hult
Richard G. Lamb
Nancy Mesner
Ryan O Donnell
Stephen Peterson
Mimi Recker
Joan K. Shaw
J Kingsland & A Shifrer
Gardiner S. Stiles
Miiko Toelken
F. H. Wagner
Bridgerland Audubon Contacts
President Val Grant, 752-7572, firstname.lastname@example.org
Vice Pres. Jason Pietrzak, 938-0203, email@example.com
Secretary Lyle Bingham, 563-6003, firstname.lastname@example.org
Treasurer Jennifer Hoffmann, 713-4935, email@example.com
Outings Lyle Bingham, 563-6003, firstname.lastname@example.org
Conservation Richard Mueller, 752-5637, email@example.com
Education Jack Greene, 563-6816, firstname.lastname@example.org
Newsletter Brandon Spencer, 753-2790, email@example.com
Circulation Susan Durham, 752-5637, firstname.lastname@example.org
Sanctuary Jim Cane, 713-4668, email@example.com
Hotline Nancy Williams, 752-4780, firstname.lastname@example.org
Webmaster Stephen Peterson, 755-5041, email@example.com
Webhost www.xmission.com
Membership in the Bridgerland Audubon Society includes a subscription to The Stilt, as well as Audubon magazine. The editor of The Stilt invites submissions, due on the 15th of each month. Send to firstname.lastname@example.org.
National Audubon Society
Chapter Membership Application
Yes, I'd like to contribute to Audubon and receive the Bridgerland Audubon newsletter, The Stilt, and the National AUDUBON magazine, as a:
___ New member of the National Audubon Society and Bridgerland Audubon.
My check for $20 is enclosed (this is a special first-year rate).
Name_____________________________________________________
Address__________________________________________________________________________
City_________________________ State_____ ZIP_______________
Please make all checks payable to National Audubon Society and send with this card to:
National Audubon Society
Membership Data Center
PO Box 51001
Boulder, CO 80322-1001
W-52 Local Chapter Code: 7XCHA
National Audubon occasionally makes its membership list available to selected organizations. To have your name omitted from this, please check this box.
Note to new National Audubon members: To get on The Stilt newsletter mailing list without the usual 8-week delay, contact Susan Durham, 752-5637, email@example.com.
Prefer the local newsletter only? Send $20 (make checks payable to Bridgerland Audubon Society) and this form to: Bridgerland Audubon Society, PO Box 3501, Logan, UT 84323-3501 for a subscription to The Stilt.
Where does your lifelist stand? Which is to say – how many species of birds have you identified in North America, north of Mexico? (This is known as the ABA area)
- Less than 100
- More than 100
- More than 150
- More than 200
- More than 250
- More than 300
- More than 350
- More than 400
- More than 450
- More than 500
- More than 550
- More than 600
- More than 650
- More than 700
To cast your vote, please send an email to firstname.lastname@example.org with “Lifelist” as the title of the email. Results will be published in the April issue of the Stilt. | 1e090a23-68e3-4d88-a84b-9b8053c3ab94 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://bridgerlandaudubon.org/documents/BAS-Stilts/Stilt-2009/Vol%2038%20Issue%203.pdf | 2020-10-23T21:09:06+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107865665.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20201023204939-20201023234939-00223.warc.gz | 253,754,005 | 3,819 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.979308 | eng_Latn | 0.99758 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2629,
6521,
9441,
12904,
15818,
16374
] | [
2.578125
] | 2 | 0 |
ORLEANS, Mass. — Rising nitrogen levels are suffocating the vegetation and marine life in saltwater ponds and estuaries on Cape Cod, creating an environmental and infrastructure problem that, if left unchecked, will threaten the shellfishing industry, the tourist economy and the beaches that lure so many summer visitors.
More than 60 ponds and estuaries on the cape and a few elsewhere in the region have been choked by algae and seaweed. The culprit is nitrogen, much of it leaching out of septic system wastewater that runs through sandy soil into the estuaries. Faced with a federal mandate to fix their polluted waterways, Cape Cod towns have spent years creating plans to clean up the wastewater, largely through sewers and clustered septic systems.
So far, most of the efforts have been to no avail, stifled by disputes over science and over who should pay for such a sprawling and expensive public works project.
“This is the biggest environmental issue the cape has ever faced,” said Maggie Geist of the Association to Preserve Cape Cod, a nonprofit environmental group. “And for a long time it’s been a hidden problem.”
The root of the problem lies in the popularity and unchecked growth of Cape Cod over the last 30 years. Towns chose not to install sewers when the government helped subsidize them in the 1960s and ’70s, fearing that it would lead to an influx of people. Newcomers arrived anyway and sprawled out, using individual septic systems to get rid of waste.
Without remediation, excess nitrogen could decimate shellfish beds and lead to widespread summer fish kills as algae, warm temperatures and cloud cover stifle oxygen in coastal waters, say officials who have examined the problem. Bays will be overtaken with seaweed that rots in the summer, a blow to property values and an environmental concern.
Here in Orleans, wastewater has been a divisive subject for years. Some residents say the town should put in place a $150 million plan that was drafted two years ago and approved at a town meeting, while others are calling for additional review before it is financed by taxpayers.
The problem is not always immediately apparent. From a distance, one saltwater pond here looks pristine, the summer sun bouncing off its placid waters and boats bobbing in the salt breeze.
“It’s deceiving,” said Gussie McKusick, who lives alongside the pond. “It looks beautiful, but it’s all dead underneath.”
Septic systems deposit wastewater, a mixture of urine and water, into a leach field. Because the cape’s soil is so sandy and porous, the wastewater eventually is deposited into bays. Even after septic systems are removed, wastewater already in the soil will still be leaking.
The nitrogen problem is most acute in protected bays and saltwater ponds on the cape’s southern side. The tides coming from Nantucket Sound are not high and forceful enough to flush out the nitrogen, which causes algae and seaweed to flourish, choking out oxygen needed by vegetative and marine species.
closed to shellfishing for years because of elevated nitrogen levels, said Robert Griffin Jr., the assistant harbor master.
The algae and seaweed kill eelgrass, where prized bay scallops grow. Those scallops are gone from the ponds in Falmouth.
In August, the problem is sometimes smelled before it is seen. The algae bakes under the hot sun, creating a foul odor that may already be driving tourists away. Paul Niedzwiecki, the executive director of the Cape Cod Commission, a regional land use agency, said he had heard anecdotally that some people had left because of the smell.
Officials and towns are also girding for the possibility of a lawsuit from an environmental group that is exploring its options under the Clean Water Act.
“A lawsuit would be intended to bring all of the relevant decision makers and authorities who should be part of the solution to the table,” said Christopher Kilian of the Conservation Law Foundation.
Towns on Cape Cod, which are fiercely independent and often fight regionalization, must try to work together on solutions, even though town wastewater plans can vary.
Residents are also fighting among themselves, with some wanting the entire town to pay for a plan and others insisting that only households that get sewers pay for them.
In Barnstable, voters will decide in November whether to finance $265 million in new sewers with a tax increase. And in Falmouth, officials are still trying to determine who will pay for their 50-year, $650 million plan. The largest project the town has ever undertaken was an $80 million expansion of its high school.
“This is the most massive potential public works project the town has ever seen, and clearly it’s something the town is uneasy about, and it gets challenged,” said Peter Boyer, a member of the Falmouth wastewater commission. “It’s a classic case, and it’s inevitable.”
Here in Orleans, Ms. McKusick waded through her pond, slimy seaweed sticking to her legs and feeling like wet lettuce under her feet.
“It’s not a question of if, it’s a question of when,” Ms. McKusick said of fixing the wastewater problem. “And how much blood is on the walls when we’re finished.” | 0acd5347-08cd-45d1-bb74-e67bbe0604c7 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://www.brewsterponds.org/uploads/1/8/9/6/18965133/cape_cod_waterways_face_pollution_crisis_-_nytimes_com.pdf | 2020-10-20T17:07:56+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107874026.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20201020162922-20201020192922-00463.warc.gz | 655,266,003 | 1,079 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999034 | eng_Latn | 0.999034 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
5180
] | [
2.640625
] | 1 | 1 |
The Indi-Genius Podcast for Sexual and Reproductive Health is a multilingual audio series that uses creative oral storytelling to document and share real-life experiences of grassroots family/life planning leaders in Nigeria and the Republic of Niger to facilitate knowledge exchange while highlighting what works and what doesn’t in reproductive health programming. The Indi-Genius Podcast is a Season 2 winner of *The Pitch*, a Knowledge Management innovation competition co-sponsored by USAID and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
**MUBARAK IDRIS**
*Kano, Nigeria*
“It is important for people to understand that men need to be not just at the forefront but they actually need to bring all the support that women need when it comes to ending child marriage.”
**MARIAMA ABDOU GADO**
*Niamey, Niger*
“Providing adolescents and youths with access to quality reproductive health information and services is the only way to protect them.”
**SANDA AISSATA**
*Niamey, Niger*
“We must make available to adolescents and young people reliable information about their reproductive health, guarantee their health care with qualified health workers.”
**NAZIRA YAHAYA TANKARI**
*Niamey, Niger*
“I am committed to being an advocate for children’s rights the voice of the voiceless because no child deserves to be married before age. Children have rights that must be respected.”
**ADERONKE OLISA**
*Ondo, Nigeria*
“There is a need for collaboration among all stakeholders when it comes to having success in family planning and reproductive health education.”
**BAGAGI DARANY HAMISSOU**
*Niamey, Niger*
“Clandestine abortions among young people are linked to the lack of quality and reliable information on reproductive health.”
**INALEGWU ADAKOLE JACOB**
*Benue, Nigeria*
“I want to talk to the government to reduce the age of access and consent from 18 years to 14 years because if you look around you would discover that young people are getting pregnant and we fail to ask ourselves how this keeps happening.”
**MAMOUDOU HAMA AÏCHATOU**
*Niamey, Niger*
“I am from a country where the misinterpretation of religious texts does not encourage family planning. The real problem is misunderstanding and ignorance. Where there is a problem lies a solution.”
Listen to the stories at [www.strongenoughgirls.org/indigenius](http://www.strongenoughgirls.org/indigenius)
SALISU FATIMA
Abuja, Nigeria
“Parents should be observant and pay more attention to their children because molestation can start from home.”
BLESS-ME AJANI
Osun, Nigeria
“Beyond the government making [Family Planning] commitments, what is most important is that these commitments are implemented.”
IDDÉ BAZA ABDOURAHAMANE
Niamey, Niger
“It is essential to have a real dialogue between parents and children on issues related to sexual and reproductive health of adolescents and youth.”
KONI BAKKA
Kaduna, Nigeria
“My goal is that I want to spread this sexual reproductive health and rights gospel so that no girl will lack information about her body and how to prepare herself if and when she wants to be sexually active.”
EZE IKECHUKWU JULIUS
Ebonyi, Nigeria
“Family planning and reproductive health are not only meant for married couples.”
AMEH QUEEN OKA
Benue, Nigeria
“The government should ensure that policies are well implemented down to the grassroots, the family level. This needs to start from the family because every child learns from home.”
ANNABEL OVIA
Niger, Nigeria
“Young adolescent girls in my community don’t have knowledge about reproductive health. One incident made me pick more interest about advocating about family planning and reproductive health.”
OLUWA ENITAN SOPHIE
Lagos, Nigeria
“I realised that advocacy is a never ending exercise and neither will my campaign for a better world for women and girls.”
IDOWU AYOBAMI ELIZABETH
Lagos, Nigeria
“I want to appeal to parents with this story, to be open to discussion with their children.”
PEACE UMANAH
Abuja, Nigeria
“I believe every young person should be able to decide when, where and how they would want to have children so they can live better and healthier lives.”
MAIGA MAMADOU IDRISSA
Niamey, Niger
“Youth-friendly centers are an excellent opportunity to promote youth access to reproductive health services.”
FELICITY IKE
Cross River, Nigeria
“If young persons can be involved in family planning service design, it would go a long way to improve their access to services, and not just services but equal access to information.”
Listen to the stories at www.strongenoughgirls.org/indigenius | 6752117c-6e89-4178-b828-24412a2ef65c | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://strongenoughgirls.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/SEGEI_Infog22_FinalEng.pdf | 2023-02-07T08:13:25+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500392.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20230207071302-20230207101302-00235.warc.gz | 545,382,498 | 1,005 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.983274 | eng_Latn | 0.983619 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2362,
4585
] | [
2.109375
] | 1 | 0 |
SOS Children’s Villages - Bolivia
Supporting Family and Community Strengthening to PREVENT CHILD ABANDONMENT
The road travelled
Lessons learnt
Challenges and commitments
SOS Children’s Villages Bolivia
Supporting Family and Community
Strengthening to
PREVENT CHILD ABANDONMENT
Document prepared by:
Ana Ichaso
Revised and validated by:
Heinrich Müller
Nancy Ardaya
Jerry Bustillos
Alfonso Lupo
Special thanks to the directors, staff and participants in the SOS programmes in Bolivia that contributed their valuable experiences and stories.
General coordination:
SOS Children’s Villages Bolivia National Office
Calle Méndez Arcos 776, Sopocachi
Tel.: (591) (02) 2412343
Fax.: (591) (02) 2414581
firstname.lastname@example.org
La Paz, Bolivia
Photographs:
Alexander Gabriel, Jaime Cisneros
And SOS programme archives
Layout and Printing:
CENFOTEC Ind. de SOS Children’s Villages
Tel.: (591) 2-2745045 - (591) 2-2745450
Fax: (591) 2-2745045
email@example.com
First edition:
July 2005 (700 copies)
## CONTENTS
**PRESENTATION** ................................................................. 5
I. **WHO WE ARE AND WHAT WE WANT TO ACHIEVE** ............... 7
- SOS Children’s Villages – Our vision and mission
- The concept and the application of child abandonment prevention
- The SOS Children’s Villages child abandonment prevention programmes
II. **WHAT WE HAVE ACHIEVED, THE ROAD TRAVELLED and LESSONS LEARNT**
Component 1: Children’s protection and integral development .................. 33
Component 2: Developing and empowering women to protect their children better .................................................. 51
Component 3: Developing and empowering vulnerable families to take better care of their children ......................... 79
Component 4: Developing and empowering the community to take better care of and protect their children ............. 95
- Effects of the child abandonment prevention programmes on the SOS staff ...................................................... 115
III. **WHERE WE ARE HEADING – SOME CHALLENGES and COMMITMENTS.** ........................................... 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................ 126
ANNEXES .................................................................................. 127
“When millions of people begin to do more than what we expect from them, the good in the world will begin to be multiplied considerably.”
Hermann Gmeiner
SOS Children’s Villages Founder
“Preventive work does not contradict the traditional concept of SOS Children’s Villages, but rather should be seen as complementary. Hermann Gmeiner’s concept should not only be put into practice in the SOS Children’s Villages; we want all the world’s children to have a mother, a family, brothers and sisters, a house and a community.”
Helmut Kutin
President - SOS Kinderdorf International
“I wasn’t anybody before and I thought that only I had these problems. Now I’m the head of this Family Committee and I’ve sorted out a lot of my problems with the support of female friends who’ve gone through the same.”
When I heard this statement made by a woman who participates in the SOS Children’s Villages Family Strengthening Programme in Bolivia I was overwhelmed. This proves that the work being carried out in the SOS Social Centres and Community Homes makes sense, is successful because it is developed in an environment where the women feel welcomed, listened to and supported.
This is where women’s rights prevail, where women are empowered, where the children have a quality of life because their mothers believe in their children’s future and their own life takes on new meaning.
Our family strengthening programmes support those children in vulnerable situations, working with their families and communities to avoid these children being abandoned in the future because their mothers and fathers are unable to resolve their own problems of exclusion and marginalisation through their lack of education and work and production opportunities.
Congratulations to the SOS – Bolivia team for their commitment to all the vulnerable communities, families, girls, boys and young people!
Heinrich Müller
General Secretariat for Latin America and the Caribbean
SOS Kinderdorf International
Who we are
What we want to achieve
Part 1
The first SOS Children’s Village was founded by Hermann Gmeiner in 1949 in Imst, Austria. It was committed to helping vulnerable children, those who had lost their homes, their security and their families as a result of the Second World War. Through the support of many donors and staff, our organisation has grown over the years to help children in 131 countries around the world.
We carry out actions to benefit the children, by acting as an independent non-governmental social development organisation. We respect different religions and cultures and we work in countries and communities where our mission can contribute to development. We work in the spirit of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and promote these rights around the world.
Our organisation pioneered the definition of the family focus in the long-term care of orphaned and abandoned children and child abandonment prevention. We have been working in Bolivia for over 36 years.
**The SOS Children’s Villages vision: What we want for all the children in the world**
“FOR EACH CHILD TO BELONG TO A FAMILY and GROW UP IN AN ENVIRONMENT OF LOVE, RESPECT and SECURITY.”
*Each child belongs to a family.*
The family is the centre of society. Within a family each child is protected and enjoys a sense of belonging. Here the children learn values, share responsibilities and set up life-long relationships. A family environment offers them a solid base on which to build their life.
Each child grows up with love.
Through love and being accepted, emotional damage is healed and children develop confidence. Once more they can believe and trust in themselves and others and so can go on to discover and use their talents.
Each child grows up surrounded by respect.
Each child’s opinion is listened to and taken seriously. The children participate in taking decisions that affect their lives and they are guided so that they can be the protagonists of their own development. The children grow up with respect and dignity, appreciated as a member of their family and society.
Each child grows up in safety.
The children are protected from abuse, abandonment and exploitation, and are protected in cases of natural disasters and war. They receive clothing, food, medical attention and education. These are the basic requirements for the adequate development of all children.
The SOS Children’s Villages mission: what we do
“WE CREATE FAMILIES FOR VULNERABLE CHILDREN, WE SUPPORT THEM AS THEY DEVELOP THEIR OWN FUTURE AND WE PARTICIPATE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR COMMUNITIES.”
We create families for children who need them
SOS Children’s Villages works for children who, for different reasons, have lost their families or whose families can not take responsibility for them. The children are given the opportunity to set up lasting relationships within a family. The SOS Children’s Villages Family Model is based on four principles: Each child needs a mother and grows up more naturally with brothers and sisters, in their own home, within a Village that supports them.
We support them in forming their own future
SOS Children’s Villages gives the children the possibility of living according to their own culture and religion. They are supported so that they discover and express their talents, interests and skills. They will receive the education and training that they need to become active, successful members of society.
We participate in the development of their communities
The SOS Children’s Villages programmes participate in community life and address the social development needs of the most vulnerable members – children and young people. The programmes seek to strengthen the families and prevent child abandonment. They unite the efforts of the members of the community to offer education and healthcare and also respond to emergencies.
One of the greatest resources that SOS Children’s Villages has is the staff who live the organisation’s vision and mission daily. This group of people make up part of a social movement working for the children most in need.
The challenge for this movement is to broadcast the SOS Programmes’ actions, gradually become part of the community and commit ourselves to working with an ever-increasing number of members of the community.
TWO SOS CHILDREN’S VILLAGES STRATEGIC INITIATIVES
To achieve the SOS Children’s Villages vision and mission globally, we have focussed our work on two strategic initiatives, which are implemented in two types of programme:
1. The **Children’s Villages**, where substitute families are set up for the children who have lost their own families due to specific circumstances or because their families can not take care of them. There is a substitute mother and brothers and sisters – biological siblings are kept together- in a home and a community that protects the children and provides integral development programmes for them. The Villages are included in the long-term childcare in permanent substitute families strategic initiative.
2. The **Child Abandonment Prevention Programmes**, that work with the families and communities most susceptible to abandoning and not protecting their children. These programmes promote the children’s natural development within their biological families with the support of the communities and SOS Children’s Villages. And so the second strategic initiative is developed; family and community strengthening for child abandonment prevention.
In Bolivia, the organisation develops activities based on the two strategic initiatives in seven of the nine departments.
SOS Children’s Villages is known worldwide as an organisation that creates families for orphaned and abandoned children and monitors them until they acquire the social and work skills needed to become independent.
The organisation is currently striving to disseminate the child abandonment prevention model as programmes have already been developed to contribute to decreasing the rates of child abandonment in the community where we operate.
We understand child abandonment as any behaviour that leads to a disregard for the basic needs and rights of children and adolescents. Some basic needs that need to be satisfied for survival are: affection, food, clothing, medical care, education, housing, protection.
Child abandonment or vulnerability puts children in a weak position or at risk of running away from home, dropping out of school, living on the streets, being exposed to drugs and/or alcohol, sexual abuse and other forms of violence. Sometimes it leads to child sexual exploitation, children and adolescents at conflict with the law and child labour.
Child abandonment prevention is understood as the families and communities that are at risk or are vulnerable acquiring skills to protect and care for their children, so that they grow up in a safe family environment.
There are risk factors and people who are more vulnerable to such risks. When these factors are identified we can act to avoid the materialization, reappearance or worsening of the social issues or needs.
SOS Children’s Villages trusts that the biological family is the best place for children to grow up as it is there that they will cared for in a stable relationship with at least one adult. The children will develop their sense of belonging and grow up with a knowledge of their own social and cultural heritage.
The community knows its situation, is capable of identifying its needs and priorities at the same time as designing and implementing appropriate strategies according to its social and cultural values.
We work alongside the community to construct sustainable and lasting solutions to problems that face orphaned and vulnerable children. We are committed to ensuring the long-term well-being of children and young people.
The causes are numerous and are rooted in the social and family dynamics, which become risk contexts, not exclusively due to the behaviour of parents.
Three dimensions can be identified, which overlap and go to making up the abandonment phenomenon:
**POVERTY and SOCIAL EXCLUSION**
Parents who find themselves in conditions of poverty and exclusion can have difficulty dealing appropriately with the tasks of raising, educating and developing their children.
Extreme poverty is a critical factor and if it is combined with the other factors mentioned below it increases the probability of child vulnerability.
**SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS**
Some cultural practices or patterns that put women below men on the social scale legitimise gender violence against women and children and are manifested as domestic violence, less opportunities for well-paid work and education for women, sexual harassment in the workplace and in education, etc.
There is a large number of irresponsible fathers, evidenced by their not legally recognising their children and not paying for their upkeep; many fathers are not involved in the raising of their children. “Adultcentric” behaviour also exists that legitimises abuse as a corrective measure, common in childrearing.
**PSYCHO-SOCIAL ASPECTS**
Some parents do not have sufficient knowledge and skills to take care of their children or their prosocial behaviour is limited. This may be due to having been abused and/or abandoned as children themselves, emotional immaturity, irresponsibility, abusing drugs or alcohol, mental illnesses, etc.
SOS Children’s Villages is an organisation that has pioneered the application of innovative social and humanistic focuses in our work with populations with few opportunities. The consolidation of these focuses guarantees constant training of the SOS staff. Over the last few years the main concepts and focuses related to the child abandonment prevention strategic initiative have expanded to the participants, emphasising their becoming leaders who support the programmes’ goals in their families and communities.
**SOS CHILDREN’S VILLAGES AS AN ORGANISATION THAT DEFENDS HUMAN RIGHTS AND PARTICIPATES IN THE GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP TO ACHIEVE THE EIGHT UNITED NATIONS MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS**
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
---
| Focus | Description |
|-------|-------------|
| 1 | Fulfilling the United Nations millennium development goals. Working with the most vulnerable populations. |
| 2 | Sustainable human development. Satisfying human needs that guarantee survival in dignified conditions that do not compromise the future. |
| 3 | Human rights. Fulfilling children’s rights. |
| 4 | Gender focus. Disseminating and fulfilling women’s rights. Promoting changes in traditional male values. |
| 5 | The pedagogy of affection. The respectful and sensitive treatment of each unique, valuable human being. |
| 6 | Education for development and freedom. Integral, active and significant development of the participants. Facilitating knowledge and learning experiences. |
| 7 | Resilience. Developing the capacity to confront, overcome and become strengthened through adversities in life. |
WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMMES?
1. **Children’s protection and integral development**
Children, especially those below the age of 6, need special care for their survival, health and well-being. Poverty and exclusion, as well as certain methods of raising children places the children at risk. Those children who are protected and given the development opportunities provided by the child abandonment prevention programmes in joint responsibility with their relatives will grow up strong and healthy, living and seeing themselves as active citizens with rights in our society.
**SERVICES**
- Daily protection and care
- Preventative child healthcare
- Diet
- Detection, treatment and follow-up of malnourished children
- Attention and treatment for children who are failing to develop
- Promotion of children’s rights
2. **Developing and empowering women to better protect their children**
Throughout history women’s human and citizens’ rights have been relegated. Their participation in and access to goods and services have been restricted in spite of their playing an active role in different work environments and as heads of families. By being offered certain choices and training, mothers can overcome their vulnerability, acquire new strength and orientation, and take part in projects that directly influence their well-being and that of their children and families.
**SERVICES**
- Women’s human development
- Women’s health promotion
- Employment training and economic development
3. **Developing and empowering vulnerable families to take better care of their children**
The family needs to be conserved and strengthened as the main space where children’s integral development takes place. Their individual development can be helped through the support of their community. Each family needs to identify their needs and take responsibility to actively satisfy them both in terms of material needs and emotional needs.
**SERVICES**
- Family legal support and orientation
- Support and monitoring of family life projects
- Training and counselling for parents
- Spaces where families can meet and be strengthened
- Attention in groups focussing on specific social issues
4. **Developing and empowering the community to take better care of and protect their children**
A diversified but unified community can work on resolving their problems and improving their quality of life, regaining confidence in themselves, reinforcing their strengths and developing new skills or abilities. Community organisation can activate projects aimed at guaranteeing the well-being of their members and specially that of the children and women.
**SERVICES**
- Support community organisation processes
- Training of leaders in children’s and women’s rights
- Training leaders in citizens’ rights
It is necessary for programmes to work on all of the components together without taking them as separate elements, in order to be able to reach the level of success and impact hoped for.
WHAT IS AN SOS SOCIAL CENTRE?
The SOS Social Centres arose from projects based on two needs:
1. The need to prevent children being abandoned, especially those who have a biological mother who for reasons of poverty or family disintegration wants to leave her children in some type of institution.
2. The need to set up a project that complements the SOS Children’s Villages so that they become integrated into the community or immediate environment.
“Our raison d’être is to restore to children and women what is theirs by right, recognising them as having rights in all of their social interactions and being part of a family group. And so we value the mother’s and family’s role and we do not replace this labour.”
EVOLUTION OF THE SOS SOCIAL CENTRES
ACCORDING TO YEAR FOUNDED
1985
1987
Cochabamba
1993
Tarija
1995
Oruro
Santa Cruz
The SOS Social Centres have developed as a response to the needs of the children and women participating. Based on their experiences, we can reflect on and adjust our methodology to be able to make changes such as moving from a paternalistic focus to one that is participative, and new proposals for the childcare procedures. The evolution of the SOS Social Centres has enabled us to expand to cover a large number of populations in vulnerable situations.
Number of children attended to in the Social Centres and Community Homes in Bolivia
There has been a significant increase in scope over the last five years.
The SOS Social Centres are programmes that attend to children between the ages of 6 months and 9 years who live in the surrounding neighbourhoods. The SOS Social Centres were built in very poor zones in the main cities of Bolivia. Over the years the social makeup of these zones has changed and so the attention of the Centres has moved to outlying neighbourhoods with the Community Homes.
While the children take part in initial education, academic support, preventative health and nutritional programmes, their mothers work on personal development to improve their self-esteem and to develop their social skills and techniques so that they have a better chance of finding employment. Our priority is to reach female heads of family who are in a vulnerable situation.
The women who participate in the Social Centre programme are required to commit themselves to taking advantage of the daily support to improve their quality of life. They are also involved in looking after their children so as to strengthen their affective relationships and their ability to protect their children.
The families made up of these mothers and their children and some other relatives have the chance to participate in counselling services and psychological, legal and education support to improve their internal relationships and strengthen their family as a place where their children can grow up loved, respected and protected in line with the vision of the organisation.
The group of families with the same problems and the desire to join together to look for solutions makes up a participative community. The SOS Social Centre aims to promote their organisation and participation so that they move towards taking decisions independently and become aware of and act in favour of fulfilling children’s and women’s rights as the most vulnerable members of the community.
The SOS Social Centre provides low cost services to the children, mothers, families and community. To move forward and guarantee the sustainability of the results in the medium and long-term needs the participants to commit themselves and become the protagonists, to trust in their abilities as human beings and as a social organisation.
LEARNING TO TAKE RESPONSIBILITY
Growing from their roots as projects, the SOS Social Centres have developed goals and activities with the children, mothers and families to help them improve their living conditions and overcome situations that are often desperate. The SOS staff are known for their great sensitivity to the needs of others and their commitment to helping them. The SOS Children’s Villages organisation looked for the resources necessary to help the participants.
Although help arrived, efforts were still concentrated on the SOS staff. They took the decisions, the solutions came from the offices of each SOS Social Centre and, if they existed, the Community Homes. This centralization created dependency and passivity in the participants, who did not know the contents and goals of the “project”. Because they did not know the principles and way the projects worked, the participants, children and adults, did not value or take responsibility for the programme – or better said, for themselves and their own self-improvement.
Another consequence was that the SOS Social Centres and Community Homes’ staff were overwhelmed with functions and obligations. There was a lot to do, too few people, the successes were not valued enough, there was a lack of follow-up and evaluation because of the amount of goals and activities proposed. Many people left the programmes.
As time went on, learning from experience the family boards were organised in some Community Homes. These beginnings of participation organised by the families could not function because of the lack of structure and guidelines for their participation. There was only minimal motivation to face emergencies or to organise small events.
Now the child abandonment prevention programmes state that the staff and participants advance together in organising the Family Committees. The participants are motivated to work together, be independent and active in solving their problems and becoming trained.
Through this way of working the results show that:
- Paternalism is ended
- Dependence is avoided
- Protagonism and active participation on the part of the community is strengthened
- The community’s independence in decision-making is increased
- There is joint responsibility for the management of the programme
- Social control is demanded and constant
- The most vulnerable children and families are supported effectively and with respect
- Solidarity is shown towards the most vulnerable
- The sustainability of the results is guaranteed in the medium and long-term
Experience has taught us that the child abandonment prevention programmes need to combine promotional intervention with transformational intervention, placing emphasis on the latter.
| THEME | PATERNALISTIC | PROMOTIONAL | TRANSFORMATIONAL |
|-------|---------------|-------------|------------------|
| Classification | "Give the person the fish..." | "Give the person the lake, the fishing rod and fry the fish" | "Organise everything so he can go and fish" |
| What is done | Satisfies a need | Develops the individual's abilities to insert themselves into society. This is a proposal for inclusion | There are no individual needs that can not be satisfied collectively. It is not enough to satisfy my need, there needs to be a collective effort to become organised. This is a proposal for interrelations |
| Who is being attended to? | The individual | A group | People as members of society |
| What is the aim? | To improve the life of a person | To improve the life of a person | To improve the quality of life of a culture |
| How are they incorporated into society? | They are incorporated into the social system as clients, as a favour | There is integration. It takes place slowly. They are integrated as a productive subject | They are empowered. The person goes into society with rights. Their relationship is as an active subject with a proposal. Exercise their rights |
| How is this developed? | Activities | Projects | Empowering |
| Subjectivity Becoming | Submissive | Productive | Critical and resistant |
Source: Child abandonment prevention: family and community development - 2004
WHAT IS A FAMILY COMMITTEE?
The Family Committees are organised groups of parents who participate in the child abandonment prevention programmes. A total of 15 to 35 families decide to support each other voluntarily to satisfy their needs and solve problems that they all face, to improve their family and community life.
The families that make up the Family Committee choose a team of seven representatives or leaders, who can propose themselves for the team, to lead the group towards fulfilling its objectives. The Family Committee board plans its administration with the support of the SOS Social Centre facilitators who support their training in the different areas of results so that the leaders acquire specific skills. Each Family Committee carries out its activities independently but with the logistic-administrative support of the SOS Social Centre.
The Family Committees are linked to other grass root social organisations such as the neighbourhood boards or grass root organisations. They become legitimate points of reference for the neighbours in a disadvantaged zone and work to improve the quality of life in all the community, but especially looking after the welfare of the children, women and families at risk.
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF AN SOS FAMILY COMMITTEE?
A Family Committee becomes organised and chooses its leaders or representatives to:
- Look for solutions to common needs and problems, such as education, food and protection for their children.
- Attend to their children’s needs to bring them up as good citizens.
- Support the families materially and emotionally, looking for opportunities for their growth and development, especially for the most vulnerable, to prevent child abandonment.
- Guarantee the active participation of all the families who form the Committee in their activities and follow-up those who show apathy or a lack of interest.
- Sign a commitment with each family to progress over the year (affective, housing, income, training options) and follow-up their fulfilment, permanently giving encouragement so that they are achieved.
- Plan, call and lead the meetings with all the mothers and fathers of the children in the Community Home.
- Channel support for the activities planned with organisations that work with children and women.
- Actively participate in the community dynamics, leading in the improvement of the living conditions of their zone.
• Seek solutions to the lack of opportunities and solutions that the mothers have in relation to education, training, employment, domestic violence and legal support.
• Support each other in the growth of each of their families and their community, preventing child abandonment.
• Support the training and recreational activities that are held by the Family Committees.
• Administrate the Community Homes, taking appropriate decisions so that they function well and guaranteeing that the money given by the SOS Social Centre, other organisations or raised through their own activities directly benefits the children.
• Constantly follow-up and evaluate that the Community Homes’ goals in the six areas of results and the finances are fulfilled.
• Supervise and monitor so that the agreements and regulations of the Family Committees and the Community Homes are fulfilled, mediating to solve conflicts.
• Keep the families and the SOS Social Centre informed of the progress in what has been planned.
• Become points of reference for their neighbourhoods for the defence and fulfilment of children’s, women’s and families’ rights.
HOW DO WE SET UP OUR FAMILY COMMITTEE?
Training the Family Committees is the base for developing the Community Homes, and so should be fully taken into account when they are being set up.
We would like to talk about how my Community Home was set up with the help of some of the mothers who also needed to go out to work.
To start with we got together and saw how to set up a Community Home. Need became the driving force because we had to leave our children when we went out to work. We organised ourselves to get everything we needed, we borrowed what we didn’t have for the kitchen, the living room and we brought in some toys that we no longer used in our houses.
Once the Home was up and running we got together to form a board. This meeting was supported by a member of staff from the SOS Social Centre who explained how we should set up our Family Committee. But we mothers always take the decisions. The training is guided by a leader who decides on what we will do at that meeting according to the following points:
- A roll call of the mothers
- The representative or head of the Committee is elected
- The community mothers approve the decision
- The heads of each area are elected
- The responsibilities for each area are assigned by the SOS Social Centre to our Committee
- Different topics of interest are discussed
And this is how we set up the Family Committee. For example, in my Home where I’m the leader, I call meetings twice a month to be able to discuss the needs of the Family Committee, the problems we are having such as providing food for our children. So we talk about different topics and once the meeting is over we do something; a group of mothers prepares food to sell to the committee and all the earnings go to buying something that we need for the Home.
When the Committee is strengthened we hope that we mothers can work on our own, carrying out our responsibilities, ensuring that each mother gets ahead, with her family united so that no more children will be abandoned.
As a leader, with the training sessions, I can see that we become more capable every day, we’re not afraid anymore, we can express ourselves freely, we feel more empowered in our Committees, we take decisions for the good of our community, we aim for the women to be able to get ahead and we want to work to be able to overcome any obstacle that comes up.
Gloria Choque – leader of the Community Home “Rabanitos”
SOS Social Centre - Sucre
WHAT IS A COMMUNITY HOME?
To contribute to the running of the Community Homes in vulnerable communities, the SOS Children’s Villages philosophy extends to protecting many more children. The Community Homes are houses or homes where some community mothers take care of a group of children who live together in fraternity as a part of their own community, respecting and recovering their values and cultural traditions.
A Community Home functions in a family house in the community, where around 15 children below the age of 9 live together on a daily basis. According to the infrastructure, the home should have one or two rooms, depending on the number of babies there are in the group, a kitchen and a bathroom. The outside should also be safe and educational for the children.
The parents of the children are part of a Family Committee and decide which mothers will be trained to exclusively look after the children. One is in charge of the food and health of the children, another educates the children by preparing programmes that are age-appropriate.
The Family Committee, organised and represented by a board, plans and supervises the activities that will improve the childcare provided, seeking to involve the families as much as possible. The committee also checks that the families are improving their living conditions – housing, work, relationships among members, leisure, etc.- while their children are being cared for by the community mothers.
The Community Home model has been developed as an effective way of preventing child abandonment and influencing the development of the family and the community.
THE COMMUNITY HOMES PASS THROUGH THREE PHASES FROM THEIR FOUNDING TO THEIR CONSOLIDATION:
1. PREPARATION (will last up to two months) In this first phase the parents on the Family Committee find the building where the Home will be and work with the community on improving it physically, especially the rooms and bathrooms. They equip these spaces for the children. The community mothers are trained by staff from the Social Centre.
2. DEVELOPMENT and EVOLUTION (between four and six months) The other spaces are improved, the kitchen and the patio, and the community mothers trained. The curriculum is planned with the children. The planning of menus and preparation of the food is supervised.
3. AUTONOMY (after the sixth month) The Community Home will have to be consolidated both in terms of its infrastructure and its day to day functioning under the responsibility of the community mothers with childcare skills. The children and the families should be used to the routine. Lists have been compiled to register the development of their learning and participation. All the services offered for the children and adults are functioning.
The Community Homes offer the same services as the SOS Social Centre for the children, mothers and families with seven representatives of the children’s parents taking joint responsibility, coordinating activities with the SOS Social Centre facilitators.
Each Family Committee democratically chooses their leaders or representatives in six areas who will develop and plan the goals and activities:
1. Community organisation and participation
2. Dietary improvement and sustainability
3. Children’s integral health
4. Children’s integral development
5. Women’s training and employment advancement
6. Family development
- Treasurer
This board functions for two years and can be re-elected at the end of this period.
LOCATION OF THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMME WITHIN THE COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
The leaders of the Family Committees seek to participate in the organisation of their community’s life.
SOS SOCIAL CENTRE
FAMILY COMMITTEE
Community leaders
FAMILY COMMITTEE
Community leaders
FAMILY COMMITTEE
Community leaders
FAMILY COMMITTEE
Community leaders
Neighbourhood Boards (Grass Root Organisations)
The Municipality
Number of children participating in the SOS Child Abandonment Prevention Programmes in 2004
| CITIES | SOCIAL CENTRES | COMMUNITY HOMES | KINDERGARDENS |
|----------|----------------|-----------------|---------------|
| Cochabamba | 155 | 1042 | 195 |
| Tarija | 186 | 1832 | 69 |
| Oruro | 146 | 808 | 75 |
| Santa Cruz| 172 | 1150 | 100 |
| Sucre | 104 | 521 | 72 |
| Potosí | 119 | 773 | 49 |
| El Alto | 126 | 830 | 35 |
| La Paz | 75 | 221 | |
| **TOTAL** | **1083** | **7177** | **595** |
8855 children below the age of 6
Source: Facility Statistics Summary 2004 – SOS Children’s Villages - Bolivia
This does not include paediatric and dental healthcare provided externally in the SOS Social Centres.
Number of organised families participating in Family Committees, SOS Social Centres in 2004
| SOCIAL CENTRE | NUMBER OF ACTIVE FAMILY COMMITTEES | NUMBER OF FUNCTIONING COMMUNITY HOMES | NUMBER OF FAMILIES PARTICIPATING |
|---------------|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Cochabamba | 47 | 44 | 754 |
| Tarija | 55 | 98 | 986 |
| Santa Cruz | 27 | 43 | 1048 |
| Oruro | 42 | 37 | 410 |
| Sucre | 27 | 27 | 302 |
| Potosí | 34 | 30 | 500 |
| El Alto | 27 | 27 | 565 |
| La Paz | 10 | 10 | 130 |
| **TOTAL** | **269** | **316** | **4695** |
Source: SOS Social Centres
In order to ensure objectivity in the study on the child abandonment prevention programmes’ impact on the lives of the children and adults participating, SOS Children’s Villages has already carried out two external evaluations. These are forecast for every three years and it is hoped that the results will have an influence on the analysis and decisions taken to improve the services offered.
**THE LAST IMPACT EVALUATION ON THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMMES**
In the last four months of 2004 Proactiva, a consulting company hired by SOS Children’s Villages, visited the SOS Social Centres and Community Homes in Cochabamba, Tarija, Oruro and Santa Cruz, developing an Impact Evaluation of the previous three years that the child abandonment prevention programmes have been running.
The objectives were to:
- Determine the level of impact that the SOS Social Centres programmes of the SOS Children’s Villages had had on the children, families and communities who had received the services for at least 2 years.
- Analyse the results to propose, through pinpointing strengths and weaknesses, a reworking of the work of the programmes.
- Have a final document that includes both the research process as well as the results obtained and the conclusions and recommendations.
To achieve the objectives, information was sought with the help of the SOS staff in the following way:
1. **QUANTATIVE DATA GATHERING:**
- Surveys of 112 families that had participated in the programmes for at least 2 years since 1999, located with the help of the SOS staff.
- Interviews with 49 families who were in similar circumstances to the families participating in the programme and live in the same geographic location but had never attended the SOS programmes.
2. **QUALITATIVE DATA GATHERING:**
- Search for information in administrative registers, documents and SOS programme statistics.
- Review the bibliography related to the topic.
- Interviews with 33 SOS members of staff (directors, facilitators, educators, others).
- Observation visits to 4 Social Centres and 38 Community Homes in the four cities.
- Interviews with 17 key informers in the education, health and neighbourhood sectors near to the SOS programmes.
- Focus groups with participating women and those who do not participate (control) in each city visited who have been there for at least two years, with similar characteristics (socioeconomic, age, number of children).
- Focus groups with the children participating and those who do not (control) aged between 5 and 10, in the same geographic area as the programmes.
The results of this evaluation will be referred to throughout this publication.
What we have achieved
The road travelled and some lessons learnt
Part 2
A young boy smiles brightly in traditional Peruvian attire, including a colorful hat adorned with feathers and a vibrant green poncho.
Component 1
Protection and integral development of children
Which children are our priority?
- Children below the age of 6.
- Children whose basic rights have been disregarded.
- Children who are not protected.
- Children with mild or acute malnutrition.
- Children with aggressive and/or withdrawn behaviour who show apathy, depression or other emotional disturbances.
- Children who are physically and psychologically abused.
- Children who have not attended or have dropped out of school.
The new poverty map drawn up using information from the National Population and Housing Census 2001 gives the following representative data:
- Bolivia has approximately **8.3 million inhabitants** and an annual growth rate of 2.1%.
- **58.6% of the Bolivian population is poor** because they cannot cover housing costs or access education and health.
- **14% of the Bolivian population lives on less than US$1 a day.**
Almost half of the Bolivian population is below the age of 18. 20% is at a vulnerable age (0 to 6 years).
Source: INE - Census 2001
2 million Bolivian children and adolescents are victims of poverty and exclusion each day. The majority are adolescents.
21% of children aged between 5 and 14 worked between 1999 and 2003.
HOW IS THE WORK WITH CHILDREN IN CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMMES DEVELOPED?
RESULT 1: Children below the age of 6 protected
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Protection and daily care | Quality, warmth, safety and 8 hours a day childcare. |
| | Support in obtaining birth certificates to exercise the right to citizenship. |
| | Education and training in children’s rights. |
RESULT 2: Healthy children below the age of 6
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Preventative healthcare for the children | Application of public health policies through the SUMI (Universal Mother Child Insurance) for children below the age of 5. |
| | Training children and parents in preventative health; peer training and health fairs. |
| | Setting up of medical surgical support networks (reference – counter reference). |
RESULT 3: Well-nourished children below the age of 6
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Diet | The providing of three meals a day that contain 80% of the dietary requirements for a child using standardised menus. |
| | Training community mother cooks to optimise menus using local, economical food. |
| Detection, treatment and follow-up of malnourished children | Monthly height and weight check-ups. |
| | Identification and follow-up of malnourished children. |
| | Application of corrective measures. |
| | Training parents in nutrition and nutritional cooking. |
RESULT 4: Children with adequate integral development (physical, psychological, emotional, spiritual) and exercising their rights
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Integral primary school education | Child development follow-up and check-ups. |
| | Integral primary school education: timely stimulation, Montessori, learning corners and complementary programmes. |
| | Academic support. |
| Attention for and treatment of children with development problems | Identification of cases. |
| | Treatment and follow-up (reference and counter reference). |
| Promotion of children’s rights | Education and training in children’s rights. |
| | Peer rights promoters. |
The actions and services with the children are carried out by different actors:
1. SOS Child Educators in the Social Centres
2. Community mothers in the Community Homes
3. The children’s parents who are involved with organisation of the daily care, programmes and campaigns they carry out with their children.
4. SOS staff specialised in paediatrics, paediatric dentistry, psychology, pedagogy, nutrition and cooking, and other subjects related to childcare.
All these people are being constantly trained to further their knowledge, especially those who work with children who are suffering physically, psychologically or emotionally.
The children below the age of 6 are divided into two groups so that they can carry out age-appropriate activities: the nurseries for those children between the ages of 6 months and 3 years, and the Montessori rooms with corners and workshops for those above the age of 3.
The general perception of the parents, as can be seen from the testimonies of families in El Alto, is that having their children participate in the child abandonment prevention programmes benefits their development. Although at first the parents are looking for a childcare centre where they can leave their children while they go out to work, they find a place for their own personal growth and that of their children. They “discover” their children and their potential.
98% of the parents say that it was good for their children to attend the programmes, because:
- The children develop their mental and learning skills.
- They learn to develop all their skills.
- They learn to be respectful, independent and sociable.
- They are well looked after and fed.
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
Result 1
CHILDREN BELOW THE AGE OF 6 ADEQUATELY PROTECTED
97% of the parents and children report that they feel that they are treated well and they feel safe in the Social Centres and Community Homes, as:
The children are well looked after and fed.
The educators in charge are responsible and trustworthy.
The education that their children are receiving is good and counselling is provided.
SOS is dedicated to the personal development of the children and their families.
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
A small percentage of the parents consider “that it’s fine but there could be more.” Mostly they pointed out differences between the quality of services and the control over the children in the SOS Social Centres and the Community Homes. The opinion is that the differences arise from the different levels of organisation of the parents in each Community Home, how long it has been running and the personal characteristics of the community mothers looking after the children.
One thing that is apparent, however, is that the children who attend the programmes change in the ways they relate to their peers and their family. Generally they develop communication skills and manage conflicts by talking about the problem. Many children learn to control their impulses and levels of aggression and manage a more peaceful relationship with themselves and others.
One characteristic of the educational environments where the children are is that they are well structured – compared to the situation in the families – and regulated. There are rules for living that help the children to be clear about limits and respect them. The Good Treatment focus is applied throughout all the work areas.
Also cooperation and fraternity is promoted among the children. The fact that the classrooms are for different ages leads the smaller children to learn from the older who in turn learn to feel protective towards the younger children.
The children who attend the SOS programmes are considered and treated as people who deserve respect and to have their rights respected and one of the first steps towards exercising their rights is becoming a Bolivian citizen. For this all parents are given support in doing the paperwork to obtain essential documents such as the birth certificate for their children. There are also constant campaigns for registration.
FULFILLING THE CITIZENS’ RIGHTS OF THE CHILDREN IN ORURO
During 2003, through the Vice Ministry of Justice Civil Society Programme, and with financing from the International Development Bank, the SOS Social Centre Oruro obtained birth certificates for over 2,000 children below the age of 12. In order to do this we coordinated with people and institutions such as the Electoral Court, the Court of Justice, Registry Office officials, lawyers, institutions working with children, radio stations, television channels and others.
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
SOME DATA ON IDENTITY AND CITIZENSHIP IN BOLIVIA
• In 2002, The National Electoral Court identified 778,000 people who were not legally registered in Bolivia. These people cannot exercise their citizens’ rights because they do not have a birth certificate or another type of document that proves their identity.
• According to UNICEF, 20% of these are children between the age of 0 and 14.
• 42% is below the age of 1.
Result 2
HEALTHY CHILDREN BELOW THE AGE OF 6
The prevention of childhood diseases is carried out on different fronts, with good results. Following the model of joint responsibility, the family, especially the mother, is key to keeping the children healthy.
The child abandonment prevention programmes promote training on how to recognise, identify, prevent and treat different illnesses in children, especially when they are malnourished. The parents are also motivated to actively take part in the health campaigns that are constantly being carried out in coordination with private and government institutions. Some of these campaigns guarantee that all the children receive fluoride treatment, are vaccinated, dewormed and that they receive vitamins and iron supplements.
100% of the children have their weight and height checked. The frequency of these check-ups, which are carried out by the medical staff from the SOS Social Centre or in medical centres or posts or in the Community Homes, with external support, depends on the children’s situation.
Those children who need medical or dental treatment receive it at a low cost. Those who need specialist check-ups or treatments that cannot be carried out at the SOS Social Centres are seen by external professional services or partner institutions. Many children have been treated or have had the surgery needed to make them well.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE CHILDREN WHO PARTICIPATE?
SOME DATA ON CHILD HEALTH IN BOLIVIA
• The child mortality rate in children below the age of 5 for the five-year period 1999-2003 is estimated at 54 deaths per 1000 live births.
• The neonatal mortality rate is 27 deaths per 1000 live births.
• The causes of death are usually preventable and include those diseases for which there is a vaccination routinely given in the country.
Source: National Demographic and Health Survey (ENDSA) 2003
• UNICEF estimates that in Bolivia in 2003 almost 5,000 people between the ages of 0 and 49 live with HIV/AIDS.
• The risk of a child dying is three times higher when their mother has not been through school than when their mother has finished secondary school.
Source: ENDSA 1998
One of the goals achieved in various SOS Social Centres is that those children below the age of 5 and their mothers have a Universal Mother Child Insurance card (SUMI)\(^1\) and use these services.
The children, like their parents, receive health and sex education as part of their integral formation. The mothers become aware of how important it is to take care of themselves and their family to prevent illnesses. The programmes teach, from very early on in childhood, good cleanliness and personal hygiene habits, which are key to a healthy life.
\(^1\) Since 2000, the SUMI has been the public health insurance scheme which attends to children below the age of 5 and their mothers in more than 400 branches of health. This system is administrated by the Municipal Governments who allocate budgets to the public health services network around the country.
Result 3
WELL NOURISHED CHILDREN BELOW THE AGE OF 6
SOME DATA ON THE NUTRITIONAL STATE OF THE CHILDREN IN BOLIVIA
- 9% of children are born with a low birth weight, according to UNICEF.
- 26.5% of children below the age of 5 are chronically malnourished and their weight-height relationship is below normal levels.
- Of these children, 27% are severely malnourished, usually between 12 and 13 months of age.
- The mothers of 44% of those children who are chronically malnourished have no level of schooling.
Source: National Demographic and Health Survey (ENDSA) 2003
The children participating in the programmes receive 80% of their daily dietary requirements in three or four tasty and varied meals or snacks. The community mothers in charge of the kitchen are trained to prepare these meals making use of the food available in each region, and provided by donors.
Often the children, when they join the SOS programmes, are not used to eating fruit and vegetables. Part of their learning for life is good dietary habits. They learn the value of each food as part of a balanced diet. Their families – especially their mothers, learn to combine foods, to cook them and serve nutritional, economical meals. This is how we ensure that the children stay well-fed when they leave the programmes. Indirectly it influences on the whole family having a good diet.
CHANGING DIETARY HABITS TOGETHER
Oruro is one of the departments with the highest rates of malnutrition in Bolivia, mainly because of the economic factor, bad dietary habits - excessive consumption of carbohydrates and little or no consumption of fruit and vegetables because of the cold climate - and a lack of knowledge of nutrition and how to prepare nutritional food.
Faced with this problem, the SOS Social Centre has been developing a project on Dietary Improvement with 450 families in 2004 and 2005 with financing from our Development Partners USAID/PROSALUD.
With the active participation of the community and the families of over 900 children in the programme training activities in nutrition, cooking, and the construction of greenhouses have been held. While the children improve their nutritional state, their parents and siblings change their dietary habits.
SOS Social Centre
- Oruro
Children who are well-fed considerably improve their chances to integrally develop their attention span, interest in educational activities and interaction with their peers, parents and teachers. The relationship between food and the stimulus to learn is seen through the will to learn in children who are healthy and lively. The internal change is seen through a physical change: their skin, hair and eyes take on a healthy colour and shine\(^2\). A percentage of children who enter the programmes are malnourished but they recover progressively.
All of the participants receive constant follow-up of their nutritional state and in many cases this is monthly. The mothers monitor the children’s development and are trained by the health staff to support the children’s improvement.
**Result 4**
**CHILDREN WITH ADEQUATE INTEGRAL DEVELOPMENT AND EXERCISING THEIR RIGHTS**
Integral development of children refers to their having access to all of the opportunities they need to maximise their physical, intellectual, emotional, spiritual and social development. Given that those children participating in the child abandonment prevention programmes come from families and communities with many problems, it is the job of their educators or community mothers to identify their talents to be able to strengthen them while working on their weak points. A lack of adequate stimulation in unfavourable environments and situations affects many children’s motor and sensory development and causes problems in their relationships with other children and adults, which can be seen by their being either very passive or aggressive. The programmes become places for social and cultural integration. Each child is measured against the Abbreviated Scale of Psychosocial Development\(^3\) and their progress is registered along with the areas where they need reinforcement. If necessary the family of a child who shows obvious delayed development is referred to specialised institutions where they will receive support. The programme follows up the child's treatment alongside the parents.
The education programmes are based on the children and the love and respect that they deserve as individuals. The child educators and community mothers learn about early stimulation, how to implement the Montessori method and other active methodologies along with the focuses and aims of the Bolivian Education Reform.
---
\(^2\) Study on Child Nutrition and Development developed by the National Nutrition Institute of Mexico.
\(^3\) A scale that evaluates the development of children between the ages of 0 and 8 in four areas: gross motor, fine motor, cognitive development (auditory and language) and personal-social development. It was designed by the director of the Human Development Institute at the Universidad Javeriana of Bogotá. The SOS staff and community mothers are trained to apply the test and interpret the results.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE CHILDREN WHO PARTICIPATE?
MONTESORI AS AN OPTION FOR IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF CHILD EDUCATION
Maria Montessori worked with children in very poor neighbourhoods in Rome in its first orphanages at the beginning of the 1900s. In 1994 SOS Children’s Villages became interested in the results of this method of working with children.
Many people have been working on expanding the Montessori method around Latin America since the 1960s and make up the current Interamerican Montessori Association. The first certified course in Guide Training for children between the ages of 3 and 6 and a short course in infant/toddler training was held between 1996 and 1998 to train 24 members of staff from SOS Social Centres, Nursery Schools and Child Development Centres. Ten years later guides trained in the first course trained over 50 educators around the country. Also, each affiliated centre and programme has developed strategies to multiply the Montessori area and expand the methodology to the Community Homes.
Montessori has had an impact on the SOS programmes – the rooms are furnished for the children’s size and equipped with material according to subject area with routines that respect each individual’s rate of learning and “rules” that are respected naturally. Above all the method has had a great impact on the private and professional life of those who “guide” the children’s learning. Many of the educators had no academic background before being trained in this method.
The results of the thousands of children who have passed through the Montessori classrooms in the SOS child abandonment prevention programmes reflect our trust in this methodology, and above all are still reflecting the teachings:
- Children with good academic results later on.
- Children who are sure of themselves.
- Children who are independent, organised and can concentrate on the task at hand.
- Children who observe and research.
- Children who are creative.
- Children able to generate new ideas and communicate them to others.
- Children able to locate themselves in time and space.
- Children who clearly express their emotions, both positive and negative.
- Children who adapt their behaviour to any situation.
- Children who are able to listen and participate in a group.
- Children who are more self-possessed, less aggressive.
- Children who are happy learning.
The parents also see the results. They are impressed with their children’s progress and cooperate by doing some activities and preparing materials for the classrooms.
The results of the children having studied in the classrooms of the child abandonment prevention programmes are seen later on in academic life. They know more, are open to carrying on learning, have good study habits, are independent and take on the responsibility for their personal improvement. The immediate impression upon seeing the children who attend the programmes is that they are happy in their classrooms with their educators, the activities, materials and appropriate equipment. They show progress while they participate.
Some school-age children also attend the child abandonment prevention programmes where they receive support to improve their performance and abilities.
**SOME DATA ON EDUCATION IN BOLIVIA**
**Preschool state system**
*(children below the age of 6)*
- **Enrolled**: 35%
- **Dropped out**: 7%
- **Outside the system**: 65%
**Primary state system**
- **Enrolled**: 88%
- **Dropped out**: 5.88%
- **Outside the system**: 12%
Source: INE - Census 2001
Most children do not attend education programmes until they reach 6 years of age.
Over the years and through all of our actions, SOS Children’s Villages has been seen as an organisation that defends and promotes children’s rights but maybe this has only been a discourse and has not been the reality.
A replacement teacher had to be found because the educator in charge of academic support in the SOS Social Centre Tarija was going on maternity leave.
Paola, Emerson, Marisol, Navy, Lizeth and other children who attended the support class went to see the director to talk about their fear and anxiety because of two important motives: first because the educator was always pulling their ears and shouting at them, and second to talk about their remaining at the Social Centre as most of them were almost 9 years old – the maximum age for attending the programme.
They said that what they were taught about their rights being respected was not always what happened in reality and that the “new aunt” did not respect them. They felt that their rights were not being respected but they still felt sure that they would be listened to because that was their right. They also said that they did not agree with having to leave the SOS Social Centre because of their age as “we’re still children who need protection and food, just as our rights state”.
Of course their worries and complaints were listened to and sorted out and we knew that we were reaping the rewards of our work as the children had shown themselves to be critical, expressive and capable of having their rights respected.
Geovana Michel – Health and Nutrition Area
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
Those children who attend our programmes request good treatment and that their rights are respected. We work with them to develop their values to ensure that the children respect others’ rights promoting solidarity with those who need it, tolerance and respect, individual and group responsibility. Although the children are young, with help, they can live in a community and practise values.
Through this the children become educators within their own families, especially with their parents, by sharing their experiences and knowledge. The change in the participants is also integral: working on the Protection and Integral Development of Children Component affects the lives of the mothers, the families and the community. Awareness is raised on the care that children deserve and the need to prevent their abandonment.
**SOME DATA ON EDUCATION IN BOLIVIA**
| Secondary level - 15 to 19 years old | Male | Female |
|--------------------------------------|------|--------|
| Attendance rate | 57% | 52% |
| Further education | Male | Female |
|-------------------|------|--------|
| Finished courses | 17% | 13% |
| Completed 12 years of education | Male | Female |
|---------------------------------|------|--------|
| National level | 16% | 12% |
Source: INE 2003
In the child abandonment prevention programmes, the children work on topics fundamental to improving their quality of life, such as human rights and children’s rights. They understand them and defend them. The overall experience shows that children are very critical and demand that people practise what they preach.
A mother and her child in Peru.
Component 2
Developing and empowering women to better protect their children
Which women are our priority?
- Very young mothers.
- Illiterate mothers or mothers who have only attended primary school.
- Single mothers.
- Mothers with very young children.
- Mothers who do not show a bond with their children.
- Women with low income and little work stability.
- Women with few or no technical skills.
- Unemployed women.
- Women who have migrated looking for a better quality of life.
- Women who are victims of domestic abuse or abuse in the workplace.
- Women who have low self-esteem.
The global fertility rate is 3.8 children per woman. In the rural area it is 5.5 children and in the urban area it is 3.1.
65% of the women interviewed did not want to have any more children.
72% of the women interviewed who were in a relationship said that they needed family planning services.
Source: National Demography and Health Survey (ENDSA) 2003
Heads of households in Bolivia
(from 1,977,665 private homes)
* Women without a partner 16%
Women with a partner 15%
Male 69%
* Single, widowed, separated or divorced
Source: UNDP – Human Development Thematic Report
SOME OTHER DATA ON HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS IN BOLIVIA
Female responsibility has increased from 24% to 31% at the national level. The level of income in the households headed by women has been affected.
Source: Bolivia National Report – Vice Ministry of Women, 2004 (base line)
In the rural area a quarter of the households are headed by women.
24.8% live in moderate poverty.
23.3% live in extreme poverty.
22.9% live in poverty.
Source: UDAPSO, INE, 1994
The majority of the women interviewed participated in the Social Centre, so it was still easy to locate them. Those who had participated in the Community Homes were more difficult to contact and some had even cut all contact with the Social Centre.
Their average time of participation was almost 4 years.
Both in the Social Centre and the Community Homes they mainly participated in the employment skills training workshops and to a lesser degree in personal development activities. (Table 1)
The families said that the programme supported the most vulnerable people in the community and the parents who work. (Table 2)
The women surveyed were mostly between the ages of 26 and 30. (Table 8)
70% were married or living with their partner. (Table 10)
The majority had migrated to the city where the programme operated. (Table 9)
41% had finished primary school and 40% secondary school. (Table 11)
The average number of children per woman was between 2 and 3. (Table 12)
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004 – See tables in Annex 2
HOW IS THE WORK WITH THE MOTHERS DEVELOPED IN THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMMES?
RESULT 1: Literate women with a decent level of self-esteem, who exercise citizenship
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Women’s human development | Training and education on self-esteem, literacy, women’s rights, gender and equity, domestic violence and leadership. |
| | Training to defend women’s human rights. |
| | Groups and other strategies for women to meet and support each other. |
RESULT 2: Healthy women
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Women’s health promotion and prevention | Application of public health policies for women. |
| | Information and training for women in sexual and reproductive health: sexual rights, safe maternity, early detection of cervical and breast cancer and other women’s health problems. |
RESULT 3: Women who work and earn decent wages
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Work training and economic development | Work training in a trade and/or as a technician, employment rights. |
| | Solid employment agencies. |
| | Training in opening small businesses and access to loans. |
Many women who come to the child abandonment prevention programmes are looking for support, generally to be able to leave their children at the centre while they go out to work. They are looking for help, for other people to look after their children. This way of thinking gradually changes as the mother is strengthened and becomes willing to take on the joint responsibility for looking after her children.
Emiliana Huanca, a single mother aged 28 with a 4 year old daughter, had to migrate to Oruro 8 years ago because what she earned from farming with her mother in the countryside was only just enough to survive on. She has been going to the SOS Social Centre Oruro for 3 years.
“I came from Vichuloma. I used to help to farm but because I needed to work and didn’t know where to leave my daughter I found the Village. My boss wouldn’t let my daughter stay with me where I was working as a maid. There were nursery schools but I didn’t have enough money and I found out about here so I travel a long way to be able to leave my daughter here.
I’ve learnt a lot here. I’ve learnt machine and hand knitting, marketing, and quality control with another institution, IDEPRO. I used to be so afraid of everything; now I have my own machine and I took out a loan from IDEPRO with a partner who’s also a mother. Now I have a trade and when we get orders we knit.
We also learn about childcare. My child eats better now. She’s well-fed here and I like that. I’m single, if I work I have money, if I don’t work I don’t have money.
It’s always like that, I have to pay 60 Bolivianos for my room.
SOS Children’s Villages has changed my life. I think it’s even changed me. I’m not so worried all the time, I’ve learnt so many things like how to cook, how to knit, how to use the knitting machine, food groups, nutritional cooking, greenhouses.
It’s like a family here, like it would be in the countryside. Sometimes my family isn’t here and I feel very lonely. When I came here I felt like this was my family. Everybody calls each other aunt, uncle, I like that. I’m happy now.”
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
For a mother to be able to incorporate her children into the child abandonment prevention programmes she has to be willing to participate in all of the activities related to her own development as a mother, a person and a citizen and in those activities that benefit her group made up of other women with similar problems.
Often when a woman first comes she does not want to join in. She is in a desperate situation and is just surviving. Many of the women who have migrated to the cities bring with them stories of exclusion and violence, they have a low academic level... By giving them opportunities and a lot of support they begin to set themselves goals.
The people who are a part of these processes are:
1. SOS staff from different specialities, mainly social and pedagogic.
2. Facilitators.
3. The mothers, organised in Family Committees, in their own different stages of social and personal development.
4. The leaders who represent the Family Committees.
“… I was in the maternity ward having my fourth child. He (her husband) had left me alone with my other three children – all of them small - and a newborn baby. He went off with another woman… He didn’t just leave me, he took everything I had… he left our home empty. I was crying so much…
The woman in the bed next to mine spoke to me, she comforted me and told me that I should go to the SOS Social Centre. “They’ll help you there”, she said. That was 6 years ago. My youngest has finished the Social Centre programme. I’m always coming here… it’s amazing that I’m a leader now…”.
Lucia - mother
SOS Social Centre
- Cochabamba
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE MOTHERS WHO PARTICIPATE?
Most of the mothers take advantage of the development and training that the programmes offer. The activities are new to them and help to empower them.
**Women’s participation in programme activities**
| ACTIVITIES | Community Home | Social Centre |
|------------------|----------------|---------------|
| Work skills | 51.7 | 56.5 |
| Personal development | 27.6 | 25 |
| Leisure | 6.9 | 10.2 |
| None | 13.8 | 8.3 |
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
Result 3
LITERATE WOMEN WITH A DECENT LEVEL OF SELF-ESTEEM WHO EXERCISE CITIZENSHIP
The mothers improve their perception of themselves and the possibility of changing their personal and family life whilst they participate in workshops and other training and sharing activities. The women reflect on their experiences and the opportunities they have had since childhood that have influenced how they are and on what was theirs by right but they never received such as education, being well treated and respected, etc.
They can see themselves reflected in the other women who have had similar experiences. With patient and firm monitoring, their abilities and self-esteem improve. They work towards personal development goals which they can fulfil with the support of their friends and the SOS staff. These commitments range from paying the fees for their children at the programmes to changing the way they present themselves, improving their living conditions – buying a bed so that their children can sleep separately, for example – or continuing to study.
We started with 15 families who were assigned to our Family Committee. At the first meeting we met each other, we felt strange, afraid of speaking or suggesting something and then the 7 area leaders were chosen. At first we didn’t understand the importance of these areas and the mothers didn’t like being told what to do. It’s like being told all the time what you have to do. Maybe this was because we all had a partner at home who was always ordering us about; we didn’t have any chance to take a decision.
The first workshop we attended was on self-esteem. At the first class we weren’t really well-presented, ponytails, sandals, aprons, and we were all shy but we learnt so much. I’ll never forget when Emilio told us: “First it’s you, then it’s you, and finally it’s you.” We had to learn to value ourselves, to think that we can talk, that we can take decisions, that we can stop any attempt to hurt us, and we all face that.
Suddenly we saw the light at the end of the tunnel and that there was a wealth of opportunities that we could all choose from and we liked that. For the first time in a long time we saw our classmates happier, livelier, with more concerns looking for someone to listen to them, family counselling and feeling like someone cared because we could all identify with each others’ problems.
There were mothers who didn’t join in. Like they didn’t understand what it was all about but we insisted that they stay and at the end most got involved. Many of us became more than just friends; we became sisters, helping each other every day. Because of this, now when we meet we respect each other, we want to talk about everything we did when we were representing the Committee, especially when we were dealing with a crisis. Now two of us are professionals and three are studying. Others are sellers and are leaders in their marketplace. The others are still changing.
Lidia Quispe - mother
SOS Social Centre
- Cochabamba
One of the activities that seeks to strengthen the women is the literacy programme. There are classroom or classroom/self-study programmes in different SOS Social Centres either independently or with the support of other specialist organisations. The educational level that the women reach is very important so that they can access other training programmes such as employment skills training. It also has an influence on their self-esteem and helps them monitor their children’s education.
Little by little the women who take advantage of the opportunities begin to take control of their life and their family’s. They develop skills to plan their time and their expenditure. Their commitments, which before were small and verbal, become life plans that help to direct them and are written down. Most of the women fulfil their commitments. Some do not but the other women encourage them. This way of working together is so important that the “godmother” system is being implemented in some programmes, such as the SOS Social Centre Cochabamba.
THE “GODMOTHER” SYSTEM
Constantina, an old mother and leader of a Family Committee in the SOS Social Centre Cochabamba had to have surgery about two years ago in the Hospital Viedma. On the second day a woman came in who was in labour, she was in the bed next to Constantina and cried inconsolably. Constantina asked her what had happened, and the woman said that she was desperate. Her husband had left her for another woman and had sold most of her furniture and home appliances whilst she went to visit her parents in Oruro. She could not find him. She had three small children and the new baby and she had nowhere to live and no food for them. She was also in debt to her landlord.
Constantina invited her to visit the SOS Social Centre, telling her about what it meant to be a part of the Centre, and she told her she would help her. The next day they both left the hospital and as a friend, Constantina accompanied Catalina to the Social Centre, telling her that one day she had also come to the Centre and other mothers had helped her. Immediately Catalina was helped to find a room. The programme paid for two months of rent. They took her few belongings to her new room and lent her things to cook with and for sleeping. Catalina entered as an assistant to be trained in cooking in the SOS Social Centre and received a stipend from PAN. She participated with enthusiasm in the workshops on Human Training, Literacy and others. Over the months we saw how Constantina became Catalina’s “godmother”. She gave her advice, listened to her problems, Catalina found somewhere to live with Constantina’s support… Constantina, on her own steam, went to the Family Support office to report on how her friend was doing and to ask for help to keep on supporting her. Very quickly Catalina came out of her depression, raised her self-esteem, integrated herself into the community of mothers, became interested in the training activities, etc. Now she is the leader of her group, participates enthusiastically in the Family Committee and supports the other mothers coming into the programme who are suffering similar situations to what she went through.
As a result of this experience, the SOS Social Centre has started the “godmother” system with success in 8 of the 10 families participating. Some were referred from the Family Committees, others from the SEDEGES (Departmental Social Services), dependent on the Prefecture and the Municipal Child Ombudsman’s Office in the province of Cercado, as part of the coordination of the Violence against Women Network. Other private organisations such as Infante (Women’s Shelter) participate.
At the beginning we sought to provide support, mainly emotional, to the women suffering from domestic violence and intending to abandon their children because of the desperate situation they found themselves in. We wanted to surround them with positive support to strengthen them and work on their self-esteem. After the first experience of Catalina and her godmother Constantina we followed this example because of the immediate results that we had had with her and her family. The only requirement for the woman to be admitted is to want to overcome her situation and keep her children with her. They enter a phase of holding as they are considered high risk families. Over time and in the second phase, they are integrated with the other families participating following the same road and pursuing the same objectives to strengthen and develop themselves to influence their quality of life.
One very satisfying result of the work with the mothers is that they organise their own support circles as friends who decide to help each other in different situations and at different times. These groups also continue even when the women leave the programmes.
**SOLIDARITY AMONG WOMEN**
At the Family Committee meetings Libertad met ten mothers who take their children to the Chaguaya Community Home. They work in different areas, some are sellers and others work the land.
They commented to the facilitators that their friendship was very strong because they helped each other in different situations. This was seen when at a meeting eight of the ten women had to approve a loan but the members from the other Community Home were not there and so the eight mothers decided to support each other and be the guarantors for each other. They promised to look after each other and make sure that the money was returned. As the other Community Home had not attended the meeting, they trusted them and approved their loan also. When a mother could not come to pay her debt, another mother came with the money and so the mothers supported each other throughout the year.
Another good experience was when the fifteen mothers from the same Family Committee decided to enrol in a training course on sewing. After a few days, the mothers from the other Home did not attend and so the mothers from the Chaguaya Community Home took the initiative and motivated their friends to return to classes because they wanted to finish the course as they knew it would benefit their personal development and that they would learn to make clothes for their children there.
After finishing the sewing course, they decided to take a course in baking. They were asked why they had chosen that course instead of another such as marketing, which would be useful to them as sellers. They said that as they are out all day selling they did not have the chance to cook and they wanted to learn how to bake so that they could learn to make cakes to show their husbands that they could make something delicious, make birthday cakes for their children and also take desserts to the market to sell.
And that is just what they did: when they didn’t have enough money to eat what they had made one sold coffee and offered the bread or cakes that they had made. Another sold the ice-cream cakes that they had made at her soft drinks stall.
The most wonderful thing that came out of this experience was the friendships that arose among the mothers in the Community Home and the result is that they support each other when the need arises.
*Maria Isabel Lima*
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
It is still a challenge to have the women report domestic violence to their families and the authorities that can support them. The issue of violence is covered up and it seems to be difficult for the women to talk about it. When faced with violence the women confront it in two ways: by being passive or separating from their partner and the conflictive and violent relationship. The fact that they now have some sort of support from people and safe spaces for them and their children and their own desire to change the situation influences their decisions, along with their decision-making in the training sessions that they attend on self-esteem, good treatment, women’s rights, etc.
“Since I’ve been coming to the Community Home I can work. I’ve left my husband… he was always jealous, we were always fighting. I’m young and me and my child can get ahead. Now I sell kebabs in the nights. It’s not so bad, I earn something and I study during the day while my child is in the Home. My mum helps me a lot too.”
Eliana - mother
Community Home - Oruro
SOME DATA ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN BOLIVIA
- 17% of the women in the urban area and 35% in the rural area are married or living with someone before they are 18.
- 1 or 2 of every 10 married or cohabiting men say that they are victims of abuse in the home, mainly psychological abuse.
- 5 to 6 of every 10 married or cohabiting women say that they are victims of physical, psychological and sexual abuse in the home.
- 7 of every 10 victims of abuse are women.
- In 75% of the cases the violence is constant and is not reported by the victims.
- 53% of the women who do report having been abused in their home did not take any action. Most of them were aged between 29 and 50; they were unemployed or only occasional worked.
- 17% reported violence to the Family Protection Brigades, the Integral Legal Services or the Legal System.
- 30% sought solutions within their family.
- The most frequent physical violence against women took the form of shoving (8% of the women in a relationship) and being hit or kicked (7%).
- 48% of the women who were or had been in a relationship reported having suffered different forms of abuse from their partner at one time or other.
- 15% reported having been forced to have sexual intercourse.
- The type of violence is greater as the woman gets older and among uneducated women.
Sources: National Demographic and Health Survey (ENDSA) 2003
Frequency study in three municipalities in Bolivia, PAHO-MSPS-VAGGF, 1998
There are 80 Integral Legal Services, which are under the responsibility of the municipal governments, in Bolivia that implement the violence attention policies. Also, 53 Attention to and Prevention of Domestic Violence Networks have been set up that specifically attend to violence against women.
Source: Bolivia National Report – Vice Ministry of Women, 2004 (base line)
Another option that the women can use in their families is to manage conflict without resorting to violence. They learn to use dialogue as a way of relating to their children. They learn to overcome their own background and that they can break the vicious circle that makes a person who has suffered abuse become a potential abuser. They understand that certain ways of raising children and situations made their parents or guardians treat them in a certain way when they were children themselves.
**What do they do when their children misbehave?**
| Action | Experimental group of mothers participating in the programmes | Control group of mothers who do not participate in the programmes |
|-------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| Nothing | 7.5 | 4.8 |
| Give advice | 43.3 | 38.7 |
| Severely reprimand | 15 | 12.2 |
| Punish | 27.5 | 18.3 |
| Hit | 6.7 | 26 |
| None | 9 | 0 |
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
Physical punishment is more frequent in women who do not participate in the programmes, according to the results of the last impact evaluation.
In general, whether alone or in a relationship, the women respond to the challenge of improving the situation that brought them to the programme.
Result 2
HEALTHY WOMEN
Although the child abandonment prevention programmes seek that the mothers, with higher levels of self-esteem, take care of their health, this result does not reach even the minimum percentage. The majority do not see their health as a priority, do not prevent women’s illnesses and do not take advantage of the campaigns coordinated by the SOS Social Centres.
SOME DATA ON WOMEN’S HEALTH IN BOLIVIA
- 270 of every 100,000 women die because of complications during pregnancy, and childbirth.
- It is estimated that unsafe abortions cause 30% of deaths in women.
Source: Basic indicators PAHO/WHO 2000
“… there’s no time for anything. When our children get ill we have to take them to the doctor. We get up early and join the queue. When we get ill we get better on our own or just put up with it. There’s no time or money to go to the doctor.”
Juliana – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
The programmes should look for strategies to motivate the women to take advantage of the public health services, which they have a right to, such as the SUMI. Healthcare has to become one of the indicators of progress in the development of women’s self-esteem.
Result 3
WOMEN WHO WORK AND EARN DECENT WAGES
80% of the mothers participate in the technical training courses that are offered by the child abandonment prevention programmes. Attendance is higher in the SOS Social Centres than in the Community Homes.
Probably many mothers from the Community Homes do not attend the training sessions because they are usually in the evenings, the Centre is far from their home and many of the cities lack security and public transport. Some say that they do not have time. However, those who do participate in the sessions feel that they have benefited and value them.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE MOTHERS WHO PARTICIPATE?
How did the training benefit me?
(mothers)
87.5% of the women that participated in the SOS Social Centre training considered that it had been worthwhile.
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
The techniques or specialities that they learn come from the participants’ interests and the opportunities that will be opened to them in the employment market wherever the programme is.
Dani Ramos is a mother of 6, and was referred to the SOS Social Centre Tarija from Social Services\(^4\). Her husband had left her and she found herself alone and desperate in charge of her 6 children. She had worked in PLANE\(^5\) but at that time did not have a contract. Her self-esteem was very low and she was suffering because she knew that her husband had left her for another woman.
The year was drawing to a close and the SOS Social Centre could not give her a loan. Also, because she was so depressed she could not work alone. We began to think about her working for two months in the Centre itself in charge of cleaning the offices and during that time she could train to be able to find stable work in the future.
After long conversations with the educators and the person in charge of the Area of Training she began to be more positive and work well. As she gained more confidence she spoke of her problems with her partner, he had been very jealous and had not let her work; he was jealous of everyone and it ended in high levels of domestic violence which led to his leaving her.
She had never known what to do. When a baking course started up in the SOS Social Centre, she said that she would like to learn, to be able to have a cake stall and eventually become the owner of her own business: she believed that she could learn to bake. She showed a desire to overcome her situation and for her older daughters to help her to sell while she was in classes. She had never had the chance to learn as her husband became jealous when she came home late.
She began to study what she had always wanted to. She studied in the evenings and by the time the SOS Social Centre work finished she had learnt to make delicious puddings and cakes, so much so that she decided to sell them. Everything went so well that she is still making and selling cakes and her economic situation is stable.
What we want to transmit through this story is that the course she received was just when she needed it the most. This woman was trained in something that helps her whole family as her daughters are learning alongside her and will also have a means of survival in the future.
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
---
\(^4\) Social Services (SEDEGES), dependent on the Departmental Governments or Prefectures, attend to the community at risk, in coordination with non-profit institutions or organisations.
\(^5\) National Emergency Employment Plan
The women apply what they have learnt on the training courses to improve their family income. Some generate income additional to what they earn from their main work. Their work opportunities become diversified. This can be seen from the results of the last impact evaluation comparing the occupations of the women participating in the programmes – or who have participated at some time - (experimental group) and those who have not (control group).
**Occupation of the mothers (by percentage)**
| OCCUPATIONS | Mothers who participate in the programmes | Mothers who do not participate in the programmes |
|----------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| None | 15 | 10 |
| Other | 7 | 5 |
| Laundress | 6 | 4 |
| Educator or promoter | 10 | 10 |
| Artisan | 2 | 8 |
| Cleaner | 18 | 12 |
| Seller | 28 | 20 |
| Household worker | 10 | 8 |
| Housework | 15 | 40 |
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
---
**I AM FULFILLING MY DREAM**
Cristina Yanana is an active mother in her Community Home “San Antonio 18”, located in the Plan 3000 zone in Santa Cruz. She begins her day early by getting ready her 3 children, 2, 4 and 5, to leave them in the Community Home and then go on to work. She distributes sweets to small stalls until 6 pm. when she goes to collect her children and take them home. In the evening she participates in the meetings or the training sessions in the Community Home along with other mothers who, like her, want to get ahead.
“SOS Children’s Villages has been good for me because when I was in a difficult situation, I found somewhere to leave my children whilst I go out to work.” She has participated in the employment training workshops and course on how to prepare food using soya and home budgeting. The workshop where she learnt to decorate parties with balloons has helped her to earn extra income. Now she trains other women in this area. “I’m teaching other mothers in other Community Homes. They know me now… My dream was to work decorating parties and now sometimes they look for me to do this and so I get some extra money. I like taking part, motivating the mothers of the other children to learn, motivating them to get out, get ahead and not just stay at home”.
*SOS Social Centre - Santa Cruz*
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE MOTHERS WHO PARTICIPATE?
AVERAGE MONTHLY INCOME IN BOLIVIA
| | Urban area | Rural area | National average |
|----------------|------------|------------|------------------|
| Men | 1351 Bolivianos | 346 Bolivianos | 889 Bolivianos |
| Women | 773 Bolivianos | 95 Bolivianos | 483 Bolivianos |
Women’s income is less even when they have the same level of education as men. In agriculture, the women receive only 29% of what the men earn.
Source: National Report Bolivia – Vice Ministry of Women, 2004 (base line)
In the last impact evaluation, the women who did not participate in the programme (the control group) reported their monthly income as below 400 Bolivianos, which is less than the minimum salary established for Bolivia. Almost half of those interviewed did not declare their income. This may be because the majority are housewives.
Once they are trained, those mothers who do participate in the programmes increase their income and improve their chances of finding better work.
Monthly income of the women participating (112 interviewed)
- Income above 400 Bolivianos: 31%
- Income below 400 Bolivianos: 49%
- No income: 8%
- No response: 12%
The income of the household workers did not exceed 400 Bolivianos in all cities in Bolivia. The sellers declared income up to 600 Bolivianos.
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
Income stability could not be verified. Neither could the study determine if the length of time in the programme improved income comparing participation of between 1 and 3 years.
I DIDN’T KNOW MANY THINGS AND I WAS SCARED
“My name is Zenobia Espejo, I come from Cacachaca (Challapata), I’m 38, I’m married and I have three children; 12, 8 and 4 years old. I worked for 5 years as a community mother cooking for the children. Before I used to work wherever but nothing stable. My husband is a builder. We earned little and my children didn’t have what they needed. Sometimes when I didn’t have any money I had to wash clothes for people or help other people and they paid me very little. I had to pay rent. When I began to work at the Village I didn’t know how to cook, I didn’t know how to look after children. They took me to another Centre to learn seeing how nice it was to work with children. I didn’t know many things and I was scared.
With the help of SOS Social Centre we remodelled the house so that the children would have a better place to live. I’ve learnt to cook, we cook differently in the countryside. I’ve learnt to talk to the parents at the meetings. We learn so much: we talk about what we do in the Home, and what we need to improve our zone. I also learnt to knit with alpaca and other natural fibres, to read and write. The other mothers also learned a lot with their children.
Now I don’t work in the Centre and I make hand-knit products in a small business (weavings, tablecloths, bags) and I also work on the farm with my husband. My children learnt a lot in the Community Home. The material is so that the children can learn to draw, paint, have fun with their friends, they can read and write.”
Zenobia Espejo – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
As an effect of having been trained, many women want to share their knowledge with other mothers in their SOS Social Centres or Community Homes. These empowered women bring so much to their friends; not only do they try to impart their knowledge but also their enthusiasm and experience for improving themselves and their situation. They become a role model and also, as trained mothers, earn an income from the workshops that they participate in.
“I was shy, I didn’t have many friends. I changed a lot at the Social Centre. Taking part in the courses on Leadership, Self-Esteem, Human Relations and others as well as making clothes for women and Designing Quilts and Cushions has helped me, especially because now I’m a trainer in the Community Homes.” These are the words of Evia Rivero, a mother and trainer in the SOS Social Centre Santa Cruz who, thanks to her effort and attendance at the training sessions reached the goal that she set herself two years ago; to train other women.
“Until now I’ve trained around 40 mothers in Designing Quilts and Cushions in four Community Homes. But it’s not just about teaching them to sew; I also give them advice on how to get ahead. I like motivating them and my next goal is to be a self-esteem trainer.”
Evia Rivero – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Santa Cruz
The women with concrete proposals to take on financial enterprises can request loans with no interest rates and convenient instalments from the SOS Social Centres. In some cases the programmes coordinate with specialised financial companies to back private or family businesses.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE MOTHERS WHO PARTICIPATE?
SOME DATA ON ACCESS TO CREDIT IN BOLIVIA
- 61% of the borrowers in cities are women.
- The majority of the women borrow small amounts to invest in trade.
- The men borrow larger amounts to invest in manufacturing.
Source: Gender Equity Analysis in Bolivia, Vice Ministry of Women, 2003
Small businesses that need a little capital to generate profit are started up or strengthened with these loans. Our experience has shown that many women –single or with a partner- have taken advantage of these micro credits to improve their income and reach greater work stability.
THE ROTATING CREDIT PROJECT
Since 2001, and with the technical and financial support of the Peace Corps and the Micro and Medium Business Development Centre (CEDEMyPE), the SOS Social Centre Oruro has been executing the rotating credit project.
65% of the women participating in the projects work informally earning low and unstable income. The majority of the mothers are small-scale traders (food, soft drinks, vegetables, toys, etc.), and office workers, laundresses… Some are household workers whose time outside work is too limited for them to be able to take care of their children, some live in the house where they work. Those who sell have capital of between 200 and 1000 Bolivianos, which generates enough for them to survive on but not improve their situation.
The rotating credit project helps the women to start up, expand or improve their small business using the loan to reinvest and/or for capital (to purchase tools, equipment, raw materials, merchandise, or to do advertising, legal paperwork, etc.). It has been noted that it is not enough to train the women if they do not have support to raise their capital. Knowledge alone will not improve their employment opportunities or their family’s quality of life.
Three main objectives are pursued:
1. That 80% of the women who took out loans improve their income.
2. That 50% of the women who take out a loan use this improved income to invest in furniture and household equipment and to develop their family.
3. That these women improve their self-esteem through being empowered by their business.
In 2004, 48 participants between the ages of 18 and 50 (empowered grandmothers) from the Social Centre and Community Homes borrowed amounts between 50 and 1500 Bolivianos for 3 to 6 months. They passed through the project’s two stages:
- Training for Successful Businesses (8 days – 32 hours), on topics such as the characteristics of a business, customer service, costs, seven good habits, self-esteem, selling techniques.
- Request for credit with the guarantee of the Family Committee, which comes after a case study has been done, and the loan has been approved.
The business is monitored weekly and the mother will pay weekly instalments until the loan is paid back. 20% of the amount lent is held back and returned to her when she has paid back the loan in full. The facilitators are key throughout the project, motivating the mothers to participate through monitoring their progress. They also monitor the physical improvements that the mothers carry out with their savings. Those in charge of the Family Committees also actively participate throughout the project.
The results of the project are very encouraging:
- 81% of the women reported higher income, an average increase of 60 Bolivianos a month. Most stayed as traders but diversified in what they sell.
- The majority of the mothers managed to save 20% of what they used to, which they invested in improving their business (62%), in their home (furniture and equipment – 29%) and in their children (food – 10%).
- The women made a great effort to move forward and improved their self-esteem. They felt more confident; less worried and saw a better future for themselves and their family.
- Feeling stronger as women and improving their income, some women took measures against the abuse they were subjected to at home and made their partners respect their rights.
- Many decorated their stalls with signs and the name of their business and treated their customers better.
- Many of the mothers encouraged and trained other women who wanted to obtain loans and were going through hard times.
- The Family Committees guaranteed the mothers, guided them and monitored them. They have the chance of working in the Area of Employment Training and Promotion as a way of supporting their families.
- The mothers who set up businesses also took on risks. Those who were successful want to expand their business and will request new loans.
“I had my business but I didn’t know much about selling techniques or about how to treat my customers so I lost a lot. Thanks to the training we got I improved my business and gave better customer services. I used the loan to improve my business and it’s going well now, I distribute meat to the three Homes in Challapata; these are my fixed clients. And I’ve been able to buy a piece of furniture that I’ve always wanted.”
Madyabe Quispe – Mother
Llama crackling seller
“Before I didn’t have any capital and I wasn’t in a good situation. Often I didn’t have anything to take home for my children. The Homes have helped me a lot; now with the loan that I got I set up my toasted cereal business, I sell here in Challapata and take it to Oruro to sell in bulk. I’m doing well. I make a profit of 150 Bolivianos or a bit more per week.”
Toasted cereal seller
“Neither me nor my wife had stable work. I had to go to other cities to look for work and leave my family in Oruro. Now with the training in Producing Sportswear and other clothing and the loan we got I could buy a semi industrial sewing machine to make t-shirts and running pants and I can work with my wife at home. I also learnt Marketing and I’m promoting my clothes, still on a small scale, because I want to buy another machine.”
Antonio Colque – Father
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
Delia Olarte is a mother at the Amancayitas Community Home, which is a part of the San Luis II Family Committee, in Tarija. She is 31 and has 4 children. In 2003 she found herself in a difficult situation; her husband had been stabbed by a couple of drunks and was in hospital. Delia had no income of her own as her husband worked as a bricklayer and she stayed at home with the children. She did not have any money to pay for the hospital bills or the medicine that her husband had been prescribed.
She felt alone and desperate, with no way to turn... her children were hungry even though they ate at the Community Home. When they got home at night there wasn't even bread for them to eat.
Delia was new at the Community Home. The other mothers on the Family Committee didn't really know her or how to help her. The only thing that they could do was to advise her to go to the SOS Social Centre office to ask for help.
After an interview with her facilitator Delia thought about taking out a loan to be able to sell something or do anything to get herself out of her situation. After analysing the case it was decided that she should borrow 1000 Bolivianos, even though she was new to the programme and didn't fulfil all of the requirements. Delia used the loan to sell fruit at the bus stops and be able to earn some money each day. She was very active and her business built up rapidly. Whilst her husband was getting better he helped her to sell during 2003.
At the end of the year and seeing that she could get a loan without having to pay interest, which is a great advantage for people with low income, they decided to put her husband's parents' land to use. As they already had a little capital, they wanted to grow vegetables and sell them at the bus stops. Trusting in their success of selling fruit they requested another loan for 1500 Bolivianos in 2004 to buy seeds and medicine. They worked hard and everything went well for them.
And so with an accessible loan and hard work, Delia has ensured that her family has a stable, decent income. She and her husband found their strength in difficult circumstances, a way of working independently and how to help their children and family unit move ahead.
Maria Isabel Lima
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
Sirila Vilca is a mother at the Ositos Community Home and belongs to the Obrajes Family Committee. She’s a 27 year old mother of 5. She currently lives in her mother-in-law’s house.
At the beginning of 2004 she had a lot of personal and financial problems. Her partner was a violent alcoholic who stole the little money she made from washing clothes. Her children were very neglected and they did not have anything to eat. Sirila was afraid of going home because when her husband could not find work he took his frustration out on her and their children. Her self-esteem was very low because of the psychological and physical abuse she received.
The Family Committee gave her a temporary stipend when they found out about her situation. The facilitator asked her to do the cleaning at the SOS Social Centre for a short time. They would assign a small payment and would train Sirila in cleaning so that she could find employment in the future.
After working for two months in the Social Centre and becoming a little more financially stable she decided to leave because she wanted to request a small loan. She filled out the request form with her facilitator and spoke with the head of the Training Area to decide on what business she wanted to set up. After looking at different possibilities she decided on a fruit stall in the market. Sirila went on training courses and received a loan of 500 Bolivianos. It was difficult for her at first but little by little she improved her economic situation.
The most significant change was that as her financial situation improved her family situation also improved as her husband was not as worried about his situation and seeing his wife with stable work led to him giving up drinking, which meant that he found work. This helped the family to become more stable; the children were better off because they were not abused. The family began to trust each other, their relationships improved and the risk of family breakdown passed.
Doña Sirila Vilca still sells fruit in the market. She is stable, her self-esteem is high and she provides a warm, safe family for her children.
Maria Isabel Lima
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
The women help each other by talking about work opportunities. By doing this they have their own "employment agency". Some employers go to the SOS Social Centres to look for women with specific skills. The programmes guarantee the training and moral upstanding of the mothers so that they can find employment.
**MY DAY EVERY DAY**
This mother’s day is probably just like most of the mothers’ when they leave their children in the Social Centre or in the Community Homes as they all have similar needs and most have to be both mother and father to their children.
She gets up at 5 in the morning, has a wash and quickly prepares her husband’s lunch. Whilst she peels and chops the vegetables she thinks about what she would have been if she had finished her studies… But turning around she looks at her two children who are still asleep and sighs, “But they wouldn’t be here”. Suddenly she looks at the clock and sees that it is 7 o’clock. She wakes the children up and gets them ready, the elder goes to school and the younger to the SOS Social Centre. While she finishes telling her children to hurry up with their simple breakfast she tidies the small room as quickly as possible. They go out together to the market, she has to tell her youngest to hurry up.
Walking towards the market she thinks about what she needs to buy. She puts her child onto the bus for the Hermann Gmeiner school. She does her shopping and then goes to the SOS Social Centre with her other child. She is in a hurry but stops to say hello to everyone. It’s 7:30 and she leaves quickly saying that she has to get to the house where she will clean until 3 o’clock in the afternoon. From there she goes to another house. She cleans until 6:30 when it is time to collect her children. She arrives at the SOS Social Centre and heads towards her children’s classroom to ask how they behaved. Then she goes to the kitchen to chat with the other mothers about how their day was.
She goes back home talking to the children about their day, she prepares a light supper and helps her elder child with his homework. Finally they all go to bed, hoping that the next day will not be the same as always but rather will be a little better.
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
A DAY IN THE LIFE OF A MOTHER FROM THE SOS SOCIAL CENTRE
“I get up at 6:30 in the morning and tidy my room. I get my children up, dress them, wash their faces and all of this takes until 8:00. We go to the Social Centre and get there at 8:15 as we only live four roads away. When I say goodbye to them I always tell them to behave and eat all their food. Afterwards I go to work knowing that my children are somewhere safe. I sell lunch in the street until about 5:00 or 5:30 in the afternoon, and then I go to get my children. If there are workshops or a meeting I go to my room, cook something quickly, leave the children eating and I go back to the Social Centre. I am in the workshops until about 8:00 or 8:30. We get together with all of the mothers and we talk about work or other things to do with the Committee. It’s a time to rest and also to find out things. At 9:00 we all go home. Those of us who live close to each other go together. Sometimes when we get home the children are already sleeping, we go to bed immediately, but sometimes there’s a lot to do in the room so we do it and then go to sleep. The next day it’s the same thing all over again.”
Mirtha Ríos – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Cochabamba
WORK DAY
AVERAGE HOURS WORKED BY BOLIVIAN WOMEN
| Activity | Hours per day |
|---------------------------|---------------|
| Productive activities | 7.7 |
| Reproductive activities | 8.4 |
| Community work | 0.2 |
| **Average work day** | **16.3 hours**|
Source: CA/IDB Study II 1996
A woman carries a child on her back while walking through a crowded market.
Component 3
Developing and empowering vulnerable families to take better care of their children
Which families are our priority?
- Families who live in poverty.
- Families with precarious housing conditions without access to basic services.
- Families with low, unstable income.
- Single parent families.
- Large families.
- Families with a history of domestic violence.
- Families without the skills needed to take care of their children.
- Families with a history of negligence and parents who do not protect their children.
- Families with parents who frequently consume alcohol or other drugs.
- Families where one or both parents have serious health problems.
Bolivia has a population of around 8.3 million and an annual growth rate of 2.1%. The life expectancy is 64.
Most families have 3 or 4 members, including an average of almost 2 children below the age of 18.
Of a total of 1,977,665 private homes registered in the 2001 Census, 66% are nuclear families with one or both spouses present, and 31% are extended families, related or not related members.
The nuclear families, single parent or with both parents, are home to almost 61% of the children below the age of 18.
Between 1976 and 2001 – census years-, and above all in the 1990s, the family structure changed radically because of the processes of urbanisation and sociocultural changes in the family makeup and reproductive behaviour:
- Single parent families rose from 12.7% to 15.5%
- Nuclear two-parent families fell from 44% to 37%
- The average size of families decreased along with the average number of children below the age of 5 due to the drop in fertility in the last few decades
15% of private homes reported having one unemployed member of the family who lived on a pension, a scholarship, help from members of the family and other unearned income.
The types of family organisation combined with employment status divide the homes into three groups: peasant, self-employed and wage earners. The earning families have grown over the last few years: independent (4.36% annual growth) and salaried (6.72%).
Most of the houses are inadequate, reflected in ownership and the quality of the infrastructure. The houses are built with unsafe materials and lack a bathroom. Many do not have access to basic electricity and sewage systems, especially in peasant homes.
Almost 70% of Bolivian homes have a radio. 80% of the salaried and independent income homes have a television, in contrast with just 15% of peasant homes. Only 28% of homes have a refrigerator.
Source: UNDP – Thematic Human Development Report
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOMES OF THE FAMILIES INTERVIEWED FOR THE LAST IMPACT EVALUATION?
The families are mainly made up of 4 to 5 members.
Almost half of the families pay rent. 32% are home owners. (Table 3)
One of the reasons for the rapid turnover of the families in the programmes is that their rent contracts run out.
Most live in one room used for different purposes, which is overcrowded – one of the characteristics of poverty. (Table 4)
It is possible that those families that live in more than one room have improved their situation since participating in the child abandonment prevention programme.
56.3% of the participating families have a space used only for cooking, which makes the home more hygienic, cleaner and safer. (Table 5)
The bathroom is shared with other families. Only 32% have their own bathroom. (Table 6)
Most of the families have water and electricity in their home. What they do not have is a sewage system. (Table 7)
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Programme – 2004 – See tables in Annex 2
HOW IS THE WORK DEVELOPED WITH THE FAMILIES?
RESULT 1: Families who know about and respect rights
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Family legal guidance and support | Reference and counter reference in cases of domestic violence. |
| | Legal guidance for family welfare, recognition of children, personal documentation of the mother and child. |
| | Family rights. |
RESULT 2: Families with a better quality of life
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Support and monitoring for family life projects | Training, support and monitoring of drawing up family improvement projects (improvement of relationships, housing, income, etc.). |
RESULT 3: Families that practice positive childcare methods
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Training and guidance for parents | Training at practical workshops with parents on different topics: development, sexuality, gender equity, children’s rights, children’s self-esteem, children’s health. |
RESULT 4: Strengthened, integrated families
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Spaces for family strengthening and support | Development of effective and affective communication processes in the family. Workshops for partners. Training partners in the new roles within the family and the couple. Bringing a new meaning to masculinity. Conflict resolution. |
| Attention in focus groups to specific social issues | Identification and referral of families with problems with domestic violence, alcoholism and drug addiction. Care for mothers who are victims of violence. |
The family is understood as the “space where a human group lives, linked together by different ties: blood, affective, responsibility and convenience of sharing, among others”\(^6\). This includes all the known types of families.
**SOME FAMILY STRUCTURES**
- **Single parent families**: only the mother or father is responsible for the children.
- **Two parent families**: both the mother and father live with the children and take joint responsibility for raising them.
- **Families without a nucleus**: there is no parent-child relationship. The family may work under the direct leadership of one or more children.
- **Nuclear families**: father and/or mother live with their child(ren).
- **Extended families**: father and/or mother live with their child(ren) and other relatives, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces, etc.
- **Open families**: mother or father or both, with children, with or without other relatives and non-relatives.
The families participating in the child abandonment prevention programmes are organised in Family Committees. In these support groups, under the responsibility of a board made up of the fathers and mothers and monitored by a facilitator, the support, guidance and training needs are evaluated according to each family’s situation.
If there is no parent in the family, an adult, either a relative or a member of the community, should participate. The families at risk of breaking up or that live in situations that put their members at risk take priority and receive permanent support and monitoring.
When working with the families it is important to earn their trust and that all the members participate, especially those who have a direct responsibility for looking after the children.
In the last impact evaluation it was established that the families participating in the SOS Social Centres keep up a relationship with the programmes even after their “leaving” but it is not the same for those from the Community Homes. The families interviewed participated for an average of between 3 and 4 years. In the opinion of the staff of these programmes, this length of time is convenient as no dependency has been formed and concrete results can be seen in the families having improved their situation over this period of time.
---
\(^6\) Child abandonment prevention: family and community development, page 47.
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS ACHIEVED FROM WORKING WITH THE FAMILIES WHO PARTICIPATE?
Result 1
FAMILIES WHO KNOW ABOUT AND RESPECT RIGHTS
By detailing the results from the previous components, it can be seen that the children and women, who are the main members of the participating families, make progress in their knowledge and respect of their rights as individuals and citizens. A new type of family relationship is set up, characterised by the search for common well-being. Parents, siblings and other relatives are indirectly influenced by the programmes.
The families receive support to obtain documents that are important for them to be able to exercise their citizens’ rights, such as birth certificates, ID cards, marriage certificates. These benefits are obtained thanks to interinstitutional coordination.
The SOS staff support the families by advising them so that they can go to governmental and private services when they are in a crisis, usually because of parental neglect or domestic violence. Timely support is highly valued by the families and contributes to improving their situation.
Result 2
FAMILIES WITH A BETTER QUALITY OF LIFE
WHAT ARE THE WORKING CONDITIONS OF THE FAMILIES INTERVIEWED IN THE LAST IMPACT EVALUATION?
The women on the programme do different types of work compared to the women who do not participate (control group). Most are sellers. (Table 13)
The women’s monthly income is mostly between 200 and 400 Bolivianos. (Table 14)
The sellers earn the highest incomes. (Table 15)
The women’s partners or husbands are generally self-employed or work on temporary contracts. (Table 16)
The husband or partner’s income is higher than the woman’s as it varies between 400 and 600 Bolivianos. A high percentage of women did not know how much their partner earned or did not reply to the question. (Table 17)
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004 – See tables in Annex 2
An increase in income is essential for the families to overcome their initial situation when they entered the programmes. The incorporation of the woman into the employment market under more advantageous conditions has an impact on the stability and the amount of family income. In various SOS Social Centres the members of the family who are responsible for managing the finances are trained in family budgeting.
Raising the academic level of the adult members of the families is fundamental to generating more opportunities and stability. Especially for the mothers, but also for the fathers and other people responsible for the well-being of the children, who are motivated to begin or continue studying. When given concrete opportunities they take on the challenge and advance in their education alongside their children.
**Illiteracy in Bolivia**
(above 15 years old)
- **Literate population**: 87%
- **Illiterate population**: 13%
1 of every 4 Bolivian women is illiterate.
In some ethnic groups 70% of the women is illiterate.
Source: Public Policy on Gender Equity for Indigenous Peoples, VAIPO-CIDOB-PAHO, 2000
“If I had studied more, I would know more now. Life wouldn’t be so difficult. I could help my children, I could teach them too. Maybe I’d have a different job…”
Eva – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Cochabamba
WHEN YOU WANT TO YOU CAN DO ANYTHING
Alejandrina Díaz came from Potosí to Tarija in 1994 with her husband and her eight children. Now she is 52. She began to work with PAN in 2002 with very little skills but from the beginning she identified with the programme and dedicated herself to the children with great affection. She did not know how to read or write and that made some of her tasks difficult. She had not taken advantage of the training that she had received.
The following year, in 2003, the Home where she was working became part of the PAN – SOS partnership and the areas of result were expanded. One goal was to train the mothers. Alejandrina, in spite of her age, decided to take the literacy courses. This helped her and opened many doors for her. Now, thanks to the fact that she can read and write, she does not have any problems at work and she feels capable of supporting the community mother, at least by reading the children a story. Becoming literate has also helped her in her personal and family life as she decided to open a small shop in her house and she can manage her money because she has also learnt to add and subtract. She is grateful for having had the opportunity to grow as a person and build a better life for her children.
Debbie Barriga - Facilitator
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
PARENTS AND CHILDREN BEING EDUCATED IN THE COMMUNITY
In a joint effort, this year the SOS Social Centre and the SOS School in Santa Cruz will become a Pilot Centre for Primary Education and Literacy for Young People and Adults, as a reference point in its zone. Since 1997 we have been coordinating with the Instituto Radiofónico Fe y Alegría (IRFA), which broadcasts the radio programme “The Teacher in your Home”.
In the first half of this year there were already 40 people enrolled for levels 1º, 2º, 3º, 5º and 7º. The classes or tutorials will be in the SOS School on Saturdays monitored by three teachers who are mothers from the programme. Parents and children progress together through primary school, following new goals and life projects.
2004 – Obtained their certificates
SOS Social Centre 48 parents
SOS School 10 parents
2005 – Currently participating in courses
SOS Social Centre 25 parents
SOS School 21 parents
Like most Bolivian families who are living in conditions of poverty and exclusion, their living standards are precarious. They live in rented accommodation or rooms lent for a short time, which means that they have to move every time the contract comes to an end. This is one of the reasons why the families leave the Social Centres and Community Homes.
The participating families live in one or two overcrowded rooms and generally share a bathroom with other neighbours, which puts their health at risk. It seems that some of the families on the programmes have managed to improve their living standards a little by having the kitchen separate from the bedrooms. Improving living conditions is still something to be worked on as part of the family self-improvement projects, so that the families can actively participate in some social housing plans promoted by the Bolivian State.
**Result 3**
**FAMILIES THAT PRACTICE POSITIVE CHILDCARE METHODS**
The child raising styles of the families are determined by their own childhood experiences and cultural patterns that are based on authority and the relationship between adults – men and women, who fulfil the roles of mother and father – and between adults and their children. When participating in meetings and practical workshops where they share experiences, the parents understand that they can change these patterns and set up new, healthier styles. Fathers and mothers regain the right to enjoy being parents by watching the development of their children.
It is wonderful to see how the mothers acquire skills to exercise their maternity with responsibility and affection. The training activities have an influence on this, as well as their feeling strengthened and understood in their processes of self-improvement. The mothers have the chance to actively participate in the programmes, in the different services offered to the children. They learn about child development, the care that the children need and deserve, adults’ responsibility for this care, etc.
Part of the previously mentioned pattern is that the mothers are in charge of the children. In a sexist environment the fathers are deprived of participating in their upbringing. Many men exclude themselves and only intervene to “discipline”, others evade their paternal responsibilities completely. Some of the learning in the child abandonment prevention programmes is based on changing concepts of masculinity and make the men participants in and jointly responsible for their children’s development.
There are important results from single fathers or in a relationship within the SOS programmes.
A MAN WHO BELIEVES IN WOMEN AND SUPPORTS THEM
Miguel Delgado Castro, a carpenter, is 33 years old and has two sons, Claudio 6 and Francisco 4. He and his wife separated three years ago.
When his wife took on the responsibility for their children she looked for support from the Amorositos Community Home, where she found a safe, loving place for her children. Miguel, despite not living with his children, began to attend the parents’ meetings and became interested in the way that the families participated and became organised. When the Family Committee board was set up in 2004 he offered himself as a volunteer to lead the area of Development and Empowering of Women. The Committee was startled but Miguel said that the fact that he was a man should not prevent him from working on the actions in this area and that he admired the bravery of women who could face different situations at the same time, and that he felt that he could actively contribute to women’s self-improvement.
The Committee applauded and praised his determination; the women said that they were glad that for the first time there was a responsible man in this area. One of his first responsibilities was to coordinate a baking course because there was a need to improve the diet of the children in the Homes.
Once the group had formed the classes began under the guidance of a baking teacher who attended twice a week. During the course there was a gas shortage and there was a risk that the course would not be able to continue. Miguel built a wooden stove that used sawdust to be able to cook the bread and pastries so as not to interrupt the mothers’ classes.
Apart from his activities in the area, Miguel became committed to all the work that a Committee does for the families. He played traditional dance music on his guitar at the District 13 committees’ Dance Festival. He was also one of the organisers of the children’s championships in the same district. Through his participation and commitment he shows that he is committed to the programme and also that he loves his children very much.
Currently Miguel shares the responsibility of bringing up his children with his ex-wife without any fear of problems or arguments that might threaten the stability of their children.
Result 4
STRENGTHENED, INTEGRATED FAMILIES
“… I began to talk to my husband about the things I learned at the SOS Social Centre. And that’s how we started to work together. He helps me a lot in my work. We’ve managed to save enough money for a long-term lease… We’ve come so far…”
Elvira – Mother
SOS Social Centre - Cochabamba
The families also learn different ways of relating to each other, which helps them to face conflicts through mutual support and assertive communication. The workshops and family groups work on topics such as conflict management, good treatment, gender equity, children’s and women’s rights, the causes and consequences of child abandonment, parents’ responsibilities, etc. This training and the improvement in living conditions – income, housing – make the family atmosphere less tense.
AS PARENTS IT’S BETTER TO BE MORE UNITED
Most of the adults participating in our programme are mothers who have the common need to leave their children in a safe place while they go to work. However, there are fathers who are involved with their children both within and outside the Community Home. They also know how to take advantage of the activities the programme does with the families and thus improve their life.
“As a father I decided to work together so that the Home would open and I’m still fighting to see it stay open and not close. My daughter stays here because she’s looked after well, that’s why I don’t want to take her out; they treat her well. It’s good for me too, being in this Home has helped me to grow up and think about things more because I have the support of my friends from the other families. I can organise my time better because I know that my daughter is somewhere safe and that she’s getting a decent education – now she knows her colours, numbers, letters and she sings songs. I’ve learnt a lot since I started coming to the Home.”
“My wife and I work all day long and we don’t trust our relatives to look after our daughter because we think that they won’t be kind to her, I know she’ll be better looked after here. Before me and my wife didn’t get on very well because we never knew who we would look after her and so we fought because we couldn’t leave her in our houses. Since we’ve been coming to the Community Home we’ve been trying to get on better”.
“I think it’s great that we have a Community Home here because as it’s close to my work I can come and see her at least for a little while at midday. The Home is like a huge family for me, they treat their children and the other children the same and there’s no favourites. That’s what I see. Also we do nice things for carnival; all the parents got dressed up with our children. It was great because it was good for us parents to get together and we can talk about our children’s talents and skills.”
Juan Carlos – Father
SOS Social Centre - Sucre
Those families who are at risk of breaking up are priority for guidance and monitoring from the SOS Staff, members of other families, participants in and leaders of the Family Committees. Some cases are referred to use the services of specialist institutions to review the causes of their conflicts and confront them. The testimonies of strengthened families that improved their relationship are the positive results of these actions.
**FAMILY SUPPORT AS A WAY OF SHOWING SOLIDARITY**
Rosario Paredes, Sacarias Mamani and their four children are a family that could be said to be empowered because of their progress in family development and strengthening. This family makes up part of a community that is beginning to understand its situation, is identifying its needs and priorities to the point where it can find effective solutions to the problems it faces together. All the families are poor and on the verge of family disintegration.
The Mamani family assesses the poor families when they do not know where to turn or how to solve their problems. This is when the Mamani family takes on the responsibility and commitment to help them while they are going through the social intervention process to prevent child abandonment.
Sacarias supports the training sessions and meetings organised in his community, always inviting new people to find out about the work model coordinated with the child abandonment prevention programme. He and his family have always set a good example for their community: father and mother take part in the literacy courses; both are learning to read and write to be able to get ahead and to support their children’s education. They also pay their small loan instalments on time. Rosario is a programme leader and over the last two years has supported the SOS Social Centre and the Community Homes. Along with her family she prepares the families participating to improve and construct their own life project. She talks to them, supports them at the training sessions, visits their homes, counsels them and guides them in childcare matters and the importance of providing for their family’s basic needs.
All of her family help her in her task as a leader. Her children, along with their father, enrol the children entering the SOS Social Centre and talk to the vulnerable families or single mothers. The Mamani family promotes the protection of children so they can grow up in a safe family environment.
*SOS Social Centre - Sucre*
NOTHING IS IN VAIN, DO EVERYTHING YOU CAN AT WORK
Some say: when you are born your destiny is already written and others say that sometimes you need to help it along. Arturo Machicado was born in Camargo. He had a very sad childhood and could not go to school with the rest of the children. He grew up poor but learnt to farm because he did not believe that being poor was his destiny.
He got married but a few years later his wife left him and his three children. From Yacuiba he decided to go to Sucre to look for a better future for him and his children. He walked the city with his children looking for help and finally went to the press where they told him about the SOS Children’s Villages child abandonment prevention programme.
Now Arturo is a single father who fights for his children’s well-being. He tells of how for 25 years he has been selling books and is proud of having studied with the help of his best friends, his books, which are “his school and university”. When asked what he wants for himself, he replies: “One day I would like to have a very big bookshop and grow old with my books.” He teaches his children to always help the poor. One of his greatest dreams is to see his children become good, professional adults.
When he talks about the SOS Social Centre he says that it has been a great help. He found support there, especially from the mothers and he sees the programme as a large family where each member works hard to prevent child abandonment. “It’s a wonderful shelter”, he says. “It has everything you need, it’s safe and it’s available to all those who need it and us parents can work without worrying because we know we’ve left our children in a safe place. I’m happy and grateful”.
After talking he wanted to advise all single parents to teach their children by setting them an example and to love them with all their heart. Children never asked to come into this world, they just want to be loved and respected. Sighing, his eyes wet with tears he says: “Nothing is in vain, do everything you can because if you work you’ll get through.”
SOS Social Centre - Sucre
FAMILY DISINTEGRATION:
ONE OF THE MAIN CAUSES OF CHILD ABANDONMENT
The Joint Responsibility Model put forward in the second strategic initiative of SOS Children’s Villages is an integral proposal to tackle the issue of child abandonment. The work in the family integration model is essential to this as it is not paternalism but rather means developing levels of commitment within the family itself. This is why for our organisation it is crucial to face child abandonment as one of the worst social ruptures in the family environment as the family is the first place where children learn to socialise and internalise social rules and grow up to be who they are – be it good or bad.
Socially our vision tries to preserve the positive points and potential of the people in our society, this means improving living conditions so that these men and women are a positive part of society. This would not be possible if we did not start with where the children come from and recognise that our work is already determined by the identity of each of the children that come to our programmes. This is why we do not adhere to concepts such as family integration or disintegration to undertake work that is sustainable over time and space as we believe that it would lead to our failing in this issue.
The sustainability of the work components regarding children and mothers can only work when we take the family as our main base. This is where the most effective solutions or the impacts sought of the programme will be generated. The family is where the children should develop, should not be the victims of abuse and where their rights as human beings should be respected. Therefore it is the family’s responsibility to look after the well-being of all of its members, especially of the children.
And so, within what it means to work on this issue in countries such as ours, there are also a series of idiosyncrasies, which may be shared across the cultures of our region, which characterise the target population of our programme. Because of this, the target group – families at risk of breaking up or in the process of breaking up – shows certain other characteristics.
that compound the issue. It should be noted that it is our organisation’s policy to adapt to the culture to guarantee that our work really is aimed at the poorest children, the families at greatest risk of breaking up, the women with the highest rates of exclusion and social risk and therefore communities with the highest rates of poverty, marginalisation and social vulnerability.
To begin planning, the conditions of the target population and how far we are from achieving the impacts set out for the programme need to be analysed to achieve:
- Less children being abandoned
- Community development and capacity to administrate independently developed
- Sustainability
- Support for a decrease in the poverty rates in the communities
First a diagnosis of the population’s needs and conditions is carried out to be a baseline for the planning process. It also enables us to define the target population and the range of elements and factors that are interwoven, making the issue more complex. On the other hand this type of study enables us to assimilate how the population arises from and is part of its environment whilst also enabling us to work on the possibilities there are for us to use to our advantage and work towards the results we want to achieve.
This is all specifically aimed at being able to affirm that our organisation works on the concept of the family based on the strengthening of affective, lasting family ties and not so much on what is more commonly known as functional or dysfunctional families. This means that generally, and because of the poverty in our region, the families that we work with are extended and/or nuclear, or they are headed by single mothers. On the other hand there are situations where the children have been left with their grandparents or older siblings. This does not exclude them from our work; our programme works on strengthening the responsibilities and roles of members of the extended family who take care of children who have lost their parents.
We should have a clear description of the families with whom the programme works and clearly show the real challenges of our work on family integration; to see the placing of responsibility and the empowering of the families as the agents of dealing with their issues and conditions.
Magela Luksic
HOGAR COMUNITARIO SANTA ANA 1
Component 4
Developing and empowering the community to take better care of and protect their children.
Which communities are our priority?
- Communities living in poverty.
- Communities with limited access to basic services.
- Recently settled communities in cities and the surrounding areas.
- Communities with little ability to generate their own organisation processes.
- Communities which are indifferent to common problems.
- Communities that do not respect children’s and women’s rights.
- Communities that identify with the SOS Children’s Villages vision and request to take part in the child abandonment prevention programmes.
SOS Children’s Villages has defined three areas to work on with the community, which comprise of their level of joint responsibility in improving their living conditions:
**COMMUNITY DIMENSIONS**
1. **PARTICIPATIVE COMMUNITY**
This comprises the children, adolescents, young people and adults who participate in the child abandonment prevention programmes. They are generally interrelated because of the geographical zone they live in and even more because of their common needs based on their standard of life. The families are organised into Family Committees, which actively participate in the life of their community.
2. **INVOLVED COMMUNITY**
This term could be a synonym for committed. This is a community that takes responsibility for and is sensitive to the needs of the children, women and families participating. It includes people (living in the zone where the programmes are, SOS Friends, specific donors) and neighbourhood organisations (boards, grass root organisations) or services (schools, health posts, churches), both private and public. This community knows and supports the aims of the child abandonment prevention programmes and how they function.
3. **SOCIETY**
The participating and involved community is inserted into a wider society, which the community may become a part of if society is guided towards providing timely help. Society is made up of people, civil groups, organisations, institutions and companies that recognise the benefit of working on the second strategic initiative of our organisation, as contributing to raising the quality of life of those participating in the programme improves society as a whole.
Working with the community in different regions of the country includes factors such as cultural practises related to organisation and a sense of community, levels of consolidation of neighbourhoods or zones, which are seen in the neighbourhood organisations, the experience of each programme and how long it has been running for.
RESULT 1: Organised communities protagonising child abandonment prevention and defending children’s, women’s and families’ rights
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Facilitate community organisation processes | Training to apply the joint responsibility strategy. |
| | Formation of Family Committees. |
| | Opening of Community Homes. |
| | Monitoring and follow-up of the participating community organisation processes. |
| Training of leaders in the subject of children’s and women’s rights | Community sensitisation and promotion processes on child abandonment prevention. |
| | Training on children’s and women’s rights. |
| | Setting up of networks for the protection and defence of children and women. |
RESULT 2: Autonomous communities that exercise social control, moving towards sustainability
| SERVICE | SERVICE CONTENTS |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Training leaders in citizens’ rights | Training leaders, giving priority to women, on of leadership, gender equity, |
| | popular participation, conflict resolution and team work. |
| | Monitoring and follow-up of individual and group processes. |
| | Promotion of a culture of community work. |
| | Improvement of infrastructure, equipment, materials. |
Until recently, the SOS Social Centres in Bolivia consolidated their own infrastructure for providing their services to the participants in the programmes. Now the experiences are based on the community’s organisation and participation, through the Family Committees that are jointly responsible for the Community Homes, which bring life to the child abandonment prevention model.
HOW A NEW CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMME IS BORN IN BOLIVIA: THE EXPERIENCE IN CHASQUIPAMPA – LA PAZ
The group of volunteers who set up the School Support centre in the Chasquipampa zone in 1972 decided to give the Centre to SOS Children’s Villages, which has been administrated from the SOS Hermann Gmeiner School since 2001 under the name of the Chasquipampa Support House.
The Chasquipampa Support House has developed a pedagogic plan to provide school support to children aged between 4 and 13 studying in different schools in the zone and also in District 19 in the South Zone. The work carried out in the last three years has resulted in important improvements in the academic performance and effective reinsertion into school of the children in the zone.
Working in the zone and having contact with the leaders and neighbours, the families and the children has led to a baseline that shows this population as presenting factors that put at risk the development of the children and needing a wider intervention. Although the South Zone is a residential zone there are still poverty stricken areas where the population lives in an unstable situation. The baseline calculated at the end of 2003 by the SOS School to determine the socioeconomic and cultural situation of the population bears out the poverty indexes, the need for education, health, housing, basic sanitation, employment and other needs that affect the communities’ quality of life.
The results of this research also indicate that the inhabitants of these zones are generally migrants from rural Aymará areas who are either illiterate or have a low level of schooling.
The zones that are inhabitable have spread out randomly over the area; there is no sanitation network or basic infrastructure. 60% of the population does not have basic services installed in the home and the public transport system is lacking.
Almost half of the population lives in overcrowded conditions. In many cases a family of 7 lives in one room that serves for cooking, sleeping and living but has no bathroom or kitchen, which puts the family’s health at risk, especially that of the children.
The majority of the population works informally, which has meant that mothers are now in the employment market so their children are alone all through the day and sometimes even at the weekend. The older children take care of their younger siblings attending to their meals and childcare.
During the social upheavals in February and October in 2003, which was an important landmark for our country, the people of Chasquipampa were an active part of the social mobilisations, which was a clear demonstration of their needs and social dissatisfaction.
The meetings with the leaders, neighbours and mothers have enabled us to prioritise the need to provide attention to protect and attend to the children and mothers in these zones, which was the first step in opening the new programme.
Traditionally the SOS Social Centres started up with an infrastructure with the rooms adapted to providing childcare for children between the ages of 0 to 6. Later on when demand for their services increased Community Homes were opened along with the philosophy of community joint responsibility, which empowered the mothers as those responsible for the education and care for the children in their community and made them active protagonists in the Family Committees in the different areas of work. Over time the Community Homes have become the most important point for disseminating and consolidating the SOS Social Centres abandonment prevention model.
The emerging situation of the families of District 19 in the South Zone, spread out from each other with little public transport to take the children and their families to a Social Centre, made us look at the possibility of opening a Community Home in each zone to facilitate access and provide quality, timely attention for the children with the support of the Family Committees, the Neighbourhood Boards and other organisations.
Within the framework of the experience of the Social Centres, it was decided to open the first Coordination Centre, which would be the central linking point for the development and growth of the new programme, making it possible to transfer the child abandonment prevention model, whose basic principles are maternity in the community and the organisation of Family Committees, to the community. The new programme’s activities began at the end of May, 2004 with the opening of three Community Homes in the Arenal, Wilacota and Unni zones (the municipality of Palca) and a Community Centre in Chasquipampa, to cover a total of 80 children.
Once agreements had been made with the neighbours the first steps were taken to organise the Family Committees and the selection of community mothers. In the following months other communities requested that Homes be opened in their zones. This gave way to the opening of seven new Community Homes in the zones of Apaña, Lakacollo, Kupiliani, Virgen de Copacabana, El Pedregal, Alto Irpavi and Las Lomas. There is still a lot to do as the outlying zones are clamouring for new Homes for their children.
Amanda Guzmán
SOS School - La Paz
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE COMMUNITIES THAT PARTICIPATE?
Result 1
ORGANISED COMMUNITIES PROTAGONISING CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION AND DEFENDING CHILDREN’S, WOMEN’S AND FAMILIES’ RIGHTS
The Family Committees and Community Homes have proliferated throughout the country meaning that the child abandonment prevention programmes are reaching a high level of coverage. The Family Committees pass through three phases on their way to becoming consolidated as organised groups of parents with their own objectives and plans which lead to their independently obtaining results.
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF A FAMILY COMMITTEE
| PHASES and RESULTS | ACTIONS |
|--------------------|---------|
| **1** A WEALTH OF OPPORTUNITIES
Result 1.1.
Compatibility between the demand for services from the target population and the offer to provide services from the child abandonment prevention programmes. | Reaching out to the community:
- An organised population that demands services.
- Identification of the target population in risk zones by SOS Children’s Villages.
- Demand for services according to the needs identified in the target population.
- Socialisation of the offer to provide child abandonment prevention programmes services. |
| **2** IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNITY LEADERS
Result 2.1.
Formation of the Family Committee. | Reaching out to the community:
- Target population identified and selected through an admissions procedure.
- General meeting with the participating community:
- General socialisation of the make-up and functions of the members of the Family Committee.
- Socialisation of the concept and the characteristics of the type of leader that becomes part of the Family Committee Board.
- Democratic, participative election of the Family Committee leaders.
- Family Committee Board takes office. |
| **3** STRENGTHENING LEADERS FOR THE TRANSFER OF THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION MODEL | First step in transferring the child abandonment prevention model to the Family Committee and its Board:
- Training on the child abandonment prevention model. |
| PHASES and RESULTS | ACTIONS |
|--------------------|---------|
| **Result 3.1.** | - Training in team work methodologies.
| Family Committee that works in a team and manages its programme. | - Training in joint responsibility (objectives, activities and results per component).
| **Result 3.2.** | - Participative planning – preparation of the Annual Operative Plan (AOP).
| Leaders strengthened in the operative development of their component. | Second step in transferring the child abandonment prevention model to the Family Committee and its Board:
| - Implementation of the functions of each leader with on-site monitoring.
| • Reinforcement of functions and use of registers.
| • Conflict resolution.
| **Result 3.3.** | Training of leaders (parallel process):
| Leaders trained to insert themselves into taking decisions for their community. | - Personal training.
| • Leadership.
| • Conflict resolution.
| • Children’s and women’s rights.
| - Training in citizens’ rights.
| • Popular Participation Law.
| • Municipalities Law.
| • Public policies focussing on children and women. |
| **THE FAMILY COMMITTEES’ DEVELOPMENT AND PROTAGONISM** | Implementation of participative planning or the AOP.
| **Result 4.1.** | - Board meetings every 15 days.
| Leaders protagonising community administration. | • Agreements and delegation of tasks and responsibilities.
| • Socialization of progress made and difficulties in each component.
| • Report on management of financial resources (social control).
| • Making the Home AOP compatible with the services offered by SOS Children’s Villages.
| • Preparing the meeting with the Family Committee (participating families).
| **Result 4.2.** | - Meeting of the Board and Family Committee (parents) once a month in the Community Homes.
| Organised participating leaders and families taking joint responsibility for the administration of the Community Homes. | • Reading of the minutes of the previous meeting and follow-up of the agreements.
| • Following the agenda prepared by the Board.
| Analysis of the follow-up and progress of the activities per component.
| Socialization and analysis of the monthly accounts report.
| Analysis of problems and needs.
| List of decisions made. |
| PHASES and RESULTS | ACTIONS |
|--------------------|---------|
| **PARTICIPATIVE EVALUATION** | Meeting among the leaders of the Family Committees to evaluate the processes and exchange experiences for joint learning. |
| **Result 5.1.** Joint learning. | - Exchange of experiences. |
| **Result 5.2.** Shared feedback that strengthens the administration. | • Exchange of positive and negative experiences (successes and failures). |
| | • Analysis of positive experiences and exchange of best practices. |
| | • Analysis of negative experiences. |
| | • Collective community search for solutions. |
| **Result 5.3.** Taking over and protagonising the child abandonment prevention programme. | - Evaluation of processes. |
| | • Work teams. |
| | • Application of joint responsibility strategy. |
| | • Collective community problem and need solving. |
| | • Community autonomy in the Community Homes. |
HOW A FAMILY COMMITTEE GROWS WHEN IT IS ORGANISED
A group of parents from the 3 de Mayo neighbourhood went to the SOS Social Centre to look for somewhere where their children could be looked after and fed. They were told that they should form a group, which later was called the 3 de Mayo Family Committee. At first the group was not convinced that it could form a solid, self-help organisation. Some people did not turn up for the meetings and there was a lot of negative attitudes towards looking for joint proposals all because they did not believe that they could fulfil their dreams working together in an organised group.
In spite of all this the parents looked for somewhere where they could safely leave their children. The SOS Social Centre provided the basic equipment, which was supplemented by the families. Once everything was ready two Community Homes were opened for 30 children below the age of 6.
By the second phase the Family Committee was no longer afraid or negative because the members understood the importance of working in a unified team, planning their training according to their needs. This Committee was consolidated as an organised group through leisure activities such as birthday parties for the mothers, national holidays, special events, partially paid for by the SOS Social Centre. One important activity for the parents was raising money to buy Christmas presents for their children. This showed them how to meet regularly and work towards a clear objective. The parents’ social control of the Community Homes began in this phase. The community mothers showed transparency in handling the finances, seeking the best care for their children.
In the third phase, the 3 de Mayo Family Committee was strengthened as an organisation, taking independent decisions and being jointly responsible for the development of their families. The members carried out follow-up visits and the leaders advised those families with problems.
The 3 de Mayo Family Committee went to Social Services to request help to open a neighbourhood dining hall where they could attend to children between the ages of 6 and 12. These children are not being looked after by their parents who go out to work. The request was turned down and so the Committee turned to the SOS Social Centre. As this was a Committee becoming independent, the programme asked the parents to match the funds. They already had US$500 to equip the new Home and pay the community mothers so they asked the programme to pay for the dry and fresh food supplies.
The 3 de Mayo Family Committee currently coordinates its activities with the Neighbourhood Board and all of the Family Committees in the neighbourhood. The parents, although they are not homeowners, stay for years in the neighbourhood because they feel supported by and a part of their Family Committee.
María Santos de Alfaro
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE COMMUNITIES THAT PARTICIPATE?
Empowering the community leads to an active attitude that results in better well-being of the children and families.
THE POWER OF ORGANISATION
To celebrate the arrival of spring, the parents, helped by the leaders of the Child Development Area, organised different games for the children to spend some time with them in the week leading up to this important day here in Bolivia.
Each Community Home was allocated different games and the parents had to find the equipment necessary or make it. The snacks for the children were also their responsibility.
Sunday 19 September was a sunny day and we met at the local football pitch. There was a huge paper dinosaur that the people had to go through to enter the pitch. There was music and Betty was the compere who had everyone doing the conga. The games were held and probably the most impressive was the pool of confetti that the women had brought from print shops. And so the day passed by with shouts of joy and happiness and we will never forget the great time we had by cooperating and working together.
SOS Social Centre - Tarija
The joint responsibility model invites the parents on the Family Committees to become involved in solving their common needs. One of the main interests is to protect the children but this becomes the springboard for empowerment which will lead to looking for better living standards for all members of the community. The Family Committees have managed to form a link with other community organisations such as Neighbourhood Boards (Grass Root Organisations). These organisations have a legal right to allocate the resources that they receive from the Municipal Governments.
To make progress on the levels of participation and empowering, the community guarantees the sustained functioning of the abandonment prevention programmes, by using resources provided by the state. Parents are ensuring that the state fulfils its role to protect the interests of its citizens.
THE PARTICIPATION OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD BOARDS IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABILITY OF THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMME
Starting up and implementing the child abandonment prevention programme in the city of Potosí led us to see that the active and joint participation of the community in the prevention of child abandonment was fundamental to making all levels sustainable, with the financial aspect as a priority.
WHY IS FINANCIAL SUSTAINABILITY A PRIORITY?
The local context was problematic: the PAN programme, one of our greatest strategic allies and financial counterparts was about to close, the municipal offices totally refused to attend to the issue of dealing with children in Community Centres or “Nursery Schools”, the Prefecture was indifferent to the subject... The SOS Social Centre began to work and needed a counterpart to implement the child abandonment prevention programme in the community.
Faced with this problem our first reaction was to plan a strategy that would enable us to guarantee, from the community, the financial sustainability needed to have the Community Homes function and stay functioning. This strategy consisted of developing different stages:
1. Quick research into grass root organisations in the catchment areas of the programme, which would enable us to locate our zones of intervention in districts, identify neighbourhood boards and the leaders that represent the community, register their name, address, meeting dates, when they plan their AOPs, telephone numbers, and then locate them on maps of the zones.
2. Review the study report with the facilitators.
3. Train the team of SOS staff and facilitators in the Popular Participation Law, to become closer to the community.
4. Train the Family Committees in the Popular Participation Law to have the Neighbourhood Boards participating more actively, which would enable them to request that an amount be budgeted for the Community Homes when planning their AOPs.
5. Contact the leaders of the District Meetings and the Neighbourhood Boards to know the exact dates of the AOP planning meetings and let them know the importance of the participation of the Family Committees and the facilitators at these meeting, as well as requesting that they include our participation as an organisation on the list of meetings. The District Meetings are meetings of between 3 and 10 Neighbourhood Boards.
6. Participate in the meetings of each Neighbourhood Board to explain the objectives of and services provided by the child abandonment prevention programme to strengthen
the reasons why the Family Committees request a counterpart budget for the Community Homes from the resources allocated from the Popular Participation Law.
7. Generate interest from the Neighbourhood Boards in passing this budget at the District Meeting level.
8. Present the request from the leaders of the Neighbourhood and Family Committees for its approval at the District Meetings, with broad participation in each of the meetings of members of the Family Committees and facilitators.
9. Monitor the approval of the AOP budgets at the District level. There were many differences in the processes as some Neighbourhood Boards gave priority to paving their streets rather than to childcare, requesting that this be postponed until the following year. However, many Neighbourhood Boards supported the passing of the budget requested, to different amounts, according to the allocation from the Municipal Offices within the overall budget of the District.
The experience of involving the community when seeking financial sustainability yielded results, with the counterpart budget approved for the Community homes in four of the eight districts where the programme intervenes (San Cristóbal, San Benito, Satélite and San Clemente). 13 Community Homes will benefit when this comes into effect. The second step is to negotiate, along with the Family Committees and the Neighbourhood Boards, the amounts approved in the different districts with the Municipal Offices.
We believe that this experience has been quite positive as it has enabled us to widely promote the programme in the participating community, mainly reaching the group of neighbourhood leaders. On the other hand, we have achieved our objective of approving budgets for the functioning of the Community Homes. Nevertheless, probably the most valuable has been that we have learnt the steps that need to be followed to achieve greater participation, involvement and empowering of the community.
Therefore, with the experience gained we hope to start the process in the community earlier on and in a more coordinated way so that this year we can have the budget passed through the Neighbourhood Boards for 100% of the financing of the Community Homes.
The contents of the child abandonment prevention programme are being disseminated with the expansion of the programmes and their actions to the community participating and involved. SOS Children’s Villages, recognised as an organisation that takes care of children who have lost their families because of different circumstances, manages to broadcast the aims of the second strategic initiative over a wide base. We are still not progressing as much as we would like but experience shows us that we are making good use of the spaces and key moments to do it. The organised community, with the monitoring of SOS Social Centre facilitators, prioritises support for the most vulnerable families.
**A UNITED EFFORT**
On the 19th of July, at a meeting of her Family Committee, Florentina Tito requested a stipend for one of her children as she was having some financial problems. It was explained that there were only 3 available per month and that they had already been given; she would have to wait until the following month.
On the 26th of July, by chance we went to the “12 de octubre” Centre and saw that they were missing a community mother. We were told that she had gone to the hospital with a mother who was very ill. This mother was the same Florentina who had visited us the week before. I got a call later to say that she had died. The Committee sprang into action because the woman was very poor; they went to the media and all round the neighbourhood to get money together to cover all the expenses. One of the mothers took charge of the two children who were now orphans, obviously with the support of all the people on the Committee.
On the 27th we went to the woman’s house with a member of staff from the Children and Adolescent’s Ombudsman’s Office and the social worker from SOS Children’s Villages to find out what was happening with the children. We looked through all of the woman’s belongings that could help us and that was how we found out that she had been married and that her husband had left with the three elder children. We found some random telephone numbers and started ringing them to get some information. The social worker managed to talk to a sister of the husband and she promised to get us in touch with him.
During all of this we asked for gas and some dry and fresh foods to help the mother who was looking after the children. She was taking them to school and looking after them until it was decided what to do with them.
It took a while to get in touch with the father as he was far away. He said that he was the father and that he wanted to be with the children. It took a month for the SOS Children’s Village Office in La Paz to decide whether the family was morally and economically stable enough to take care of the children. When at last it was decided that they could go to their father we saw that it was quite expensive to get them to him as their father couldn’t get to Tarija. After a few failed attempts the social worker took them and delivered them with some difficulty because the Ombudsman’s office should have sent a report and hadn’t. But after all this the children are now living with the father and family that they had never known. Now they’re protected and living in a stable family.
*Debbie Barriga – Facilitator*
*SOS Social Centre - Tarija*
TOGETHER WE CAN DO IT
400 Bolivianos was all that one mother needed to begin medical treatment but this was an impossible amount for a mother with eight children who receives less than this per month as a kitchen assistant. Faced with this situation, the Family Committees of the SOS Social Centre Santa Cruz organised a fundraising dinner in October 2004. It was very successful thanks to the dedication, effort and perseverance of the organisers, who managed to raise three times the amount and could help other families in need.
Through this experience the Family Committees, under the slogan of “Together We Can Do It”, decided to include an annual fund-raising dinner in their yearly activities to support mothers with serious health problems.
SOS Social Centre - Santa Cruz
PARTICIPATION OF THE WOMEN IN THE CHILD ABANDONMENT PREVENTION PROGRAMMES IN COMMUNITY ORGANISATIONS
The women participating in the programmes visibly integrate themselves into community activities and organisations. (Table 18)
They participate mainly in the church, the neighbourhood board and the school board. (Table 19)
If the results of the surveys are compared, they most frequently participate on the boards where there are other women participating. (Table 20)
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004 – See tables in Annex 2
Result 2
AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITIES THAT EXERCISE SOCIAL CONTROL, MOVING TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY
If it is an achievement to have the Family Committees gradually being set up and functioning, it is important to take the women’s participation into account. Traditionally the community organisations in Bolivia have been made up of men who wield the power to decide the future of their family and their community’s development.
The empowered women begin to see themselves as leaders. They realise that actively participating does influence their own well-being and that of their families and friends. They are trained in the SOS Social Centres and are successful in rising to the challenges given to them. The programmes should increase their leadership training even more and include new topics and strategies.
SOME DATA ON WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND RIGHTS IN BOLIVIA
Mayors in Bolivia: 87% men, 13% women
Of the 252 female councillors only 9% have become mayoress.
Source: Vice Ministry of Popular Participation, 2001
• The peasant organisations in Bolivia are dominated by men because of cultural practices and the fact that only 20% of landowners are women. (Before 1960 only 1.2%).
• Generally women only inherit land but even this is not always the case as men are favoured in common law and in many cases the women do not have personal identification documents (birth certificates and ID cards, marriage and death certificates) to support their claim.
Source: Bolivia, 5 years after Beijing, Report 2000, VAGGF
WHAT ARE THE MAIN RESULTS OF WORKING WITH THE COMMUNITIES THAT PARTICIPATE?
I AM A LEADER AND A MOTHER
Bertha Mojica, mother of two, has been actively participating in her Family Committee for the last three years. Having participated in the Personal Development and Community Organisation and Participation programmes has helped her to improve. “Speak without fear, be sure of myself, speak with a clear objective and get what I want” is her slogan after being trained. “These courses have helped me be part of my neighbourhood board.”
Bertha stands out because of her good relationships with the other mothers in the programmes, “getting on with the other mothers, being like a family and helping each other, sharing problems and trying to find a way of solving them together strengthens me and motivates me to continue in this group.”
SOS Social Centre - Santa Cruz
Some of the female leaders actively participate in other grass root organisations such as the neighbourhood boards, school boards, church groups, etc.
One of the results of the Family Committees is that they look after the physical and functional improvements to the Community Homes and around where they are located. They are involved in community work. The parents, according to their possibilities, give their time, effort and some possessions to the places where their children will stay during the day.
MOTHERS WORKING LIKE ANTS
They had to leave the house where the Community Home was and the Family Committee worried, had to look for a house that had at least some of the conditions necessary to set up a Home. One morning, after various meetings with all of the mothers, they found a house and decided to move. They planned to make some improvements and had some money put aside. The mothers spent all day sorting out the main room and two days later moved all their things in. It was lovely to see them working like ants, carrying the stuff on their backs. There were still other improvements to be made but we had to think about them. The commitment and perseverance of the mothers so that the Home could function was amazing, they were so happy setting out their goals for the future.
SOS Social Centre - Oruro
The Family Committee boards monitor, motivate and supervise the functioning of the abandonment prevention programmes. They are the link between the families and the SOS Social Centre staff and guarantee the focuses and services provided.
It is essential to build an environment of trust and joint responsibility among all of those involved in the processes and results. To do this the activities for integration, recreation, fund-raising and others need to be held constantly and as a routine. In each region the national and regional dates are used as times to consolidate a community committed to those who need their help the most. An example of cultural adaptation can be seen in the city of El Alto.
**THE APTHAPI OR COMMUNITY MEAL**
The community meal is an ancient tradition in the Andean cultures, mainly the Aymará culture. It is a sociocultural practice that takes place at events such as visits, meetings, work, family, group, community parties, assemblies and times when different communities get together.
It is better known as a space for the community to exchange food, everyone puts in the food that they have brought from their house and then everyone spends time eating, and talking. No one leaves without having eaten cheese, fish, meat, potatoes, corn, plantain and cassava at the apthapi; everyone takes part, even those who have come from other communities or abroad.
After the food has been shared there is a time to share much deeper social messages. The apthapi is an expression of solidarity with others as a symbol of social relations and exchange. The Aymará people do not do this at any time but rather when they seek to proclaim the unity of a group. It is a collective, voluntary endeavour.
The symbolic, cultural endeavour of the apthapi is recovered also in the meetings, such as workshops, among the families participating in the SOS Social Centre. It is a communal way of life. This experience generated opinion in different social levels because of the broad coverage it was given by the media, both on the radio and television, in a visit to the programme.
*Genaro Condori*
*SOS Social Centre - El Alto*
HUMANITARIAN AID PROGRAMMES
or EMERGENCY PROGRAMMES
Over the last few years, SOS Children’s Villages has helped families and children affected by natural disasters such as the fires in Guarayos, the earthquakes in Totora and Aiquile, the landslide in Chima and the flooding of the River Pirai in Santa Cruz. The support is given for a certain period and the participation of the community and its representatives is fundamental to achieving good results.
As an example: in March 2003, the Bolivian people were moved by the disaster in Chima. Two teams of SOS staff went to the zone to do the following:
The first SOS Immediate Response team
1. Delivered donations from the organisation – clothes, food and medicines – to the victims.
2. Researched the situation of ten children who had been orphaned. These children are now part of a permanent substitute family in the La Paz Village.
3. Actively took part in the Emergency Operative Committee commission made up of different organisations and institutions such as UNICEF, DNI, World Vision and Civil Defence. This commission was to look out for the welfare of the children and ensure that the donations were properly distributed.
The second team was called Integral Protection and Attention for Children. This team focussed on three other lines of action based on the experience of the child abandonment prevention programmes:
1. Identifying and administrating spaces where the children could be protected and cared for integrally. They found three infrastructures – one municipal and two from the ILO. These were adapted to begin work along the lines of Community Centres with 180 children.
2. Determining who should participate in these Community Centres; children below the age of 6, children of those who had been widowed by the disaster, children of gravel scratchers, those who had lost their homes or refugees. Siblings below the age of 10 could also participate. Programmes on health, nutrition, preschool education were started with the participants along with psychological rehabilitation for the trauma that they had suffered.
3. Managing the sustainability of these childcare and protection programmes, through PAN and the Municipal Government of Tipuani’s commitment to carry on the support.
A MUNICIPAL DISTRICT DISPOSED TO PROTECTING ITS CHILDREN
PROTECTED CHILDREN. INTEGRATED FAMILIES. A COMMUNITY IN ACTION
There are various SOS programmes in the zone of Mallasa, to the south of the city of La Paz. While coordinating with organised members of the community and more so with the members of the local government the idea came up to make the District a Cultural Ecotourism Circuit. On the 27 May 2005 a Municipal ordinance was approved and passed that declared Mallasa as a Tourist Friendly District and Children’s Protector, establishing the general objective of “systematically contributing to promoting, defending and demanding the full exercise of and respect for the children’s and adolescents’ rights in the La Paz Municipality whether it be permanently or occasionally, enabling their integral development in an environment of love, respect and safety.”
The experience in Mallasa can be a model to be extended to other zones in the same city or country.
**District:**
District 20, sub district 6, Sub municipality of Mallasa of the city of La Paz, is a delimited geographical zone where people live and work alongside organisations and companies working to benefit the community.
**Tourism:**
Because of the climate, landscapes, and tourism and recreational facilities, the district became a Cultural Ecotourism Circuit in 2003. The neighbours understand the importance of tourism as a source of employment, income and to improve their quality of life.
**Friend and Protector:**
The district, through all of the committed and involved actors, seeks to promote, defend and systematically contribute to promoting, defending and demanding the full exercise of and respect for the children’s and adolescents’ rights to enable their integral development in an environment of love, respect and safety.
**Of Children:**
Children and adolescents are understood as those citizens below the age of 18 who live in the zone or go there to use the health, education, leisure, legal services, etc.
A Steering Committee designed a proposal for actions and results, which is currently being executed, under the guidelines of the United Nations Declaration on Children’s Rights.
**DISSEMINATION AND DEFENSE OF CHILDREN’S RIGHTS**
- Wide broadcasting of children’s rights to schools, their families, community leaders, functionaries, neighbours in general, emphasising no discrimination, education in values, peace, fraternity and tolerance.
- Organisation of a support network to defend children’s rights to have all of the actors understanding the objectives of a municipal district disposed to protecting its children.
- Solidarity campaigns among the neighbours and children, especially in schools.
- Orientation for parents in the schools their children attend.
- Dissemination of good treatment among the families and prevention of domestic violence.
**PROTECTION AND EDUCATION**
- Child Centres and Community Homes working to provide integral attention to children below the age of 6.
- Integral education for children in the zone’s primary schools.
- Schooling for children outside the education system or who have dropped out, with the support of the Ombudsman’s Office.
- Integration of handicapped children into the schools in the zone.
- Specialist support for handicapped children through the Ombudsman’s Office.
- Technical training with an emphasis on young people.
**FREE TIME, RECREATION AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT**
- Offer of sociocultural programmes to productively occupy children and adolescents’ free-time.
- Construction of a new football pitch with the support of the FIFA.
- Installation of a cable car to be used by the children and visitors to the district.
- Free entry for the children to the Mallasa Park and the Zoo.
**LEGAL SUPPORT**
- Permanent, free documentation for the children with legal advice for their family members.
- Attention for cases of domestic violence, especially aimed at children, through the Ombudsman’s Office and with counselling for family members.
**HEALTH AND NUTRITION**
- Paediatric and dental care for the children.
- Preventative health campaigns (vaccination, vitamins, fluoride, promoting breast feeding, etc.).
- Promoting the SUMI for healthcare for children below the age of 5 and their mothers.
- Educating parents in health and nutrition for children and the family.
**SAFETY**
- Signage in the streets and public areas.
- Improve pedestrian safety for the children.
- Protection for children entering and leaving school.
**ATTENTION TO CHILDREN AT RISK OF BEING ABANDONED BY THEIR FAMILY**
- Taking children who need permanent substitute families into the SOS Children’s Villages.
- SOS Children’s Villages child abandonment prevention programmes working to protect children at social risk, strengthening their mothers and families and supporting the development of their community.
- Organisation of Family Committees to take joint responsibility with the family for childcare.
**STRENGTHENING THE MOTHERS AND THE FAMILIES**
- Literacy for adults.
- Technical work training in SOS Children’s Villages programmes.
- Promoting innovative initiatives related to tourism in the Valley of the Moon.
- Setting up networks for female employment counsellors, in gender and family.
- Creation of employment agencies and employment networks.
One of the most important characteristics of the staff on the child abandonment prevention programmes is their own development under the concept of joint responsibility with the participants in the programme. They criticise the concept of paternalism, which does not lead to a sustained improvement in the participating families’ situation. The programme teams believe that integral work yields better results.
Beyond the theory child abandonment prevention, family strengthening and community development communities implies more practical work. This is the difference between SOS Children’s Villages and other institutions that seek political support. The results of the work can be felt in the daily life of the children and the women. Something that stimulates the staff to continue working is seeing the development of the very poor people and groups in the community.
**SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEAMS IN THE SOS SOCIAL CENTRES**
- Over 80% are women.
- 60% of the staff have been with the programme for over two years.
- 20% have been working for over ten years and have seen the development of their programme and been part of its conceptual, philosophical and operative construction.
- Their training and performance in the programme is a critical part of their work experience.
- They show a strong commitment to the proposal and the practices of child abandonment prevention.
Source: Proactiva Impact Evaluation Report 2004
**Number of community mothers and facilitators**
*SOS Social Centres – 2004*
| SOCIAL CENTRE | NUMBER OF COMMUNITY MOTHERS | NUMBER OF FACILITATORS |
|---------------|-----------------------------|------------------------|
| Cochabamba | 131 | 5 |
| Tarija | 227 | 8 |
| Santa Cruz | 155 | 5 |
| Oruro | 76 | 3 |
| Sucre | 83 | 3 |
| Potosí | 90 | 3 |
| El Alto | 101 | 2 |
| La Paz | 25 | 1 |
| TOTALS | 888 | 30 |
I came into the SOS Social Centre in Cochabamba in 2001 and they assigned me to Family Committee Nº 1. When I attended the second committee meeting I decided to take charge of a group of 15 mothers. For 4 years I was a leader in the Community Organisation and Participation Area, I was trained in children’s and women’s rights and I went to all of the workshops on empowering women.
I have a degree in Business Administration. I’d always dreamed of working in an office, dressing elegantly in a company or commercial business but that changed little by little. My vision of life isn’t the same anymore. First I volunteered and started learning about the economic administration system needed for the upkeep of the Community Homes. Then I replaced a facilitator who had specific tasks and that’s when I realised that working with families is something you can’t measure… Suddenly it’s not all about money but rather about being able to change people’s quality of life.
Often people wonder why I decided to be a facilitator if that’s not what I studied and I tell them, “Administration is a wide field where they teach us to take on new challenges, where working in what you don’t know can be a chance to prove yourself.”
Now I have the chance to play a part in changing people’s lives, it’s a commitment to achieving the results that are expected in this work that’s so hard, with no fixed working hours, without a recipe or a manual that teaches us to guide people. It is hard but the reward comes when you see the change in the families and that is the most valuable thing in this world.
The facilitator’s responsibility is huge because by doing a good assessment of the leaders of each committee, you can measure how the families participating in the programme are getting on. We’re a link between the SOS Social Centre team and the community. We’re the part that makes the child abandonment prevention programme work. For the families to get the correct information and understand the programme depends on us, the facilitators.
The satisfaction we get from being facilitators is being recognised by the families as part of this process of change that they go through to improve their quality of life and themselves. Another satisfaction is that, as part of the staff, we are constantly being trained to do our job better.
The challenges for me as a facilitator are: understand better the vision that Hermann Gmeiner had for the SOS Children’s Villages, integrate myself more with the SOS staff to be able to talk their language now that I have experience of being a leader, and get all the knowledge I need about the child abandonment prevention programme.
Lidia Quispe – facilitator
SOS Social Centre - Cochabamba
The training has strengthened the attitude of the staff towards and responsibility for specific functions. 30 people monitor the functioning of over 300 Community Homes, coordinating the technical teams in the Social Centres, the community mothers and Family Committee leaders. Each facilitator is the disseminator of the contents, focuses and strategies to develop the four programme components, motivating the active and protagonistic participation of the parents in satisfying their needs.
The SOS child abandonment prevention programme staff are constantly being trained to improve their skills for working with children and adults at social risk.
One of the processes that needs to be improved and put into practice is registering the progress made and difficulties met every day; writing down experiences and systematising processes. The rapid growth of cover of the programmes means that we need clear baselines, processes and goals or results based on indicators in the different areas of human and social development.
The teams interviewed in the last impact evaluation show that one weakness is not having specialists to tackle the issues that arise. Some facilitators reported that the sheer volume of responsibilities did not allow them to work in depth with some families who needed more attention or to follow them up when they were referred to other organisations or specific institutions.
The coordination and exchange between the SOS staff teams from different affiliates could help to strengthen the association and should be promoted.
**THE COMMUNITY MOTHERS**
The community mothers are those mothers of the children attending the Community Homes, who are chosen by their Family Committee to exclusively dedicate themselves to caring for the children every day, for which they sign an agreement. They are elected on the basis of certain qualities that they display, such as their vocation for and patience when working with children. It also depends on their desire to be trained with the support of the SOS Social Centre, to work with them full-time.
They hygienically prepare nourishing food for the children, look after the children’s personal hygiene, their safety in the Community Home and, above all, offer their protection and care with affection. A very important affective component is nurtured in the community mothers, as they are the people who give and receive affection from the children.
The community mothers also implement educational programmes that enable the children to develop their talents in a communal and united environment. The families trust them as they hand over the most precious thing they have: their children. In exchange they pay them with monthly quotas for the children’s care.
“I’m Aída Luz Fernández Caro and I want to tell you something about my life. On the 18th of October 1999 I came to the city of Tarija from Bermejo looking for a better income for my family. Time went by and nothing happened. That was when the trouble with my husband started. Supposedly “he was working”… he disappeared for two or three months. I was desperate because my children and I had nothing, not even anything to eat. This economic and family instability went on for so long that it became normal. And we lived like that for years…
On the 13 of January 2002 I went to the Eulogio Ruiz School to enrol my son. Coming back home another mother told me that nearby was an SOS Children’s Village where they had a Nursery School which took in children from poor families. I immediately thought, “Now I can work and get more money”. After getting that information I decided to enrol my son in the SOS Social Centre. The lady in charge of looking after my child visited my room, asked me some questions about my life and finally accepted him. She offered me support.
I started to work at the same Social Centre doing the cleaning for a while. This gave me the chance to get some money together and regain my strength. Then I got an offer to work as a community mother in the Cariñositos Home. I accepted and learnt many things; I went to training sessions to improve my childcare skills in line with the principles of the institution. This also helped me as a mother and a citizen of this region as I found out about more to do with the reality of the families here, and especially of the children. That’s when I realised that I wasn’t the only one in the world with the hundreds of problems I had.
Right at the beginning of June 2004, the Social Centre needed community mothers to look after the children. The Family Committee was selecting the candidates. I was so surprised and grateful to God, to SOS Children’s Villages, to the mothers, my friends here, my children, well to everyone around me when I was chosen.
Thank you SOS Social Centre Tarija and all of you who helped me get where I am today, with my group of children who I’m responsible for. I won’t let you down. I really want to learn and continue being trained to be able to give the children more.
I would like to say that I now see the world from a different perspective, more transparently. I’m more careful about how I talk to the children, with respect, love and politely. I should say not only them but any child because now I know they have rights and that once I was a little girl too.”
Aida Caro – Mother
SOS Social Centre
- Tarija
Where we are heading: some challenges and commitments
Part 3
Because of the dozens of women coming to the SOS Children’s Villages to leave their children after losing all hope, over 20 years ago the concept of child abandonment prevention was born in SOS Bolivia. It is a very simple concept: support women so that they can protect their children.
Of course many other organisations had already thought of this concept but it seemed necessary to take on the idea as it is strong and is a natural response to the risk of being abandoned that thousands of children in Bolivia and Latin America face. And so in the 1980s “abandonment prevention” was born in the SOS Social Centres.
This idea has developed, first within the institution, then in a more natural setting, speaking from a social point of view. In the 1990s we placed a lot of emphasis on strengthening “the institution”, the SOS Social Centre; we structured it with closed strategies, institutional systems, etc., which, although they were fine at the time, did not seem to be enough as we moved into the 21st century.
In 2000, SOS Kinderdorf International launched a Mission, a Vision and Values that managed to align the whole international organisation, with one of these programmes being the SOS Social Centre Programmes. But this was not all, society also charged us with a Mission and this type of programme took another step forward and changed its basis. First it was based on the family as the way of protecting children. Second it ceased being an installation or institution and became a programme with a level of cover. And third to seek support from the community and society that we need so much.
This idea that was born and evolved mainly in SOS Bolivia has been spread around Latin America and many countries are following their steps or have made significant improvements to the original Bolivian concept. Tens of
thousands of Latin American children are being helped by this response to the difficulties and risks that they face.
This is why this publication aims at being a contribution so that hundreds of people who are developing the child abandonment prevention concept based on family and community strengthening can improve their work, develop it and improve the services they offer to the families participating. A publication that gathers together all the good achieved and the problems we have faced from the mouth of those who have been through the programmes and have come out changed, a publication that reflects our gratitude to all of the members of staff who have given and achieved so much.
This is not the end but rather a transition from one stage to another: one stage has finished with fabulous results, great growth with over 9,000 children being cared for in Bolivia and many staff satisfied with their progress. And so I would like to take this opportunity to thank our staff for all their efforts and achievements, and Heinrich Müller, who gave us his ideas and strength to make the values, social and pedagogic concepts materialise. Our National Board of Directors for giving us guidance and good policies. The Regional Office for its technical support and invaluable concepts that strengthened our work. The SOS Social Centres staff who knew how to be the creative and hardworking managers their programmes need and again all of the staff and teams working in these programmes.
Jerry Rafael Bustillos
National Director of SOS Children’s Villages - Bolivia
A member of the organisation for 25 years
WHAT WE WANT TO ACHIEVE OVER THE NEXT FIVE YEARS
1. GROWTH IN COVER
- Increase the number of children attended to in our child abandonment prevention programmes.
- Focus our attention on populations at risk, also in rural areas.
- Develop plans for gradual growth, set up spaces where the processes can be consolidated.
2. STRENGTHEN OURSELVES AS AN ORGANISATION
- Have an organisational model that can sustain the increase in coverage.
- Have designed the structure that allows growth to be complementary, integrally attending to child abandonment prevention.
- Have a standard system to monitor processes and results, feedback and efficient control within the programmes’ services.
- Reach a balanced growth rate with a good relationship between cover and human resources.
- Balance the structures and functions so that the staff do not feel overworked.
- Have a staffing structure that is sufficient and prepared to guarantee the quality of the services and achieve results.
- Have a team of qualified, well-trained staff committed to the programme.
- Maintain ourselves serious and trustworthy through good organisation and discipline.
- Have a functional data base useful for taking decisions.
- Develop an organisational culture based on results not activities.
- Permanently exchange experiences among the programmes in the different branches to improve our organisation’s practices.
- Permanently exchange experiences with other organisations.
3. KEEP UP TO DATE WITH PUBLIC OPINION
- Be a point of reference as a key organisation supporting children and families at social risk.
- Build ourselves up as an organisation that is recognised and identified as one that promotes, disseminates and defends children’s and women’s rights.
- Position ourselves as an organisation that works on preventing child abandonment, as well as having a long-term childcare programme.
- Be recognised for our work on child abandonment prevention with children, women, families and communities at risk.
- Project an image of being open to and providing for financial, human and material needs.
- Project an image of being a transparent, solid and serious organisation which achieves results or impacts with our work.
- Have SOS Friends who make donations for the child abandonment prevention programmes.
Find volunteers for the child abandonment prevention programmes, in the areas of child and adult education, health, loans, community organisation, systematisation, etc.
4. SUPPORT PEDAGOGIC AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
- Have a validated and systematised integral intervention methodology for child abandonment prevention.
- Integrate ourselves into social and scientific sectors to develop child abandonment prevention.
- Be an organisation recognised for managing and implementing innovative pedagogic and social concepts.
- Lead the work of social networks monitoring and supporting them in topics relating to the components of the child abandonment prevention programmes.
- Generate and publish studies and research recognised and endorsed by scientific pedagogic institutions.
- Be a space for applied research useful for writing policy and other studies.
- Have a social marketing research unit to make adjustments in our services.
- Constantly be analysing the national reality as a context for research that gives feedback on our practices.
- Be a source of support in rural and urban zones (municipal districts) so that other organisations can carry out their work effectively.
- Be a space for technicians and university students to carry out research, practical work and internships.
- Provide time to certain members of staff so that they systematise their work experiences.
5. PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES
- Support improvements to the conditions and quality of life of the families through the child abandonment prevention programmes, having clear baselines and goals that we wish to achieve.
- Be a reference point in each location for the dissemination and actions for human rights, especially those of women and children.
- Be recognised for our focus on transformation and as facilitators of this process.
- Respond to the needs of families at social risk.
- Promote the communities participating in the programmes to be the protagonists of solving their problems, by being organised, independent and sustainable.
- Have an influence on reflecting on and putting into practice quality and clear criteria that improve the children, families and women’s living conditions.
- Generate leaders, mainly women, with community interests.
- Position the child abandonment prevention model in the community involved, making it known, understood and supported.
• Achieve mutual support from the community involved and the participants.
6. SUSTAIN A SOLID SOCIETY WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE STATE
• Influence, as an organisation, in the public policies that benefit children below the age of 6, women and families.
• Be seen and valued as strategic allies to enforce policies and strategies to attend to children, families and communities at social risk through the Municipal Governments and other Bolivian State institutions.
• Participate in the execution of public policies, achieving far-reaching agreements which allocate resources to developing the child abandonment prevention programmes.
• Access financers through having the Bolivian state as a solid counterpart.
• Try to have the Bolivian state finance most of our programmes’ expenses.
• Take maximum advantage of the state services for the children, women and families participating (Ombudsman Offices, Municipal Offices, Integral Legal Services, the Universal Mother Child Insurance, housing plans, etc.).
7. SET UP STRONG ALLIANCES WITH OTHER ORGANISATIONS OR INSTITUTIONS
• Find ways of working together and establish common objectives with other similar organisations or institutions, showing ourselves to be an open and flexible organisation.
• Coordinate (mediate) services and actions that benefit the participants and economise efforts and money for the programmes.
• Find financial and human resources to develop the child abandonment prevention programmes, in areas such as child education, health and nutrition, employment training, micro credits, production of materials, psychological and legal assessments, etc.
• Share specific results with allied organisations and institutions.
• Learn from the expertise of other organisations in different areas both conceptual and operative.
8. STRENGTHEN OUR SOS STAFF
• Be a sensitive and humane organisation interested in the individual processes and situations of each SOS staff member, safeguarding their physical, mental, affective and spiritual well-being.
• Recognise the efforts of the staff quickly and in writing.
• Develop a sense of satisfaction in the SOS staff for having participated in the development of other people and groups of people in need.
• Respect and support the families of the SOS Staff ensuring a balance between the private and the work spheres.
• Recognise leadership as specific qualities that enrich the work teams.
• Promote permanent training of the SOS Staff on the focuses and strategies necessary to develop skills related to child abandonment prevention and their work with children, adults and groups at social risk.
• Strengthen each SOS Staff member’s sense of working for change and trusting the group capacity to change situations, uprooting remains of paternalistic practices and attitudes.
• Stimulate spaces for the staff to get together and give feedback, renewing their commitment to the organisation and the programme participants.
9. SUPPORT THE SOS CHILDREN’S VILLAGES (SOS KDI) ORGANISATION
• Strengthen the autonomy of the SOS Children’s Villages National Association from the child abandonment prevention programmes.
• Contribute to fulfilling the millennium development objectives, which our organisation is committed to at the global level.
• Consolidate the technical and scientific transparent approach to the child abandonment prevention programmes, which can be used as a model to be replicated and disseminated to other countries.
• Have SOS Staff experts in different areas to disseminate the contents and ways of child abandonment prevention.
Who we are – yellow book
SOS Kinderdorf International, Austria, 2004
Hermann Gmeiner Social Centres – SOS Children’s Villages
Preventing the abandonment of children by fighting the poverty and marginalisation of women
Teruko Yanaguita, Bolivariana Regional Office, SOS Kinderdorf International, La Paz, 1998
Impact of the SOS Children’s Villages Social Centres – Bolivia on poverty stricken families
Nancy Ardaya, SOS Children’s Villages, La Paz, 2000
Child abandonment prevention: family and community development
Patricia Vargas and Nancy Ardaya, SOS Kinderdorf International, La Paz, 2004
The “Joint Responsibility” model of community organisation and participation
SOS Social Centre Cochabamba, Cochabamba, 2004 (document being revised)
What are the SOS Family Committees?
Susana de Calabi and María de Alfaro, SOS Social Centre Tarija, Tarija, 2004 (document being revised)
Impact evaluation on Social Centres and Community Homes – SOS Children’s Villages – Research from the cities of Oruro, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba and Tarija
Gloria Tellería, Proactiva Consultores Asociados, La Paz, 2004
The Montessori method in SOS Children’s Villages – Bolivia: quality education for children with few opportunities
SOS Children’s Villages, 2003
The State of the World’s Children 2005 – Childhood under threat
UNICEF, United Nations Children’s Fund, New York, 2004
The millennium development goals start with children
UNICEF, United Nations Children’s Fund, New York, 2003
Child Nutrition and Development
National Nutrition Institute of Mexico, Editorial Interamericana, Mexico, 1979
The vulnerability of children and families in Bolivia
Héctor Maletta, Thematic Human Development Report – Family, children and development, UNDP, La Paz, 2005
Annexes
Annex 1
Some institutions and organisations that support our programmes in Bolivia
Annex 2
Tables from the Proactiva 2004 Impact Evaluation
Annex 3
Municipal districts and zones where the Child Abandonment Prevention Programmes operate in Bolivia
SOME INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANISATIONS THAT SUPPORT OUR PROGRAMMES IN BOLIVIA
**PAN Programme for Attention to Children below the age of 6**
Finances wages for the community mothers and dry foodstuffs (children below the age of 6)
**SEDEGES Departmental Social Services - Prefectures**
Finances wages for the community mothers and dry foodstuffs for the Community Homes (children below the age of 6). Pays the facilitators.
**SEDES Departmental Health Services**
Universal Mother Child Insurance Programme. Check-ups for the healthy child, healthcare for the sick child. Vaccinations. Deworming. Fluoride treatment. Campaign against Vitamin A blindness. Campaign against anaemia H.
**SEDUCAS Departmental Education Services**
Wages for formal education teachers. Education reform material and training. Official support for the curriculum and qualifications.
**Departmental Electoral Courts**
Documentation of children and family members.
**Municipal Education Offices**
School breakfast. Small budget to purchase materials and carry out refurbishments. Pay water and electricity bills.
**DILOS Local Health Office in Tarija**
Healthcare for children in Community Homes. Authorisation for the SOS Social Centre Tarija to work with the SUMI
**Manitos Programme in El Alto**
Training by facilitators. Provides food, grants and materials for children.
**Municipal Children and Adolescents’ Ombudsman’s Offices**
Referral of cases (psychologist, social worker, lawyer). Training children, staff, and parents.
**Integral Legal Services**
Referral of cases. Training staff, parents.
**Family Protection Brigade**
Referral of cases of domestic violence, legal counselling and conflict resolution.
**Ombudsman’s Office**
Follow-up of family cases.
**Integrated Community Justice Centre - Vice Ministry of Justice**
Follow-up of family cases.
**Universities, Departments of Dentistry, Biochemistry, Medicine, Law, Economics, Psychology, Social Work, Sociology, Education, Social Communications, IT, Agronomy**
Juan Misael Saracho (Tarija)
Mayor de San Andrés (La Paz)
Mayor de San Simón (Cochabamba)
Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno (Santa Cruz)
Evangélica Boliviana (Santa Cruz)
Mayor San Francisco Xavier (Sucre)
Univalle (Cochabamba y Sucre)
Support from students in internships, in research work, teaching (e.g. IT), health training, and health campaigns.
SOME INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANISATIONS THAT SUPPORT OUR PROGRAMMES IN BOLIVIA
Elizabeth Setton School of Nursing
Health training. Support for health campaigns.
COMBASE Bolivian Commision for Evangelical Social Action
Vaccinations. Deworming. Fluoride treatment. Campaign against Vitamin A blindness. Campaign against anaemia H. healthcare for sick children.
Andean Rural Health Board in El Alto
Check-ups for healthy children.
Albina Patiño Paediatric Centre
Hospital Viedma
Hospital Japonés
Hospital La Paz
Low cost healthcare in specialised areas, complementary examinations and surgery.
PASOC Pastoral Social in Santa Cruz
Esperanza Bolivia in Tarija
Donation of essential medicines.
Gen y vida
Family laboratories.
CIES The Marie Stopes Research, Education, Sexual and Reproductive Health Services Centre
Training in sexual and reproductive health for adolescents and mothers. Healthcare for women’s illnesses, smear tests.
CRINN Integral Nutrition Recovery Centre for Children
Training in nutrition for families.
SEAMOS
Training for educators and community mothers.
Juana Azurduy
Training for children on their rights.
ECAM Team for Alternative Communication with Women
Training and legal support for women.
CEDEMyPE Small and Medium Business Development Centre
Work training for women.
Mennonite Central Committee
Small business training. Incentivating small businesses.
ISALP Potosí Legal Guidance Services
Legal advice and training for families.
ACAI Santa Cruz Association for the Handicapped
Diagnosis and treatment for children with behavioural and learning difficulties.
Infante
Integral protection and attention for women and families who are the victims of domestic abuse.
**Women's Legal Office**
Legal assistance for family welfare paperwork and crimes against women.
**Casa de la Mujer**
Legal and family advice.
**Poverty Relief programme Foundation**
Training in community participation and organisation.
**Kolping**
Training in nutrition for educators, community mothers and families. Training in artisan techniques.
**Peace Corps**
Provides volunteers to train children, young people and adults in small businesses.
**Norwegian Mission Alliance**
Training and guidance for families.
**Instituto Radiofónico Fe y Alegría - Santa Cruz**
Literacy for mothers and members of their family.
**Alfalit in Sucre**
Literacy for mothers.
**Radio Atipiri in El Alto**
Broadcasting of prevention programmes to the community.
**PIEB Strategic Research Programme in Bolivia**
Support in research and diagnoses.
**SERMEP Technical Education Institute**
Support for auxiliary nurses.
**IPTK Tomás Katari Technical Institute**
Medical, psychological and legal support. Training in small businesses. Strengthening leaders in public policies. Literacy skills.
**SOF Family Guidance Services**
Psychological support and guidance for women and families.
**Violence against Women Network**
SOS Children’s Villages is an active member.
OUR AGREEMENT WITH THE PROGRAMME FOR ATTENTION TO CHILDREN BELOW THE AGE OF 6 (PAN)
In 1995 a strategic alliance between SOS Children’s Villages and the Integral Child Development Project (PIDI) was formed. This project facilitated the recently set up Community Homes by covering some of the costs of training the community mothers, paying them a “monthly stipend”, the education programmes and following up their execution, weekly menus for the children, portions of dry foodstuffs and equipping the kitchen and classrooms. The State, with the support of the World Bank, showed its commitment to its most precious resource; small children.
Our organisation covered all of the other material needs required for the Homes to function, such as fresh foods to complete the children’s diet, cleaning materials and some educational materials. However, the relationship was established based on the confidence that in these Homes there would be pedagogic monitoring and the parents’ organisation as well as transparency in the administration.
PIDI disappeared and was replaced by the Programme for Attention to Children below the age of 6 (PAN). This was decentralised with the Departmental or Prefectural Governments taking responsibility for it. Each SOS Social Centre set up local agreements based on the national agreement.
Over the last few years PAN has transferred many of its childcare centres to the SOS Social Centres. This has enabled us to significantly increase coverage and by the end of 2004 we were attending to over 8,000 children in the Community Homes each day.
### TABLE 1 - Participation of the families in SC and CH programme activities (%)
| ACTIVITIES | SOCIAL CENTRES | COMMUNITY HOMES | TOTAL |
|-----------------------------------|----------------|-----------------|-------|
| | % | No. | % | No. | |
| None | 8.3 | 9 | 13.8 | 4 | 13 |
| Personal development | 25.0 | 27 | 27.6 | 8 | 35 |
| Apprenticeship training workshops| 56.5 | 61 | 51.7 | 15 | 76 |
| Recreational | 10.2 | 11 | 6.9 | 2 | 13 |
| **TOTAL** | **100** | **108** | **100**| **29**| **137**|
### TABLE 2 - Families’ opinions of the programme, per SC and CH (%)
| ACTIVITIES | SOCIAL CENTRES | COMMUNITY HOMES | TOTAL |
|-------------------------------------------------|----------------|-----------------|-------|
| | % | No. | % | No. | |
| Support for working parents | 29.1 | 25 | 30.8 | 8 | 33 |
| Support education and feeding children | 17.4 | 15 | 15.4 | 4 | 19 |
| Support for the most vulnerable of the community| 34.9 | 30 | 50.0 | 13 | 43 |
| Others | | | 3.8 | 1 | 1 |
| No response | 18.6 | 16 | | | 16 |
| **TOTAL** | **100** | **86** | **100**| **26**| **111**|
### TABLE 3 - Type of housing of the families
| HOUSING | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|--------------------------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Own | 26 | 23.2| 8 | 16.3|
| Rented | 54 | 48.2| 25 | 51.0|
| Long-term lease | 17 | 15.2| 5 | 10.2|
| Lives in extended family’s home| 8 | 7.1 | 7 | 14.3|
| Lives in place of work | | | 2 | 4.1 |
| Other | 1 | 0.9 | | |
| No response | 6 | 5.4 | 2 | 4.1 |
| **TOTAL** | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 4 - Number of rooms used by the family
| HOUSING | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|---------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| 1 | 66 | 58.9 | 35 | 71.4 |
| 2 | 30 | 26.8 | 6 | 12.2 |
| 3 | 7 | 6.3 | 2 | 4.1 |
| 4 | 3 | 2.7 | | |
| 5 | 1 | 0.9 | | |
| No response | 5 | 4.5 | 6 | 12.2 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 5 - Space dedicated to cooking
| SEPARATE AREA FOR COOKING | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|---------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Own, independent | 63 | 56.3 | 26 | 53.1 |
| Shared | 22 | 19.6 | 15 | 30.6 |
| None | 26 | 23.2 | 8 | 16.3 |
| No response | 1 | 0.9 | | |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 6 - Bathroom used by the family
| BATHROOM | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|----------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Own, independent | 32 | 28.6 | 11 | 22.4 |
| Shared | 63 | 56.3 | 30 | 61.2 |
| Pit | 1 | 0.9 | 6 | 12.2 |
| Other | 6 | 4.6 | 1 | 2.0 |
| No response | 10 | 8.9 | 1 | 2.0 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 7 - Services in the house
| SERVICES | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|-------------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Potable water | | | | |
| Yes | 103 | 92.0| 43 | 87.8|
| No | 9 | 8.0 | 6 | 12.2|
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
| Electricity supply| | | | |
| Yes | 107 | 95.5| 45 | 91.8|
| No | 5 | 4.5 | 4 | 8.1 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
| Sewage supply | | | | |
| Yes | 55 | 49.1| 22 | 44.9|
| No | 57 | 50.9| 27 | 55.1|
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
| Telephone | | | | |
| Yes | 33 | 29.5| 8 | 16.3|
| No | 79 | 70.5| 41 | 83.7|
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 8 - Women’s ages
| AGES | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| 17 to 20 | 1 | 0.9 | 2 | 4.1 |
| 21 to 25 | 13 | 11.6| 13 | 26.5|
| 26 to 30 | 34 | 30.4| 20 | 40.8|
| 31 to 35 | 31 | 27.7| 8 | 16.3|
| 36 to 40 | 22 | 19.6| 2 | 4.1 |
| 41 to 45 | 8 | 7.1 | 2 | 4.1 |
| 46 to 65 | 2 | 1.8 | 2 | 4.1 |
### TABLE 9 - Where the women were born
| WHERE BORN | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|---------------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| In this city | 30 | 26.8 | 25 | 51.0 |
| In another city | 66 | 58.9 | 19 | 38.8 |
| In the countryside | 16 | 14.3 | 5 | 10.2 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 10 - Marital status of the women
| MARITAL STATUS | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|------------------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Single | 24 | 21.4 | 9 | 18.4 |
| Married/Cohabiting | 71 | 63.4 | 37 | 75.5 |
| Divorced or separated | 15 | 13.4 | 3 | 6.1 |
| Widowed | 2 | 1.8 | | |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 11 - Level of women’s schooling
| SCHOOLING IN YEARS | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|--------------------------------------|--------------------|---------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| None | 4 | 3.6 | 4 | 8.2 |
| Primary school grades passed | 46 | 41.1| 14 | 28.6|
| Secondary school grades passed | 45 | 40.2| 22 | 44.9|
| Tertiary grades passed | 13 | 11.6| 9 | 18.4|
| Years in other studies | 3 | 2.7 | | |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### Table 12 - Number of children per woman
| NUMBER OF CHILDREN | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|--------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| 1 | 16 | 14.3| 16 | 37.7|
| 2 | 25 | 22.3| 14 | 28.6|
| 3 | 29 | 25.9| 10 | 20.4|
| 4 | 17 | 15.2| 2 | 4.1 |
| 5 | 12 | 10.7| 4 | 8.2 |
| 6 | 7 | 6.3 | 1 | 2.0 |
| 7 | 3 | 2.7 | 1 | 2.0 |
| 8 | 2 | 1.8 | | |
| 12 | 1 | 0.9 | 1 | 2.0 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### Table 13 - Mothers’ occupations
| MOTHER’S OCCUPATION | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|---------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Housewife | 16 | 14.3| 20 | 40.8|
| Household worker | 12 | 10.7| 4 | 8.2 |
| Seller | 31 | 27.7| 11 | 22.4|
| Cleaner | 19 | 17.0| 6 | 12.2|
| Artisan | 2 | 1.8 | 4 | 8.2 |
| Educator or promoter | 11 | 9.8 | | |
| Laundress | | | 3 | 6.1 |
| Other* | 5 | 5.4 | 3 | 6.1 |
| No response | 16 | 14.3| 5 | 10.2|
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
*The other jobs frequently mentioned are: flower arrangers, auxiliary nurse, auxiliary seller, cook, trader, temporary work, graphic designer, seamstress, labourer, secretary, pavement layer, road worker, knitter, “anything I can”, shoe maker.
### TABLE 14 - Monthly income of the mothers
| INCOME OF THE MOTHERS (IN BOLIVIANOS – BS) | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|-------------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| 50-200 | 10 | 8.9 | 8 | 16.3 |
| 201-400 | 49 | 43.8| 17 | 34.7 |
| 401-600 | 21 | 18.8| | |
| 601-800 | 8 | 7.1 | | |
| 801-1000 | 7 | 6.3 | | |
| 1001-1700 | 2 | 1.8 | 1 | 2.0 |
| No income | 10 | 4.5 | | |
| No response | 15 | 13.4| 23 | 46.9 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 15 - Experimental Group: Mothers’ income according to occupation (%)
| MOTHER’S OCCUPATION | MOTHERS’ INCOME (BS) | 50 - 200 | 201-400 | 401-600 | 601-800 | 801-1000 | TOTAL |
|---------------------|----------------------|----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|-------|
| Housewife | | 2.4 | 1.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3.6 |
| Household worker | | 1.2 | 9.6 | 3.6 | 0 | 0 | 14.5 |
| Seller | | 2.4 | 22.9 | 8.4 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 37.3 |
| Artisan | | 1.2 | 0 | 1.2 | 0 | 0 | 2.4 |
| Educator or promoter| | 0 | 8.4 | 3.6 | 1.2 | 0 | 13.3 |
| Cleaner | | 2.4 | 10.8 | 6.0 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 22.9 |
| Other | | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0 | 2.4 | 6.0 |
| TOTAL | | 10.8 | 54.2 | 24.1 | 4.8 | 6.0 | 100 |
### TABLE 16 - Occupation of husband or partner
| PARTNER'S OCCUPATION | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|-------------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Driver | 19 | 17.0 | 6 | 12.2 |
| Construction worker | 12 | 10.7 | 7 | 14.3 |
| Seller | 2 | 1.8 | 2 | 4.1 |
| Educator or promoter | 2 | 1.8 | | |
| Casual work | 4 | 3.6 | 4 | 8.2 |
| Unemployed | 1 | 0.9 | 2 | 4.1 |
| No Response | 63 | 56.3 | 24 | 49.0 |
| Other | 9 | 8.0 | 4 | 8.2 |
| **TOTAL** | **112** | **100** | **49** | **100** |
The other temporary or permanent work of the partners of the mothers interviewed are: porter, locksmith, taxi controller, electrician, employee, waiter, mechanic, messenger, plumber, policeman, teacher, night watchman, welder, technician, topographer, print shop assistant, factory work, shoemaker.
### TABLE 17 - Monthly income of husband or partner
| PARTNER'S INCOME (IN BOLIVIANOS – BS) | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|--------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| 100-200 | 3 | 2.7 | | |
| 201-400 | 11 | 9.8 | 8 | 16.3 |
| 401-600 | 20 | 17.9| 11 | 22.4 |
| 601-800 | 12 | 10.7| 9 | 18.4 |
| 801-1000 | 9 | 8.0 | 3 | 6.1 |
| 1001-1500 | 9 | 8.0 | 3 | 6.1 |
| 1501-2500 | 4 | 3.6 | | |
| No Response | 44 | 39.3| 15 | 30.6 |
| **TOTAL** | **112** | **100** | **49** | **100** |
### TABLE 18 - Women who are members of a community organisation
| IF THE WOMAN PARTICIPATES IN A COMMUNITY ORGANISATION | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|-------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Yes | 49 | 43.8 | 12 | 24.5 |
| No | 62 | 55.4 | 36 | 73.5 |
| No response | 1 | .9 | 1 | 2.0 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 19 - Type of community organisation which the women participate in
| TYPE OF ORGANISATION | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|----------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Church | 20 | 17.9 | 7 | 14.3 |
| School board | 11 | 9.8 | 2 | 4.1 |
| Neighbourhood board | 9 | 8.0 | 2 | 4.1 |
| None | 29 | 25.9 | 8 | 16.3 |
| Other | 3 | 2.7 | 1 | 2.0 |
| No Response | 43 | 35.7 | 29 | 59.2 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
### TABLE 20 - Level of participation of the women in the community organisations
| LEVEL OF PARTICIPATION | EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | CONTROL GROUP |
|------------------------|--------------------|--------------|
| | Number | % | Number | % |
| Board member | 13 | 11.6 | 2 | 4.1 |
| Actively participates | 30 | 26.8 | 9 | 18.4 |
| Attends occasionally | 7 | 6.3 | 1 | 2.0 |
| No Response | 62 | 55.4 | 37 | 75.5 |
| TOTAL | 112 | 100 | 49 | 100 |
## Municipal Districts and Zones Where the Child Abandonment Prevention Programmes Operate in Bolivia
| Municipality | Districts and Zones |
|--------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Cochabamba** | North Zone: District 5 and 6 Tiquipaya
| South Zone: Districts 5, 7, 8, 9 and 14
| Rural Area: Aiquile and Totora
| District 2 Cercado |
| **Tarija** | 7 de septiembre
| 3 de mayo Bajo
| Villa Busch
| San Luis
| San Bernardo
| Panamericano
| Obrasjes
| Luis Pizarro
| Los Chapacos
| Florida I
| Avaroa
| Tabladita II
| 20 de enero
| 4to Centenario
| Tabladita
| San José
| San Antonio Bajo
| Palmarcito
| Narciso Campero
| Luis Espinal
| Libertad
| Defensores del Chaco
| Aranjuez
| Senac
| 6 de Agosto
| 57 Viviendas
| Simón Bolívar
| San Jorge
| San Antonio
| Oscar Zamora
| Morros Blancos
| Luis de Fuentes
| Las Pascuas
| Constructor
| Andaluz
| 12 de octubre
| 3 de mayo Alto
| San Marcos
| San Blas
| Pedro Antonio Flores
| Oscar Alfaro
| Méndez Arcos
| Lourdes
| Florida II
| Benjo Cruz
| Alto Senac |
| **Santa Cruz** | Districts 8, 10 and 12 |
| **Oruro** | District 2
| District 3
| District 4
| District 5
| Rural Area
| District 6
| Chancadora
| Miraflores
| Vinto
| Circunvalation
| Villa Challacollo
| Iequelequeni
| Paz
| Challapata
| Sapo
| San Pedro
| Vichuloma
| Este
| Itos
| Sancayuni
| Caracollo
| Mineros
| Huajara
| Cementerio
| Jachuyu
| Sepulturas |
| **Sucre** | Patacón
| Barranca
| Bajo Tuksupaya
| Palmar 2
| San Luis
| Karapunku
| Mesa Verde
| Horno Ckasa
| Villa Margarita
| Alto Sucre
| Santa Fe
| Estados Unidos
| Villa Alegría
| Llinfi
| 20 de octubre
| Surapata
| Villa Armonía
| La Hoyada
| Lajastambo
| Huayrapata
| Fortaleza
| Rollo
| Alto Tuksupaya |
| **Potosí** | District 3 San Juan
| District 4 San Cristóbal
| District 7 San Pedro
| District 8 San Benito
| District 9 Las Delicias
| District 10 Satélite
| District 11 San Clemente
| District 12 Villa Copacabana
| Santa Rosa
| Campamento Pailaviri
| San Pedro
| Villa Busch
| Villa Esperanza
| Plan 40
| Alonso de Ibáñez
| Villa Venezuela
| San Cristóbal
| San Anselmo
| Huanchacalla
| Cantumarca
| Villa Buena Vista
| Villa Armonía
| Villa Nazareth
| Cachirrancho
| Pari Orcko |
| **El Alto** | Districts 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 |
| **La Paz** | District 19
| Chasquipampa |
SOS Children’s Villages is an organisation which is internationally recognised for our work with vulnerable populations, especially with children who have been abandoned or at risk of losing their families.
This publication has gathered together testimonies and experiences from the SOS programmes in our country, from the participants, staff and boards who together have developed a practical, participative joint responsibility proposal over the last 20 years to support Community Family Strengthening, which is crucial for child abandonment prevention. The results of the last impact evaluation of the SOS Social Centres in Bolivia are also to be found here.
We are convinced that the achievements can be sustained and progress made on the challenges we face if we are a social movement united through the same vision.
“EACH CHILD BELONGING TO A FAMILY AND GROWING UP SURROUNDED BY LOVE, RESPECT AND SAFETY”.
SOS Children’s Villages - Bolivia
2005 | 00550c21-bd43-445c-9f1b-43b89838d10e | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://bettercarenetwork.org/sites/default/files/Supporting%20Family%20and%20Community%20Strengthening%20to%20Prevent%20Child%20Abandonment.pdf | 2021-01-20T10:54:51+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703519984.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20210120085204-20210120115204-00354.warc.gz | 237,416,681 | 49,802 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.970589 | eng_Latn | 0.997179 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
171,
1010,
2350,
2538,
2931,
4333,
4378,
5852,
6746,
7805,
9848,
9971,
10416,
12199,
13780,
15688,
18787,
20091,
20641,
22449,
25190,
26612,
29026,
30163,
32619,
34243,
36107,
36528,
39083,
41781,
41855,
41991,
42487,
43042,
43233,
46980,
47891... | [
2.4375,
1.6484375
] | 1 | 0 |
ANGELS IN STARSHIPS
GIORGIO DIBITONTO
1951
2006
www.cosmic-people.com
www.universe-people.com
ANGELS IN STARSHIPS
www.cosmic-people.com
DUST JACKET
The dust jacket illustration was accurately painted by Jim Nichols from the descriptions in Chapter 6 of the landed mother-ship and four smaller craft that came out of it and parked on the grass. Three human beings got out of each of the smaller craft and came up to the two witnesses and introduced themselves. The cigar-shaped mother-ship was estimated to be 300 to 350 feet long and the smaller craft were about 20 feet in diameter. The play of light and color was astounding.
The starships in this case were occasionally observed to surround themselves with a cloudlike white vapor to protect themselves from unwanted observation. The photograph on the dust jacket rear face seems to show this operation in progress. This picture was taken by Mr. Lauersen as he was walking his dog near Viborg, Jutland, Denmark, at 09:00 on 17 November 1974.
Photo Credit: Maj. (Ret.) Hans C. Petersen and Maj. (Ret.) Colman S. VonKeviczky.
Full color reproductions of the original cover painting may be ordered directly from Jim Nichols, 2989 West Orangewood Dr., Tucson, AZ 65741
NOTES FROM THE BOOK JACKET
This book will, at first reading, be greeted by many with amazement and disbelief. One must read it a second time before asking oneself the question, "—and what if it is true?"
For, in reality, it may all be true. And, actually, it is true!
All that which is described in this book really happened. To be sure, aside from the claim of the author and the corroboration of companions in the adventure, the 'proof' is meager, but it is precisely this that assures that the message will be entrusted to men of good will, because they will sense in their hearts the deep truth of it all.
And now the facts: Giorgio, Tina, Paolo, and other friends have a number of 'eye-to-eye' contacts with space brothers, with rides in starships, and with conversations, in which it is revealed to them that they are the so-called 'angels' of the Bible, or mediators and messengers of those who served God's will, and still serve, to reveal the truth to men of Earth, and to guide them on the path toward higher development.
In the course of such meetings, the group received important revelations and messages of utmost seriousness, which concern all the inhabitants of this afflicted planet. The invitation to follow paths to a better way of life is well advised, for the time of great catastrophies and dreadful happenings about which the Apocalypse speaks is coming nearer; the day in which "one will be taken away and the other left behind."
On the occasion of one of these unusual meetings, the Earthly friends, who had been entrusted with messages and teachings, and had been guests on the flying saucers and the
starships, were allowed to have the wonderful experience of visiting a distant planet, just as had happened to George Adamski nearly thirty years before.
These contacts and revelations seem, in retrospect, in many ways similar, both in outer form and in content, to those of Fatima, Lourdes, Garabandal, LaSalette and others of that sort; yes, they represent a translation in the context of present day circumstances, and the reading and, above all, the understanding of this work is important and perhaps decisive for every person.
Eufemio del Buono
(***)
PREFACE
On the 10th of May 1990 I gave a UFO lecture in Rochester, New York, which was sponsored by Bill and Rhoda Sherwood. That was also the first day of an extended three week European tour to renew old acquaintances and to pick up new information in exchanges of data from UFO investigations. That round trip turned out to be a most profitable one indeed in terms of new and astounding information.
Before leaving Rochester, Bill Sherwood gave me a small book which he had translated from German some years before. It was originally written in Italy in Italian. The title was "ANGELS IN STARSHIPS". He had printed up a few copies of his translation some years ago, but it did not get much outside distribution.
The reason for giving me the book had its foundation in the second purpose of my visit to Rochester, which was to interview Bill and Rhoda on their acquaintance with George Adamski, an early UFO contactee who was successfully put down by the UFO antagonists of the time, abetted by the popular UFO clubs, none of whom ever carried out any real investigation of the man or his ET contacts.
My interest and my convictions about the validity of George Adamski's UFO contacts had been growing steadily since late 1979 when Swiss journalist Lou Zinsstag had given me her original manuscript on Adamski who stayed with her on his trips to Europe. She was personally acquainted with George almost from the time he came to the attention of the press in 1953, and they corresponded and met when possible since that time. Modified parts of that manuscript were used in "GEORGE ADAMSKI, The Untold Story" by Lou Zinsstag and Timothy Good. The gold Papal medal given Adamski by Pope John XXIII is kept today in the safe in Lou's brother's jewelry store in Basel, Switzerland.
My convictions were reinforced after reading Bruce Cathie's report on Mr. Adamski following his personal investigations in March of 1979, the only recognized UFO researcher ever to go to that trouble. He published a report on his findings in the last pages of his book "THE BRIDGE TO INFINITY".
An unusual twist in the Adamski story came out of a UFO landing in England on 24 April 1965, near Scoriton, in Devonshire, where three space-beings in "light-body" got out of a bell-shaped ship and made contact with Mr. Arthur Bryant, a gardener there, and one of the ETs indicated association with the former George Adamski, who left his physical body the day
before in death
in the United States of America. That report and its investigation fills an entire book titled "THE SCORITON MYSTERY" BY Eileen Buckle.
We picked up other confirmations of the Adamski story in our loop through Europe during the next two weeks, including his private audience with the King and Queen of the Netherlands in 1959 and his private meeting with Pope John XXIII in the Vatican a few years later. We spoke to witnesses to both events and find them to be highly credible.
On our return to London the end of May we met with Benjamin Creme, who says he is a desciple of Lord Mitreya, one of the mystic masters of the Far East described in the Theosophical literature of the early 1900s, who, surprisingly added several more pieces to the puzzle. Mr. Creme told us that George Adamski was a pupil of one of his masters, and that he met Adamski, a second degree initiate, in his "light-body", before George Adamski came to world attention as a UFO contactee.
Mr. Creme affirmed that George Adamski's contacts were real and that some of them took place in dense physical reality, just as described by Adamski himself.
To a question about Adamski's contactors saying they came from Venus, Mr. Creme readily replied that such was really true. In fact he added the information that there were many Venusians among us then, and even today, and that George Adamski was a Venusian spirit who had taken incarnation here for a very specific purpose, which he had fulfilled before leaving this realm in death of the physical body. According to Creme, Adamski continued in his Venusian "light-body" after that, which does support the Scoriton story.
Mr. Creme explained that the life wave in evolution on Venus was forced up out of its dense physical level, equivalent to Earth now, by a change in natural conditions there brought on by that humanity itself. They all gave up their physical bodies in favor of higher dimensional "light-bodies" now appropriate to their new world of finer dimensional matter, where they have a form existence with landscapes, trees, plants, animals, water, clouds, atmosphere, buildings, etc., and a society appropriate to that vibrational nature of being. At the same time we see a hot, high pressure, uninhabitable surface at our density of being.
Creme said there is a human life wave in evolution on Mars too, but that they have come to exist in a vibrational realm of being somewhere between ours and that of the Venusians, but closer to the Venusians than us. He also
added that there were other inhabited bodies in our solar system as well, but no others at our same dense vibrational plane of existence.
All of this lent substantial credence to the story in this book, which is our main reason for publishing it now. Even the title is most appropriate. Benjamin Creme informed us that Lord Mitreya had told him that all the angels of all the mythologies and histories of our world were simply extraterrestrials or extradimensionals, or both, and that they have come and gone ever since humanity came into being on this planet. Any serious investigation on your part will also confirm these truths.
Wendelle C. Stevens Publisher
"When we speak of matter we are speaking of the spiritual in a lower state of manifestation, which is very necessary. A diamond could never have become a
diamond with all its brilliance without having first gone through its slimy lower stage. But all the time it was going through that stage it had within itself the potential of its purity and beauty. And matter - the slower rate of vibration - must be endowed with a certain form of intelligence to obey higher intelligence, yet there is neither higher or lower..."
George Adamski, 24 November 1951
(****)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(0) Forward by Eufenio del Buono .........................8
(1) The Being with Wings of Light .......................10
(2) The Chosen Place for the Meeting ...............11
(3) The First Meeting on the Ground ...............13
(4) The Valley of Contact ..............................15
(5) The Heavenly Being ..................................20
(6) The Mothership from the Stars ...................26
(7) A Meeting in the Midst of People .............33
(8) Explanations and Teaching ........................34
(9) A Light on the Sea ..................................39
(10) The Blessed Lady ....................................40
(11) The Sun Miracle .....................................47
(12) On Board the Starship .............................49
(13) Sojourn in Space ....................................58
(14) Prayer and Messages ...............................66
(15) On a Wonderful Planet .............................69
(16) The Last Meeting ....................................75
(17) A Gift of Rescue ....................................77
(18) Physical Evidence of My Encounter ...........79
(19) Concluding Remarks by Eufemio del Buono81
Translated from the German Edition by
William T. Sherwood
"Yes, in time the public will be educated to where the fright or the shock will not be so great as it would have been even a short time ago without the education. Remember, the public fears what it doesn't know."
George Adamski, 24 November 1951
ANGELS IN STARSHIPS
www.cosmic-people.com
When it was proposed that I meet together with Georgio Dibitonto, I readily accepted; however, I knew the basis for the invitation—to give an appraisal of the credibility of his experiences with extraterrestrials.
The meetings took place evenings in a beautiful house in the center of Rome, and the positive impression that the 'contactee' made on me accompanied me continually as I came to know him better. At first sight, we greeted one another with a hearty embrace, since, subconsciously, we immediately felt like 'brothers'. As I listened to his story, afterwards, I felt a strong sympathy for him, and a distinct impression that I had known him a long time.
Many years earlier I had a similar, spiritually moving experience, when I first encountered George Adamski, the great American contactee of Polish descent, whom I met on the occasion of a conference in the Marignoli Palace in Rome. Adamski was the 'Enoch' of the fifties, who told us about trips in spacecraft from other worlds for purposes of illumination, and gave the most exact details about their structure and function. Furthermore, he told us about the space brothers, their appearance, their habits, their manner of dress and nourishment, and their deep love for the whole of creation and for the inhabitants of Earth. Finally, he brought us a vast quantity of previously unknown scientific disclosures, and all the knowledge of higher cosmic philosophy which he had gained during his numerous trips with the brothers from the cosmos.
After a dormant period of about thirty years, which was necessary in order that men of good will could absorb that knowledge, the testimony which George Adamski had to relinquish because of his death was resumed, and this happened through Giorgio Dibitonto, the 'Enoch' of the eighties.
After unexpected visions, stirring encounters, and unforgettable trips on board extraterrestrial vehicles, he was taken to a wonderful planet where he had one of the most unusual and disturbing experiences. Georgio Dibitonto tells plainly who the revered personality Ramu really is, which Adamski concealed under an assumed name, and his high spiritual purpose. For, together with other space brothers, he has worked diligently and sacrificially from earliest times, to help the sorrowing humanity of our planet.
The author and his friends, who personally experienced some of his contacts with him, all know the difficulties many readers will have in fully accepting this book's message.
In response to the resistance shown by the press and other media toward the recognition of the existence of extraterrestrial life, we would point out the astounding parallel between today's reports of sightings and encounters, and those from ancient times, the Bible, and all through the Middle Ages up to the beginnings of astronomy and space travel. Here are a few examples! In Indian sanscript, space vehicles are generally called 'vimanas' or 'ventlas'.
Cicero, in the 43rd chapter of his "De Divinatione", writes of 'balls in the heavens'; Julius Obsequens, in "Prodigia", writes of 'flaming shields', and these descriptions occur likewise in Aschylos, Plutarch, Seneca, and Valerius Maximus. Xenophon, in the 12th chapter of his "Anabasis", designates the objects as 'bells', 'dishes', and 'shells'. The ancient chronicler Lycostenes told of 'crosses and beams in the sky'. Dio Cassius related that, at the first landing of the Romans in Great Britain under Aulus Plautus in the year 43 B.C., a round object flew like lightning from east to west.
The news journal of Old Nurnberg in 1561 wrote about 'balls, discs and tubes in the sky', which held three, four, or more balls inside of them, and were seen over the city. 'Dark globes' were seen over Basel in the Middle Ages, and similarly, there were 'airships' in the skies of the United States toward the end of the 19th century, and beginning of the 20th century. During the second world war, 'balls of light' and so-called 'foo-fighters' followed both the Allied and the German aircraft.
In some of the caves of the Camonica Valley in Italy, in Tanum, Sweden, and the highlands of Tassili, in the Sahara, and in Australia, one can find rock wall drawings of men in 'diving suits', which even today the Australian aborigines refer to as 'brothers of light'.
In the caves of Budhistan at the foot of the Himalayas, an astronomical chart was found which shows the constellations as they appeared 13,000 years ago, with the route between Earth and Venus indicated.
In St. Antonio, in the Susa Valley near Turin, there is an engraved elliptical form, from which radiate outwards other lines, in the midst of which one can detect a neat row of cup-shaped objects, approximately 5 cm. apart, as if the artist wanted to show that it pertained to a mother ship with flying discs on board.
On the 12th of August, 1883, the astronomer, Bonilla, observed, from the observatory at Zacatecas, Mexico, a great number of oval flying objects crossing the disc of the sun. As he had just been making photographs through the telescope, he was able to photograph one of the objects which had left the formation and momentarily stood still. The same observation was made simultaneously from observatories at Pueblo and Mexico City. From the trigonometric calculations made possible by these astronomical observations, it was established that the flying objects were in the vicinity of Earth.
On the 24th of April, 1874, the astronomer Schafarich observed an object of high intensity as it left the moon and quickly went off into space. The astronomer who discovered the planet Pluto, Professor Clyde Tombaugh, was sitting in the garden with his wife and mother-in-law, one summer evening a few years ago, resting from the heat of the day. Looking up, he had the good fortune, as he openly declared, to see a large space ship, whose portholes were illuminated with a bluish light. —Detailed descriptions of space ships and of experiences of being taken into them run through the accounts of Ezekiel in the Bible.
"Besides the several types of spacecraft so far observed by Earth men, there are also monstrous sized cruisers of space. None of these have yet landed on this Earth! The cruisers, according to what I have been told, are of the size of a fair sized city."
George Adamski, 16 January 1952
That afternoon I found myself at home. As I happened to raise my head, I noticed a light in the room, which grew gradually stronger and finally was much more intense than natural. In the midst of this luminosity appeared the figure of a young man of extraordinary beauty. As I studied him in utter amazement, I saw that his feet were lifted slightly off of the floor. He was barefoot, clothed in a sparkling tunic, and two bright wings. Enraptured with the beauty and majesty of his countenance, I gazed at him a long time in awe and wonder. This manifestation lasted for a considerable period of time, then finally disappeared as if a light were slowly extinguished.
In the days that followed, I could not erase from my mind the beauty of that manifestation, or the sweet feeling of peace that seemed to emanate from that light. It was as if this impression accompanied me silently wherever I went. Since my youth, I no longer believed that visions could be something real; I had always considered them to be the product of stimulated fantasy. But now I thought about the fact that the young person had appeared to me while I was in a quiet and relaxed state of mind, without any cause for excitement.
The sense of tranquillity which had accompanied that experience was such that I was able to observe very clearly all details of what had been shown to me. I couldn't comprehend it, but as I thought about the wings of that being, I said to myself repeatedly in awe and wonder, "Perhaps the angels, then, really do exist"!
One evening before Easter I had just returned home and was about to attend to my affairs as usual, when the manifestation appeared to me again, in the same place and in the same manner as before. The whole room was filled with its light, which seemed to penetrate to my very depths. The radiant beauty of this being disturbed me strangely, yet I hoped that he would not depart. Deeply moved by this appearance, I was unable to either compose my thoughts or to think of anything else.
I gathered up my courage and asked him who he was. He smiled, and in a loving voice answered, "I am Raphael". I expressed the wish to learn something more about him and he said to me, "In the holy scriptures you will find the Book of Tobias; by reading that you can become better acquainted with me. You will see me again".
He stood for a while before me, with a look both pleasant and deeply penetrating on his shining countenance. Then he disappeared, and the light that had accompanied his presence also gradually faded away.
Among my books was a Bible which included the Apocrypha. I opened it, and as if by coincidence, came upon a page from the story of Tobit. I was surprised; it was as if an unseen hand had guided me to find this passage so quickly. I began to read and soon discovered that Raphael meant 'medicine', and 'healing from God'. The archangel had once come down to Earth in human form, to accompany the young Tobias on the roads of the world. He had led him to his bride and had healed her and also Tobias' father. Finally, when they wanted to pay him with gold, the angel made himself known to them, whereupon he rose up and disappeared from their sight.
All this I kept in my heart, and cherished the hope that I would see Raphael again, as he had
I had lain down for a short rest at noontime. Just as I was falling asleep, a clear picture loomed up before my eyes. I saw a forest, its trees, underbrush, and a meadow with a path dividing it. I felt a deep peace come over me. As I was waiting for some insight into what I had just experienced, I heard the voice of Raphael saying to me, "Mark well the place! You should be able to recognize it in the future; it is the place of our meeting".
Then everything disappeared, leaving me with a feeling of calmness and inner peace. I sought to determine the manner in which the promised meeting would take place, and thought that perhaps the next manifestation of Raphael's presence might take place, not within the walls of my dwelling, but outdoors in a natural setting. That seemed to me an answer, yet I sensed that it was not all. I remembered that Raphael had said, "You will see me again". I decided to wait patiently.
On the night of April 23, 1980, the angel said to me, "In the early afternoon of the day after tomorrow, you will drive in your car to Finale Ligure. There you will learn what to do next. Greetings, in love!" Casting all doubts aside, I set out on the appointed day. The Riviera was crowded with pleasure seekers, out for a weekend holiday at the seashore.
Having arrived at Finale, I no longer had any problems, for the voice of Raphael came promptly to tell me the way.
"You must go to Calice," he said, "and from there continue on toward the mountain. There you will receive further instructions to guide you to the place of the meeting."
As I drove along the winding roads of the valley, I could not be certain whether I was proceeding from my own volition, or if a higher will was urging me on, or a curiosity stronger than all my fears, or the joyous anticipation of a meeting which I sensed might take place. The puzzle remained: I could not understand why I had been invited to go there.
Following telepathic instructions, I had turned to the right, and was now driving through another valley, which widened and narrowed in irregular fashion as I pressed forward in the late afternoon sunlight. I drove until I was told to leave my small car, a Fiat 500, and go on the rest of the way by foot. After finding a suitable spot to park my car, just off the paved road, I set off on a path leading up an incline and continued to follow the inner voice that directed me whenever I had the slightest doubt.
Ascending the slope, I was soon completely out of breath, but whether this was because I was not used to such climbs, or because of the excitement of the unknown, I could not say. My heart was in my throat. I stood still. At that moment I heard Raphael's voice saying, "Do not be afraid. Rest a little while, and then go farther. You will soon feel renewed."
I did as he said, and felt myself as if bathed in a healing stream. Thus strengthened and
refreshed, I started off once more along the footpath. The sun was now behind me, and before me was the moon. They seemed to me like heavenly companions, harbingers, perhaps, of things to come. As I hurried onwards, I kept looking up at the sky in expectation. I felt entranced.
The small path now opened into a clearing. To the left I could still see the valley, and to the right, the mountain. I recognized it as the very place I had seen in my vision! Looking more closely, I was amazed to realize how familiar it appeared to me. My excitement quickened. "Breathe deeply and keep on going," said Raphael. I obeyed, and once again felt a flood of life-giving, refreshing energy. A soft, pleasant breeze caressed my body. I felt serene and full of joy. The breeze caused a slight trembling among the leaves, and it seemed to me that all nature shared my sense of expectation.
Once more I heard the voice of Raphael, "We are very near now, coming from the direction of the sun". I had heard it very clearly, as if it came from a point in the sky behind me. I turned around and saw, in front of the sun, over the valley, a small patch of cloud, which grew in size as it moved rapidly toward me. I heard a light humming sound coming from it.
I felt afraid, but, in spite of my fears, I kept my gaze firmly fixed on the mysterious object before me. It came ever nearer, reducing its velocity all the while, and began to descend to a point about one hundred feet above me. Now I could see it quite clearly. It looked like a large silver plate, in places like molten glass mixed with molten tin. Around it were lights of different colors, and underneath were three large spheres. All my fears left me and I felt my spirits rise to new heights.
The object again moved through the sky to a point where it hovered over a group of trees. Now I could observe it better than before. On the upper part was a large dome, on whose highest point burned a dazzling white light that illuminated the disc and its surroundings completely. The dome had small round windows around it, from which a similar light shone, as if the interior was illuminated from all directions. This light was stronger, but, rather than blinding to the eyes, it seemed to evoke an overall pleasant feeling within me. By comparison, the sun seemed now to be but a pale yellow glow. I was drawn to this light as if under a spell, and felt an unaccustomed joy within me which bestowed a blessing.
From this luminous disc I heard the voice of Raphael speaking to me. "It is not the first time," he said, "that we have met with men of Earth in this manner. From everlasting, we have spoken with mankind from our space vehicles, flying discs and starships. In your holy scriptures you have read that the Lord spoke to men of Earth from out of a cloud; your present encounter is no different from that which was experienced by your forefathers throughout the ages."
My astonishment grew as I sought to comprehend the fact that this experience was one which many others on this planet had had before. Again, I heard the voice of Raphael, "Welcome from the countless dwellings of the Heavenly Father," he said. "Our worlds belong to the brotherhood of universal love. Among us, a degree of harmony and higher understanding prevails, such as is unknown to your world. Through the ages we have come to you from the heart of space to offer you help and salvation."
The place where I was seemed as if transformed, not only by the light of the flying disc, but also by the things I was being told by that great being. A feeling of boundless freedom and grandeur, such as I had never known before, overwhelmed me. It was as if the narrow limitations of my spirit had been torn away.
"We have long wished for this meeting with you," said the voice. "Our joy is great. Be assured always of our love for you and your Earth brothers. We will come again. We greet you in the
name of the Father of all."
I understood that he was also speaking for others who must have been with him inside the craft. I had wanted to ask him about so many things which were on my heart, but it seemed inappropriate, and I could not find the right words to express my thoughts.
"We will see each other soon again," said Raphael, "but then you will not be alone. Hail and farewell!"
The light which surrounded the flying disc suddenly changed color from white to violet and then a deep orange. There was a flash like lightning, in that moment I saw clearly the interior, as if it were nearby and transparent. The angel stood upright under the dome with his arms outstretched toward me. He was dressed in a garment which reached to his ankles, and there were other persons around him that I could not see clearly.
The hovering disc now became a ball of light, and I could hear a soft humming sound. Then all at once it sped away in the direction of the moon and vanished from sight in the twinkling of an eye. Over the trees a kind of mist remained behind, which gradually dissolved in the fresh mountain air.
(3)
CHAPTER 3
THE FIRST MEETING ON THE GROUND
Raphael was there, about fifty meters away from where I was standing. He was about six feet, three inches tall, and of indeterminate age. His countenance was the same as when he had appeared to me at my house. He looked just the same, and radiated the same beauty. He stood there among the olive trees and smiled at me.
I felt myself drawn to him, and I was filled with an unaccountable joy in his presence. He greeted me warmly. I told him I was overjoyed to meet him, and wanted to say much more, but was unable to, out of sheer excitement.
He bade me to remain calm and said there would be plenty of time and opportunity to clear up all the questions that lay upon my heart. I began to understand how great a sense of concern and responsibility, for the good of the Earth, filled the souls of these great beings from other worlds. I knew not what they did, but I knew with an absolute certainty that they worked for the good of mankind on Earth. Therefore, a profound sense of heartfelt gratitude dominated the feeling of excitement that had almost overcome me at that first meeting with the flying discs.
"I showed myself the first time in my light dimension," he said with a hand movement to indicate himself. "And now you see me in my cosmic form. We will help you to gain a better understanding of these realities. You will remember my telling you that the scriptures record one of my Earthly missions. Many persons believe this to be merely a fable. You, however, can testify to its reality. So many of the reported events in the Bible are seen as abstract or symbolic; nevertheless, they actually did take place, and others will yet occur in the future. If men of Earth will but open their hearts and minds, they will gain much knowledge and learn
many truths that are now hidden from them. The moment in history is coming, when your planet collectively will enter an era such as it has never before experienced in all its many thousand year history."
I noted that this great being, for all his simplicity and naturalness, possessed an inner nobility of character and a great depth of understanding of our condition. With sorrow, I reflected upon the overweening pride and arrogance of Earth dwellers, myself included. Who can tell what pains of growth lie ahead of us, before we can attain that degree of goodness and humility!
"How beautiful it is!" exclaimed Raphael, turning toward the scene before us. "Your Earth is one of the most beautiful in the cosmos. But, in spite of that, it is in danger, because of the pride and egotism of those who would risk a destruction of unimaginable proportions. Since earliest times, we have endeavored to help you, to prevent the catastrophe that you are now preparing for the Earth, and to influence you and your actions for the good. However, we can only do that in a way that provides for your own development with complete freedom. Among us there is no desire to use force over other people; we do not lust for power."
His words had an earnest tone, yet I could detect no trace of superiority or condescension, only a deeply felt sorrow, together with great love. Although I did not feel competent to converse on such a weighty topic, I gathered up my courage and asked him, "Does this mean that you would help us in the event that great calamities should befall the Earth?"
"We are all brothers," he answered, "and children of the one universal Father. Our love is unconditional toward all, including those who have chosen to follow paths that lead to misery and death because they stand in opposition to the Creator's universal laws. They do not understand that 'freedom' means to travel the paths of love in their limitless diversity. For only in this direction may true life be found. To misuse the generosity of so good a Heavenly Father is a great evil, and a challenge to that which we revere as godly."
His countenance had assumed a thoughtful expression, though the majesty of his appearance was in no way diminished. Then it again brightened to an affirming smile and he said, "There many things we wish to impart to you. We want you to realize that, in the whole creation, love is stronger than any other reality. This is the magnanimity of our Father-God. Mankind on Earth will have to understand how dangerous it is not to conform to the universal teachings given to them through His great love, and to go against the fundamental laws that govern throughout the cosmos, allowing life to come forth and be sustained. If they do not wish to learn this, then they will experience, in measure corresponding to their error, the purifying power of suffering."
All this was said with sadness and deep concern. Now he added, "But you must go now and seek shelter, for a storm is coming." At that moment, I became aware that the weather had indeed worsened and the mountains of the Tuscany Appenines were already shrouded in low-hanging clouds. It began to rain, and soon there was such a downpour that I could scarcely see my surroundings any longer.
I hastened to find shelter in a nearby chapel but it was almost in vain; my leather jacket was soaked through and through, and my hair likewise. My shoes, socks, and all my hiking gear were thoroughly drenched. It poured mercilessly, and my discomfort grew so great that I was tempted to give up the venture and to look for a dwelling where someone might supply me with a change of clothing. I felt abandoned, and fought with myself, for I was divided on whether to trust Raphael and wait at the appointed site, or seek some other way out of my predicament. I was chilled, tired, and soaking wet. In my miserable state, I turned my spirit toward my celestial visitor, with a plea that he might somehow help me, insofar as was permitted for him to do so.
Then I heard his voice answering me from above. "You are a person of weak faith," he said to me. "Within a short time the clouds will part and the sun will warm you again." The rain began to subside as though in response to his words. Gradually I could see the trees and hills more clearly.
A few minutes later, the sun blinked through the lattice-like openings of the shifting clouds, and the skies grew quickly brighter. It was as though nature had come to my rescue after a hard period of testing. Nevertheless, I was still shivering with cold, and I could not imagine how the sun, which was now close to setting, could possibly dry me off. Again I directed a plea to Raphael that I might be delivered from harm. Then I was still and waited patiently.
Before long, I saw a light coming from the direction of the sun which, as it drew closer, assumed the form of a flying disc with a dome above. It was high above the plain and moved quickly forward until it was hovering above me. Then it began to slowly descend, coming to a stop just overhead. I estimated the distance to be about seventy-five feet.
"Other brothers from Earth," said the voice, "will join you for the next meeting, and also I will have other brothers with me. Soon we shall meet again. Until then, farewell."
The glowing object then rose up high, tipped at an angle to the horizon, described an unbelievably swift trajectory through the sky, and disappeared from sight. I looked at my clothing and discovered that I was completely dry, as though not a drop of water had touched me. I felt renewed in every way.
Suddenly, there appeared high above in the blue sky three groups of flying saucers, clearly visible, undulating in motion, and oval-shaped from my perspective. They soon vanished behind the distant mountains.
It was the twenty-seventh of April, 1980, two days after my trip to Finale.
(4)
CHAPTER 4
THE VALLEY OF CONTACT
As if it were the most natural thing in the world, Tina, my betrothed, described to me the events of my recent meeting exactly as they had occurred. She explained to me that she had been together with some of her friends on the previous Sunday afternoon, when all of a sudden these things were shown to her in a clear vision. At the same time, a voice within her explained the meaning of the vision, and told her that she would be with me when the promised meeting took place. None of those who were with her at the time were aware of what was going on. A feeling of great happiness and inner peace came over her. She described to me the place where I had been, the subsequent course of events, the encounter that took place, and my great annoyance with the weather. Nothing was left out. I was overcome with amazement, and, above all, I was impressed with the swiftness with which events were unfolding. Most certainly I was happy to have a "witness" to what had happened to me.
I told Tina all about the man from space and how I had first seen him in a great light in my
home. Then, she too became interested in looking up the story of Tobias, even as I had done.
We shared our experiences with a few close friends. At night, however, I was tormented by the fear that I had not kept the secret that Raphael had wanted me to. For a long time, I tossed to and fro in bed and told myself now I had surely made a mess of things, and that perhaps Raphael would not want to have anything more to do with me. In the midst of my anxiety, Raphael again let his presence be made known to me.
"Nothing happens without purpose," he said reassuringly. "Don't be fearful. What has happened was foreseen. You will invite Tina as well as your friends to the next meeting, and you will accomplish what we then ask you to do." My fears were swallowed up in joy and consolation. In the middle of the night, I telephoned Tina, and finally fell into a deep sleep as morning dawned.
* * *
On the afternoon of May first, we were on the highway going toward Finale. When we arrived at Calice Ligure, we turned off the main road and began ascending the mountain.
At a certain time, Raphael told me that the four friends who had accompanied us should wait at a place several kilometers from the spot where the meeting would take place. I indicated to them where they should stop, and drove on farther with Tina. We came to the place where I had seen the discs the first time. Raphael asked us to continue on until we came to a very steep road. My Fiat 500 had a great deal of difficulty making the climb. It bounced all around because there was no longer an asphalt surface and the road was full of stones. We had to slow down to a snail's pace.
Now and then Raphael would say something, but we could also hear the voices of other brothers who were with him. "That is the valley of contact!" Tina exclaimed, with a shout of irrepressible joy. "I seem to hear voices everywhere." She showed not the least bit of fear, but instead only an eager desire to meet these beings from other worlds.
Just as Raphael had done with me earlier, I now cautioned her to stay calm, remain quiet, and wait patiently. We arrived at a meadow beyond which it became impossible to go farther, and there I parked the car. For the first time I became aware that the day was windy and the skies were gray. But I had no time to dwell upon that, for suddenly we heard footsteps behind us.
I turned around and saw three men coming toward us. I was afraid that Tina would become panic-stricken, but, on the contrary, she got out of the car and went toward them as if she were greeting old friends. I followed after and found myself directly facing Raphael, who was wearing a loose-fitting, silver colored space suit.
He greeted us joyfully, as did also the other two, who were dressed more or less the same way as Raphael, except that their space suits were tighter fitting and darker in color. They were of normal size, and their beautiful features expressed great beneficence and an inner depth of spirit.
They introduced themselves, and said that their names were pseudonyms that were given to them by an Earth brother, George Adamski, who had met them some years ago.
"I am Orthon," said the larger of the two. "My name is Firkon," said the other.
Raphael took me gently by the arm and led me to a small overlook. There he sat down on the grass, and I sat down beside him. The other two space brothers remained a short distance away from us and talked with Tina. I could see their hair moving in the wind, and also Tina's long hair, and her clothing. Great clouds scudded across the darkening skies. Raphael and the others seemed to pay them little heed.
"I, too, was given a pseudonym," said Raphael. "I was named Ramu, but it is well that it should now be known who I really am. What Earth brothers must know is the role that the Heavenly Father has entrusted to us from the dawn of time, in order that their salvation on this planet might be brought about."
I was impressed with the magnanimity and simplicity that radiated from this person. A perfect balance was manifest in all his actions; wisdom and knowledge in all his thoughts. His amiability was sincere and natural.
"The brothers who are waiting below," he added, referring to our four companions who had accompanied us to the foot of the mountain, "will receive adequate reassurance that our meeting took place."
He spoke in perfect Italian, without any trace of an accent. I knew that he need not speak in order to communicate, but it pleased me greatly that he did so, as this made him seem more like one of us.
"The message which we give you," he said, "is for all men of good will on earth. This will be costly for you, for not everyone will believe you, understand you and love you. But we will stand by you and help you. It is an undertaking of love and salvation."
I had no doubt of the kindness and sincerity of his words, although the full import of all he said escaped me. I felt it was right to be concerned with love and salvation, and wanted to do all that I could for the good of others, whatever that might necessitate.
"We wanted to meet with you up here in the mountains, far from the physical and spiritual pollution of the city, in order to tell you that we are now beginning to become manifest to an ever increasing number of Earth people. Some see us only as a lightning-fast streak crossing the heavens; others see lights or signs, or have dreams or visions. To a few we show ourselves, as is now your experience. The result is that the news of our presence and mission is gradually made known to those who have not seen us. There is not much time to lose. If mankind does not see the folly of his behavior, then it is certain that very difficult times lie ahead. This was foreseen in the Scriptures, and some people know this to be true; unfortunately, most people do not believe it, thinking that what was written was only a fable."
He was silent and thoughtful for a while, and then resumed, "Today there is a strong wind blowing, but soon there will arise from the four corners of the Earth a much stormier wind that will sweep all clouds before it. The confusion that reigns over Earth today serves to convince but a few persons that all the prophecies which we have given mankind to lead them toward a better life are about to be fulfilled. They have been ridiculed, misunderstood, despised, and even repudiated. And yet, their words have always been fulfilled."
"So much sorrow," he added, with a sigh, "sorrow that Earth brothers could be spared if they could set aside their pride and their reliance on destructive force. If you would renounce the use of evil to fight evil, then your way would be shortened, and you would make enormous strides toward the good."
of our planet that Raphael had been speaking about. Now he looked me directly in the eyes and said, "If you do not become simple and good, and if the spirit of pride and power which is so dominant among you is not conquered, you cannot gain the true knowledge which a proper development allows. It is important that each individual open his heart and mind to an understanding of these truths. Many would deny this, out of insolence and arrogance. By their attitude they make it impossible to allow themselves to be released from spiritual bondage."
I expressed my doubts about the possibility of being able to persuade people to accept such a message from the space brothers, and to change their ways.
"All of this has been said many times before to the people of this planet," said Raphael in answer to my protests, "but it is necessary to speak the truth loudly and clearly in order that those that are ready to hear it can receive it and do likewise. For those who will not believe and accept it, there are other ways of learning, which are all a part of the Heavenly Father's work, and still other, more difficult lessons to follow, in order that no one might be lost or sacrificed to evil. Many of us have come down to Earth since the earliest days, and sometimes have been born in earthly bodies in order to fulfill some particularly difficult assignment, and to confront evil directly. One must first save oneself, before one can carry out the work for which one was born on Earth."
I was astounded at what I had just learned. "Tell me," I asked him, "do people come to Earth from the higher worlds in order to learn how to become good, or to help those who must learn? For it is as if one went into the trenches; first, one must take care not to lose his own life, and then one can fight the enemy, in order to help save one's comrades-in-arms."
"Yes," said Raphael, "but in this battle the weapons are love and wisdom, which require God's grace and patience, and the confidence that the Father's plan of salvation, which is set forth in the Holy Scriptures, will be perfectly fulfilled, in spite of the growing disbelief of mankind. God is called Lord of Hosts. The Bible tells you of a battle between the heavenly hosts and the powers of evil. It is good that the Hosts of the Lord are always present, working diligently for the triumph of the good on Earth,—an invited army in a 'battle' of love and salvation against evil. Our numbers grow ever larger now in this time of our coming to Earth for this great mission. We are many."
"And are they all aware that they are here on mission?" I asked. "Many are not," he answered, "for a veil of forgetting comes over their, so that they have no clear memory of their past. This forgetting is necessary, in order that the lifetime they spend on the planet is not too difficult for them to bear. But afterwards, any soul that belongs to Universal Love and has completed his time on Earth has full knowledge of who he is, what his work was, and the never failing help we gave him from cur side."
I asked, "Does the Scripture speak of this also?"
"Certainly," replied Raphael. "The book of Genesis relates that the sons of God were born on Earth to bring healing to the society of that time, which was already full of evil, and took unto themselves wives from daughters of men of Earth that pleased them. Great efforts toward purification were made in those days in order that the good might gain the upper hand over evil."
This remarkable being was telling me things which I could not possibly fully understand at that time. But I knew that they would stay with me in my thoughts and in my heart. Now, more than ever, I was sure of his goodness and understanding. I was silent and thought about all the things he had told me.
"You will ask," Raphael resumed, "why we don't show ourselves to the inhabitants of Earth openly, or do something great or unusual in order that the truth might be made known to all, that everyone's eyes might be opened, once and for all. These are questions asked by a great many Earth people, at least since the time that Earth became a planet in need of rescue. I tell you now what has already been said and demonstrated to you before: This is not possible, as long as the brothers of Earth will not open their hearts to the Heavenly Father in humility and love. We work for your highest good, and we discern things which escape your error-blinded judgment. We understand when to take action and when to wait.
In other epochs, when things stood differently than they do today, we showed ourselves and led mankind quite openly. However, we cannot use coercion against the gift of free will, which God the Father has given to all his children, and we can state with certainty that the strength of your determination to probe the limits of rebelliousness will bring you even worse troubles than you have already experienced in the days to come.
Throughout the cosmos, it is not permissible for higher developed brothers to violate the freedom of those who still have a long way to go in their own development. So much that is bad can best be fought against after its devastating effect has been experienced by the people themselves, as a consequence of their hardness of heart. This is not because the good has no power to solve problems; on the contrary, it is the shorter way, and the way blessed by the Father."
Raphael stood up, and I did also. "Now we must part," he said.
Tina and the two space brothers, with whom she had been conversing, came over to us.
"We work by every means that we can," said Raphael, "in order that the good will eventually blossom on the Earth. This necessitates on our side a choice of action, always in harmony with the universal laws which are the Heavenly Father's will. Many times these are scarcely understandable to you, because you follow a logic of human might which is opposed to universal love. As a consequence of the limitation of your human understanding, you err when you judge us. Therefore it has been said and written, 'Judge not.' And yet you do pass judgment on God, on us, and on your brothers. Your judgment is in measure to your own prejudice. When you have arrived at a true understanding, the error of having been judgmental will be revealed to you. For in love lies the true understanding. The planet Earth has less love than the air which the inhabitants breathe."
The wind began to storm again and cause everything to tremble. I thought, when such a kind and amiable brother shows so much concern over conditions on this planet, the situation must be even worse than I, in my ignorance, imagined it to be. We bade one another a loving farewell. Raphael assured us that we would see each other again before long.
They made their way to their craft, which was hidden amidst protective foliage. I had the impulse to follow them. Raphael turned around, and without moving his lips said to me, "not yet. The time will come when you may board our spacecraft, but not at present."
For a moment I stood still. Then, once more, I wanted to go on, but a force held me back so that I had to give up the attempt. Tina waved goodbye, and the brothers turned and again signaled a friendly farewell. Then we saw the disc rise up over the green countryside in a tremendous burst of velocity. It ascended to the clouds in an instant, and disappeared in their midst.
When we arrived at the place in the valley below, where our friends were waiting for us, they told us they had seen the flying discs, and they repeated to us certain parts of the conversation that we had had with the brothers, which they had received telepathically. In a
relaxed and happy mood, we turned again homeward, stopping for the evening at a little guest house in Finalboro. We talked about our encounter for many hours before finally going to bed that night.
The next day we set out on the return journey to Genoa.
(5)
CHAPTER 5
THE HEAVENLY BEING
Raphael spoke to us many times after that meeting, sometimes in the middle of the night, sometimes during the day. He told us that that method of getting in touch with us was called "cosmic contact," and that by properly directing our thoughts we could be in communication with him any time that we wanted to, in the future.
He also gave us a few rules of caution: whenever we wanted to be in cosmic contact, we should first ask the archangel Michael for his protection.
"Call upon Michael," he said, "and you will have nothing more to fear!" And that is exactly what we did.
One evening, just before going to bed, Raphael said to me, "Let yourself fall into a deep refreshing slumber. You are going to have another visit soon."
I lay very still, thinking about what he had said. I thought about the great gift which I had been vouchsafed, namely, to be in contact with the brothers. I knew that every soul on Earth could speak by means of his mind and spirit to other souls throughout the universe. I became aware that no one in the cosmos is alone, and that the brothers never abandon those who live under the difficult conditions of our planet Earth. They follow, help, and work for the good of those who allow themselves to be helped and guided. Sometimes they do this quite openly, at other times they merely give evidence of their activity, and on still other occasions their help is given in secret ways so that no one is aware of it at all.
I recalled the advice Raphael had given me and stayed as quiet and relaxed as possible. The hours went swiftly by and sleep almost overtook me, yet nothing happened. Then I thought, perhaps the promised visit would come in the form of a dream. Raphael had, in fact, told me that dreams are some times the participation in the life of another cosmic or spiritual dimension within us, and that our seemingly disconnected and senseless dreams may not in reality be that at all.
Now I knew that the brothers from higher worlds revealed themselves to us also in dreams, thus conveying to us real messages singularly appropriate to our need. Moreover, the scriptures are replete with instances in which the Lord God makes known His will to man by means of a dream. Under such circumstances, one is actually far more sensitive than in the conscious state, to the reception of promptings and warnings from above.
I thought about these things and became quite convinced that this would be the way my visitor would come. But just then I caught a glimpse of a soft, many-colored flash of light.
Looking more closely, I noted that it seemed to pulse with life. It was as if the hand of some great artist was drawing, in lines of light, the face and form of a man about thirty years of age.
When this masterwork was complete, there before my eyes was the figure of a man of exceptional grace and beauty. I was completely entranced. He was clothed in a white tunic, with a braided cord about the waist. His countenance was lovely beyond description. His brow and all the lines of his face possessed a harmony and peaceful majesty such as I could scarcely before have imagined. He had blue eyes and chestnut brown hair, which fell to his shoulders. A good-looking beard completed this image of light.
This heavenly being radiated a secret deep life-force and an infinite grace, which gave peace. I felt in him an absolutely pure love, and, in his presence, this gradually permeated my whole being.
He came closer to me, with an expression of perfect amiability in his gentle smile. My soul felt completely overpowered, and yet it could recognize its true self in him. In his fine, noble face I saw myself, and I felt within myself the pure, all-consuming love that streamed forth from this being. The feeling of exaltation that I experienced is impossible to describe; I was in a state of perfect inner purification and spiritual wholeness. This luminous presence penetrated every cell of my body, and his radiant beauty evoked a deep sense of peace and longing for goodness and love.
The vision receded, but it left within me a feeling of indescribable joy. I wanted desperately to know who it was that had visited me. One name rang within me like a sweet melody, but I did not dare to presume it was right. Then came the voice of Raphael: "You will see him again, but in a different guise," he said, and to that he would not add another word.
I spoke with Tina about it. We knew that another meeting with the brothers was supposed to take place on the following Sunday. Our instructions were to start out on the expressway in the direction of Rapallo. We told our friends about it and they said they would be happy to accompany us. Their unfailing and enthusiastic support seemed to me a further gift from the brothers, who by now had become a very real part of our daily lives.
We left the autos at a place in the foothills near Zoagli. Paulo, Anna, Gianna and Roberto remained behind in a meadow. Tina and I went on farther by foot, since the road was no longer passable beyond that point. We climbed the upward sloping path, happy as two children setting out on a vacation together. In spite of the misty weather and cool air, we were perspiring because of the effort of the climb. We noted that that year, 1980, was having more than a normal amount of inclement weather.
We continued on around the hillside until, suddenly, we found ourselves standing before a valley with steeply sloping sides. In the distance we could see the sea and a good stretch of coastline. We decided to sit down and rest awhile, in order to catch our breath. The grass was wet and it looked as though it might rain again at any time.
We put up the umbrella that we had brought with us and began once more to climb. We had gone only a few steps when our attention was caught by a soft, low-pitched humming sound. We looked up and saw a large disc circling high above us as if searching for a place to land.
The agility with which the flying object moved was truly remarkable. It had no burning lights, and seemed to be dark silver in color. We felt oppressed, as though our whole bodies might be crushed. Tina cried out, "Raphael, what is the matter?" I tried, by means of cosmic contact, to ascertain just why we had this strong feeling of pressure, which by now was causing us no small amount of anxiety. The stifling feeling grew more intense. Then the disc withdrew into the distance, and immediately we began to feel well again.
The voice of Raphael spoke to us, "We wanted to let you experience this sensation of pressure, in order that you might better understand how you must undergo a certain amount of purification and reorientation of your life energies with each new meeting with us. Your planet is in an impure state because the heart of man is impure. The Earth is out of harmony, and disintegrating vibrations, like the scourges that lash her sorrowing multitudes, create ever-widening zones on the planet where the life energies are undermined. One day you will comprehend the reality of these conditions which are beyond the grasp of your limited science. Those few who have begun to realize the true situation are misunderstood and left alone."
I heard what Raphael was saying to us and was fearful, lest the sensation of stifling oppression overtake us again.
"Now we are going," came the voice of Raphael from the disc. "Follow the path. We will meet again farther up."
Because of the rain and the mud, we continued the climb with considerable difficulty. The wet grass was slippery, and we grasped at the lush growth to pull ourselves forward. At last, we came to a broader footpath that led to a little meadow. We had scarcely arrived when we saw the disc, standing there on the ground just a few dozen meters from us. I was surprised to see that it seemed level in spite of the sloping ground on which it rested. This was apparently accomplished by varying the lengths of the supporting members between the disc and the three-ball landing gear, thus maintaining perfect balance.
"How wonderful!" Tina cried out.
Between us and the disc, a few meters distant, stood Raphael. The rain had noticeably decreased, but this man from space did not seem to be the least wet. He greeted us heartily and came closer.
"It is good to be able to meet with you up here," he said. "What a beautiful spot on planet Earth this is!"
Tina called our space farer's attention to the fact that our visits almost always seemed to take place in the rain.
"That won't always be the case," answered Raphael, "but the Earth must be cleansed. Much water will yet have to flow, and not that alone."
Tina then said that she was really very happy, and that the rain seemed to be quite a normal part of our meetings; that she understood the idea of a needed cleansing very well, which this indispensable natural element illustrated so perfectly.
Raphael invited us to listen closely to the voice of the rain. He said that mankind was more and more losing its sense of oneness with nature. "To regain this perspective," he continued, "would be the key to being healed of many of the evils that now plague mankind."
We stood in silence. Only the whispered patter of raindrops falling on leaves and grass could be heard. Yet, in the drenched surroundings and the gray atmosphere, there was a quality of vibrant life because of the presence of this being.
"If the people of Earth do not return to a state of peace with creation, and do not learn to relate harmoniously with nature, she will not reveal her heart to them. They will not be able to develop further, in spite of all their scientific discoveries."
"True knowledge, which the higher development of the Creator's children brings with it, includes the reality of the infinitude of worlds within the universe, which reaches far beyond the realm of only material dimensions. Your science, which researches matter only, and does not concern itself at all with that which goes beyond it, can lead you only to a knowledge of the superficialities of creation, with the great danger that the most important part will be overlooked. This is the reason why your achievements are constantly misapplied."
By this time the rain had ceased falling and we had again put down our umbrella. Raphael was leaning lightly against a tree, and every so often he would sweep the scene with a look of keen intensity, as if in wonder at the blossoming plant life all around us. We suspected that our meeting might be drawing to a close.
Raphael invited us to come with him a little way in the direction toward the spot where the disc was resting on the ground. "Your science," he continued, "must learn to recognize its limitations. Matter cannot be master over matter. When man is awakened to the fact that true knowledge comes in other ways as well, science will also be a help on the chosen path. So, as you now are, and wish to remain, we will never be able to give you higher knowledge. You would want to use it for your purposes of human power, and therefore in dangerous ways. To that end you are even prepared to bring about disorder and pollution in the region of space surrounding the Earth. You will find us vigilant, however, for it will not be permitted that you should unleash death and destruction over the whole planet."
We walked slowly together across the meadow. Raphael, tall and majestic, was between Tina and me. His step was light and sure; his shoes seemed to be made of a material that was copper-colored and as light as a feather. He wore a fairly tight-fitting space suit, also of a coppery tone. "You belong to the brotherhood of universal love," I said. "What, then, is the meaning of your statement that you would not allow dangerous Earthman to expand his activity unchecked into outer space?"
"Our methods are peaceful," he answered. "If you nevertheless insist on going ahead with your war plans or make false peace proposals behind which you hide other intentions, you will not succeed, for we will not allow it. First, you must learn the way of goodness, of universal justice and of love. Only after that can you do as you please."
"If I understand you correctly," I responded, "this means that you would never use force to deny earthman access to outer space, but you would in some manner make it impossible for him to violate the purity of outer space by means of the nuclear bomb and other polluting devices which may be sent out from the earth."
"Right," he answered. "And that is also according to the universal law of God our Father."
He paused for a while and then went on to say that we would find in our scriptures that the children who were rebellious against the Universal Father's love were given a certain boundary beyond which they were not permitted to pass. Only for the righteous, the children of good will, does the Father set no boundaries on the paths by which His children come to Him. "The planets of the whole cosmos," he said quietly, "belong to universal love. They feel bound to one another in a competition of love and cooperative service. Every brother feels like a brother because he is the child of a Father-Creator. Knowledge does not mean 'might,' as with you, but more cooperativeness, more humility, more loving kindness. Love means giving, without asking anything in return. Receiving is included in the idea of love, but it is not the reason that motivates us to love one another. On Earth one misuses knowledge to rule over a brother. All too often one who stands higher up promotes injustice, and forgets what it is like to stand down below. The only might that we recognize is the beneficent power of the Heavenly Father. The only true power is that which springs from love. True knowledge and responsibility lie in service, good will, humility, and simplicity, in view of the immeasurable
grandeur of the universe."
Tina responded with a commentary on how far we Earth dwellers were from realizing such a single and wonderful existence. She said that what Raphael had been telling us about life on those planets that belong to universal love was the dream of so many Earth dwellers who long for peace and justice.
"Many of Earth's people," Raphael observed, "pay no attention to the universal laws of creation, nor do they accept them. Others have perverted these truths, and complicated them in ways corresponding to the hardness of their minds, teaching the people to take on burdens which they could not themselves carry. This too has been spoken and written about. Thus, many Earth brothers do not obey the divine laws because they are true rebels, and others, because they do not believe them to be genuine and just. Bad teachers of the laws therefore have much to answer for with respect to their own brothers. The scriptures are very strict with such persons."
I said, in response, that I seemed to recall that some of the truths which he mentioned were taught to us by Jesus of Nazareth almost two thousand years ago.
"If you report these, my words, to your Earth brothers," said Raphael, "you will find a few who say that all this is just a fairy tale. Others will say to you that, since the same message was given two thousand years ago, they see no necessity to repeat it now. They will say there is no need to reveal these truths because they are already so familiar to them. To such persons, one can only say, 'Hats off!' If Earthman had really learned these teachings and translated them into actual practice, we would not be here today to bring you this warning. But we have other words for you as well, other things about which we wish to speak. Let your spirits not be too troubled, for many are waiting to hear our words, and will rejoice in them."
We stopped momentarily beside a very unusual bush. Raphael stroked it while he spoke, and treated it with the respect one might have for another human being. Tina had again put up the umbrella, since it had begun sprinkling once more. Raphael paid no attention to the water falling on his head. His hair stayed dry, and that made me believe he was being helped by some unusual form of energy.
"The earth," began Raphael, as he tenderly touched the flowering bush, "was the Garden of Eden, which is spoken of in the scriptures. Eden is the whole cosmos, which has remained true to the love of the Creator-Father. There came a time when the people of Earth wanted to eat of the knowledge of good and evil. This was forbidden, since it would bring harm to that which had been created. The Father had given His warning. Mankind, however, did not wish to believe that warning, and so began to experiment with living after its own desires, and with that, the cycle of our present time was begun. You, who had eaten the limitless fruits of universal love, wanted to enjoy one single fruit, namely to try the pitiable way of wrongdoing. Moreover, you said the way of universal love was monotonous and tedious, and thus traduced the story of God's divine creation. Man began to put the bad in the place of the good, selfishness in the place of love, war in the place of peace, and decadence in the place of progress. He went astray, and for that he also gave the Father the blame, who, in His love, has given all His children the wonderful gift of free will. So the word was fulfilled, which stated, 'If you eat of this forbidden fruit, you will surely die!'
An expression of great seriousness came over the face of this brother from the universe, reflecting his profound inner anguish, and this touched me to the depths. Tina looked at him with an expression of anticipation. There was something about his radiant countenance that awakened within me a feeling of hope. His cheerful tranquility, and the warmth and loving kindness in his look gave promise of a way of salvation.
"How will it be possible," asked Tina, "to overcome a condition that has already existed on Earth for many thousands of years?"
"It has all been written," said Raphael, as he resumed walking. "Everything that might eventuate from the freedom of choice of Earthman was foreseen, and his salvation was provided for through a great plan of love, corresponding to the justice and goodness of universal law. Rebellious man will never be abandoned; rather, he will be given support? he will be led, he will be chastened and comforted. There will come a time when the One to whom is given power in Heaven and on Earth will come with His own, and then the rule of evil will be ended, as has been ordained. God the Father will know how best to deal with those who are not yet ready for salvation. We will then not be able to do anything further. We will carry out the new plan of the Father, which He has carefully prepared, but for those concerned, there will be great sorrow and anguish that they did not understand how to make use of such a great opportunity of being rescued."
He was silent for a while. Then he added, "We are the cherubim of the scriptures. We were appointed by God Himself to be Guardians of Eden. Never will we allow Earthman to have access to the unspoiled Eden-world, as long as he has not changed from the spirit of the power of the bad, back to the spirit of universal love. Travel to the space of other worlds is denied you through the justice of universal law. First, you must totally renounce the bad. Then the Earth will again be the Garden of Eden, and the people of Earth will be accepted by the universal brotherhood. This great hindrance will be removed, and we will return and be able to move freely again about the Earth, and you about our dwelling places, as it was before the rebellion."
Tina smiled and said she wished that day would soon come. Raphael read my thoughts and repeated what he had already told us. "We," he said with emphasis, "will never resort to the use of force. Force always brings on more force, hatred brings hatred, and death brings death. Our weapons are love, discretion, wisdom and patience. We are, nevertheless, far more effective in accomplishment than you could possibly imagine. We will not allow evil to take root in the cosmos, where harmony, love, and the life-force reign. From the earliest times we have renounced the allurement of evil. Being a creature with finite limitations brings with it the obligation to trust the Creator, who has given us freedom and dignity. We love His laws, and know that His love opens the way to everlasting life. It is foolish not to want to give up a little, and thereby to miss out on so much happiness. We love God, our Father, because He loves us. He loves us unconditionally, and we do likewise, for this is the proper response. Soon your planet will comprehend this too, and the long awaited day will dawn for you. I tell you truly, it will be soon."
We came to the place where the disc was.
"That means," Raphael concluded, "that the cherubim will soon be among you. Earth will again be a planet of universal love, and no longer in the power of evil. We will take you with us in space and you will visit other worlds in your space ships. You will seek out the many mansions of the Father's house, and the new age of love will put an end to the many thousand year history of war, death and tribulation."
Here the meeting ended. Raphael bade us farewell and made his way toward the space craft, which was now in sight. We would have liked to inspect it more closely. Raphael turned and said that he was sorry that he could not grant our wish at this time.
Through the portholes we could see the faces of two beautiful beings within the disc. We greeted them with a wave of the hand and they returned our greeting. The door closed silently after Raphael. Then the white light came on at the top of the dome. We heard a low humming sound, and saw the three-ball landing gear retract into the craft, which now hovered
with a gentle rocking motion in the air.
There was a rustle of leafy boughs, and the shrubs bent low as if pressed by a sudden gust of wind. We experienced a slight pressure in our eardrums, and the disc lifted straight upwards, then turned in flight, and disappeared quickly in the clouds above.
(6)
CHAPTER 6
THE MOTHERSHIP FROM THE STARS
We drove through Sportono; at the western edge of the village, after crossing a bridge over the highway, we started up the steeply inclined road before us. There was a tang of freshness in the air, such as is known to all who travel the countryside at this beautiful time of the year. We drove for several kilometers amidst pines and shrubs, green with the touch of nature in springtime.
Meanwhile, the night was falling rapidly. The mountain tops were only faintly visible in the soft glow of the evening sky. The clouds disappeared and stars took their places in the heavens. The air smelled fresh and clean, washed by the recent rains.
I brought our friends' car to a halt at a convenient spot and told them to wait there, in accordance with the instructions we had been given. Then Tina and I drove on farther.
We drove for a short distance under the trees, away from the main road, then parked the car and went on by foot. Since it was now dark, we had to light our way by means of a flashlight which we had brought with us. Tina said to me that if it had not been for the brothers, she would never have ventured forth to such an out of the way place at night. She found the going very difficult, since her shoes were unsuitable for such conditions, and we held each other's hands for support as we tried to avoid the puddles and the mire.
After we had gone on like this for quite a long while, we began to be aware of voices. We stopped immediately in order to listen more closely. We could hear the voices of both men and women.
"It is they," said Tina. "I am sure of it. They are already here."
I was almost sure that it was they, but, since I was not receiving mental confirmation of that by 'cosmic contact', I thought it wisest to proceed with caution. I asked Tina not to speak loudly, and to go very slowly. She, however, was full of joy and showed no fear whatsoever.
We came to a long row of bushes that formed a natural hedgerow bordering a large level area, which remained hidden from view. We went along it to the end, where we came upon a rather large meadow. Now and then the call of a night bird pierced the stillness.
The air had become noticeably fresher, so that we were glad to be able to don the pullovers which we had brought with us. With the aid of our flashlight, we looked over the clearing before us as best we could. It was uncultivated, and divided down the middle by a strip of tall grass, the two halves of the field being on different levels. We pressed on through the wet
"I sense that they are here," Tina repeated. "I feel certain that they are nearby."
I insisted that she be quiet, nevertheless, and decided we should wait there where we were. Meanwhile, we sat down on a large flat stone that seemed reasonably dry, and waited patiently for some sign of their presence. Then came the voice of Raphael. It was clear, and nearby. "We are already on the ground," he said, "quite close to where you are."
Tina was jubilant, and said again she had felt it unmistakably. We turned off our flashlight, and Tina pointed to something barely visible at the end of the meadow, where the terrain rose to a higher level. (3)
There, where the dark border of the trees could just be distinguished, a light appeared, which gradually grew brighter and brighter. The outline of a large cigar-shaped object resting on the ground began to be clearly discernible amidst the darkness.
"Oh, how wonderful!" exclaimed Tina repeatedly. We were beside ourselves with amazement, and utterly astonished at the sight before our eyes.
The light grew in intensity, and now we could see the thing quite clearly. It was dozens of meters (perhaps 100 to 120) long, and, at its thickest girth reached almost to the height of the trees behind it. A long row of round portholes emitted colored lights that lit up the area where the object was resting. After a few minutes, the whole thing looked as colorful and brightly illuminated as a ship starting out on an ocean voyage. We were spellbound as we watched the play of colored light that now seemed to come from all sides, as if from fountains, whose sources we could not determine. Tina pulled my arm and wanted us to go immediately to the giant space ship.
"Let us wait," I said. "They will surely say something to us soon." We felt the same great joyousness within us that we had felt on the occasion of all the previous meetings. So impressive was this great vehicle from space, that the light-flooded meadow was no longer recognizable? it was as if one had been transported to a new and awesome world.
The glow of the cigar-shaped form grew even brighter, and then, before our eyes, began a play of light from the round windows which was truly a festival of luminous beauty. The rhythmically dancing beams of colored light touched our innermost being with a poignancy impossible to describe. Then, from one end of this ray-ship came, one after another, four flying discs, so brightly shining as to appear more like globes of white light. They hovered, and gently set themselves down on the open place in the meadow between us and the big 'cigar'.
The four small doors opened, and out came men and women. I recognized the form of Raphael, and my heart leapt for joy, so that it seemed caught in my throat. Tina waved a greeting. They came right toward us. Their bodies seemed enveloped in a phosphorescent glow. Raphael was the first to reach us, and the others followed.
"Welcome to this place of meeting", he said graciously; "tonight you will meet other brothers and sisters who work together on this mission".
We greeted Raphael, and with him, Orthon and Firkon, whom we had already met. Orthon was distinguished by his erect bearing and noble demeanor. Firkon again displayed that heartiness of manner which had so impressed us before. We shook hands all around. Their looks bespoke sincerity and good will; their gestures, an unpretentiousness that was calming and reassuring.
Then another brother was introduced to us. He was dark-haired. He impressed us as one whose talents were along practical lines. He was no less handsome in appearance than the others, and his behavior was marked by that same harmonious calmness. "This is our brother, Zuhl," said Raphael, by way of introduction. "He is greatly valued for his knowledge and ability."
Then another man was introduced to us, who impressed us immediately with his kindliness and amiability. He smiled like one who had much to say, but would not speak. "His name is George," said Raphael, nodding in my direction, "the same as yours. This, our brother, lived for a while on Earth, where he chose to come on an assignment. Now he has returned to us." We greeted one another with a warm handclasp. Then four young women came up to us. We were struck by their gracious charm. The smallest one had blue eyes and light blond hair.
"I am Kalna," she said, "and I am happy to be here with you."
"I am Ilmuth," said the second, as she warmly extended her hand. "This meeting brings me great joy." She was taller than Kalna, and her hair, as black as ebony, fell freely over her shoulders. Her dark eyes looked at us penetratingly. She was beautiful, but along with that, modest and unpretentious, as one could tell by her manner, and by her words, as she spoke to us.
Then two more young women were introduced to us, and they were dark complexioned. We were not told their names. They, too, were a clear example of other-worldly beauty, and of amiability, grace and goodness. The men and women were all wearing space suits with rather full sleeves and trousers. From all, there seemed to radiate a soft glow.
"This is a very unusual meeting," said Raphael, in his deep melodious voice. "It is important that you become acquainted with the brothers who are entrusted with this mission. There are many who are concerned about you. You will meet all of us eventually, but not at this time."
A subtle, pleasant, fragrance filled the air. "What a strange, sweet aroma!" Tina exclaimed. "It seems to be not of this Earth." I assured her that I, too, had never before experienced so clean and fresh a scent in the air.
The brothers smiled. In their presence, we soon felt a sense of trust and intimacy, such as would have been impossible to achieve in so short a time among Earth people.
Orthon looked at Tina with such benevolence, and spoke so tenderly to her that she was moved to tears. We all sat down in a circle in the grass, without paying any attention at all to the dampness.
"We won't allow you to become sick because of it," Raphael said good humoredly. "Just make yourselves comfortable."
The air seemed milder now, as if warmed by the light energy, and that made our hearts glad. A deep sense of peace left us feeling at one with nature. The space craft were like living onlookers.
"The inhabitants of planet Earth," began Raphael, sitting relaxed in the center of the group, his legs lightly crossed, "are ready to spend enormous sums of money to join us in space. And yet, we are already everywhere on Earth. We are among you, both visibly, as you see us now, and also in ways unknown to you. Many know of our existence and our presence, yet deny any knowledge of us. Many of those who have seen us insist that we behave in a strange and senseless manner, yes, even that we appear to act contemptuously toward them. Yet they don't want to take that small step that would lead to an understanding of the
whole picture and answer your longing to know the 'whence, where and whither?"
There followed a period of silence. I rejoiced inwardly over this amazing meeting with these 'pilgrims of the light,' in the stillness of the night. I remembered the words that Raphael had spoken at our meeting at Zoagli, and in my mind compared them with what he was now saying. I was convinced that the Garden of Eden had been desecrated beyond recognition by mankind who had rebelled against the Creator-Father's love. Just being in the presence of these brothers enabled me to sense and to comprehend so many things. I wished that this night could continue without ever ending.
"Some people," Raphael began again, "ask themselves whether we exist at all, and they think, 'If the extraterrestrials really exist, why then do they not show themselves to, and cooperate with, us in an open manner?' However, many people of Earth know very well that we do exist, and that we do not share their egotistic outlook or warlike tendency. In reality, they would like to have us in their power, in order to gain knowledge from us which would give them greater opportunities for power and domination. That is the reason why we must act in such a way as to avoid this danger, and why we are waiting for the time when it will be possible to bring knowledge to Earth brothers from the children of God, in conformance with universal law."
The man with my name looked at me with love and compassion. My feeling toward him was one of gratitude and awe. Now and then we heard the voice of a nightingale in the woods nearby. In the still of the night, we stood entranced by the beauty of his song. A fresh aroma permeated the air.
Raphael said, "Soon the Earth will once more be like the Garden of Eden. But before her people can be really happy, they will experience much hardship and suffering, as a result of their stubbornness and hardness of heart. In the end, however, that love which dwells within each one of you will gain the upper hand over all your malicious impulses."
Nov Firkon entered into the conversation. His voice was friendly, and he spoke with animation: "In the Bible, one may read how the Hebrews made a great journey, which led them out of captivity. Very well, that is also our message for these days: the people of Earth should prepare themselves for a new journey, one that has no equal in all your history. No single event, that ever yet happened on Earth, can compare with that which stands before you now. In order to understand that, one must note the signs which will accompany this journey, according to the text. Clouds and pillars of fire, which today you would call flying saucers and motherships, were seen over the leaders of the Hebrews who fled from Egypt. Exactly the same signs and realities portend in these days a new and final journey, which will lead you out of your present misery, into the true promised land of universal love. It is most important that all people understand this. The time is short."
Even if I had not been thoroughly familiar with the story of the Exodus, in the Old Testament, Firkon's explanation would have been easy to comprehend.
"We will accompany you," said Ilmuth in her beautiful, earnest voice, "as we did in those days, and our presence will be much more in evidence this time. We will lead you to the Garden of Eden. The path lies before us now, for already the ten plagues of the planet stand ready to work their harm, as decreed by those spirits who are mighty in doing evil. You will travel through a wilderness, in comparison to which the one that the Hebrews overcame would seem like an oasis. But we will be over you as before, only more visibly, to aid and comfort you. We will help you in every way that we can. We will be pillars of cloud by day, and pillars of fire by night. We will never leave you alone, and you will be protected as no other creatures on your planet have been protected before. For the forces of desolation on Earth will be mighty indeed."
Now Kalna began to speak, and her charming voice was accompanied by the persistent song of a nightingale in the background. "The Hebrews," she said, "were led by a great universal brother, who was born here in order to fulfill this important mission. His name was Moses. You will be led by a new Hoses whom we all love and admire greatly. He will lead all the people on this new exodus, like a good brother or father. All who trust in him and want to have him as their leader, will arrive at that goal that has been already chosen. No one will be abandoned, if he does not wish to be. The message that we bring to you from the universe is one of hope and salvation, during this time when dark clouds are gathering on the horizons of planet Earth."
"You will discover," said Orthon in a joyful tone, "how much goodness and beauty is within you, and all throughout the natural world around you. First, however, the bad will teach you all its disastrous lessons, in order that those who desire the good may free themselves from the bad and forever ban it from their own hearts. Unless that happens, Earthman will be a danger to himself and to the whole cosmos. And we will, as it is written, draw a flaming sword for the defense of the part of Eden that is unspoiled. We, the cherubim, will guard the entry to Eden against all who would bring death and disharmony with them. Only after you have regained your original innocence, and evil can no longer find refuge within you, or anywhere on your planet, will the gates of the cosmos again be open to you. That will be a great day, and it will come soon."
This brother awakened hope within our hearts. Tina wanted to ask a question: "Why do you cite only from the Bible?" she asked. "Aren't there also other texts in which these things you have been telling us were recorded?"
"Throughout the ages," answered Raphael, "mankind has been given many revelations, and these have been spread by many different, trustworthy witnesses. Thus, the Father wished to enter into the history of mankind in a special way through the preparation of the Hebrew people, through which Jesus the Christ would later be born. The Bible gives the revelation of this intervention of God in the history of mankind. We carried out His will, and constantly followed the progress, since then, of things which now concern not only those people, but all the people of the Earth. Other people have started on a different path, but they, too, will be helped. It is what Jesus Christ said and did that makes the Bible so important and so timely. The whole Bible is an introduction to the great revelation which reaches its climax in the apocalypse. In it, all the most important prophesies of the old and new histories of the chosen people of God are brought together. There the events are outlined, whose imminent fulfillment we are telling you about,—the tribulations which Earth must endure, in order to break the bonds of evil,—the way back to Eden. All prophesies up to this time have come to pass. Now we stand at the point of fulfillment of the last one. We want to communicate to you and to the brothers of Earth those things that we deem most helpful for them at this time. Too many people today read the scriptures in the spirit of self improvement only, blind to the real meaning and unmoved in their hearts. The simplicity and directness of the original has been lost, and they are no longer understood."
At this point, Raphael ceased his discourse, remarking that, for reasons of safety, some of them would now return to the mother ship. It was decided that Raphael, Orthon and Firkon would remain with us for a little while. The others would go back in three discs to the mother ship, leaving one on the ground in the charge of Zuhl. Those who departed for the ship wished us a hearty goodbye? all said that they would see us soon again, and reassured us of their love and support. Tina was deeply moved. She said she wished they did not have to part. But Raphael again said that it was necessary.
The space brothers went back to the three discs, which, as soon as they were inside, rose up and flew to the larger starship, where they disappeared inside. The lights were lowered, as at
the ending of a feast, when all is restored to normal again. Only a faint glow remained where the ship had been. From the round windows of the disc that still rested on the grass, a soft light was barely discernible.
Raphael invited us to go for a short walk with them. Firkon pulled from his pocket a little flashlight that cast a broad beam on our path. We walked on through the woods. Tina held on to my arm, and the three spacemen walked nearby, Raphael on my right, and Orthon and Firkon at Tina's side.
"When we tell you that you will not be allowed to continue your drive into space, we are fulfilling the prophesy of Genesis, which says that the Lord God has appointed us guardians of Eden to keep man from gaining access to the tree of knowledge, in order that he may not contaminate it with evil. The practice of evil, which you have steadfastly adhered to, over the history of your planet, will soon come to an end, for you will see that that way, which you have chosen to follow, will turn against you. Only the way of goodness and universal love knows no delays and no evil consequences. Whoever persists in ways that are erroneous will find that the result will be tribulation. That is an important provision, by which the children who are in error will not irretrievably lose their way back to the good Father."
"If I understand you correctly," I said, "the Earth is near the end of the present dispensation."
"You are indeed at the end of this dispensation, this present order," replied Firkon as he stood still and eyed me intently. "Soon you will be in that wonderful era, toward which the scriptures of all past times have been pointing. But the things which must come to pass before that time will be sorrowful indeed. It is urgently necessary that mankind grasp the seriousness of the straightforward message we are giving you, as quickly as possible. All this has been told you long ago in the scriptures. But the true meaning of that which was said and written for your sake has been lost in the convolutions of your deluded thinking.
This meeting, and all that we had seen and experienced for some time now, was for us the most tangible proof of the truth of that which was being told to us.
"Why is it," asked Tina, hesitatingly, "that you don't give this message to people with influence and power? It is surely much more likely that such persons would be believed. They could accomplish much toward bringing about the understanding of those words of scripture that are about to be fulfilled."
It was Orthon who replied. "We have always chosen ordinary people for our messages," he said, "who would not distort the real meaning of our words through the influence of their own thoughts and training. Only a receptive mind without preconceived ideas is qualified to convey with fidelity a message from higher realms. The fact that Earth people will not believe what is told by a common person is proof of nothing but a discrimination based on arrogance. Nevertheless, we know that those who want to hear this message, and who love the truth, will not have this difficulty. Each one will feel the truth of the message within his own heart. Scripture provides the touchstone, or test of reality, for that which is coming upon your world. We speak to all men of good will."
"It is written," added Raphael, in his melodious voice, "that the Lord God punished man with the worldwide deluge, and that He promised that this would never happen again. The Bible also says that God made a covenant through Noah with all mankind, even including those of generations yet to be born. He gave Noah a sign as proof of His promise to him and his descendents: the sign of His rainbow in the clouds. Clearly, He did not mean only the rainbow that you see after a storm, but He chose the expression to symbolize His covenant with Earthmen, who had rebelled against Him, and had been chastened with the deluge. The bow was the sign of the bridge of union between two shores; the divine, where dwelt His true
children, and the human where His Earthly children had chosen to rebel against His law of love. But He placed His bow in the clouds of the heavens and decreed that the waters of a great flood never again would fall upon the Earth, to bring sorrow to mankind. Now, when no clouds were there, that might have brought rain, of what was the Father-God speaking? The word 'cloud' meant flying ships, spaceships and starships; in other words, God's covenant would be assigned to us, and, above all, to the one who is in our midst, and who was sent to Earth, even this new Moses, who now will lead Earth in its exodus from evil to the promised land of Eden."
"Isaiah spoke of us when he asked, 'Who are these who fly like clouds, like doves to their dovecotes?' He spoke of our flying discs, which fly to the motherships, as you saw this night. The expression 'clouds' is found throughout the Bible. Ezekiel found himself confronted by a great cloud, and he described the starship. Read again what he recorded. And what were the pillars of cloud by day and pillars of fire by night, that led the Hebrew people through the wilderness? The cosmic majesty of the Lord God is revealed in His heavenly hosts. He, the Lord of Hosts, has acted through the ages through us with these signs of His presence. I already told you," Raphael said with emphasis, "that the Lord spoke from the clouds, as is stated in the Psalms."
Raphael turned now, in order to come back to the meadow where Zuhl was waiting with the beamship and the disc. And he said, "It is written: 'I put My bow in the clouds, and it will serve as a sign of the covenant between Me and the Earth.' These signs you have before you, and they have been shown to millions of Earth people. It is of utmost importance," he said in a strong, clear tone, "that whoever would understand, should understand the truth of the scriptures. The truth illumines the understanding and enkindles the heart. On this basis we do our work, and invite many persons of Earth to cooperate with us."
"Read what is written!" he continued. "Read and consider carefully every passage. God said to Noah: 'When I bring my clouds over the Earth, and the bow shall be seen in the cloud, then I will remember my covenant, which is between me and you and every living creature of all kinds, and never again shall the waters become a flood to destroy all flesh.'"
"Do you not think that the appearance of our craft in your skies becomes more frequent? We assure you, God the Father has told us, that the time is now at hand, in which He has determined to call forth the flagships of the true children of Earth and soon the rainbow will be seen above them, in order that the covenant between us and the Father may be known to all, a covenant which will also be extended to the children of Earth. On these ships from the heavens we will be found, and there will be before all, the one who promised to come in the clouds of heaven in glory and power. He will take you with us back to Eden, to dwell in His garden again."
In the meantime, we had arrived at the meadow, and I saw, in the background, the glimmering light from the starship and from the disc, beside which Zuhl was patiently waiting.
Now Firkon took up the conversation: "It is good to emphasize that the hearts of the people must be made receptive to the message of the scriptures, and that it should be seen in relation to the signs of our times. Many would like to solve everything by means of logic and intellectual study, but the truth is much simpler and more profound than all their hair-splitting. The children of the Father, who wish to know the truth, will sense that it speaks to their hearts, and will open themselves to it. We will always be ready to help you."
Raphael put a hand on my shoulder, and looked at me with friendly earnestness. "The revelations," he said, "that we have given you today will come as a surprise to many, as they did to you. You will experience much trouble and misunderstanding. It is necessary that this come about, in order that the veil of unknowing be lifted from these things. Many persons of
good will will respond with belief and aid. Thus, they help to promote the work of those who do good, and do not lie, and we will be with them. Now we must leave you, but our greeting is as always,—until we meet again!" With warm embraces, we bade a fond farewell. The three boarded the waiting disc, which disappeared inside the starship a moment later. From the huge craft a humming sound could be heard, and the light around it grew stronger, changing from pearl-white to orange-gold. Then it quickly lifted starward, streaked like a flash of lightning, and disappeared from sight.
Our friends had remained near the spot where we had left them. Robert had recorded the images that came into his mind telepathically, and had sketched exactly the starship and the four discs. Nico had seen, from a nearby knoll, a light moving erratically in the sky. Its zigzag course left no doubt of its identity. Anna and Paul had followed parts of the conversation by means of cosmic contact, mentally. Each one had received a sign that confirmed the reality of the direct contact with the space brothers that Tina and I had experienced.
It was with a feeling of great inner happiness, after this deeply moving experience, that we drove back down to the Riviera to resume our journey back to Genoa.
(7)
CHAPTER 7
A MEETING IN THE MIDST OF PEOPLE
One evening, I invited Tina to go for a walk with me along the shore at Nervi. We also asked our good friends, Paulo and Roberto, to come with us. We left our auto near the train station, and started off on the road to the seacoast. It was a beautiful evening and the air was mild. We walked for a long time along the coast, stopping now and then to watch the play of waves that sprayed the banks with foam. We had the feeling that something out of the ordinary was in the air. In my mind I turned to Raphael, seeking to come into cosmic contact with him, but I received no answer. We turned around and went back in the direction of the station. But, as we reached the wide alley of palms with its beautiful spring-like aroma, Tina and I both felt a sense of great peace come over us.
Suddenly, I was surprised by something and I pressed Tina's hand. She said nothing; she, too, saw what had astonished me so: Raphael was walking on the sidewalk across the street. He was accompanied by one of the other space brothers. The two were walking leisurely, and with no apparent concern. If one had not known who they were, one would have surely taken them for two distinguished looking men of Earth. In a manner as inconspicuous as possible, I left the side of the street where we were walking in order to draw nearer. Tina remained with our friends, who seemed oblivious to what was going on.
Raphael turned around, gave me a slight smile of recognition, but said, by means of cosmic contact, that we could not converse together in normal speech at this time. So I followed them from a short distance. There, before my eyes, was the proof that the brothers were among us, working for us, even in these days!
Raphael was wearing a very elegant looking suit made of a light weight blue fabric. The other man was also elegant, but dressed more in sports attire. As I thought it over, it became clear
to me that the love which these beings felt toward us was truly unconditional. They were ready to do everything possible in order to help us, even to be one with us on Earth.
"When you read the Bible," said Raphael in spirit, "you will find it is written: 'Be not forgetful to be hospitable to strangers, for in so doing some have entertained angels unawares.'"
He continued on his walk, his companion at his side. I followed after them, outwardly showing no particular interest, but I thought deeply about these words of scripture. I could scarcely believe that I was being privileged to experience these things which were so clearly stated there.
Raphael continued, "Although we were received with love and respect by the brothers of Earth in former times, that would not be the case today. On Earth, as we have said before, there is less love than the air you breathe." Then he said something, as if he were reassuring someone, and added, to me, "Today we cannot show ourselves openly. Whoever will believe in the goodness and truth of our message, will do so because he finds a parallel within his own heart. Those who choose not to believe will also find ample evidence of our presence in their midst. There will come a time when we can show ourselves openly; then our joy will be great indeed!"
After these words, he wished me well on my walk with my friends, and begged me not to continue following him. He turned and sailed at me, and his companion did likewise.
(8)
CHAPTER 8
EXPLANATIONS AND TEACHING
On another occasion, a meeting with Raphael had been arranged. We arrived at the meeting place as the sun was beginning to set. The travellers of the light did not make us wait for them very long. We saw Raphael, and with him were Firkon, Orthon, Kalna and Ilmuth. They came nearer and greeted us most heartily. We sat down in the grass. From up here we could see the valley lying before us, and, in the background, the sea. A few meters behind us, began the trees of the forest.
Raphael gave a quick glance toward Firkon, and I understood that he was asking him to begin speaking. And so Firkon began, in his characteristically lively manner.
"When we say to you that our starships travel rapidly about the universe, this must not be understood to mean that we travel in material regions only. The universe contains boundless regions beyond the material one that you know. The only dimension that is observed by your science is the material. The cosmic dimensions, however, are so rich in number and variety, that you cannot have the faintest idea about them. It would take a great deal of time and knowledge to begin to appreciate what we are telling you. In no way can you, with mere fantasy, comprehend more than the smallest part of such a grand reality."
Firkon waited to allow some of that which had just been said to penetrate our understanding. I saw how attentively the space brothers, sitting around us, were listening.
"In the cosmos," he continued, "there is not the only material dimension. There are ultra-material dimensions that encompass not only length, breadth and depth, but a much greater richness of life-realities, as a consequence of which all of that which you call behind, in front of, over, under, within and without, become outmoded concepts. The higher a universe is, the more its life-force expresses itself in new, free forms, and the consciousness extends itself to a more comprehensive point of view. Each cosmic dimension is suitable for a human body of a corresponding grade of development. Each new universe, brought forth through man's soul development, represents itself to him and his mind, which has attained a new
42
and higher individuality, with a meaning and a new way of thinking, which was unknown in the earlier outmoded dimension. Thus each new step in the overall universe brings new realities and new ways-of-being of the life force with it, and this derives directly from the same universal laws that govern the whole creation. The more developed, and thus complete, the dimensions are, the more the consciousness knows of that which it experiences, namely love; the love by which all was created, and which works within us. The all-embracing love is the life-force that holds together all that is."
Firkon paused again. The lively tone of his voice and his gestures gave life to his discourse, which he illuminated with examples and comparisons.
"As soon as a starship lands on the Earth," he said, "it is fully materialized. It remains, however, enveloped in cosmic power, which makes it independent of gravitational laws of the planet. For this reason, we can lift off from the Earth with ease, and, in a moment, overcome all the laws known to your physics. Thus we rise from the Earth at the ideal velocity for dematerialization with no difficulty at all, because we are not constrained by the law of gravity. When we raise the frequency of our life-vibration, we find ourselves perfectly attuned to the life of other dimensions. Quite voluntarily we can ascend to the heavens of higher dimensions, or descend to lower dimensions, even to this material stage."
I wanted to ask a question: "- The starships," I asked, "- in which dimension do you construct these?"
Firkon smiled and explained: "We can build than in whatever dimension we wish. For us, it is quite simple. When one has great Knowledge and uses it in complete harmony with the creation, the universal laws of God our Father cooperate willingly. Then all things are good, and all things are possible."
"In the scriptures it is said repeatedly that all that God the Father created was good, even very good; for it was the work of His hands. The hardships came first to those who wanted to explore evil ways. They wandered away from a knowledge of the universal laws, and their ignorance led to arrogance. Every good child of the Father puts himself with simplicity and perfect trust into the hands of his Creator, who has not left anything out of consideration for his well-being. He works through creation itself, and through His more highly developed children. They stand nearer to Him, and know better His laws of love. When, however, His children, as has happened on Earth, no longer put their trust in the One who made all that is, and become rebellious and proud, then everything becomes difficult and involved."
Firkon indicated, with a gesture to Orthon, that he should continue the discourse. Orthon began to smile, and said, "We showed Jacob the ladder which extended from Earth up to Heaven. He saw the angels ascending and descending it. Do you not think," he asked, "that this ladder represents all the cosmic dimensions which separate Earth from Heaven? We traverse all these steps from Heaven to you below, and return back up again. At the top of this ladder is Heaven's gate."
Tina asked for an explanation of this Heavenly gate which Orthon spoke of. "The cosmic domain," he responded, "which we call Heaven's gate, comprises, to state it practically, the last dimensions whose form yet corresponds to that which you know. Beyond that is found the universe of pure absolutes, the pure life-force, the essence of life, which no longer needs the means of outer form for expression. To give you some idea of that," he explained further, "below Heaven's gate, in the cosmic regions and in their universes and worlds, there are many, many levels of existence in space, but above that region are the conscious essences that build space. The higher one rises in the cosmos toward Heaven's gate, the more one frees one's self from form, in order ever more freely to express the universal consciousness. To realize this is the highest potential within us, and one comes consciously to the bosom of the Creator in a state of holy godliness. The vision of the eternal becomes ever deeper and more real. But one's development never ceases. The Father-Creator has no limits, and also sets no limits on His good children who wish to travel the infinite path of His Godly love."
Now Tina posed a further question: "When one in prayer says, 'Our Father, who art in Heaven,'—does that 'Heaven' refer to a place beyond the Heaven's gate, or also to cosmic space?"
Orthon smiled. "God," he answered, "cannot be confined to any space, either cosmic or supra-cosmic. But beyond Heaven's gate, in the highest purity of consciousness, one possesses always an immediate awareness of the godly essence. The participation in the reality of God becomes ever more constant and spontaneous. Therefore, Heaven is the Godhead itself, which brings space into being, but one also understands it to mean every level within space, which is to be attained in this upward progression toward the Creator, the source of all knowledge and all happiness."
A look came over Firkon's face, as though he were about to express a thought that was especially difficult to understand. "It is, to be sure, a question of technical expression and of word usage, but the most important concepts can best be sketched in broad strokes as we have here been doing it. All that is expressed in words suffers a limitation. The cosmos is a world of limitless wonders. The abodes of the heavens represent the flowering of consciousness with respect to the unlimited possibilities of love, which is the foundation for everything, the life-giving essence of the universe. Love is divinity itself. The ladder of development of the life-force, the dimensions, the abodes of life, the path of the carrier of divine consciousness,—nothing in Creation is found wanting or idle. The Father created everything with infinite care, with the finest gradation, and with incomprehensible love. The marvelous laws of the universe stand at the service of His children, whom He loves with an infinite love. They, however, have been given so high a degree of freedom and dignity, that they have the possibility of opposing God's plan of love and everlasting life, and bringing it to utter confusion. Man must come to realize that he is a creature with the single limitation that he is not God, and therefore it is to God alone that he owes obedience and love. The sin of forgetting that, was the beginning of evil in the cosmos."
I thought about the fact that Earth men seem to conduct their lives as though this were the only one. So I put the question to Raphael: "Isn't it possible to give some concrete evidence to Earthmen as proof that there are other worlds where beings like you are living? That would surely bring more certainty to their thinking; for they live in the error of maintaining that after life on this Earth, there can be no other."
Raphael looked at me with loving kindness, but in his eyes was a half-veiled sadness, which seemed to me almost like a reproach. "You still do not understand," he said after a pause, "that it is not the outward proof that will cause many to turn from error and wrong-doing. So many proofs have been given to man over the many thousands of years of a history full of blood and injustice. But these were rejected, and so, for many, the responsibility and blame
grew greater. Jesus gave many proofs during His public life, also as He died on the cross, and even after His death.
Few, however, have accepted them. Today, many people are seeing things which would make it possible to accept the reality of what we have told you, yet they have given them a misleading explanation. And when they are persuaded to give up their skepticism, they console themselves by saying that one day these facts will be explained by conventional science. Your world will not be saved by proofs, but by the love, patience and belief of those on Earth who are already spiritually progressed, namely men and women of good will. The unlimited power of love will triumph over evil, which is ultimately limited in its nature. So your way of death and of rule by force will come to an end. The love of the Father, and of His children, who are true to Him, will be the irresistible power that moves the stubborn-hearted; then will their minds be opened. Of what use is it to appropriate new truths without first having gotten rid of the errors in one's way of thinking? It would only increase the burden of blame. You must understand," he said, "that the light that is given mankind is just that which is most useful, not more, for too much would harm the eyes of your understanding, so accustomed to the darkness."
"Does that mean," I asked, "that this illumination will come not all at once, but in gradual steps?"
"That's right," responded Raphael, who seemed to have grown more cheerful. "God does not wish to destroy, and our actions toward His erring children are in accordance with His love. Still, it is important to do all that is possible to make sure that the paths to evil do not extend beyond certain allowable limits. The farther His children stray from the right path, the more painful is the return. Suffering is the great universal voice that yearns for salvation. It is the echo of that which God the Father feels, whose anguish is immeasurably greater than all the sorrows of His creatures. He allows His children, beset by fears, to taste a tiny crumb of this divine anguish, in order that they may come to realize that true happiness comes only by staying close to Him, in His truth and wisdom." Silence reigned. I had never thought about the fact that God was a Being who could suffer anguish. I had imagined that nothing could disturb His infinite bliss. Firkon looked into my eyes; I knew that he could read my thoughts. He smiled; then he grew more earnest, and said: "Certainly, my dear, nothing can touch the infinite bliss of God. But that does not mean that He cannot, at the same time, sorrow over the waywardness and suffering of His children. He suffers with them, but He does not lose His divine bliss."
Then he was quiet and thoughtful. He sighed, and added with great earnestness: "If you could only know what is meant by the sorrows of God..." He said no more; I only noted he seemed suffused with sadness. I saw in him a great son of the Father's, totally dedicated to manifesting the limitless love of that infinite Being, a Being who had given His children the extraordinary gift of freedom, and did not deserve to have such a trust betrayed.
I asked a pardon for my slowness of comprehension and my hardness of heart. Raphael smiled and said that all creation was a school of love. He assured me that this was a truth that would be verified to anyone who opened his heart to goodness and simplicity.
Now Kalna's sweet voice joined with the others in conversation; her countenance was radiant. "The scriptures," she said, "often speak of the innermost heart in which God speaks to His children. It is in the dimension of the spirit, that part of the human being which corresponds to the innermost consciousness. Heart and spirit mean the same thing, in the scriptures. The heart does not concern itself with the difficulties of understanding, but it is capable of immersing itself in the contemplation of God, in His love, His truth, and His very Being. When the children of the Father cross the border we have called Heaven's gate, and enter the universe of pure spirit, then do they see with unobstructed vision the Divine in its
infinite wonder; then do they participate in everlasting life, not with the mind's understanding, but in a clearer fashion by the heart and soul. Men of Earth have placed inordinate value on the mind's ability to analyze and formulate, but they have imprisoned the heart. They have become lost in a labyrinth of thought, and have allowed pride to establish its presence in the all-pervading intellectual process. First, errant understanding sought to nullify the heart, and directed all its disrupting activity toward its enslavement. But to destroy the dimension of the heart is to bring about everlasting death, the death of the spirit, the ultimate repudiation. Jesus spoke truly to you concerning these matters. Your misfortunes," Kalna continued, "stem from the fact that, in you, mind and heart stand in constant conflict. Or, to put it a better way, you have set matter and spirit against each other. This state of war arises from the pride that dwells within you. Pride leads to trouble. All of your afflictions, in the dimension of the spirit, come from your mind, which is permeated with pride. If you could free your mind from its presumptuous arrogance, and become meek and simple, pure and good, as the Father-God created you, then you would solve the whole problem of evil and your unhappiness."
Now Ilmuth entered the conversation. Her eyes sparkled. "You are convinced," she said, "that it is hard to get rid of pride. You are right about that, for just now are you able to see everything through the lens of understanding, and also the way of purification. Moreover, you have been taught a perfectionistic way of purification, which for you is not realistic, so that you finally came to the conclusion that the way of goodness for you on Earth was impossible. Also, this came about because your teachers and spiritual guides were themselves often full of pride and perfectionism. In reality, however, the way to purification and release from overweening pride consists of small steps, a gradual purification, bit by bit. Similarly, one breathes more and more oxygen into the lungs, in order to rid the body of toxins. Your spirit has all the potential needed to bring about a complete turnaround, if you would daily bring to your consciousness more humility and simplicity, and you would also discover that you are something more than you previously believed you were. On the other hand, if you allow yourselves each day to go a little farther toward evil, through ignorance and arrogance, then the dimension of your heart will die as surely as if stabbed to death, without your even being aware of it. God is good. He regards lovingly even the smallest impulses toward good within your heart. He requires very little from His lost children, in order that they might be saved. But if one is to be saved from overweening pride, one must turn away from arrogant thoughts. Humility and simplicity lead to humility and simplicity. Love and patience lead to love and to inner peace. Don't think too much about your badness, but much more about the goodness of the Father, and of His faithful children, who work for your well-being in His name."
Now Raphael spoke again; "The intellect," he said, "has the ability to alter and distort that which it receives from the dimension of the heart. Yet a thoughtful and well-disciplined mind, not in contradiction to the voice of the Spirit, can help the heart to express its unique wisdom. The intellect becomes ensnared if it represses or subverts this wisdom. Then the heart and the mind become enemies of each other, and the result is all manner of misfortune and sickness, which have brought so much pain and hardship into your lives."
"I repeat: the mind can become the enemy of the all-embracing love and laws of God, and can be used to destroy the love within the human heart. The way which has been shown to you, as we have pointed out several times, is the way of simplicity, humility, and loving-kindness. Strive toward these things, for you owe it to God. Pray to Him for a new mind and you will see salvation come."
Ilmuth continued, "For one who loves the good, there is no death. It is a great error to believe that everything ends with the death of the physical body. This is the fruit of inner blindness and ignorance. To die means to be born with a new body on another planet; it means to allow new life potentials hidden within you to find expression. To enter life in new worlds means to allow a more highly developed consciousness to become active; it means to be happier in a
higher state of awareness, in an environment with richer possibilities."
"Jesus warned men of Earth to beware, lest the love within their hearts be swallowed up by their pride, and the brilliance of their minds, for thus they may become spiritually impoverished to such a degree that they can no longer be born on higher planets, but they run the risk of falling into such a state of confusion that it can only be compared with death. The sorrow of the Father over these lost children is so great that they become aware of it; their troubles increase, because their stubborn wills refuse to free themselves from their imprisonment by their own hardness of heart. There are some who are so obdurate and behave so abominably that they not only become depraved themselves, but they drag others down with them; they become virtual demons,—with such, how can one not speak of death? There is always hope of salvation, but it is not right to presume upon the generosity and loving kindness of so trustworthy a Father. This can bring suffering, for God is just. Woe unto us, if He were not!"
There followed a silence that seemed somehow like an admonition. The sun had already set, and the mountains were enveloped in a dark blue haze. The valley seemed to have grown more mysterious.
Raphael said it was time to bring our visit to a close, but he also promised to meet again with us soon. "We have much more to say to you," he remarked.
Evening was near, and the twilight drew its soft mantle over all the surrounds. We bade farewell like friends of long standing, sad that we must part. We were asked by Raphael to stand back a few dozen meters. We saw the little door of the flying disc begin to open, and a snow-white light shone through, illuminating all the surrounding flora. All went aboard, and again raised hands in a gesture of friendship. Then the door closed noiselessly once more and immediately the disc rose up with unbelievable speed. Shortly afterwards, it had disappeared from sight. The meadow grass was pressed down flat where the disc had rested, while taller grasses rustled slightly in the breeze.
(9)
CHAPTER 9
A LIGHT ON THE SEA
On the evening of the fifteenth of June, I was at home, and was just about to read a portion of the book of Genesis, when I was aware of coming into cosmic contact. The voice of Firkon was inviting me to come with Tina and our friends to Nervi. We drove there and parked near the railway station, as before, then started off on a long walk, but nothing unusual was seen or heard. Yet I remained calm; I was certain that the brothers would show up before long. We walked first on the road to the small village, then turned and came back on a walkway by the sea. Gianna said she was ready to spend the whole night walking, if they could surely see something. I responded that patience would always be rewarded, yet, in my heart, I began to fear that, for whatever reason, they might not be able to appear.
Suddenly, however, we saw a white light coming across from the sea, from the direction of San Fruttos. In his excitement, Paolo shouted out loudly and I had to urge him to regain
control of himself.
The light came nearer, until it was about fifty meters from the shore which our walkway bordered. Now the flying disc was there, where it could be easily seen by all, and Paolo and Gianna called out excitedly, "It is really them! It is the brothers!"
Paolo had a clear cosmic contact, and he could tell us exactly what was about to happen throughout the various phases of the encounter. "Now they are switching on the white light on the underside," he said. And the light really did go on. "Now they are making the light brighter!" And the light would grow brighter. "Now they are about to dim the lights!" And the lights would grow dimmer.
And so it continued. Paolo announced in a loud voice when the red, green and blue lights would go on, and they promptly did so. The flying disc changed many different colors, and then flew off in a southwest direction and disappeared over the horizon.
The voice of Raphael reached me in cosmic contact, recommending that we restrain our eagerness for a contact, and suggesting that we leave that area. I was afraid that the other people there, who had also seen the disc, might stop us and question us about it, but Raphael assured me that this would not happen.
There was an older couple near us who stood there literally open-mouthed, staring into the heavens. They probably could not possibly have made sense out of what was really there. Perhaps they could have believed it was some unusual aircraft. I thought about giving some such explanation to them, but Raphael advised me not to do it.
I obeyed, and we went from there with great joy in our hearts.
(10)
CHAPTER 10
THE BLESSED LADY
The following meeting took place in the grain fields of the great plains region. We had spent many hours to get there by auto. As always, we were directed by cosmic contact. The weather was warm and pleasant, though the sun was from time to time covered by a thick cloud. Having arrived at the place of meeting, we left the car and continued by foot alongside the fields of grain. The arch of the heavens seemed much wider than it did in the mountainous regions where our previous contacts had taken place. Suddenly, we saw several formations of flying discs going by, such a number of spacecraft that we were utterly amazed. As each formation flew by, there was a distinctively pleasant sound, as of waves, or the music of innumerable heavenly choirs.
Then we saw the starship coming from a certain point in the sky. It came closer, and then came to a stop, hovering several hundred meters over the field of partly-harvested golden grain. A flying disc emerged, larger and more beautiful than any we had seen before.
Tina, as always, broke out with irrepressible shouts of joy. The cosmic flying disc landed on the small strip of meadow land that separated two grain fields. Raphael, Firkon, Orthon,
Kalna and Ilmuth got out, accompanied by a young woman of exceptional beauty, who impressed us deeply. All were simply dressed, with loose flying suits or long dresses that came to the ankles. The fabric seemed light and without seams, and the colors shimmered from beige to light blue, and from blue to violet. The young woman was dressed in soft, sky-blue; her hair was chestnut blond, and fell to her shoulders. She wore a pair of sandals that seemed to be woven of gold, yet gave off such an iridescent splendor of many colors as to be beyond description. She appeared to be about twenty years of age. Her lovely eyes were blue, and expressed a great kindness and understanding. A quality of refinement and magnanimity radiated from her whole being. She moved with a graceful, natural simplicity as she came toward us.
"Welcome to this meeting with us, which we have desired for so long a time," she said softly.
Raphael made the suggestion that we sit in the shadow of a large tree that stood on the edge of the little meadow between the two grain fields.
The big disc rested on the ground a few dozen meters away from us and we could only see it from a standing position; when we sat down, it was concealed by the tall growth. Everyone found a comfortable spot. The charming young lady sat on a small rise of ground covered with soft grasses. Raphael said that the cosmic beamship, which we could still see motionless in the sky, was protected by a magnetic field, and would be invisible to other human eyes.
The brothers made known their joy in being with us, and we did the same. Then all became quiet, and the lovely young woman from the higher realms began to speak.
"When it is permitted to you to travel throughout space in our starships, there will be many other things that we wish from our hearts to share with you. The present mission has as its purpose to bring you the knowledge, and allow you to have the experiences, to make it possible for you to bring our message to your Earth brothers. All life in the universe is connected in the present moment. When a planet is in danger, and threatens the peace and harmony of the Father's whole family, we seek to save it, in His name."
All of us had turned toward her, and we listened with rapt attention. The reddish sunlight fell on her face in an engaging play of color and shadow which served to enhance her great natural beauty, while her words and gestures bespoke an extraordinary wisdom and knowledge.
"The good," she continued, "elicits further good, and joy responds with joy. Love stimulates more love, and knowledge promotes knowledge. The whole life of the cosmos is in motion. The same law holds true for the bad, which leads to more of the bad, when it does not serve to demonstrate the futility and harm of wrong action. On your planet, wrong action has brought about more harm, through death and destruction, than was ever known in former times. Nevertheless, we are here to assure you that everything necessary will be done to save you."
She was quiet for a while, which only served to focus our attention more sharply, if that were possible. "All children of universal love are now working for your planet, which finds itself in mortal danger. Soon the people of planet Earth will experience a period of tribulation, such as you have never known in all of your past history."
Now the wonderful lady spoke slowly, and sadness veiled her countenance; her voice was touched with melancholy. In spite of that, her majestic bearing seemed in no way diminished; on the contrary it was enhanced. "We are," she began again, "unsatisfied with the conduct of the Earth brothers. In the course of time, we have allowed numerous warnings to be given,
and there has been no lack of signs. But still, the originators of death and destruction have carried on with their dreadful plans, and the others paid no attention, not wishing to become too involved, and thinking only of their own affairs. The Father can no longer suffer the foolish obstinacy of many Earth people, and soon these will bring upon themselves a mighty chastisement which will serve to purify their hearts, but also, to bring about the destruction of many of the good and beautiful things that have been accomplished on this planet."
With astounding clarity, this exalted being from the higher realms explained what lay on her heart. "We extend to the inhabitants of Earth a final invitation, in order that all who, from their hearts, wish for the victory of the good, and the return to the simple, treasured values of life, can join together with us in our efforts for your salvation. As long as the children of Earth do not conclusively renounce the evil tendencies that are within them, we cannot grant them any further knowledge. The Earth cannot remain as it is at present; a new age is needed, to bring all humanity to the point where it can take the right steps to a development which will deliver it from a thousands-of-years-long history of blood and destruction."
Her soft voice bespoke both a sense of sorrow and of urgency. "We invite all people of good will to lift their eyes to heaven, to become better every day, even if for only a few minutes, to open their hearts to humility and loving kindness at least in some small way, so that their eyes will be opened and they will see clearly the enormous danger of Earth's present situation. Then, and only then, will our message of hope and salvation take root within your hearts. One does not have to do very much, but that little which can be done, must be done on a daily basis, in the everyday things of life, and the changes must come in every heart."
With a sigh, she added, "No one on Earth can avert the destruction that heedless men have prepared for the planet. The rescue must come from heaven; we need the cooperation of all, and a return to compassion and rectitude. This is a goal that truly can be attained by each individual in himself, and in his surroundings; each one can lay a small stone. Many stones will be added by us, and then we will provide for the remainder, so that the edifice of love and preservation for the future may be erected. Our concern for you," she said with a heavy sigh, "is a small part of that of the Father's. In recent years, you have come to a point in history which, to say the least, is far beyond the borders allowed by the Father's universal law, and you take no notice of it, as if you were blind. We send you warnings continually, but you heed them not, as if you were deaf. You do not want to pray, for want of humility, to the One who could save you, and you steer toward an unprecedented disaster as though it were nothing to be concerned about at all. We want you to come to see this clearly, and to do what the righteous universal laws require, in order that we may spare you enormous suffering. Some suffering is necessary, in order for a new day to dawn upon your planet, in which pain and evil are overcome, but it is possible to avoid the worst,—perhaps it is still possible. This is the last great message of love and preservation that we will give, in order to jar your consciences awake to see the things which stand at your door."
Her eyes met mine, and then Tina's. I was shaken to the core, for I thought, if this was the last warning, we must have arrived at a point where the outlook was exceedingly grave. I felt for a moment utterly confounded, yet the grace and compassion of her countenance saved me from complete despair.
"We will never be believed," I said. "No one will want to believe that you have given us a last warning about the danger hanging over the Earth."
To this, she responded: "The events soon to occur will make many of the proud become humble, and those who are more agreeable by temperament will become more receptive as they see increasingly that events are occurring exactly as you have told them. When God asked Moses to deliver His people from bondage, and Moses expressed his doubt that people would believe in his mission, the Lord assured him they would believe him because
they would see with their own eyes that his words were being fulfilled. Certainly you also must accept the fact that many will laugh at you and contradict you, and your words will not serve to better those who are lacking in humility. But you should say them anyway, and we will stand beside you. It is urgently necessary for all to keep the true situation before their eyes, and to encourage each one to change his or her thinking and individual life toward more simplicity and compassion, even if only a little each day. We will also teach you to pray, and everyone will see that prayer is the most beautiful response that the children can make to the Father. Nothing is simpler or greater than to put one’s self in union with the whole brotherhood of universal love of the children of the good Father and Creator. This is another one of those things that Earthmen of simplicity and good will must continue to do if the planet is to be saved."
Her last words were not clear in my mind. Had I understood what she was saying? She read my thoughts, and said, "To pray means to lift one’s own heart to heaven, to the Creator, and to us, His faithful children. Pray in the way you find most effective, at the time that suits you best, but neglect not to pray! It requires so little, but it accomplishes so much."
With great earnestness, she continued, "The present times on Earth were foretold thousands of years ago. The signs that would herald this age were also foretold. These signs have now been given, and continue to be given. However, man on Earth is too egotistically preoccupied with thoughts of his own personal advantage, with his needless fears, and the continual pursuit of his misguided ways. We will speak of that in more detail when we are on board our starship. Above all, I want to tell you that a wonderful time lies ahead for planet Earth. That long-foretold age will come, in which the dreams of people of good will can be fulfilled; there will be no more death, or sickness or sorrow. Righteousness will come alive in the hearts and lives of the children of Earth. But mankind has the power to thwart this final consummation of the planet, through acts of irretrievable destructiveness. We would take a hand in things, to rescue those who would be sacrificed to such total devastation. It is incumbent on all of you to prevent such a catastrophe, and to make possible that, after the storm, a time of peace and joy shall come to Earth on its upward climb toward the happy state of the more highly developed planets. At all events, this time shall come, and it could be very soon. After that, all prophecies will be fulfilled, concerning the last days. Truly, these things foretold in the scriptures will occur, but the hour and duration is known only to God, for the reason that the freedom of all His children is genuine, and not one of appearances only."
My mind contested with my heart, which fully grasped the meaning of her words. The majestic lady from the higher realms smiled, and gave me renewed courage.
"Do not try to understand all at once those things which will be explained to you later. We will prepare you gradually, so that you will not be overwhelmed. We will also help you to accept the things of great import that will be revealed to you. This is quite necessary, and you need never fear losing your inner balance; we will give you peace and tranquility, strength and courage. You, yourself, will be astonished about this."
I was grateful to her, and I could see that Tina had a more relaxed expression on her face. What I was hearing seemed to me more important than I had thought at first, and a feeling of dreadful apprehension almost overpowered me. But in a moment it left me. Now I felt free again, and no longer doubted the help which would be given to us, or that the Earth brothers would be receptive to this great message of assistance from these wonderful beings and the exalted lady from the higher realms.
"Whatever is necessary will come to pass," she said, "but soon the words of the prophets will be fulfilled, and the whole world will be astonished." Her expression was that of one who is thoughtfully recollecting words that are engraved on her heart.
"Now," she said, with a voice of certainty, "I am about the Father's business, creating a new Heaven and a new Earth. The things of the past will no longer be thought about; they will not return to mind. And what follows will be a life of ongoing joy."
She was silent again, and her expression was one of surpassing kindness and grace. Tenderly, she looked first at Tina, and then at the others, as though she wished to speak to the whole race of mankind, saying, "The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, and the lion shall eat straw like the ox. There shall be no more evil on the Earth, nor destruction. Behold, this is what will soon come to pass on Earth after the time of tribulation."
"We would like," she continued, "to talk to you further about all the beauty that awaits you, but we cannot allow you to forget the conditions that really exist on Earth today. As a result of self-serving actions of many individuals, there is war, poverty, and oppression, and you will have to endure a painful period of cleansing, before the words which I quoted are fulfilled in reality. Pray that the time of evil may be shortened."
Raphael seemed overburdened with a great sadness, and so did the others. Their outward appearance reflected a lively participation in the thoughts expressed by this noble being from the higher worlds. Her demeanor bespoke resoluteness and composure. She continued, "Sodom and Gomorrah were, in fact, destroyed by fire, in order that they might be saved by a different destiny than is provided by the material form of manifestation, which they had so abused. We are here for the sake of all Earth children, to warn you of an impending holocaust. If we were to show ourselves today, as in former times, we would fare no better than did those brothers who were sent to tell them of imminent doom. The corrupt people of that city wanted to use force against our messengers. Today, we would be treated even more disrespectfully? at best, with indifference or with condescending smiles."
She looked at me directly, and there was reassurance in her radiant eyes. It calmed the wild anxiety her words had aroused in my heart.
"We will not do as we did before," she began again, "when we intervened with fire, as we do not wish to allow you to be swallowed up in an abyss? today you have prepared your own chastisement. We will use the fire to wrest new life from the devastation which you have initiated, and which will lay waste to the whole planet. It would do no good to take from you the death-dealing weapons of your arsenals? you would promptly build new ones. The use of those weapons would inflict such punishment on yourselves, in terms of death and destruction, that you would soon come to your senses. The planet would rise again, inhabited by those who had earned the right to dwell thereon in the new days. Then would the Earth once again be the Garden of Eden."
I recalled to mind the picture of the consequences of atomic warfare, which the brothers had shown me. My home city, along with many others, had disappeared from the face of the Earth, and, after the purification by fire, plants and grasses began to grow again. Scattered dwellings, people cultivating the soil, animals, and scenes of beauty and simplicity filled my heart with love and joy. I saw how the brothers came and worked together with these new people of Earth. I could also see that communication had been established between the brothers and Earth people. I understood that a rapid development would enable our planet to participate in the great cosmic realities before long.
Some people, who lived where my city is now, had gone aboard a starship. These pictures, which were being shown me, ran quickly through my mind, in vivid accompaniment to the words just spoken by the lady from the higher realms. Again, I saw what was impressed on my mind a short time before: people were fleeing to the hills, while, in the valleys below, atom bomb explosions in chain reaction were showering destruction everywhere.
I saw thousands of flying discs and starships arrive. Men, women and children were entering open doors, others were sucked up and lifted off the ground, for there was not even time for a landing, the rescue work was so urgent. Again I saw these things, and found that the words of this wonderful lady had described the true circumstances of humanity's plight in the greatest detail.
She waited until my thoughts and great agitation had calmed down somewhat, and then continued, "Unfortunately, Earth people today think the scriptures are only fairy tales, and take great pains to convince others like themselves that all that stands written there is merely symbolic. That is a great evil, which serves to spread the delusion still more. Noah was laughed at when he foretold the flood, which then really did come. It is written that that came about as a result of corruption of the souls of that time. When the force of one's very spirit becomes corrupt, then the material and cosmic life, which are in very close union with the spiritual, must share the burden of all the consequences. All spiritual pollution causes pollution in the other dimensions, which maintain a living interdependency with the spirit. Your planet is becoming ever more impure because you are impure in your hearts. The wickedness, and therefore impurity, of the people of Noah's time brought about the catastrophe that came to them. Today a much greater one faces you, in view of the consequences for the whole Earth. We give you this last warning in the hope that you will come to realize the true situation you are in, but we have no intentions of putting our brothers in the dangerous position of those at the time of Sodom and Gomorrah, when the inhabitants of those cities sought to take our emissaries by force."
Her voice became firmer, without, however, losing its softness of tone. The gestures of her expressive hands served to emphasize the force of her words, "You, today, believe less than ever in the prophesies, even though they have been fulfilled, time and time again. Soon the lament over Babylon will be a reality on Earth. Already the three angels of the apocalypse have come to warn mankind of the impending disaster, but no one, or at least only a few, have accepted their message, or even heard them. For a long time, the prayers of the martyrs have sought the end of suffering and injustice for the good brothers on Earth. The seventh seal has already been opened by those who had the power to do it, and still have. Now, because of the stubbornness and folly of many, the Earth will hear the seven thunderclaps and drink from the seven goblets which hold the seven plagues. But this time will be greatly shortened because of the prayers of the righteous, as it is written."
We saw the eyes of the beautiful young woman fill with tears, luminous droplets shining on her dark lashes. Tina cried, and said that she wished to console her in her deep sorrow. I was embarrassed, and acknowledged to myself that I would never understand why these exalted creatures took upon themselves the burden of our predicament. In them was only love, with no desire to use violence against the great evils of this Earth, which were causing so much trouble for the cosmos. I thought of the Father's sorrow, and realized it was inevitable that these children, who loved Him so very much, would share in His sorrow. But still, my thoughts were a jumble of confusion. I understood, and yet again I didn't. I was tremendously moved.
The gracious lady turned toward Tina, who was weeping, to comfort her: "All people of Earth who long for true justice and the triumph of the love of the Universal Father on Earth, have nothing to fear. If we were able to bring succor to one small group of people in the wilderness, then you can imagine what great help and support we could give the race of man assembled under the banner of Almighty God in the unprecedented wastelands of this most fateful time in history. We would be above you and at your side. We would never abandon you, and through you we would be able to bring many brothers to safety, who otherwise would have been lost."
"In those days," she continued, as Tina wiped the tears from her eyes, "it was Moses who led his people, whom we wished to rescue from slavery. There were very important reasons why we chose to do this, for their sake. Today, the hour of universal truth has struck, and a new Moses will lead all who wish it to safety, without regard to race or nationality. He will be able to read in each heart the slightest longing for goodness and justice, which is the same as universal love."
The young woman was silent, and Raphael indicated that he had something to say. "It is written," he commenced, "that, in that moment, of two men working in the field, one will be taken and the other left behind; of two women grinding at the mill, one will be taken and the other left behind. Whoever meets the prerequisites to be rescued will be rescued. We cannot force anyone, not even for the purpose of rescuing them. Brothers cannot be brought to other worlds against their wishes. The Father never uses force to compel one to come to Him. Each one does it freely, on his or her own volition. Since the hour is nigh, it is necessary to think carefully about this, so that the time, which has been prepared by the insanity of man, will not come as a surprise."
Firkon gestured with his hand, to indicate that he, too, wished to speak. "The scriptures tell you," he said, "to be conscientious in your devotion, but today hypocrisy and denial abound. It was said that signs in the heavens would herald the new age of love on Earth, although this would be preceded by great tribulation. Does it not seem to you that these are the signs foretold? Our starships and flying discs are seen by people of Earth in ever greater numbers. There are lights that move in the heavens, and signs in the sun, the moon and the stars. Many persons are witnesses to these extraordinary occurrences. Haven't you begun to realize that for some time now we have been signaling to you the approaching fulfillment of all prophesies? The signs already are seen in the heavens. Strange things are happening, as foretold in the writings of John? for example, the waters that turned red in the rivers and seas. The mighty rulers of Earth now have the means to kill the people and leave the material things undisturbed. These and other things, when you consider them thoughtfully, confirm that you are in the times that were foretold."
Orthon sighed, and said, "Rumors of war and nation against nation never before occurred under the circumstances of today, when it is possible to destroy the whole planet. Not to see this is blindness, and not to hear of it, deafness indeed! The one who has come to bring you these tidings implores you to be understanding, and not to dissemble. That which touches you on the human level you do understand. Likewise, open your hearts and minds to these things which can bring you true happiness." Orthon became quiet, and I noted that he was finished with what he had to say.
The gracious lady from the universe arose, and we all did the same. The sun was now lower, and lightly veiled in misty clouds, which painted the sky with reddish strokes. We walked through the wheat fields, and the young woman stroked some of the heads of grain. Then she stood still and turned to us: "Fear not! No person of good will should allow anxiety or fear to touch his or her heart. Whoever loves peace and truth, for them there will soon be great celebration. Not a hair of your head will be touched, except there be a redeeming purpose, known only to the great Universal Father."
She went a few steps in the direction of the disc-shaped craft, which one could now see behind the stalks of grain. Majestically it rested there and reflected the colors of the sky from the surfaces of the round dome, which appeared to be a crystalline meld of metal and glass. No lights were visible inside it, yet the gleam of reflection was such that one might expect it to burst forth with light at any moment. With majestic dignity, the young woman raised her gracious, all-loving eyes to mine; from them, there seemed to emanate a powerful radiance that penetrated deep into my soul and granted me unspeakable joy and inner peace.
"In the appearances at Fatima," she said, "thousands of people witnessed the great apocalyptic sign in the sun. Two great wars were unequivocal proofs of the truth of that message, which is the same message I have given you, and is nothing other than a clarification of the scriptures for your times. You are living in the days that immediately precede the thousand year kingdom foreseen by John. Soon you will understand what he meant by his prophesy of this kingdom and the first resurrection. You will experience what it means for the survivors to be taken up into the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. Very soon the new day will come," she added in a firm voice, "in which a new humanity will dwell on the Earth. The animals will no longer be wild, neither poisonous nor harmful. Your fears about the sad events that are anticipated will change to unimaginable joy. We will be with you during the time this is coming to fulfillment, and after that, in the New Age of universal love on your planet."
I was certain that I would see her again. Now Raphael said that the time of departure had come.
The flying disc opened to receive these distinguished persons who had come to us from the higher realms of the universe, and lifted up into the rose-colored evening sky. There, it turned gracefully and entered the mother ship, which hovered high above the grain fields. In a moment, the spaceship zoomed toward the sun, its colors changing from deep blue to light orange. We stood there, spellbound by the beauty of the setting sun.
(11)
CHAPTER 11
THE SUN MIRACLE
On the twenty-ninth of June, 1980, I invited our friends on an outing in the Bracco region, and for the first time, Gianna came with us. I knew that the brothers would give some sign of their presence, and therefore I had agreed with Tina that I would go ahead to the mountains alone, in the hope of having at least a short close encounter.
At three o'clock in the afternoon, we exited the highway at Levanto, in order to drive farther into the mountains. After a short time we succeeded in finding a place to park between two pine groves. We left the cars there, and began to trudge up the steep pathway by foot. It was very beautiful up there, and our hearts were filled with happy anticipation.
As we arrived near the top, we sat down on the grass and had some refreshments, in expectation that the brothers from space would somehow make their presence known to us. Later, since nothing happened, I went off by myself and climbed a little farther. In the meantime, I had noticed an irregular cloud formation in the sky, and the sun was hidden behind the clouds. It was beginning to get quite misty, as the temperature was rapidly falling. I was becoming concerned over the brothers' silence; we had received no contact at all. So I hiked back down to Tina and the others, below. There it was not so cold, but, nevertheless, the air was not exactly warm, and the moisture was rather unpleasant. Silently, I asked the brothers if they would not at least give some sign of their presence, but the silence dragged on until five o'clock in the afternoon. I could not understand what had happened, and began to have strong doubts about whether I had understood their message correctly in the first
place. I excused myself to the others, and said I did not know what to make of it. The brothers gave no indication that they knew of our anxiety. The fog was beginning to close in on us, and I made the suggestion that we return to the autos and wait for some sort of direction.
I had made my recommendation when I heard telepathically the trustworthy voice of Raphael saying something I had heard many times before: "O you of little faith!" he said in a kindly manner, "How easily you become faint-hearted. Have patience! In the meantime, we will send you a little sunshine!"
A moment later the fog began to lift and a pleasant sun warmed the air, so that the temperature rose noticeably. I felt indeed like a man of weak faith, and determined to drop my impatient frame of mind immediately.
We all climbed higher on the trail until we reached the place where I had turned around earlier. The sky had turned blue again, and the dark cloud formations withdrew over the horizon. We had become quite jovial; Nico even felt like laughing aloud for sheer joy, just to realize that a contact with the space brothers had been made. We sat down on the grass, and I marveled at the extraordinary beauty of the landscape, the pines and ferns, and the profusion of shrubs and flowers. I took delight in the variety of color of the grasses, which were no longer as tender as in springtime, yet still showed their young freshness.
While each in his own way was absorbed in contemplation of this festival of nature, suddenly Gianna shouted, "Look—the sun!"
The light all around us had grown noticeably dimmer. In front of the sun a large globe or disc circled in undulating fashion, creating the impression that the sun itself was beginning to rotate. At first, I was afraid, but then I watched with calm fascination while the light rays seemed to dance and play over all the surroundings.
"If you had looked toward the sun earlier," said Raphael in cosmic contact, "you could have seen us sooner. But now, we wish to bring you greetings of God the Father, The Creator of the sun, which gives life to the Earth, in accordance with His will."
In utter amazement we watched the dramatic spectacle before us, comparing observations excitedly from time to time. Nico had his sun glasses with him, so we all tried using them to observe the rotating globe. In that way, one could see more clearly how the object moved over the sun's disc with a circular motion. It gave the impression of seeing the sun itself wobbling on its axis.
This phenomenon continued for some time, and I sat down on the grass to rest. Tina came over to me, and, in hushed voices, we talked together about this sign we were seeing.
"The word apocalypse," she said, "frightens me, in spite of the fact that it was carefully explained to us that we have nothing to fear. The important thing is, that people all over the world change their ways of thinking and acting toward one another, if they are to be saved."
Hoping to encourage her, I said, "If we fix our minds on the wonderful works of creation, and on the power of love to serve and to save, we will best be able to help others, and will also be helping ourselves."
Gianna said she believed in the triumph of universal love, which is stronger than all the power of evil in the world, Nico spoke of justice, and said it was hard for him to see why anyone would think of it as punishment. Thus, each one expressed his or her convictions.
The sun-apparition was still there, and now we could see the rotating disc more clearly. Somebody made the suggestion that we offer a prayer to the Father. Gianna improvised one that came straight from the heart. She thanked Him for His gift of life, for the Earth and the Sun, and the brothers from space, who were so noble and so gracious.
Tina beseeched Him to grant that man's understanding would be illumined with universal love, and that people all over the Earth would turn away from evil ways, in order that the new age of peace might begin.
Together, we prayed the Lord's Prayer. We were all deeply moved, and each one felt in his or her heart the power and the caress of the great, compassionate Father in Heaven.
Suddenly Nico cried out, "Look up by the sun!" The sun seemed to still be turning, but now the disc had moved off to the side, just within a fiery circle surrounding the sun. It was not as easy to look at as before, because of the brightness of the sun. But we could see the sun and the discs as two separate objects now, and gradually everything returned to normalcy again, including the light over the surrounding landscape where we were.
"That was a gift from God the Father to us!" Gianna exclaimed.
"These signs in the heavens must surely cause the people of Earth to ponder," said Tina. The others, however, could not grasp what was already abundantly clear to us.
We turned our steps back down toward the valley, since it was already evening, and we thought we might otherwise have a problem finding our autos in the dark.
(12)
CHAPTER 12
ON BOARD THE STARSHIP
On the evening of the twenty-seventh of July, 1980, there was another contact in the mountains. We had climbed but a short while when the light from the flying disc announced the presence of the brothers from space. Presently, Raphael came toward us and led us to the craft, which was resting on the ground among scattered trees. A brilliant white light from the open door illuminated the surrounding landscape. Reading my thoughts, Raphael reassured me I need not have any fears of deception, or of being disturbed. Seen from so close, the space vehicle looked very powerful; its surface seemed to pulsate with a soft glow. Tina was visibly moved. Raphael stepped into the ship and motioned with his hand for us to follow. Tina went first, then I, and finally Paul, who had come with us.
The inside was simple, yet elegant. The central room was illuminated with light that seemed to come from all directions, as no single light source was to be seen. Under the large dome, four panels with built-in charts served as walls. An unaccustomed empathy prevailed; we were all flooded with this same unearthly light, and with an energy that was more spiritual than physical. Peace and a sense of inner freedom was mixed with a sense of gratitude to these wonderful beings, who had given us such an opportunity. It moved me with feelings that cannot be described.
Tina was engrossed in conversation with Orthon, while Firkon explained something to Paul, who seemed filled with awe. I said to Raphael that I could find no way to adequately express my joy in being here.
Raphael smiled and looked at Paul, who was silent now, and showed by his expression that this experience was, for him, too precious to be spoiled by words.
One of the panels had many brightly colored lines on it, and it fairly sparkled with its rapidly changing patterns of light. A brother, who was sitting opposite it, stood up and came over to greet us. He was tall, and had blue-green eyes; his chestnut-colored hair, which fell almost to his shoulders, gleamed with copper colored highlights. I was impressed by his distinguished and courtly manner. He excused himself, and returned to his post at the illuminated panel.
The door closed, and the floor beneath our feet trembled lightly with a barely detectable vibration. "We are climbing," said Raphael. "Soon we will be on board the starship."
In the room under the large dome were three groups of chairs. Raphael invited us to sit down, and he joined us. The other brothers spoke in muted voices with the man who seemed to be the pilot.
"The starship," Raphael told us, "is above the Earth's atmosphere. We will be there momentarily".
Orthon and Firkon came over and sat near us. Firkon said how happy they were to have us on board the flying disc, and smiled good-naturedly over my fears of something having gone wrong, while we were on the way to the place of contact. "As you see," he said reassuringly, "we are all safe and well." I laughed with him and said that I, too, felt well, better than I imagined I would under the circumstances. Tina expressed her amazement at how simple, quiet and functional all the arrangements within the disc seemed to be. Paul managed to comment on how surprised he was to find himself actually traveling in space. I thought about the brothers' loving kindness and obliging generosity in granting us such a powerful transformative experience in this simple way. I felt that the unfolding course of events in which we were participating was the fruit of great wisdom and consummate insight into these things. How much time elapsed, I could not say. All of a sudden, I was aware of a slight jolt.
"We are here," Raphael informed us. "Now we are entering the mothership."
We stood up and the little door opened. After stepping out, we went down a rather low passageway. The walls seemed to be made of material compounded of metal and glass. They possessed a soft, translucent quality that was very pleasing to the eyes. At the end of the passageway was a door with no apparent latch, which opened automatically at Raphael's approach.
We stepped into a fairly large room. The walls were similar to the walls of the passageway, but flooded with light, and the beautiful translucent quality was even more pronounced. The whole room seemed alive with a subtle corruscation of changing color, as if bathed in the light of innumerable tinted reflections from some unseen source. It gave a pleasant tone of warmth and elegance to everything the eye could see.
Tina wanted to feel the fabric of one of the easy chairs that were set in appropriate groups here and there about the room. Firkon smiled at her, sensing the questions in her mind. This material, which resembled white gold, could have been a kind of cloth, yet its strength and pliancy were such as to suggest something totally unknown on Earth.
"We have much to discuss," Raphael said. "The time is short." I noted that, since we had
been on board this spaceship, all sense of time had left me.
Raphael invited us to sit down. We three sat on a large comfortable sofa, before which six armchairs were arranged in a semi-circle. On three of these sat Raphael, Orthon, and Firkon. I looked up at the ceiling of this beautiful room and noted that it was not as bright as the walls. Almost imperceptible changes in color tone created an impression almost of something flowing. It was as if unseen hands were playing with a fine sort of ribbon, and the effect on the observer was very soothing and pleasant.
Kalna, Ilmuth, and Zuhl came up to us, and we were inwardly full of joy. Under this beautiful illumination, and in their splendid colored outfits, they seemed more youthful than before. After greeting us warmly, they sat down in the remaining chairs.
"We have long awaited this moment," Raphael said, in a tone of evident sincerity. His voice added to the sense of joy we already felt. Tina, Paul, and I revealed our mood in our expressions, and so did they; their look was penetrating, respectful, and full of love. I could not help but praise the exceptional beauty of the flowers which were arranged in crystal vases on a low table on our right. The colors were brilliant, and the forms varied from oval, to round, to cup-like. I had never seen anything like them on Earth. They spread a subtle aroma throughout the room, as pleasant as it was unobtrusive.
"Universal love is the life of the whole creation. The secret of evil lies alone in the loss of love. To love means to be in the light. Inner blindness, ignorance, and depravity are all the consequences of a failure of love. The essence of the Divine Being is love, and the whole creation derives from it."
With these words, Raphael began to speak of things that riveted our attention completely. "The bad," he proceeded to say, "consists of not staying within the power of love. For those who are within the power of love, it is not hard to walk on the unending path of understanding that leads to the Creator, the deepest longing of every created being. For the individual who is not within the power of love, and therefore is within the power of evil, true understanding is difficult and even impossible. The more one abides in the light of understanding, the easier is the inner actualization of love. The more one persists in staying within the force of evil, and therefore far from the light of understanding, the harder it is, ultimately impossible it is, to be within the power of love."
"Unfortunately, on Earth there is little love and little understanding. That is the reason why mankind must go through so much trouble and sorrow, and must realize the error and delusion of the force of evil, before it succeeds in finding the true path to the Creator, the source of all goodness."
Then Raphael spoke a great truth: "While you are in darkness," he said, "you make everything complicated. Simplicity is one of the best paths to the light. Therefore, it has been said to you, that in order to enter into the Kingdom of Heaven, you must become as a little child. That which is great and deep, is always very simple."
Now Orthon chose to speak, and said, "Many things will be shown you. We will proceed simply and systematically, so that you will have a sound basis of fundamental truths that will help you to become accustomed to higher realities. After that, we will invite you to look over the starship with us, and to celebrate together."
Firkon begged us to prepare our hearts and minds to receive fully all that we would see and hear aboard this starship.
"Look in this direction," said Kalna, as she pointed to the wall on our left, opposite the table
with the flowers. "See what will be shown there."
We turned, and all watched intently the place she had indicated. The room lights gradually dimmed, creating a mood of intimacy. Tina's and Paul's eager anticipation could be seen in their expressions. From a certain place in the room came a sort of smoke, like steam building up to form a little gray cloud. The cloud began to change its form until the outline of three persons came into view. We watched with astonishment this unbelievable transformation, which seemed to arise out of thin air. Gradually, we saw the outline assume the appearance of a man, a woman, and a child. They were really there, before our eyes, yet, at the same time, they seemed like figures in a movie, or in a tableau. Next, the cloud fashioned an outdoor scene, including trees, grass, flowers, and shrubs. The man sat on a large stone. The woman stood beside him, dressed in typical country fashion. The child played on the ground nearby. It was a country scene, perhaps a small family outing. The figures, which had been in shades of gray up to this time, although clearly possessing depth, began now to gradually take on color. At the same time, the whole scene became brighter and more vivid, and we noted that, at the same time, the room was getting darker. I was more and more fascinated with what I saw.
The man stood up and spoke to the woman, who, we assumed, was his wife. The child was busy playing with some toy, and paid little heed to his parents nearby. We heard the harmonious voice of Ilmuth calling our attention to something. "Now," she said, "we will show you something in this family scene which we are very anxious that you should understand. Pay close attention."
The color of all the objects in the scene at first grew brighter, then gradually diminished. The clothing of the three persons seemed to dissolve in a meld of pastel shades, then rearrange themselves until we could see three well-dressed persons, a man, woman and child who were the same, and yet not the same as before. The flesh tones seemed now to have a shimmering light blue quality, as if lit up by some inner radiant source. The bodies seemed somehow lighter than the previous ones. It was as if two bodies were superimposed, one over the other. We could clearly discern the separate bodies of each of the three persons, yet they appeared as one. This remarkable illusion repeated itself, and still other bodies came into view, exactly similar in outward appearance, yet distinguishable through subtle changes in color and luminosity. I could observe, in this remarkable stereoscopic display, that the deeper the layer that was being revealed, the more luminous it was, yet the light from the inner bodies did not prevent our seeing the outer bodies clearly. I counted seven in all. The innermost one was pure white, and seemed to pulse with rhythmic emanations. With each pulse, light streamed forth and flooded all the other bodies, right up to the last, flesh-colored one on the surface.
"Look closely!" exclaimed Ilmuth. "Observe also the plants and the rocks." They were undergoing the same transformation as the persons. I had never before seen such a display. Everything had such a life-like depth, richness of color and symmetry of form, and such a rhythmic progression from one light-manifestation to the next, that I was astounded. I could not possibly have imagined such a thing.
"In this way," explained Ilmuth, "you can visually comprehend the various dimensions of the life-force in man, in the world of plants, and in the mineral kingdom. These seven dimensions may also be subdivided into groups of three similar states of being."
I looked again and saw that the first three bodies, which were closer to the surface, appeared particularly like one another with respect to density and degree of luminosity. The next three were brighter, and seemed to be finer in texture and detail the deeper they lay. The innermost one, pure white, was especially bright, and from it rhythmic waves of living light bathed each of the other bodies. It became clear to me that no method we have on Earth
could so effectively demonstrate all these living realities, and that this unbelievable scene gave my mind insight into possibilities that would have never revealed themselves under ordinary circumstances.
"The outermost body," said Ilmuth, "is the material body. The others are not of material energy, but of cosmic, or astral energy, as your teachers on Earth call it. With each of these bodies man can live in different worlds and dimensions, and on the higher developed planets. The outermost body dies, and the next one beneath it is fully prepared to adapt itself to the energy field of its new surroundings. That is what happens at the time of death, but, in reality, it is only a birth with the new body in a higher dimension, in a higher world of the same level of development as the newly won body. Since the dimensions are very numerous, the number of possible bodies within man are not just seven, but many more. We show you only seven in order to make it easier to understand."
I was completely absorbed in learning about these wonderful new realities. I heard Tina's voice call out, "The beauty of the innermost glowing form is too marvelous for words!"
"It is that, especially, that we wanted to help you better understand," Kalna responded, taking up the conversation at this point. "The pure, white body, which sends forth waves of life-energy to the astral bodies, right up to the material body, is the visible manifestation of what you call 'spirit'. In the scriptures, you will find it said that man is a unity of body, soul, and spirit. Thereby, it is understood that 'body' refers to the mortal body, 'soul' to the astral body, and 'spirit' to that essential part of man which is immortal and therefore never dies, as it is the seat of life and of consciousness."
"The spirit," Ilmuth interjected, "has the capability of living anywhere in the whole universe, provided only that it may not go beyond the boundary known as Heaven's gate when clothed in an astral body, and that it stay in a cosmic world at an appropriate level of development."
Firkon explained further: "The brothers from the 'essential' universe, such as we, have already developed the spiritual body, and therefore normally live in the wonderful worlds of light of the ultra-cosmic universe. The brothers from these higher realms, often referred to in the Scriptures as 'angels', or 'the Lord', can travel in cosmic dimensions, and can clothe themselves with cosmic bodies when it is needed. On the other hand, the brothers who are not so far developed that they can free themselves from cosmic love and cross the boundary beyond which lies the eternal universe of light, have the possibility of making journeys to worlds at stages of development beneath their own. This they can do freely, motivated by their own understanding or their sense of obligation; a task undertaken either on their own initiative, or as an assignment entrusted to them to fulfill. In order to gain experience at a higher level, as you are now, you must trust us, who have already gone beyond the heavenly boundary, and therefore have the knowledge that allows us to bring you opportunities for travel to worlds that are above your stage of development."
"Then," Paul broke in, "may we say that you might be called brothers of the whole universe, and the others, who cannot yet free themselves from the cosmic body, might be called brothers of the cosmos?"
"Exactly right," answered Orthon. "Our knowledge is spiritual, and that encompasses also cosmic knowledge. On the other hand, there are brothers who have a great deal of cosmic knowledge, but are poor in spiritual understanding. One must always use the cosmic powers within the framework of understanding of the spiritual, or mystical powers, and that means to have trust in the Creator, who works through His children of light. One who works only through the cosmic powers has no guarantee that he does what is right, and will not result in negative consequences. If, however, he works together with those who are in the light, who are always under the guidance of the spiritual forces, and are acquainted with the marvelous
ways in which the Creator accomplishes His purposes, in silence and in power, then he becomes an enabler in the universal plan of love and salvation under God's providence. Such a person will not be in danger of falling into error. No one can, of himself, have unlimited Knowledge and wisdom."
Raphael gently called our attention to what was now taking place in the animated color-tableau, which at this moment portrayed the three figures in a garden. The husband and wife had evidently had a falling out. The husband was gesticulating wildly, giving unrestrained expression to his emotions. We could hear their voices. He was hurling accusations at his wife, which, although I could not understand them, seemed to have something to do with the child. The child continued playing, and paid little heed to the heated argument going on between his parents.
"Watch, now," said Raphael, "and you will see the effect of anger on the bodies and souls of these unfortunate people."
The man's invectives grew stronger as he mercilessly blamed his wife for imagined faults and shortcomings. He was infuriated, while she maintained a stunned silence. As I was watching the figure of the man, the outlines of his body became distorted, as if altered by some rough force. The harmony of the lines was badly disturbed. The inner spiritual body lost its snow-white splendor. It turned darker, emitting spasmodic showers of muddy fragments that penetrated the other bodies, agitating them with abrupt changes of brightness, form and texture.
The husband was shouting now, while his poor wife was in tears. His spiritual body, at first spotted and flecked, was now almost dark brown. His whole being was saturated with this unsightly coloration, and his figure seemed to be shrunken and deformed. She outer, material body, although the vessel containing all the other bodies whose beauty and radiance had been so badly affected, suffered the least damage of all. Now, waves of this dark disharmonious life-energy could be seen emanating from the man, going out in ever-broadening circles all around him. They penetrated the woman who soon took on the same characteristics, her life-force growing darker, and her spiritual, cosmic and astral bodies becoming distorted.
"What you are seeing," explained Raphael, "happens to every human being who allows anger to enter into his consciousness. His life-energy becomes dim and disfigured. This disorientation spills over from the spiritual body to all the other bodies, right up to the material body, and all suffer thereby. The life-energy of every single being is, through his environment, intimately bound up with the life-energies of other beings of his kind, and therefore he will be helped by the brothers, if he lives a good, well-disciplined life, but he does harm to all other members of the human race, if he lives a bad life with no sense of responsibility toward his fellow man. All creation is at every moment in a lively reciprocal relationship with all other parts of creation. All exists in reality, and the finer the reality is, the more it is imbued with life. Thought, and its forms, and that which you call fantasy or imagination, has a reality or expressive power greater than matter alone can possibly possess. I would add that those persons still bound to materialistic thinking would be astonished to learn how great an influence their thoughts, feelings, and emotions have on the energy of the material elements of their environment. But, since they view everything through the lens of materialism, they create for themselves an illusion which makes matter appear to be very real and solid, and every finer reality, inconsequential and empty.
Meanwhile, the husband in the scene continued in his tirade, and the aforementioned energy contagion of bad will now flooded over the child, although he continued to act as though he paid no attention to the strife going on between his parents. The surrounding plant world now gave evidence of coming under the influence of the dark disorder of successive waves of
negative energies, and this effect also penetrated the rocks, the air, and the ground. Even we began to be affected by this disagreeable onslaught against our original sense of well-being.
"How frightful!" exclaimed Tina. "Absolutely terrible!"
The scene underwent a change, and gradually returned to its original state. Now the husband embraced his wife tenderly and dried her tears. The child went over to his parents and laughed with joy. Not only the three human figures, but also the plant and mineral world of their surroundings underwent a sort of transformation. Waves of light and color bestowed new life and harmony on everything they touched. We felt joy and happiness return to us, even as the fearfulness of the recent experience began to subside.
The scene dissolved bit by bit, and the cloud of vapor faded to gray, then gradually disappeared altogether. The room light became as before. Raphael and the others smiled at us like good friends who return again after a painful separation. I thought for a moment about the trip from Earth to the starship where I was now with Tina, Paul and the brothers, and my heart was full of joy.
Raphael took up the conversation again: "If all children of God the Father used the precious gift of freedom which He gave them to follow the infinite paths of all-love, and had entrusted themselves solely to the beneficence of His universal laws, then it would not be necessary to experience life in cosmic dimensions that are so very restricted in comparison with the infinite universe beyond the heavenly boundaries. As there was a rebellion long ago that persuaded many souls that man could manage his affairs without God, or the help of those who were obedient to God, the spirit of human pride arose, and the propensity toward undisciplined, selfish action. Therefore, knowing that others would emulate this bad behavior, the Father created dimensions with narrower boundaries, namely the cosmic, astral and material worlds, which, while equally wonderful, being the work of His hands and reflecting the beauty and harmony of Heaven, nevertheless were restricted worlds. There, many of His children were tempted to substitute egotism for all-embracing love, evil for good, cruelty for kindness toward brothers and sisters. They learned to follow the way of wrong action instead of right, of hatred instead of love, spiritual blindness instead of true understanding, which would have led to abundant life. Therefore, matter was created, so that the spirit and consciousness, which are integrally joined with the material body, would have a wall of protection around themselves. You have seen that the material body is the least sensitive, and moderates and restrains disturbances in the finer bodies. If those children had no material bodies, and also no astral bodies, then their souls, which sometime want to test the ways of evil, would perceive the consequences in a much more unprotected and painful manner."
"It is important that one become convinced of the futility and danger of evil during this material life, for otherwise he will experience it in fuller measure, more painfully, in the finer dimensions of higher reality. It is necessary that man learn to understand the loving-kindness of the Father, who does not deny freedom to those of His children who are not faithful, but has made it possible for them to learn in an environment more protected from suffering. Suffering is, in itself, a means of healing, anguish is the voice of the Father calling His children home, suffering is purification and love. Until the last, lost child of the Father has returned, there will always be suffering. You saw the effect of remorse when this husband realized he had greatly wronged his wife and done harm to the sensitive soul of his child. The pain that arose in his consciousness was a living energy released from his spirit, that restored harmony and order to his wife, his child, and to his own being."
"When goodness and love again predominate among Earth children," said Kalna tenderly, "then your spirits will release a wonderful life-energy which will give light to your understanding and warmth to your hearts. Then will the beneficent power which radiates from within you heal all the brokenness of your spiritual, mental, and material condition. Even the
animals will become more tame, the plants more beneficial, the minerals more pure. You cannot imagine how very dependent the whole living web of the environment is on your consciousness. The sentient being truly determines the composition and quality of the living environment of his own world. Everything is a living reality, every emotion, all your wishes, thoughts or feelings, and, likewise, all of your suffering. To neglect this is to prolong your journey back to the light by many hundreds of years. Every child of the Father will come to realize, of his own free will and through the power of his conviction, the truth of the good, and the delusion of evil. We will always help you until the time comes when the Father is again able to rejoice in your perfect love and trust, for He alone is the Creator God, the highest source of all love."
"Every thought has its own form, its own color, its own sound, its unique aroma, and its particular meaning. This is true for everything that lives within the human spirit. The children of the Father can create either a paradise or a state of unending hell. The Father will always strive to draw them again to Himself, and we will be His true children and co-workers, until all become convinced of the truth and the justice and the beauty of His ways."
Firkon looked deeply into my eyes, and I could tell that he knew the question in my mind. "Yes," he said, with a tone of finality. "Of course, all this will come to an end. The children of the Father who persist in wrongdoing win soon be compelled to see things in a new light. They will have caused so much anguish on Earth that even the blind will see and the deaf will hear. Mens' hearts will grow out of their thousands of years old state of intransigence, and they will long for the light. Then the Father will enjoy a feast, such as has never before been in all creation, because the lost son has finally returned home to his Father's house."
"It is written," Raphael added thoughtfully, "that only the sons of perdition will be lost. This causes infinite grief for the Father, and is a sorrow to us as well. These recalcitrant persons do not want to learn their lesson, but they will no longer be able to harm others. For them, the whole plan of love and salvation will have borne no fruit. None of us can put ourselves in God's place. He will have provided for even such as these. But, woe unto them, who turn away from the infinite mercy, compassion and justice of the Father. These impenitent brothers ought never to forget that there is for them at any moment grace, forgiveness, and love."
"All that has happened on Earth in these thousands of years," Raphael said with great sadness, "in the long history of blood, suffering and injustice in the cosmos, will serve as a horrible example, in which error in all its many forms is to be found. This condition has now come very close to the limits the Father has established in His loving heart. He will no longer allow the suffering of the innocent; the time of retribution has come and all will be judged with His perfect justice."
Tina was earnest and attentive. Paul looked at Raphael with friendly curiosity.
"Look, now," said Ilmuth, "we have something else to show you." Again the room light dimmed. The gray cloud appeared, quickly took on color, and before us we saw the figure of a child who, in her material body, was severely crippled. The finer bodies, however, radiated in lustrous splendor, creating an impression so altogether charming and harmonious, that Tina uttered an ecstatic cry of admiration. I reflected on the irony of this striking contradiction. The inner beauty of the child was more overpowering than the outward impression of her being sadly crippled.
"When the consciousness of man in its function as energy, and life dispenser, becomes disordered, and thus brings about these unhappy conditions on your planet," said Ilmuth, "then we are often the ones who take possession of these bodies. You are not aware of it, but almost always it is an angel who comes down to dwell and suffer in a crippled body or a
sick mind, to take on an important and effective assignment, which works to the advantage of the Earth brothers in their great need."
She was silent. I was shaken by what I had seen and heard. My love for these brothers grew greater than before. The spiritual body of the poor child shone forth with indescribable beauty. This wonderful light poured softly and continuously through the other bodies and into the surrounding space.
"These are the ones," she said, "who light up your world. When you on Earth one day understand these things, there will no longer be those who accuse God of creating hardships in order to torment people, but rather you will blame your evil ways and hardened hearts, and give thanks to those who, though blameless, wanted to bear your burdens, rather than theirs, in order to save you. How, otherwise, would you make sense out of the blood of the martyrs, or all the good works and love of past years? What would be the meaning of the sacrifice of the One who died upon a cross, in order to lift up the whole truth before your eyes, and to teach you the greatest lesson in universal love that was ever given on Earth? The moment of truth draws nearer, and as soon as the veil of unknowing, (which was necessary in order to ameliorate the pain), is withdrawn, each person will know whether he was born on Earth to be saved, or to save others, after he himself finds salvation. For even the angels, when born on Earth as men or women, must first be saved, and then they will have the power to save others, while they continue to carry out their difficult mission."
"Some of us choose to bear suffering in a martyr's body, rather than allow you to experience to the full the ravaging work of evil. It is written, you should not judge. Judge not, but abide in love, for that is the only guarantee of victory of good over evil. Put your trust in God and in His children who work for your healing, in love. Be righteous and unassuming!"
Ilmuth ceased speaking. The smoke cloud lost its color and quickly dissolved, taking with it the winsome figure of the little handicapped child. The light returned to the roan in the starship. I sought to fix in my mind clear recollections of this fantastic experience.
Raphael invited us to follow him. Orthon and Firkon came with us. Me visited various sections of this giant, luxurious space liner. In one room we enjoyed a delectable drink together. Then Kalna sang for us, and we listened to music that was so exquisitely beautiful that Tina was moved to tears. Our hearts were filled with joy and peace, and the certainty of the brothers' unconditional love. Then they led us through the passageway into the flying disc that was to bring us back to Earth. Again, it was Raphael, Orthon and Firkon who accompanied us on the trip.
"The time will come," said Ilmuth, while Kalna smiled at us, "when we will no longer need to part. All the brothers of Earth who wish to, will be able to fly with us in space. It will suffice for them to have the wish to do it, but, above all, they must know that they are children of the Heavenly Father's love. Together we will visit new worlds and explore distant regions of space. We will continually undertake new missions of love and learning for other brothers, who wish to progress rapidly to a higher stage of development. And then, we will stand face to face with the Father, for we will move out beyond Heaven's gate. Be assured of that," Kalna said with finality, "for it is the truth." We all embraced in a final farewell.
We took our places in the flying disc, whose atmosphere had to be adjusted to prepare us for the return journey to Earth. Our hearts were still in space, on the rayship, with all its magic charm of color, luminescence, and tranquility. The disc brought us back to the place where we had been picked up just a few hours before. It was approximately six o'clock in the morning.
CHAPTER 13
SOJOURN IN SPACE
Now I will tell you about some other extraordinary experiences that Tina, Paul and I had the privilege of sharing on another trip into space with the visitors from the stars.
After we encountered the round object at its landing place, in accordance with telepathically received instructions, we boarded it and were lifted into space. The flying disc rose in the limitless void. Millions upon millions of stars came into view, and they seemed much brighter than they would have appeared from Earth; they blazed up like so many colored flares in the distance.
My excitement was such that I was touched with fear; I felt so infinitesimally small in comparison with this magnificent spectacle. I thought about the infinite greatness of the Father, the Creator of all these wanderers, and prayed that He might teach me to love Him in my brothers, and in all things that were created by Him.
In the certainty that He had heard me, I said to Him that it was my most ardent wish to learn enough about universal laws and infinite love to travel anywhere in the cosmos, to go beyond Heaven's gate, and marvel at the infinite beauty of unbounded creation. I hesitated, because I was afraid my prayer was too presumptious, for so insignificant a creature.
Raphael smiled and his look was full of loving kindness. "No," he said, "the righteous wish to dwell in the Fatherhouse of God is not presumptious. The most ardent wish of the Father Himself is that all His children, who are on the path through the cosmos, will return to Him."
The cosmic space which I could see consisted not only of a powerful play of pulsating lights, but was flooded with luminescent particles that streaked out of the dark background of space, as if following a track determined by some invisible force field.
Raphael pointed out to us the mighty cigar-shaped spaceship that hovered there in space before us, at a distance that was difficult to estimate. It was surrounded by a white glow, which shifted occasionally to a delicate orange or blue chromaticity. Light rays streaming from the round windows of the great cigar-shaped space vessel added to the luminous effect.
The ship was longer and more slender than the one that had landed on the ground at Spotorno; it was a dramatic and awe-inspiring sight.
Raphael announced that we were about to enter the ray-ship with the flying disc. A moment later, we stepped out into an inner landing room where the disc had set down. I saw a light coming from one wall. Through a door, we were led into a reception room. There stood a table, some easy chairs, and a sofa. They all seemed to be made of the same material, which was slightly translucent. Upon being seated, I noted that the chairs were quite firm, yet pleasantly yielding.
The light within this wonderful ray-ship produced an effect on us which I was unable to explain. We felt freshened and renewed, and all our spiritual energies rejoiced in an indescribable sense of peace. At the same time, we found ourselves in a state of well-being which changed us and awakened all the sleeping powers within us. We felt keenly receptive to all that might be imparted to us by words and images. Our hearts burned with an allinclusive love, such as is rarely felt on Earth.
Ilmuth came in, and with her a man, whose appearance evoked admiration immediately, by reason of his beauty and congeniality. We sat in a half-circle on the sofa and chairs.
The man looked very kindly at us and started to speak: "Our mission to you, which was initiated from above, is coming to an end. But here you have the opportunity to learn and experience things that will help you to be prepared. We must speak to you about a great many more things than we were able to before this, in view of the short time at our disposal, and other problems that we had to undertake to mitigate on your behalf. That should not trouble you, for we will stand by you always, and give you the light and help that will be absolutely essential to you."
At this point Orthon came in, and with him, Zuhl. They sat down and remained silent while the man continued his discourse.
"On Earth," he said earnestly, "there are many serious and pressing problems. The underdeveloped state of many parts of the world results in starvation and death through undernourishment and disease, as a consequence of poverty. That is a very heavy burden of guilt to be borne by those people who have a thriving culture. On Earth there are so many resources and means of alleviation, that everyone could be provided for, as needed, in an orderly fashion. But egotism and inordinate desire for wealth and power are the reason that the poor suffer terribly and are lost."
Tina interrupted him and asked, "Why don't you intervene to save these people from starvation? Why isn't it possible to arrange things so that those who have the potential and the will to ameliorate these deplorable conditions might be enabled, with your help, to do so?"
The man wrinkled his noble brow and sighed. "That we cannot do," he said emphatically, "and that grieves us sorely. If we were to inject ourselves so openly into the affairs of your planet, we would create much more serious and difficult problems. We have already told you that you are acquainted with only a part of the problem; actually, we have had to take action in order to bring about a more just distribution of blessings, and we have also had to intervene, to a degree, in your warlike confrontations. Everything would be different: we would be drawn into the tangled web of hatred and power-seeking that prevails on Earth, and we, too, would be acting out of a position of superior power and might. In contrast to that, the universal laws are in a position of being able to ultimately root out, once and for all, by way of divine patience, the evil that is within man. Those who suffer unjustly will be rewarded in measure far beyond your ability to comprehend."
"Therefore, the One who came to Earth and gave His life for His brothers said, 'Blessed are the poor, for theirs is God's Kingdom! Blessed are those who now hunger, for they shall be filled! Blessed are you who now weep, for you shall rejoice!'. And He also said, 'Rejoice on that day and be glad, for great is your reward in Heaven!'
"There are so many, and such good reasons, why we work on the spiritual root-cause of your condition; we work in the innermost hearts of those who suffer, and are the angels of comfort to those who bear heavy burdens. The Father has given us this assignment for the Earth, for this planet which we watch over and love, and which, in spite of all appearances, we are leading to the great healing, in order that all may find the One who longs to bring them to the heavenly dwelling that is their birthright. Did He not say to you before He died, 'You are from below, I am from above; you are of this world, I am not of this world?' Before He parted, He said, 'If I go, and prepare a place for you, I will come again and take you with me, so that where I am, there you may be also.'"
"He, whose wisdom was far greater than ours, and whose love more than contained all that we are capable of, could foresee all things, and understand all things. He taught us that patience is one of the great paths to everlasting life."
"The evil which has taken possession of so many rebellious brothers is so tough, it will only meet resistance with counter-resistance? The patience and suffering of good people stand in contrast to this. They will gain the victory over error. To meet violence with violence, force with force, and evil with evil, would not root out the latter, but would only create favorable conditions for the triumph of evil itself, as has happened time and again over the past thousands of years on Earth. Our understanding allows us to avoid such errors. Thus the scriptures refer to the patience of the righteous and of the saints."
He was silent and it seemed as though he was well aware of how much trouble and sorrow there was on Earth. His countenance brightened to a smile that indicated hope, and he went on; "We have said to you that this is really the end of evil on Earth. Already the seventh trumpet stands ready to announce the tidings of release. The seventh seal is already broken, through the action of the One who never lies. The cup of Godly anger is filled for those who, for a long time, have taken perverted delight in the suffering of others."
These last words were spoken in a strong voice, and I was troubled and astonished to hear them. Paul, who always had so little to say, looked at him and asked, "How is it possible to reconcile the love of the Father and the universal brotherhood with the Godly anger, that you have just spoken of?"
The man sighed. "When a father has good children and obstinate children," he said in a low voice, "he first gives a warning to the unruly ones. When, however, they continue to ignore the fatherly advice, and stubbornly act so as to endanger both themselves and their brothers, then the father's warning becomes stronger. But the father's severity is not ill-intentioned. He is a good father, and his only concern is for his sons to use good judgement, for their own sakes. If, however, the sons persist in insane acts which threaten their own existence, the father will have no recourse but to use all his might to avoid such a disaster. And when an incorrigible son turns against him in contempt, and inflicts unending sorrows on his brothers as a result of a self-seeking desire to dominate others by might, and to impose his own will at all costs, then will the father, spurned and betrayed, find that his heart burns with anger. A strong punishment will then be the last possible means to prevent the total corruption of the recalcitrant one, who otherwise would subvert the good and peaceable sons. The people of Earth should come to realize that the Godly anger, which the scriptures often refer to, is not just a poetic figure of speech, but the greatest sign of the Father God's love for His wayward children."
"We worship God for His loving-kindness, His mercy, and His justice, which are infinite. But we also worship Him for His Godly anger over the children of Earth, who have brought about the conditions for the destruction of their own consciousness, and the material life of the planet." He drew his hand across his forehead, then drank a small amount from a cup.
At this point, Raphael took over the discourse, and said, in his pleasing and earnest manner, "Yes, the people of Earth are arming themselves for the destruction of the planet. They have amassed an enormous quantity of deadly weapons, and seek to justify this by maintaining that if they did not do it, the others would. That is as if we were to arm ourselves to the teeth in order to destroy the people of Earth, and God the Father were to say, if we were not to do it, then the people of Earth would. That is an insane philosophy, which has been used on Earth through the ages to justify evil in all its forms. However, that will in no way absolve man of the crime of preparing for the destruction of one of the most beautiful dwelling places in the universal Father's kingdom!"
Raphael was evidently very much concerned, and his manifest anguish reflected the depth of his love for our Earth and its inhabitants. After a short pause, he continued, "We repeat what has already been written, that God will arm His creation! Then all will come to know how right the Scriptures are, for the words which the Father has revealed to us, and which we, since the earliest days, have transmitted to you, are true. All things which the great masters, and foremost Christ, the universal sovereign Lord, have said, will be fulfilled, as has been the case up to this very moment."
He held up his finger, and I noted with what rapt attention all the brothers who were present listened to his words. "He told you that you would hear of rumors of wars and great devastation. He said that this would not yet be the end, but that, shortly before the end, such things would occur. Do you not have the impression that the Earth is all ready to ignite itself, like a field with many small fires before the mighty conflagration? Is it that you do not allow yourselves to grasp the daily possibility of self-destruction of the planet as the impending fulfillment of prophesy? Jesus said to you, that you could indeed discern the signs of the weather, but not the signs of the times, and therefore you were hypocrites. Do you not, then, find it impossible to deny these obvious truths?"
Now Firkon joined in, and he begged us to think over carefully what John had delivered to us concerning the words of the Lord Jesus Christ. "You can read the words of the Master," he began, "in the gospel of John: 'There are many things I have yet to tell you, but you could not understand them yet. But when the Spirit of Truth has come, He will guide you into what is yet to be, for He shall not speak of Himself, but what He has heard, that will He speak of.'"
"Today it is given to the people of Earth to understand many things that were predicted? they want to hear them. That will make it possible for you to look forward to the great disasters which threaten the planet, and not to fear the powers of evil, which will be unleashed in the days ahead. The more the powers of evil oppress the children of the Father, the more the Father will answer the needs of His own with help, light and strength, in order that they may come through victoriously, according to the laws of love."
Kalna invited us to stand. The serious words of prophesy that we had been hearing did not deny us a sense of deep peace and even joy, to be here on this wonderful starship. We were aware that the ship was not standing still in space, but was moving at a rate that would have seemed an impossible speed to Earth people. This knowledge only served to increase our sense of well-being. How well the brothers treated us! Our hearts were at peace, and our minds were being constantly opened up to new truths and ways of understanding.
After those last words about the promised assistance to the people of Earth at the time of the great happenings which the planet would soon face, we were led into another room, where several of the brothers were gathered. We all sat on comfortable cushions, on a little raised platform made of wood. Kalna and Firkon remained with us; Raphael and the others said they would rejoin us a little later. I examined the cushions with great curiosity, and together, Tina, Paul and I discussed the color and the material of the covering, which appeared to have no seams or fasteners.
Kalna said, "Soon the Earth people will enter upon very sad times, the consequence of their errors of many centuries. But God, in His great love, which constantly unites Him with His children, has prepared His plan of salvation. The Scriptures have taught you all that you need to know in order that these days will not come without warning, nor find you unprepared, but rather that you may abide in the true light and receive divine solace. That which Jesus could not make clear to the people of His times, because they were not prepared, and were as yet incapable of understanding it, (the times being not yet ripe), will become known to you in the coming years, and you will learn of it in fullest measure. This knowledge will be indispensable to you in helping you to confront these experiences."
Just then, Raphael and Orthon came in, and at the same time, four other men and three women. After greetings were exchanged, they sat down near us. Raphael requested our attention, while several presentations were shown to us. Kalna began to speak: "Now you will see some scenes," she said, "concerning that event which you call 'death', and we call 'transition.'"
Again, as before, we saw a little colored cloud grow larger and form itself into figures. The scene showed a sick man lying in bed, evidently close to dying. He breathed with labored gasps, and there were some people, whom I took to be family members, standing near the head of the bed.
"This is a scene on Earth," said Kalna. "It is going on right at this moment somewhere on your planet. We can, if we choose, show you scenes from the past, from the present, and sometimes even from the future. Watch, and see what happens now!"
I watched with great curiosity, and suddenly it seemed to me that the one man became two. A figure exactly like the man, but very light, rose up horizontally from the bed, and after turning in the air, slowly lowered itself until its feet were touching the floor. At the same time, the man in the bed stopped his heavy breathing and lay very still, while the members of the family began to weep and wail. The body of the man on the bed lay lifeless, motionless, eyes closed, while the duplicate figure looked at the body on the bed and the crying relatives with an expression of surprise. He tried to comfort the people, and make them realize that he was not really and finally 'dead'; but they paid no attention to him and continued their lamentations by the body on the bed.
Kalna now explained the scene to us as follows: "This man, this Earth brother, has now come to the end of his earthly existence. Now he is living in a new body, in a new, higher frequency of life-vibration. He is astonished to see his coarse-material body lying lifeless on the bed, and it took him several minutes to realize the true state of affairs. He wanted to be in union with his relatives, who were bemoaning his physical death, but did not yet realize that he was now living in another dimension, different from the material one. This brother is now learning two new realities through direct experience. First, he has made the wonderful discovery that there is life after death, without the physical suffering that had so plagued him at the end. Second, that he can not make himself understood to his loved ones, who are still in the material life. He realizes that, although he can still see and hear them, it is no longer possible for them to ascertain his living presence directly."
Kalna interrupted her talk long enough for us to see how useless were his efforts to get those people to realize that he was still alive, and that bodily death did not extinguish life.
"Now you will see another scene," Kalna announced, "the first meeting with the brothers of other dimensions, brought there from other worlds, to receive this brother who has just made the transition from the dimension of gross materiality to a different form of life. We have already told you that, throughout creation, no one is left all alone in his time of need."
We saw men and women arrive at that place, as though they had come through the walls. Their ages seemed to be between fifteen and forty years old. The youngest, who still seemed like a boy, walked up to the man, who at this point looked to be perhaps forty, (although his body on the bed looked significantly older), and embraced him. He called him 'Papa', and the man threw his arms around his neck with the words, "My child! How happy I am to see you again! I have missed you so very much! But how is it that you are here?" The boy didn't answer directly, but said that things were going well with him, and that he had been waiting for him for a long time. There were embraces and moving words exchanged between the man and all who had come to receive him.
The man looked again at his lifeless body in the bed, and wanted to speak with the mourning relatives, but the others explained to him that this was not possible, and they added that they would later show him how one could keep in touch with those who remained on Earth, through thoughts and love.
I was surprised, and I could hear Tina say repeatedly, "That is unbelievable, but wonderful."
Paul spoke briefly about how greatly this demonstration of the truth of ongoing life had impressed him. "Especially when you consider," he added, "the horror with which most men view death, and the years that they spend, mourning the death of loved ones."
During the showing, I asked Kalna why such a great truth could not somehow be brought out to the people as common knowledge.
"There are reasons," she answered, "why Earth people can not know all about the true state of affairs. Through sorrowing and seeking, which are necessities born out of their impoverished spiritual condition, they attain an inner worth, and are enabled to raise their consciousness to a level from which they can appreciate these living realities."
Meanwhile, the brothers who had come to receive the departed man took him to a new place that was quite different from the room where all this had been taking place up to now.
"You see now the astral reality," Kalna explained, "that is, the living reality corresponding to the energy field of higher vibrations in this place where they are in a finer degree of manifestation."
They didn't walk very much, and, in fact, it seemed to me that they moved forward while scarcely touching their feet to the ground. The man took a few steps at first, but after observing the others for a moment, he too was able to go forward without moving his legs, just gliding easily over the ground. The group came to a small reconnaissance disc whose door stood open.
"We are going inside now," the boy said to his father. "Then we will go to the place where we live." They entered, and the disc rose from the ground and disappeared into the wide expanse above.
The scene ended, and light came on in the room again, bathing the beautiful wood-grained surfaces with warm tints of color. Firkon again took up the discourse: "We bring to you the relatives, friends, and acquaintances who are waiting for you on the higher worlds. If some of them already are living on planets beyond the heavenly boundary, they are in a position to will themselves to come here from the higher universe. However, if they find themselves on planets that are not yet very highly developed, then they need our help and our spacecraft in order to travel through space. At the time of physical death, a person is brought to another world. The removal from Earth, without the dense, mortal body, may be accomplished either by means of a flying disc and starship, or by the use of cosmic or mystical (supernatural) power, depending on how highly developed the consciousness of the individual may be. In the latter case, he may be brought to his destination in the universe by the application of the law of duplication. To do this, the new astral, or spiritual body is enveloped in a protective life-force shell, which very quickly brings the brother to the desired place. This means of transport can also be easily used by us, if we wish. Many strange apparitions actually occur in this way, if the visitor from other worlds too often uses this means of making contact with persons of Earth. Normally, however, when more than two persons are transported, the best way is to use the spacecraft. This affords greater safety and assurance of preservation of the life-energy in accordance with the cosmic laws."
"On occasion," Raphael explained, "we can lift an Earth-dweller from the face of the planet without the flying disc having to land, and without his having to enter through the door of the craft. From the flying disc an energy field is sent out, which lifts him up and inside of the craft by momentarily raising the vibrations of his life-force. The energy we send him envelops him, protects him, and frees him from the physical laws of gravity of the planet."
Raphael interrupted his talk. The melodious sound of beautiful music filled the room of the starship. Tina began conversing with Kalna, and Paul with Orthon. Firkon told us we would now have a short intermission. He informed me that the starship was not far from the place we were going. I asked him several questions, some pertaining to my private life as an Earth person. He answered them all with such patience and loving kindness that I was moved to ask, "Why is it that you show us so much love?"
Firkon held his hands up to heaven and answered, "God loves us, and we love you."
We continued in conversation until Raphael again requested our attention, saying: "The scriptures tell you that when the time of tribulation comes, all the people of the Earth will see the Son of man coming in the clouds with great power and glory. 'He will,' the Bible says literally, 'send His angels with a great sound of a trumpet, and they shall gather together His elect from the four winds, from one end of Heaven to the other.' It says further, 'It will be as in the days of Noah. In truth, as in the days before the flood, they were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, until Noah entered the ark, and knew they nothing until the flood came and took them all away; so shall it also be with the coming of the Son of man.' We have," continued Raphael, "already reminded you of the words of the Evangel: 'Then shall two men be in the field; the one shall be taken and the other left behind. Two women shall be grinding at the mill; the one shall be taken, and the other left behind.' Now you know what it means, to be taken from the Earth, or lifted up, or evacuated. You have seen, and we have explained in what manner this may be accomplished."
I recalled the scene they had shown, and Kalna's words of explanation, and finally, Raphael's further elucidation.
"Picture in your mind," Raphael began again, "the situation on your planet right after an atomic war, as we showed it to you once in cosmic contact. In such a case, we would immediately evacuate the Earth brothers from the surface of the Earth, but we could not do this for the enemies of love, even if we wanted to. The life-energy of their bodies, as a result of their state of consciousness and the disordered and impure condition of their finer bodies, would not allow us to evacuate them from the Earth. And even if it were possible for us to do so, it would be a greater evil than for them to be left behind on Earth. For this reason, Jesus spoke to you about the fires of Gehenna, and of a hell, which perpetrators of evil, death, and all wicked thoughts and deeds will experience unless they are purified through deep-felt, honest repentance. This works to cleanse and restore balance, and so creates the conditions of life-energy for a reconstruction of the life-expression at an appropriate level. These brothers would see us as something terrifying or monstrous, for their consciousness is sadly deformed, and, in addition to that, they would suffer harm from the energies of our flying discs and starships, as their mode of life would seem to be so completely turned upside down, it would not be able to accommodate the harmonious and unchangeable order which is the rule with us. The inner torment of one who is so out of harmony with the universal laws of the Father, is in itself a means of salvation and a reminder, in spite of all impenitence, that true freedom is found in goodness and in love for the Creator and the brothers."
"In any case, even if, through the Creator's forbearance and our intervention, Earth humanity were to escape the tragic moment foretold in the Scriptures, the Lord would still come, and we with Him, to prepare for the final victory over evil in the world, and the evacuation from the Earth for all who can be saved will follow, before the end comes."
Raphael having apparently ended his discourse, I ventured to ask a question: "You have told us that the fulfillment of the third prophesy of Fatima pertains to the time just before the beginning of the thousand year reign of the Kingdom on Earth. Is it absolutely unavoidable, that there should be a third world war, an atomic war, to destroy the powers of evil and to bring in a New Age of lasting peace?"
Orthon sighed. He folded his hands and seemed to be searching his innermost thoughts. "The mother of Jesus," he said, "is, next to the Lord, the wisest and most worthy of the heavenly beings. Her love for the Father, for Jesus, and for us all, is immeasurable. She has greater understanding than any other child of the Father. To us, she is our great sister, but, more than that, she is our great Mother: the 'Mother of the omniverse'."
This wonderful, royal woman of the universe remains in indissoluble union with my soul, and enkindles my heart with pure, unending joy. Tina often speaks of her, and constantly affirms that she loves her more than she can say. We always feel her presence with us.
Raphael took up the thread where Orthon had left off: "She appears on Earth far more often than most people are aware. Several times she has certified her presence with signs that arouse awe and wonder, such as at Fatima, where, through the sun-marvel, she announced and verified that you stood at the beginning of the apocalyptic times, foretold by John. Two parts of the message revealed at that time have already been fulfilled. The 'blaze of light from the north in the skies of Earth', heralding the second world war, that apocalyptic moment of unleashing of destructive power, has come just as she foretold. Now we are nearing the time for the truth of the third prediction, (which has not been officially revealed so far), to be fulfilled. We are striving to ensure that the people of Earth might be spared a gigantic tragedy."
"On Earth today, there loom up ever more storm centers of hatred and warfare between brothers. Finally the fire will burn at full blaze, and the folly of the perpetrators of hatred and death will be fully exposed in the holocaust-sacrifice which follows. We implore the Father that you may be delivered from so great a calamity."
"We pray the Master and the universal Mother that everything possible will be done to ameliorate such unthinkable suffering. We know that it must needs come, but we continue to pray and to work without ceasing, in order that love will then quickly gain the upper hand, and the new day that has been so long foreseen, will dawn upon the Earth. The danger from the pollution of water, atmosphere, and all the elements of your planet, is growing day by day. Earth dwellers have set out on wrong paths, often with short-sighted material gain in mind, to the detriment of their health and life-energy. Rampant error and spiritual disharmony have produced a natural deterioration and material disharmony."
"It was not forbidden to make progress; this was, in fact, in accord with the will of the Father, who gave such great gifts to His children; but the Earth children have plundered the resources of their planet, this dwelling place that was made through His love. Now it is exacting a penalty from them. But most of all, they penalize themselves for their own errors. Soon the words of the apocalypse will come to be realized: 'And I saw an angel come down from Heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain in his hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the devil, and bound him for a thousand years. He cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the nations no more, until the thousand years should be fulfilled.'"
"It is also written," said Kalna, "that this was to be the first resurrection. Truly, those who are lifted from the Earth will experience this in their material bodies, which will have undergone a process of dematerialization, and will be like ours, with the capability of rematerializing when it is needed. The Scriptures say further: 'Blessed and holy are those that take part in the first
resurrection. Over such, the second death hath no power. They shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with Him for a thousand years.' Therefore," explained Kalna, "whoever is transported from the Earth will be one of our own, somewhat as Elijah was, who was taken away in one of our starships, and ten years later could return to bring a message to the Earth-dwellers of that time. Those who will rule with Christ for a thousand years, will be able to live on Earth, and He will be in the midst of them, and we will also be there. And they will be able to ascend with Him, and with us, into the higher worlds of the limitless universe. The Earth will once more take its rightful place in the brotherhood of universal love, and will again, as already told to you, become a true Garden of Eden. We will no longer have to turn you away from entering Eden, that unspoiled region which has remained true to the Father and His universal laws. We, the cherubim with the drawn, flaming sword, will be among you, and you will be with us. Also, you will undertake missions on behalf of Him who has power in Heaven and on Earth, in accord with the Father's will, and His loving kindness will be the foundation of His sovereign government. Truly, the resurrected shall be priests of God and Christ,—a priesthood that proceeds directly from Him, according to the promise made by one of our ambassadors to Earth, the great priest-king Melchisedec. And then you will know no other death. In any event, the word which was delivered to you, in accordance with the truth, will be fulfilled."
We were invited to rest on comfortable beds in small rooms with low level illumination. Tina, Paul and I each went to our rooms. We were not tired, but we understood that this rest would give us new energy, and would refresh our spirits for the things that were ahead of us. Kalna and Raphael accompanied us. The others took their leave in friendly fashion and wished us a comfortable period of relaxation. My heart was full of gratitude to these brothers, and a deep sense of joy welled up within me. I felt protected and inwardly reflected on the many new insights that had been granted us. I soon lapsed into deep and refreshing slumber, as did the others, each in their own rooms.
CHAPTER 14
PRAYER AND MESSAGES
We were awakened by the sound of beautiful music and a gradual increase of the illumination in the room. Raphael and Kalna came to get us, and to accompany us to a room where we were entertained. Several young men and women danced with exquisite grace. Others sang to instrumental accompaniment. The brothers who played were excellent musicians, and revealed great sensitivity and musical feeling. Some of the instruments were completely unfamiliar to us, having no similarity to our instruments at all. Others could be described as similar to the violin, harp, trumpet or oboe; one was like a cross between one of our early keyboard instruments and an organ. The tones were pleasingly mellow, expressing through simply structured harmony a mood that was uplifting and inspirational in the extreme. Several pieces, although far removed from similarity to Earthly music, recalled to mind certain arias by Bach.
The brothers came and went quite informally. There were men and women of indeterminate age; I would have guessed they might be between fifteen and thirty-five. Their expressions were gentle and good-natured, in spite of differences in personality and outward appearance.
Some seemed to be temperamentally inclined toward reflection; others were more active and lively by nature. There were different facial types and characteristics which we on Earth would attribute to different racial origins, or regional heritage. All of them greeted us heartily. Many stayed for a while in conversation, to show their friendly inclination toward us, or to hear some news. All were well informed on who we were, where we were from, and on the course of the mission that Raphal and the others were carrying out with us.
There was some more choral singing, which we found completely charming. And, again, there was dancing by men and women who moved with such ease and grace as to fill us with admiration.
At a particular moment, all became quiet. One of the brothers, who seemed to be very well loved and honored for his high standing and knowledge, said in a loud voice: "May the Heavenly Father bless our brothers from Earth, and the brothers from planets in all the creation. May His love touch the hearts of all those on Earth who do not know Him. May the infinite light of His being make itself known to those who can not see Him. May God protect and reward all those who work in His just cause. May He draw every lost son to Him by the power of His loving-kindness."
After these words, the whole company of people said a prayer together in hushed and fervent tones: "Most beloved and praiseworthy Father, You who are above all creation! How sweet it is to call upon Your name. Your love penetrates every chasm and enraptures our hearts. We pray now for all the brothers of Earth. Give them Your light and Your fire. Forgive them all their offenses. Help them to forgive their brothers, who can not love. Take away all the sins of the whole cosmos and of the Earth-world. May all your children know You, O Father, and love You everlastingly. Hear us, O Father, and give us joy and peace in that knowledge. Amen."
A feeling of blessed peace came over us with these words of prayer from the brothers. Tina's eyes were filled with tears. Paul was deep in thought, and remained silent. I looked at Raphael, who said: "God the Father, He who is good and gracious, great and almighty, allows us to be aware of His Godly presence and His loving smile of approval."
There followed a period in which each person in the group spoke silently in his or her own heart to the Father. I felt His presence more clearly than if He had taken on form and become a visible being. I loved Him for myself, and for all His children on Earth. I loved Him because He, alone, is worthy of all love.
A wall at the side of the room began to slide open, revealing an adjacent room in the starship. Now there was a single larger room, to which still more men and women came. All sat down. Raphael arose and began speaking as follows: "The whole federation of brothers, who live in the consciousness of the Father's universal love, have accompanied the brothers of Earth since the earliest times, over a long and difficult path. But, at this particular time, the planet is coming into the fulfillment of events of greater import, foreseen since the beginning by God the Father, and concerning which we were appraised a very long time ago,— those things which we inspired the prophets to write down, while they were living on Earth, fulfilling their chosen missions of leadership."
"We have always shown ourselves to the people of Earth, and made contact with them, to let them know of our presence. Since the second world war raged across the continents of Earth, we have devised ever more effective methods of influencing your people. Since the end of the war, which caused so much misery and sorrow, we have seen to it that a steadily increasing number of brothers have become involved in contacts of the visible and tangible kind. This will increase, in spite of the hindrances and prejudices which stand in the way of carrying on our work. Our star-ships are quite visible, and our flying discs go through motions
and send out colored lights in a manner utterly impossible for any of your craft,—on land or sea, or in the air. Anyone who sees us hovering motionlessly in the sky, cannot doubt that we are there. And those who witness our zig-zag flight across the heavens, or observe the awe-inspiring fireballs we send out, and other inexplicable aerial phenomena that defy the laws of science as you know them, have no other choice but to finally acknowledge our presence in your skies."
Raphael looked at Tina, Paul, and me as one who knows he has attentive listeners. Then he went on, "We carry on contacts with Earth brothers in other productive ways as well. We speak to their spirits, their hearts and understanding, also to their imaginations, not forcefully, but in a way so as . to share our thoughts and feelings, and to give them light and understanding. We do this in gentle ways, so that they are free either to accept these truths or dismiss them from their minds and go their own way. These are the times for which the words of Joel were written: 'Your sons and daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions'. For the children of Earth, now is the time that the words of the prophet are fulfilled: 'I will,' said the Lord, 'show wonders in the Heavens and in the Earth, blood, fire and pillars of smoke.'"
Raphael invited the whole company of brothers to apply themselves toward the deliverance of the people of Earth, in the name of God the Father. All listened closely to his every word.
"We are very disturbed," he said solemnly, "over the things which are soon to come upon the Earth." Then he added, in an attitude of devotion, "But we put our trust in the infinite compassion and loving-kindness of God, of Christ the Lord, who died on this planet out of love for the brothers, and of His blessed Mother, who intercedes constantly for us through the heart of Her Son, and that of the Heavenly Father."
He had hardly finished these words, when the lights began to dim. I noticed that Raphael joined the group who were seated. Now we were shown a scene which was so dreadful that I would rather not describe it. A man's voice spoke the words of the prophet Joel: "The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord has come."
Then a woman's voice spoke the following words of hope: "Whoever shall call on the Name of the Lord shall be delivered; for in Mount Zion and in the spiritual Jerusalem shall be deliverance of the remnant, as the Lord hath said, and of those whom the Lord hath called."
We saw innumerable men, women, and children, who had been evacuated from Earth and brought up to one of the starships, which were assembled in large numbers over the devastated planet. It was as if everyone who was rescued carried a sign of recognition on them, for they seemed to radiate with the same white glow as the starships.
The light came on again, and Raphael stood up. "The Scriptures," he said, "call God the Lord of Hosts. As Jesus, the Son of the Living God, was born in the stable of Bethlehem,—that symbol of the infinite humility of this great brother,—it was the hosts' of the Lord who sang, proclaiming the good news of His reign of peace to men on Earth. Now we stand at the beginning of the final battle against evil, and of suffering, which has all too long afflicted the children and grieved the Father. Very soon the trumpets of the victory of the good, of justice, and of all-embracing love will be sounded. On Earth, there will be a sunrise such as has never before been seen, not once since the time of the first Eden. The remnant will, so it is prophesied, work together in steadfast allegiance with the One who rules in righteousness because He is good, just and true, as it is written."
Raphael sat down, and after a short pause, continued, "We will first evacuate the brothers who have always sought after goodness and justice; after that, the repentant, and finally,
those who came to acknowledge and worship God the Father only at the last minute. There will be deliverance for all, except for those who have become enslaved by their own hardness of heart. He who has ears to hear, let him hear!"
He was silent, then spoke in a more gentle manner: "We invite all brothers of the Earth to open their hearts to the good, and we pray that they turn to God the Father and to us, who are His agents on Earth. All your longings will always be answered, as has been the case through all time. We are in a position to know your thoughts and the needs of your hearts. And this is infinitely more true of God the Father. We beseech and implore you, good and righteous people of the Earth, to root out, once and for all, this brother-murdering pride that so poisons the spirit of mankind today. Not one syllable of your prayer will be lost, not one sigh of your soul for truth and justice will be in vain. Beseech and implore, and every day be meek and pure in heart. Your heart should not become discouraged because of human failure. At any moment there is forgiveness and compassion. To the degree that you are humble and penitent, every sin is a means for knowing greater love and grace. The Father has placed us by your side, and has sent you One whose knowledge, understanding and love far exceeds anything you can imagine. A Master has been given to you, whose wisdom and compassion are without bounds. With Him is also His blessed Mother, the Queen of the universe. She who at Fatima, that tiny, out of the way Earth-village, gave to simple country children the news of the impending apocalyptic time now coating upon Earth as a consequence of man's monstrous folly. She intercedes for, and works every minute on behalf of, the children of Earth, but the burden that she carries grows ever heavier, and the responsibility, almost unbearable. There are universal laws of justice which the Father has provided in order to safeguard the love between His children, and between Himself and them. It grieves us to have to say to the brothers of this planet that we have long since gone beyond the allowable limits, in this regard. In place of the rivalries of the past, may there now be a kind of competition of kindness, of piety, and of modesty. May there be a return to the simplicity of former times, which need not in any way stand in conflict with the progress in technical development you have attained, when that development is used for the good. Soon the Lord will come, and we will be with Him. The Kingdom of Love will be re-established on Earth, and it will be a great day for all who have looked forward to it, but a dreadful day for those who have opposed it, the enemies of love, of the Lord and of God."
Two messages were given to us, one of them sealed. As he gave the second one to me, Raphael said, "Soon His kingdom will come on Earth, a kingdom of the spirit which cannot be entrusted to any human power. That also has been determined, and is recorded in the Scriptures."
We were told that the starship was now hovering in space; soon we would enter the flying disc in order to return to our familiar world again.
(15)
CHAPTER 15
ON A WONDERFUL PLANET
We entered the large flying disc. With us came Raphael, Firkon, Orthon, Kalna, Ilmuth, Zuhl, and three others of the brothers, two men and a woman. There was an atmosphere of
celebration in the air. The inside of this reconnaissance craft was different from the one we had been in before. The control room and the larger inner rooms were separated by softly glowing partitions. In the middle of the main room was a large column of light, which reached from the floor to the apex of the domed ceiling.
We went over to one of the portholes which could be seen along the outer wall. "Oh, dear Lord!" exclaimed Tina, stepping back as if to recover from a sudden surge of excitement over what she saw.
Paul, entranced by the spectacle, could not take his eyes from the scene. We were gently descending toward the surface of a beautiful world. A greening nature touched the plains, hills and mountains with life. A large river, in which were many islands, emptied its blue waters into a great sea. The sky was full of disc-shaped flying craft. I saw no cities, dwellings, or communities of any kind. This surprised me, but Raphael, who had read my thoughts, said, "In these worlds, which are true to the universal laws, man lives in structural harmony with nature."
The soft sunny light of a great luminous orb in the sky shed its pleasing splendor on all the landscape below. I noted that the light was a little different from that of our own wonderful sun. It filtered down through veil-like cloud patterns in the light blue sky, lighting up nature's realm in color, sometimes vivid, sometimes more subdued. Before we knew it, we had landed in the midst of a luxurious plant-world on a large hill. We could hear in the background the soothing sound of the sea, as waves lapped gently at an unfamiliar shore. In the air was a slight breeze. We stepped out onto a grassy plot, quite similar to our own Earth, except for the variety of tones of green. The trees and their leaves were more ornamental in form, and delicate in coloration that those I was familiar with. Among the luxuriant growth were numerous plants and trees bearing fruit, similar, though not identical, to those we have on Earth. Some resembled apples, pineapples, or bananas, others were more like cherries or grapes. Such a profusion, diversity and harmony of plant life, one could have scarcely ever imagined.
Several friendly animals came up to us; they were something like our large pandas on Earth. They showed no fear and posed no threat, seeming happy to have us pet them.
Then we started off with the brothers in the direction of a large field, where we could see a number of reconnaissance craft landing, while others were just taking off. As we walked along near the field, Ilmuth told us that this was one of the most important meeting points for the brothers from many worlds. We walked around a tree with an enormous trunk, whose branches must have reached out more than a dozen meters in all directions. Its leaves were broad and beautifully patterned with fine gradations of color ranging from green to red. I observed it, entranced, while Tina ran up to touch it, by way of greeting. After that, we walked on farther with the brothers, led by Raphael.
The hill we were on dropped off steeply down toward the sea, and along the coast the flora became even more abundant. There, below us we saw a huge building, like a mushroom or discus, resting on the ground. I had the impression it might be a dwelling or a temple, or perhaps a guest house, like one of our hotels on Earth. The building's exterior colors ranged from shades of green to chestnut brown, from heavenly blue to beige. It struck me that they harmonized perfectly with the natural setting of the surroundings. Here and there we could see terraces with a carpeting of decorative moss.
The great disc-shaped structure seemed to have been constructed of the same material as the starship, in which we had come there. Although it gave the impression of being translucent, there was no way to see what was on the inside. We drew closer, and entered by an open door. The scene that we looked upon is indescribable! We were in a huge assembly
hall, yet it was a park-like setting, for underfoot were great panels of short meadow grass, bordered with moss. There were also carpeted areas, which blended beautifully with the natural decor. Chairs and benches were arranged in groups, some on the carpeted areas, and some on the lawns. At one side of the great room were lounge chairs and sofas, all facing toward the center of the room, as is the pattern in some of our auditoriums. Columns of various sizes rose from the grassy floor to the ceiling, and into the space above.
Actually, we discovered, these were the trunks of especially chosen trees, which also provided a natural ceiling. Their leafy crowns served to diffuse the sun's bright rays, producing a pleasing play of light and shade that contributed to a beneficial atmosphere of relaxation and peace. While one could not see into the building, in spite of its translucent quality, yet it was possible to see outside and admire the magnificent panorama of nature that was all around us, and this scene was pleasantly moderated by the filtering action of the walls and ceiling. At the sides and back of this large hall were small doors which, without any visible door latches noiselessly opened and closed as people went in and out. I assumed they opened into rooms used for purposes of recreation, reading, dining and rest.
From here we went outdoors again, and Raphael led us to a little area of lawn surrounded by hedge rows. Huge ornamental shrubs tempered the light from their life-giving orb, creating lacy patterns of light and shade. We were told that the brothers were going to put on a play for us here.
We sat down on the grass. Meanwhile, other persons came to join us, many of them exchanging greetings and words of conversation. Then all was still. A large audience filled the green. In the foreground, in front of some of the shrubs, clouds of colored vapor appeared, and before long had built themselves into a substantial-looking outdoor theater stage. The light from this mysterious energy-construct harmonized well with the existing light, but was significantly brighter.
Several brothers stepped onto the 'stage' and began with a play in the form of questions and answers, a sort of comedy, light entertainment or operetta, as we might call it on Earth. Next came some scenes that were full of light-hearted celebration and good humor. Everybody laughed and we, too, were swept up with the gaiety of it, watching this lively play with so many turns of subtle humor to it, all portrayed with consumate skill. The cheerful natural surroundings seemed to enhance the spirit of infectious levity that prevailed. Effects were achieved such as would not likely have been possible in any other setting.
Then the scene changed, and there followed the production of a gripping story: a man and a woman, together with other brothers from the higher developed planets of the universe, were in search of a fellow human who longed to find God, and had made a journey into space in hopes of finding Him there, without the equipment necessary for a successful voyage. His knowledge was limited, but his desire was so great that he abandoned all caution in his eagerness to find a world where he might see the Creator's unveiled face with his own eyes and know at first hand God's perfect love and divine justice. This story, which might sound almost banal from such a brief summary, was most movingly and convincingly portrayed, with great fidelity to true life. I saw that many of the brothers were deeply touched, and that Tina's eyes were moist with tears. Paul told me that, for his part, he could easily identify with the deep longing of that simple child of the universe.
After that, there was a musical play which included many beautiful scenes of group dancing and interpretive dancing.
We were completely fascinated by the subtly changing effects of color, light, and perspective achieved in those scenes, as if choreographed by some unseen source. The performance was altogether so compelling that one felt more like a participant than a spectator. I was
always aware that it was possible to create a mood by means of dramatic stage effects. But I could not account for the sense of close inner relationship I felt with the players in that play.
A wonderful celebration of joy in one another's presence took place on the green after the plays. All these brothers from many worlds were happy to see each other again, and to have the opportunity to exchange news and experiences from their home planets. I could not say how long all this lasted. As the life-giving rays of their great 'sun' touched our bodies with pleasant warmth, so the spirit-lifting power of this mutually edifying social time touched our souls with inner satisfaction.
After a while we returned and once more went inside of the large mushroom-shaped building. Here, we found the brothers were gathering together in great numbers. A wonderful aroma, such as of blossoms in springtime, filled the air. The beautiful young woman from the higher realms was there before us all, smiling and majestic. And at her side was a man of magnificent bearing. I recognized Him as the One who had appeared to me in the form of a light apparition, one night after Raphael's annunciation. As at that time, He was clothed in white, had blue eyes, chestnut-brown hair and beard, and appeared to be about thirty years of age. With them, were a number of men and women, of striking, yet unassuming, beauty, whose gracious and reverent demeanor aroused feelings of great respect. Now all eyes were turned expectantly toward the exalted lady of the universe and toward the Lord, who was about to speak.
"Love be unto all the children of the Heavenly Father," He said, "and peace to the people of good will from the Earth!" His words commanded the total attention of everyone present.
"I gave my life for my lambs on Earth," He continued in loving tones that went straight to the heart. "I received the power from my Father to lay down my life and to take it up again. That is the assignment that was given to me by my Father in Heaven."
His beneficent glance turned toward the queenly person beside Him. She looked at Him, and again for many minutes the response of joyous acclamation swept in waves across the crowd.
"Soon," He said, turning again to the audience in the great hall, "we will be able to say to the people of Earth that all the Scriptures have been fulfilled. Soon, I will make all things new, and, according to the promises, there will be a new Heaven and a new Earth. These I will bring into being, in accordance with my Heavenly Father's will."
"You," He said in a firm and gentle voice, "are my friends and my brothers. With you I will bring together all my children from all times, and everything will be fulfilled in accord with the Father's laws of universal love. Justice will reign, and all will see and recognize the truth. Out of respect for the Father's great gift of freedom to all of His children, we gave only love, deeds of kindness, and words of life to those who also worked against us, to smother the happiness of truth and stifle the joy of our heart and to cause us much suffering and pain. We took this suffering upon ourselves, as we also do willingly today, because we want to share in the suffering of God the Father. But, above all, we have determined to give the word which would show the right path for man to take, and which would, through its power, bring the gifts of understanding and everlasting life. Many children of God the Father have spread my words to the people of Earth; they reveal the thoughts and heart of the Creator. Therefore, they are not always loved and esteemed by those who do not honor the Father's truth."
"Many prophets preceded My coming to the world of the children of Earth. When I did come, I was called the Word by those who were my own, and who received me. I told them who I was, and was delivered unto death. I showed myself in this body, which was able to go through the walls of the Earth-dweller's houses, and I ate with them, in order to show them I
could, whenever I wished, be transported to other dimensions and other surrounds. You, brothers, have gone before me and have followed in my steps. And even now, you continue to do as I do and desire that which I desire, for that is the will of the Heavenly Father, who binds us together in His all-embracing love. However, this word, which many messengers have brought to Earth, and which I taught and lived, did not persuade some opponents of the light to adopt the way of love and universal truth. We were patient, and will always be patient, for the Heavenly Father is patient. But the sorrow which He felt, and the pain of so many brothers who unjustly suffer, and in so many times and places have suffered, were known in Heaven. The brother John heard the prayers of the martyrs and, divinely inspired, recorded his apocalyptic vision in the book of Revelation.
"Therefore, the Father has asked of me that all things on Earth should be made new, and that my enemies,—the enemies of freedom, happiness and universal love—should be made His footstool. It has been determined that the planet Earth and its children, who suffer from hunger and thirst, but who long for brotherly love and justice, will at last be restored to peace and tranquility. Therefore, soon the Heavenly Father and I, my blessed Mather, and all the children of the universal brotherhood, will experience together the return of Earth, the prodigal, to the fellowship of love and peace, which unites us all in God the Father. In other times and places, the Father's constant concern has been over His children's sin and sorrow, strife and destruction, but no longer will this be true of planet Earth. Truly, the Earth will once more become a paradise, a garden of Eden. On the starships there will be feasts of celebration and great joy when we deliver into the Father's hands, and to His dispensation of infinite love, compassion, justice, His readiness to forgive and slowness to anger, the opponents,—those brothers who did not want to learn from the thousands of years experience of evil, and chose to remain deaf to the word of love and truth that was given them, and was sealed with the blood of the martyrs."
There was a sympathetic response from the audience, from which it was evident that they shared deeply both in the anguish of Earth's travail and the joy over the prospect of a new dispensation.
"Soon," He said, "I will come, brothers of Earth; yes, we will come in the clouds to bind the power of hatred and death. Then you will see virtues of humility and integrity shine forth. Service in love and learning will replace the grip of might. It will be the end of the beast that wanted to put itself in the place of God. Man is symbolized by the number six, whereas the number three is the symbol for God. Six-sixty-six is three sixes, and therefore represents the man who would put himself in the place of God the Father. That is the number of the beast that will be defeated, and with it the false prophet, who has given his own false word, a word which is not mine, nor yours, nor that of the only true universal Father."
"When all has been brought to fulfillment, then you, the cherubim of the scriptures, will take up your guardianship duties, and ensure that all my Earth children can travel throughout the numberless realms of space created through the Father's love. I can testify to the joyous, creative power of the Father's love. No one knows the Father as I do. His children have the right to explore the immense reaches of space, to visit innumerable created worlds, and to pluck the abundant fruits of His love, but they do not have the right to abuse His great love, or to betray themselves, their own lives, or those of their brothers."
"We sent Noah, Moses, Elijah, Enoch, and many others. The brother Elijah, a great son of the Father, cried out, 'I am consumed with eagerness for God, the Lord of Hosts!' And, like him, so have others we have sent out prayed to Him who sent His heavenly host to Earth before Him. We carried Elijah and many others to our starships, and thus occurred an instance of the first resurrection of the body, of which all the prophets have spoken, and of which John also spoke in the book of Revelation, in connection with the millennium."
"We have always accompanied the people of Earth, just as Raphael once did accompany the young Tobias. Never have we left you all alone. Our word meant salvation and true understanding for all who would accept it as the light of truth. We showed the prophets a vision of the end times and the final victory of the God of Hosts, following a foolish insurrection of many of His children. Ezekiel was shown things that even now are being seen, and will be increasingly seen in the coming days. It is written, not that He created darkness, but that He created light, and separated it from the darkness. For this was done by One who had the power to do it. All that the Father made was good,—exceedingly good, as the Scriptures which tell of creation repeatedly state. After the exodus from Earth, the likes of which have never been known in the history of the world, or of religion, every man-made law will make way for the Godly and universal laws of the Heavenly Father."
"The children of all-embracing love will no longer be seduced into dishonoring themselves; the putrefaction of every whitened sepulcher will be made known. The history of evil will come to an end, and every deceitful trick of the prince of darkness will be exposed. Soon those previously sealed up things which were uttered by the seven thunders will be seen and understood throughout the Earth. Prepare yourselves, you who hunger and thirst because of injustice; the heavenly kingdom is near, and all will see it. Not a single one of your heart's desires will be unfulfilled." Everyone arose, and their voices joined in unison:
"Our Father, who art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done, on Earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread,
And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors;
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil."
Radience streamed from the figures of the Lord and the blessed Lady. He stood in a golden light, and she in a snow-white light, which seemed to fill the whole room. At first, the snow-white light of the blessed Lady predominated. It was as if a sun of incomparable brilliance were shining in the temple, reaching into the farthest corners, blessing all in its path. I could tell that all the brothers around me could sense the influence of that shining glory, as I could. At a very deep level, we felt, increasingly, in union with one another and with the blessed Lady herself.
Every thought, feeling, emotion and insight blended together in one great symphony of love. What we experienced was a true harmony of mind and heart. The feeling inspired by that wonderful, luminous presence united and enkindled our spirits. We were all one.
I was aware of invisible worlds and the brothers that inhabited them. I sensed a love which embraced all Creation, and a longing which drew my whole being toward the Father. It was as if showers of blessings were pouring down on us from above, suffusing us with deep feelings of cleanliness and release.
Now it was the figure of the Lord that shone with a brightness that rivaled the sun, and that fine golden light bestowed on everyone present a feeling of ecstasy and inner wholeness. In this house of living light, I was aware of entire universes. I knew that man had no limitation in the dimension of the spirit, and, at the same time, I felt enveloped in perfect peace and
melted with quiet rapture.
When all this was at its highest point, and I felt surrounded by the steadfast love of all the brothers, the most pure and unselfish love of the universal Mather, and the life-giving love of the divine-human Son, a sublime fire took possession of every living being present. It was like a golden cord, from abyss to abyss, from world to world, from heaven to heaven, from ecstasy to ecstasy. In that fire, all things were revealed, all mysteries were made clear. I heard again the words that had been given to us, and I knew that this fire expressed them all. I saw a Godly Countenance of incomprehensible beauty coming down from above. It drew closer to look into our eyes and claim possession of every fiber of our being; and so also with respect to each individual brother (and sister) present, and the divine Mother and the Lord.
This sublime personification repeated itself a second, and yet a third time, the last time seeming to appear as if coming from all directions at all points in the room at the same time. It enkindled in every heart a longing for peace and love that could only be satisfied by being willing to lose one's self completely in God.
Then it was all over and we left in quiet contemplation of what had taken place. After an experience like that, it took quite a little while for us to return to reality and regain the strength needed to resume normal functions of life consistent with our actual surroundings at the time.
We returned to the flying disc. Our parting was a festive occasion, which once more served to demonstrate the brothers' unqualified love for us, and good will toward the planet Earth. Boarding the disc with us were Raphael, Firkon, Kalna, Ilmuth and Zuhl, who was our pilot. The circular craft trembled slightly, and we climbed up in the bright sky toward the mothership which hovered silently in the thinner atmosphere above. The journey back to Earth had begun.
(16)
CHAPTER 16
THE LAST MEETING
In early September, 1981, we received the call to our last meeting. We proceeded to a certain region near Genoa, as directed. Arriving at the appointed place, we soon saw the landed flying disc, a silent, shining wonder in the gray morning light. Three human figures were moving toward us, and we stood there in the grass waiting for them. I felt heartsick and sore distressed to think that this might be our last meeting together.
The sight of that beautiful young woman from the highest heavenly realms, who had such unbounded love that she would humble herself to visit the children of Earth in their time of need, touched me so deeply that I was scarcely able to hold back the tears. The others who were with me were also visibly moved, and kept their gaze intently fixed on the three visitors. It was not the same as when we were on that wonderful planet we had visited. And yet, that divine personage was standing before us even as then, and our hearts were enraptured with pure, untainted love.
The young lady smiled with gentle gracious warmth. "Now," she said, "all is complete. You
are ready for your mission of being witness to what you have seen and what you have heard. God's spirit will be your helper."
I felt so small and imperfect before this wonderful being that I could not bring myself to speak. But she waited and smiled again, and before long my timidity left me.
"What should we do?" I asked, "and how are we to do it?"
The look of gentle compassion never left her eyes, and the measured silence that greeted my queries gave eloquent response. It was as if she wanted to allow us time to focus our powers of attention to the fullest degree. Then she began: "It is not necessary to follow a human plan. The Spirit will lead you and teach you what you should do and what you should say. You know enough now. Did you not see how simply we led you to an understanding of that which is essential? Truly, this is the greatest teaching of Heaven for you, dear children: simplicity, which is perfect humility."
She repeated with emphasis, and it fell upon our ears like a melody:
"Simplicity, honesty, humility!"
A deep sense of peace settled upon me and released my mind from every question concerning the future of the mission entrusted to us, and the way in which it could best be carried out. The beautiful young woman also had other things to say to us at that time. Raphael and Firkon followed her words attentively, smiling now and then.
"Several times," I said, "there has been talk about the book that should be published. Please tell us what we are expected to do."
Her response was gracious and definite. "You will write a book," she said. "The publisher will come forward at the right time, and the Spirit will lead him to publish it in accordance with the wishes of the highest Heavens. Have faith always, in order that God may guide your steps!"
It was now about mid-day. The thick canopy of clouds that had covered the sky began to disperse, and between patches of cloud and mist, bright rays of sunlight came streaming through. The young woman looked as if she were wrapped in a mantle of golden light. In the aura of her queenly presence, we involuntarily dropped to our knees. Firkon began to recite in prayer: "The angel of the Lord brought the message to the Virgin Mary."
"And she conceived by the Holy Spirit," Raphael responded, with deep reverence.
All of us, brothers from Earth and brothers from the stars, knelt in a circle around the Virgin Mother, who stood with Her hands folded and Her shining countenance turned heavenward, as if in rapt adoration of the Father-Creator of us all.
Her dress seemed to be made of the finest silk; it was light blue and had no seams. There was a white sash about her waist. The sleeves were white, and gathered at the wrists. Her brown-blond hair fell in waves over Her back and shoulders.
Raphael wore a gold-colored tunic, which at times seemed to take on a dark yellow or chestnut-brown hue. Firkon wore a loose-fitting khaki-brown flying suit. Both wore sandals of a color somewhat like copper, while the blessed lady was barefoot.
Raphael began to pray, using the words of the 'Ave Maria'. We prayed after him, and blessings filled our hearts to overflowing. We would have gladly stayed there where we were much longer, or have gone back into space with Her, so great was our feeling of joy and benediction in Her presence. But she gently bade us, with a gesture of the hand, to stand up.
"You will find little understanding on the part of mankind on Earth," She said, "but those who wish to understand, will listen to you. Many who believe in God will accuse you of desecration, because you have dared to represent Heavenly realities and supernatural beings in cosmic or universal terms. Ask them why God Himself wanted to descend to the cosmos, and, on Earth, appear in human form. Fear not,' The Spirit will lead you and support you, as will a part of those who are dedicated to serving Jesus and His cause,—namely, your salvation."
The young woman also told us many things concerning the coming times, as well as the mission entrusted to us, and made us aware of some of the problems that we would encounter while getting started on our mission.
"You have nothing to fear," she said. "You will give your witness. Be humble, and serve your brothers as God serves us and we serve you. I will always be near you, and will care for you, as would a mother."
She said still other things to us, and gave us further advice, wise and prudent, in the manner of a mother or an elder sister, acting out of gracious concern. Then She blessed us, laying hands on each one in turn. She smiled on us once more, and while we were still kneeling in the grass, returned with Raphael and Firkon to the ship.
The disc hovered but a moment, then streaked upward with a flash, and disappeared from sight. In our hearts we felt a tremendous sense of inner peace, in spite of the poignant realization that this was probably our last meeting.
(17)
CHAPTER 17
A GIFT OF RESCUE
It was not easy to return to the routine of daily life without the prospect of further contacts with the brothers. But we had not lost the ability to have 'cosmic contact', and that enabled us, during the time that followed, to make our concerns known to Heaven. In particular, it was made clear to us that we must make our witness to Earth brothers without waiting for further contacts or unusual happenings.
I thought about many things that had been said to us. Now, I could understand why we were repeatedly told: "You must have great faith." Truly, I had for a long time had the impression of living life immersed in light, and now I felt plunged into darkness. I began, for the first time, to really understand what it means, in this world, to have faith, in order to keep moving forward into the light. These days were, for me, difficult to bear.
Certain things which they had said came to my mind again: "You will know, and yet you will be, otherwise, like everyone else," or: "If, in past times, any Earth person had had such an experience as yours, and then had been brought back to resume normal life without our help, that person would have surely suffered from insanity. But do not be afraid; you will not lose your minds. None of you will become insane." That gave me renewed faith and inner strength, and helped greatly to relieve my feelings of anguish.
Tina and Paul also had to endure a similar period of testing. Now and again we would have long talks about this, and often Tina would grow disconsolate and resort to tears. I began telling certain of my friends and acquaintances something about the experiences we had undergone, myself as leader, and the others along with me. The word got around, and soon the people of our village were talking about it. We were not spared from a good deal of skeptical comment and other painful experiences that added to our personal difficulties. Tina was urged to suspend her activities altogether for a certain period of time.
Accompanied by Paul, I began to talk to the first groups of persons that expressed a sincere desire to learn just what had happened. Paul felt confident and sure of himself. I, on the other hand, felt a certain amount of inner resistance, primarily as a consequence of my natural shyness. Urged on by the example of Paul's courage, I began giving talks before various groups of people in Genoa. Whenever I had to speak, I seemed to receive the strength to do so; I felt peaceful inside, and because my heart was full of love, the words flowed easily. Then, again, my former mood would overtake me, and I would have liked to have gone into hiding. When people asked me all manner of questions, I would remember how many questions we had asked the brothers from the universe. Several times I had asked Firkon (who never wished to reveal his true name to us), why they treated us with so much love and patience. Their answer was always the same: "God loves us, and we love you." So now we, in turn, felt an inner compulsion to transmit this great love to the Earth brothers.
In the six months of meetings with the brothers, the voice of the Lord had often spoken to me. It urged me to open ray Bible in the quiet of my room, and to read it and pray.
This I did, and while I read the words of the Scriptures, the Lord spoke to me and helped me to understand many things that were previously not clear. His voice was pleasant and impressive, and it inspired me with new enthusiasm whenever I heard it. I was enthralled by the beauty of the biblical narrative, and had to marvel at the way in which the events of our day could be read into the words of that ancient text.
I saw Him in the midst of undulating colored light, as He had appeared to me one night many months earlier. Often I was aware of His presence at my side, and always I felt strengthened with a deep sense of inner peace and joy.
One day as I was thinking about the words the brothers had spoken to us such a short time ago, I opened my Bible at random, and was suddenly aware of the Lord's presence near me, and I heard Him say: "Too long have I dwelt among those who hate peace. I speak words of peace, but they press on for war." The words are to be found to the one hundred and twentieth Psalm, which is entitled: "The Enemies of Peace."
I was confused, and asked what war He was speaking about. He answered:
"The true realities are spiritual, not material. When I speak to you, I refer above all to that which pertains to the spirit. However, I have told you before that the listerial destiny and the spiritual destiny are closely bound together." There followed a long silence, during which I was acutely aware of the presence of the Lord, who was now at my right side. When He spoke, there was sadness in His voice:
"A great war, such as the planet has never before seen, will be but a pale reflection of the spiritual destruction that the enemy will bring upon the children of the Heavenly Father. As it is written in the Revelation of John, it will even cause the stars of heaven to fall. But not all. The Father will answer with love and an incomparable gift of rescue for the Earth."
I recalled what the Blessed Lady had told us at the time of our meeting on the great plain. I understood that this referred to the third message of Fatima, and the events that would occur
just before the millenium, as John had prophesied in Revelation. Again there was a long period of silence. I saw His radiant face. I sensed that He had more to say, and I waited expectantly. This prophecy would be especially difficult for Earthman to accept, and yet I took it as a wonderful indication of compassion and grace. He continued: "Read the messages from my loving Mother: Fatima, LaSalette, and others. She has come down to bring a great germinating seed of love and salvation to the Earth, but also to bring an earnest warning to those who wish to see the triumph of evil over all. These purveyors of calamity will have not the least excuse for the devastation that follows, for there have been such prophesies and portents that even the blind and the deaf must be aware of your perilous state."
The Lord was now no longer in the form of an almost tangible presence near me, as before. My heart was filled to overflowing with an inexpressible love, despite the feeling of sadness that accompanied His final words.
I wanted immediately to go out from my room and tell everyone I met on the street that we must all get busy and actively work for change—to become better persons, individually, and a better people, collectively.
I thought of the words of Jesus, that no man stands above the Master. I wrote in my notebook, as always, the words He spoke in my mind, and I renewed with my whole heart my steadfast determination to do my modest best for the cause of the planet's salvation. This is the obligation, and the glorious opportunity, entrusted to all persons of good will.
(18)
CHAPTER 18
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF MY ENCOUNTER
Genoa, March 4, 1984
In the second chapter of my book, "Angels in Starships", originally published by Edizioni Mediterranee in Rome, I told, as I did also in the German manuscript, of my first experience with a flying disc from outer space.
Busy with important matters that were on my mind at the time of the first writing, I neglected to include some significant details which I would now like to mention, since I have received a friendly inquiry from the editor of the journal, "UFO Nachrichten", in Wiesbaden. On the pages of the second chapter of "Angels in Starships", I reported everything that I had recorded concerning that first meeting with the archangel Raphael by the hovering spaceship, at which time he spoke with me for about two hours. But what I did not put into writing, and what was known to only a few witnesses —no eyewitnesses to the occurrence, but some to whom I spoke about it shortly afterward—was the fact that at the moment the spaceship (which throughout the encounter had been hovering over some trees) started to leave, it put out such a burst of energy that all the joint compounds and sealing gaskets of the engine of my auto, (a Fiat 500L), were melted. When I tried to start my motor, it put out a great cloud of white smoke.
I could not tell the mechanic, whom I called about the problem, the true reason for the
breakdown, because I was afraid he would never believe me. He checked the car carefully, and was astounded at its condition. The only possible explanation he could offer was that I must have driven in slow traffic for a long time, causing a massive engine overheating which melted the joint compounds and gaskets. But he really had no explanation at all, that could satisfy him. For my part, I did not press the matter further, and simply agreed that he might be right, so no more questions were asked. In order not to have to reveal to the auto repair man my close encounter with the extraterrestrial flying disc, and since I could not disprove his theory, I kept quiet, and let him entertain his own ideas about how this engine damage might have occurred.
Thus came the evening of that significant day, and I had to return to Genoa by train. I left my Fiat 500 at the repair garage in Finale.
Some time later, I asked Raphael and the other space brothers why they had allowed this harm to come from the flying disc, a thing which had caused me inconvenience because of having to return to Genoa by train, and to spend money for auto repair. I told Raphael that it didn't seem to me to be in tune with their teaching about universal love.
Raphael's answer seemed reasonable and well-considered. He said that it was very important that I have no doubt that I had a real encounter with the flying disc and with him. With an indication such as this, which could not possibly be misunderstood, I would have no lingering doubt that I might have had a dream experience, or might have been the victim of some strange fantasy. According to him, the fact that the cosmic energy from the space vehicle could do serious damage to my auto would be evidence that I could not easily set aside, of the reality of all that I had experienced. I was urged not to let the incident trouble me, nor to be excessively concerned about the reasons for it. I was to accept the fact that there was a purpose behind that which was done.
Now I want to relate another incident, still in connection with that first encounter, known only to two of my friends in Genoa. Against Raphael's wishes, I went to that first meeting with a mini-tape recorder, which I carried concealed in my pocket the whole time, in an effort to obtain as much evidence as possible. Raphael, who without doubt knew about it, warned me not to make use of any technical apparatus during our meeting together. But he did not specifically insist that I turn off the recorder. He did tell me that no picture taking would be allowed.
During my return trip from Finale to Genoa after the meeting, I held the mini-recorder to my ear to hear how much of that first meeting might have been successfully recorded on the tape. I was very happy to find that the apparatus did indeed play back some portions of my conversation with Raphael, although in an irregular and incomplete form; even the humming sound of the nearby spaceship could clearly be heard.
The following morning, when I had to return the mini-tape recorder to my two friends in Genoa, I could not resist the temptation to give them at least some idea of the reason for my asking to borrow their little recorder. So I wanted them to hear at least the first part of the recording I had played over to myself while on the train. To my great surprise, it was almost completely erased, as if by some invisible hand. What little was left of the voices and the humming sound seemed so distorted, it was of no use at all, and my friends could not understand what could have happened to cause their recorder to produce such a poor result.
These and other details which I purposely left out of the Italian edition of "Angels in Starships" certainly add nothing, especially on the human level, to the inner and spiritual realities of those supernatural events that I, Tina, and the other friends from Genoa experienced. But for us, they remain as an enrichment of the experiences which we had, and they could also serve as objective proof. They confirm, on the human level, the great and sympathetic
CONCLUDING REMARKS
by Eufemio del Buono
In my Forward, I set forth some pertinent facts as a background for the text. It is my hope that these closing remarks will provide an informative and enlightening supplement.
In order to complete our journey to the past, it remains but to turn our attention to the Holy Scriptures. If one studies the sacred literature of the people of all the Earth with an open mind, one will discover that the 'sky cars' in the writings from India, China and primitive America, the 'feathered serpent' of the Popul Vuh, (Bible of the Quiche Indians of the great Mayan race), the 'firebird' of the Hopi Indians, the 'transparent spheres and sky pearls' of the Kaniur and Tamiur,(sacred books of the Lamas of Tibet), as well as the 'clouds and pillars and fiery chariots' of the Old and New Testaments, all possess remarkably similar characteristics. We have the 'vimanas' or 'ventlas' of the Asiatic Indians, the mighty flying craft of the Gods of Homer, the globes and shields in the heavens of Cicero, Julius Obsequens, and Plinius the elder, Seneca, Valerius Maximus and Xenophon, also the spheres and trumpets of Lycostenes, and finally the discs and cigar shaped flying objects of our time. The only difference is that in the past, sightings were described in mystical or awe-inspiring terms, in the light of the knowledge of those days.
Erich von Daniken asserts in his book, "Memories of the Future", that it was not God's chariot that Ezekiel saw at the river Kebar, but simply a spaceship which the prophet, knowing nothing of space flight, could only describe in the vocabulary of his time.
When the NASA engineer, Joseph F. Blumerich, (from the American space program), read von Daniken's took, he was disturbed, both from a scientific and religious point of view. He determined to refute the author's thesis on scientific and technical grounds, and began his own study of the Ezekiel text. To his great surprise, he came to the conclusion that von Daniken was right. Following the exact description which the prophet gives, a spaceship could be designed consistent with engineering principles, which would not only be technically feasible, but also practical for accomplishing its intended purpose. Blumerich reported his work in detail in his book, "The Spaceships of Ezekiel". Although his original intention of disproving von Daniken's thesis ended in defeat, he writes, "Never was defeat so richly rewarding, so fascinating and enjoyable."
Today, following George Adamski and this book, "Angels in Starships", we can combine the two interpretations in this way: one may assert that Ezekiel and some of the other prophets really had seen flying discs and spaceships, and had even flown in them occasionally; and one may also be sure these were the 'chariots of the Lord'. Neither of these realities excludes the other; on the contrary, they tell us about a possible bonding or synthesis of science and religion.
Actually it is clear, as Adamski taught us and this book confirms, that there is no reality in Creation that is not religious, since all was set in motion by the Eternal Word, and since nothing in the universe that God created and gave to man can remain forever unknown or beyond man's understanding.
Therefore it is obvious that with this new viewpoint, nothing is made less sacred, but rather more understandable, for we know that this 'cosmic fleet' has always been active over our planet and it will continue to work, and that its goal is the development of a supernatural order from a supernatural source.
Today we can read the testimony of Ezekiel, of the prophets, and of the modern contactees, and understand the cosmic and supernatural reality of the visitors who come from the universe of many realms.
Moreover, and this is the spiritual side of the phenomenon, we can well believe that the universe is not just the result of a chance meeting of atoms, as many like to maintain, but the realization of a great plan that springs from the heart of God, and that Creation itself is ruled in perfect harmony by exact and eternal laws.
Concerning the possibility of other life-forms in the universe, a great theologian, the Dominican Father Monsambré, has expressed himself in these words: "Why should not the stars be inhabited with beings lower than the angels, but more advanced than we are? Between the recondite life of pure spirit and our dense, rational, vegetative life, there is surely room for other forms of life. Could one not believe that the divine Shepherd might leave the ninety-nine steep in the other realms of space in order to seek the hundredth who was lost here below?"
Therefore the Earth is but one of the many dwelling places in the Father's house; it is the planet of testing, of opportunity for restoration, and of healing, where mankind, because of his freedom of choice and his limited understanding, must walk paths of pain and suffering to refine his spirit and make his weary ascent up the ladder of development.
One may assume, then, other intelligences, or as Father Monsambré says, other life-forms with the ability to reason, who have developed sciences far in advance of our own, and who, in addition, are obedient to the cosmic laws of love and brotherhood, but who live on other planes and planets of the Father's house of many dwelling places. If these beings are given the assignment, (or assume it of their own free will), of watching over mankind in his development, giving advice or warning according to need, as citizens of the cosmos and guardians of the eternal laws which govern the development of the universe, then we can see the basis for the appearance of these intelligences and their conveyances at this time. We can understand their effort to bring the higher cosmic thoughts and teachings to even the common man, who was so long shielded from them, as well as to the prophets and mystics who, as spiritually developed persons, were always more receptive to them.
The foregoing reasoning also explains why the presence of such beings is frequently alluded to in the works of ancient historians, who recorded unmistakable sightings, as well as in the Holy Scriptures of all the people of the Earth, which tell of supernatural envoys who bring moral instructions and admonitions directed toward the betterment of mankind. Moreover, it explains why the planet has never been conquered or overrun; and finally, it gives us the reason for the continual presence in the skies of Earth, a presence which is more noticeable under special circumstances, and occurs on a massive scale when mankind nears the end of a cycle of development.
The proof that the 'end times' are at hand is furnished by man himself with the costly error he has committed; namely, after having succeeded in splitting the atom, he has applied that
enormous, awesome power to self-seeking and destructive purposes. This represents a bad use of the freedom to choose one's destiny, and when that happens, the immutable laws of cause and effect sooner or later enter into to upset all man's proud intentions by releasing the deadly effects of built-up negativity, and causing them finally to undo him.
The frightful nuclear outlook has demeaned the spirit of man and shamed his wisdom, in that it has made him capable of destroying himself and all other living species on the surface of the Earth. And it is likewise possible to carry this hate and destruction into the universe because of the great imbalance between his intellect, (which on the level of technology and natural science is outstanding), and his conscience, which is fatally lacking in moral and spiritual development. This then explains why, since 1945, the time of the first atomic bomb explosion, these extraterrestrial 'guardians' have increased their activity and have shown themselves in greater numbers over the whole planet, with landings and many times with contacts with Earth people from all nations and all walks of life.
After this brief overview of the background of the phenomenon of the extraterrestrial flying discs, although not exhaustive nor presented in an original manner, it should be evident that the contents of the book, "Angels in Starships" can now be read with greater understanding.
The attentive reader may ask, having learned the identity of Ramu, if the extraterrestrials act only for the benefit of those who accept the Old and New Testaments. The answer was given by the appearance of a great cosmic space fleet on November 4, 1954. On that day, forty flying discs came in delta formation from the four directions of the compass over Rome, and then, over the Vatican City, the center of Christendom, and formed an immense Greek cross, the symbol of the universal brotherhood.
After reading this book, it would be useful to read again about the glory of the Lord as revealed to Ezekiel, about the burning bush from which the Lord spoke to Moses before He led His people with fiery discs and column-like space ships, and so many evidences of that sort that are to be found in the Bible. In this way one can understand that all that Georgio Dibitonto, Tina, and their friends, and other contactees of different nations and religions have experienced, is part of a great operation of rescue and homecoming for all mankind, that is being carried out on a grand scale over the whole planet by this extraterrestrial space fleet.
It is not surprising that the 'contactees' are not chosen from the ranks of the educated or scientific elite, although there are exceptions; the extraterrestrials do as Jesus did, who befriended simple fishermen. They trust their message to humble persons, who are gifted with spiritual receptivity and strength of soul.
Relying on these inner resources and guidance from above, one can learn the significant message this book has for us without the encumbrance of tedious detail, which most people would probably find unbelievable anyway. Ramu spoke with great insight when he told Georgio: "The confusion which reigns over Earth today serves to convince but a few persons that all the prophesies which have been given to mankind to lead them toward a better life are about to be fulfilled. They have been ridiculed, misunderstood, despised and even repudiated. And yet their words have always been fulfilled. So much sorrow that Earth brothers could be spared if they could set aside their pride and their reliance on destructive force. If you would renounce the use of evil to fight evil, then your way would be shortened, and you would make enormous strides toward the good."
For George Adamski, life was full of bitter disappointment. Giorgio Dibitonto is well aware of this, and gives the message which he likewise received solely on the basis of his love and good faith. It is up to the reader to allow himself the spiritual receptivity necessary to embody it and let its light shine through his soul and manifest through his actions.
At Fatima, thousands of persons saw a light or a luminous object come from the heavens to Earth where Luzia spoke with the apparition of the Virgin Mary. This was witnessed even by non-believers who were there at the time to observe the promised wonder from the skies. I believe this object and these realities were the same as those experienced by Giorgio, Tina, and their friends, and the same as those experienced, each in a different way, by George Adamski and many other people all over the Earth, as well as the prophets of former times. Ezekiel is perhaps the most striking illustration of the latter, with his description of discs and vehicles.
The evangelist Luke recorded for us the words of the Master: "When you see a cloud rising in the west, you say at once, 'A shower is coming'; and so it happens. And when you see a south wind blowing, you say, 'There will be scorching heat'; and it happens. You hypocrites! You know how to interpret the appearance of Earth and sky; but why do you not know how to interpret the present time? And why do you not judge for yourselves what is right?"
Jesus' warning is again sounded by this book, 'Angels in Starships', as it was by Adamski, this time in a way appropriate to today's understanding, yet fitting in perfectly with the message of the evangelist, who, over two thousand years ago, wrote: "There will be great and awesome signs in the Heavens". However, the terrible happenings in our world come from Earthman's pride and stupidity, whereas the signs in the Heavens are signs of love and brotherliness, shown by the extraterrestrial brothers for the salvation of mankind.
E.d.B./Rome
END OF ORIGINAL BOOK
APPENDIX I
A SUMMARY OF GEORGE ADAMSKI'S CONTACTS WITH VENUSIANS
No more appropriate summary of the earlier contacts by George Adamski with the same Venusian extraterrestrials mentioned in this Dibitanto story may be found than that published in a volume appropriately called THE SCORITON MYSTERY by Eileen Buckle, published by Neville Spearman in 1967, and now long out of print.
We found it so difficult to excise any part of that summary, published as Chapter Three, that we have freely reproduced those fifteen pages here as an Appendix to this work. We highly recommend a detailed reading of that whole book for more precise corroboration of the entire George Adamski story and the Venusians activities here on Earth.
Our own personal interest in the Adamski Story had been sparked by our investigation in the 1960s of William D. Clendenen's sightings, contacts, and finally being taken aboard a bell-shaped ship very much like one George Adamski photographed. This first happened to Clendenen up in Washington State and followed him to Tennessee and eventually to Mississippi.
Bill had been seeing strange unexplained moving stars at night for some time, and when he first read of Adamski's experiences he mentally asked the moving stars to give him a sign if there was anything to all this. In response - the "stars" flew sharp-angled triangles over his head, something no manmade object could successfully do, and he became convinced. Then he was approached very closely by an Adamski-type bell-shaped craft over his home above Puget Sound and he could observe the detail very closely. It was just like the one George Adamski had photographed at 09:10 in the morning of 13 December 1952 over Palomar Gardens, California.
Shortly after this sighting the extraterrestrial occupants of the craft began contacting Bill mentally and would set up meetings with him in secluded spots which he would go to and meet them. Finally he too was taken aboard the ship and allowed to ask questions and to examine the ship. These remarkable contacts continued after that and they changed Bill's life forever.
Shortly after the aerial display of lights moving in triangles Bill Clendenen contacted George Adamski and advised him what was happening. Adamski warned him to keep his secret among close friends or expect trouble for speaking out.
Another case of Venusian contact I investigated was that of Navy Lt. Commander Frank Halsey and his wife Tarna. Frank, a near relative of 5-star Admiral "Bull" Halsey, began experiencing contacts with the same Venusian extraterrestrials that had begun contacting his uncle somewhat earlier. The ETs eventually allowed Frank Halsey to bring his wife into the contacts and they went aboard the ship together.
The Halsey's dutifully reported their contacts to U.S. Navy intelligence and it went up the line.
Tarna told me that there was a time during Eisenhour’s later years as President of the United States, after President Eisenhour had experienced his own fact-to-face contact with extraterrestrial intelligences, when she and her husband had been summoned to the White House to discuss their experiences with the President. As agreed at that time, they have never released the details of their two hour meeting with the President.
In the 1970s I began a 5 year line of correspondence with Ron Card, a university student in Miami at the time, who was being contacted by healthy youthful-looking human beings who told him they came from what we call Venus. They eventually took him to their ship, a bell-shaped craft, and then aboard it and answered many of his urgent questions. Those contacts continued for many years and Ron learned the virtue of silence. His story alone would fill a big book.
About the time I was working with Ron Card, I came into possession of the Mitchell sisters 216 page personal account of their contacts with human beings who said they came from Venus, who repeatedly took one then the other aboard their bell-shaped craft and out to a mothership in space. Helen and Betty Mitchell, native Texans, once appeared on a lecture platform with George Adamski, and their statements were summarized from memory by Gray Barker and published in a small paper-covered pamphlet titled THE MITCHELL SISTER’S STORY. They too learned the virtue of silence. Nothing else was ever published.
But there were other contacts of my own with contactees who believed their human visitors came from Venus, and even Mars and Jupiter, all of which has finally resulted in my deciding to publish some of this material for other interested students of this exotic subject to evaluate as I have, and to come to their own conclusions.
Here then is the first of my releases on contacts with human beings who say they come here from what we call Venus. The next one will be release of Lou Zinsstag’s own manuscript on George Adamski titled GEORGE ADAMSKI, THEIR MAN ON EARTH. That book may also be obtained from this publisher. This one is published as a real original document, unedited and unaltered in any way- from Lou Zinsstag’s writing, so as to preserve as much of her own personality in the document as possible. It is another 160 page book like this.
Publisher
(21)
George Adamski
THE SCORITON MYSTERY
In 1953, a book was published which perhaps more than any other helped to awaken the interest of people all over the world in the coming of the UFOs. The first part of Flying Saucers Have Landed was by Desmond Leslie and brought into sharp focus the story of many interplanetary visits of the past, culled from ancient sources, and many more recent observations of space craft.
The second part of the book, by George Adamski, went even further. He claimed to have met a messenger from Venus in the desert not far from his home at Palomar Gardens, California. This event was witnessed by six other people, all of whom swore affidavits to the fact. This
was the first occasion a man from Earth made contact with a man from space and published the fact widely.
George Adamski was born in Poland on 17 April, 1891. When only one-and-a-half years old his parents emigrated to the USA, where they settled at Dunkirk, New York. They had a deep reverence for the wonders of the creation as manifested in nature which they instilled into their son. Although his formal schooling was short in duration, he received a vital part of his education through private lessons.
The five years from 1913 to 1919 Adamski served in the Army with the 13th Cavalry on the Mexican border. In 1917 he was married to Mary A. Shinbersky, who died in 1954. When he was nearly forty, Adamski settled down for the first time, after much wandering. He gathered some pupils together and became a teacher of metaphysics and philosophy.
In 1944, Adamski and some of his pupils moved to the slopes of Mount Palomar where the world's largest telescope was being completed. He was interested in astronomy and spent much time studying the night sky with a six-inch reflecting telescope and a fifteen-inch telescope housed in a small observatory. The six-inch telescope was fitted with a camera with which he took pictures of the moon and obtained his first photographs of space craft. It was during a meteor shower in 1946 that he and a number of friends saw a gigantic space craft hovering high above a mountain ridge south of Mount Palomar, towards San Diego. At the time the thought that it could be an interplanetary space ship never entered his head. That night, over the radio it was announced that hundreds of people had reported a large cigar-shaped space ship they had seen hovering over San Diego during the meteor shower. Adamski was still incredulous but a few days later, when a group of people were discussing the sighting with him in a cafe, six military officers who had been listening to the conversation joined in, declaring that it was not as fantastic as it sounded. 'We know something about this,' they said, but would not say more except that the ship they had seen did not belong to this world. From that day Adamski began to watch the skies in the hope that he might observe the amazing sight again. It was during the summer of 1947, when much discussion began on the flying saucer that he was rewarded with a sighting of several squadrons of UFOs. For many years he spent numerous outdoor vigils, watching for and attempting to photograph these objects. Gradually he came to hold the opinion that what he saw and photographed were space ships from other planets, and longed to meet the occupants.
On 20 November, 1952, Adamski was out on one of these trips with six of his friends, Mrs Alice K. Wells, Mrs Lucy McGuiness, Dr and Mrs George Hunt Williamson, and Mr and Mrs Bailey. The party had set off early that morning for an isolated spot in the desert where previous landings had been alleged to have taken place. As they were sitting over a picnic lunch there suddenly appeared a gigantic silvery cigar-shaped dirigible from over the mountain ridge. It drifted soundlessly in their direction and then seemed to hover motionless. Adamski had a hunch that the ship wanted to make contact with him and asked two of his companions to drive him along the highway. As they did so the great ship appeared to pace the car. They turned off into a rough track leading to the spot where he wanted to set up his telescope and camera. Having assembled his equipment he asked his two companions to get back to the others as quickly as possible and watch closely for anything that might take place.
Adamski was hoping for a picture in close-up and more detail than he had succeeded in getting before. After a few minutes his attention was attracted by a flash in the sky and almost instantly a beautiful, small craft appeared to be drifting through a saddle between two of the mountain peaks and settling silently into one of the coves about half-a-mile from him. He was hastily taking pictures of it when it disappeared over the hill. Soon after he caught sight of a man standing about a quarter of a mile away at the entrance to a ravine. As
Adamski approached the man a strange feeling came over him. The stranger was somewhat smaller than himself and considerably younger. He had long, sandy-coloured hair and wore an outfit something like a ski-suit. Suddenly it flashed upon him that he was in the presence of a human being from another world. The beauty of his form surpassed anything he had ever seen and the expression on his face was exceedingly pleasant. The lengthy conversation which followed was conducted almost entirely by gestures and a form of telepathy, for the man seemed to know only one or two words of English. Despite the difficulty of communication Adamski was able to deduce that the man came from Venus, that his intentions towards earthmen were friendly and that he and his fellow Venusians were greatly concerned with the danger of atomic explosions on earth. The spaceman walked with Adamski to a hillock behind which his hovering scout ship had been hidden. Adamski greatly admired its iridescent colours but unfortunately received an electric shock which numbed his arm when he inadvertently stepped too close to the rim of the flange. Anxious about his exposed negatives in his pocket, he reached for them, whereupon the visitor indicated that he would like one, promising that it would be returned. He politely refused Adamski's request for a ride as he had to be going; and, stepping lightly on to the craft, he sailed away.
Throughout this incident which lasted an hour, a number of 'planes had circled over the vicinity. One large B36 had appeared right over the scene. Meanwhile, Adamski's friends had been keeping watch. They had seen him talking to another person dressed in a brownish garment. Afterwards they examined the two sets of footprints in the damp sand. One set, Adamski's, led back to the road, and the other, a much smaller size, vanished where the saucer had been hovering. George Hunt Williamson was able to make plaster casts of these prints containing symbols which later gave rise to many attempts at interpretation.*
* See Other Tongues, Other Flesh, by George Hunt Williamson (Neville Spearman).
On the morning of 13 December, a sequel occurred. The saucer came to Palomar Gardens and approached within a hundred feet of Adamski. A hand appeared from an open porthole and dropped the same holder which the spaceman had borrowed on 20 November. When the film was developed later the original photograph was found to have been washed off and a strange message in hieroglyphics substituted. On this second visit Adamski had his six-inch telescope already set up and when the craft was within approximately two to three thousand feet he managed to get the now famous shots of the scout ship. It was independently photographed by Sergeant Jerrold Baker, who got a picture as the craft flew away, quite close to the ground.
***
Since the publication of Flying Saucers Have Landed, claims alleging contact with men from space have been made by numerous people, some probably true, others undoubtedly spurious, but it is George Adamski who has borne the brunt of the ridicule from the sceptics regarding such claims. Perhaps this was because he was the first to reach the public eye. An added factor is that he offered more of a challenge than anybody else in respect of corroborative evidence. There is a schism in the ranks of ufologists. Some ardently support Adamski's claims, others are open-minded about them. There are many again who are committed to disbelief for various reasons. Strange cults and pseudo-mystical movements, jumping on the flying saucer bandwagon, borrowed heavily from Adamski's story whilst superimposing their own ideas, attributing them to the space people. The ludicrous results inevitably rebounded on Adamski, whose story many people lumped together with the fantastic hotchpotch of emotionally coloured, evangelical, pseudo-religious contact stories which sprang up like mushrooms in the wake of his book.
This is another of the reasons for the fierce antagonism towards Adamski's allegations, for it has been said that the attention they received has been in large part responsible for the
ridicule that has become associated with the flying saucer subject, and the widespread belief that people who take an interest in UFOs are members of the lunatic fringe. In trying to make the subject respectable, Adamski has been pilloried by some ufologists as the main culprit responsible for the mockery of what should be studied in all seriousness. Although not necessarily accepting his story, many ufologists on the other hand concede that Adamski has been invaluable in bringing the flying saucers to the public's attention. I would agree with them myself. He has done much to capture the imagination of people all over the globe and draw them into a lifelong interest in these alien craft.
I must admit that I was one of them, for prior to 1953 I had scarcely heard of flying saucers. I had been told that they were things Americans had seen from aeroplanes occasionally, and anything that came out of America was highly suspect! My introduction to them really came when I chanced to see the review of Flying Saucers Have Landed in the Observer of 4 October, 1953. The review was a very fair one and the accompanying photograph of the scout ship imprinted itself on my mind. Later, I discovered an article in a back copy of the now defunct magazine Illustrated, and I confess that it was the artist's impression of the handsome, blonde-haired Venusian with enigmatic smile which really captivated the romantic young thirteen-year-old I then was. I bought the book shortly afterwards and I thought then, as I do now, that Adamski's story was convincingly told. From that time on I had to pursue the truth about the flying saucers.
Because of the excellent photographs and the support of six witnesses as evidence, many people either believed Adamski's remarkable story or were at least prepared to retain an open mind. But Adamski did not stop there. He subsequently went on to describe further contacts. Inside the Space Ships, published in 1955, was an even more sensational book than its predecessor. He tells how, in February 1953, he felt a strong urge to visit Los Angeles. After booking in at a small hotel where he was fairly well known he mooched around waiting for—he knew not what. Suddenly he was approached by two strange men who addressed him by name. Though he had no idea as to their identity he trusted them instinctively and accompanied them to a car park where their Pontiac was waiting. They drove him into desert country during which time one identified himself as a Saturnian and his companion as a Martian. They turned off on to a dirt road along which they drove for some time. On alighting, Adamski noticed a glowing saucer parked on the ground and saw his friend of the first meeting servicing the craft. They all four climbed into the saucer which brought them to a Venusian mothership lying at about the height of forty thousand feet in the earth's stratosphere. Here Adamski met and talked with many space people and had a chance to inspect the interior of the ship. From one of the portholes he was able to take a look at outer space and found that against the totally dark background innumerable flickering lights were to be seen.
The next contact was brought about in similar manner but this time he was brought to a much larger scout ship. It was over one hundred feet in diameter and he was informed that it came from Saturn. The mother ship to which he was taken, a huge seven-decker affair, belonged to no one planet. It was a universal ship manned by people of many planets and on this particular trip there were men and women from Venus, Saturn and Mars. They worked in a spacious laboratory from which small remote controlled monitoring discs were sent out to gather data.
The book tells how in the next few months Adamski had more contacts, both with the space people working here on earth and with those in space ships. In one of these meetings he was allegedly taken to the other side of the Moon whose image was reflected by telescope on to a screen. Contrary to what is believed by astronomers, there was enough atmosphere on the hidden side to support life, and he was told that temperatures were not as extreme as supposed. Communities were observed in valleys and on mountain slopes, also trees and a
number of lakes and rivers. It is possible that these subsisted in an artificial environment, formed in pockets on the Moon's surface.
*Inside the Spaceships* was more than a good many ufologists could swallow, even if they had been able to credit the first book. Such was the powerful evidence in favour of the first claim that whilst disbelieving these subsequent claims, many still believed in the first contact. The attacks were now doubled in vigour with new grounds for discrediting Adamski, such as his statements about the Moon which were contrary to the pronouncements of science.
Over the years a number of attempted exposés have been made but none of these could be said to be conclusive. The supporting evidence is too strong to be lightly dismissed on the other hand, to view of the further evidence which has come to light and which is related in this book, I deem it necessary to review these arguments briefly. For this purpose I have listed the main points or criticism which have been raised in connection with the first contact in the desert, together with the answers to them from the defending side.
(1) Why were not more photographs taken of the contact, in view of the fact that in the party there were two ordinary cameras and a cine-camera?
Mrs Bailey, one of the witnesses, was in the final stages of pregnancy and in a very excited state at the time. The camera she and her husband had brought was a borrowed one and they were not used to it. They took a film, but when it was developed it was blank. About six or seven still photos were taken by Adamski, but the plates were spoiled when he walked under the rim of the flange of the saucer. One of these was published in the *Phoenix Gazete*, but it was very poor. Desmond Leslie has examined the negatives of these and maintains that a saucer was faintly visible, about twenty feet in the air and fifty yards away over the rocks.
(2) Plate 7 in *Flying Saucers Have Landed* was ascribed to Sergeant Jerrold T. Baker. He has since denied he took this picture, saying that Adamski took it and ascribed it to someone other than himself to provide evidence.
Desmond Leslie talked to the local mayor and three other reliable witnesses, all of whom testified that when the plates were developed Baker was thrilled that his picture had come out, constantly drawing their attention to it, 'Look at the one I took' sort of thing. Apparently Baker of his own free will wrote a detailed letter 'to whom it may concern' explaining how he took the picture. No one knows why he retracted. Perhaps some sort of pressure was put on him to do so.
(3) The photographs of the scoutship resemble a lamp-shade. They could be photographs of a model.
The photographs were shown to John Ford, the film director, and Joe Mansour whose job it was to photograph model aircraft to make them look like the real thing for illustrations in model aircraft catalogues. He has visited Adamski and inspected his equipment. He declared that the reasons he believed Adamski's photographs were not of models was that he thought he himself was incapable of making a model sufficiently good from which these photographs could be faked. It would have been extremely dangerous for him to have attempted a fraud of this description. It was generally agreed that to have produced a fake Adamski would have had to construct a full-sized model or use costly equipment he obviously did not possess. Even then this would not have assured a good result.
(4) The Moon photograph in the book has been criticised because one of the saucers appears to be inside the telescope. When asked about it, Adamski himself could not explain this, but Desmond Leslie inspected the camera and the telescope and found that the
two rims were not properly set so that they did not He flush with one another. This accounted for what appeared to be the dark curve of the moon in the wrong place. Desmond Leslie got a similar effect when he took other photographs with the camera as a test.
(5) Why was the Baker photograph blurred when it was taken with a Brownie which cannot be out of focus? Many genuine flying saucer photographs are blurred which is due to the force field surrounding them affecting the negative. Some regard the characteristic blur as one of the tests of the genuineness of such a photograph.
(6) Why was the plaster of paris so conveniently handy at the encounter?
George Hunt Williamson, one of the witnesses, is an anthropologist and always carried plaster with him on his trips for anthropological purposes.
(7) Why did the party not attract attention of passers by on the road? Also: One of the witnesses is said to have retracted his testimony.
The scenery there consists of low foothills which hid them from view of the road. Al Bailey subsequently retracted his testimony, saying he could not see anything and he was sure no one else could either—but he was in a different place from the others. Alice Wells, Lucy McGuiness and the Williamsons all saw Adamski talking to a man in a one-piece brown costume. Williamson maintained that it is certain the Baileys could not have seen the incident from where they were stationed.
(8) Alice Wells could not have drawn the picture of the Venusian that she did; she could not have seen the man through binoculars clearly enough to have distinguished his features. This is true, but she could see the figure when she looked and Williamson was beside her also gazing and advising as she drew. Adamski later advised and corrected the features Alice Wells admits she could not see.
(9) Adamski’s story was ghost written and embellished.
This is untrue. He wrote it himself but it was polished slightly by Mrs Clara John.
(10) It is said that during the desert contact a number of military aircraft had circled over the vicinity. Surely they would have seen and reported the presence of a UFO in the area? The Hon. Brinsley le Poer Trench possesses a photostat copy of a letter on file written from Project Blue Book admitting that a UFO was over Desert Centre on 20 November, 1952. This was a report filed by US Air Force pilots over the area on that day.
* * * *
A few months after Flying Saucers Have Landed came out the sceptics were faced with explaining away a piece of corroborative evidence which was both remarkable and unexpected. To date, no satisfactory piece of explaining away has ever been adduced. On the morning of 15 February, 1954, a thirteen-year-old boy, Stephen Darbishire, had a persistent nagging feeling prompting him to go up the hill behind his house at Coniston in Lancashire. He climbed the hill with his eight-year-old cousin, Adrian Mayer, and took with him a little Kodak camera, hoping they might get some good photographs of birds or scenes. While they were walking on the hill Adrian suddenly slapped Stephen on the back to draw his attention to a queer shining object which was drifting slowly downwards from a gap in the clouds. It descended into a dip between the hills and it could not have been more than a hundred yards away as Stephen quickly took two photographs of it. As the flying saucer flew off it went out of the sun's rays and he noticed it was made of a 'plastic-like metal which light could travel through but I could not see through it'. What he meant to say was that it was
translucent. It had a cabin showing four portholes in a row and a three-ball undercarriage; the bottom came nearly to a point. Except for the swish as it went away, it was completely soundless.
Adamski described his saucer thus: 'It was a beautiful small craft shaped more like a heavy glass bell than a saucer. Yet I could not see through it any more than one can see through the glass bricks that are popular in some of the newer office buildings and homes, which permit more light to enter than would solid walls. It was translucent and of exquisite colour.'
Leonard Cramp made an orthographic comparison of the Adamski Scout photograph with that taken by Stephen Darbishire. The procedure, together with the full story is described in his book, *Space, Gravity and the Flying Saucer*. This showed that the Coniston Saucer was identical to that of Adamski's. The integrity of Stephen Darbishire and his family is beyond question. The question posed is: If Adamski's photograph is a fake, where did he obtain the original on which to base his fake?
Corroborative evidence of another kind was brought to light with the publication of a book by the French explorer Professor Marcel F. Hornet. *Sons of the Sun* was first published in 1958 in German and later in English in 1963.* It describes the discovery of symbols closely resembling, and in some cases identical, with those on the photographic plate Adamski received from the Venusian in 1952. The symbols were found among several thousands of characters on a huge boulder in north-eastern Brazil, known as the Pedra Pintada. Their age is estimated as at least ten thousand years but more likely as thirty thousand years old. Adamski said that in a subsequent meeting, his Venusian friend told him that the messages he gave him were of a 'universal character'.
* Published by Neville Spearman.
In his first contact, Adamski learned that large numbers of other planets throughout the universe are inhabited, and on enquiring how many were inhabited in our own system, the answer was given by a large round sweep of the hand with vertical sweeps across it, implying that all of them were. He indicated that the form of the inhabitants is more or less universal and tried to elaborate further with more gestures, perhaps trying to say that there were differences in size and colour, etc. This information cuts right across all that modern astronomy has told us, although some scientists go so far as to admit the likelihood of life of some form on our nearest planetary neighbours, Mars and Venus. Conflicting data has been received by our scientific instruments regarding the temperature and the atmospheric content on Venus and some have ventured that conditions
there may not be much different from that of our own world. However, if **all** our planets are inhabited there must be some radical flaws in our knowledge, and it is not surprising that Adamski's claims should be so unacceptable to most of the orthodox scientists.
Scientists once theorised that the major planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, were each a huge mass of rock overlain by a sea of hydrogen and with an outer layer of gases visible to telescopes. Another, more recent theory, holds that each of these planets is an enormous sphere of hydrogen which becomes metallic towards the centre owing to the enormous pressure exerted. Spectroscopic studies seemed to confirm that one or other of these theories was correct. Now, however, the spectroscope is no longer regarded as infallible and it seems that astronomers do not actually **know** very much about conditions on other planets. All old assumptions may well prove incorrect.
Despite all the official cover-ups one thing cannot be more certain, and that is we **are** being visited by alien space craft, whether they come from our system or outside it. For the last twenty years they have been arriving in great number. Many, many different models have
been observed, although there seem to be a few basic types such as the 'mother ships' or carrier craft (which are generally cylindrical or cigar-shaped), circular 'scout ships' (flying saucers), and small remote controlled devices. An increasing number of well-attested cases are brought to notice in which landings and the occupants were seen. The saucer people vary a great deal in size and superficial characteristics but with very few exceptions they are reported as human or humanoid in appearance. These sightings confirm Adamski on that point at least, for with the great variety of types of craft and the differences in their personnel we are obviously being visited not only by the people of one planet but several different planets, even allowing for racial differences such as we have on our own world.
If Adamski is right and some of these people arrive from systems beyond our own, then it is probable that they have mastered properties of space of which we have no knowledge. Even if we could attain the speed of light, the time taken to reach our nearest stellar neighbour would be four and a third years. Unless our visitors have an extremely long lifespan it seems unlikely that they would travel many years to pay us a casual visit. There is a prediction of the theory of relativity which states that for a moving observer time moves slower than for an observer at rest. Controversy reigns amongst physicists on this. Some postulate that the effect would be counteracted during periods of acceleration and deceleration, so that a space traveller would not return to his own planet to find his fellows more aged than himself. If time dilation does occur, then visits from the inhabitants of distant solar systems would be not only feasible but probable. And how can we be sure that the speed of light cannot be surpassed?
There can be no doubt that many alleged contactees were inspired by Adamski and invented stories based upon his. It is not surprising that a number of researchers tend to look with favour only on reports of encounters with space beings who behaved with apparent indifference or, in a few cases, hostility. The orthodox contact, the kind in which conversations on religious, scientific or philosophical matters are alleged to have taken place and where the contactee seeks to publicise his story, is dismissed. Nevertheless, there are quite a few well-attested borderline cases involving ordinary people when they were quite unprepared for a contact; in these cases the witnesses do not seek publicity, indeed, they frequently try to avoid it. Their reaction is often one of annoyance or puzzlement. Take the following example, reported by three separate witnesses, none of whom wanted to give their names. It occurred on 20 July, 1956, in Panorama City, California, near Los Angeles.
The first was a housewife who saw a tremendous object shaped like a ball land near her house. Three occupants emerged. Each was about six foot eight inches in height, wearing a tight green suit and with long blonde hair hanging down to the shoulders. They told her they were from Venus and would not harm her, but she thought it was some kind of stunt for a movie company and told them to get off her property.
Only a few minutes later, in nearby Van Nuys, a telephone lineman was startled by an enormous ball landing only about a foot from the pole on which he was working ... 'I was so scared that I felt like getting on top of the pole, but instead I got down and started to inspect the huge ball. Just then three guys walked right through the ball and came toward me.' The men were very friendly and shook his hand. They seemed to be holding some kind of mental communication among themselves,' he continued, 'but they spoke with their mouths to me.'
Yet another witness was startled when the UFO landed on his front lawn and the three occupants started toward him. The dogs kept barking so loudly that they apparently became frightened and left. They just got in the ball and vanished.'
* * * * *
To the delight of his protagonists, Adamski's description of outer space was apparently verified by the observations of astronauts as they orbited the Earth. In Inside the
Spaceships he says:
'I was amazed to see the background of space is totally dark. Yet there were manifestations taking place all around us, as though billions upon billions of fireflies were flickering everywhere, moving in all directions as fireflies do.'
On his trip through space on 20 February, 1962, Colonel John Glenn, one of the first American astronauts, had this to say: These little green things that I thought (at first) to be stars were actually a bright bluish green, about the size and intensity of a firefly on a really dark night. These little particles were about eight to ten feet apart, and there were literally thousands of them.'
It is debateable whether Glenn's description tallied with Adamski's in every respect. Whilst his description of them cannot prove he was ever in space, they are certainly a point in his favour. In all, there is no proof that Adamski was telling the truth, only circumstantial evidence, nor, on the other hand, is there proof that he was not. There is no gainsaying the fact that he stuck to his story throughout the years, in the midst of ridicule and scorn on the one side and all-believing adulation on the other.
I never met Adamski personally and have only heard tape recordings of his lectures. Not being able to claim first-hand knowledge of what he was like as a person, I can only judge him by what others have said. Although on the whole people flocked to his lectures, he was by no means his best on the public platform. His thick accent and general approach tended to shock English audiences in particular. By temperament he was impetuous and intolerant of those who disputed with him, as might be expected of one fanatically aware of his own truthfulness. Many complained that he would not give a direct answer to a direct question. Those who met him found he had a charming, compelling personality. Although perhaps convinced of his sincerity, some would prefer not to commit themselves to belief in his stories, saying, by way of compromise, 'he had an experience'. For many he did not live up to their ideas of what a chosen contactee should be like; expecting a superman or a saint, disappointedly they found instead a human being with human failings. He liked to enjoy himself and despised ascetism. He was a heavy smoker and liked a strong drink, but this does not mean to say he was an alcoholic; that was just a vicious smear eagerly seized upon by his emotionally biased opponents. Every night he would partake of an old Polish health remedy consisting of about a third of a tumbler of neat whisky with pepper in it. He needed only three or four hours sleep at night, yet he had the energy of a man half his years. Perhaps this was due to the old Polish health remedy.
The news of George Adamski's sudden death on 24 April, 1965, carried in the late flash of the May/June issue of Flying Saucer Review, came as a shock and not without a touch of sadness to a great many saucer fans, whatever their views on his claims may have been. One might have supposed that the controversy surrounding this colourful figure would gradually fade away and be forgotten. When I read Desmond Leslie's obituary in the next issue of Flying Saucer Review I paid very little attention to the last paragraph, it sounded too wishful and unlikely. But that ending was only to be the beginning of this story.
'We shall miss George. Miss him very much, but I cannot feel sad at his going. He gave his utmost to the work and the world will never be quite the same place again, richer for his coming, a little poorer for his going. But I don't believe we have seen the last of him. If he is reborn on another planet he has promised to come back and contact us when possible.
'With George anything could happen. And usually does!
'Dear old Space Man—Go in Peace!'
Among others who have claimed contact with extraterrestrial human beings who say they come from Venus are the Mitchell sisters from Texas.
Helen and Betty Mitchell were told that they had been watched from a very early age and were in a sense guided in their development to adulthood when their first conscious contacts with these watchers began. We are very familiar with this pattern now, but in the 1950s when these events were taking place this kind of preparation was unheard of and was thus rejected.
by most researchers and all the organized UFO dubs.
Conditions were then much as they are now. We fear what we do not understand and we attack the unknown out of a lack of knowledge. If we were a little better informed we would see the foolishness of our attacks.
Now our science tells us that we can not perceive any sign of human habitation on the Venus we see with our instruments. The extremely high surface temperatures and the excessively high pressures at ground level are simply too hostile for physical life as we know it.
But is physical life as we know it the only intelligent life in our solar system, or elsewhere? We are told by students of metaphysics, and even by various extraterrestrial visitors, that there is life everywhere, in different degrees of manifestation. They say that the life wave on Venus exists in a level of vibration different from ours and is only perceivable by us when the Venusians slow their rate of vibration down to match ours. They tell us that there is a life wave of human beings in evolution on Mars also but that it vibrates at a different rate from ours and that of the Venusians as well. They both have to control their natural vibrations into ours to interact directly with us.
Here then is a brief description of the Mitchell sisters' contacts with Venusian visitors as taken from a platform lecture in 1959 and published by the late Gray Barker.
This report is offered in support of the contacts described in the text of this book.
-Publisher
WE MET THE SPACE PEOPLE
THE STORY OF THE MITCHELL SISTERS
By HELEN and BETTY MITCHELL
SAUCERIAN BOORS
BOX 2228
CLARKSBURG, W. VA. 26301
WE MET THE SPACE PEOPLE
THE STORY OF THE MITCHELL SISTERS
BY HELEN and BETTY MITCHELL
$1.00
SAUCERIAN PUBLICATIONS, CLARKSBURG, W.VA.
An Address Delivered by Helen Mitchell at the Buck Nelson Convention June 28, 1959
Ladies and Gentlemen:
Since many of you have never heard our story before it would hardly be proper for us to go into a lengthy discussion of what the Space people have told us without first telling you how we came to meet the Brothers.
Two years ago, in May of 1957, Betty and I were in a downtown St. Louis coffee shop. We had been shopping and had stopped off to get a coke and refresh ourselves. While in the coffee shop we were approached in a very mannerly way by two gentlemen dressed in grey suits, who managed to interrupt into our private conversation. As they spoke to us we found that they were from a huge mother-craft orbiting the planet Earth, and that their names were Elen and Zelas. They told us that we had been very closely watched by the Space People for the last eight years, and that our progress had been noted off and on from the time of our birth. Betty and I were both inclined to think that someone was playing a silly joke on us and we laughed when they told us this, but they were not laughing and were serious and stern. We were strangely shocked; however, when they told us of a few incidents in our childhood that no one could have possibly known excepting the family. They told us that we had been selected as contacts by the people of space to serve as channels through which they could give certain information to Earth, and that we had been carefully watched, as I stated before. They told us of the reasons why the space people were coming to Earth and that they were here to guide Earth along the lines of Brotherhood and Science. We were very much amazed at their words, and we noted particularly the kindness and warmth that shone in their eyes. With a single glance from them we seemed to sense the vast wisdom and brotherhood which they must have lived among. After talking with us for a little over two hours they left and told us they would contact us again, but it was not until a week later that we were impelled to again return to the same coffee shop.
When we entered the door we again saw one of the Space Brothers, and he gave us instructions at that time for building a device whereby we could contact the Space People. His instructions were explicit and precise, for he warned us that unless we placed every piece of the device in the proper place we would not be able to contact them with it. We were not allowed to take the drawn diagram of the device with us, but we had to remember it as it was explained to us. When we obtained the proper pieces for the device we constructed it when we returned home, and were happy to find the results were satisfactory. We were amazed when we tuned in on the mother craft and spoke with the same person we had earlier seen. We were also allowed to speak with the commander of the craft, who at that time was known as Alna. In the following six months we spoke many times with the space people through the device, and received much information about their homes, sciences and craft.
In November of '57 I was alone in downtown St. Louis on business when I was again contacted by the space people and at their request went with them by automobile into Illinois where we drove to a heavily wooded area. There, I was told, was where they landed when they had business or contacts to make in St. Louis. Settled back behind an old barn was a circular craft that I judged to be approximately 9 feet in height, and about 38 feet in diameter. It had a domed top, but no portholes. The sliding door was open and there was a uniformed operator sitting at the controls. I was nervous although I knew no harm would come to me, and I was visibly shaking, but Zelas only smiled as though to reassure me. The flight to the mother craft took approximately 15 minutes, and I was told the magnetism of the small craft
would not affect my watch since it would be balanced by the magnetism of my own body. However, while in the mother craft the magnetism of it caused my watch to stop, and it was de-magnetized in a small machine before I left.
Inside the mother craft we entered the huge receiving room for the smaller craft. There were many huge machines in this room, and there were also many other uniformed men standing around obviously working upon the machines or moving them about. They glanced at us when we entered, but then returned to their work as before. The hall that we entered was softly lit and was curved both at the ceiling and corners. We entered the first room to the right which appeared to be a room for relaxing. There were divans and contoured chairs with white upholstering that had a thread or design of a golden hue woven in it. The room was meticulous and vast, and as I stood observing the beauty of it three uniformed men approached us. Their uniforms were of a blue-gray color with a slight metallic look, and I learned the jodphur type boots they wore were actually attached to the uniforms, and were not a separate piece of apparel. The uniforms were soft to the touch and the texture of velvet. I was then introduced to the three men and learned that the one was Alna, the commander of all craft operation upon Earth. Alna spoke with a very heavy accent, and was much darker than any of the others. His skin had a high bronze tint to it, as compared with the lighter complexions of the others.
From this room I was shown the control section where I was told our calls were received when we operated our device. Here they placed a call through to our telephone in St. Louis by adjusting a series of dials, and I was allowed to speak with Betty and tell her that I was with the Brothers. I was also shown a scope similar to a television screen, the only difference being this was at a slight elevation on the control counter, instead of standing up at eye level or in a box type cabinet which our television sets consist of. This scope could obviously reflect any particular building or house that the space people desired to observe, and when I looked at the scope when Alna requested me to do so, I could see the inside areas of my home and could see my sister, mother and the children moving about. It was as though the entire roof had been removed and only the walls remained of the house. When I asked them how this was done, they explained that the first set of vibrations that left the roof were erased and the vibrations of the furniture and people inside were received on the scope, and therefore it appeared as though the instruments in the control section were actually looking through the building.
From this section we entered another much larger control section and I watched other uniformed men working about their work with much deftness and swiftness. I was told then that we were going to dine, and when we entered the dining area it appeared as a vast empty room. However, tables and chairs rose from the floor section, and I dined with them after humbly and respectfully listening to a prayer Alna said in the Universal Tongue. The food consisted of three different types, and a drink similar to apricot nectar was enjoyed. There was little conversation during the meal, and when all had almost finished Alna told me I could witness a dance performed by two of the Space Brothers. This dance was most unusual and fast, during which the two men passed a small object from one to the other, sometimes throwing it in the air and catching it before it fell upon the floor. I expressed my thanks to Alna for allowing me to see this, and when we left the dining area we moved down the hall to what obviously was an entertainment room where the Brothers spent many relaxing hours. Many men were in the room, some sitting at tables and others playing a game similar to our Shuffleboard. I was asked if I would like to try the game, and after watching Alna I understood simply how it was done. A round colored disc about 4 inches in diameter was placed on the floor in a particular square, and by mind power alone the disc was to move across the floor to another particular square. This section of the floor was electrically charged and receptive to the thought waves leaving a person's mind. Alna took a blue disc that was handed to him and placed it on the floor causing it to move a considerable distance. Then I was handed a red...
disc and asked to try. I was doubtful if it would work for me, and the only thing I could think of was to silently command the disc to "Go." I was amazed when the disc moved slowly up the floor, but quite some distance from that of Alna's. When I glanced at my watch and noticed it had stopped, it brought Alna's attention and he said for this time he felt I should not be held up longer from my other activities, and that a second trip would be longer. It was then that he took my watch and placed it in a small machine in the first control section and then set it for me, obtaining the proper time from a scope that contained many symbols and crossed lines on it. Then with Zelas and Benen I returned to the craft receiving room and entered again a smaller craft with them. I do not know exactly what series of air locks the craft enter and leave the mother craft, but there was a large dark section upon the floor in the receiving room and as we entered the smaller craft to leave Zelas pointed it out and told me that was area where the craft left. The trip back was quick and short, and as we drove back to St. Louis I recounted in my mind all the things I had seen. Being alone, I wanted to be able to tell anyone else as much as I could; however, we decided that we would not then tell anyone else of our experiences until we had enough information to relay to the public. Last year at Buck's Convention we were called upon to speak, but we were neither prepared nor expecting that we would be called upon for a speech. I did, however, say a few words and since that time we have delivered several lectures to various groups.
A few weeks ago we were contacted by the Brothers and were told that the Martian Council had requested us to speak of the powerful effects of the A and H bombs and also the future of those responsible for it's evil. When we were told these requests we asked for information to give Earth's people, and the following is what they have given us, and was prepared by one of the Brothers known as Sigt. I will go directly into his message and then would like to take up a subject that many people have questioned us about—such subjects as evil flying saucers and evil space people, also strange phenomena that seem to defy natural law will be spoken of. Now, I would like to give you Sigt's message:
"Earth's scientists are creating around planet Earth the most deadly condition to material man than ever before. The explosions of the A and H bombs are placing the residue particles of radioactivity into all the materials of Earth. Each human being upon Earth now carries a certain degree of radioactivity in their bones and systems. Why should it be significant to hear of this when you cannot see the radioactivity, nor hear it as it does much destructive work? In the advanced laboratories of Mars we have proved the destructibility of such uncontrolled energy. Radioactivity drops, upon the grass, buildings and people after being carried by the air currents around an explosion. This energy is in minute particles that have the effects of deterioration to the molecules of all material things. This radioactivity settles around an object or body and penetrates the outer area of the surface or skin. What does radioactivity look like, you may wonder. As an explanation, many of you have seen small dust spirals along the streets or in a dusty area that swirl around and around in circles that then seem to disappear. Radioactivity has the same effect and looks very similar as it settles around a body. The small particles are caught up in a swirling counter-clockwise motion that causes it to be driven down into the surface of the body cells. This energy, once inside the body, offsets the balance of the normal cell and causes it to become either agitated into more activity as it tries to cast back out of the system this radioactivity, or else the radioactivity attacks cells that are already weakened by illness, and immediately sets up a destruction of them. When this new activity occurs in a normal cell a powerful microscope would reveal the atomical structure of the cell is creating a counter offensive action that is clockwise as compared to the counter-clockwise motion of the radioactivity. When this occurs, there is eventually a breaking down of the cell's motion, for as the explosions of the A and H bombs continue the action of the radioactivity is strengthened by this and overpowers the clockwise motion of the body cells that are attempting to throw off the radioactivity. Thus, the body cells are forced to become activated in the same manner. This creates a drawing together or construction of the cells and creates abnormal conditions and illnesses. As the radioactivity increases the rate of
motion increases around each body living on Earth. This changes the cell formation and in the next generation this inherent condition is accentuated by the accumulated mass of more radioactivity. In the second and third generations these changes are visible as definite deformations of the body, and this in turn, if not controlled, will lead to a generation of mutants.
What does radioactivity sound like? I will try to explain. Many people are receptive to certain high vibratory sounds that are derived from the atomic explosions, and are the elemental changes in the atmospheres of Earth. These high pitched sounds are very serious, for they can almost pierce the very soul consciousness, and cause changes there. The consciousness of Man is being affected every day by these vibrations that these explosions have created, and unless these are altered or until the explosions of this nature are stopped the Mind of Man will be changed in drastic measures. Some of these notes can cause a perfectly healthy person to develop a fatal illness, some can affect the mental processes terribly, other of these vibrations, if not altered within the consciousness of the individual, can cause one to commit acts that otherwise would not be done. But most serious indeed are the changes in the atomical structures of the atmospheres of Earth. Here the greatest battle of all is arising. The Earth wants to separate with this activity, but the consciousnesses of the higher evolved here upon Earth and in Space are preventing this, until Earth can adjust.
How can you stop this from happening? The answer is simply stop the unnecessary tests of these bombs. For those who maintain it is necessary to show the military strength, we can only say what strength is there to be shown that deprives the people, vegetation and animals of a perfectly beautiful and attainable future otherwise. Is it truly possible that the deceivability of such destructive weapons can replace sane, sound actions of better living? It is necessary now for the Space People living upon Earth to take protective measures or otherwise suffer the same effects from radio activity as the citizens. It is not possible for us to give Earth's people enough of the protectors without the co-operation of the governments, and such co-operation is at present unattainable. The continuance of these tests are affecting all responsible for them, and if one accepts reincarnation as an answer it would be definitely seen why no one here or responsible for these tests would want to re-live again in mutated bodies of the future generations. If reincarnation be unacceptable to the average person, then the knowledge that these tests are mutating their children and their children's children should be sufficient reason for stopping them. Our warning to Earth is cease your tests and save your future."
What the Space People are trying to make clear in this message and many others similar to this is that Earth is now in a most perilous situation, and faces self-destruction of humanity. In the two years we have contacted the Brothers they have been concerned and talked most frequently about the destructibility of the A and H bomb. Speaking of this destruction, the questions I mentioned earlier come to my mind, and that is concerning the evil flying saucers and evil space people. First, we must consider the evidence presented. There have been saucers that were reported as having a negative effect upon people by burning them or causing nausea, etc. And in some instances there have been cases reported where people have been assaulted by beings that have emerged from some saucers and actually attacked them. The descriptions of these beings have been generally of a small type of people who were unusually crafty or mischievous and who actually grasp the person and attempted to drag them into their craft. Where do these beings come from, and why are they entering this system? No doubt most of you will agree there is a tremendous battle going on between the good and the bad, which concerns all thoughts, actions and influences. From thousands of years ago to the present age this battle between right and wrong has been waged against civilization and has balanced first in favor of the good and right-ous, and then turning and swaying in favor of the wicked or evil. This strange course of events has been necessary for certain conditions to prevail upon Earth, so that beneficial results would come about. The
devastating bubonic plague that swept England in the dark ages was indeed a terrible thing and was judged to be just that by the people, but this negative condition actually paved the way for more sanitary conditions. All evil will give way to the good, and all wrong has a right. The space people that have negative qualities about them are coming from farther space systems, although I do not wish to imply that all space craft from farther systems is evil. Many of the craft from farther systems are very good and are trying to also help Earth; however, it is only those certain evil systems that we should consider when I say those from a farther system than our own. It is these negative beings who are here for the purpose of actually taking people from Earth to indoctrinate them with their ideas, so they in turn will cause confusion and disturbances upon the planet. The true purpose behind this is to prevent harmony and peace, for they are in alliance with those beings living in Earth, who themselves will be forced to leave Earth when peace and brotherhood is completed. The gains that these negative people obtain from their alliance with those other negatives in Earth is not known by us, but it must be quite profitable for them to engage so actively against the Space Brothers who are trying to help Earth. The Space Brothers who are trying to help Earth have to contend with these craft and beings from other less desirable systems, and also have to contend with the disbelieving masses of people who either do not know of the need for harmony and peace or those who do not want to listen to their urgent requests. The job of the Space Brothers is not easy, for it is necessary to prepare the people of Earth to accept their existence, and also to guide them in proper understanding so that peace and co-existence will be possible.
Many people seem to feel that the negative beings are only from planet Earth and consists only of those fallen angels who were cast out of heaven by a Supreme Command from the Most High. Many can quote the proper passages of the Bible and prove that there are fallen angels living here on Earth, who cause the necessary confusion and evil which we here must live among. There are those intelligences of superior powers whom we would call fallen angels living in Earth, but it is not wholly from them that the evil or bad flying saucers come. As you look up into the sky at night you see multitudes of stars, planets and suns moving on in beautiful orbits. However, if you could move out through space and watch the barbarious conditions that exist upon some of these stars you would be shocked. There are some systems advanced in scientific accomplishments to the degree of mastery over space, and these systems are those who have advanced in science alone and who have little spiritual advancement. They come here to Earth and to other planets in farther systems to form alliance with those intelligences who will provide them the necessary fulfillment of their evil desires and wishes. Planet Earth is now visited by such craft, whose occupants live and profit from the unrest and disharmony present. Who can truly say what percent of our actions are fueling these being with necessary materials and profit. What these profits are cannot be said by us, for only each one of us in his own understanding could know in Truth what their actions consist of that could be used as a fuel by the negative ones. These negatives can present very good arguments and can deceive the unwary in many ways. Their goal is to conquer and own, without any concern how they do it. They may use one form of attraction one time and another the next. Now, how, you probably think, do we know about this. I can only say that many times, more than we have recorded or remembered, we have been interrupted in our attempts to contact the Brothers by means of our device, and then encounter the beamed transmission of a negative craft. In many instances these beings have mocked our efforts and have belittled the Brothers and us. Other times they have lied and said they were the M-4 Section of Mars and they had a message for us from the Council, and that we were to say such-and-such or else we were to stop speaking altogether. Patience is a good way to win with their persistence, for they cannot persist too long without getting angry and revealing themselves. Once we were interrupted by them and told flatly who they were and what they wanted us to do. They asked us to prepare a book for them and expose the whole untruth connected with the story of the fallen angels. This book was to be delivered by one of their very advanced minds, and to be created in manuscript form by us and offered for
publication. Please notice that I said this book was to be done in this manner at their request. We refused to do as asked by them, and burned the first few sections of their story when it was delivered to us. From that time up to the present we have been interrupted only occasionally, and then their attitudes have not been quite as demanding. We refuse to have anything to do with this type of beings and wish to serve only those of goodness and light.
The subject of negative beings can be connected directly with much unusual phenomena that seems to be completely contrary to natural law. However, nothing can defy the absolute laws that God created, but many of these laws are simply not known nor understood by millions of people. The percentages of people who can manipulate these laws is very few. As said before, many beings of a negative nature do live in Earth, and there are some of these who have the power to do unusual things. Many times strange phenomena have been noted to take place, such as objects moving freely in the air; articles appearing and disappearing; solid objects passing through walls, door, etc. The number of unusual happenings are numberless. Many of these happenings are due to the mischievous minds of negative beings, who merely change the molecular polarity of the structure of an object and cause it to pass through the air as though defying gravity. Truly such an object is moving freely through space, but only due to the natural law of gravity. If an object such as a glass contains the positive polarity of mass, then the earth below it is of a negative polarity. Merely by changing the positive polarity of the glass to a negative polarity it will cause the glass to push away from the earth which is also of a negative polarity. The law of a magnet can be applied to this simple demonstration, for "Like polarities repel, and unlike polarities attract." Two negative polarities will push away from each other, whereas two polarities of different natures will cling to each other. Thus, gravity, or more simply said, polarity controls such unusual demonstrations. It does, however, take a very great Will Power to command such objects to move. Nothing can be done outside of natural law misapplied power and nonsense must still obey the laws of God, for nothing can be outside of His Laws. An important thing, however, is that not all unusual happenings are the result of negative beings, but much of it is unknowingly set into motion by the minds of Earth people, who happen to set into motion the law of polarity and gravity.
I would like at this time to dispense with the subject of negative things, and like to direct your thoughts to something of a more affirmative nature. I would like to give you a little of the prophecy for Earth that the Brothers gave us. However, at no time do the Space People or Betty and I want you to think that these prophecies are definitely what will happen to Earth. The Brothers told us that these things would happen only if Earth follows the path of advancement that she had been doing before the explosions of so many bombs. These explosions could alter these conditions very much, for as the Brothers said, these explosions are altering the atmospheres and materials for Earth. It is from man's past actions and advancement that these prophecies are derived from, and it is from this that the future is formed. Thus prophecy can change and 10 years from now these same prophecies could be wrong, but only if Earth's people continue with the A and H bomb explosions and if a series of serious battles and conflicts result upon Earth.
As for the prophecies themselves, the Space People tell us that Earth will have an axis change, and that this will cause America to become warmer and certain parts of Europe to become colder. This axis change should come about slowly and be a gradual thing, and will be if nature is left alone; however, there are certain people who wish to bring about this change too quickly. As for the manner of clothes people will be wearing upon Earth in the future we will see that the men will wear clothes that have a tighter fit, whereas the women will wear looser and longer dresses. The homes will change with the circular home being preferred. There will be a screened dome top to the homes, which will open to let in the air. Lighting will be from the walls and a circular rim around the ceiling. This lighting will be automatic and adjust itself to the proper brightness. All power for the kitchen, laundry, heating
and lighting will be provided by small individual units in each home that is inexpensive to operate. The countryside will be beautiful, for all wires, telephone poles and power stations will disappear, along with the billboards and other unsightly scenes. The entire mind of man will enlarge in spiritual growth, for immoral books, shows and entertainments will be revised to teach Truth. Television will be the greatest channel for Truth to reach the minds of the people. As the mind of man changes to higher thoughts, so, too, will much of the material requirements change. And it will come to pass when the dietary habits of man will also change. No longer will slaughter houses be seen, for the eating of meat will diminish. It will not entirely disappear, but the vast slaughter of animals will cease. Earth will cease to have epidemics of disease, and therefore newer systems of laboratories will appear. Illness itself will be an individual thing, and will be corrected, quickly and safely in the laboratories. What more can we ask for, for doesn't this sound like Earth could be a beautiful place? There is more—much more—but time does not permit me to enlarge on all the prophecies for Earth. Among the many things to happen Earth will also have space flight, and will enjoy the companionship of the Space People. When Earth has risen to this height of advancement space flight will become a common thing, and Earth's people will then perhaps go out and serve other less fortunate planets, just as the Space People are serving Earth now.
There are only a few more things I would like to mention and they are concerning a question which has been asked of us. A few months ago Betty and I announced that we were publicly withdrawing from actively speaking. But since that time an erroneous idea has sprung up that perhaps we had been shut-up by the Three Men in Black. We would like to clarify this, for we have not been visited by anyone who threatened us, and we were temporarily withdrawing from the saucer field for personal reasons. These reasons were due to certain changes we were going to make, and one was due to the fact that I was going to leave for France. However, different plans have been formed and I am not going to leave for France; therefore, we will be available at times for lectures and speeches.
For those of you who would like a little more definite account of our first meeting with the Brothers and more details of my visit to the mother-craft, we have several mimeographed copies of two speeches that were delivered in Kansas City at the UFO Study Club. These speeches include information of the Brothers and also descriptions of a Martian city. If you would desire a copy of these from us they may be had at a small charge of 50c each.
In closing my speech I would like to publicly thank the Space people who have given us much information and I also thank you, Ladies and Gentlemen, for your time.
(24)
An Address Delivered by Betty Mitchell at the Buck Nelson Convention, June 28, 1959
This address followed the one delivered by her sister, Helen Mitchell. Ladies and Gentlemen:
When Helen and I made our preparations to come to the Convention we felt it would be interesting to get as much direct information as we could from the Space Brothers, so when we contacted them we asked if there were any definite statements they had to give us. We received a lot of information from the M-4 Section on Mars and Helen presented it in her earlier speech, but we also contacted the planet Venus and received much interesting information from a Venusian called Tregon. I would like to read his message for you, which
we received just a few days before we came down here, so without any further comment at this time I will quote the message from Tregon of Venus:
"Often the revised facts of Earth's history come to our attention, for the credibility of the human mind is filled with much misrepresentations. As our sciences developed on Venus we were able to devise machines capable of picking up the past actions of history and by a series of transformers create the scenes and sounds of unforgotten history. Many scenes that have been completed on Planet Earth have been viewed, and it is with understanding that we realize the means of recording for Earthman were inadequate. Barriers of language and habits prevent the interpreters of knowing what ancient man meant by his words and phrases which he left as a record of his deeds and actions. Languages that have long since ceased being spoken or learned create much of the present man's difficulty in comprehending what his ancestors meant by certain symbols and figures. The present stage of man cannot possibly know what was in the thoughts of the ancient man, who left as a record chipped symbols and signs upon rock and marble. The dead languages of the past create the insurmountable barrier, for it was thus the purpose and plan of the Creator to prevent the understanding of certain tribes. When the decree was given to have the tribes split and the languages differ upon Earth it was for the purpose of veiling the darkness from the untrained mind of the evolving souls living on Earth. Thus the sealing up of ignorance and the fallen angels began.
As history proceeded the decrees of those possessing the wisdom of darkness grew until they recorded much false history that glorified their deeds. The sons and daughters of man had learned the wisdom of entering heaven, but falsely used the illumination they gained and instead of living according to the proper laws they built and obtained material creations to satisfy their bodes. Thus the spiritual advancement of man was prevented from properly developing, and the decree of severance and chaotic though filled the Earth. Much time passed before this was completed, for it was from Venus that the messengers came to start these changes. Changes came and flooded the Earth and the separation of people began. Through these many years the Greek civilization came and passed, leaving its imprint with the only means of communication known then, but those of different language found they could not comprehend what the ultimate motive for certain symbols was and as the vast civilization of the Greeks fell into obscurity so, too, did the true meaning of their records. Roman history came also and then left, along with the Egyptian rulers and people; but none of this history is known today in its true sense. The language barriers are definite and profoundly confusing to the minds of man who tries to surmount them. Earth man was thus protected from himself by this severance of language, for the wisdom of some historical periods and people would have been destructive. Those people who came to Earth, being sent by the Creator in His wisdom, served to prolong the advancement of man and his material creations, for it was known that Earth man could create anything then that his imagination would reveal. Earth man had reached an evolutionary cycle where he responded to the intellectual flash of creation that was born from his mind. He could see mental images of vast material creations inspired by the elevation of his thoughts, and in disobedience to his spiritual growth he sought to satisfy this and create similar effects. Knowing the effects this would have upon the development of his mind the messengers of Venus came to prevent the destructibility of man. The True Creator was no longer exemplified in man's mind, for it became filled with the material wonders devised in his imagination. The centuries of advancement that Venus had, before, Earth knew the trend of man's feet, placed her people in a position to see the evil that Earth was committing. Those wicked people who, during the rise of Earth's own civilizations, had been cast down to Earth were creating monarchies of slavery of Earthman. This time in Earth's history was during the Atlantean period, and the separation of Earth man's minds was decreed to take place. Those from Venus came, and gave warning to the faithful of Earth, who, unlike the other Atlanteans, followed the laws of the Most High. The story of a man called Noah, in your Holy Book, was one of the faithful
who survived this cleansing of Earth. Those unfaithful of Earth who followed the fallen angels were deprived of their powers to control by the division of the Universal Tongue. No longer could one language be understood by another, for the different ones of faith who were saved created various dialects and interpretations at the guidance of the messengers.
As a means of preserving their might and power the Atlanteans wrote upon stone tablets and inlaid their writings in marble slabs thinking men in the future would look upon his recordings and wonder at their power. Now, their magnificent temples and homes lay beneath the ocean in obscurity, lost ever to the minds of man. The tongues of the Earth are many and varied, for not even two people of the same tongue use exactly the same phrases. It is possible for those of the same tongue to understand each other's ideas and words, but when one interprets the language of another into their language some of the true meaning is lost. This is the diversion of the tribes of man as decreed by the Creator. In the age of the Atlanteans the evils of Earth were multiplied by the Evil ones who fled from the exploded planet called Lucifer, and who created the same evil on Earth as they had created on their planet. False worships grew and multiplied on Earth at their direction, and the fallen angels of Lucifer lead astray many of Earth's inhabitants. Seeing this, the wise ones of Venus came to Earth in their craft. Earthmen called these craft "fiery-chariots," and a "wheel inside a wheel," other names given to the craft of Venus by Earthmen has been a "cloud."
The years of Atlantis were spent by a growth of intelligent comprehension in man, and it was through this growth that man's eyes became open to the evils around him. He no longer lived in a world of innocence and obedience, but the people began to follow the evil influences that the fallen ones of heaven had brought with them. Earth was then polluted, and as a new cycle of change in the heavens began the wise ones of Venus came to Earth to warn all to repent, but many did not follow their guidance. Being wholly instructed by the Most High Council the Venusians who came to Earth told the faithful to leave for certain areas, and thus the Bible tells of only the one story of a man called Noah, who with his family built a means of sustaining the change which was to come to Earth. The wicked and evil ones died in the axis change and cataclysms that occurred, while the faithful were saved by proper warning according to the order of the Most High.
Again now, we watch Earth follow the path of Atlantis. Terrible releasing of energy in bombs is creating your Earth into a place of desolation. Plants and animals are being scourged by it, and soon even the water will become undrinkable due to the radioactivity of these bomb releases. Our help can only come after a certain length of time has lapsed from the one cataclysm to the next. We can offer our warnings, and guide those who are faithful to certain areas, but we cannot ourselves move to stop the tests of the bombs. Earthman brings upon himself unnecessary tribulation. The question of another major war is asked many times by Earth people, and we say that there must not be another war. The Truth in your Holy Book will come to pass, for we see again the evil works Earth does and the Most High Council can rule at any time upon the necessary actions. We repeat, we cannot intervene in your bomb tests, for the will of Earthman must be fulfilled; so, too, must the Law and if such evil actions of man do not change we will lift the chosen people to watch from afar the rest of Earth's woes. Let those who have ears to hear, let them hear." Signed, Tregon of Venus.
I have a few comments to make concerning this message from Tregon of Venus, for I was very much interested in knowing of the rise of Earth's earlier civilizations, particularly the Atlantean. Many people have asked us of this phase in Earth's history and so it was natural that we would prefer to obtain the Space Brothers' opinion. So many really important facts are contained in Tregon's words that I would like to draw your attention to a few in particular.
At the first of his message he said, "... the human mind is filled with much misrepresentation." Then he went on to say how false history is accredited to this misrepresentation, and he
explained why this came about. We all know that much of the facts in our history books are based only on a few records and that these could have been hurriedly and falsely written or transcribed. The plain truth that any of the ancient languages cannot be completely understood today is due to the fact that the human mind is divided in its wisdom, and that certain knowledge then, does not prevail today. Therefore the present mind cannot possibly understand all the phrases and written symbols that the ancients tried to reveal in their records. Our explorers and archaeologists are now finding and uncovering strange records and symbols that they cannot decipher. A language of symbols was the only way to record the Universal Tongue. The people of ancient Atlantis spoke the Universal Tongue, and as we recall in the message of Aregon, he said that due to evil acts the people and tribes of Atlantis were split and I quote his words, "... it was thus the purpose and plan of the Creator to prevent the understanding of certain tribes." We learned that the fallen angels were the beings who lived on the planet Lucifer, that once was in an orbit between Mars and Jupiter, and that these evil beings fell to Earth after refusing to accept the word of the Most High Council. We can understand why these beings were considered as angels and why they are considered as falling from heaven to Earth. At the time of Atlantis the beings upon the planet Lucifer were extremely advanced and possessed Space flight and wisdom that Earth man does not yet even know. They were thus advanced far beyond the modern man of Earth, and were indeed possessors of rare wisdom. Their fall occurred when they disobeyed the Most High and continued with devastating experiments that caused their planet to be exploded. Thus cast out by the Most High and the other angels they descended to earth where they were forced to rebuild and start anew. They had lost a vast and beautiful planet, and thus fell to the early civilizations that Earth possessed at that time. They continued their evil on Atlantis and when the Angels in heaven saw this they were commanded by the Most High to cause this to cease by scattering the people and dividing the language, so the evil ideas of the fallen ones would not be understood. When the messengers from Venus arrived to start the work of the Most High, Tregon tells us that, "... the sealing up of ignorance and fallen angels began."
Since the space people of Venus did instruct and guide the faithful people of Earth to sacred places where they would be safe when certain changes took place, we know that they will again do this at the proper time. Our scientists know that there are cycles of activity that Earth passes through and Tregon also said in his message that "... as a new cycle of change in the heavens began the wise ones of Venus came to Earth to warn all to repent." The people of Venus knew of the inevitable axis change that was to bring a flood and cataclysms to Earth. The faithful were warned and only those who were full of obedience to the Most High received the warnings and instructions. Thus Earth was cleansed and the evil ones with their records and language sank with Atlantis and other continents, while the faithful were saved.
We find the space people are now prepared to again warn those who are faithful and to show them sacred ground to go to, also to lift them from the face of Earth itself and protect them from the radioactivity and evil of those who do not follow the laws of the Most High. Our Space Brother has said, "... Let those who have ears to hear, let them hear." Tregon has told us that the evil of Earth will continue until the planets and oceans are radioactive unless Earthman puts a stop to this evil.
The space people cannot intervene, nor cause all the A and H bombs to become inactive, for they, too, are held in a certain status until the time comes when then Most High issues a decree of action for Earth. No doubt they have the wisdom and means of making all the storage of bombs inactive, but they will not nor cannot interfere unless the order is given by the Most High. The Brothers have told us before that the evil ones of Atlantis were experimenting with such energy releases that our scientists are playing with today in the A and H bomb experiments, and that due to this they brought about the axis change more
quickly than the natural change would have been. He has told us the tribulations of Earth could be brought about too quickly, for an axis change is coming and if left unhampered it will be natural and slow; but if the explosion of bombs continues it could bring about this axis change too quickly and cause cataclysms.
Many times the enthusiast asks us, "Why don't the Space People just come down and take over? Earth would be better off." But Tregon has answered that question, and until Earth is again ready for the natural axis change they will only issue warnings and perhaps take the faithful up to the far heavens where they will wait the final cleansing of Earth's surface.
The problem of flying saucers has become very deeply interwoven with the fate of Earth, and none who investigates the phenomena can come out of it without sensing the complexity of the solution. No one can give a definite account of all the Space people's purposes, but we can share the information we do get and piece together the intricate puzzle of what they are, why they come to Earth, and how Earth is being benefited by them. To the faithful who keep the Laws of the Most High we can only phrase the words that so often come to our minds, "... rejoice, and be exceedingly glad: for great is your reward in heaven: ..."
Thank you. Ladies and Gentlemen, for your time.
More than 5000 pages and 2000 pictures (in English) about Cosmic people you can find on the internet:
www.cosmic-people.com
www.universe-people.com
www.universe-people.cz
www.vesmirni-lide.cz
www.vesmirlide.cz
www.andele-svetla.cz
www.andelesvetla.cz
(easy to find in libraries and in internet cafés)
23.4.2006
IVO A. BENDA
P.O.BOX 51
470 06 CESKA LIPA 6
CZECH REPUBLIC | <urn:uuid:86517f43-8b1b-41c4-8738-ea340736ffdf> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://www.vielewelten.at/pdf_en/angels%20in%20starships.pdf | 2018-12-13T04:22:18Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376824448.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20181213032335-20181213053835-00115.warc.gz | 497,372,700 | 80,626 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.977133 | eng_Latn | 0.99938 | [
"slv_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"... | true | rolmOCR | [
97,
141,
2862,
5865,
9207,
11098,
11142,
14089,
17478,
20765,
23654,
27577,
30505,
34521,
37510,
40749,
44268,
48056,
51947,
54780,
58707,
61883,
66080,
70036,
74063,
76928,
80374,
83868,
87887,
92107,
96128,
100250,
103488,
106442,
110331,
11459... | [
1.1015625,
2.3125
] | 3 | 4 |
ST. PAUL’S SR. SEC. SCHOOL, PALI
TIME TABLE & EXAM GUIDELINES FOR ANNUAL EXAMINATION (WRITTEN)
CLASS : NURSERY, LKG & HKG
| DATE | CLASS: NURSERY | CLASS: LKG | CLASS: HKG |
|--------------------|----------------|------------|------------|
| 09-03-2021 (Tue.) | ENGLISH | ENGLISH | ENGLISH |
| 12-03-2021 (Fri.) | HINDI | HINDI | HINDI |
| 15-03-2021 (Mon.) | MATHS | MATHS | MATHS |
| 17-03-2021 (Wed.) | ------- | ------- | EVS |
| 19-03-2021 (Fri.) | Home Work copies of the above subjects should be submitted in school for checking and awarding marks.
GUIDELINES
1. The students will login on the school website (same login details of e-learning) and download the question paper, which will be displayed between 9.00 am to 11.00 am only.
2. Question paper should be solved by students in the concerned homework copies and the copies of the subjects (mentioned in the time table) should be submitted to the Class Teachers in school on 19th March 2021 (Friday) between 08.00 am to 11.00 am without fail.
3. Late submission will not be entertained.
4. Syllabus of Annual Examination is appended below.
5. Teachers will check the all assessment work (which was given earlier), internal assessment and solved papers of Annual Examination and accordingly promotion list will be prepared.
6. Result date will be announced later.
N.B.: Parents are requested to clear all fees / dues before the Annual Examination.
| Subjects | Annual Examination |
|----------|--------------------|
| ENGLISH | Letters : A to Z, Fill in the blanks, Match the letters with the same letters, Write the first letter of the picture, Match the letters with the pictures, Circle the Correct letter of the picture. |
| HINDI | वर्ण : अ से अः तक, खाली जगह भरिए, अक्षर को अक्षर से मिलाइए, चित्र देखकर सही अक्षर पर गोला बनाओ, अक्षर को चित्र से मिलाइए, चित्र देखकर पहला अक्षर लिखिए |
| MATHS | Numbers : Write 1 to 20, Missing numbers 1 to 20, Count & Write 1 to 10, Match the number with the same number, Circle the correct number, Count the objects and match with the correct number. |
| Subjects | Annual Examination |
|----------|--------------------|
| ENGLISH | Poem : Pg no. 18, 20, Small Letters : a to z, Small cursive Letters : α to ς, Fill in the blanks, (Missing Letters), First Letters of the picture, Tick the correct one, circle the odd one, Match the following, Three letter words |
| HINDI | कविता: पेज नं. 15, 23, वर्ण अ से झ तक, तीन अक्षर के शब्द, खाली जगह भरिए, मिलान करिए, सही उत्तर पर गोला करिए, भिन्न अक्षर पर गोला करिए, चित्र का पहला अक्षर लिखिए |
| MATHS | Numbers : 1 to 100, Table of 2, Numbers Name 1 to 10, Addition (one digit), Count the picture & write the number, Match the followings, Tick the correct number. |
| Subjects | Annual Examination |
|----------|--------------------|
| ENGLISH | Reading Pg no. 45, 47, 49, 51, Poem 12, 14, 15, Fill in the Blanks, Question & Answers, Gender, Use of is, are, am, and |
| HINDI | पेज नं. 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, कविता— 20, 22, 24, वर्णों को जोड़कर लिखिये (अ से अः तक), चित्र देखकर शब्द लिखिये, प्रश्नोत्तर, सब्जियों के नाम, आवागमन के साधन व पालतू जानवरों के नाम, |
| MATHS | Spellings 61 to 100, Numbers from 301 to 400, Write in words from 61 to 100, Tables of 5, Before no. (1-50), Backward counting from 50-1, Shapes, Multiplication |
| E.V.S. | Cleanliness, Good habits, Sound of animals, Community helpers, Festivals, | | 36065492-4a59-4b3d-a1c6-ce821fe4fb0c | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://stpaulpali.com/circular/KGTIMETABLE.pdf | 2021-07-31T09:32:18+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046154085.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20210731074335-20210731104335-00302.warc.gz | 551,344,777 | 1,074 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995395 | eng_Latn | 0.995395 | [
"eng_Latn",
"unknown"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1502,
3484
] | [
3.171875
] | 2 | 0 |
Lecture, August 1st 1943, Bristol.
I.
1) 19 years since R.S. gave his course on education. Since this time the work was growing.
2) Seraway, Sweden, Britain &c.o. In every one of these homes & schools the children are educated & treated.
3) You will ask: What is the difference to other homes of this category? What are the new methods used?
4) I would answer that we have no special method, but the attitude towards the child is entirely different from other homes. And this attitude creates.
II.
1) The schools are f.i. not called "for backward, defective children" but for children in need of special care. And this is one main point. We do not consider these children backward but different from the so-called normal ones.
2) These children are malformed, maladjusted, they are different, but we consider it our task to study the children, each single child as thoroughly as possible, because each one is an individual.
3) There is a certain ideal image of the true nature of the human child, each one of us carries, & we try to compare the individual child to this ideal image.
4) Out of this not only diagnosis but also the special treatment results.
III.
1) These are the main points I shall try to describe on the basis of Taunghill, how such a school is run.
2) The atmosphere: The child is part of the whole community. The teachers live together with the children. There are no servants. Everything is done by the teacher and his children.
3) The daily rhythm or routine: A skeleton is built around the child. The prayers, songs, the school, the story lesson, the festivals.
4) The teaching: artistic, practical, theoretical. Fairy tales, myths, music, religion.
IV.
1) The understanding of the child:
The approach to the spiritual being. It is considered as an existing unit that works on the body.
2) Anthony Prosser; Peter Brown.
Norman Walker; Susan Firth.
Anthony Vos; David Baird.
3) Peter Purser
Sandy Tilley
4) The meeting of soul & body, that is one thing we have to learn again to understand. The child not as the result of heredity & environment but of much, much more.
1) The increase of these children during the last 30 years.
2) They are not a danger, they are a remedy to mankind.
3) Because in these children the cosmic being of man is revealed.
(Story of the resurrection - picture)
4) Build a society where everybody can live.
Kaspar Hauser, the child of Europe. | 93197629-57d3-4762-875f-d0d086ce5e40 | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.karlkoeniginstitute.org/images/archive_documents/Notizen_zum_Vortrag.pdf | 2024-05-29T14:56:53+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971059246.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20240529134803-20240529164803-00717.warc.gz | 725,352,580 | 561 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996555 | eng_Latn | 0.998163 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1164,
2120,
2433
] | [
2.109375
] | 1 | 1 |
Pick a few activities to do together as a family throughout the week!
| Palm Sunday | Send a Letter to a family member or sign up to write someone in a care facility |
|-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Read Together Story Bible pg 358 Mark 11:1-11 |
| | See Advocacy at Home sheet for instructions |
| Make a palm! | Holy Thursday Maundy Thurs/ Last Supper |
|--------------|----------------------------------------|
| Act out the story Have a parent be the donkey! | Read Together Story Bible pg 365 Mark 14:22-25 |
| See attached template | Jesus washed His friends’ feet. Wash each others feet or hands, say “You are a child of God” |
| Color a Holy Week Coloring Sheet | Good Friday |
|----------------------------------|-------------|
| See attached | Read Together Story Bible pg 376 Mark 16:21-39 Frolic - Jesus Dies |
| Make a Care Box for people bringing deliveries to your home | Easter Sunday |
|------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|
| See Advocacy at Home sheet for instructions | Read Together Story Bible pg 383 Mark 16:1-8 Frolic - Jesus Rises |
Make a cross in pennies and glue on paper. Write “Paid in Full” Read John 3:16
Do an At-Home Easter Promises Egg Hunt See attached
Count how many crosses you find in your house?
Butterflies remind us of new life. Is there anything in your house with a butterfly on it?
Make a 6”x6” Easter Mural Square! See attached template
When Jesus died, the sky grew dark. Find a very dark place in your house. Turn off the light. Very slowly count to 3. What will happen on the 3rd day?
Make Your Own Palm!
1 - Print out this Template for each kiddo
2 - Print on green paper OR have kiddos color the BACKSIDE with green marker, crayon, or paint
3 - Fold in half with template on the OUTSIDE
4 - For Preschool and younger kiddos: help them cut along the outer line
4 - For School Age kiddos: cut the outline first then cut out the dotted notches
4 - Optional: to make it more “leafy” cut further in than the dotted notches
5 - Attach a pipe cleaner, straw, or popsicle stick to the center, leaving at least 6” out for a handle
Yay! You have a palm!
Suddenly, they found themselves in a parade! People were singing and shouting, "Hosanna!"
PALM SUNDAY
MAUNDY THURSDAY
GOOD FRIDAY
Penny Cross Craft
Take some pennies and glue them to make a cross. Write, “Paid in full.” and read John 3:16
Make an Easter Mural Square!
Make a 6x6 inch Easter square to add to the collection that will eventually be put up in church. You can add any Easter symbol – butterfly, egg, cross, flower, etc.
Here’s what we have so far! (Tip: Make it colorful all the way to the edges)
Easter Promises Scavenger Hunt
Put a clue in 11 plastic eggs and hide them around the house as listed. Celebrate the promise together!
1. The people said HOSANNA! The next clue is by a BANANA.
2. Jesus washed the disciples' FEET. Look underneath a kitchen SEAT.
3. Jesus prayed in a garden at NIGHT. Check by a lamp that gives you LIGHT.
4. Our sins were removed when Jesus Died - Hurry to find your next clue OUTSIDE!
5. Jesus Loves YOU! Go look in a SHOE.
6. The stone was rolled away from the TOMB. Find the next clue in the BATHROOM.
The angels said that Jesus AROSE
Check where you dry your CLOTHES.
He is risen!
He is no longer Dead.
Run real quick to look under the BED.
God has all the strength and POWER
Your next clue is in the SHOWER!
Jesus’ love brings our hearts great Joy!
Find the last clue by a Toy!
Happy Easter!
This Easter hunt is over, but Jesus’ love never ends.
What wonderful news to tell all of your friends!
Trust in Him, believe, and Pray –
and carry these Easter promises with you everyday! | d771ba0a-0dd7-4724-b4d4-8a436b83243c | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.nativitychurch.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Nativity-Holy-Week-Bingo.pdf | 2021-12-07T05:46:11+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363336.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20211207045002-20211207075002-00506.warc.gz | 961,090,367 | 921 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.995086 | eng_Latn | 0.997312 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1785,
2355,
2446,
2487,
2598,
2872,
3418,
3903
] | [
3.640625
] | 1 | 0 |
ISSUE 51 | SEPT 2011
pakmag
number 1 for parents & kids | calms
Holiday GUIDE
THE NEW curriculum
- Common parent concerns
LEARN
WIN BCC Tickets!
- Comp details on page 3
Fathers
The importance of bonding from birth
- Full story page 4
Kids MINI MAG Inside
Art activities for the hols
Weekend in Undara p59
Kids modelling comps
A lot of new mums are still surprised when we tell them that Swim Australia recommends beginning swim lessons for your bub as early as 4 months! It might seem a bit young but there are social, emotional, physical and mental benefits that extend way past water safety.
Your newborn has just spent 9 months in amniotic fluid in your womb so it makes sense to continue exposing them to an environment that makes them feel safe. Water enhances a baby’s development of movement and coordination providing sensory information not available on land.
And did you know that by 10 months a baby is becoming wary of unfamiliar people and places? By 18 months they have an imagination and can begin having bad dreams. You don’t want your child to also develop a fear of water!
If you ask a mum in Australia why they go to swimming lessons, most will tell you its because they don’t want their child to drown, which is an excellent and responsible reason. However, if you ask a mum from Sweden they will tell you that they know their child will be socially, emotionally, physically and mentally more advanced than those that do not! It’s common knowledge in Sweden and now Swim Australia is conducting studies at Griffith University to confirm these benefits.
Of course, swim lessons do help prevent drownings (drowning is the number one killer of children under five and for every one that drowns three more are left with injuries requiring lifelong care) but introducing your child to a great aquatic education program will also expose them to the developmental benefits your child deserves.
Besides all of this, swimming lessons are just plain FUN and create a unique form of bonding and trust between child and parent.
Did I teach my own boys to swim? Well, I tried but as every parent knows it can be difficult to teach our own children in some skills and swimming is one of them.
If you have not been able to introduce your child to water this early it is very important that you attend a swim school that understands child development and its implications to swimming.
Chris Dellit has been teaching swimming for over 30 years and has just co-founded the Little Snappers Swim School in Smithfield.
Tips for choosing a swim school for your baby
MAKE SURE THE SCHOOL YOU ATTEND HAS THE FOLLOWING:
- Swim Australia registered swim school
- Warm and clean water (32-33 degrees will keep your baby warm)
- Covered and enclosed temperature controlled pool
- Small class sizes (max. 3-4)
- Specially qualified baby & toddler staff
- Lessons year round (children lose skills quickly if lessons stop)
- Knowledge of child development | c8c23441-5fe6-4251-8c52-9773de228a3e | CC-MAIN-2024-46 | https://www.chrisdellit.com/_files/ugd/3dcdb9_474a0c718d1143cf9d4c83ea05e55312.pdf | 2024-11-02T17:53:37+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027729.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20241102165015-20241102195015-00234.warc.gz | 678,409,506 | 620 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.962051 | eng_Latn | 0.998532 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
334,
2965
] | [
2.34375
] | 1 | 0 |
Terrible . . . Tumultuous . . . Terrific . . .
Teenagers!
What Teens Need and Want from Us ▲ Kids Touring Kids ▲
▲ Warming the Cool Teenager ▲ Helping Adolescents Build Self-Confidence ▲
▲ A Junior Docent Program ▲ Helping Teens Create Personal Meaning in the Museum ▲
▲ Teaching Teens with a Dual Curriculum ▲ Teenagers “Living” at the Museum . . . Almost ▲
It’s truly amazing when you think about it. Every single one of us who is older than nineteen experienced being a teenager, yet most of us can’t seem to recall what it was actually like, and even fewer of us know how to relate to those who are currently working their way through this intense time of life.
The fact is that people grow in stages and, as they do, most find it difficult to remember the previous stage’s realities and truths. Adolescents find remembering the reality of childhood almost impossible; adults find the behavior of adolescents positively baffling, even when they themselves may be only a few years removed from their own adolescence.
Perhaps we are blessed, rather than plagued, with forgetfulness. Forgetting protects us from recalling pain, and each stage of human development can be tough (and the teenage years can be particularly painful). Nonetheless, those of us who work with adolescents and young adults must understand what being a teenager is like in order to connect with them when teaching.
In his text, *The Creative Imperative: A Four-Dimensional Theory of Human Growth*, physician and psychiatrist Charles Johnston, M.D. offers this description of teens:
“The innocence of childhood is left behind in the need to challenge external limits and to establish inner ones. Emotions are strong. The adolescents’ reality is morally ordered: composed of extremes of black and white. As with any such isometric polarity, the extremes are at once in mortal combat and in total collusion. Adolescent reality is one logical contradiction after another. Independence is a major issue; yet, while assumptions of independence can provoke fierce self-assertion, acts that on the surface express independence always at once function to guarantee parental response and involvement. While non-conformity is highly prized, it takes its most common expression in the rigid conformity of cliques and fads. The prize for taking on the struggle with these paradoxes is the experience of identity, of self as created form.”
Dr. Johnston’s description provides us with several useful insights into most teenagers’ state-of-mind, as well as information relevant to engaging the interest and involvement of teens when touring them through our institutions. Let’s reflect on what he tells us as it relates to teaching in museums, historic sites, zoo, parks, and gardens.
✓ *Emotions are strong.* The teen years are a highly emotional time of life. Since emotions are a dominant feature during this stage of human development, capitalize on them. Emotional responses to issues, objects, and artifacts may be more involving than intellectual ones.
Try asking questions that evoke feelings. Questions that accomplish this best are those that require teens to interpret or hypothesize. “What do you feel this artist is saying about city life in this composition?” “Why is it that most people have an adverse reaction to even the most beneficial insects?” “Why might today’s fashions be so different from the way they were during the nineteenth century?”
✓ … *extremes of black and white.* Teens are in the process of coming to their own decisions about right and wrong, good and bad. They are practiced at making these types of determinations and are, therefore, used to making comparisons.
Ask questions that require teenagers to discover differences or similarities. “How many differences can you find between these two landscape paintings?”
“What characteristics do these plants share in common?” “In what ways are the customs of this culture similar to our own?”
Or, ask questions that require decision-making and then explore the reasoning process behind the decisions made. “If you could bring one of these art works to a sick friend, which would you choose and why would you choose it?” “How do you feel about people owning and keeping exotic pets?” “If you were to select one object as most representative of the Revolutionary War period, which would you choose and why?”
✓ *Independence is a major issue* … Teens will want to feel self-sufficient in your institution. If they are treated like children, they will behave like children. Likewise, if they are made to feel reliant upon you as their mentor or guardian, they will turn off. Should they believe your reason for asking them questions is to test them, or in any way to reveal their lack of knowledge, they may become hesitant to respond or even antagonistic.
Provide teens with activities that make them feel competent and qualified. Use open-ended questions that accommodate a variety of responses so that their answers can be validated. Or, create self-tests that allow teens to call upon their own perceptual awareness. Have them observe animal behaviors, make note of details in works of art or historical artifacts, or ask them to re-group objects using categories of their own making.
Let teens know from the very beginning of your encounter with them that you value their insights. Tell them that you ask questions and conduct activities to involve them because each person brings a unique perspective to the issues and objects at your institution.
Let them know that you are genuinely interested in their responses. Then, be certain to demonstrate your interest by being attentive and accepting. Listen to what they have to say without making value judgments about them from their answers.
✓ ... acts that on the surface express independence always at once function to guarantee parental response and involvement. The desire for parental (or a parental figure’s) response and involvement differs among teenagers. The least secure among them often are those who do things to garner the most adult reaction. Why bite on their hook? Why allow them to control the agenda?
I once toured a group of teens where one young man continued to wear his sunglasses inside the museum building. Though I felt his wearing sunglasses was rude and annoying, I did not tell him to take them off. Half-way through the tour however, I did ask if I could borrow them. Using the pretext of wanting to see how the colors within paintings shifted when you looked at them through green-tinted glass, I got him to remove his glasses and was able to engage the group in a productive conversation about reproductions, and why they may not accurately represent the colors found in original works of art.
Try responding to outrageous or obstreperous behaviors in a manner other than classically authoritarian. Think of a clever way to use a behavior to your advantage. Find a way to laugh and be a “good sport” without seeming to encourage the misbehavior. Sometimes, just being a “good sport” creates peer pressure on the problem teen to stop being disruptive. However, should the disruptive or rude behavior escalate, or should it seriously impair your ability to provide a tour to the other participants, stop your tour and get assistance from a teacher, chaperone, museum staff member, or guard.
✓ ... non-conformity is highly prized .... Since being a non-conformist is valued by teenagers, why not use it as a theme or recurring motif for your tour? Are there artists, scientists, or historical figures that could be thought of as rebellious, or who pushed their own visions or theories against those of convention? Figure out a way to connect this issue to your lesson, and then create some drama. Find and share a good story. Let teens know that the people reflected in your exhibitions were as human as they are, that they struggled against societal pressures, and that they had courage and/or conviction.
As you sort through ways to better engage teenagers in the learning process remember that the burden of tone and attitude is on you. Approach teens as adults, convey respect for their thoughts in your words and deeds, and then allow them to be adolescents. Though they may look like adults, and demand to be treated as such, they are actually “adults-in-training.” It is not realistic, nor is it fair, to always expect adult behaviors.
Most importantly, try to enjoy the terrible, tumultuous, and terrific things that teens will do. Don’t take everything personally. The issues teens are grappling with, and the attitudes they display, exist in a far larger context than a visit to your institution. If you can relax and appreciate teens for who they are, you will find that many of their insights and perspectives will delight you, and you will have traveled a long way down the path of effectiveness with this challenging and rewarding audience.
Alan Gartenhaus
Publishing Editor
A Method to the Madness
What Teens Need and Want from Us
How much content from your last tour do you think students retained? It may well depend on the method you used to convey the information.
According to S. Farnham-Diggory in *Paradigms of Knowledge and Instruction* (1994), there are four teaching methods which encompass all other teaching activities, they are: 1) talking, 2) displaying, 3) coaching, and 4) arranging the learning environment. In the first method, the teacher’s talk may be declarative or inductive, that is s/he may tell, discuss, and question. In the second, the teacher models or demonstrates. In the third method, the teacher provides cues and suggested modifications while the student is engaged in some activity. In the fourth, the teacher designs and implements activities that stimulate self-learning.
Docents should be aware that student retention rates vary widely among these methods. According to the Learning Pyramid, produced by the National Training Laboratories in Bethel, Maine, a learner’s retention rate of the content of a lecture is a shockingly low 5%. (Perhaps it’s not so shocking. How much do you remember from the last lecture you heard?) However, if students discuss that content in a group, the retention rate jumps to a much more respectable 50%. Additionally, we retain 70% of what we, ourselves, actually say or ask in a discussion.
In her book, *Endangered Minds* (1990), Jane M. Healey corroborates the critical role played by the use of spoken and written language in one’s learning process. She writes, “Language shapes culture, language shapes thinking — and language shapes brains” literally, she explains, by arranging synapses which alter the physiological development of the neocortex, the part of the brain where mathematical, verbal, and logical functions are located.
Healey feels that most educational experiences, with their reliance on teacher lecture, worksheets, and reading chapters only to answer questions at the end, are causing the brains of today’s children to be “structured in language patterns antagonistic to the values and goals of formal education. The culprit … is diminished and degraded exposure to the forms of good, meaningful language that enables us to converse with others, with the written word, and with our own minds …. To reason effectively and solve problems … growing minds … need to learn what it feels like to be in charge of one’s own brain, actively pursuing a mental or physical trail, inhibiting response to the lure of distractions.”
The solution? According to at least three sources cited by Mark A. Forget in *A Brain Compatible Approach to Learning*, Jane Healey’s *Endangered Minds*, the Virginia Department of Education’s *Plain Talk* (1987), and Judy S. Richardson and Raymond F. Morgan’s *Reading to Learn in the Content Areas* (1994), solutions must involve students in the active, rather than passive, and interactive pursuit of meaning and understanding in an affective environment, one that is compassionate and does not rely on threats as a motivation to learn. Where better than in museums?
These research findings are in complete accordance with the desires expressed by 50 high school students we recently surveyed. In preparation for a workshop for museum educators and docents, Cindy Moneta, art department chair at Ocean Lakes High School in Virginia Beach, polled her students. Her question to the students was simple: what should and shouldn’t art museum docents do when touring high school students? Their answers, which were not exclusive to art museums, reflect concerns ranging from content and teaching strategies to style of presentation and even personal hygiene.
Teenagers’ interest in the tours they receive, and their ability to retain what they are taught, depends, in large measure, upon the methods used to teach them.
Perhaps most importantly, the majority of students’ answers corroborate research which asserts that a non-threatening inquiry-based, language-rich, student-centered approach is most effective. The following are some of their responses:
- let us select the object to discuss
- ask more specific questions about the images that interest us
- ask us what we are interested in
- ask how we can relate the subject or information to our lives
- allow us to ask questions
- allow us to interpret the image
- ask for our opinions
- let us tell you what we already know
- give your information after we have given our view, opinions, interpretations
- find out what we are expecting to learn
- give us food for thought and then allow us to participate
- give us a chance to think and figure certain things out.
Believe it or not, some activities they said they enjoy include role playing, games, treasure hunts, and meaningful worksheets (as opposed to “busy” work). Perhaps students desire these kinds of activities because they intuitively know that allowing learners to practice by doing means they are likely to retain 75% of the content!
In terms of interpersonal communication, the students want us to follow the “golden rule” by being nice, friendly, enthusiastic, caring, and warm while avoiding treating them like children and underestimating them. Worse, perhaps, is being condescending or talking down to them, as well as the opposite, acting intimidated. They asked that we not assume that they aren’t listening nor that they do not care, and to please not lose patience with them.
Not surprisingly, teens are concerned with establishing their own identity — autonomy is important to them. They recommend being allowed to pick their own groups for group activities, as well as being allowed to explore on their own.
They want educators to remember the rules of effective public speaking by acting natural and relaxed, facing the audience, speaking clearly and loudly enough, speaking eloquently, spicing up the information, adding humor, modulating our facial expressions and tone of voice, speaking at a moderate pace and avoiding fillers such as “um” and “like.” Looking nice and having fresh breath were important to at least two other students.
High on the “don’t” list were lecturing, rambling on-and-on, over-explaining, overwhelming them with too many facts and too much information, and spending too long on one object. Remember, students only retain an estimated 5% of what is lectured to them. Additionally, two students implored us to “be creative” and “use props.”
Unwittingly, these students reinforced exactly what leading researchers in the field of education have indicated as the new paradigm for education. The implications for those of us challenged with creating meaningful educational experiences in museums, historic sites, zoos, parks, and botanical gardens are quite clear and have been espoused in the pages of *The Docent Educator* since its inception: tours should be concentrated with varied opportunities for students to use language to express and connect ideas, ask and answer questions, and discuss content with the docent, teacher, and other students.
When possible, students preference and research indicate that docents should stretch perhaps beyond their “comfort zone” to incorporate demonstrations (30% retention rate) and to allow student to practice by doing (75% retention rate). Further, facilitating a learning environment in which students use what they have learned immediately will likely result in a whopping 90% retention of content. (A simple way to achieve this goal is to ask students to apply concepts learned in relation to one object discussed on the tour to a subsequent object in the course of the same tour.) The psychological context for all of this teaching and learning should not only be non-threatening, but should be pleasant and emotionally supportive of the students.
Finally, it is important for docents to recognize that the researchers’ and students’ recommendations are method-related, not style-related. That is, regardless of one’s personal teaching style, all docents can succeed as effective educators by following the guidelines above. In so doing, docents will discover that the content to be learned is the means to an end, rather than the end itself. What is that end? Students who can think, reason, abstract, connect, hypothesize, make judgments, and suggest solutions. And, students who find doing so enjoyable enough to sustain for a lifetime.
*Betsy Gough-DiJulio is Director of Education for the Virginia Beach Center for the Arts, in Virginia Beach, Virginia, and is a frequent contributor to The Docent Educator.*
Teaching with a dual curriculum is an exciting and successful way to involve high school students in museums, while providing collaborative opportunities between museums and schools. A dual curriculum synthesizes materials, objects, and information from two museums — one art and the other history — into one program consisting of pre-visit materials, visits to both institutions, and a concluding activity that is graded by the classroom teachers.
“Students, Schools, and Museums: Art and History of the 1930’s” is a collaborative program created by educators at the Arizona State University Art Museum and the Tempe Historical Museum and social studies teachers in the Tempe Union High School District. Coordination between the two museums and with the teachers has helped this program evolve into a meaningful experience for area high school students for the past five years.
The goals of this program are as follows:
♦ Students will increase competency in 1930’s history and art through direct, vivid research of original materials, paintings, fine art prints, music, everyday objects, documents, and photographs.
♦ Students are introduced to museum resources beyond the galleries — such as curatorial staff, archives, libraries, collection study areas — and will realize the life-long learning potential of community museums.
♦ Museum resources are integrated with classroom learning and the American history curriculum is expanded and enhance through integration of the arts and history.
Participating teachers prepare students for their museum visits using photographs, slides and a video provided by the museums in a pre-visit packet. Students travel to both museums in one day, completing a final project at whichever museum they visit last. A class spends three hours in each institution with a break for lunch. In the historical museum, they examine the history of Tempe as they tour the main hall of the museum. In the art museum, the students view temporary exhibitions and the historic American and Mexican art galleries, laying the groundwork for examining artworks as historical documents.
After this introduction, students are divided into small groups to conduct research on eight different topics pertinent to the 1930’s: lifestyles, commerce/community, migration, federal programs, rural life / agriculture, education, leisure activities / entertainment, and architecture. These topics are represented by original objects and some secondary source material in each museum. Study guide questions help the students focus on each topic. There is one question from each museum under every topic. Accompanied by docents, students conduct their research in galleries, storage areas, archives, and research facilities.
The concluding activity requires students to curate their own exhibition of objects using findings from both museums. Students are given twenty photographs of objects — ten from each institution. Working in groups, and guided by questions, students select objects for their exhibition, and write exhibition labels. This final activity integrates the students’ knowledge of art and history and, through the application of their research, cements their understanding of the 1930’s. This project, which is incorporated into the classroom study of the 1930’s, is graded by the teachers.
The integrating of two distinctly different disciplines into a dual curriculum breaks conventional academic boundaries for the students. Many have never discovered links between the two disciplines before, and most admit that they have never been in one or both of the museums.
The variety of materials and applications engages the students. The program brings them face-to-face with real works of art and objects of
history and exposes them to research techniques and the excitement of discovery. They generally find at least one item of interest in each of the museums.
Each year, museum educators and teachers meet before the program begins to review the previous year’s experiences, set the schedule, and discuss possible modifications. Over time we learned how to create a more effective visit for high school students. For instance, since the students were unfamiliar with the museum, they were easily distracted. We found that students did not possess many of the skills needed to draw meaning from museum objects, and had to hone our questions in ways that directed them toward elaboration or involvement.
Though students say they prefer to be “free” to investigate based on their own interests, and not to have specific tasks to accomplish, their teachers felt the study guides gave students a focus and directed their efforts and research. We believe that the guide encourages students to conduct their own research and interpretation, and has proven more effective as an educational tool than the standard lecture tour. In addition, the study guides provide teachers with an opportunity to evaluate the students and their projects.
To ease their curiosity and help them focus on their research project we added an introductory tour at both institutions. Access to the restricted areas of the museum did not mean much so long as students perceived that they were missing something exciting in the exhibit halls. After a general tour, however, we could hold their attention.
We also learned how to improve the study guides. We adjusted the history questions to prompt investigation rather than the retrieval of correct responses. We changed the art questions, too, making them less analytical and more specific to each of the works examined.
The concluding activity also changed. At first, the final project consisted of oral presentations by each student on a single topic. These presentations were often inaccurate and difficult to correct. Because the students focused on one topic, they did not perceive the connection between the two museums and the overall impression of the 1930’s. Today, the final activity includes materials from both museums and is accomplished in groups. The students self-govern the misinformation through the development of a title and object labels for their 1930’s exhibition. Docents are available to answer questions and guide the students. Later, back at school, the teacher grades the written document, as well as using it as the basis for further discussions in class.
Linking the information and resources of the two museums gives added incentive for teachers to make field trips. Visiting two institutions in one day and having a concrete end product that is directly linked with school curriculum makes this program salable to school administrators. The rapport developed between the teachers and museum personnel has resulted in far better communication and a more effective program.
Creating a dual curriculum can be challenging, but its many rewards are worth the effort. The program fosters an exciting, open exchange between docents, students, teachers, and museum professionals. Docents enjoy the productive interaction with high school students, and the students learn about museums as community resources. Teachers become more aware of the museums as educational allies and as resources, and tend to bring other classes to the museums and become involved in other museum offerings. And, the museum professionals gain insights into teacher and student needs and goals while becoming more effective in our interaction with high school audiences.
Heather Lineberry is Curator/Curator of Education at the Arizona State University Art Museum. Anna Johnson is Curator of Education at the Tempe Historical Museum. Ms. Johnson’s article, “Using Transitions to Teach Touring,” appeared in the Autumn 1995 issue of The Docent Educator.
[The authors wish to dedicate this article to the memory of Chuck Malpede, Social Studies Chair and teacher for 30 years at Tempe High School, Tempe, AZ. He was instrumental in the development and success of this project, and his enthusiasm for history and innovation was inspirational. Mr. Malpede passed away December, 1994.]
Teenagers “Living” at the Museum
The Musée de la Civilisation in Québec City is a young, education-oriented institution constructed around a social science theme. It has welcomed 700,000 visitors every year since 1988. According to visitor surveys, what younger people enjoy most about the Musée is its warm welcome, the range of exhibitions, and the quality of the animation. In return, the Musée derives great satisfaction from hearing young people talk about the institution as “their museum,” a place where they feel at home.
What interests teens so much that they practically live at the Musée? Allow me to summarize a few encounters that helped to create a bond between the Musée and its young visitors.
Every year, some 122,000 young people take part in the Musée’s educational activities. Many of them come on class visits. Guide-animators show them through the exhibitions, discovery spaces, and workshops while on special tours adapted to their interests and curriculum. Young visitors also take part in theatrical animation capsules or rallies that the Musée designs especially for them. As part of the exhibition, *Of Puppets and Theatre*, students from two high schools made more than one hundred puppets that were used in educational workshops. Several were displayed in the exhibition hall and in the entrance hall. This joint venture was an unforgettable experience, we were told, because young people often lack confidence in their potential and suffer from society’s skepticism toward them and their age group.
Young people also visit the Musée alone or in small groups. On the interactive guided tour entitled *Québec Women, a Great Legacy*, the 13 to 24 age group is most interested in seeing and handling a collection of bizarre objects used in the lives and work of women. This tour is part of the permanent exhibition *Memories*. Many of these young people are astonished, to say the least, when they learn that, just sixty years ago, women in the province of Québec did not have the right to vote. Some find it hard to believe, because, like most young people, they cannot tolerate injustice.
Boys and girls alike were united around the theme of peace when they visited the 1993 exhibition *Children at War: 1914 - 1993*. This exhibition, prepared jointly with the Musée de la Croix-Rouge et du Croissant Rouge, in Geneva, was particularly popular with younger visitors. In a setting of barbed wire, smoke, and cello music, the Musée presented nearly one hundred remarkable war photographs taken by reporters, together with drawings by thirty young people who had experienced the ravages of war. We were able to watch the youngsters when they visited the exhibition freely, in small groups. They chatted to one another, and left texts and drawings on the subject in the book of comments provided. The book is a thought-provoking testimony, calling for immediate collective action. As might have been expected, the thoughts expressed by these visitors converge toward themes of injustice, responsibility, and the future.
Some 200 students invaded the Musée one October weekend in 1993 to discuss values and the future. They came to sing, dance, pray, and express their own ideas through sketches. They even organized a “values race” through the exhibitions, copied from the car rally format! Small teams were formed. Each, in turn, proceeded into three exhibitions, chasing, searching, and identifying values, such as the “courage” of pioneers, or the “openness” toward immigrants, or the conscious “preservation of resources.” The results of their quest were forwarded in a plenary...
... Almost
by Marie-José des Rivières
session, where their findings were shown boldly on flashcards.
They appreciated their discussions with receptive animators, other young people and adults from the pastoral service and the Education Department, who were willing to listen and provide advice if necessary. For this group, the Musée was a true “life experience.” The highlight of the weekend was the sleep over, and the chance to go behind the scenes and visit the storerooms and all the other mysterious places usually kept out of the general view.
Coup de théâtre at the Musée
Night, the subject of an exhibition, served as the general theme for an event involving 200 high school students who, in 1994-1995, came to present their theatrical sketches during the Coup de théâtre weekend (an all-nighter at the Musée). The students arrived dressed as characters of their choice from the exhibitions Nightshades and Goldilocks and the Three Bears; we had the joy of seeing these young people bring the characters to life. In the company of theatre professionals, the students were given the opportunity to improvise, or take part in stage and show design, dance or puppet workshops, before spending the rest of the night in the disco or at the night owl theatre, with its special program of horror movies!
Happening
Development programs should not be reserved exclusively for regular schoolgoers, and should try to reach out to children from the street, runaways, and victims of all types … often the victims of social prejudice. One March night in 1995, at a happening entitled “The Night Belongs to Me,” the Musée opened its doors to young homeless people, street dwellers, those for whom life has not been easy. We believe that museums can go beyond appearances and discover the creativity and treasures lying hidden behind the darkest hours of the night.
Throughout the Musée, more than 35 young people performed live for a public of 800 people, mainly youngsters with brightly colored hair and studded clothes. Many different forms of artistic expression were represented: theatre, rock music, live painting and sculpture, body painting, graffiti art, fashion design, comic strips, makeup, and a poetry workshop. The happening was organized jointly with a Québec City shelter, the Maison Dauphine, whose mission is to provide young people in the throes of family, psycho-emotional or socioeconomic problems with protection and advice, or even help -- in the form of detoxification, for example.
The event led to dialogue between people who would otherwise never have come into contact with each other. It also brought about a longer term relationship with the shelter. However, perhaps its greatest achievement was that it enabled two youngsters to find employment with people who witnessed their achievements in fashion design and picture hanging at the happening.
Concrete Action at the Musée
As we have seen, high school and college students enjoy the Musée’s educational activities. The Musée has also developed a series of events designed for specific pastoral, theatre, and scientific groups. It has even tried to reach the people that society has excluded. We are now at the point of wondering what other activities we could offer. What paths should we take in the future? How can we encourage young people to express themselves through the Musée? Despite society’s all-too-frequent criticism of the lack of individual and collective commitment by young people, it is clear to us that when they have a place to talk and act,
(Continued on back page.)
Barcelona’s Museum of Contemporary Art
A new $35 million Contemporary Art Museum opened this past autumn in Barcelona, Spain. The museum, designed by American architect Richard Meier, has received great praise for its beauty and collection. Complementing Barcelona’s fine Picasso Museum and a hilltop foundation containing a collection of Miró’s work, the Contemporary Art Museum is currently presenting an exhibition of the Dada and Expressionist movements with a strong representation of Spanish and Catalan artists.
In addition to generating great excitement among the artistic community, completion of the Contemporary Art Museum of Barcelona is credited with revitalizing the Raval neighborhood on the edge of Barcelona’s old Gothic quarter. Inaugurated by King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofia, the Museum is located at 1 Plaça deis Angles, telephone (93) 412 08 10.
An Accommodating Schedule
The Alabama Department of Archives and History, in Montgomery, provides teachers with several ways to explore their museum. During the week, docent-led tours are available for all grade levels. Each tour examines the collection using a theme, such as: The American Indian, 19th Century Life, or The Civil War Soldier. If a teacher prefers to tour the students on their own, the Archives books the group visit on Fridays. The Archives sends the teacher background information and permits the class to tour at their own pace. If a teacher wishes students to have both a docent-led tour and free time to return to the exhibitions on their own, the museum books the tour on Mondays.
On Mondays, docent-led tours are offered at specific times with time provided in-between for classes to use the galleries on their own.
Parks as Classrooms
In 1872, the United States became the first country to set aside land as a national park with the creation of Yellowstone National Park. Today, almost every nation in the world has some sort of national park system and most are patterned after the Yellowstone idea.
There are over 350 national parks across the United States, including parks in such large cities as New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and St. Louis. National parks can encompass sites that re-create the lives of famous people like George Washington, Martin Luther King, and Clara Barton, showing visitors where they grew up, where they worked, and how they lived.
National parks protect lands and resources. They provide visitors with views of coastal and interior ecosystems. Mammals, fish, birds, and other living things benefit from the parks, as do the visitors who are able to observe them. Parks are among our most essential outdoor classrooms.
New Rules for Pre-K
According to Teacher Magazine, new rules for teaching preschool children are springing up throughout the country. While in the past, teachers may have had to take a class or two in child development, that is changing. An increasing number of schools offering prekindergarten, and a wave of research deploring the lack of age-appropriate training in the child-care industry, have led almost a dozen states to upgrade their licensing requirements for early childhood teachers.
National experts believe that the licensing changes will make a dent in one of the biggest barriers to high-quality care: poor professional training. Advocates for youngsters point out, however, that these changes generally apply to public school teachers only, and public schools only represent a small portion of the child-care industry.
A Regional Docent Conference
The 6th annual Docent Education Conference will be held by The Museum of Arts and Science in Daytona Beach, Florida, on Monday, November 18, 1996. The theme of this year’s conference is “Visitor Centered Approaches to Museum Education,” and will include workshops by Myriam Springuel, former associate director for programs at the Smithsonian Institution. The registration deadline is Monday, September 30. For more information, call Johanna Riddle, Curator of Education, at (904) 255-0285, extension 22.
The Power of Art
Have you ever wondered why, if art is as peripheral to the “real world” as is often proclaimed, works of art are so coveted by the victors of wars? Countless examples exist where paintings, drawings, and other works of art were seized and stolen during colonial and war times. Take, for instance, the extensive collection of ancient Egyptian relics removed by the British, or the recent acknowledgment by the Russians that when Soviet troops returned home from World War II, they took with them thousands of works from what was to become East Germany.
Underlining important points from *The Docent Educator* seemed like a good idea until I noticed that every sentence of every issue was underlined. Every sentence contains a good idea.
I just mailed the issue with your '94 article on *Imagining* to my daughter who has our 15 month old grandson. I asked her to return the issue to me when she and her husband finished studying it. And, I just filed your winter issue after reading it through. Your article: *Motivating the Desire to Learn* was superb.
I have subscribed to one magazine for about 50 years and read dozens of journals, newspapers, and magazines monthly in my work. Never has a publication brought more joy, excitement, and challenge into my life than *The Docent Educator*. The continued high quality of your lead article and the articles by contributing writers, covering such a broad spectrum of education and museums, is amazing. I greatly enjoy my work as a Birmingham Museum of Art docent and your journal contributes to that enjoyment.
Thank you for your enlightening and enjoyable education and training of docents.
---
Creighton E. Johnson, docent
Birmingham Museum of Art
---
**Previous Issues Are Available!**
Previous issues of *The Docent Educator* are available for $9 each ($11 USD for subscribers outside the United States). To order previous issues, simply send us the title and date of the issue desired, along with your check.
[Sorry, but to keep costs to a minimum, we do not bill or invoice.]
| Sharpening Communication Skills | Special Audiences | Multiculturalism |
|---------------------------------|-------------------|------------------|
| (Vol. 1, No. 2) Winter 1991 | (Vol. 2, No. 4) Summer 1993 | (Vol. 4, No. 2) Winter 1994 |
| *Inquiry and Teaching* | *Teaching with Themes* | *Visual Literacy* |
| (Vol. 1, No. 3) Spring 1992 | (Vol. 3, No. 1) Autumn 1993 | (Vol. 4, No. 3) Spring 1995 |
| *Specialized Teaching* | *Little Ones* | *Teaching Adults and Families* |
| (Vol. 1, No. 4) Summer 1992 | (Vol. 3, No. 2) Winter 1993 | (Vol. 4, No. 4) Summer 1995 |
| *Understanding Audiences* | *Docent Programming* | *Tour Components* |
| (Vol. 2, No. 1) Autumn 1992 | (Vol. 3, No. 3) Spring 1994 | (Vol. 5, No. 1) Autumn 1995 |
| *Interdisciplinary Approaches* | *Blockbusters, Special Exhibitions, Large Crowds* | *Research and Trends in Education* |
| (Vol. 2, No. 2) Winter 1992 | (Vol. 3, No. 4) Summer 1994 | (Vol. 5, No. 2) Winter 1995 |
| *Tough Topics* | *Back to Schools* | *Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication* |
| (Vol. 2, No. 3) Spring 1993 | (Vol. 4, No. 1) Autumn 1994 | (Vol. 5, No. 3) Spring 1996 |
Prior to Sept. 1, 1996, mail your requests to: *The Docent Educator* 2011 Eleventh Avenue East Seattle, WA 98102-4109
After September 1, 1996 mail all requests to: *The Docent Educator* P.O. Box 2080 Kamuela, HI 96743-2080
A Junior Docent Program
How do we best utilize the energy and enthusiasm of teenagers to help further the mission of our museum? That might be a question asked by museum educators contemplating the development of new youth programs at their sites. The New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science, after asking this and other questions and researching existing programs, instituted a youth program - the Junior Docent program - in 1991. This program has evolved into one of the museum’s most successful educational programs. The description included here is intended to serve as an impetus and source of information for those considering starting such a program within their institution.
Program Description
The Junior Docent Program provides teens with a learning experience that increases their understanding of science and at the same time provides an opportunity for them to interact with the public and exposes them to science and education-related careers. The primary goal of this program is to promote a continued interest in science and science-related careers by middle and high school students, an age group that typically shows a sharp decline in math and science interest and abilities. A secondary goal is to provide the students with an opportunity to sharpen their communication and people skills.
These goals are achieved by: a) training the teens to act as educational assistants in the Museum; b) providing them the opportunity to work regular shifts in the Museum; and c) providing “continuing education” and field trips with scientists and science educators. Successful junior docents also participate in off-site events, sharing their knowledge with younger children at events such as Earth Day activities, the Discoverland Fair, and the Annual Zoo Day. During the first two years of the program, 25 teens were involved. In the last several years, this number has almost doubled.
Requirements for Participants
- 13 to 17, grades 8 through 12
- completed application with 2 letters of recommendation
- 2.0 grade average or better
- personal interview
Training Component
Junior docents are trained to work at four different stations: dinosaurs, marine life, bats of New Mexico /their ecological role, and rocks and minerals of New Mexico. Each station has touch specimens and activities for visitors that illustrate scientific concepts. The junior docents have the opportunity to interact with visitors of all ages and from around the world, but they are trained especially to engage children and families in experiences that enrich their Museum visit. The training sessions and on-going
continuing education are a mix of classroom presentations, activities in the Museum exhibit halls, and field trips.
**IMPLEMENTATION OF PROGRAM**
Upon completion of the training, participants are evaluated to determine if each one is ready to begin shifts at the four stations. The evaluation is a role-playing presentation, with the teens acting as the explainers at each station and the evaluators (program coordinator and other adult docents) serving as the visitor. Those participants whose presentations are not satisfactory are permitted to review written handouts and come in for practice sessions at the stations (with adult docents); after this, they are re-evaluated.
Once the teens have been “checked off” at all four stations, they begin working three-hour shifts in the summer twice a week. The program supervisor makes several “walk-throughs” to check on the young docents during each shift, particularly at the beginning of the summer.
Once a week, program participants get together to share some of their experiences and work out any problems which may be coming up at their stations. The second half of this meeting time is devoted to a scheduled “program” with different Museum staff members. During the summer of 1995, for example, the students interacted with a paleontologist, a zoologist, a biologist, a graphic designer, an exhibit fabricator, an advertising/public information officer, a paleontological preparator, and a biological preparator. In addition to explaining and showing the students what they do at the Museum, these professionals also discussed how they got into their careers and the sort of training required for each of their areas. Field trips with Museum staff (e.g., visiting the site of a bat colony and observing a bat flight or searching for fossils in the Sandia Mountains) sometimes take the place of the weekly meeting.
**BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND TO MUSEUM**
Some advantages of participating in this program are:
- Learn new skills and receive on-the-job training
- Become exposed to learning through experiential education
- Improve communication skills and self-esteem
- Make new friends while working in a “fun” environment
- Learn first hand about various careers (in science, exhibits design, education, etc.)
- Have direct interaction with positive role models
- Develop a future recommendation (for jobs, acceptance into other programs, etc.)
- Receive community service credit (e.g., for college applications)
- Make a personal contribution to the community
The Museum benefits by having a well-informed core of teens to act as ambassadors in their schools and communities, and by promoting an interest in science and natural history.
**UNEXPECTED RESULTS OF THE JUNIOR DOCENT PROGRAM**
Because a number of youths have returned summer after summer (even before stipends were paid), the Museum has developed a group of “veteran” junior docents. Therefore, in the summer of 1995, a new aspect of the program evolved. A small group of students worked directly with one of the Museum scientists on an on-going basis. Working in the paleontology laboratory, six of the Junior Docent participants assisted a Museum paleontologist for eight weeks during the summer, picking vertebrate micro-fossils from bulk matrix that had been collected in the field. This was so successful that many more Junior Docents are now interested in that same opportunity. This points the way to finding new ways of involving youth within the Museum—beyond the initial objectives of the Junior Docent Program. It is rewarding for our Museum staff to see these teenagers develop into mature young people and become excited about their involvement at the Museum!
---
Madeleine Correa Zeigler is Educational Development Specialist for the New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science in Albuquerque, NM. Ms. Correa Zeigler’s responsibilities at NMMNHS include grant writing, educational program development, coordinating the Junior Docent Program and the “Proyecto Futuro” Program. She has been with the New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science for the past six years. Ms. Correa Zeigler has eight years’ experience in researching, developing, and implementing youth programs for museums and educational institutions and in developing curriculum for ESL (English as a Second Language) programs. She holds an M.Ed. in Counseling & Guidance and a B.A. in Languages (Spanish/French).
Kids Touring Kids
Kids Touring Kids began five years ago with a phone call from a mother whose son had a strong interest in history and needed to fulfill a community service commitment. Did we have something for him to do?
Shortly after receiving that call I read an article about using teens as volunteers to fill shortages left by women returning to the work place. Realizing that teenagers have few opportunities to be authorities, and that house museum tours can seem deadly to young children, I made the connection and the Kids Touring Kids program was born.
Coe Hall is an historic house museum of the Gold Coast era located on the north shore of Long Island, N.Y. We welcome visitors April through mid-October. Trained volunteers guide visitors through the house in groups of ten or less, and in the summer months families with children make up a large percentage of our visitors. My thought was to separate child from guardian, allowing each of them an enjoyable tour with their peers.
In May, we advertise for teenagers, 13 to 16 years old, to apply for the position of teen guide. Each teen is personally interviewed. If accepted into the program, they and a guardian are required to attend a TEEN/PARENT meeting to review program commitments. The teen must be available for two days of training in June and then commit to one afternoon a week for the months of July and August.
Teen guides make themselves available to visiting guests with children ages four years and up during regular weekday visitation. The teens escort children through Coe Hall separately from the adults. The teens conduct their tours by focusing on the interests of their young visitors. Each room has a box with hands-on objects that apply to that specific room. The teens can work with as many or as few objects as they choose, or as the young visitors’ attention allows. When the tour is finished, the children are returned to the adult family member. As you can imagine, we hear glowing reports from people whose children have taken this special tour.
In 1995, fourteen teenagers participated in the Kids Touring Kids program, including the young man who started it all and his younger brother. In addition to this program, the teens also volunteer during other times of the year for special events such as our...
Winter Festival. At the close of 1995, our teenage volunteers accumulated a total of 430 volunteer hours.
It seems that most programs using teen volunteers recruit in conjunction with local schools. I chose to go against this tide. I wanted to give any teenagers a chance to participate in the program, regardless of school recommendation, providing they met the criteria, attended training, and were available for most of the season.
Often a parent or guardian makes the initial call to my office after the publicity appears in local newspapers. However, if I don’t hear from the teen personally in subsequent phone calls, I know who is truly interested in volunteering and who is not.
Teens learn quickly. They are very eager to get to work once their training is over. The first season was disappointing to us, however, as adults seemed disinclined to let go of their children for forty minutes. Each day the teens and I kept trying to sell the program to the visiting public. We managed to get some publicity in the KIDS section of a major newspaper, but it came too late in the season to be of help. The following year we used that publicity, incorporating it into a flyer that we placed in the visitors center for families to read. Unfortunately, they didn’t. This past year we wrote an article about the program emphasizing that the teens were trained, sent it to the press early in the season, made up a new flyer, and re-educated all the senior staff about the Kids Touring Kids program. Finally, results! People came specifically to let their children tour the house with the trained teen guides.
Parents with children four years of age or older are asked at the time of ticket purchase if they would like their children to receive a special tour. The options are explained; if the answer is yes, the visiting children are introduced to the teen volunteer by the receptionist, asked to make a name tag, and then the tour begins.
Usually, the children’s tour starts before the adults do. The teen guides are taught how to respond to the children’s interests. Teens are encouraged to let the visiting children look and ask questions about things that get their attention, while educating the children about the house and the family who lived in it. They handle objects such as an old Chinese checker board in the den while considering what forms of entertainment the family might have joined in, or an oyster plate and shell in the dining room while discussing the foods and dining habits of the Coe children as compared to their own.
In addition to performing their regular duties, the teens are invited to participate in our scheduled special events. They might help interpret a room during the Fall Flower Show, or work as an elf helping young children with their holiday cards in Santa’s Photo Den. Sometimes we are short staffed in the museum shop and they are delighted to help. It’s amazing how they can adjust. The teens add another dimension to the volunteer staff and are accepted by the staff, adult volunteers, and the visiting public.
Since the inception of the Kids Touring Kids program, we have had a total of thirty-two teenagers volunteer. Of that total, twenty-two have been female and ten male. Their interests range from horseback riding, to cartoon drawing, to acting. Their other volunteer activities include working as tutors, in soup kitchens, and helping with beach clean-up. Most of them love to read, enjoy history, and want to be helpful to others … even those who are most shy.
The Teen Guide Program Review that has been given to each program participant is a valuable evaluative tool for understanding the program better. Is this program worth their time? Is it worthwhile to the visiting child? Their responses are helpful and honest.
Lest you think our program is all work, it isn’t. Teens and adults socialize with one another. The adult volunteers look forward to having the younger generation on duty and miss them when they’re gone. Watching the generations interact is fun and yet another benefit of this program!
Toward the close of the season, we celebrate the teen’s work with a pizza party. Each participant is given a folder containing a certificate, which serves a small reminder of Coe Hall, and a program evaluation form with a self-addressed return envelope. Following the party, their parents and siblings are invited to tour Coe Hall with them. I wish you could see the enthusiasm and hear the conversations between them while on tour. You can tell how delighted they are to share their newfound knowledge about Coe Hall and the family that lived here. It really lets me know we’re on the right track with this program. And, who knows? One of them may turn out to be a future Director of Coe Hall!
Susan Donovan is a former volunteer who serves as the part time Educational Services Coordinator at Coe Hall, where she has been on staff since 1988. In addition to the teen program, she is also responsible for the adult volunteer program, school education programs, and special event staffing. Prior to joining the staff at Coe Hall, Ms. Donovan worked as a children’s educator at Raynham Hall Museum in Oyster Bay, and with the Joseph Lloyd Manor House in Huntington.
Helping Adolescents Build Self-Confidence
Ask teenagers what they want, and you’ll get a variety of answers — a new Lamborghini, an “A” on the chemistry exam, no zits, or world peace. Look closely at what they need, however, and the answer is unequivocal. Most adolescents need a large dose of self-confidence.
Adolescents are probably the most misunderstood and discriminated-against age group (with the possible exception of the elderly). Store owners view them with suspicion. Many middle and junior high schools treat them with disdain. Parents are confounded by their argumentative behaviors. And, museum educators often shudder at the thought of touring them.
Nevertheless, those who enjoy working with teenagers find them funny, sincere, intense, and fascinating; and they wouldn’t work with any other age group. They know that many of the challenges of teaching these “in-betweeners” are directly related to the teenagers’ search for identity. And, that many of these challenges are made easier when adolescents acquire the self-confidence to accept the identity they discover.
Museums, science and nature centers, historic homes, and zoos can play an important part in helping teens develop self-confidence. By doing so, such institutions create a loyal, vital, and grateful audience. Definitely, a win–win situation for all.
*Skills for Adolescents*, a joint program of Lions Club International and Quest International, uses the analogy of a three-legged stool when discussing teen self-confidence. The legs are: skills and talents, appreciation, and responsibility. Each of the three components, or “legs,” must be present for a teenager to feel confident. One missing leg and the whole structure falls apart, dumping the teenager right on his or her fragile ego.
**Skills and Talents**
The teens who feel most self-confident are those who have skills and talents that are recognized as important by their family and peers. This is one reason so many teens find their identity in athletics. Academic success or talent in music, drama, or dance is also a confidence builder.
Museum programming that helps teens hone talents they already possess, or discover undeveloped talents and skills, can give teenagers an important boost in confidence. Such programs may allow teens to work with younger children, providing them with opportunities to discover talents for teaching or leadership. They may encourage teens to apply their computer skills to cataloguing artifacts or creating member data bases. A love of the outdoors and concern for the environment may be enlarged by volunteer opportunities or internships at a science museum, zoo, botanical garden, or nature center.
As teens search for the identity they will wear for the rest of their lives, museums can allow them to “try on” careers. Or, in the case of a one-shot museum tour, hands-on experiences and inquiry learning may teach new skills and
uncover hidden talents by offering teens new or different ways of learning and contributing.
**Appreciation**
Museums also offer a great place to provide the second of the three "legs" of the self-confidence stool — appreciation. The most obvious forms of appreciation may be pictures and articles about teen accomplishments in the museum's newsletter or the local newspaper, letters of thanks to the teen and their school for specific jobs well done, pizza parties, and recognition pins. All of these are important ways of showing the museum's appreciation for the contributions of its teen volunteers.
There are equally important ways of expressing appreciation to even casual teenage visitors. Smiling, being attentive, and responding positively to touring teens goes a long way toward building self-confidence. Acknowledging the seriousness of their questions or expressing thanks for their attention and participation are also simple, but valuable, ways to show teenagers that your museum appreciates them.
**Responsibility**
The third leg of the stool of self-confidence is responsibility. As a teenager proves his responsibility, his self-confidence increases. The museum can provide opportunities for teens to accept responsibility for planning and presenting programs for younger children. Several of the museums featured in this issue of *The Docent Educator* go even farther, allowing teens a great deal of autonomy as they work within the museum. Even in the ordinary school tour, however, teens can be given choices about the exhibitions they wish to see, activities they wish to participate in, and the amount of time they want to spend in a particular gallery or area.
The flexible docent who can give her teen audience the responsibility for shaping the tour does a lot to build the self-confidence of the group.
Nancie Atwell, author of *In the Middle*, posits three principles to help junior high teachers "make the best of adolescence." Museum educators can also benefit from these suggestions as they develop programs to involve teens and help build their self-confidence.
1- Accept the reality of the age group: *By nature adolescents are volatile and social, and our teaching can take advantage of this, helping kids find meaningful ways to channel their energies and social needs instead of trying to legislate against them.*
2 - Recognize that adolescence is a special and important time: ... *adolescents, too, need to be seen as individuals and responded to as people who want to know.*
3- Organize teaching in ways that help students understand and participate in adult reality: *This means more say in what happens in the classroom, and more responsibility for their own learning.*
Teenagers are changing and changeable. While it is always true that docents should understand the developmental characteristics of the groups with which they work, it is nowhere more important than with adolescents. Whenever possible, docents who work with teens should really like them! I read recently about an education professor with a unique pre-service requirement. Any student-teacher candidates who express a desire to work in the middle or high school must spend several hours at the mall observing the student with whom they think they want to work. Docents who are to work with this group ideally should have had positive experiences working with groups of teens. They will have seen the importance of self-confidence first-hand.
Those who teach adolescents must, themselves, be self-confident, flexible, and thick-skinned. They must also be confident in their knowledge of the material they are teaching; like other "pack animals," teenagers can sense fear!
Docents who work with teens must be willing to treat their charges as adults, yet accept that they will act like children at any given moment. They must understand that teenagers can sound extremely rude when, in reality, they are only expressing their version of truth without the social graces that usually decorate it. They must know that adolescents are fierce in their loyalties, beliefs, and friendships, but that they may change those loyalties, beliefs, and friendships in the wink of an eye. They should also learn to separate individual teens from the "herd." Individual teens can be charming, while at the same time they are intimidating in the "packs" in which they are most comfortable.
As with any prejudice, knowledge of individual teens can often dispel the "bad rap" teens receive in the popular media. It is sad, but true, that stories of teen violence, teen pregnancy, and teen drug abuse make titillating newspaper and magazine copy. It is difficult for individual teens to overcome the negative impact such reporting has on their self-image and the image others have of them. Is it any wonder why many teens come to school, and to your institution, with a defensive attitude that makes them hard to like?
*Jackie Littleton*
*Associate Editor*
In order for teenagers to have a personalized museum experience, docents at the Museum of Art, Brigham Young University, in Provo, Utah, contact classroom teachers and, together, establish goals for the museum visit. Frequently, high school teachers are anxious for their students to discover something new at the museum -- to have an enlightening experience where minds are awakened and learning enlivened.
At the MOA, we believe that this happens most effectively in an environment of open interpretation where teenagers are encouraged to create personal meaning. That is why MOA docents are encouraged not to pre-determine interpretations of art works, but to help teenagers learn how to construct their own "reasoned" interpretations by personally thinking through what they see and are learning about.
Docents are an important part of thinking-centered learning. By requiring students to develop thoughtful answers instead of merely recalling memorized responses, they teach teenagers how to exercise their imaginations and think for themselves. Docents guide students in understanding, questioning, responding, and evaluating information. By involving students in purposeful discourse, the docents guide the discussion rather than act as lecturers.
In a thinking-centered environment docents engage students using carefully planned questions and activities, encouraging their students to make discoveries and express personal judgments. As an integral part of this thoughtful learning, the docents' task is to create an environment where teenagers may think for themselves.
Last fall, a group of twelve teenage detention students were sent to visit our museum. The docent and classroom teacher had discussed the visit together and hoped that the museum experience would result in some form of personal growth. When the docent met the students she recognized an attitude of indifference. She asked them what they were interested in seeing and gave them a choice — the paintings in the museum's permanent collection or an exhibition of new print works. One student quickly replied that "we're not here anyhow to see old stuff."
The docent took a deep breath and took the students to visit the Utah "Out of Print" Exhibition. The students were paired together and asked to find a print they liked. Then they discussed the work with their partner, describing the print in detail, eventually explaining what they thought it meant.
Two students stood by *I Remember When This Was a Tree*, by Utah artist Bonnie Sucec. After about ten minutes of looking and discussing the work, they were asked to tell what they saw and explain how they felt. One young man began hesitantly. He described Sucec's
---
"I Remember When This Was a Tree" by Bonnie Sucec.
Photo: David Hawkinson, MOA
print as a gnarled tree stump with all the branches chopped off before they could begin to grow. The stump looked lonely in an isolated wasteland. He said that it looked desperate; then, he noticed some small shoots at the top of the stump. They appeared weak, but were trying to grow. Continuing, he talked about ecology, about a lack of caring for the Earth, the reckless use of natural resources, and our irreverence for life. He repeated phrases he had heard before. Just as we began to wonder where was he going with this discussion, he stopped and began speaking more personally about the print.
He said that the tree stump was his life. That there was never a chance for him. If there had been a chance, he admitted, he didn’t take it. He was alone and afraid. Then, he said he noticed the new shoots of growth. He said the new shoots represented hope, hope for himself, hope for all of us. He tearfully looked up at his friends. They grabbed him, as if to say, we understand. The docent and the classroom teacher were stunned; the security guards were amazed at his openness. The student had connected personally with the art work.
Undoubtedly, this museum visit contributed to the cultivation of an aesthetic experience, but it did more. Post-modernist philosophy suggests that individual constructing of ideas across the discipline is a meaningful endeavor. This museum encounter went beyond the limits of the experience itself because a docent guided the visit and allowed the student to express himself. Through this thinking experience this teenager discovered himself. He looked at art; then looked within himself.
In essence, education requires an environment in which students are not asked questions for which answers are known; because if the questions involve predetermined conclusions, the process is merely training not thinking. If we consider the models put forth by Plato, Rousseau, and Dewey, for example, it is clear that an accumulation of knowledge and skills is insufficient. What is central to being educated is the ability to creatively solve problems, by learning to think.
While instilling knowledge is obviously not irrelevant, I believe that the more important question is how one enables a student to become an autonomous thinker. Education, to put it a bit tendentiously, is a process that awakens individuals and enables them to imagine conditions other than those that exist or that have existed.
Docents have such a responsibility with visitors, to develop educational initiatives that communicate the intrinsic value and aesthetic significance of art as an expression of human thought, imagination, and creativity. Such a direction fosters an environment of individual and group exploration, discovery, scholarship, and cultural awareness that enlightens teenagers.
---
Ellen Lockwood Powley is Head of Public Programs at the Brigham Young Museum of Art in Provo, Utah, where she coordinates the education and volunteer programs. Ms. Powley has trained and supervised over one thousand volunteers for two blockbuster exhibitions. A native of Pleasantville, New York, she graduated from the Eastman School of Music in Horn Performance and Music Education. She obtained a Masters of Education from Brigham Young University and is currently a Doctoral Student in Educational Leadership.
Teenagers “Living” at the Museum … Almost
(Continued from page 9.)
are being consulted about a forthcoming exhibition on drugs. Their contribution to the preparation and content of the discovery spaces and workshops on themes of interest to them is stimulating for both parties.
Concluding Remarks
Allow us to conclude this reflection with some extract from the book of comments, symbols of commitment and solidarity witnessed by the Musée:
- “I want to go and help children of war.” [written by a 15 year old]
- “That makes two of us.” [wrote another]
- “Maybe three …” [Catherine, 20 years old]
- “Four for sure.” [concluded Vera]
- “Five if you count me.” [signed Marie-Josée, 14 years old]
- “I’m old and sick, but you youngsters go for it!” [a seventh person added]
Marie-José des Rivières is the Education Project Manager for the Musée de la Civilisation in Québec City, Canada. In 1995, she received the Prix d’excellence en interprétation du patrimoine with the Quebec Association for Heritage Interpretation, for the interactive guided tour entitled Quebec Women, a Great Legacy. She is also adjunct professor at the Research Center for Quebec Literature at Laval University.
Our address changes effective September 1, 1996!
Please note that as of September 1, 1996 all subscription requests, renewals, and correspondence should be sent to our new address:
The Docent Educator
P.O. Box 2080
Kamuela, HI 96743-2080
Our new phone number is (808) 885-7728 / our fax number is (808) 885-8315.
Next issue: Outreach Programming
minds in motion
The Docent Educator
2011 Eleventh Avenue East
Seattle, WA 98102-4109
Bulk Rate
U.S. Postage
PAID
Seattle, WA
Permit No. 94
Printed on recycled paper. Are you moving? Don’t forget to send us your change of address.
Digitization of *The Docent Educator* was generously sponsored by museum educators from around the globe through their support of Museum-Ed’s 2014 Kickstarter campaign:
**Full Series Supporters:**
J. Marshall Adams
Marianna Adams
Christina Alderman
Anonymous
Autry National Center Education Department
Bayou Bend Docent Organization
Birmingham Museum of Art
Mary Ann Bloom
Brooklyn Museum
Berclee Cameron
Carnegie Museum of Art
Jennifer Chowning
Susan Chun
Edith Copenhaver
The Corning Museum of Glass, Rakow Research Library
Karen L. Daly
Herminia Din
Robin Dowden
Julia Forbes
Robin Gabriel
Courtney Gerber
Golden History Museums, Golden, CO
Kimberly Hanson
Phyllis Hecht
Anne Henderson
Victoria Hughes
Kathleen F. G. Hutton
Indianapolis Museum of Art Docents
**Volume Five Supporters:**
Frick Art & Historical Center
Dorie Goldman
**Volume Five, No. 4 Supporter:**
Rob Lancefield | 11d83fc4-8caa-42a0-9dc4-f99b64b246c2 | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.museum-ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Docent-Educator-Vol-5-No-4.pdf | 2021-11-27T23:59:30+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358323.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20211127223710-20211128013710-00530.warc.gz | 990,505,308 | 14,367 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.972753 | eng_Latn | 0.998264 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
371,
5520,
8946,
12813,
17526,
21269,
25573,
29189,
32765,
37384,
40293,
42912,
47345,
49655,
54892,
57816,
62777,
65565,
68898,
70674,
71617
] | [
2.46875,
2.53125
] | 2 | 0 |
A. Fill in the blanks.
You can recognize the formula of an acid because every formula begins with ___ for hydrogen.
__________ are compounds that contain hydrogen and one other element. For example, hydrochloric acid is a binary acid because it contains ___ and ___.
To name a binary acid, use the prefix “_____”. Change the ending of the element to“____”. For example, the name of HBr is _______________.
Ternary acids contain hydrogen and a polyatomic ion. DO NOT USE “HYDRO” WHEN NAMING THESE ACIDS.
If the polyatomic ion used in the acid ends in “___”, change the ending of the polyatomic acid to “____”. For example, in $H_2SO_4$, $SO_4^{2-}$ is called ______, and the acid is called __________.
If the polyatomic ion used in the acid ends in “___”, change the ending of the polyatomic acid to “____”. For example, in $H_2SO_3$, $SO_3^{2-}$ is called ______, and the acid is called __________.
B. When given the formula of the acid, write the name. If given the name of the acid, write the formula.
| Formula | Name |
|---------|---------------|
| HNO$_3$ | Nitric acid |
| H$_3$PO$_3$ | Phosphoric acid |
| Acetic acid | Boric acid |
| HCOOH | Formic acid |
| HI | Hydroiodic acid |
| Phosphoric acid | Arsenic acid |
| H$_2$S | Hydrogen sulfide |
| HClO$_3$ | Hypochlorous acid |
| Hydroselenic acid | Nitrous acid |
| H$_2$C$_2$O$_4$ | Oxalic acid |
| HBr | Hydrobromic acid |
| Hydrochloric acid | Chloric acid |
| HCN | Cyanic acid |
| H$_3$PO$_2$ | Hypophosphorous acid |
| Sulfurous acid | Perbromic acid |
A. Fill in the blanks.
You can recognize the formula of an acid because every formula begins with $\text{H}$ for hydrogen.
Binary acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and one other element. For example, hydrochloric acid is a binary acid because it contains $\text{H}$ and $\text{Cl}$.
To name a binary acid, use the prefix “hydro-”. Change the ending of the element to “-ic”. For example, the name of HBr is hydrobromic acid.
Ternary acids contain hydrogen and a polyatomic ion. DO NOT USE “HYDRO” WHEN NAMING THESE ACIDS.
If the polyatomic ion used in the acid ends in “-ate”, change the ending of the polyatomic acid to “-ic”. For example, in $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4$, $\text{SO}_4^{2-}$ is called sulfate, and the acid is called sulfuric acid.
If the polyatomic ion used in the acid ends in “-ite”, change the ending of the polyatomic acid to “ous”. For example, in $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_3$, $\text{SO}_3^{2-}$ is called sulfite, and the acid is called sulfurous acid.
B. When given the formula of the acid, write the name. If given the name of the acid, write the formula.
| Formula | Name |
|---------|---------------|
| $\text{HNO}_3$ | Nitric acid |
| $\text{H}_3\text{PO}_3$ | Phosphorous acid |
| $\text{CH}_3\text{COOH}$ | Acetic acid |
| $\text{H}_3\text{BO}_3$ | Boric acid |
| $\text{HCOOH}$ | Formic acid |
| $\text{HI}$ | Hydroiodic acid |
| $\text{H}_3\text{PO}_4$ | Phosphoric acid |
| $\text{H}_3\text{AsO}_4$ | Arsenic acid |
| $\text{H}_2\text{S}$ | Hydrosulfuric acid |
| $\text{HClO}_3$ | Chloric acid |
| $\text{H}_2\text{S}$ | Hydroselenic acid |
| $\text{HNO}_2$ | Nitrous acid |
| $\text{H}_2\text{C}_2\text{O}_4$ | Oxalic acid |
| $\text{HBr}$ | Hydrobromic acid |
| $\text{HCl}$ | Hydrochloric acid |
| $\text{HClO}_3$ | Chloric acid |
| $\text{HCN}$ | Hydrocyanic acid |
| $\text{H}_3\text{PO}_2$ | Hypophosphorous acid |
| $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_3$ | Sulfurous acid |
| $\text{HBrO}$ | Perbromic acid | | 4d93334e-21e8-4709-aa45-50287889c2ec | CC-MAIN-2024-46 | https://www.chemistrylearner.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Practice-Worksheet-Naming-Acids.pdf | 2024-11-03T03:37:44+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027770.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20241103022018-20241103052018-00663.warc.gz | 646,469,537 | 1,114 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997451 | eng_Latn | 0.997791 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1563,
3531
] | [
4.3125
] | 1 | 0 |
Whether it’s something in the air or the water, generations of Canadian artists are inspired to capture our surroundings and their effects on us.
Margaret Atwood wrote poetry about the strong and sometimes dark forces of Canadian nature. Neil Young wrote songs about relationships and connected them to places in Canada. Tomson Highway wrote plays depicting life in small towns and communities, and their connection to nature.
It isn’t surprising that the Canadian wilderness has had a profound effect on our shared history, and has made our art intensely impactful. It is what prompted Robert and Signe McMichael to purchase their first Lawrence Harris painting in the early 1950s. They bought the piece because it represented Canada to them.
As their collection of Canadian art grew, they purchased a large plot of land northwest of Toronto in Kleinburg in 1952 to house the works. The McMichaels went on to collect artwork by Tom Thomson, The Group of Seven, and a variety of other artworks including sculptures. Before long, neighbours and community members began bringing their collections to them to be kept in a place they felt it belonged. Thus, the modern-day McMichael Canadian Art Collection gallery was born.
The museum is located in the heart of the city, making it easily accessible to visitors. The building itself is a beautiful example of modern architecture, with its large windows and open floor plan allowing natural light to flood the interior spaces.
Inside, the museum features a variety of exhibits showcasing the rich cultural heritage of the region. From ancient artifacts to contemporary art, there is something for everyone to enjoy. The museum also hosts regular events and programs, including lectures, workshops, and special exhibitions.
Whether you're a local resident or a visitor from afar, the museum is a must-see destination that offers a unique glimpse into the history and culture of the area. So why not take a moment to explore the museum and discover the fascinating stories that lie within?
Their goal with the gallery was to provide future generations with the opportunity to appreciate the artworks as a reflection of our connection to nature and our shared Canadian identity. The collection now includes a variety of historical and contemporary pieces, including a wide range of Indigenous art and Inuit sculptures.
Although many associate museums and galleries with winter or colder months, visiting the McMichael Canadian Art Collection in the summer is a must since it sits on 100 acres of forested land along the Humber River. Built on the grounds of the Ojibwe Anishinaabe People, it was once a part of the Carrying Place Trail, an integral connection for Indigenous people travelling between Lake Ontario’s shoreline and the Lake Simcoe-Georgian Bay regions.
The gallery’s permanent collection consists of over 6,500 paintings and sculptures done by both historically and contemporarily noted Canadian artists.
There are a host of special exhibitions year-round at the gallery, including feature exhibitions such as “Itee Pootoogook: Hymns to the Silence”, and “Louie Palu: Distant Early Warning”. Both speak to the gallery’s geographical focus for this season, the Arctic, and include drawings and art which captures the strikingly beautiful Canadian north.
Outside the gallery are various trails to explore. You can venture down to the Tom Thomson Shack, the historic structure that Thomson lived in at one time. You can also find the final resting place for six members of the Group of Seven in the cemetery nearby. Or enjoy a picnic or quiet time in the gallery’s outdoor Sculpture Garden.
The McMichael Canadian Art Collection is a natural gathering place for Canadian art and nature lovers. It is the perfect spot to appreciate Canada’s national treasures and contemporary art and culture.
By Bri Mitchell
Bri Mitchell is a freelance travel and lifestyle writer. She has travelled to over 50 countries, and doesn’t have plans of stopping anytime soon. Bri currently lives in Toronto with her partner in life and travel, Christopher Mitchell (travelingmitch.com), and their Turkish street cat turned Prince of the Great White North, Kotu. You can follow her travels and meanderings around Ontario and beyond on Instagram @mstravelingmitch. | a7e7d7b0-131d-467c-8dde-c09fd8a05962 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://mcmichael.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Gathering-Place-for-Art-Culture-and-Nature-York-Durham-Headwaters-July-4-2019.pdf | 2022-08-08T17:34:40+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570868.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808152744-20220808182744-00722.warc.gz | 367,756,840 | 831 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998323 | eng_Latn | 0.998855 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1223,
2039,
2818,
3656,
4310
] | [
2.75
] | 1 | 1 |
The Rabbit’s Long Ears
Author: Sanatan Juanga
Illustrator: Sanatan Juanga
Translator: Amrit Mishra
Level 2
2/20
A jackal and a rabbit were the best of friends.
One day the jackal’s wife was not feeling well. The jackal called the rabbit and said, “My wife has fever. She does not feel like eating anything. Now she says she could eat a crab.”
The hare was running very fast, but the fox was not far behind. The hare looked back and saw that the fox was getting closer. The hare tried to think of a way to escape, but all he could think of was the tree. He remembered that the tree had a lot of leaves and branches. He decided to climb up the tree and hide in one of the branches.
The fox saw the hare climbing up the tree and started to get angry. He ran faster and faster, trying to catch the hare. But the hare was too quick for him. He climbed higher and higher until he reached the top of the tree. The fox was still chasing him, but he couldn't reach the tree.
The hare was safe now, but he knew that he couldn't stay in the tree forever. He had to find a way to get down and run away. He looked around and saw a rope hanging from a branch. He grabbed the rope and started to climb down. The fox was still chasing him, but he couldn't reach the rope.
The hare was finally safe, but he knew that he had to be careful. He had to be smart and use his wits to survive. He knew that he couldn't rely on luck or speed alone. He had to be clever and think of ways to outsmart his enemies.
The hare was happy that he had escaped, but he knew that he had to be careful. He had to be smart and use his wits to survive. He knew that he couldn't rely on luck or speed alone. He had to be clever and think of ways to outsmart his enemies.
The rabbit said, “Let us go and get a crab for her.”
Both the friends set off to find a crab. The rabbit went in one direction and the jackal in another.
The frog and the fish
The rabbit soon spotted a hole in the mud. He peeped in and saw a fat crab sitting inside.
‘This will be perfect,’ thought the rabbit.
The rabbit was very happy to be back in his home, and he decided to stay there forever.
He carefully put his hand in the hole which was quite deep.
When his hand could not reach the crab, the rabbit put his tail into the hole.
The rabbit and the fox
Once upon a time, there was a rabbit who lived in a beautiful forest. One day, he saw a fox walking by and decided to play a trick on him.
The rabbit ran towards the fox and pretended to be scared. He hopped around, making loud noises and trying to look as frightened as possible.
The fox, who was very hungry, thought that the rabbit would make a delicious meal. So, he chased after the rabbit with all his might.
As they ran through the forest, the rabbit kept leading the fox in circles, making him more and more tired. Finally, the fox was so exhausted that he couldn't run any faster.
Just as the fox was about to catch the rabbit, he tripped over a log and fell down. The rabbit saw his chance and ran away as fast as he could.
From that day on, the fox learned not to chase rabbits too hard, because they can be very tricky!
The crab bit his tail hard and held it tight. The poor rabbit cried loudly. The jackal heard him and came running to him.
The rabbit gasped, “Don’t just look at me. My tail is caught inside, pull me out.”
12/20
The jackal caught him by the ears and pulled with all his might. When he saw the tail move, the crab bit the rabbit’s tail again.
The rabbit yelled in pain and jumped.
The cat, the rabbit and the gazelle
Once upon a time, there was a cat who lived in a tree. One day, he saw a rabbit running by and decided to chase it.
As the rabbit ran, it met a gazelle who was also running away from something. The gazelle asked the rabbit for help, but the rabbit said it couldn't because it was already chasing its own prey.
The gazelle then asked the cat for help, but the cat said it couldn't because it was already chasing its own prey.
The gazelle then asked the rabbit again, but the rabbit still said it couldn't because it was already chasing its own prey.
Finally, the gazelle asked the cat one last time, and the cat finally agreed to help. Together, they caught up with the rabbit and chased it down.
The rabbit was grateful to the cat and the gazelle for their help, and they all went on their way.
Moral: It's always better to help others when we can, even if it means sacrificing our own goals.
His tail got cut and was left behind in the hole.
His ears had become very, very long after the jackal had pulled them.
Since that day the rabbit’s tail is short and his ears long.
17/20
The Concept
India’s diverse linguistic landscape has a rich seam of stories for children. Unfortunately, many tribal languages do not have literature for children in book form or books for reading pleasure. As increasing numbers of tribal children go to school, it is now more necessary than ever to create a body of children’s literature in their languages. Literature that reflects their own world and opens up the world beyond because books are magical, powerful things that inform, amuse, educate and entertain in the most interactive way. Books make every child an independent and life-long seeker of knowledge in her own unique way. For education to be truly meaningful to every child, she must get good books to read in her own language.
The Project
Pratham Books and IgnusERG, with the support of Bernard van Leer Foundation have created the first ten books for children’s reading pleasure in Munda, Kui, Saura and Juanga languages from Odisha. The stories were written and illustrated by authors and illustrators belonging to these tribes in a series of workshops. This series of books is called Adikahani. It is a significant first step towards giving a voice to cultures that do not find adequate representation in mainstream discourses.
The Partners
IgnusERG is a guild of resource persons working to support teachers and enhancing the quality of education, particularly in government schools. They focus their efforts on bringing equity in education and addressing the needs of marginalized children.
Bernard van Leer Foundation is an international grant-making foundation based in The Hague. Its mission is to improve opportunities for young children growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances. It has a particular interest in supporting mother-tongue based education.
This story was written by the Kui Writers’ Group consisting of Buna Kanhar, Fillman Pradhan and Pramod Digal. With a background in ECCE, they all interact with children regularly. It has been illustrated by Sanatan Juanga, using the Saura mural style as a base. The Kui language is spoken by more than 1 lakh people in Khondhamal, Gajapati and Rayagada districts of Odisha. It is related to the Gondi language. The spellings of the language in Odia script are not definitive as many new sounds are being rendered in print for the first time.
20/20
This book was made possible by Pratham Books' StoryWeaver platform. Content under Creative Commons licenses can be downloaded, translated and can even be used to create new stories - provided you give appropriate credit, and indicate if changes were made. To know more about this, and the full terms of use and attribution, please visit the following link.
**Story Attribution:**
This story: The Rabbit’s Long Ears is translated by [Amrit Mishra](#). The © for this translation lies with Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Based on Original story: 'গোলাপি ও জাকল / গিয়ারাই ও জাকল', by [Sanatan Juanga](#) . © Pratham Books , 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
**Other Credits:**
'The Rabbit’s Long Ears' has been published on StoryWeaver by Pratham Books as a part of Adikahani series of ten books. The development of this book has been supported by Bernard van Leer Foundation along with our Content Partner IgnusERG. www.prathambooks.org
**Images Attributions:**
Cover page: [A rabbit](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 2: [A rabbit and a jackal](#) by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 3: [Two animals on a red background](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 4: [A rabbit and a jackal going in opposite directions](#) by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 5: [Two animals on red background](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 6: [A few animals around a pond](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 7: [Two animals on plain red background](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 8: [A rabbit leaping towards a pond](#) by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 9: [Two animals on a red background](#), by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 10: [A rabbit and a jackal outside a pond](#) by [Sanatan Juanga](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
**Disclaimer:** [https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions)
Some rights reserved. This book is CC-BY-4.0 licensed. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. For full terms of use and attribution, [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
This book was made possible by Pratham Books' StoryWeaver platform. Content under Creative Commons licenses can be downloaded, translated and can even be used to create new stories - provided you give appropriate credit, and indicate if changes were made. To know more about this, and the full terms of use and attribution, please visit the following [link](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
**Images Attributions:**
Page 11: [Two animals on red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/two-animals-on-red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 12: [Jackal holding a rabbit's ear and a crab holding its tail](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/jackal-holding-a-rabbit-s-ear-and-a-crab-holding-its-tail), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 13: [Two animals on plain red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/two-animals-on-plain-red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 14: [A jackal and a rabbit talking to each other](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/a-jackal-and-a-rabbit-talking-to-each-other), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 15: [Two animals on a red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/two-animals-on-a-red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 16: [Two animals on a red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/two-animals-on-a-red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 17: [A rabbit in front of a tree](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/a-rabbit-in-front-of-a-tree), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 18: [Red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 19: [Plain red background](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/plain-red-background), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 20: [A rabbit and a jackal playing together](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/book/a-rabbit-and-a-jackal-playing-together), by [Sanatan Juanga](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/user/sanatan-juanga) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
---
**Disclaimer:** [https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions)
Some rights reserved. This book is CC-BY-4.0 licensed. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. For full terms of use and attribution, [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
The Rabbit’s Long Ears
(English)
Rabbits did not always have short tails and long ears; it was the crab that made them that way! Really!
This is a Level 2 book for children who recognize familiar words and can read new words with help.
Pratham Books goes digital to weave a whole new chapter in the realm of multilingual children's stories. Knitting together children, authors, illustrators and publishers. Folding in teachers, and translators. To create a rich fabric of openly licensed multilingual stories for the children of India and the world. Our unique online platform, StoryWeaver, is a playground where children, parents, teachers and librarians can get creative. Come, start weaving today, and help us get a book in every child's hand! | 8efa3308-70cc-4a26-be71-a01503955caf | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://data.booksie.org/pratham-books/18182-the-rabbit-s-long-ears.pdf | 2020-10-28T06:25:53+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107896778.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20201028044037-20201028074037-00692.warc.gz | 294,236,743 | 3,523 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.925124 | eng_Latn | 0.995736 | [
"ind_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
108,
114,
347,
1740,
1896,
1919,
2056,
2145,
2286,
3148,
3355,
3362,
3532,
4469,
4591,
4653,
4660,
5913,
7014,
7021,
9956,
13499,
14250
] | [
3.4375
] | 1 | 0 |
The acquisition of lexical and grammatical aspect in Chinese*
PING LI, University of Richmond
MELISSA BOWERMAN, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
ABSTRACT
This study reports three experiments on how children learning Mandarin Chinese comprehend and use aspect markers. These experiments examine the role of lexical aspect in children’s acquisition of grammatical aspect. Results provide converging evidence for children’s early sensitivity to (1) the association between atelic verbs and the imperfective aspect markers *zai*, *-zhe*, and *-ne*, and (2) the association between telic verbs and the perfective aspect marker *-le*. Children did not show a sensitivity in their use or understanding of aspect markers to the difference between stative and activity verbs or between semelfactive and activity verbs. These results are consistent with Slobin’s (1985) basic child grammar hypothesis that the contrast between process and result is important in children’s early acquisition of temporal morphology. In contrast, they are inconsistent with Bickerton’s (1981, 1984) language bioprogram hypothesis that the distinctions between state and process and between punctual and nonpunctual are preprogrammed into language learners. We suggest new ways of looking at the results in the light of recent probabilistic hypotheses that emphasize the role of input, prototypes and connectionist representations.
* Preparation of this paper was supported by a Faculty Research Grant from the School of Arts and Sciences, University of Richmond to the first author. The data presented here are based on the doctoral dissertation of the first author, which was supported by a fellowship from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen. We would like to thank Bernard Comrie, Maya Hickmann, Wolfgang Klein, James Liang, Carlota Smith, Dirk Vorberg and Richard Weist for insightful discussions during various phases of this study. Thanks also go to Liu Xiao Dong and Cao Yan for preparing and running the experiments, and to two anonymous reviewers who provided very constructive comments. Address for correspondence: Ping Li, Department of Psychology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, USA. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
Theories of aspect differ in how they capture the aspectual systems of language, but most of them recognize two kinds of aspect, one ‘grammatical’ and the other ‘lexical’ (under various labels). Grammatical aspect marks a verb for a particular viewpoint toward the described situation (Smith 1991), such as perfective or imperfective. Lexical aspect involves the inherent temporal meaning of a verb, for example, whether it characterizes a situation as having a temporal boundary or a result. In the past 40 years, theorists have tried to understand the functions of both grammatical and lexical aspect, and they have become increasingly interested in the interaction between the two (Comrie 1976, Smith 1991, Vendler 1957).
Studies of child language have long documented how properties of lexical aspect can affect children’s acquisition of tense-aspect morphology (Aksu 1978, Aksu-Koç 1988, Antinucci & Miller 1976, Bloom, Lifter & Hafitz 1980, Bronckart & Sinclair 1973, and, more recently, Cziko 1989, Cziko & Koda 1987, Li 1990, Shirai 1991, 1993, in press, Shirai & Andersen 1995). These studies have served an important role in the development of theories of language acquisition. In particular, evidence from children’s acquisition of tense and aspect has been incorporated into two influential hypotheses: the language bioprogram hypothesis (Bickerton 1981, 1984) and the basic child grammar hypothesis (Slobin 1985). In this paper, we will evaluate these hypotheses by examining the role of lexical aspect in the acquisition of grammatical aspect by children learning Mandarin Chinese.
The paper is organized as follows. First, we briefly discuss the aspectual system of Chinese. Second, we present an overview of the language bioprogram and basic child grammar hypotheses and their relevance to our study. Third, we present three experiments on young children’s comprehension, production and imitation of aspect markers in Chinese. Finally, we evaluate our results with respect to different theoretical perspectives and propose a plausible explanation of the acquisition of aspect.
**GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL ASPECT IN CHINESE**
Grammatical aspect in Chinese has been discussed intensively in the linguistic literature (see Chao 1968, Li & Thompson 1981, Yang 1995). Several aspect markers have been studied in detail, including the progressive marker *zai*, the durative marker *-zhe*, the perfective marker *-le*, and the experiential marker *-guo*. Lexical aspect, in contrast, has received much less attention.
Markers of grammatical aspect: 'zai', '-zhe', '-ne', and '-le'
The morpheme zai has had a long historical development, appearing first as a verb, then as a preposition, and only recently as an aspect marker (for discussion, see Li 1988, 1993a). As a preposition, zai can occur both preverbally and postverbally, while as an aspect marker it can occur only preverbally (Li 1990, 1993a, Zhu 1981). Its main function as an aspect marker is to indicate that an action or event is ongoing. Hence, it is a progressive aspect marker. The morpheme -zhe indicates that a situation should be viewed as enduring or continuing (i.e., durative), often as a background event in a discourse (cf. the function of be + (verb)-ing in a sentence such as ‘while she was reading a book she heard a noise in the kitchen’). As a durative marker, -zhe is used most naturally with verbs that specify a state. The progressive marker zai, in contrast, cannot be used with stative verbs. According to Comrie (1976), progressive and durative aspect together make up the category of imperfective aspect, which presents the internal structure of a situation without explicit reference to the situation’s beginning or end.
Another progressive marker, -ne, was not traditionally treated as an aspect marker; its aspectual function has been recognized only recently (Liu 1985, Ma 1987). This neglect might be partly due to the existence of pragmatic constraints on its use in spoken language. Liu (1985) suggested that -ne is used to mark progressive aspect only in answers to questions in colloquial dialogues. However, Ma (1987) argued that -ne is actually the main device for denoting ongoing actions in spoken language. In this study, we treat zai, -zhe and -ne all as imperfective aspect markers, although we recognize the restrictions on their use (e.g., that zai cannot be used with stative verbs and that -ne occurs only colloquially).
In contrast to zai, -zhe and -ne, the aspect marker -le is perfective: it presents a situation in its entirety, as an event bounded at the beginning and the end, and without reference to its internal structure.\(^1\) Because it emphasizes the entirety and particularly the end of the situation, -le has often been characterized as a marker of completion (Chao 1968). But -le by itself does not necessarily indicate a completed event or action
\[^{[1]} \text{Our discussion of the aspect marker -le is relevant primarily to the verb-final -le. Linguists disagree on whether the verb-final -le and the sentence-final particle -le express the same aspectual meaning (for discussion, see Li 1990).}\]
(Li & Thompson 1981); rather, the meaning of completion often comes from the meaning of the verb with which -le occurs. When the verb encodes a situation with a clear temporal boundary, -le indicates that the situation comes to its natural end, i.e., it is completed, as illustrated in sentence (1). But when the verb encodes a situation with no clear temporal boundary, -le simply signals the termination of a situation, as in (2). In sum, -le presents the described situation as a whole. Variation in its interpretation in specific contexts provides a good example of how grammatical aspect interacts with the lexical aspect of verbs to determine the final aspectual interpretation of a sentence.
(1) Qiche zhuang-dao -le fangzi.
car hit-break -LE house
The car broke (i.e., knocked down) the house.
(2) Xiaoyazi you -le yong.
duckling swim -LE stroke
The duckling swam.
Categories of lexical aspect
The best-known categorization of lexical aspect is probably Vendler’s (1957) classification of English verbs into four categories with respect to the so-called ‘time schemata’: activities, accomplishments, achievements and states. According to Vendler, activity verbs encode situations as consisting of successive phases over time with no inherent endpoint, for example, ‘walk’, ‘run’, and ‘swim’. Accomplishment verbs also characterize situations as having successive phases, but they differ from activity verbs in that they encode an inherent endpoint, for example, ‘paint a picture’, ‘build a house’ and ‘run a mile’. Achievement verbs encode situations as punctual and instantaneous, as in ‘recognize a friend’, ‘reach the summit’, and ‘cross the border’. Finally, state verbs like ‘know’ and ‘love’ encode situations as involving indefinite duration and no inherent endpoint. Unlike activity and accomplishment verbs, they denote situations as homogeneous, with no successive phases.
Few studies have examined lexical aspect in Chinese. In an early study, Teng (1974) divided Chinese verbs into actions, states, and processes within Chafe’s (1970) semantic framework. In a more recent analysis, Tai (1984) examined lexical aspect in Chinese using Vendler’s categorization scheme. According to Tai, Chinese has roughly the same types of verbs as English. But one striking difference between the two, he noted, is that Chinese often uses resultative compounds to describe events that English specifies with accomplishment and achievement.
verbs. Unlike English accomplishment verbs, however, Chinese resultative compounds cannot be marked with the progressive marker. For example, *xue* (study) in sentence (3) is an activity verb, so it is compatible with the progressive marker *zai*, but *xue-hui* (study-know) in sentence (4) is a resultative compound, and so it cannot be combined with *zai*.
(3) Yuehan zai xue Zhongwen.
John ZAI study Chinese
John is studying Chinese.
(4) *Yuehan zai xue-hui Zhongwen.
John ZAI study-know Chinese
John is learning Chinese.
The incompatibility of resultative compounds with *zai* probably reflects the compound’s increasing emphasis on result rather than action in its historical development (Li 1987). Because of this incompatibility, Tai has argued that Chinese lacks accomplishment verbs. But this position has been challenged recently (e.g., Li 1990, Yang 1995). For example, Li (1990) has suggested that Chinese has many accomplishment verbs similar to those of English, such as *hua yi-fu huar* (draw a picture), *gai yi-suo fangzi* (build a house), and *pao yi-bai mi* (run 100 metres). In this study, we retain the category of accomplishment verbs for Chinese, but we agree with Tai that resultative compounds lack a progressive meaning, so we treat them as a subclass of achievement verbs.
In an expansion of Vendler’s system, Smith (1991) added the category of semelfactive verbs; English examples include ‘cough’, ‘tap’ and ‘knock’. She argued that although semelfactives are similar to achievements in being punctual, they differ from achievements in their behaviour with progressive markers. When semelfactive verbs are marked for progressive, they are interpreted as specifying a repeated event (e.g., coughing or knocking several times). According to Smith, achievement verbs are, in general, compatible with progressive in English, but not in Chinese. Moreover, in English the use of achievements with progressive indicates preliminary, detachable stages of the event rather than a repeated event (e.g., ‘John is reaching the summit’ means that John is at a stage just prior to having reached the summit, not that he arrives at the summit several times). Chinese also has semelfactive verbs (e.g., *tiao* (jump) and *ti* (kick)), and, consistent with Smith’s analysis, they indicate repeated events when they are combined with the progressive marker *zai*. In contrast, achievements in Chinese cannot be combined with *zai* at all.
Still another lexical-aspectual verb class in Chinese is discussed by Li (1990): mixed telic-stative verbs. These verbs can indicate either the process of a telic action or the state resulting from that process, depending on their aspect marker. In English, separate lexical items are usually needed to express such a pair of meanings. For example, with the progressive marker zai the verb chuan corresponds to English ‘put on’, while with the durative -zhe or the perfective -le, it corresponds to ‘wear’, as shown in sentences (5) to (7). Mixed telic-stative verbs demonstrate clearly the interaction between lexical and grammatical aspect.
(5) Ta zai chuan yi-jian xin yifu.
he ZAI put-on one-CL new garment (CL = classifier)
He is putting on a new garment.
(6) Ta chuan -zhe yi-jian xin yifu.
he wear ZHE one-CL new garment
He is wearing a new garment.
(7) Ta chuan -le yi-jian xin yifu.
he wear LE one CL new garment
He is wearing (as a resulting of having put on) a new garment.
Integrating the analyses of Vendler, Tai, Smith and Li, we arrive at six different categories of lexical aspect in Chinese: activities, accomplishments, achievements (including resultative compounds), states, semelfactives and mixed telic-stative verbs.
**Associations between lexical and grammatical aspect**
As our previous discussion showed, lexical and grammatical aspect can interact. On the one hand the interpretation of a grammatical aspect marker such as -le often depends on the lexical aspect of the verb it marks. On the other hand the interpretation of the lexical aspect of a verb – in particular the mixed telic-statatives – depends on the co-occurring grammatical aspectual marker.
Despite these interactions there are natural associations between lexical and grammatical aspect in Chinese: in particular, between the perfective marker -le and accomplishment/achievement verbs, between the progressive marker zai and activity verbs, and between the durative marker -zhe and stative verbs. In fact, as noted, zai is ungrammatical with statives and with resultative compounds (a subtype of achievement verbs). Comrie (1976) referred to such associations as natural combinations. According to Comrie, perfective aspect combines naturally with punctual verbs because perfective aspect presents a
situation as a whole without regard to its internal structure and punctual verbs present a situation as a single point lacking internal structure. In contrast, imperfective aspect is not compatible with punctual verbs (unless, like semelfactives, they can be construed iteratively), because imperfective aspect presents a situation as having an internal structure while a punctual verb presents it as a point lacking internal structure. Activity verbs lend themselves naturally to the internal perspective of imperfective aspect because they encode the successive phases of an event over time. In this study, we are interested in whether children learning Chinese are sensitive to these natural associations.
THE LANGUAGE BIOPROGRAM AND BASIC CHILD GRAMMAR
In this section, we briefly review two theoretical proposals about the acquisition of tense and aspect: the language bioprogram hypothesis and the basic child grammar hypothesis. According to the language bioprogram hypothesis, put forward by Bickerton (1981, 1984), certain semantic distinctions are biologically programmed and emerge early in human language acquisition. For tense and aspect, two such distinctions are state versus process and punctual versus nonpunctual. Because the distinctions are by hypothesis innate, states will be marked differently from processes early on in language development, and punctual situations will be marked differently from nonpunctual situations, probably by the use of different tense-aspect markers.
Bickerton supported his claims in part with evidence from creole grammars, arguing that in the absence of relevant input (the pidgins from which creoles arise do not have tense-aspect markers), first-generation creole speakers invent tense-aspect systems to mark the bioprogrammed distinctions. Drawing in addition on child language studies by Antinucci & Miller (1976), Bronckart & Sinclair (1973) and Brown (1973), he argued that children first use the tense-aspect markers of their language to mark the distinctions between state and process and between punctual and nonpunctual. For example, Brown (1973) had observed that children learning English do not overgeneralize the progressive marker -ing to stative verbs. According to Bickerton, this is because they are sensitive to the bioprogrammed distinction between state and process.
The basic child grammar hypothesis advanced by Slobin (1985) is similar in many respects to Bickerton’s language bioprogram hypothesis. According to Slobin, children come to the language acquisition task with a prestructured ‘semantic space’ containing a universal, uniform set of prelinguistic semantic notions. These notions,
which are not biased toward any particular language, are ‘privileged’ for mapping on to grammatical forms in the process of language acquisition. That is, in the form-meaning mapping process they strongly attract the mapping of grammatical forms of the input language. Two notions, according to Slobin, define a basic semantic contrast in children’s early acquisition of tense and aspect: the ‘temporal perspectives’ process and result. Result is particularly salient to children, proposed Slobin, and provides an early mapping point for grammatical morphemes associated with content words referring to actions. In particular, whenever a language has an acoustically salient past tense or perfective marker on the verb, its first use by children seems to be to comment on an immediately completed event that results in a visible change of state. These state changes encompass both end results such as breaking, opening and spilling, and changes of location (i.e., events with locative endpoints) such as dropping, falling and going to school. Slobin pointed to evidence from studies of tense and aspect acquisition in a number of languages, including Chinese (Erbaugh 1978, 1982), English (Bloom et al. 1980, Brown 1973), French (Bronckart & Sinclair 1973), Italian (Antinucci & Miller 1976), and Turkish (Aksu 1978, Aksu-Koç 1988).
Both the language bioprogram hypothesis and the basic child grammar hypothesis attempt to explain the acquisition of tense and aspect by appealing to innate or prelinguistically determined semantic distinctions. However, the two hypotheses differ in the specific semantic distinctions they invoke: the state-process and the punctual-nonpunctual distinctions for the language bioprogram, and the process-result distinction for basic child grammar. The two approaches also differ somewhat on whether the semantic distinctions are considered to be biologically built in: this claim is fundamental to the language bioprogram hypothesis, whereas it is left more open in the basic child grammar hypothesis.
In a test of the language bioprogram hypothesis, Cziko & Koda (1987) found that Japanese children never overgeneralize progressive markers to stative verbs, which supports one of the bioprogram distinctions. But they also found that these children make no punctual-nonpunctual distinction in their use of tense-aspect markers, which is inconsistent with the language bioprogram hypothesis. In a subsequent exchange, Cziko (1989) and Bickerton (1989) debated which semantic components are at stake in the punctual-nonpunctual distinction. To resolve the controversy, Shirai (1991) suggested that Bickerton might be confusing punctuality with telicity (i.e., all the verbs in Bickerton’s category of punctual verbs are also telic, equivalent to Vendler’s
accomplishments or achievements), so it might be telicity rather than punctuality to which children are sensitive in the supposed punctual-nonpunctual distinction. Shirai (1994) also questioned the bioprogram explanation for why English-speaking children do not overgeneralize -ing to stative verbs, and showed that they do in fact occasionally make this error.
Evidence for or against the basic child grammar claims about the acquisition of tense and aspect has mostly revolved around whether children at first restrict the use of given tense-aspect markers to a subset of the verbs for which they are appropriate in adult speech (Bloom et al. 1980, Rispoli & Bloom 1985, Smith & Weist 1987, Weist, Wysocka, Witkowska-Stadnik, Buczowska & Konieczna 1984). For example, Bloom and her colleagues proposed that aspect precedes tense in child language, since the initial use of tense markers by the English-speaking children they studied was always redundant with lexical aspect (e.g., -ed always occurred with completive or resultative verbs). Weist and his colleagues argued against this proposal, which they termed the ‘defective tense hypothesis’. In a series of experimental and longitudinal studies, they showed that Polish children do not use tense markers redundantly with the perfective and imperfective forms of verbs, and are able to understand and produce the basic contrast between perfective and imperfective aspect as young as 2;6 (Weist 1983, Weist, Wysocka & Lyytinen 1991). More recent studies suggest that, although there may well be associations between lexical aspect and particular tense-aspect markers, just as Bloom et al. (1980) proposed, the associations are probabilistic rather than absolute (Li 1990, in press, Shirai 1991, 1993, Shirai & Andersen 1995); we will return to these studies in the General Discussion.
Previous crosslinguistic studies have provided important information about how children acquire tense and aspect in other languages. However, few studies have systematically examined the acquisition of aspect in Chinese,\(^2\) a language with properties that are interesting in light of current theorizing about the acquisition of aspectual systems. In particular, Chinese provides a set of semantic distinctions in the lexical aspect of verbs that we can use to explore further the language
\(^{[2]}\) To our knowledge, the only one so far who has examined the acquisition of aspect markers in Mandarin Chinese is Erbaugh (1978, 1982). In a longitudinal study of four Chinese-speaking children between 2 and 3 years old, Erbaugh found that the perfective marker -le emerged first and was used to signal a change of state. The imperfective markers zai and -zhe emerged later than -le.
bioprogram and the basic child grammar hypotheses. For example, ‘process’ in the distinctions between process and state (language bioprogram) and between process and result (basic child grammar) is encoded by activity verbs in Chinese, while ‘state’ and ‘result’ are encoded by stative and accomplishment/achievement verbs, respectively.\(^3\) If the process-state or process-result distinctions are bioprogrammed or otherwise prelinguistically salient, and serve as semantic templates that strongly attract grammatical morphemes, Chinese-speaking children should show early sensitivity to the differences between activity and stative verbs, or between activity and accomplishment/achievement verbs; that is, they should mark verbs from these classes differently.
Evidence for such sensitivity would be compatible with hypotheses about prelinguistically salient aspectual distinctions, but not conclusive, since differential marking patterns could also be learned on the basis of the distribution of aspect markers in the input. So it is also important to examine how children handle distinctions that are marked in Chinese differently from the way they are marked in other languages. For example, English does not normally permit the use of the progressive marker with stative verbs (there are occasional exceptions, cf. Smith 1983). Chinese agrees in not allowing the progressive with stative verbs, but – unlike English – it also does not allow it with achievement verbs, e.g., *da-po* (hit-break) or with posture verbs, e.g., *zuo* (sit) and *zhan* (stand). If children’s obedience to supposedly prelinguistic aspectual distinctions is actually caused by their sensitivity to patterns in the input, they should be just as sensitive to language-specific constraints as to the distinctions of the language bioprogram or basic child grammar.
---
\[^{[3]} \text{An anonymous reviewer has reminded us that the term ‘process’ is not used in exactly the same way in the language bioprogram and basic child grammar hypotheses, with neither hypothesis explicitly adopting Vendler’s classification. In the bioprogram, the ‘process’ side of the state-process contrast remains somewhat vague, but it seems to have to do with the presence of action or dynamicity in the meaning of a predicate, whereas in basic child grammar, ‘process’ is defined as a temporal perspective (nonpunctual, noncompletive, and ongoing) that contrasts with ‘result’ (punctual, completive); both perspectives are superordinate to language-specific categories such as imperfective versus perfective or progressive versus nonprogressive. While recognizing that the notion of ‘process’ is not identical in the two hypotheses, we would argue that ‘activity’ verbs are good representatives of what is meant by the term in both hypotheses. This means that by comparing activity verbs with stative verbs in children’s acquisition of aspect markers we can test the bioprogram’s process-state distinction, and by comparing activity verbs with accomplishment and achievement verbs we can test the basic child grammar’s process-result distinction.}\]
In what follows, we report three experiments that examined children's comprehension and use of grammatical and lexical aspect in Chinese. Our first experiment explores children's comprehension of the aspect markers *zai*, *-le* and *-zhe* with verbs from different lexical aspectual classes.
**EXPERIMENT 1: COMPREHENSION**
**METHOD**
**Participants**
A total of 135 children from several kindergartens of Peking University and Qinghua University took part in the experiment. They were divided into three age groups of 45 children each: 4-year-olds (mean age 4;2, range 3;11–4;4), 5-year-olds (mean age 5;1, range 4;10–5;4) and 6-year-olds (mean age 6;0, range 5;10–6;4). Half the children were boys and half girls. Although no attempt was made to test the children's general linguistic and cognitive abilities, all participants appeared to fall within normal limits.
**Materials**
Our materials and procedure were adapted from a sentence-picture matching task devised by Weist (1983) and Weist *et al.* (1991) to test the comprehension of aspectual distinctions in children learning Polish and English. In our study, aspectual distinctions were represented by pairs of contrasting picture stories, with each story made up of two pictures. Both stories of a pair could be described by the same verb; the difference between them corresponded to the contrast between two aspect markers, one perfective (*-le*) and the other imperfective (*zai* or *-zhe*). The paired stories were bordered with different colours, one red and one green, and some details of the pictures were also correspondingly either red or green. One was called the ‘red story’ and the other the ‘green story’, which allowed the two pictures of each story to be referred to as a unit.\(^4\)
---
\[^{[4]}\text{These pairs of two-picture stories have two methodological advantages over pairs of single pictures. First, aspect often has to do with the contour of a situation over time, and the stages of a situation over time can be suggested more clearly in successive frames than in a single picture. Second, pilot testing revealed a methodological problem with the use of single pictures. When one picture shows an imperfective situation (i.e., an ongoing or enduring situation, such as people skating) and the other shows a perfective situation (i.e., the aftermath of a just-}\]
In the overall design of the experiment there were three sentences associated with each story pair (the verb plus -le, zai or -zhe). The complete set of sentences is listed in Appendix A. But individual children heard only two sentences with each pair: the perfective sentence with -le and, as its imperfective counterpart, a sentence with either zai or -zhe. Across all children, each story was presented with -le/zai versus -le/-zhe an equal number of times. Which of the two sentences – perfective or imperfective – was designated as the target varied systematically, so that for each story the target sentence contained -le, zai and -zhe an equal number of times and for each child there was an equal number of -le, zai and -zhe target sentences (with the exception that only -le and -zhe appeared in sentences with stative verbs since zai cannot be combined with stative verbs).
For each of the six lexical-aspectual verb classes, except for achievement verbs, there were three stories, each with a different verb. We did not test achievement verbs because they cannot be combined with the progressive marker zai or the durative marker -zhe. We divided accomplishment verbs into two subcategories: resultative verbs that encode the end result of an event (e.g., gai yi-suo fangzi (build a house) [note that these are not resultative compounds, which we have classified as achievements]), and locative verbs that encode the endpoint of a change of location (e.g. qu xuexiao (go to school)). The purpose of this distinction was to allow us to assess whether children treat these alike; recall that Slobin’s ‘result’ temporal perspective encompasses both change of state and change of location verbs, but most of his examples involve resultative verbs, which might well be considered more prototypical of the result perspective.
Each child was thus presented with a total of 18 pairs of stories, three for each of six verb types: activity, semelfactive, stative, mixed completed event, such as people leaving the ice), children who ignore the aspect markers or who do not understand them will tend to choose the imperfective picture because it best represents the meaning of the verb itself, e.g., skate. To solve this problem, the pictures in our study were combined into stories in such a way that one picture – which optimally represented the situation named by the verb – was shared by both stories. In the imperfective story this picture was combined with another picture showing an earlier phase of the same situation, and in the perfective story it was combined with another picture showing the event just ending. (Hints were built into both stories to indicate the passage of time; e.g., in the story shown in Fig. 1, a bystander cat has just entered a room in the first picture and has moved to the centre of the room in the second picture.) This arrangement encouraged children to compare stories rather than individual pictures and eliminated their bias for choosing imperfective pictures.
Fig. 1. Sample pair of picture stories used in Experiment 1 to test the understanding of the contrast between perfective and imperfective aspect. Story (1a) is picked out by the perfective sentence *Wu-li -de chuanghu kai -LE* (The window in the room opened), whereas story (1b) is described by the imperfective sentence *Wu-li -de chuanghu kai-ZHE* (The window in the room is open). In one story the curtains are red, and in the other story they are green.
telic-stative, accomplishment/resultative, and accomplishment/locative. Fig. 1 presents a sample story pair, which illustrates the stative verb *kai* (open).
**Procedure**
Children were tested individually. For each story pair, the two stories were laid out side by side on a table in front of the child. The experimenter briefly explained the stories without using the target verb, pointing out that one was the red story and the other was the green story. Then the test procedure was administered. For example, the child was told: ‘In these two differently coloured stories, one story tells that *Wu-li -de chuanghu kai -LE* (the window in the room opened), and the other tells that *Wu-li -de chuanghu kai -ZHE* (the window in the room
is open). Now, tell me which story shows Wu-li -de chuanghu kai -LE (or Wu-li -de chuanghu kai -ZHE)?’ (These instructions are of course translated in part from the Chinese original.) The child could point to the pictures as in Weist (1983) and Weist et al. (1991), but he or she was also asked to say whether the sentence described the red story or the green story. This procedure was designed to forestall responses based purely on the child’s assessment of individual pictures.
Before the start of testing with the 18 story pairs, the child was asked to label the colour of two identical toys, one green and one red, and those who could not do this were replaced by children who could. Children were also given two warm-up sets of stories and sentences to practise on, and the practice was repeated until they clearly understood the procedure. Each experimental session lasted about 30 minutes.
**Data analysis**
A child’s response was counted as correct if it picked out the picture story described by the test sentence and incorrect if it picked out the other story. When children gave no verbal response (e.g., they only pointed), or changed their answer, their responses were counted as missing. Children who had more than three missing responses were replaced.
Our analysis will focus on the contrasts between (1) the progressive marker zai and the perfective marker -le, and (2) the durative marker -zhe and the perfective marker -le. We exclude from the analysis target sentences that combined -zhe with verbs other than stative and mixed telic-stative, because these combinations are generally used to signal background information, and so are incomplete on their own. We did not test the combination of zai with stative verbs since the combination is ungrammatical. The contrasts we are interested in, then, are between zai and -le for all verb types except statives, and between -zhe and -le for statives. Only one category of verbs, the mixed telic-stative verbs, was tested with all three aspect markers, zai, -zhe and -le.
Responses to the three stories for each verb type were pooled and a loglinear analysis was performed on the raw frequencies of correct responses for each verb type. Loglinear analysis has become an increasingly important tool for developmental researchers because of its usefulness in analysing complex frequency data (Gilbert 1981, Green 1988, Kennedy 1992, Knoke & Burke 1980).\(^5\) Loglinear analysis
\[^{[5]} \text{Some readers may wonder why we did not conduct analyses of variance (ANOVA) on these data. The reason is that complex multi-factor frequency data often violate basic requirements of distribution and variance for ANOVA.}\]
TABLE 1. Percentage correct in children's comprehension of aspect markers with each verb type across age groups
| | 4-year-olds | | | | 5-year-olds | | | | 6-year-olds | | | |
|------------------|-------------|----------|----------|----------|-------------|----------|----------|----------|-------------|----------|----------|----------|
| | zai | -le | -zhe | | zai | -le | -zhe | | zai | -le | -zhe | |
| Activity | 77 | 38 | * | | 78 | 49 | * | | 96 | 51 | * | |
| Semelfactive | 70 | 51 | * | | 77 | 52 | * | | 84 | 67 | * | |
| Accomp./Res. | 53 | 68 | * | | 61 | 80 | * | | 70 | 82 | * | |
| Accomp./Loc. | 62 | 56 | * | | 65 | 75 | * | | 76 | 78 | * | |
| Mixed Tel.-Sta. | 56 | 78 | 89 | | 66 | 80 | 91 | | 68 | 96 | 89 | |
| Stative | ** | 44 | 78 | | ** | 51 | 87 | | ** | 58 | 87 | |
* Incomplete sentences ** Ungrammatical combinations
fits data to various candidate models that incorporate the effects of one variable (denoted below with \{X\}), two variables (\{X\}\{Y\}), or three variables (\{X\}\{Y\}\{Z\}). For example, the model that incorporates the effect of age is designated \{A\}, whereas the model that incorporates the individual effects of age and aspect marker is designated \{A\}\{M\}, with each variable name in separate brackets. A model that incorporates the interaction effects as well as the individual effects is designated \{XY\}, with all variable names enclosed in one bracket, e.g., \{AM\}, for the interaction between age and aspect marker. Because the models are hierarchically organized, models with higher-order effects, e.g., interactions between age, aspect marker and verb type, presuppose the inclusion of the corresponding lower-order effects, e.g., individual effects of age, aspect marker and verb type, plus three two-way interactions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the percentage of correct responses broken down by age, obtained by dividing the number of correct responses by the total number of responses for each verb type.
Table 2 presents the results of the loglinear analysis performed on the raw frequency data from which the percentages of Table 1 were calculated. This table shows all the possible models and their fit to the data. In a loglinear analysis we select the best-fitting model that is at the same time the most parsimonious in terms of how many effects are involved. Each model’s fit to the data is indicated by a $p$ value in Table 2. A $p$ value above 0.05 indicates an adequate fit to the data, while a $p$
TABLE 2. Loglinear models fitted to the comprehension data in Experiment 1
| Model | Effect name* | df | $L^2$ | p |
|-------|--------------|----|-------|-----|
| (1) | {M} | 36 | 43.68 | 0.18|
| (2) | {A} | 36 | 48.81 | 0.08|
| (3) | {V} | 33 | 51.49 | 0.02|
| (4) | {M} {A} | 34 | 34.33 | 0.45|
| (5) | {V} {A} | 31 | 42.14 | 0.09|
| (6) | {V} {M} | 31 | 39.19 | 0.15|
| (7) | {V} {M} {A} | 29 | 29.84 | 0.42|
| (8) | {MA} | 30 | 32.93 | 0.33|
| (9) | {VA} | 21 | 41.09 | 0.01|
| (10) | {VM} | 21 | 12.33 | 0.93|
| (11) | {MA} {V} | 25 | 28.44 | 0.29|
| (12) | {VA} {M} | 19 | 28.79 | 0.07|
| (13) | {VM} {A} | 19 | 2.97 | 1.00|
| (14) | {VA} {MA} | 15 | 28.01 | 0.02|
| (15) | {VM} {MA} | 15 | 1.57 | 1.00|
| (16) | {VM} {VA} | 9 | 1.92 | 0.99|
| (17) | {VM} {MA} {VA}| 5 | 1.12 | 0.95|
| (18) | {VMA} | 0 | 0.00 | 1.00|
* A = Age, M = Aspect marker, V = Verb type
value below 0.05 indicates an insufficient fit.\footnote{Special attention should be paid here to the interpretation of $p$ values. In loglinear analysis, a $p$ value above 0.05 indicates that the model fits the data adequately. Thus, the smaller the $L^2$ is relative to the $df$ and the closer the $p$ value is to 1.00, the better the model fits the data. This interpretation differs from the customary one for a $p$ value, according to which values of 0.05 or less are taken to indicate a significant effect; see Knoke & Burke (1980).} All models except (3), (9) and (14) are above this significance level. To determine which of the acceptable models best accounts for the data, we evaluated pairwise all combinations of models that differed in only one effect. Through a forward-selection method (i.e., starting with the simpler models and moving on to the more complex ones),\footnote{Another technique in loglinear analysis is the backward-elimination method, in which the selection of a best model proceeds from the more complex to the simpler one.} we identified (13) as the best-fitting and most parsimonious model. This model shows that the effect of age and the interaction between the aspect markers (grammatical aspect) and verb types (lexical aspect) are the most important relationships in the data.
The interaction effect revealed in the loglinear analysis shows that the children understood given aspect markers better with some verb types than with others. In particular, children of all ages comprehended progressive *zai* better with activity and semelfactive verbs than with resultative and locative verbs, and perfective *-le* better with resultative and locative verbs than with activity or semelfactive verbs (see Table 1). Notice that activity and semelfactive verbs are both atelic (process but no endpoint), while resultative and locative verbs are both telic (process with endpoint). Within the category of atelic verbs there was no difference between activity verbs (nonpunctual) and semelfactive verbs (punctual), and within the category of telic verbs there was no difference between resultative verbs (end result) and locative verbs (endpoint). The property of lexical aspect that seems to be critical for these young learners is, then, telicity rather than punctuality. For the stative verbs, children understood *-zhe* much better than *-le*, whereas for the mixed telic-stative verbs, they understood both *-zhe* and *-le* very well (both above 80%).
The significant main effect of age in model (13) indicates that there was a developmental effect: not surprisingly, the comprehension of aspect markers increased steadily with age. The differences between different verb types were more pronounced for younger than for older children, but the pattern of interaction between aspect markers and verb types was similar across age groups, with *zai* associated with atelic verbs and *-le* with telic verbs. In contrast to *zai* and *-le*, the comprehension of *-zhe* showed no clear development across the age range studied. Even the youngest children, the 4-year-olds, responded correctly to *-zhe* 78% of the time with stative verbs, and 89% of the time with mixed telic-stative verbs.
Experiment 1 shows that grammatical and lexical aspect interact to determine the pattern of children's correct responses, suggesting that the inherent lexical meaning of verbs plays a significant role in children's comprehension of aspect markers in Chinese. The associations between *zai* and atelic verbs, and between *-le* and telic verbs, are consistent with previous findings in other languages (e.g., Aksu 1978, Antinucci & Miller 1976, Bloom *et al.* 1981, Stephany 1981, Weist *et al.* 1984). But our study is more comprehensive than previous studies in that (a) it looks at children's comprehension of aspect markers with all major types of verbs, in contrast to, for example, Weist (1983), who examined Polish children's comprehension of aspect markers with only result verb phrases; and (b) it provides a balanced picture of the acquisition of both the perfective and imperfective markers. According to Weist (1983) and Weist *et al.*
(1984, 1991), perfective aspect is the most marked perspective in Polish, while imperfective aspect is the most marked perspective in English. In Chinese, perfective aspect and imperfective aspect do not differ in markedness, so our results are not influenced by the effects of linguistic markedness.
The finding that children understand the progressive marker *zai* better with atelic verbs (activity and semelfactive) and the perfective marker *-le* better with telic verbs (both resultative and locative endpoint) is consistent with the predictions of basic child grammar. Recall that Slobin (1985) argued that children are prelinguistically attuned to the distinction between process and result. Processes include both activity verbs and iteratively-construable semelfactive verbs. Results encompass for Slobin both changes of state (our resultative verbs) and changes of location (our locative endpoint verbs). We found no significant difference in the comprehension of *-le* with telic verbs of the two kinds, so for children changes of state are apparently no more central to this category than changes of location.
In contrast, predictions of the language bioprogram hypothesis were not borne out. In particular, children’s comprehension of *zai* and *-le* did not differ as a function of the punctuality of the verb: *zai* was not understood better with activity verbs (nonpunctual) than with semelfactive verbs (punctual) nor, conversely, was *-le* understood better with semelfactive verbs (punctual) than with activity verbs (nonpunctual). Similarly, there was no evidence for the bioprogram ‘state-process’ distinction, since children understood the perfective marker *-le* poorly with both activity and stative verbs, and they understood imperfective markers equally well with both activity verbs (which take *zai*) and stative verbs (which take *-zhe*).
**EXPERIMENT 2: PRODUCTION**
Experiment 1 was a comprehension study that assessed children’s understanding of grammatical aspect when aspect markers were combined with verbs that differ in lexical aspect. Experiment 2 was a production study that investigated how children use aspect markers with verbs of different kinds.
**METHOD**
**Participants**
Children for this experiment came from the same kindergartens as in Experiment 1, and some children participated in both experiments.
(with at least a 48-hour interval between them). There was a total of 99 children across four age levels: 3-year-olds (mean age 3;2, range 2;9–3;6), 4-year-olds (mean age 4;1, range 3;8–4;4), 5-year-olds (mean age 5;1, range 4;11–5;4), and 6-year-olds (mean age 6;1, range 5;11–6;4). Each age group had 25 children, except for the 3-year-old group which had 24 (one 3-year-old’s data were missing due to apparatus breakdown). Half the children were boys and half girls.
**Materials**
Children were asked to describe 18 situations enacted with toys. There were three situations for each of six lexical-aspectual categories – the same categories as in Experiment 1 except for the addition of achievements and the omission of mixed telic-statives, since it was too difficult to elicit the use of a mixed-telic-stative verb in both its senses (e.g., both ‘wear’ and ‘put on’ for *chuan*). Sample enactments included: for activities, a doll canoeing; for semelfactives, a doll knocking once on the back of a turtle (single punctual event), and a rabbit jumping around (iterated event); for achievements, a car knocking down a bridge; for accomplishments (these were again split into two subcategories), a doll catching a fish with a hook (resultative), and a penguin climbing to the top of a staircase (locative); and for (postural) states, a monkey standing on a table.
**Procedure**
The children were brought individually to a room where the toys were laid out on the floor, and told that they were going to play games with the experimenters. There were two experimenters. One acted out the situations one at a time and, after each enactment, asked the child to describe what had happened with the toys for the benefit of the other experimenter, who was blindfolded (for a similar procedure, see Hickmann & Liang 1990). The child was told to look carefully at the situations that were about to be shown and to make sure that the blindfolded experimenter could understand from the descriptions what had happened.\(^8\) Children were given a few practice trials to make sure
---
\[^{[8]}\text{The instruction given to the child was } \textit{gaosu shushu/ayi X zenme la?} \text{ (tell uncle/auntie X how question marker; = tell the uncle/auntie [i.e., the blindfolded experimenter] how X [the manipulated toy] is'). This instruction contains no aspect marker, and was chosen because, as Bronckart & Sinclair (1973) and Weist et al. (1984) have noted, children's use of tense-aspect markers in experimental situations can be influenced by biased elicitations.}\]
that they understood the procedure. The whole testing session lasted about 20 minutes, and was audio-taped for later analysis.
**Data coding and analysis**
Children’s descriptions of the enacted situations were all transcribed, coded, and entered into the computer by the first author according to the format of the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES database, MacWhinney 1995, MacWhinney & Snow 1985, 1990). The transcriptions were double-checked by James Liang of the Sinological Institute, Leiden University. The CLAN program designed for CHILDES data was used for the computational analysis (including lexical search and frequency counts).
Although the enactment situations were designed to elicit verbs belonging to particular lexical-aspectual categories, it was impossible to ensure that the children would use the target kinds of verbs, since they were free to focus on any part of the situation. Thus, it makes little sense to count how many instances of a given aspect marker occurred in response to each category of situation (as has been done in some studies, e.g., Bronckart & Sinclair 1973). Instead, we classified the verbs in children’s descriptions irrespective of the type of situation they were used to describe. There were five such classes: (1) *activity* verbs that encode an action with no endpoint or end result, e.g., *hua-chuan* (row-boat), *youyong* (swim); (2) *semelfactive* verbs that encode a punctual but not resultative situation, e.g., *tiao* (jump), *zhayan* (blink); (3) *achievement* verbs that encode the end result of a punctual situation, e.g., *zhuang-dao* (hit-break); *diao* (drop); these were mostly resultative compounds; (4) *accomplishment* verbs that encode a durative process with a locative endpoint, e.g., *pao xiao fangzi-li* (run into the little room), *shang louti* (go upstairs); and (5) *stative* verbs that encode the posture of the actor in a situation, e.g., *zuo zai yizi-shang* (sit in the chair), *zhan zai zuozi-shang* (stand on the table).
Eighty-five percent of all the sentences in the children’s speech contained an aspect marker, either *zai*, *-ne*, *-zhe* or *-le*. Of the remaining 15%, half had stative verbs that did not require an aspect marker because a prepositional phrase occurred postverbally.\(^9\) We will report only on those sentences in which the verb was accompanied by an imperfective marker, either *zai* or *-ne*, or the perfective marker *-le*. The
\[^{[9]} \text{In Chinese, if a stative verb is immediately followed by a prepositional phrase (PP) – usually a locative phrase with the preposition } \textit{zai} – \text{then the V+ PP structure has the effect of indicating the duration of the state, without requiring the use of aspect markers. See Li (1990, 1993a) for details.}\]
TABLE 3. Percentage represented by -ne, zai and -le of the total number of aspect markers used with each verb type across age groups
| | 3-year-olds | | | 4-year-olds | | | 5-year-olds | | | 6-year-olds | | |
|------------------|-------------|--------|--------|-------------|--------|--------|-------------|--------|--------|-------------|--------|--------|
| | -ne | zai | -le | -ne | zai | -le | -ne | zai | -le | -ne | zai | -le |
| Activity | 48 | 20 | 32 | 58 | 18 | 24 | 42 | 33 | 25 | 61 | 31 | 8 |
| Semelfactive | 55 | 20 | 25 | 52 | 24 | 24 | 40 | 37 | 23 | 56 | 36 | 8 |
| Achievement | 0 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 1 | 99 | 0 | 1 | 99 | 0 | 1 | 99 |
| Accomp./Loc. | 9 | 0 | 91 | 5 | 0 | 95 | 0 | 5 | 95 | 0 | 8 | 92 |
| Stative | 47 | 9 | 44 | 55 | 5 | 40 | 49 | 22 | 29 | 75 | 10 | 15 |
marker -zhe was excluded from the analysis because it occurred very infrequently in the children's speech. A total of 1007 sentences was included in the analysis: 213 sentences from the 3-year-olds, 254 sentences from the 4-year-olds, 254 sentences from the 5-year-olds, and 286 sentences from the 6-year-olds.\(^{10}\)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 3 presents the percentages represented by zai, -ne and -le of the total number of aspect markers used with each verb type, broken down by age group. As in Experiment 1, a loglinear analysis was applied to the raw frequency data from which these percentages were calculated.
Table 4 presents all the possible models and their fit to the data. In Experiment 1, many simple models fit the data well, but in this experiment, models simpler than (14) did not fit the data adequately; only models (14), (17), and (18) were adequate. This indicates that the relationships among the variables are more complex than in Experiment 1.
Although there was no obvious best model in terms of both fit and
\[^{[10]}\text{There is no grammatical category of tense in Chinese. As in other languages that lack inflectional morphology, such as Thai or Vietnamese, verbs in Chinese are not marked for event time differences. The imperfective aspect markers zai and -ne can be used to mark events in either the present or the past. In our experiment, then, children could use zai and -ne to refer to enactment situations that were either ongoing at the time they described them (e.g., a doll was canoeing or a rabbit was jumping) or completed (e.g., a doll had been canoeing or a rabbit had been jumping earlier).}$
TABLE 4. Loglinear models fitted to the production data in Experiment 2
| Model | Effect name* | df | $L^2$ | p |
|-------|--------------|----|-------|-----|
| (1) | {M} | 57 | 1010.00 | 0.00 |
| (2) | {A} | 56 | 1256.92 | 0.00 |
| (3) | {V} | 55 | 1024.46 | 0.00 |
| (4) | {M} {A} | 54 | 999.20 | 0.00 |
| (5) | {V} {M} | 53 | 766.75 | 0.00 |
| (6) | {V} {A} | 52 | 1013.66 | 0.00 |
| (7) | {V} {M} {A} | 50 | 755.95 | 0.00 |
| (8) | {MA} | 48 | 975.78 | 0.00 |
| (9) | {VM} | 45 | 76.78 | 0.00 |
| (10) | {VA} | 40 | 1002.55 | 0.00 |
| (11) | {MA} {V} | 44 | 732.52 | 0.00 |
| (12) | {VM} {A} | 42 | 65.98 | 0.01 |
| (13) | {VA} {M} | 38 | 744.83 | 0.00 |
| (14) | {VM} {MA} | 36 | 42.56 | 0.21 |
| (15) | {VA} {MA} | 32 | 721.41 | 0.00 |
| (16) | {VM} {VA} | 30 | 54.87 | 0.00 |
| (17) | {VM} {MA} {VA}| 24 | 15.21 | 0.91 |
| (18) | {VMA} | 0 | 0.00 | 1.00 |
* A = Age, M = Aspect marker, V = Verb type
parsimony, we again used the forward-selection method to discover – by systematic pairwise comparisons of all models that differed in only one effect – the significant effects that account for most of the structure in the data. These were the three main effects – verb type, aspect marker, and age – and the two-way interaction effects of verb type by aspect marker, and aspect marker by age. The interaction between verb type and aspect marker was the most important effect: models that included this interaction provided a significantly better fit to the data than models that did not. As in Experiment 1, the strong effect of verb type by aspect marker emphasizes the importance of the interaction between lexical aspect and grammatical aspect in children’s acquisition of Chinese. In Experiment 1 we observed an association in children’s comprehension between the progressive marker zai and atelic verbs (activities and semelfactives), and between the perfective marker -le and telic verbs (accomplishments, including resultative and locative). In this experiment we found that both the imperfective markers zai and -ne occurred almost exclusively with atelic verbs (activities and semelfactives) while the perfective marker -le occurred
predominantly with telic verbs (accomplishments and achievements). This pattern held for all age groups, and became more pronounced with age; the 5-year-olds did not produce a higher proportion of -ne with activities and semelfactives than did the 3- or 4-year-olds, but they produced a higher proportion of zai with these verbs than did the 3- or 4-year-olds.
To establish the difference between pairs of verb types more clearly, we conducted several separate chi-square analyses. For each age group, we contrasted activity verbs with semelfactive verbs and activity verbs with stative verbs in the frequency of use of aspect markers in $2 \times 3$ (verb x aspect marker) contingency tables. The only significant differences were between activity and stative verbs in the 4-year-olds ($\chi^2(2) = 5.97, p = 0.05$) and 6-year-olds ($\chi^2(2) = 6.58, p < 0.05$). There is, then, no difference between activity and semelfactive verbs in this experiment, as was also true in Experiment 1; nor is there a clear difference between activity and stative verbs.
To summarize, the results provided converging evidence for the patterns observed in Experiment 1. Children’s productive speech is characterized at an early stage by a strong interaction between lexical and grammatical aspect. In particular, the results provide further support for the basic child grammar hypothesis that the distinction between process and result is important in children’s early acquisition of tense-aspect markers. From at least age 3, children almost always combine achievement verbs with -le, and not zai or -ne, which indicates that they must have integrated the meaning of result into their knowledge of these verbs.\footnote{The result versus process distinction is also crucial to children’s acquisition of certain syntactic devices in Chinese, as revealed by a qualitative analysis of the data from Experiment 2 (see Li 1990, 1993a).} In contrast, the data from Experiment 2 are not consistent with predictions of the language bioprogram hypothesis. First, in no age group did children use aspect markers differently with activity (nonpunctual) and semelfactive (punctual) verbs. Second, in all age groups children used aspect markers differently with achievement verbs (punctual and resultative) and semelfactive verbs (punctual but non-resultative) – in other words, punctual verbs did not hang together as a category. Third, the pattern with respect to activity versus stative verbs went, if anything, counter to the language bioprogram hypothesis, with its emphasis on built-in or unlearned distinctions: the youngest children (3-year-olds) did not mark verbs belonging to these two categories differently while the oldest (6-year-olds) did.
Experiment 3 was an elicited imitation task. Following Slobin & Welsh (1973), we assume that when young children are asked to imitate a sentence that is too long for them to reproduce by rote memory, they filter its meaning, as they understand it, through their own productive system. This means that elements in the model that are ungrammatical or unusual within the child’s system will tend to be modified. (For systematic applications of the elicited imitation technique, see Kuczaj & Maratsos 1975, and Budwig 1991.) Applying this reasoning to the problem at hand, we can predict that if Chinese children understand the use of aspect markers, they should have more difficulty imitating ungrammatical than grammatical combinations of aspect markers with verbs. In particular, when faced with an ungrammatical combination of verb and aspect marker they will tend to omit the marker or change either the marker or the verb so that the combination becomes grammatical.
In this experiment, we used elicited imitation to see whether children are sensitive to two combinations of aspect marker and verb that are ungrammatical in Chinese: (1) progressive zai with achievement verbs, and (2) progressive zai with stative verbs.
**METHOD**
**Participants**
A total of 72 children participated in this experiment immediately after completing Experiment 2: 22 3-year-olds (mean age 3;2), 25 4-year-olds (mean age 4;1), and 25 5-year-olds (mean age 5;1).
**Materials**
Eight model sentences were constructed. All the sentences were about the same length (9 to 10 syllables, 6 to 8 words). The sentences were intended to exceed children’s short-term memory capacity so that they could not be simply parroted back. Since no work has assessed 3- to 5-year-old Chinese children’s short-term memory span for syllables and words, we settled on 9 to 10 syllables on the basis of pilot testing. A pre-test showed that our sentences were too easy for 6-year-olds, so children of this age were not tested further.
In the production task of Experiment 2, children almost never used the progressive marker zai with achievement verbs (resultative compounds) – rather, they used it almost exclusively with activity and semelfactive verbs, which are non-resultative. This finding was interpreted as showing that children are sensitive to the meaning of result
inherent in achievement verbs. The 5-year-olds in that experiment did produce some ungrammatical combinations of zai with a stative verb, but this was rare. The present experiment created an artificial environment in which both achievement verbs (resultative compounds) and stative verbs were combined ungrammatically with zai in the sentences modelled for imitation.\(^{12}\) Achievement verbs and stative verbs were also combined grammatically with the perfective marker to provide a baseline for comparison. Two instances of each verb type were combined with zai and another two with -le for a total of eight test sentences, all of which were administered to each child. The four resultative verb compounds were qie-kai (cut-open), da-hao (build-ready), zuo-hao (make-ready), and shuai-po (throw-break). The four stative verbs were xihuan (like), mingbai (understand), you (have), and zhidaq (know). Two examples are shown in sentences (8) and (9); see Appendix B for the complete set of sentences.
(8) Xiaopengyou da-hao -le neixie jimu.
child build-ready -LE those blocks
The child built (i.e., stacked up) the blocks.
(9) Mama zai zuo-hao yi-guo mifan.
mother ZAI make-ready one-pot rice
Mother is making a pot of rice ready.
**Procedure**
After completing Experiment 2 children were asked to continue with another game called ‘teaching the puppet to speak’. The experimenter held out two puppets and asked the child which one he or she liked better. The child then took the preferred puppet and the experimenter kept the other. Next, the experimenter explained that the puppets could not speak and that she and the child would play a game to teach them how to speak. The child should follow the experimenter and teach his or her own puppet in exactly the same way as the experimenter would do. Then the experimenter read the model sentences one by one for her puppet, and the child imitated each one for his or her puppet. The order of presentation of the model sentences was pseudorandomly arranged separately for each child such that no more than two ungrammatical
\(^{[12]}\) A third type of verb was also tested in this experiment: simple resultatives such as diao (fall), which belong to the category of achievement verbs. Since these were all intransitive and are not directly comparable to the other two types of verb used in this experiment, they are not reported here; see Li (1990) for details.
TABLE 5. Percentage successful imitations of the model sentences (verb type by aspect marker by age group)
| | 3-year-olds | | 4-year-olds | | 5-year-olds | |
|----------------|-------------|--------|-------------|--------|-------------|--------|
| | zai* | -le | zai* | -le | zai* | -le |
| Achievement | 23 | 57 | 40 | 72 | 64 | 82 |
| Stative | 46 | 43 | 78 | 70 | 88 | 72 |
* Ungrammatical combinations of the aspect marker with the verb
sentences occurred consecutively. Before testing began, the child practised with three warm-up sentences until the task was clear. The whole session was audio-taped.
Data coding and analysis
The data were transcribed and coded in the same way as in Experiment 2. An imitation was counted as successful if the child retained the main verb and the aspect marker of the model sentence, irrespective of other changes; otherwise it was counted as erroneous. The errors were either omissions or substitutions of the aspect marker or the verb, and they occurred most typically when the combination was ungrammatical.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 5 presents the successful imitations as percentages of the total number of imitations in each age group for each combination of aspect marker with verb type (there were 22 3-year-olds and so a total of 44 imitations for each combination; there were 25 children in both the 4- and 5-year-old groups and so 50 imitations for each combination). Table 5 shows that children's successful imitations increased steadily with age.
Because the data shown in Table 5 have a much simpler structure than the data of the previous experiments, we used chi-square analyses rather than loglinear analyses. A 2 x 2 chi-square analysis was conducted for each age group, treating aspect marker (zai vs. -le) and verb type (achievement vs. stative) as the variables. For the 3- and 4-year-olds, success in imitating sentences with zai versus -le differed significantly as a function of whether the verb encoded a result (achievement verbs) or a state (stative verbs): age 3: $\chi^2$ (1) = 3.95, $p < 0.05$; age 4: $\chi^2$ (1) = 3.71, $p = 0.05$. For the 5-year-olds, however, the difference did not reach significance: $\chi^2$ (1) = 1.90, n.s. This may be
due to the increased short-term memory span of the 5-year-olds: of the ungrammatical combinations with zai, they could successfully imitate over 60% of those with achievement verbs and over 80% of those with stative verbs.
The ungrammatical combination of zai with achievement verbs (resultative compounds) presented a particular imitation difficulty, especially for the younger children. Note that resultative compounds consist of two components, the first indicating the action and the second the result, e.g., qie-kai (cut-open). In adult speech, the meaning of result is dominant in these constructions: it eclipses the meaning of action to such an extent that the compound cannot be marked with zai (Li 1987, Tai 1984). Children’s difficulty in imitating the ungrammatical combination of zai with these verbs shows their sensitivity to the salience of the meaning of result and its clash with the progressive meaning of zai. This finding is consistent with the finding in Experiment 1 that children understood -le better than zai with resultative accomplishment verbs, and in Experiment 2 that they used -le and almost no zai with achievement and locative accomplishment verbs. Taken together, these findings indicate that Chinese children are indeed sensitive to the distinction between process and result, as proposed in the basic child grammar hypothesis.
If the process-state distinction were just as salient to learners as the process-result distinction, children should be just as resistant to imitating combinations of zai with stative verbs as combinations of zai with achievement verbs; recall that both are ungrammatical. But these combinations did not present a particular difficulty to children; even the 3-year-olds imitated the ungrammatical stative combinations just as well as the grammatical ones, and the 4- and 5-year-olds imitated them even better. Children were not, then, sensitive to grammaticality per se in this experiment, but to particular combinations of aspect marker and lexical aspectual category. This result constitutes a further challenge to Bickerton’s proposal that the process-state distinction is bioprogrammed, and so to his explanation for why English-speaking children do not over-generalize progressive -ing to stative verbs.
**GENERAL DISCUSSION**
This study has examined children’s comprehension and use of grammatical and lexical aspect in the acquisition of Mandarin Chinese. In Experiment 1, children showed that they understood progressive zai better with activity and semelfactive verbs than with accomplishment verbs, and perfective -le better with accomplishment verbs than with
activity and semelfactive verbs. There was no difference in their comprehension of either zai or -le with activity versus semelfactive or stative verbs. In Experiment 2, children produced imperfective aspect markers (zai and -ne) mostly with activity and semelfactive verbs and rarely with accomplishment or achievement verbs, and they produced the perfective marker -le more frequently with accomplishment and achievement verbs than with activity and semelfactive verbs. There was no significant difference in their use of either perfective or imperfective markers with activity as opposed to with semelfactive or stative verbs. In Experiment 3, children imitated the combination of achievement verbs (resultative compounds) with the perfective marker -le (grammatical) better than with the progressive marker zai (ungrammatical), but their imitation of stative verbs with -le (grammatical) and zai (ungrammatical) did not differ. In sum, there was a consistent association of imperfective markers with atelic verbs and the perfective marker with telic verbs. Stative and semelfactive verbs patterned in general like activity verbs.
What are the implications of these results for the language bioprogram and basic child grammar hypotheses? According to the language bioprogram hypothesis (Bickerton 1981, 1984), children are innately sensitive to the distinction between process and state and between punctual and nonpunctual verb meanings. Our results are inconsistent with this claim. In general, children did not distinguish between activity and stative verbs in their use of aspect markers. They did treat achievement verbs differently from activity and stative verbs, which might at first glance be taken as evidence for the punctual-nonpunctual distinction (Bickerton indeed used such evidence to support the innateness of the distinction). But the achievement verbs in our studies were not only punctual but also resultative, so to identify which meaning component is responsible for the difference between activity verbs and achievement verbs, we must look at verbs that are punctual but not resultative, such as semelfactive verbs. In our studies children did not distinguish semelfactive verbs from activity verbs, but did distinguish them from achievement verbs. This is strong evidence that the difference between achievement verbs and activity verbs in our experiments comes not from the punctual but from the resultative meaning of the achievement verbs.
According to the basic child language hypothesis, children orient from the beginning to a major temporal contrast between process and result (Slobin 1985). This contrast is claimed to belong to a starting set of basic semantic notions that are independent of experience with any particular language, and that serve as initial magnets for the
grammatical morphemes of the input language. Our findings are consistent with the claim that children are highly sensitive to this contrast: in all three experiments children treated activity verbs differently from resultative verbs. But must we concur with Slobin that the cleavage between process and result is critically salient for the child before language learning even begins?
In the last few years, proposals that children organize their grammars according to semantic or syntactic contrasts that are especially salient ahead of time have come increasingly under fire from researchers who stress young children’s extraordinary skills at detecting patterns in the linguistic input (e.g., Behrens 1993, Bowerman 1985, 1989, 1996, Choi & Bowerman 1991, Snow 1977) and at extracting correlations and prototypes from these patterns (Li 1990, Shirai 1994, Shirai & Andersen 1995, Stephany 1981). In a very recent rethinking, even Slobin himself (1997, and in press) has raised serious problems for his earlier proposal that there is a universal set of semantic notions that are ‘privileged’ for mapping to grammatical morphemes. He now suggests that the grammatical morphemes found in a language at any particular time, and the meanings they express, are best seen as the outcome of continuous diachronic processes of grammaticization – processes shaped not by a priori templates for either grammatical forms or for their possible meanings, but by various kinds of communication pressures. Learning the meanings of grammatical morphemes is, according to Slobin’s reformulation, no different in kind from learning the meanings of content words: both belong to the general domain of concept formation. In line with these reanalyses of the problem of how children map between form and meaning, we believe that it is possible to account for children’s early sensitivity to the process-result distinction by appealing to learners’ analysis of the distribution of aspect markers in the speech they hear, perhaps as operationalized through connectionist principles (Li, in press, Li & MacWhinney 1996, Rumelhart & McClelland 1986).
An early appeal to patterns in the input to explain children’s use of tense-aspect markers was made by Brown (1973). Brown observed (1973: 334) that English-speaking children first use past tense forms with a small set of verbs, including ‘fell’, ‘dropped’, ‘slipped’, ‘crashed’ and ‘broke’, ‘which name events of such brief duration that the event is almost certain to have ended before one can speak’ (i.e., punctual and resultative events). He pointed out that these verbs, in contrast to others, may have always or almost always been modelled in the past form in the mothers’ speech. In a more elaborate argument Brown also weighed alternative explanations for the absence of
overgeneralizations of -ing to stative verbs in his data. On the one hand, children might have an innate ability to subcategorize verbs as naming processes versus states. But Brown doubted this because, among other things, the English dividing line between processes and states is not universal. As an alternative he suggested that children might simply learn which verbs are ‘ingable’ on a verb-by-verb basis from their mother’s speech. In this case they would apply -ing earlier and more often to verbs that occur frequently with -ing in the input than to those that rarely or never do. A comparison of the use of progressives by Brown’s subject Eve and her mother was consistent with this hypothesis (Brown 1973: 326–8, see also Kuczaj 1977). In a further analysis of Brown’s data, along with data from Sachs (1983), Shirai (1994) showed that children do in fact occasionally overgeneralize -ing to stative verbs. Interestingly, a child who often did so had a mother who often used the progressive with stative verbs, lending further support to the hypothesis that children’s usage is heavily influenced by patterns in the input.
As we noted earlier, there is mounting evidence that children’s associations between tense-aspect markers and categories of lexical aspect are probabilistic rather than absolute; for example, past tense markers may be used most often for resultative events, but they are also occasionally used for activities in the past. Probabilistic associations are problematic for theories that attribute children’s biases to the powerful force of prelinguistic semantic distinctions, but they are compatible with the view that children’s biases reflect patterns of association in the linguistic input. Systematic evidence for a relationship between children’s and parents’ marking of temporality comes from a study of the acquisition of tense, aspect and modality in Modern Greek (Stephany 1981). Stephany found that in the speech of Greek mothers there is an association between past/perfective markers and resultative verbs, and between present/imperfective markers and nonresultative verbs, and that this association is in fact stronger in the mothers’ child-directed speech than in their adult-directed speech. Greek children’s use of tense and aspect markers strongly reflects the distribution of these markers in the mothers’ child-directed speech.
To explain the probabilistic nature of associations, Shirai (1994) and Shirai & Andersen (1995) invoked the notion of prototypes. According to prototype theory (Rosch 1975, Rosch & Mervis 1975), members of a semantic category share similarity with each other probabilistically, and membership in a category is graded: members that share many features with other members are seen as more central to their category (i.e., more prototypical) than members that share fewer features. In many domains of language acquisition, children are known to acquire
prototypical members of a category earlier than less prototypical members (Bowerman 1978). In line with this, Shirai (1994) proposed that children might at first associate progressive aspect markers with the prototypical meaning ‘action in progress’, and so use -ing initially only with prototypical action verbs such as ‘walk’. Only later, if ever, would they extend -ing to verbs that are nonprototypical for the progressive, such as statives. In a similar argument, Shirai & Andersen (1995) proposed that the strong initial association between past/perfective markers and accomplishment and resultative verbs in children’s language is due to children’s detection of the prototypical meaning for past/perfective markers: ‘completion in the immediate past of a punctual event’. They suggest that a prototype account can reconcile the debate over the ‘defective tense hypothesis’, since it combines recognition that there is a strong semantic tendency in children’s use of past/perfective markers with the acknowledgment that the association is imperfect.
Although the prototype hypothesis appears promising for explaining the acquisition of tense and aspect, the process by which a prototype is formed and modified has not been clear. The prototype hypothesis also lacks a mechanism for specifying which verbs fit the prototype for a particular tense-aspect marker and which do not. A connectionist approach may help by providing a mechanistic explanation of how children form probabilistic patterns in analysing the linguistic input. Li (1993b) and Li & MacWhinney (1996) proposed that semantic categories such as the verb classes associated with the use of the English reversative prefix un- (Bowerman 1982, Whorf 1956) emerge out of a network of semantic features. In the acquisition of a category, the feature-to-category relationship can vary in: (a) how many features are relevant to category membership, (b) how strongly each feature is activated in the representation of the category, and (c) how features overlap with each other across category members. In this perspective, the formation of a semantic category is supported by multiple features connected in a network. A prototype can be viewed as the product of strong connections between particular features or groups of features and particular lexical items or morphemes, such as reversative un- or – in our case – aspect markers. The semantic category is organized as a distributed network in which individual lexical items – verbs in the case of both un- and aspect markers – differ in the number of features they share and in the strength of their activation in the pattern. Recent empirical evidence suggests that some of these properties of category formation – for example, semantic feature correlations – also play an important role in word recognition by adults (McRae, de Sa & Seidenberg 1997).
In an attempt to explain tense-aspect acquisition from a connectionist perspective, Li (in press) has proposed that semantic features such as ‘endpoint’, ‘result’, and ‘punctual’ can interact collaboratively through summed activation to support the formation of a past/perfective aspectual category that licenses the use of past (e.g., English -ed) or perfective (e.g., Chinese -le) forms. These features collaborate in the sense that a given verb can be represented with multiple features, and the features themselves often co-occur in the situations to which the verb applies. For example, ‘spill’ may be viewed as indicating both a punctual and a resultative meaning; ‘close’ may involve both a change of state and a completive meaning; and ‘build a house’ implies both an end point and an end result. A feature may also vary in the strength with which it is represented in different verbs. For example, the feature ‘punctual’ may be represented more strongly in ‘jump’ than in ‘fall’: in a natural setting a single jump occurs instantaneously, whereas falling need not (e.g., we could still say that a leaf fell from a tree even if it drifted down slowly). With varying degrees of connections from semantic features to verb forms, verbs can form clusters or categories that differ overall in lexical aspect.
Connectionist models differ in how they view ‘features’: it is still unclear, for example, whether features should be specified ahead of time (i.e., hardwired) for a learner, or whether the learner can extract the necessary features from the input through an inductive process, for example, by analysing lexical co-occurrence and contextual constraints (Burgess & Lund 1997, Landauer & Dumais 1997). In either case, it is not necessary to assume that particular features have a privileged status in guiding the meaning-form mapping process. Children can pick up on patterns in the input through a process of correlating the features of situations with lexical items, or – more relevant to the problem at hand – by correlating sets of features that turn up repeatedly across lexical items (e.g., the recurrent resultative and punctual meanings of achievement verbs) with particular grammatical markers (e.g., English past tense -ed or Chinese perfective -le). This process can be described as a statistical (probabilistic) procedure in which the child implicitly tallies and registers the frequencies of co-occurrence of semantic features, lexical items, and morphological devices. Children may initially restrict particular tense-aspect forms to particular kinds of verbs because they pick up first only on the most frequent associations in the input.
To conclude, it is possible to account for the strong opposition between process and result that we found in our Chinese data, and that has turned up repeatedly in studies of other languages, without
assuming that children are guided in the form-meaning mapping process by semantic distinctions that are ‘privileged’ before language-learning even begins. A plausible alternative, we have suggested, is offered by models that emphasize children’s ability to detect patterns in the linguistic input, possibly through the formation of prototypes by connectionist networks. Although our understanding of how children approach the input in search of regularities is still limited, it has become increasingly clear that learners’ capacity for pattern extraction is robust against ‘noisy’ data (i.e., partial correlations in the input), and it works remarkably fast.
REFERENCES
Aksu, A. (1978). Aspect and modality in the child’s acquisition of the Turkish past tense. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Aksu-Koc, A. (1988). *The Acquisition of Aspect and Modality: The Case of Past Reference in Turkish* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Antinucci, F. & Miller, R. (1976). How children talk about what happened. *Journal of Child Language*, 3, 167–89.
Behrens, H. (1993). Temporal reference in German child language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Bickerton, D. (1981). *Roots of Language* (Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma).
—— (1984). The language bioprogram hypothesis. *Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, 7, 173–88.
—— (1989). The child, the bioprogram and the input data: a commentary on Cziko. *First Language*, 9, 33–7.
Bloom, L., Lifter, K. & Haftiz, J. (1980). Semantics of verbs and the development of verb inflection in child language. *Language*, 56, 386–412.
Bowerman, M. (1978). The acquisition of word meaning: an investigation into some current conflicts. In N. Waterson & C. Snow (eds), *The Development of Communication* (New York: John Wiley & Sons).
—— (1982). Reorganizational processes in lexical and syntactic development. In E. Wanner & L. Gleitman (eds), *Language Acquisition: The State of the Art* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
—— (1985). What shapes children’s grammars? In D. Slobin (ed.), *The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition*. Vol. 2 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
—— (1989). Learning a semantic system: what role do cognitive predispositions play? In M. Rice & R. L. Schiefelbusch (eds), *The Teachability of Language* (Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes).
—— (1996). Learning how to structure space for language: a crosslinguistic perspective. In P. Bloom, M. Peterson, L. Nadel & M. Garrett (eds), *Language and Space* (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
Bronckart, J. P. & Sinclair, H. (1973). Time, tense and aspect. *Cognition*, 2, 107–30.
Brown, R. (1973). *A First Language* (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
Budwig, N. (1991). The linguistic marking of nonprototypical agency: an exploration into children’s use of passives. *Linguistics*, 28, 1221–52.
Burgess, C. & Lund, K. (1997). Modelling parsing constraints with high-dimensional context space. *Language and Cognitive Processes*, 12, 1–34.
Chafe, W. (1970). *Meaning and the Structure of Language* (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press).
Chao, Y.-R. (1968). *A Grammar of Spoken Chinese* (Berkeley: University of California Press).
Choi, S. & Bowerman, M. (1991). Learning to express motion events in English and Korean: the influence of language-specific lexicalization patterns. *Cognition*, 41, 83–121.
Comrie, B. (1976). *Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Cziko, G. A. (1989). A review of the state-process and punctual-nonpunctual distinctions in children’s acquisition of verbs. *First Language*, 9, 1–31.
Cziko, G. A. & Koda, K. (1987). A Japanese child’s use of stative and punctual verbs. *Journal of Child Language*, 14, 99–111.
Erbaugh, M. (1978). Acquisition of temporal and aspectual distinctions in Mandarin. In *Papers and Reports on Child Language Development*, No. 15 (Department of Linguistics, Stanford University), 30–7.
—— (1982). Coming to order: natural selection and the origin of syntax in the Mandarin speaking child. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Gilbert, G. (1981). *Modelling Society: An Introduction to Loglinear Analysis for Social Researchers* (London: George Allen & Unwin).
Green, J. (1988). Loglinear analysis of cross-classified ordinal data: applications in developmental research. *Child Development*, 59, 1–25.
Hickmann, M. & Liang, J. (1990). Clause structure variation in Chinese narrative discourse: a developmental analysis. *Linguistics*, 28, 1167–200.
Kennedy, J. J. (1992). *Analyzing Qualitative Data: Log-linear Analysis for Behavioral Research*, 2nd edn (New York, NY: Praeger)
Knoke, D. & Burke, P. (1980). *Log-linear Models* (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications).
Kucjaz, S. A. (1977). Why do children fail to overgeneralize the progressive inflection? *Journal of Child Language*, 5, 167–71.
Kuczaj, S. A. & Maratsos, M. (1975). What children can say before they will. *Merrill-Palmer Quarterly*, 21, 89–111.
Landauer, T. & Dumais, S. (1997). A solution to Plato’s problem: the latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction and representation of knowledge. *Psychological Review*, 104, 211–40.
Li, C. & Thompson, S. (1981). *Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar* (Berkeley: University of California Press).
Li, P. (1987). *Shishuo xinyu he Baiyujing zhong de dongbu jiegou* [Verb-complement constructions in Chinese classics *Shishuo xinyu* and *Baiyujing*]. *Yuyanxue Lucong* [Forum on Linguistics], 14, 129–57.
—— (1988). Acquisition of spatial reference in Chinese. In P. Jordens & J. Lalleman (eds), *Language Development* (Dordrecht: Foris).
—— (1990). Aspect and Aktionsart in child Mandarin. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Leiden University, Netherlands.
—— (1993a). The acquisition of the *zai* and *ba* constructions in Mandarin Chinese. In J. C. P. Liang & R. P. E. Sybesma (eds) *From Classical ‘Fú’ to ‘Three Inches High’: Studies on Chinese in Honor of Erik Zürcher* (Leuven/Apeldoorn: Garant Publishers).
—— (1993b). Cryptotypes, form-meaning mappings, and overgeneralizations. In E. V. Clark (ed.), *The Proceedings of the 24th Child Language Research Forum* (Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University), 162–78.
—— (in press). Aspect and cryptotype: a new approach to an old problem. In T. H-T. Lee, G. Tang & V. Yip (eds), *CUHK Papers in Linguistics*, No. 5. (Special Issue on Language Acquisition: East Asian Perspectives).
Li, P. & MacWhinney, B. (1996). Cryptotype, overgeneralization, and competition: a
connectionist model of the learning of English reversive prefixes. *Connection Science*, 8, 1–28.
Liu, N.-S. (1985). Lun -zhe jiqi xiangguan -de liang-ge dongtai fanchou [On -zhe and its two related aspectual categories]. *Yuyan Yanjiu* [Language Research], 9, 117–27.
Ma, X.-W. (1987). Beijing fangyan-li -de -zhe [-Zhe in the Beijing dialect]. *Fangyan* [Dialectology], 1, 17–22.
MacWhinney, B. (1995). *The CHILDES Project: Tools for Analyzing Talk*, 2nd edn (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
MacWhinney, B. & Snow, C. (1985). The Child Language Data Exchange System. *Journal of Child Language*, 12, 271–96.
—— (1990). The Child Language Data Exchange System: an update. *Journal of Child Language*, 17, 457–72.
McRae, K., de Sa, V. & Seidenberg, M. (1997). On the nature and scope of featural representations of word meaning. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: General*, 126, 99–130.
Rispoli, M. & Bloom, L. (1985). Incomplete and continuing: theoretical issues in the acquisition of tense and aspect. *Journal of Child Language*, 12, 471–4.
Rosch, E. (1975). Cognitive representations of semantic categories. *Journal of Experimental Psychology: General*, 104, 192–233.
Rosch, E. & Mervis, C. (1975). Family resemblances: studies in the internal structure of categories. *Cognitive Psychology*, 7, 573–605.
Rumelhart, D. & McClelland, J. (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In J. McClelland, D. Rumelhart and the PDP research group (eds), *Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition*, Vol. 2 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
Sachs, J. (1983). Talking about the there and then: the emergence of displaced reference in parent-child discourse. In K. E. Nelson (ed.), *Children’s Language*, Vol. 4 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
Shirai, Y. (1991). Primacy of aspect in language acquisition: simplified input and prototype. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, UCLA.
—— (1993). Inherent aspect and the acquisition of tense/aspect morphology in Japanese. In H. Nakajima & Y. Otsu (eds), *Argument Structure: Its Syntax and Acquisition* (Tokyo: Kaitakusha).
—— (1994). On the overgeneralization of progressive marking on stative verbs: bioprogram or input? *First Language*, 14, 67–82.
—— (in press). The acquisition of tense/aspect morphology in English, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean. In T. H.-T. Lee, G. Tang & V. Yip (eds), *CUHK Papers in Linguistics*, No. 5. (Special Issue on Language Acquisition: East Asian Perspectives).
Shirai, Y. & Andersen, R. (1995). The acquisition of tense-aspect morphology: a prototype account. *Language*, 71, 743–62.
Slobin, D. (1985). Crosslinguistic evidence for the language-making capacity. In D. Slobin (ed.), *The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition*, Vol. 2 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
—— (1997). The origins of grammaticizable notions: beyond the individual mind. In D. Slobin (ed.), *The Crosslinguistic Study of Language Acquisition*. Vol. 5 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum).
—— (in press). Form/function relations: how do children find out what they are? In M. Bowerman and S. C. Levinson (eds) *Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Slobin, D. & Welsh, C. (1973). Elicited imitation as a research tool in developmental psycholinguistics. In D. Slobin & C. Ferguson (eds), *Studies of Child Language Development* (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston).
Smith, C. (1991). *The Parameter of Aspect* (Dordrecht: Kluwer).
Smith, C. (1983). A theory of aspectual choice. *Language*, **59**, 479–501.
Smith, C. & Weist, R. (1987). On the temporal contour of child language: a reply to Rispoli & Bloom. *Journal of Child Language*, **14**, 387–92.
Snow, C. (1977). Mothers’ speech research: from input to interaction. In C. Snow & C. Ferguson (eds), *Talking to Children: Language Input and Acquisition* (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press).
Stephany, U. (1981). Verbal grammar in Modern Greek early child language. In P. S. Dale & D. Ingram (eds), *Child Language: An International Perspective* (Baltimore, MD: University Park Press).
Tai, J. (1984). Verbs and times in Chinese: Vendler’s four categories. In *Papers from the Parasession on Lexical Semantics of the Chicago Linguistic Society*, 289–96.
Teng, S. H. (1974). Verb classification and its pedagogical extensions. *Journal of the Chinese Teachers Association*, **9**, 84–92.
Vendler, Z. (1957). Verbs and times. *Philosophical Review*, **66**, 143–60.
Weist, R. (1983). Prefix versus suffix information processing in the comprehension of tense and aspect. *Journal of Child Language*, **10**, 85–96.
Weist, R., Wysocka, H. & Lyytinen, P. (1991). A cross-linguistic perspective on the development of temporal systems. *Journal of Child Language*, **18**, 67–92.
Weist, R., Wysocka, H., Witkowska-Stadnik, K., Buczowska, E. & Konieczna, E. (1984). The defective tense hypothesis: on the emergence of tense and aspect in child Polish. *Journal of Child Language*, **11**, 347–74.
Whorf, B. (1956). Thinking in primitive communities. In J. B. Carroll (ed.), *Language, Thought, and Reality* (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).
Yang, S.-Y. (1995). The aspectual system of Chinese. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria, Canada.
Zhù, D.-X. (1981). ‘Zai heiban-shang xie zì’ ji xiàngguàn jūshí [‘To write characters on the blackboard’ and its related sentence patterns]. *Yuyan Jiaoxue yu Yanjiu* [Language Teaching and Research], **1**, 4–18.
**APPENDIX A**
Test sentences for Experiment 1
Each pair of sentences below corresponds to one pair of picture stories used in the comprehension experiment. The sentences in the left column have an imperfective marker (*zai* or *-zhe*), and those in the right column have a perfective marker (*-le*). For the mixed telic-stative verbs, there are two imperfective sentences (with *zai* and *-zhe*) and one perfective sentence (with *-le*). See text for details. Each sentence is followed first by a literal annotation and then an English gloss. CL stands for classifiers in Chinese. The aspect markers are shown in capital letters. For convenience we use only the present tense to translate the imperfective sentences, but these sentences can be used equally well to describe the same events in the past since there are no tense markers in Chinese.
1. ACTIVITY VERBS
(1) *Shushu ZAI pao-bu.*
uncle ZAI run-pace
Uncle is running.
*Shushu pao-LE bu.*
uncle run-LE pace
Uncle ran.
(2) *Shushu he ayi ZAI hua-bing.*
uncle and auntie ZAI skate-ice
Uncle and Auntie are skating.
*Shushu he ayi hua-LE bing.*
uncle and auntie skate-LE ice
Uncle and Auntie skated.
(3) *Shushu ZAI you-yong.*
uncle ZAI swim-strokes
Uncle is swimming.
*Shushu you-LE yong.*
uncle swim-LE strokes
Uncle swam.
2. ACCOMPLISHMENT (RESULTATIVE) VERBS
(1) *Xiaopengyou ZAI gai yi-zuo fangzi.*
child ZAI build one-CL house
The child is building a house.
*Xiaopengyou gai-LE yi-zuo fangzi.*
child build-LE one-CL house
The child built a house.
(2) *Shushu ZAI gua yi-zhang huar.*
uncle ZAI hang one-CL painting
Uncle is hanging a painting.
*Shushu gua-LE yi-zhang huar.*
uncle hang-LE one-CL painting
Uncle hung a painting.
(3) *Xiaopengyou ZAI hua yi-zhi huar.*
child ZAI draw one-CL flower
The child is drawing a flower.
*Xiaopengyou hua-LE yi-zhi huar.*
child draw-LE one-CL flower
The child drew a flower.
3. ACCOMPLISHMENT (LOCATIVE) VERBS
(1) *Liang-ge xiaopengyou ZAI qu xuexiao.*
two-CL child ZAI go school
The two children are going to school.
*Liang-ge xiaopengyou qu-LE xuexiao.*
two-CL child go-LE school
The two children went to school.
(2) *Shushu ZAI shang lou.*
uncle ZAI go upstairs
Uncle is going upstairs.
*Shushu shang-LE lou.*
uncle go-LE upstairs
Uncle went upstairs.
(3) *Shushu ZAI pao yi bai mi.*
uncle ZAI run one hundred metre
Uncle is running one hundred metres.
*Shushu pao-LE yi bai mi.*
uncle run-LE one hundred metre
Uncle ran one hundred metres.
4. SEMELFACTIVE VERBS
(1) *Da qingwa ZAI tiao ne.*
big frog ZAI jump NE
The big frog is jumping.
*Da qingwa tiao-LE.*
big frog jump-LE
The big frog jumped.
(2) *Shushu ZAI ti na-tou zhu.*
uncle ZAI kick that-CL pig
Uncle is kicking that pig.
*Shushu ti-LE na-tou zhu.*
uncle kick-LE that-CL pig
Uncle kicked that pig.
(3) *Houzi ZAI fan-gentou.*
monkey ZAI turn-somersault
The monkey is turning somersaults.
*Houzi fan-LE ge gentou.*
monkey turn-LE CL somersault
The monkey turned a somersault.
5. MIXED TELIC-STATIVE VERBS
(1) *Ayi ZAI ti yi tong shui.*
auntie ZAI carry a bucket water
Auntie is picking up a bucket of water.
*Ayi ti-LE yi tong shui.*
auntie carry-LE a bucket water
Auntie carried a bucket of water.
*Ayi ti-ZHE yi tong shui.*
auntie carry-ZHE a bucket water
Auntie is carrying a bucket of water.
(2) *Shushu ZAI na baozhi.*
uncle ZAI pick newspaper
Uncle is picking up a newspaper.
*Shushu na-LE baozhi.*
uncle pick-LE newspaper
Uncle held a newspaper.
*Shushu na-ZHE baozhi.*
uncle pick-ZHE newspaper
Uncle is holding a newspaper.
(3) *Xiaopengyou ZAI chuan yi-jian hua yifu.*
child ZAI wear one-CL flower garment
The child is putting on a flowered garment.
*Xiaopengyou chuan-LE yi-jian hua yifu.*
child wear-LE one-CL flower garment
The child wore a flowered garment.
*Xiaopengyou chuan-ZHE yi-jian hua yifu.*
child wear-ZHE one-CL flower garment
The child is wearing a flowered garment.
6. STATIVE VERBS
(1) Wu-li -de deng liang-ZHE.
room-in -'s light shine-ZHE
The light in the room is on.
Wu-li -de deng liang-LE.
room-in -'s light shine-LE
The light in the room went on.
(2) He-bian -de shu wan-ZHE.
river-side -'s tree crooked-ZHE
The tree by the river is crooked.
He-bian -de shu wan-LE.
river-side -'s tree crooked-LE
The tree by the river got crooked.
(3) Wu-li -de chuanghu kai-ZHE.
room-in -'s window open-ZHE
The window in the room is open.
Wu-li -de chuanghu kai-LE.
room-in -'s window open-LE
The window in the room opened.
APPENDIX B
Model sentences for Experiment 3
1. ACHIEVEMENT VERBS (RESULTATIVE COMPOUNDS)
(a) Grammatical sentences
(1) Shushu qie-kai -LE na-ge da xigua.
uncle cut-open -LE that-CL big watermelon
Uncle cut open that big watermelon.
(2) Xiaopengyou da-hao -LE neixie jimu.
child build-ready -LE those block
The child built (i.e., stacked up) those blocks.
(b) Ungrammatical sentences
(3) *Mama ZAI zuo-hao yi-guo mifan.
mother ZAI make-ready one-pot rice
Mother is making a pot of rice ready.
(4) *Shushu ZAI shuai-po neixie beizi.
uncle ZAI throw-broken those cup
Uncle is breaking those cups by throwing them.
2. STATIVE VERBS
(a) Grammatical sentences
(1) Jiejie you -LE yi-jian xin yifu.
sister have -LE one-CL new dress
The sister has a new dress.
(2) *Shushu mingbai -LE ayi -de hua.
uncle understand -LE auntie -’s words
Uncle understood what auntie said.
(b) Ungrammatical sentences
(3) *Ayi ZAI xihuan ting-hua -de haizi.
auntie ZAI like hear-word -’s child
Auntie is liking obedient children.
(4) *Xiaopengyou ZAI zhidao zhe-ge gushi.
child ZAI know this-CL story
The child is knowing this story. | 2c3348d8-6a41-421a-8f3e-39fe291577b4 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://blclab.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/fl98.pdf | 2020-10-24T06:49:20+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107882102.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20201024051926-20201024081926-00281.warc.gz | 233,277,756 | 24,065 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.937953 | eng_Latn | 0.994346 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
2239,
4769,
7381,
9831,
12285,
14610,
17284,
20074,
22803,
25915,
28272,
31278,
32479,
35167,
38440,
40759,
43612,
45973,
48537,
51326,
54302,
56599,
59331,
61675,
64103,
66501,
69141,
71956,
74766,
77696,
80566,
83433,
86583,
90127,
93637,
96494... | [
1.0546875,
3.046875
] | 3 | 0 |
Help Children Hunger for God
Children, no matter their social class, often define themselves by their possessions and wants. Meanwhile, our materialistic culture insidiously distracts from what kids really need: to connect, to be satisfied, and to matter.
Ultimately, children want attention and relationships more than things. Through connections with Jesus and his followers, kids learn that they’re special because of their identity in Jesus—and that only he offers eternal, priceless treasure.
In Matthew 6:33, Jesus says, “Seek the Kingdom of God above all else, and live righteously, and he will give you everything you need.” To give kids the wealth of God’s kingdom in their hearts, we must let them experience spiritual hunger.
“I lose touch with my own body when I never allow myself to feel physical hunger,” Phil Vischer writes in *Children’s Ministry* magazine. The “VeggieTales” creator adds: “Likewise, our kids lose touch with their spiritual selves—their true selves—when they’re never given the space to feel spiritual hunger. Space to ask big questions. Space to wonder. And space to feel (gasp!) small.”
How do we help kids who are full of (or desirous of) earthly things hunger for the things of God? Parents can set a good example, have family devotions, pray with children, and engage in conversations that whet an appetite for Jesus. During this month of gratitude and “feasting” on God’s blessings, use the food-themed ideas on the next page to satisfy kids’ ultimate need.
In 1930, missionary Frank Laubach sat on a hill overlooking a town in the Philippines where he felt called to share the Gospel. While reflecting on the task, he heard God say, “You must awaken hunger there, for until they hunger they cannot be fed.” That hunger, sometimes called a “God-shaped hole,” is a yearning for eternity and for answers to life’s biggest questions: What is my purpose? Is this world all there is? Our world and its stream of distractions is intent on reducing children’s hunger pangs for the divine, but you can remind them that Jesus wants our life to be otherworldly.
**Edible Garden** For discussions about God’s creation or being thankful for food, create a colorful display of vegetable flowers and plants. With some imagination, cucumbers become flower petals, a celery stalk is a stem, and spinach becomes the leaves. Set out ranch dip and consume the art.
**Tablet Treats** While learning about the Ten Commandments, make tablets out of graham crackers, vanilla frosting, and raisins. As kids add each raisin, see if they can remember each commandment. This snack also works with lessons about Jesus teaching in the temple and Paul’s letters to the church.
**Cross Talk** When discussing how Jesus died on the cross for us, make an edible object lesson with pretzel sticks and candy coating. Melt according to instructions and then dip pretzels. On paper plates or wax paper, connect sticks into cross shapes. When cool, enjoy.
**Gone Fishin’** Spread peanut butter or cream cheese on a paper plate. Fill another paper plate with Goldfish crackers and set it nearby. Have family members dip one end of a pretzel stick into the peanut butter or cream cheese. Then, using their pretzel “fishing rods,” have them “catch” fish by touching the dipped pretzel ends to crackers and picking them up to eat. (Avoid double dipping.) Use this to talk about following Jesus and fishing for people.
**Prayer Necklace** For a fun reminder to pray, string circle-shaped cereal onto thin licorice whips. Tie the ends together to make necklaces. During devotions, encourage family members to eat a piece of cereal as each prayer request or praise is shared.
**Cheesy Blocks** Use cheese cubes to build structures from events in the Bible (tower of Babel, wall of Jericho, house built on the rock, and so on). Insert toothpicks to stabilize the structures, and let kids gobble up their creations later.
**Ultimate Nourishment** Prepare and eat slices of bread with honey. Read aloud Luke 10:38-42 and talk about Mary and Martha. Ask: “Which is more nourishing: bread or honey?” Say: “The Bible says Jesus is the bread of life. Jesus feeds our souls when we spend time with him. Busy bees make honey, which is sweet but not very nourishing. Being busy doesn’t feed our souls.” Ask: “How can you spend more time with Jesus, the bread of life, this week? How can we share his ‘food’ with others?”
Jesus said, “I am the bread that gives life. Whoever comes to me will never be hungry, and whoever believes in me will never be thirsty.”
—John 6:35
**MOVIE**
**Title:** A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood
**Genre:** Biography, Drama
**Rating:** not yet rated
**Cast:** Tom Hanks, Matthew Rhys
**Synopsis:** *Frozen 2* is sure to thrill many young moviegoers in November, but this heartwarming biopic will inspire older kids and parents. Beloved children’s-TV host Fred Rogers, also an ordained minister, developed a real-life friendship with a reporter who profiled him for an article about heroes.
**Our Take:** With its timeless messages of acceptance, encouragement, and understanding, this film can spark conversations about embracing our neighbors and their needs. It reminds viewers that feelings are important and that “every person is precious.”
---
**BOOK**
**Title:** Nya’s Long Walk
**Author:** Linda Sue Park
**Synopsis:** This picture book for ages 4 to 7 describes the two-hour journey a girl in South Sudan endures—with her younger sister—to obtain water for her family. It ends with the community receiving a clean-water well. Park, a Newbery Medalist, wrote the middle-grade novel *A Long Walk to Water*.
**Our Take:** Nya’s ordeal introduces children to common struggles faced by people outside their own communities. Use it to discuss our blessings from God—including those we often take for granted—and how we can express gratitude. With older children, you can connect this story to Jesus being the water of life. Your family may want to donate to a clean-water charity.
---
**Games, Sites & Apps**
**Pokémon Sword & Pokémon Shield**
Set in the Galar Region, this pricey double-pack for the Nintendo Switch has new characters, new “battle mechanics,” and even Poké jobs for gaining experience. The next-generation game is reportedly geared toward the franchise’s growing number of younger fans.
**Spare the Rock, Spoil the Child**
Featuring “Indie Music for Indie Kids,” this family-friendly syndicated show aims to “raise another generation of radio nerds.” Bill Childs and his two children host and produce this podcast, where you’ll hear everything from They Might Be Giants to Ella Fitzgerald.
**Plague Inc.**
In this bleak simulation game, the goal is to infect the entire world with a sickness before doctors can find a cure. Although the app doesn’t contain any vulgarity, sexuality, or gore, the concept is quite dark and intense. Rated E for everyone, the app does have some educational aspects.
---
This page is designed to help educate parents and isn’t meant to endorse any movie, music, or product. Our goal is to help you make informed decisions about what your children watch, read, listen to, and play.
November Events
SUNDAYS, 11/3, 10, 17 & 24
8:30AM PRAISEMEISTERS (Children’s Choir) REHEARSAL
8:30 - 9:20AM, NOON LIBRARIANS AVAILABLE IN OUR CHILDREN’S LIBRARY
9:30AM WORSHIP
11 AM - NOON SUNDAY SCHOOL
SUNDAY, 11/17 8:30AM PARENT MEETING
SUNDAY, 11/17 NOON BISTRO
THURSDAYS, 11/7 & 11/21 10 – 11:30AM ABC (ATONEMENT BABIES/TOTS CLUB)
THURSDAY, 11/28 10:30AM THANKSGIVING SERVICE
There is no Story Time this month as the 4th Thursday is Thanksgiving. Please join us for our Thanksgiving Service!
FOR FURTHER INFO CONTACT DAWN MOLLOY, DIRECTOR OF CHILDREN AND FAMILY MINISTRIES, AT firstname.lastname@example.org or 301-649-4131. | 631ad6f5-bc59-47d4-a859-ab48af3a1e30 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | http://www.atonementlife.org/uploads/1/1/6/8/116831547/parentingchristiankids-2019-11.pdf | 2020-10-26T01:27:16+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107890108.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20201026002022-20201026032022-00368.warc.gz | 124,021,613 | 1,797 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.904787 | eng_Latn | 0.993661 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1503,
4570,
7194,
7833
] | [
2.53125
] | 1 | 0 |
meet me
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART
The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project:
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
Made Possible by MetLife Foundation
meetme
meetme
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
Francesca Rosenberg | Amir Parsa | Laurel Humble | Carrie McGee
THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK
# Table of Contents
| Section | Author/Title | Page |
|--------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| FOREWORD | Glenn D. Lowry | 7 |
| INTRODUCTION | Francesca Rosenberg | 9 |
| DEMENTIA | Background on Alzheimer’s Disease | 12 |
| EXPERIENCE | Meet Me at MoMA | 19 |
| PERSPECTIVES | Conversations and Testimonials | 53 |
| | Conversation with Jed Levine and Peter Reed of the Alzheimer’s Association | 56 |
| | Conversation with Mary Sano and Margaret Sewell of Mount Sinai School of Medicine | 58 |
| | Richard Taylor: Testimonial and interview | 60 |
| | Conversation with Gene Cohen of the Center on Aging, Health & Humanities and Gay Hanna of the National Center for Creative Aging | 68 |
| | Interview with Anne Basting of the Center on Age & Community | 70 |
| | Jay Smith: Testimonial and Interview | 72 |
| | Roundtable with MoMA Educators | 78 |
| RESEARCH | NYU Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia | 87 |
| | Evaluation of Meet Me at MoMA | 88 |
| PRACTICE | Guides for Creating Art Programs | 109 |
| Foundations for Engagement with Art | Overview Planning a Program In Front of a Work of Art Facilitation Strategies | 111 |
| | Overview | 112 |
| | Planning a Program | 112 |
| | In Front of a Work of Art | 118 |
| | Facilitation Strategies | 122 |
Produced by the Department of Education, The Museum of Modern Art, New York
Edited by Ron Broadhurst with Rebecca Roberts
Designed by Hsien-Yin Ingrid Chou with Bonnie Ralston and Samuel Sherman
Production by Claire Corey
Typeset in Baskerville and National
Printed and bound by Graphicom, Vicenza, Italy
Printed on Zanders Offset FSC
© 2009 The Museum of Modern Art, New York
Certain illustrations are covered by claims to copyright noted in the Photograph Credits. All rights reserved.
Published by The Museum of Modern Art, 11 West 53 Street, New York, NY 10019-5497
www.moma.org
Printed in Italy
In reproducing the images contained in this publication, the Museum obtained the permission of the rights holders whenever possible. If the Museum could not locate the rights holders, notwithstanding good-faith efforts, it requests that any contact information concerning such rights holders be forwarded so that they may be contacted for future editions.
| Section | Page |
|----------------------------------------------|------|
| Guide for Museums | 125 |
| Designing a Program | 126 |
| Staffing the Program | 128 |
| Spreading the Word | 132 |
| Logistics | 133 |
| Art-Looking Programs | 135 |
| Art-Making Programs | 139 |
| Guide for Care Organizations | 143 |
| General Planning | 144 |
| Art-Looking Programs | 146 |
| Art-Making Programs | 148 |
| Museum Visits | 150 |
| Guide for Families | 157 |
| Art Outings | 158 |
| Art at Home | 164 |
| SELECTED BIOGRAPHIES | 172 |
| ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | 176 |
| LIST OF ARTWORKS | 180 |
| BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART| 182 |
Cover: Grayson Perry (British, born 1960), *Map of an Englishman* (detail), 2004. Etching, comp. and sheet: 44 1/8 x 59 1/16" (112.1 x 150 cm). Publisher: The Paragon Press, London. Printer: Stoneman Graphics, Cornwall. Edition: 50. Patricia P. Irgens Larsen Foundation Fund
Photograph Credits
Individual works of art appearing in this publication may be protected by copyright in the United States of America or elsewhere, and may not be reproduced in any form without the permission of the rights holders.
Photographs by Maribel Bastian: 24 bottom left; Jason Brownrigg: 10–11, 20–21, 21 bottom left, 22–23, 24–25, 25 bottom right, 26–27, 28–29, 29 bottom left and right, 30–31, 31 bottom left and right, 32–33, 34–35, 36–37, 37 bottom left and right, 38–39, 40–41, 41 bottom right, 42–43, 44–45, 46–47, 48–49, 79–82, 112, 115, 119, 122, 126, 129, 133–134, 137, 140, 144, 149, 158, 166, 171, 89, 179; Konrad Fieder: 41 bottom left; Robin Holland: 25 bottom left, 28 bottom, 44 bottom, 165; Laura Lewis: 27 bottom right, 32 bottom; Shannon Murphy: 170; Michael Nagle: 33 bottom, 40 bottom.
The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science:
1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system.
2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs.
3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that manage the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data.
4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications.
5. Software Development Tools: These are the tools used to develop software applications.
6. Data Analysis Tools: These are the tools used to analyze data and make decisions based on the analysis.
7. Project Management Tools: These are the tools used to manage projects and ensure that they are completed on time and within budget.
8. Collaboration Tools: These are the tools used to collaborate with others on projects and share information.
9. Security Tools: These are the tools used to protect computer systems from unauthorized access and attacks.
10. Virtualization Tools: These are the tools used to create virtual machines and run multiple operating systems on a single physical machine.
The Museum of Modern Art has long been committed to ensuring that all people have access to the very best of modern and contemporary art, regardless of age, ability, or background. From the Museum’s groundbreaking rehabilitation work with World War II veterans to the wide variety of award-winning programs it offers to children and adults with disabilities today, the Museum strives to create the most inclusive environment possible for every visitor. Access Programs at MoMA directly serve over ten thousand people with disabilities annually, including individuals with Alzheimer’s disease.
The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project is a nationwide expansion of the Museum’s commitment to this audience. This initiative enables MoMA to develop resources designed to equip museum professionals, care organizations, and individual families with methods for making art accessible to people living with early and middle-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project is made possible by a major grant from MetLife Foundation. The Museum is proud to partner with the Foundation in this important effort and deeply appreciates its tremendous support. A key aspect of the project, *Meet Me: Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia* presents the Museum’s innovative initiatives in the field of art and Alzheimer’s disease to date. With MetLife Foundation as our partner and this publication as a tool for ongoing outreach, we look forward to continued progress toward our goal of making art accessible in our own community and beyond.
Glenn D. Lowry
Director, The Museum of Modern Art, New York
The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science:
1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system.
2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs.
3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that manage the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data.
4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications.
5. Software Development Tools: These are the tools used to develop software applications.
6. Data Analysis Tools: These are the tools used to analyze data and make decisions based on the analysis.
7. Project Management Tools: These are the tools used to manage projects and ensure that they are completed on time and within budget.
8. Collaboration Tools: These are the tools used to collaborate with others on projects and share information.
9. Security Tools: These are the tools used to protect computer systems from unauthorized access and attacks.
10. Virtualization Tools: These are the tools used to create virtual machines and run multiple operating systems on a single physical machine.
The journey toward this publication began several years ago when we learned that there are few opportunities for people with Alzheimer’s disease to remain involved in the community and to participate in meaningful activities that can be both educational and enjoyable. Realizing the great potential for self-awareness, expression, and empowerment through the arts, MoMA began to develop programming for this audience. In 2006, we launched the Meet Me at MoMA program for individuals with dementia and their caregivers. Through the development and evaluation of this program, it became apparent that engagement with art offers participants an opportunity to enhance their quality of life through mental stimulation, communication, personal growth, and social engagement.
Meet Me provides an overview of a program unfolding in the galleries at MoMA, commentary from experts in the fields of art, aging, and Alzheimer’s, research findings regarding the efficacy of the Meet Me at MoMA program, and guides for developing and implementing art programs in a variety of settings. The accompanying kit, comprised of art modules and reproductions of works in MoMA’s collection, serves as a complement to the book. We’ve designed the modules to inspire meaningful interactive experiences that encourage participation and self-expression.
As a testament to our belief in the communicative power of art objects, this publication is illustrated with works from MoMA’s collection. Most prominently featured are works by two artists who explore the nature of human perception — both visually and cognitively. In Map of an Englishman (2004), featured on the cover, Grayson Perry grapples with the complexity of human consciousness by attempting to map the complicated landscape of his own mind. The works of Gerhard Richter, which introduce each section, visually demonstrate that what is elusive is not without great evocative power.
These works of art remind us of the overarching goal of this project. We aim to contribute to an ideological shift in the way both institutions and individuals think about Alzheimer’s disease, a move away from concentrating on deficiency toward focusing on the many rich and satisfying emotional and intellectual experiences that are newly possible.
Francesca Rosenberg
Director, Community and Access Programs,
The Museum of Modern Art, New York
The couple, who have been married for 50 years, have been attending the church since 1968. They both enjoy the community and the sense of belonging they feel at the church.
The 2014-2015 report on the state of the world’s elderly, released by the United Nations in September 2014, shows that the number of people aged 60 and over is expected to double between 2010 and 2030. The report also highlights the need for better access to healthcare and social services for older people.
In addition to the demographic changes, there are also significant economic implications. As the population ages, the burden on pension systems increases, leading to calls for reforms to ensure their sustainability. This has led to debates about the adequacy of retirement savings and the role of government in providing support for older citizens.
Moreover, the aging population has implications for the labor market. With fewer young workers entering the workforce, there is a growing concern about the availability of skilled labor and the potential for skill shortages in certain sectors. This has prompted discussions about the need for retraining programs and the importance of investing in education and training throughout one's career.
In conclusion, the aging of the global population presents both opportunities and challenges. While it brings new demands on healthcare and social services, it also opens up possibilities for innovation and entrepreneurship. It is crucial for governments, businesses, and individuals to work together to address these issues and ensure that older people can continue to contribute to society in meaningful ways.
Background on Alzheimer’s Disease
About Dementia
Dementia is a general term for a group of brain disorders, of which Alzheimer’s disease is the most common. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for 50 to 70 percent of all dementia cases. Other types include vascular dementia, mixed dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, and frontotemporal dementia. All types of dementia involve mental decline that:
- impairs normal functioning (for example, the person didn’t always have a poor memory);
- is severe enough to interfere with usual activities and daily life;
- and affects more than one of the following core mental abilities:
1. recent memory (the ability to learn and recall new information)
2. language (the ability to write or speak, or to understand written or spoken words)
3. visuospatial function (the ability to understand and use symbols, maps, etc., and the brain’s ability to translate visual signs into a correct impression of where objects are in space)
4. executive function (the ability to plan, reason, solve problems, and focus on a task).
About Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease is named for the German physician Alois Alzheimer, who first described the disorder in 1906. Scientists have learned a great deal about this condition in the century since Dr. Alzheimer first drew attention to it. Today we know that Alzheimer’s disease:
- is a progressive and fatal brain disease. It destroys brain cells, interfering with memory, thinking, and behavior severely enough to affect a person’s work, hobbies, and social life. Alzheimer’s disease gets worse over time and is fatal.
- currently has no cure. But treatments for symptoms, combined with the right services and support, can make life better for the millions of Americans who live with Alzheimer’s disease. We’ve learned most of what is known about Alzheimer’s disease in the last fifteen years, and an accelerating worldwide effort is under way to find better methods of treating the disease, delaying its onset, and preventing it from developing.
Today more than five million people in the United States are living with Alzheimer’s disease. That number has doubled since 1980 and is expected to be as high as sixteen million by 2050. The direct and indirect costs of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias amount to more than $148 billion annually. According to a 2004
report that analyzed Medicare claims data, beneficiaries with dementia cost Medicare three times more than other older beneficiaries. Based on current estimates, these costs will double every ten years.
**Changes in the Brain**
Just like the rest of our bodies, our brains change as we age. Most of us notice some slowed thinking and occasional problems remembering certain things. But serious memory loss, confusion, and other major changes in the way our minds work are not a normal part of aging. These symptoms may be a sign that brain cells are failing.
The brain has a hundred billion nerve cells, or neurons. Each nerve cell communicates with many others to form networks. Nerve-cell networks have special jobs: some are involved in thinking, learning, and remembering; others help us see, hear, and smell; and others tell our muscles when to move.
To do their work, brain cells operate like tiny factories, taking in supplies, generating energy, constructing equipment, and getting rid of waste. Cells also process and store information. Keeping everything running requires coordination and large amounts of fuel and oxygen. In a brain affected with Alzheimer’s disease, parts of the cells’ factories stop running well. It is not known exactly where the trouble starts, but, as in a real factory, backups and breakdowns in one system cause problems in other areas. As damage spreads, cells lose their ability to do their jobs correctly. Eventually they die.
**Plaques and Tangles**
Plaques and tangles — abnormal structures that can develop in the brain — are prime suspects in the damage and death of nerve cells. These were among the abnormalities that Dr. Alzheimer noticed in his patients, although he had different names for them.
Plaques build up between nerve cells. They contain deposits of beta-amyloid, a protein fragment. Tangles, which form inside dying cells, are twisted fibers of tau, another protein.
Although most people develop some plaques and tangles as they age, those with Alzheimer’s disease tend to develop far more. These plaques and tangles tend to form in a predictable pattern, beginning in areas important for learning and memory and then spreading to other regions.
Scientists researching Alzheimer’s disease are not absolutely sure what role plaques and tangles play. Most believe that they somehow block communication among nerve cells and disrupt the activities that the cells need to survive.
**Stages**
Staging systems provide useful frames of reference for understanding how the disease may unfold. It is important to note, though, that not everyone will experience the same symptoms or progress at the same rate. On average, people with Alzheimer’s disease die four to six years after diagnosis, but the duration of the disease can vary from three to twenty years.
Patients are first diagnosed with problems related to memory, thinking, and concentration. Individuals in the early stage typically need minimal assistance with simple daily routines. (At the time of first diagnosis, an individual may have progressed beyond this stage; “early stage” refers to the extent of the disease’s progress.)
The term “early onset” or “young onset” indicates Alzheimer’s disease in a person under the age of sixty-five. Early-onset individuals may be employed or have children still living at home. Among the issues affected families must face are ensuring financial security, obtaining benefits, and helping children cope with the disease. People who have early-onset dementia may be in any stage of the condition — early, middle, or late. It is estimated that some five hundred thousand people in their thirties, forties, and fifties have Alzheimer’s disease or a related dementia.
**Common Effects of Alzheimer’s Disease**
Some change in memory is normal as we grow older, but the effects of Alzheimer’s disease are more severe than simple lapses. They include difficulties with communicating, learning, thinking, and reasoning — impairments severe enough to have an impact on an individual’s work, social activities, and family life in the early and middle stages. Some of the most common effects that people with dementia and Alzheimer’s disease experience are:
- **memory loss.** Forgetting recently learned information is one of the most common early signs of dementia. Some people may begin to forget more and more often or be unable to recall information at a later time.
- **difficulty performing familiar tasks.** Some may find it hard to plan or complete everyday tasks. They may lose track of the steps involved in preparing a meal, placing a telephone call, or playing a game.
• **problems with language.** They may forget simple words or make unusual substitutions, making their speech or writing hard to understand. They may be unable to find their toothbrush, for example, and ask for “that thing for my mouth.”
• **disorientation.** Some may become lost in their own neighborhood, forget where they are and how they got there, and not know how to return home.
• **poor or decreased judgment.** They may dress inappropriately, for example, wearing several layers on a warm day or little clothing on a cold one; they may be easily deceived.
• **problems with abstract thinking.** Some people may have unusual difficulty performing complex mental tasks, such as remembering what numbers are for and how they should be used.
• **misplaced things.** Some people may put things in unusual places: an iron left in the freezer or a wristwatch in the sugar bowl.
• **changes in mood or behavior.** Rapid mood swings—from calm to tears to anger—for no apparent reason are common.
• **changes in personality.** The personalities of people with dementia can change dramatically. They may become extremely confused, suspicious, fearful, or dependent on a family member.
• **loss of initiative.** Some people may become very passive, sitting in front of the television for hours, sleeping more than usual, or not wanting to take part in their usual activities.
This information has been adapted with permission from the Alzheimer’s Association Web site. For more information, please consult www.alz.org.
EXPERIENCE
18
This section presents discussions around artworks culled from actual programs in MoMA’s galleries as well as thoughts and reflections from participants and MoMA staff on their experiences. The discussions in the galleries, fragments of longer conversations, highlight poignant remarks rather than document the full exchange in front of each work. The quotations touch on how participation has enhanced the quality of life for the person with dementia, his or her caregiver, and the MoMA staff who facilitate the program.
A timeline of the Museum’s community and access initiatives is included at the bottom of this section. It provides a sketch of MoMA’s long history and its commitment to serving all audiences.
We invite you to step into the Meet Me at MoMA experience.
It’s 2:00 and already there are couples seated in the lobby area exchanging greetings, hugs, and stories. The program officially begins at 2:30, but it’s not unusual for people to come early. For them the visit is never just about the art or the group discussion. It’s also about the ritual: going to MoMA, seeing the staff, chatting with the other participants. It’s about sharing what has happened over the past few weeks, what their children are doing, where they went on vacation. But, of course, it’s also about the art. “What are we going to see today?” someone asks as she walks up to the registration desk. Even these exchanges, the camaraderie, the socialization, the being-part-of, the civic pride—it’s about all of that too.
**EDUCATOR:** How’s everyone doing? Just to give you a little preamble to our whole visit today, we’re not going to be walking around the whole Museum. We’re going to look at four or five works in depth, and we’re going to talk about the importance of those works in the history of art. Also, every time I do any program, we have a theme, and since this month is January and it’s the New Year, and people are making resolutions and new plans, my theme today is New Beginnings, a twist on an earlier theme, Tradition and Innovation. So, we’ll talk about tradition, what that means; innovation, what that means; and relate it all to the idea of new beginnings.
“Even on the telephone the staff are different. They are not at all, ‘Oh, what are you bothering me for?’ It is quite different here. The whole program from the beginning, from the first telephone call, has been extraordinary. You feel totally welcome.” MoMA participant
**HISTORY OF COMMUNITY AND ACCESS INITIATIVES**
1929 The Museum of Modern Art is founded as an educational institution, dedicated to helping people understand and enjoy the visual arts of the time.
1937 The Museum’s educational programs are founded. The first program is an art-appreciation course in the Young People’s Gallery.
1942 The Armed Services Program is established to send materials and exhibitions to the Armed Services and to provide therapy programs for veterans with disabilities.
1944 The War Veterans’ Art Center is established.
“It’s even at the level of printing first names on our name tags, so that when there is back-and-forth between the educator and somebody in the group, it’s always on a first-name basis. Everything is geared to draw people in and to break down those barriers.” MoMA participant
“As I walk from gallery to gallery I find myself grinning with a strange feeling of joy. I love the Museum environment. Being there without the crowds is a gift.” MoMA participant
1972 A grant from the Edward John Noble Foundation allows the Museum to establish an Education Office.
MoMA is one of the first art museums in the world to offer “Touch Tours” of original sculptures for people who are blind or partially sighted.
**EDUCATOR:** So what do you all see in this painting? What do you notice first?
**PARTICIPANT:** This is the field where they’ve been walking. And then you get the water.
**PARTICIPANT:** There are no people. Just grass and the water.
**EDUCATOR:** Exactly. There are no people.
**PARTICIPANT:** I see the light.
**EDUCATOR:** Very interesting. The light, right. Can everybody see what Jane is referring to, this light that seems to be there? Very good point. What else?
**PARTICIPANT:** It’s peaceful.
**EDUCATOR:** Peaceful, very nice. And what makes you say that it’s peaceful?
**PARTICIPANT:** Well, it’s very still.
**EDUCATOR:** Okay, that’s right, very still. It’s true, there’s not a lot of action, right? Very still. And yet just sort of a suggestion of quiet flowing water. Anything else that you notice?
**PARTICIPANT:** Dots. The technique.
**EDUCATOR:** Great, you notice the technique. Okay, so tell me about the technique.
**PARTICIPANT:** All the dots don’t appear as dots when you stand back, but they are in the sky, in the clouds, in the water.
**EDUCATOR:** That’s right. So, Mary is mentioning the dots. When we’re up close, we see the dots, right? When we move back we don’t see the dots. What’s happening to the dots?
**PARTICIPANT:** They’re blending in.
**EDUCATOR:** They are blending in. How are they blending in?
**PARTICIPANT:** They’re merging.
**EDUCATOR:** They’re merging, okay…And what’s making them merge?
**PARTICIPANT:** Our eyes.
1992 The Museum receives the Manhattan Borough President’s Access New York Award.
The Museum organizes its first teleconference courses for homebound individuals.
EDUCATOR: Your eyes. Exactly. Your eyes are merging them, blending them together, right? That’s exactly what’s happening. Georges Seurat did not use big brush strokes. He actually just used the tip of his brush and did these little dots. Most of the time, when artists wanted to get many different colors, they would mix them, but Seurat didn’t mix them. He put little dots of color next to each other. Very interesting move, revolutionary. So as you move away from the painting, your eyes are going to blend these dots of color together. So Seurat is really interested in color theory, and in the way we see things. The way our eyes create images.
PARTICIPANT: He’s innovative.
EDUCATOR: He’s innovative, great. And so what we want to delve into a bit is, what does artistic innovation bring, to us, to the artists, to the world? Let’s ponder that a bit as we look at this painting …
“My husband’s family lives predominately on the West Coast, and twice different members of the family came to visit, and he very proudly brought them to the Museum as his guests. That made a huge difference for him and he normally wouldn’t have done that. He looked forward to his monthly visit to MoMA. We started calling it David’s museum.” MoMA participant
1995 The Museum offers the first art history course specifically developed for blind and visually impaired visitors.
The Museum installs touchable objects and Braille labels for the first time as part of the exhibition Mutant Materials in Contemporary Design.
A portable FM sound enhancement system is purchased to provide individuals with hearing loss better access to gallery programs.
The exhibition is divided into three sections: “The Map,” “The Mapmaker,” and “The Map’s Purpose.” The first section explores the history of maps, from ancient times to the present day, and highlights the role that maps have played in shaping human understanding of the world. The second section delves into the process of mapmaking, examining the tools and techniques used by cartographers throughout history. Finally, the third section considers the various purposes that maps serve, from navigation to art to propaganda.
Throughout the exhibition, visitors will be able to interact with a variety of interactive displays and hands-on activities, allowing them to explore the world of maps in a fun and engaging way. The exhibition also features a range of multimedia presentations, including videos and audio recordings, which provide additional context and information about the exhibits on display.
The exhibition is open to the public from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday through Saturday, and admission is free. Visitors are encouraged to bring their own cameras and take pictures of the exhibits, but no flash photography is allowed. The exhibition is located in the main gallery of the museum, which is easily accessible via the elevator or stairs.
EDUCATOR: Natalie, you’re laughing.
PARTICIPANT: I never realized how absolutely masculine these women were. (Laughter)
EDUCATOR: Oh, okay. I’m going to ask you to elaborate. I’ll repeat: Natalie said, “I never realized how absolutely masculine these women were.” What about these women makes them look masculine?
PARTICIPANT: Okay. Well, the woman to the left — well, take a look at her arm. It’s almost a man’s arm. The legs and feet are almost men’s feet. Even her long arm has a sense of strength that is not really akin to a female arm. I mean, these are brothel women, so they should be very sexy and intriguing, and yet they’re not.
EDUCATOR: Did everybody know that these were women in a brothel? What are these women doing?
PARTICIPANT: They’re showing themselves.
EDUCATOR: They’re showing themselves. They’re posing. This is a traditional idea, right? A portrait of nudes. But you mentioned that their features are not necessarily what we’d expect from women in a brothel. They’re strong, muscular; they’re manly, right?
PARTICIPANT: However, he breaks everything up. Everything is broken up, including the mask-clad faces.
EDUCATOR: Exactly. These are very geometric, right? Look at these hard angles, semicircles, triangles. And if you bring it all together, you have geometric shapes, you have color schemes, you have different perspectives. You even have a different scale, a very large painting. This was finished in 1907 and is considered one of the first paintings in a movement that becomes very famous. Does anybody know the name?
PARTICIPANT: Cubist.
EDUCATOR: Cubist, exactly. This is the beginning of what gets to be called Cubism. You see a lot of geometric shapes, you see elements within the scene from multiple perspectives, and in places we’re getting very close to abstraction, but we’re not there yet. Lots of very interesting operations wrought on painting’s tradition in this work, which we don’t have time to really cover completely, unless we spend a few days here together, which I’m sure many of us would be fine with. (Laughter) But we did touch on some very interesting aspects of the work…
2000 VSA Arts and MetLife Foundation award MoMA the Access Innovation in the Arts Award for the Museum’s programs for visitors with disabilities.
A panel discussion on the exhibition *Workspheres: Designing the Workplace of Tomorrow* is the first program for the general public to include both sign language interpretation and open captioning.
“For me the joy was more watching him enjoy it so much. But he has in fact studied art more than I have. Watching him and talking to him afterward about how much he got from it — and he was so excited about it — that just meant so much.” MoMA participant
2001 MoMA and the Metropolitan Museum of Art reestablish the Museum Access Consortium (MAC), a group of representatives from museums in and around New York City and people from the disability community who convene to discuss access issues and advocacy.
EXPERIENCE
34
3:15
3:30
3:45
4:00 P.M.
EXPERIENCE
35
EDUCATOR: Here’s a scene, and every single person on earth has probably gone and seen one of these guys. All right, so, what do you see in this painting?
PARTICIPANT: A fat doctor. A doctor who needs to go on a diet.
EDUCATOR: A doctor who needs to go on a diet is one of the comments. All right. Everybody agrees with the fact that it’s a doctor? Yes? What gives it away?
PARTICIPANT: His white robe.
EDUCATOR: Yes! Anything else, or is that it? The title of the painting is Dr. Mayer-Hermann. So if we had any doubt, the title tells us who this is.
PARTICIPANT: I think he’s a surgeon.
EDUCATOR: He’s a surgeon, okay, because of . . . ?
PARTICIPANT: The light.
EDUCATOR: The light, okay, very nice. An operating room is suggested by the lights. Dr. Mayer-Hermann was actually a surgeon. You’re right. This painting is by a German artist, Otto Dix, and it’s from 1926. Dix was one of this doctor’s patients. Now, here’s an interesting thing. Otto Dix is known for...
depicting the miseries of life in paintings of crippled war veterans, prostitutes, people who were suffering. But here you get a portrait of a very well-established, respected person. But how is Dix portraying this doctor, and what do you think he’s commenting on?
**PARTICIPANT:** I think he has a pinky ring. *(Laughter)*
**EDUCATOR:** Wow, talk about looking at detail. You’re right, Olga.
**PARTICIPANT:** My mom just said he looks like a fat cat.
**EDUCATOR:** Like a fat cat! Okay!
**PARTICIPANT:** I feel the anxiety even looking at him that you would in a doctor’s office.
**EDUCATOR:** That’s right, that’s right. He’s bringing out the anxiety that we feel when we go to the doctor, and the doctor’s office, especially since we’re right in front of him, right? It feels like we’re there, that he’s interrogating us, like he’s going to examine us or something. So the very interesting thing that Dix does is that he paints a frontal portrait of this doctor with all the elements seen in the office. What else?
---
**2003** Community Programs is officially established within the Museum’s Department of Education.
“I realize that when you have Alzheimer’s, you don’t know if your memory is correct. The program gave me the confidence to know that I had been able to retain my appreciation of art and that I could zero in on the points that were necessary in the artwork that I was seeing. And that was important. That really was important. And to verbalize it…because first you’re talking about a perception of it, and recalling it, but then you verbalize that perception, and you are able to verbalize what that means. And boy, is that important!” MoMA participant
3:15 3:30 3:45 4:00 P.M.
EXPERIENCE
39
2003 Art inSight, a program for blind and partially sighted individuals, is launched.
MoMA pilots programs with groups of people with Alzheimer’s disease from assisted-living residences.
EDUCATOR: All right, now, everybody look at this painting and tell me, how many different kinds of shapes do you see here?
PARTICIPANT: Two.
EDUCATOR: Two — rectangles and squares. That’s it. So, very simple, because we only have straight lines. This is all straight lines, horizontals, verticals. Now, what about the colors? Tell me the colors that you see.
PARTICIPANT: Yellow.
PARTICIPANT: Red.
PARTICIPANT: White.
PARTICIPANT: And it jumps around. *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. We’re dancing.
PARTICIPANT: Right there. Gray.
EDUCATOR: Gray, right. So we have blue, red, yellow, the primary colors, plus white and gray. So we have two shapes, straight lines, and the three primary colors, plus white and gray. And then Jane called out its title, *Broadway Boogie Woogie*, and started to dance. What does this painting make you think of?
PARTICIPANT: LEGOs.
PARTICIPANT: Well, New York streets.
PARTICIPANT: Buildings with lights.
PARTICIPANT: Happiness.
EDUCATOR: Happiness! Interesting. And Jane was kind of pointing to the rhythm and the flow of this painting, *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. This was painted in 1942 and 1943. And Mondrian was what you can really call an abstract artist, because you don’t immediately recognize something that you see in real life. But in fact he’s going to the profound structures and he’s bringing out the flow, the rhythm. Broadway suggests all that you guys were saying. Streets, buildings, lights, movement, rhythm, action, dances, people, cars, chaos, and order, and he achieves this effect with this syncopated play of colors, right? But he also does it in an arrangement that makes you think of all the things associated with a particular city, instead of just one specific element of that city, right? It’s where style and content and form really come together.
“It’s one thing to have a wonderful, rich experience for an hour and a half. It’s another thing to take something home with you from this experience that improves your life. It’s just once a month, and I say that because during the course of a month all I hear about is, ‘When do we go back to MoMA?’ First it was just the Museum, then it was MoMA by name.” MoMA participant
2004–2005 With the opening of the expanded Museum in Manhattan, extended outreach programs are created for older adults, with educators working both at the Museum and off-site at senior day centers, nursing homes, and other care organizations.
The Visual Descriptions audio guide, an audio program designed for and by blind and partially sighted individuals, is offered.
MoMA expands and deepens its commitment to working with individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their families. All MoMA Community and Access Programs educators receive training from local Alzheimer’s organizations. Educators also participate in internal professional development workshops that focus on gallery teaching strategies, artwork selection, communication techniques, and activities appropriate for people with Alzheimer’s disease.
2005 Annual Grandparents Day is established, allowing older adults—with or without grandchildren—private access to the Museum for a day of intergenerational art activities and gallery programs.
CreateAbility, a family program for children and adults with learning and developmental disabilities, is launched.
Community and Access Programs partnerships are formed with a select number of schools and community organizations.
It’s 4:00 p.m. Hard to say goodbye. It’s been such a great experience for participants and staff alike. There are smiles all around, we’re giving out Museum passes and reproductions of the works we saw, and everyone is getting ready to go. We start to head toward the elevators and back down to the lobby. Downstairs, a participant unexpectedly takes me aside. She keeps coming to the program even though her husband passed away not so long ago. They used to come together all the time and always participated and truly enjoyed it. Now, she still comes when she can, a part of the group, a part of the family. “This is so great,” she says now, during our private moment together. “You know, for two years, this was our happy hour.”
2005 Several new community programs that provide access to a host of new and intergenerational audiences are launched, including Wider Angles, Double Exposures, and Welcome to MoMA.
2006 MoMA establishes Meet Me at MoMA, regularly offered interactive tours of the collection for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. The Fan Fox and Leslie R. Samuels Foundation provides important early program support.
“Then there is the fact that one has art cards to take home to reinforce the experience, and also Museum passes to come back to visit the works of art in a different environment during days when the Museum is actually open, and realizing that this is not a quiet tomb with beautiful works of art. It’s actually a living, breathing institution with an awful lot of people that revere those works of art, and the fact that you’re part of that experience is quite remarkable. That makes for a tremendous long-term experience.”
MoMA participant
2006 The Lewis B. and Dorothy Cullman Education and Research Building opens, with induction loop systems installed in The Celeste Bartos Theater and one of the Edward John Noble Education Center’s classrooms.
2007 MoMA is asked to present the Meet Me at MoMA program during the opening plenary session at the fifteenth annual Alzheimer’s Association Dementia Care Conference.
MoMA receives the Ruth Green Advocacy Award from the League for the Hard of Hearing.
MetLife Foundation awards MoMA with a major grant to develop The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project.
2008–2009 MoMA continues to expand the reach of The Alzheimer’s Project. By June 2009, MoMA educators have held workshops and training sessions in fifteen states for staff from over fifty museums.
EXPERIENCE
48
EXPERIENCE
49
The painting is a vibrant and dynamic composition, featuring a variety of colors and textures. The dominant colors are shades of green, with splashes of orange and yellow adding contrast and depth. The brushstrokes are loose and expressive, creating a sense of movement and energy throughout the piece. The overall effect is one of visual excitement and artistic freedom.
PERSPECTIVES
52
This section features conversations with leading authorities in the fields of Alzheimer’s disease and creativity and aging. It begins with an etching by Grayson Perry in which the artist attempts to map the landscape of his mind.
Two national advocates describe their experiences of living with Alzheimer’s disease and provide insight into the disease’s effects on daily life and cognitive functioning and the inherent need for self-expression of those affected by dementia.
Interviews with professionals in the fields of art, aging, and Alzheimer’s disease give a sense of the importance of and potential for personal growth for older adults in general and individuals with Alzheimer’s disease in particular. The conversations focus on the benefits of meaningful programs for individuals, families, professionals, and institutions, as well as society in general.
MAP OF AN ENGLISHMAN
Grayson Perry once described *Map of an Englishman* (2004) as illustrating his “prejudices, fears, desires and vanities.” The extraordinarily detailed map of an island, etched in the Tudor style, represents the complex geography of the artist’s consciousness. The names given to the various regions, buildings, and seas that define the landscape are at times comical—Aliens, Argh; sweet—Tender, Romance; and bleak—Loss, Regret, Prozac.
The work’s tone can be unsettling: the areas labeled Normal, Love, and Easy are so small they can be easily missed, while Fear is a large and prominent area, ominously darkened by a dense forest of trees. Through this cartographic self-portrait Perry invites viewers to intimately share in his hopes and neuroses and consider both the breadth and the intricacy of human experience.
Conversation with Jed Levine and Peter Reed of the Alzheimer’s Association
Jed Levine is Executive Vice President and Director of Programs and Services at the Alzheimer’s Association, New York City Chapter.
Peter Reed, Ph.D., is former Senior Director of Programs at the Alzheimer’s Association National Office.
MoMA: In your experience, what are some of the programs or services that people with Alzheimer’s disease are asking for?
Peter Reed: I think one of the things that came out loud and clear when we conducted our town hall meetings and heard directly from people with dementia was that people are looking for ways to remain involved in the community and to participate in activities that they enjoy in their daily life. It gets fairly complicated, though, because there’s the stigma that’s associated with the disease, and there’s almost resistance on the part of everyone else to allow them to continue to maintain their relationships, to maintain their friendships and their connections with other people, to remain a part of community organizations that they’ve been a part of. They are looking for new opportunities and different things that they can do that are specific to them as people with Alzheimer’s disease.
MoMA: How would you characterize a successful activity or program?
Peter Reed: There is a need for programs that are not necessarily therapeutic but that engage people socially and give them an outlet, programs that give them an opportunity to express themselves, to connect with others who are going through a similar experience, and to maintain meaning and dignity in their lives. It is really very important, and it’s something that people with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease are telling us they really need and want, and there aren’t a whole lot of programs around the country that enable them to remain active in that way. It’s certainly something that needs to be developed, and where there are ideas and models, such as the one MoMA has developed, they need to be disseminated more widely.
Jed Levine: We are not solely cognitive beings but have social, creative, and emotional sides that can be nurtured through programs. No one is claiming that museum programs delay progression of the disease, but they do improve quality of life and may have a secondary impact on depression and isolation.
MoMA: You have both mentioned a need for programming with a social component. How important is community building when it comes to this population?
Jed Levine: Part of our goal at the N.Y.C. Alzheimer’s Association is to create a sense of community to combat isolation. MoMA creates that sense of community, too. Part of it is the nature of the educators — caring, compassionate, and smart. People with dementia are accepted for who they are, and everybody can relax and enjoy the moment together. All people need meaning in their life.
Peter Reed: Art museums are natural gathering places where people can come together, share their experiences and ideas, and get beyond the disease, which I think is really nice. It’s not a support group, you’re not talking about Alzheimer’s disease. You’re just expressing
yourself and enjoying a discussion about a great work of art — something that is very creative and inspiring to others — so it allows people to continue to flex their creative muscle.
**MoMA:** What should museum educators know or understand about people with early-onset or young-onset Alzheimer’s disease? Is there anything about this sector of the population that is different than those who are diagnosed later in life?
**Peter Reed:** The experiences of younger people with the disease really relate to where they are in their life course, now that they are experiencing cognitive challenges. So, for example, many of them probably were working, many of them probably have young children, and so there really is a different experience. Also, they’re unable to access a lot of the federal funds that are available for medical care. I think that the most important thing in terms of programming is recognizing that if there are younger people that want to participate, that’s great, but they also need to acknowledge and embrace the fact that there are older people there as well. The dynamic between an older person and younger people with different needs can sometimes be a challenge. The museum educators need to make sure that people are being mutually respectful and patient with each other.
**MoMA:** What do you think that all participants, regardless of age or cognitive ability, take away with them after the program?
**Jed Levine:** I believe that there is an emotional carry-over from a museum program. It’s an enormous gift to give people, especially for lifelong patrons of the arts: an important part of who they are and an opportunity to normalize their lives again, to share the museum’s wonderful richness, to regain that relationship when there’s no Alzheimer’s in the room.
Conversation with Mary Sano and Margaret Sewell of Mount Sinai School of Medicine
Mary Sano, Ph.D., is Director of the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center and Professor of Psychiatry at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, and Director of Research and Development at James J. Peters Veterans Administration Medical Center in New York.
Margaret (Meg) Sewell, Ph.D., is Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Mount Sinai School of Medicine and Director of Education Core at the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center in New York.
MoMA: Based on your research, do you think that there is value for individuals with dementia in engaging with art?
Mary Sano: I’ve observed MoMA’s program, and the thing I am most impressed by is the positive engagement between the person with Alzheimer’s disease and the educator and their caregiver. You can see them become more verbal, more engaged.
Meg Sewell: Interestingly, memories that are visually encoded are very vivid and can be easily stimulated, so you look at a painting and you may suddenly remember a house you had on Cape Cod when you were fourteen years old. Research has shown that memories that get encoded visually versus just aurally are very powerful, both in normal aging and in patients who have cognitive impairment. Consequently, visual stimulation is very powerful. It may also trigger visual memories that a person may not be able to expand upon verbally.
MoMA: What research has been done that validates this notion?
Meg Sewell: There’s been some research on patients with dementia — again, not just regularly aging people — and music therapy and art therapy, very broadly defined, that has shown interesting changes in cognition, sustained attention, behavioral symptoms, self-esteem, increased socialization, and sense of well being, which is important, but a lot remains to be understood. The point I want to make is that I think it’s good that the outcomes are more quality-of-life or person oriented, rather than focusing on improving performance on memory tests. I don’t think we need to say, “Ugh, well, there’s no scientific proof that this works, because you didn’t remember words on my memory test after you participated in one of these programs.” I think it’s much more reasonable and important in the long run to focus on quality-of-life outcomes. They’re more meaningful, they’re more practical, and they’re more realistic for this group of people.
MoMA: In terms of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, do you know of other non-pharmacological treatments that are being explored?
Mary Sano: There is a lot of interest in keeping individuals engaged in socializing activities. The thing I’ve been particularly impressed by in MoMA’s program is the training of the educators who understand that the individuals may have some perceptual difficulties. So they help them find their way through the picture by pointing out objects and drawing their attention to certain things.
MoMA: Both of you have observed the Meet Me at MoMA program. What advice would you give to museum staff who plan to work with this audience?
Mary Sano: I was really struck by the fact that the program didn’t depend on a person’s specific history with art. I thought it was very mature and respected the individual. The educators acknowledged that people had lives and histories before they came to have a disease, and they called upon that. I thought the program was highly structured and planned. There was enough staff, spaces, and resources so that the people who were there had the full attention that they needed. It’s done on a day when the Museum is closed, and everybody can sit. It’s physically manageable, and the groups aren’t large. You can’t take those things for granted. I think that those are the features that make people more likely to attend. Keeping it at that level is really, really important to make it successful.
Meg Sewell: A successful experience involves interaction with a sense of humor, along with redirection and validation of the patient. Tangentiality, getting off topic, is a big issue in this population, so you may be talking about the use of color in a painting, and someone will say, “I wanted to paint my room red, and they wouldn’t let me.” It’s okay. That’s their own association. Help guide them back, or feel free to go off on their tangent—sometimes their tangents are more interesting than what you were talking about anyway! Most importantly, be sure to validate whatever it is that they’re able to bring to the program in any way that you can.
MoMA: What should educators know about the early versus the later stages of the disease?
Mary Sano: When I saw MoMA’s program, there were both early and more impaired individuals there, and I was impressed with what appeared to be real positive experiences even in the more impaired individuals. I think it’s so obvious when you see the faces of the people participating in that program that it has great value. You don’t have to make people’s memories better. You just have to give them a chance to have a nice time with someone that they’re spending time with.
MoMA: Why is early diagnosis so important?
Meg Sewell: You want to offer patients and their families an opportunity while the patient still has autonomy to make choices about their life: to talk about end-of-life care, advanced directives, finances, family issues, living arrangements, for them to be able to participate with dignity as a person in their future and engage in the world around them, in programs like this, while they still have the ability to do that.
Mary Sano: We know that one of the toughest parts of this disease is keeping family members and partners engaged with the patient. These programs offer an activity that they can share and enjoy and allow them to keep their bond strong so that the caregiver is then able to keep caring for the patient, maybe in another moment in time when they’re more difficult, when they are having more problems or when they feel fatigued themselves. I think that’s really where the strength lies.
MoMA: Do you see a role for the medical community in supporting, promoting, and expanding these types of programs?
Mary Sano: I’m not exactly sure what role they can play, except to encourage people to participate. I think that in some ways some of the advantages to such programs is that they de-medicalize individuals with a disease and allow them to go back to being the person they once were.
Richard Taylor
Ph.D., is the author of Alzheimer’s from the Inside Out.
My name is Richard Taylor. I live in Houston, Texas, and for the past few years I have been living with the symptoms and diagnosis of dementia, probably of the Alzheimer’s type.
For as long as I can remember, I have feared snakes. I have at one time or another in my life feared polio, shots, tall women, death by suffocation, failing a spelling test, asking a girl to go out with me, the atomic bomb, going to weddings where aunts would kiss me, and did I mention women who were taller than I?
I am older now, we have all but eliminated polio as a disease in the world, shots don’t bother me, frankly I seldom run into women who are taller than I, I still become anxious at the thought of drowning, I don’t have to take spelling tests (thank heavens for spell check), I’ve learned to live with the bomb(s), I can now outrun most of my kissing aunts,
and most all of my family is through getting married (or at least I hope so as far as my own children are concerned).
So what’s left for me to fear? I’m not concerned with being stalked by lions or dinosaurs. I’m large enough that street criminals don’t present much of a threat to me. However, most unfortunately for me, I now am living with the disease of dementia, probably of the Alzheimer’s type. I AM PROBABLY MORE FEAR-FILLED NOW THAN I HAVE EVER BEEN IN MY LIFE.
I am fearful of tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow. I am beginning to be fearful of my todays. I am fearful of myself and my ability to know what is going on within and around me. I am fearful that I am now leading a purposeless life; I’m just waiting around for the disease to take its toll on me. I am fearful of others because I sometimes know, and sometimes suspect, that those
Interview with Richard Taylor
MoMA: Richard, how do you think art and, more specifically, engagement with art can be beneficial for people with dementia?
Richard Taylor: First let me talk about self-expression and dementia. The idea that you’re losing your cognitive abilities is very destructive to your self-esteem and your self-image, that you’re losing control of the most fundamental of all processes: how your brain works. And both directly and indirectly that lesson — both the opportunities and your willingness to be self-expressive — causes people to pull into themselves. They do this because other people tell them they’re saying good-bye to them, and so when you’re saying good-bye, it’s not the time to get into a long conversation. And because they can see it in other people’s eyes, people don’t have a value for themselves. So over time I think they just stop thinking about themselves, and pull into themselves.
Concurrent with that and the disease process is losing some of your inhibitions, that is, the things that kept you from being as self-expressive as you might have been earlier in life. That’s just a fact of what’s happening in your brain. So, the very time you can be more self-expressive is the very time when you’re less self-confident to be self-expressive, but the self-confidence has nothing to do with your ability to draw, or write, or read, or sing; it’s a much deeper level of loss of confidence. All these programs that are beginning to blossom in the arts are all addressing and creating opportunities for people with dementia to be self-expressive in ways that they’ve never been before, and it’s easier for them to be that way as they’re not inhibited with their form of expression.
MoMA: I would even add that when one loses some inhibitions, when one doesn’t have certain controls, let’s say, one can really do very interesting work.
Richard Taylor: Yes. But then there’s a parallel force — a kind of an anti-self-expression force going on at the same time.
MoMA: Do you mean within the person?
Richard Taylor: Yes. As the person is feeling insecure about themselves — about their future — they’re full of fears.
MoMA: In the past you’ve said that being diagnosed with dementia is quite different than being diagnosed with other illnesses. What do you mean by that?
Richard Taylor: When you’re diagnosed with dementia of whatever kind, everybody goes home and cries. Everybody is just worried about how bad it’s going to be. And that really makes it very difficult to deal with it, and makes it fundamentally different in how people respond to it. There’s a hopelessness about it. Nobody thinks that there is a way to compensate for what’s happening.
MoMA: When describing your own diagnosis, you often say that you’ve been diagnosed with dementia, probably of the Alzheimer’s type. How do you characterize what is called “Alzheimer’s disease”?
Richard Taylor: It’s not a discrete process in human beings. It’s not a foreign process. It’s not like it’s introduced where you have a virus or a bacteria. We don’t know what causes it. We don’t know its progression. We don’t know how to differentiate it from the other fifty forms of dementia, right? It may just be the natural response of aging brains, because no two brains are exactly the same in terms of how they work.
around me are not being truthful with me. In fact it would be easier to list what I am not fearful of: my family, my granddaughters, my dog, my garden, the Dalai Lama, and a few other people and things.
I have many fears about what is going on inside of me. I fear I am losing control of what rightly or wrongly I have long thought I was in control of: me, who I am, how I am, how I think, what I think about. It all seems up for grabs now. What happens when I lose confidence in my ability to think… when I begin to suspect and then confirm that what I thought was true was in fact not true —at least in the eyes of most others—when I know my thoughts are confusing rather than clarifying to me?
I’m fearful of my own self. I’m fearful of not knowing who I am. What’s going on around me, my sense of a lack of control, lack of knowledge of myself and my world.
We get these variances in how people grow old. Just because one person is ninety-one and has all their faculties doesn’t mean that that’s the gold standard, and that’s how everybody should be, and everybody who is not is diseased. They may not be diseased at all. It’s the wrong way to look at them.
**MoMA:** Coming back to the idea of art and expression, do you think that social institutions and society at large might also be discouraging people with dementia from exploring their expressive sides?
**Richard Taylor:** Well, yes, they’re not encouraged to do it, even by their caregivers, because there’s this sense that they’re fading away, that they’re damaged, that they’re losing themselves, and you don’t want to embarrass people by pointing out their deficits. You just don’t engage them. People will say to me, “I didn’t call you because I didn’t know what to say on the phone.” They don’t want to embarrass me, but actually they don’t want to embarrass themselves by asking me a question that I can’t answer because I can’t remember or I don’t understand it.
**MoMA:** You are an advocate for creating meaningful programs. What should people creating these programs take into account?
**Richard Taylor:** They should be thinking about their belief in the possibilities within people who have dementia for original thought, for a metaperspective on themselves, for personal growth. People who have dementia are not perceived as having the capacity to learn anything new. They’re just hanging on to what they had, and everybody’s job is to hang on for them or with them. The idea that you can be failing cognitively and still learn something new is foreign to most people, and I see it as potentially very satisfying to people who know that they’re failing, that they can also realize they still have the capacity and the desire to learn something new, feel something new, to have an insight that is original and that other people honor.
**MoMA:** How do you see that translating to museum programs, specifically?
**Richard Taylor:** People in museums should be sensitive to how people with dementia need to be — I call it re-abled. People who come in might be beaten down because nobody’s had a conversation with them in a year or two years or five years about anything other than what they want to eat for dinner — that’s probably true of half the people who come to the museum. They need a more tolerant audience than the general population.
**MoMA:** You mentioned that it is often thought that people with Alzheimer’s disease cannot function at an abstract level, that they cannot learn. Which common assumptions related to Alzheimer’s disease do you believe are myths and which are really legitimate?
**Richard Taylor:** There are two dynamics going on with dementia. One is that people can’t recall things, they forget things; and the other is that the process that recalls things is not functioning properly. The things are there to be recalled; they either can’t access them — they learn something, but now they can’t remember it — or they learn something but when they access it, it comes back in a different form, so they actually unlearned it as they’re reprocessing. It’s a myth that people in an IQ sense get dumber as they get Alzheimer’s. It’s a myth that they can’t understand, but it’s a reality that they forget quickly. It’s a reality that they recall things in different ways than they have actually learned them because they may not recall them accurately. That’s not justification for not teaching them something initially. Unfortunately though, that’s what happens — people just give up.
I’m fearful of my own shadow because I don’t know who that is who sometimes follows me around morphing from a giant to a dwarf as I change directions when walking.
So how can you empathize with my situation? You who are still scared of snakes, losing your job, that your hair is falling out, that you have bad breath? I don’t mean to diminish the importance of your fears; I just want you to ponder the ultimate fear, fear of watching yourself, as you know yourself and as others know you, die, morph into someone no one knows and perhaps no one including you may particularly like or love.
I just want you to ponder how it feels to be out of control of your thought process (and sometimes be aware of it, and sometimes not be aware of it, and never know what state you are in), to not trust what you see, hear, smell. This is my world. This is what is going on between my ears some of the time.
MoMA: You’ve worked a lot with different associations, institutions, etc. What can be done to change thinking about Alzheimer’s disease at an institutional level? How do you think cultural organizations can assist in helping people work through the disease differently?
Richard Taylor: Frankly, I think there’s a very paternalistic attitude with a lot of institutions; you know, “Isn’t it amazing that somebody with Alzheimer’s can paint? Oh, there’s still something left, isn’t it amazing,” as opposed to it was always there and has never left. Most organizations are caregiver-driven, caregiver-focused, caregiver-peopled. I think museum programs can help caregivers get a better perspective on their loved one as a whole person because you’re giving them the opportunity to actually watch their loved ones talk to other people and act like a whole person. You’re also presenting the opportunity for individuals with dementia and their caregivers to become socially networked with others.
MoMA: For assisted-living facilities, nursing homes, etc., making trips to a local museum or gallery can be incredibly challenging. How do you think we might convince the staff at these facilities that these trips are worthwhile?
Richard Taylor: I think you have to sit down and try to find a kindred spirit there who understands — who appreciates that this isn’t a field trip, this just isn’t an exposure to the market or a show. This is really an exercise in self-expression. That’s how you have to say it. This isn’t a “go look at the art”; this is a “go look at yourself,” and the art is just a stimulus for that. You’ve got to break the mind-set that this is a field trip, just going to observe something. You have to distinguish for them the difference between purposeful activities like going to a museum and other activities like going to a show or festival. This is an opportunity for self-expression. People participate in this; they help define it rather than just observe it; they are not just a part of it, they are “it.” They are what’s happening in it. It just happens in front of a piece of art.
MoMA: Richard, one last thing before we go. How are you feeling these days? How is this disease transforming or affecting you?
Richard Taylor: I’m much more scattered than I was when you last saw me, but I can sit down and still have a conversation like this. I loved this. It’s reaffirming to me, but I won’t be able to recall most of what I said now, because I used to be able to do that. These insights just sort of come and spill out, and then they’re gone for me.
Conversation with Gene Cohen of the Center on Aging, Health & Humanities and Gay Hanna of the National Center for Creative Aging
Gene Cohen, M.D., Ph.D., is Director of the Center on Aging, Health & Humanities at The George Washington University, Washington, D.C.
Gay Hanna, Ph.D., M.F.A., is Executive Director of the National Center for Creative Aging, Washington, D.C.
MoMA: Dr. Cohen, why don’t you begin by talking a bit about your research into memory and the imagination.
Gene Cohen: We’re born with no memories, but we’re immediately responding to things that are stirring our imagination. Similarly, when memory is going, the capacity for imagination is still there, so even in the absence of understanding something from the perspective of specific memories — concrete facts — the imagination helps people enjoy what they’re looking at. When we enter middle age the two hemispheres of our brain begin to work more closely together. Prior to that, we used them both, but depending on the task, we would use left-brain more for some activities, and right for others. It’s not the same as what people sort of narrowly saw as right-brain versus left-brain people. It’s not at all that simple. Everybody uses both sides, but in middle age they begin to use both sides of the brain together. I’ve described it as moving to all-wheel drive. I’ve also suggested that any activity that uses
both sides of the brain optimally is, in effect, savored by the brain. It’s like chocolate to the brain. It’s like you have a new capacity or skill. One of the things that people don’t realize that’s also going on here is that with the dementia people still have their imagination. Especially if they’re beyond mid-stage or early dementia there’s still a lot of capacity; in mid-stage, where there’s a lot of impairment, the imagination is stronger than the memory.
MoMA: What can arts programs offer people with dementia and their caregivers?
Gay Hanna: The power of art to engage is clinically so very strong, in terms of serving people with Alzheimer’s and memory loss. The energy coming from the visual art itself engages in ways that are so unexpected, and actually they’re quite mystical, so I don’t think anyone really knows why this happens. The ability of the museum educators to break through and engage, always with the highest expectations, I think that is what we are finding is so important in our work.
Gene Cohen: There’s been such a shortage of quality-of-life experiences for individuals with Alzheimer’s — still you hear that there’s no treatment for Alzheimer’s disease and it’s such a narrow use of the term. It means that right now we don’t know how to prevent it; we don’t know how to cure it; we don’t know how to stop it. But there are all kinds of treatments that affect your quality of life and, in that broad spirit, what museums like MoMA are doing is a major contribution. They’re getting people out; they’re mobilizing the caregivers as well as the patients.
MoMA: If you were trying to convince a museum to begin a program like Meet Me at MoMA, what would you say?
Gay Hanna: That it’s highly replicable and can be adapted to any museum of any size. It serves an untapped demographic that’s huge and that’s growing, and it will build new partnerships and awareness for the museum and what it can do. I think it’s a very easy sell. I think the challenge, which is being met beautifully by MoMA, is coming forward with that clear, replicable model. Programs such as Meet Me at MoMA are really changing the whole paradigm of aging — from aging as a time of loss to aging as a time of gain and growth.
Gene Cohen: People want to tell their story. This is a period of life where you see a growing interest in writing autobiography, memoirs, genealogy, so this storytelling about one’s life is normalizing, and also, in general, a lot of people who attend theater, opera, concerts, and museums are older persons, so it’s normalizing in that sense to do so. I think museum programs are a terrific thing to do and help both the patients and the caregivers. These are the types of things that people remember; they eclipse the many ugly and depressing and distressing experiences. Having an upbeat experience, that’s what most people tend to remember. It displaces a lot of the garbage in the memory.
MoMA: How do you see these types of programs affecting society at large?
Gay Hanna: There’s a growing field in education called geragogy, which focuses on learning and teaching in later life. This is all emerging because our demographics are changing so dramatically, and will be for decades. We are interested in people living longer and healthier lives, and even if they aren’t so healthy they need to have a way to be engaged and to find meaning and purpose. We as a society need to change our expectations.
Interview with Anne Basting of the Center on Age & Community
Anne Basting, Ph.D., is Director of the Center on Age & Community at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
MoMA: Let’s start, if you would, by talking about why it’s important to bring art — in its broadest context — into the lives of people with Alzheimer’s disease.
Anne Basting: It’s important for the reason that art is important in anyone’s life. It’s a way of thinking and a way of experiencing the world, and a way of expressing yourself for anyone, so in some ways you go back to the inherent value of art, in general. I think the shocking thing really is that people have assumed that this wasn’t possible for people with dementia.
MoMA: And why do you think art can be so effective when working with this audience?
Anne Basting: I think one of the reasons it’s particularly effective for people with cognitive disabilities is that rational language and communication is exactly what it covers. Art offers emotional communication and the opportunity to train not only the people with dementia how to communicate emotionally, or how to use their remaining capacity to do so, but also to train the staff and caregivers who do the same thing. So, you’re basically creating a mode of communication or a way for people on both sides of the care partnership to communicate through the arts, which is essentially emotional communication.
MoMA: How do you define success in a program?
Anne Basting: I think it is improved well being and quality of life for both sides of the care partnership. When you’re able to increase the sense of well being and the quality of life, you’re enabling people to make choices longer.
MoMA: What aspects of quality of life could these programs address?
Anne Basting: The vast majority of people are cared for at home, and the vast majority of them don’t have any services at all. They’re off the radar; we don’t even know about them in aging services. These are the people who, if they heard that a cultural institution had a program, could be in a potentially life-changing situation. Over and over again we hear, “My friends never come around anymore; our family lives too far away.” There’s no socialization, which is so crucial, and there’s no inspiration. That’s one of the things about art; it can inspire you to think beyond your situation. So I think making cultural institutions, including art museums, part of the solution and part of the support network can have a dramatic difference on the experience of caregiving.
MoMA: What effect has your work with individuals with memory loss had on you on a personal level?
Anne Basting: In this kind of work, it’s really crucial to recognize a couple of points. One is that people with dementia are capable of growth and skill building, really, truthfully, at any point. If you begin where they are, they can build skills, grow, and understand themselves more through their own self-expression. The second is that it’s a reciprocal process, not you doing charity work. There’s an incredible opportunity for the facilitator to grow as well. If you look at it as one dimensional, you’re going to miss out on a rich, rewarding experience. I do think that people with memory loss and dementia, and people who are in
situations of struggling with loss, offer a unique view on life. They bring you into the present moment in a way that you otherwise might not be in the world of Black-Berries, calendars, instant communication with other people, and forward-driving productivity. It’s almost as if because you’re trying to be in the world of the person that you’re interacting with, they’re giving you the gift of that real-time moment. They remind you of the importance and the essence of human connection and communication, and that’s a really powerful place to be. They also see the artwork through that same lens, and it’s a really valuable way to see the world.
**MoMA:** How does this audience differ from other groups you’ve worked with?
**Anne Basting:** They are vibrant members of my community, and this is really no different than all the other work I’ve done with other groups. We had to change communication techniques a little bit, but it’s not a huge shift. As with any different type of group, you’re exposing yourself to a different view of the world.
**MoMA:** I’m thinking about the feedback that we have received from caregivers who take part in *Meet Me at MoMA*, and one thing that they seem particularly thankful for is that when they come to the Museum, the condition of their loved one, their memory loss, is a nonissue. I think what programs should strive for is this idea of normalcy.
**Anne Basting:** I think that’s exactly right, and there’s actually some research on that. One of the things that happens is that, as a family caregiver, it’s as though nothing exists other than that disease, it completely consumes your life. To get out and get into a place where the disease doesn’t even feel present, where you don’t have to think about it for that time, where you’re being honored and inspired instead, and invited to express yourself — that is a huge relief.
**MoMA:** How could cultural institutions contribute to this process of reducing the stigma surrounding the disease?
**Anne Basting:** Why should we set up this parallel universe for people with dementia and their families? Why should they go to adult day centers when they — living at home — can actually use their own cultural institutions for support? In some ways the role of institutions is to serve their community, and this is in many ways just another group within the community.
**MoMA:** This is really a societal issue. How can we bring about this cultural transformation?
**Anne Basting:** I think the whole key is in mainstreaming, because imagine if — and this actually happens, because enough people are experiencing this in their lives — the waitress at the corner diner actually knows exactly what you’re going through, because her grandmother has it. So when you go down to the corner diner to have your ritual mid-morning cup of coffee and a doughnut with your husband, it’s fine. You are in a safe place, where you don’t have to worry about editing him, or that people are going to give you the hairy eyeball. It could be the same thing at cultural institutions. There may be a time when this kind of training is just normal for staff, so you just can go and not worry, you know? That’s the whole thing — and it feels like it’s happening pretty swiftly, and it can make all the difference in the world.
Jay Smith is a former architect and an advocate for Alzheimer’s disease research and programming.
I had no idea that I had been dealing with memory loss or anything related to Alzheimer’s for several years. My diagnosis was a complete surprise. I had gone on disability from work a year and a half earlier because I was just too tired to work anymore.
After three months of seeing doctors, we had no answers except a false diagnosis of mild sleep apnea, and Alzheimer’s had been ruled out by a neurologist. So I was at a dead end. When I finally got the diagnosis, my wife, Marilyn, and I kind of gulped. “My God, Alzheimer’s. You know, I’ve heard of that. What do we do?” And so we went directly from the doctor’s office to a Barnes & Noble.
We combed the shelves and came away with four or five books on Alzheimer’s and began our reading, thinking, “We’ve got to find out about this. Now we know what the answer is to what I’ve been dealing with for the last two or three years, let’s start dealing with it.”
Let’s start finding out what it is, what the choices are.” We hit the road running. There was no period of denial. There was no emotional reaction. It was a relief to have an answer. And so what began was a new life of taking my life back.
Today I think of myself not as an Alzheimer’s patient, but as a person living my life with Alzheimer’s disease. I’m starting to get comfortable with it, and during the three years since diagnosis, I’ve become an advocate, committed to changing the face of Alzheimer’s, eliminating stigma, increasing awareness, and influencing public policy.
I believe that exercise, good diet, stress reduction, support groups, socializing, and staying active are powerful tools we can use now to fight the disease while researchers continue their quest for better treatments. I don’t put my energy into hoping for a cure in time for me. I turn my attention to living
Interview with Jay Smith
MoMA: Why don’t you begin by telling us briefly about how you reached your diagnosis.
Jay Smith: When severe fatigue abruptly ended my professional career four years ago, I began to completely refocus my life. My career as an architect had been focused on planning and designing buildings for the justice system throughout California and the West.
My disability began an intensive search for the cause of my symptoms that quickly came to a dead end three months later with no answer. Over the next year I began to refocus my life as part of a holistic mind-body-spirit approach to taking care of myself. My return to doctors after that year-long hiatus came as a result of my fight with my disability insurer for my disability income benefits. In denying my appeal, the insurance company offered to keep my claim open for ninety days to allow me to submit neuropsychological test results in support of my assertion of cognitive impairment. I found a neuropsychologist and took the tests. The tests clearly indicated memory loss, and he recommended we see a doctor to find out the cause. We made an appointment to see my doctor. Upon reading the report, he told us I probably had early Alzheimer’s. He started me on Aricept, ordered a PET scan, and gave me a referral to a neurologist to review its results. It’s good for patients to know what’s wrong with them and to be able to take charge of their lives.
MoMA: What we hear a lot is that people who have Alzheimer’s disease or dementia can become apathetic and go into a shell. You, on the other hand, are very active and driven.
Jay Smith: Through my advocacy and media outreach, I am doing everything I can to put a new face on early Alzheimer’s disease, learning and demonstrating that there is lots of living to do and much to contribute while living the hopefully many productive years available after diagnosis, and helping to change the conventional mindset about the disease, demystify it, and reduce the stigma.
As we confront the wave of aging baby boomers, who will be getting their diagnoses earlier, while having many years of living still ahead, the Alzheimer’s community must now embrace the new, public face of early Alzheimer’s and finally overcome and put an end to the widespread counterproductive, even crippling, belief that there is nothing we can do.
MoMA: What do you think are some of the prevalent myths associated with the disease that are contributing to the stigma that surrounds it?
Jay Smith: In the history of the disease, people have typically been diagnosed pretty far along. The prevalent myths about the disease are based on that, that people are already gone, sliding down the slippery slope of losing their minds. It’s important for the patient to know what’s wrong with them once they begin experiencing symptoms. In the future, we’ll even be talking about how important it is for them to know way before they even have symptoms. The person in early diagnosis can take up the lifestyle changes that are known to improve brain plasticity. And if we don’t diagnose people earlier, then how are we going to test promising drugs’ effects on the very early stages?
MoMA: Have there been benefits — as strange as the question sounds — to knowing that you have Alzheimer’s disease? Has your attitude or behavior changed since diagnosis?
this life. But medical science is starting to say that we can improve our health and possibly slow Alzheimer’s progression with a vigorous program of good diet, exercise, and stress reduction, and that a healthy-heart lifestyle is the best strategy for a healthy brain. I take medications to treat my symptoms, attend three support-group meetings, and do volunteer advocacy work for the Alzheimer’s Association in Los Angeles. But my best therapy is traveling with my wife, playing guitar and mandolin, attending music camps, singing in a choir, reading, and meditation.
My own personal mantra—and my advice to others who are just beginning the course that I began three years ago—has become “Live your life as if there’s no tomorrow, and treat yourself so you will have as many tomorrows as possible.”
Jay Smith: Oh, yes, absolutely. It’s refocused me on the importance of enjoying life, being present, and being connected with my family and my friends. I’m enjoying my music — mandolin lessons and my chorus — which started about a year or two before the disability. It’s caused me to completely change my priorities. I just got in touch, through this process, with what my real underlying life’s priorities were. As it became clear, it came down to four: commitment to family; commitment to self-expression, my own self-expression through music and singing and so forth; commitment to lifelong learning, which now looks like a bookshelf full of information on Alzheimer’s, natural healing, mind-body-spirit meditation, and yoga; and then, finally — let’s see, oh yeah, this has always been a footnote, and I’ve avoided it all my life — service to community, giving back. That one was kind of a surprise to me, because it’s like I’ve always resisted that.
MoMA: Why had you resisted it, and why do you think it kicked in now?
Jay Smith: Well, it kicked in now because with my experience I have so much to share, and so much I can impact, improving the lives of thousands, if not hundreds of thousands of others like me.
MoMA: You spoke earlier about your own artistic endeavors. What do you think could be the benefits in general of engaging in forms of self-expression?
Jay Smith: There’s a lot of science about this, creative expression itself, and it includes that whole orb — creativity, self-expression, living in the present. Art, self-discovery, and creativity are an important part of that. Talk about putting you in the moment — it really does it. I wish I could quantify the benefits for you. It just gives me a reason to get up in the morning.
MoMA: What do you think museum educators, or anyone else working with this population, should know or understand about people with Alzheimer’s disease?
Jay Smith: In many ways, people living with early Alzheimer’s are no different. We want to learn about and enjoy beautiful and inspirational objects and ideas. But we are different in some special ways. It can be very difficult for us to hold more than one idea at a time. It is nearly impossible to multitask. Reading a book takes more time, as we have to go more slowly and read paragraphs over and over. Following a plot line in a movie is getting tougher for me. Focusing on an abstract idea might be challenging for some. So concepts should be presented clearly and directly. Select and emphasize a main theme or idea, and describe it forcefully. Present one idea at a time.
MoMA: What do you think a museum program, specifically, can bring to people?
Jay Smith: Most people don’t go to the art museum very often, and probably not as often as they should for their own good. Experience of art is important to self-discovery, so that brings us right to what we’re talking about. Any program should be geared to opening people up to appreciate the beauty in the natural environment and in the man-made world — whether it be music, art, design, nature, animals, whatever it is, and extend the experience of art into everyday living. I think you’ve really come down to a question for me to continue to ponder. It sort of brings us back to the issue of self-discovery, finding your true self.
Wendy Woon: Why do you think Meet Me at MoMA is an effective program?
Carrie McGee: At a basic level, engaging with art is fitting for people with memory loss because it does not require the use of short-term memory. Works of art — for the most part — are stationary objects. They don’t move or change over time. Beyond that, engagement with art triggers both intellectual and emotional stimulation, and individuals with dementia are perfectly capable of responding to both types.
Francesca Rosenberg: Art also engages because it enables people to tap into the imagination. Even though memory may be affected by the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, the imagination is still alive and rich. Art can serve as a tool for allowing the mind to roam. Whatever the medium — painting, sculpture, photography, and so on — and whatever the genre,
representational, abstract, expressionistic, etc., the works can serve to stir the imagination.
**Amir Parsa:** People talk about art as if it is clearly definable, as if it’s all the same thing. It’s in fact sometimes difficult to point out what these objects we refer to as “art objects” have in common. But I think the fact that we cannot clearly define art, that there is a wide range of possible definitions, makes this — and really a lot of our educational programs — successful. It allows for a certain type of engagement where opinions can truly be validated, where inquiries and digressions and insights lead to a wide range of legitimate interpretations, which in turn really allows people to understand and appreciate that they are contributors, part of a community of interpreters. The process becomes very exploratory and thus social and interactive and stimulating.
**Laurel Humble:** I think that, on top of that, we try to encourage people to determine their own narrative. We’re not trying to convince them that one particular interpretation is the only correct one. We’re not there to make people follow what has been established as the storyline of art history and theory. We definitely provide some of that information but the program is really about using that information as well as the interpretations of other participants to determine your own story for the work and reach your own conclusions.
**Amir Parsa:** That’s why you have to emphasize the importance of the educators: they should not just lecture, but facilitate this type of exploration and discussion while giving information in relevant ways that allow participants to make connections.
**Carrie McGee:** It’s important to point out that this program is not simply about looking at art; it’s interactive. We use works of art to provoke dialogue. For individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, this is especially important. The way the disease can affect your ability to communicate as well as the stigma attached to it can make many individuals feel isolated. In this program we bring people together and encourage conversation and interpersonal connections.
**Wendy Woon:** Do most participants have prior experience with art?
**Carrie McGee:** Yes and no. We see participants who were never interested in art before coming to Meet Me at MoMA become incredibly engaged. They return to the Museum again and again, contributing valuable insights to the group discussion. I think it is because we are highlighting their strengths. We’re asking them to think critically and to engage with art — and they rise to the occasion. Works of art are challenging to decipher and interpret for all audiences, so the program offers participants a chance to strengthen their sense of self and be empowered intellectually. An entire new world of interest can open up in this later chapter in life.
**Laurel Humble:** And it is precisely at the time when you’re hearing that you won’t be able to learn anything new. I think that along with highlighting people’s strengths we are also simply expanding their worlds. I don’t mean by just exposing them to the Museum and its collection, though I think that is very important for some, but more importantly we afford participants an opportunity to think beyond their current state. That brings us back to what Francesca was saying about the imagination, but the program moves beyond imagining to actually learning about developments in the practice of particular artists and art history, in general. Furthermore, you can connect the works to current and historical events.
Wendy Woon: How is this program different from other educational programs offered at museums?
Carrie McGee: People ask that a lot. I think one answer is that it’s not that different; we’re utilizing and experimenting with various strategies from the fields of museum and art education. We’re just adapting them for this audience based on what we’ve learned about Alzheimer’s disease and its effects on cognitive function. Another answer is that we emphasize the social component of this program much more than we do with other programs. Socialization is a fundamental part of the program.
Amir Parsa: I agree. It’s not that different from a regular museum visit. In reality, the educator is engaged in the design of a certain type of interaction. I teach and conduct programs with that same frame of mind for all audiences. Educational programs are ways of creating connections to the world and to yourself. It’s a way of knowing the world, relating to and understanding the world. That is still very true with this audience. In fact, the life experiences of participants, along with the changes relating to their cognitive abilities lead to great interactions, insights, and ways of seeing the world. In that vein, storytelling and socializing become central to the program.
Wendy Woon: What’s interesting to think about is how this program can inform other educational programs.
Amir Parsa: On an even grander scale, I would add that the process of creating innovative programs for different audiences can provide opportunities for art museums to revisit and reframe the forms and functions of education, museums, and art.
Carrie McGee: It makes you wonder why museum programs for adults don’t encourage socialization and personal connection more often. I guess it’s thought that providing space for the personal, emotional side of interpretation somehow detracts from the intellectual exploration. We’ve learned from this program that it doesn’t, it enhances it.
Francesca Rosenberg: A good educator can weave it all together and make the experience that much richer. By encouraging participants to share their perspectives, we are asking them to connect the works to their own lives, to make them relevant. That in turn may tap into an emotional memory that, as we’ve learned, can have a stronger or longer-lasting impact than other types of memory. Also, at Meet Me at MoMA there is equal participation between participants with dementia and caregivers. It’s because of this narrative aspect. Everyone has a story to share.
Wendy Woon: Francesca, going back to what you were saying earlier about educators — what should educators be mindful of when working with this audience?
Francesca Rosenberg: It is essential for the educator to be attuned to all signs of engagement. In order to effectively communicate and connect, the educator must not only listen to participants’ words but also read their facial expressions and body language. One becomes highly aware of the level of engagement by concentrating on these various factors. This is true for all good teaching. I think it is important to emphasize nonverbal communication and that nonverbal signs can be just as meaningful as the words that come out of someone’s mouth.
Amir Parsa: Through teaching the program you gain insight into the nature of engagement and how we determine and measure it. We’ve really come to the conclusion that it doesn’t just take one shape or form. There are various forms of engagement and they don’t manifest themselves in one particular way.
Wendy Woon: I would say the same thing about learning in general and forms of communication, including lifelong learning and digital learning.
Laurel Humble: In addition to how we communicate with participants when discussing art, we’ve also learned how important it is to communicate the overall goals of the program to everyone from the outset, to make sure they understand that it will be an interactive experience and that we want everyone’s opinions. You have to take steps to break down any barriers that might hinder communication and be explicit when describing what is expected during the program and when encouraging group participation.
Wendy Woon: Why do you enjoy working with this audience in particular?
Francesca Rosenberg: In this program there truly is a reciprocal relationship between participants and staff. As museum educators we learn a great deal from the participants during each and every program. Older adults have lived! Using works of art as a starting point, they, and they alone, can teach us about what it was like to live through World War II, to experience Coney Island in its heyday, and to participate in the Civil Rights movement. The participants open my eyes to elements of the paintings and interpretations that I had not considered. We are the students and they are the teachers.
Carrie McGee: Yes, many of the participants were alive when many of the works of art in our collection were made. They provide perspectives that no other generation can provide. They share such a wealth of information, which adds a new layer of interpretation. Once this generation is gone that can never happen again.
Amir Parsa: If you value how people see the world differently, and how cognitive changes allow for that change in perspective, then you can also be transformed. That’s what happens. You learn and you are transformed by your interactions and the interpretations and the stories and the experiences of others.
Wendy Woon: How has the program changed or evolved since its inception?
Carrie McGee: It looks very different than when it first began three years ago. In addition to participating in training led by staff from the New York City Chapter of the Alzheimer’s Association and Mount Sinai School of Medicine, we’ve gone to conferences across the country to be sure we’re staying current as the field develops. We’ve taken what we’ve learned and applied it directly to our practice.
Amir Parsa: We’ve rethought the components of the program, devised new strategies for engaging participants, reexamined the types of artwork that can be used, and really transformed the essence of the program.
Francesca Rosenberg: The key to maintaining a successful and effective program is constant reassessment and evaluation. We hear directly from the participants as well as our staff about what is working and what is not working. We try to improve our teaching by observing other educators and critiquing our own practice. The staff need to be reflective and self-aware. If you establish a program just to check off a box, you won’t provide a meaningful experience for anyone.
Laurel Humble: Also, over the course of the last year and a half, as we’ve traveled the country and been in contact with museum and other professionals establishing similar programs, we’ve heard of numerous adaptations that are all wonderful ideas. There isn’t any
one answer. It’s great to connect the specific logistics and structure of the program to the particularities of your collection, gallery or facility spaces, and audience.
**Amir Parsa:** We’re leading training, as well, and by presenting and modeling our program we have the opportunity to analyze in depth every aspect of what we do. That allows us to fine-tune the details of our practice while learning from families affected by the disease, museum professionals, and staff from care organizations.
**Carrie McGee:** It’s also important to note that, as valued cultural institutions, museums are in a position to help deconstruct the stigma surrounding this disease. Time and time again individuals with Alzheimer’s say that one of the greatest challenges they face is the overwhelming stigma surrounding the disease and its effect on the way they are treated in society. Museums can set an example by showing that people with dementia are, as Amir said, valued members of the community.
**Francesca Rosenberg:** Part of our goal is to act as a catalyst for change. We would like to help people affected by the disease think differently about the possibilities for a life with Alzheimer’s disease or other dementia. There are ample opportunities to remain active members in the community through engaging in meaningful activities. For those who are less familiar with the disease, the program can serve as a learning experience to make them aware and demystify it. It’s not a role that we necessarily think of for the Museum but it is in a way our responsibility.
**Laurel Humble:** It is definitely our responsibility. We should remember that museums serve as model institutions. They have the potential to set an example for the public through engagement with the community.
**Francesca Rosenberg:** In fact MoMA was founded as an educational institution with this idea in mind. People affected by dementia form a significant portion of the community, and with the changing demographics this segment of the population will only continue to grow.
**Wendy Woon:** What have each of you taken away from your experience with the Meet Me at MoMA program?
Laurel Humble: The program is very inspiring. It teaches you about the value of life-long learning, of exposing yourself to new ideas and situations, be it through engagement with art or any other means. These experiences are important at any stage in your life and contribute to continuous personal growth and development.
Amir Parsa: Different cognitive abilities or ways of interpreting the world are really valuable and can contribute not just to each person in a program, but also to society at large. The experience leads you to value everyone at the point at which they are functioning. We should really emphasize that there is much to learn from people, and the perspectives, narratives, and connections that they bring to various situations and conversations.
Carrie McGee: Most people in these individuals’ lives “knew them when . . .” We didn’t. We never met them before they were diagnosed. We accept them and value them as they are. We know them now. During the program, we’re not thinking about Alzheimer’s, we’re just human beings, sharing an experience together in the present.
Francesca Rosenberg: The art acts as the spark for rich discussions and insights that we all hold dear. There’s a buzz, a generosity of spirit, a connection that has been forged between the attendees and the staff. We’re all thinking about the here and now. By the end of each program, everyone is uplifted.
The first step in creating a sketch is to draw the basic shapes and forms that make up the subject. This can be done with a pencil or any other drawing tool, and it's important to keep the lines light and loose at this stage. The goal is to capture the overall shape and form of the subject, rather than focusing on details.
Once the basic shapes are established, you can begin to add more detail and refine the sketch. This can involve adding shading and texture to create depth and dimension, as well as adding finer lines to define edges and contours.
It's important to remember that a sketch is not meant to be a finished work of art, but rather a way to explore ideas and develop your skills as an artist. So don't be afraid to experiment and try different techniques and approaches. The most important thing is to have fun and enjoy the process of creating something new.
The artist's exploration of form and texture continues with this sketch, which captures the essence of a plant or natural element. The use of line and shading creates a sense of depth and movement, drawing the viewer into the intricate details of the subject. This piece exemplifies the artist's skill in capturing the organic beauty of nature through the medium of pencil.
RESEARCH
86
This section presents the findings of an evidence-based research study undertaken to gauge the efficacy of the Meet Me at MoMA program. The study was designed by the Psychosocial Research and Support Program of the New York University Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia in partnership with The Museum of Modern Art and carried out over the course of nine months. In this report Mary Mittelman, Dr.P.H., and Cynthia Epstein, L.C.S.W., outline the process of developing and implementing the study and highlight the most significant results.
Mary Mittelman, Dr.P.H., is Director of the Psychosocial Research and Support Program of the NYU Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia and Research Professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the NYU School of Medicine.
Cynthia Epstein, L.C.S.W., is Social Worker and Clinical Investigator at the NYU Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia.
This study is part of The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project: Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia, made possible by MetLife Foundation.
Overview
The Evaluation
This report describes the findings of a study designed to evaluate the efficacy of the Meet Me at MoMA program for people in the early stage of dementia and their family caregivers. This groundbreaking study provides the first formal evaluation that demonstrates, with both quantitative and qualitative evidence, the many benefits of making art accessible to people with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. It also points out the elements of the program that have the greatest positive impact and those components that might be modified to further enhance its effects. This evaluation provides valuable information about the feasibility of assessing people in the early stage of dementia and suggests new directions for future programs and studies.
The Program
MoMA offers its Meet Me at MoMA program once a month on a Tuesday, when the Museum is closed to other visitors. Groups are small in size, usually no more than eight people with dementia plus their family members and caregivers, for a total of sixteen people. Often, there are up to six groups in different Museum galleries simultaneously. Participants are greeted in a common registration area and given name tags, portable stools or wheelchairs, and personal listening devices for sound amplification, if needed. A trained educator leads each group through a tour of four or five artworks related to a theme and presented in a predetermined sequence. Each tour lasts roughly one and a half hours, with about fifteen to twenty minutes spent at each artwork. Several discussion questions are posed to engage participants in observing, describing, interpreting, and connecting to the works and to each other. Historical points about the artworks are conveyed throughout the tour, and smaller group discussions are also often used to spark further interaction among participants.
Study Design
Participants and Eligibility
The research study focused on people in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease and their family caregivers, who together constitute the primary audience of the Meet Me at MoMA program. This cohort includes people with dementia who are most likely to be able to respond to and/or fill out the questionnaires, as well as their family members. Together
“We both love the program. All the instructors have been wonderful, dedicated, knowledgeable, sensitive. It’s so important to let the people with memory loss articulate their feelings, impressions, reactions.”
MoMA participant
they form a critical “dyad” for the Museum’s program, which offers potential benefits for each individually as well as potential for enhancing the relationship between them.
We further restricted subjects to those attending the program for the first time, for two reasons: 1) to identify a group with the same degree of exposure to the program; and 2) to reflect our expectation that the first visit might have the most powerful impact.
**Development of an Assessment Battery**
Researchers selected a battery of scales that were reviewed and modified by MoMA staff. In order to capture all aspects of the Museum experience, there were quantitative measures consisting of self-rating scales to be administered immediately before and one week after the Meet Me at MoMA program and qualitative assessments of responses to the Museum visit. In addition, observer-rated scales were developed collaboratively by consultant Linda Buettner, Ph.D., NYU researchers, and MoMA staff.
- **Self-Rating Scales:** A questionnaire packet was designed to capture the general emotional state of participants. The packet of scales for the people with dementia was slightly modified to be shorter and simpler than the packet designed for the caregiver. For example, it did not include the social-support questionnaire given to the caregiver, as the experience of NYU researchers suggested that this scale would be too difficult for the participants with dementia to complete. The evaluation of people in the early stage of dementia is in a relatively early stage of development. Until recently, there have been few studies in which people with dementia were asked to respond for themselves rather than ask a caregiver to respond for them. The packet had several measures, including a family-relationships scale (Family Assessment Measure [Communication, Affective Expression & Involvement Subscales; Skinner, Steinhauer & Santa-Barbara, 1983]), a self-esteem scale (Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale \[a = .78\]; Rosenberg, 1965]), and a quality-of-life scale (QOL-AD, Logsdon et al., 1999) that have been used in other studies involving this cohort. Additionally, the Smiley-Face Assessment Scale (below), which is a self-report instrument with a pictorial response system with five faces ranging from very unhappy to very happy, was used to measure the mood of the participants immediately before and immediately after attending the program.
- **Observer-Rated Scales:** We also wanted to use an instrument to record the observations of the people with dementia and the group dynamics during the tour. With the assistance of Linda Buettner, NYU and MoMA staff modified an already-existing scale to be more appropriate to people in the early stage of dementia and to measuring their responses to works of art and to the educator. Two forms were created: one evaluated responses to the
---
**Smiley-Face Assessment Scale**
- Very Sad
- Somewhat Sad
- Neutral
- Somewhat Happy
- Very Happy
Museum experience of an individual study participant with dementia; the second form evaluated the group as a whole, including study participants and other participants of the program who were not involved in the study.
- **Take-Home Evaluation:** A separate form was created to capture both qualitative and quantitative feedback about participants’ experiences during and in the days following the program. Participants were asked to return this form to MoMA within three days of the visit. Again, the form for the person with dementia was slightly modified to be easier to complete.
### Procedures
#### Recruitment
Participants were identified either by NYU or MoMA staff. Upon calling to register for the program, MoMA staff invited callers to enroll in the study and determined eligibility using a script approved by the NYU Institutional Review Board. Upon confirmation of eligibility, MoMA staff sent a letter detailing the procedure for the entire study as a reminder for participants.
#### First visit
On their first visit, participants arrived one and a half hours before the Meet Me at MoMA program to fill out the initial questionnaire packets. MoMA and NYU staff welcomed participants and explained the goals of the study. The study protocol, including a consent form, was completed with individual assistance available for each person with dementia. Participants then ate lunch and were escorted back to the lobby to join other Meet Me at MoMA attendees. Both immediately before and after the tour, Smiley-Face Assessment Scales were administered to all study participants. After the Meet Me at MoMA program, take-home evaluations were distributed to study participants, to be sent back to MoMA within three days.
#### Second visit
The second visit occurred one week (eight days) after the first visit. Each participant received a call from MoMA staff confirming the time and date of the visit. All participants returned to the Museum to complete the follow-up assessment, which consisted of the same questionnaire packet as the initial visit. Over lunch, a special interactive discussion was facilitated by one of the MoMA educators. All participants received gifts of appreciation, including a book of highlights from the MoMA collection and free passes to visit the Museum again. Participants were also invited to stay and visit the galleries afterward, as the second visit was scheduled on a day when the Museum was open to the public.
Third visit
A small subgroup of participants was invited to take part in a focus group led by NYU staff with MoMA staff assistance that was planned to take place at least three months after the initial visit. This session was designed to record participants’ perceived benefits from the Meet Me at MoMA program and to enable them to offer comments and suggestions to MoMA staff. Two focus groups were conducted, one in June and one in August 2008. The group conversations were recorded and transcribed.
Results
Recruitment and Retention
Recruitment presented two major challenges: identifying the best venues for locating people in the early stage of dementia and determining that the stage assignment was correct.
The majority of participants were subjects of the NYU Alzheimer’s Disease Center and were informed about the study by its staff. Other sources were memory programs and support groups offered by the New York City Alzheimer’s Association and local medical centers. The data analysis was based on 37 persons with dementia and 37 caregivers.
Health problems and doctor appointments were the most frequent reasons given for inability to attend all parts of the study. However, the attendance of the vast majority of participants proved to be highly reliable.
Demographic Characteristics of Participants
More than three quarters of participating caregivers were spouses of persons with dementia (75.7%). The others were adult children (24.3%). Most caregivers (67.6%) were women, and the majority was highly educated. Almost all (86.5%) had at least a college degree, and more than half (51.4%) had a graduate degree. Slightly more than half of the caregivers (51.4%) were retired. Ten (27%) were employed full time, and four (10.8%) were employed part time.
“It was like the [man] I knew before this illness. The task of reacting to a picture is not beyond his capabilities—it has made me think of trying to focus more on ‘feelings’ than ‘words’ in my interaction with him.”
MoMA participant
Participants’ Reactions to the Research Process
We found that people who were in the mildest part of the early stage could, for the most part, complete the questionnaires by themselves. Those who were even slightly more advanced needed to have one-on-one support to answer the questions. In retrospect, the packet of questionnaires was probably too extensive and strained the ability of individuals in early-stage Alzheimer’s disease to attend to the task, which became stressful due to its length and the complexity of the questions. Our findings suggest which of the scales are likely to be suitable for use in future studies with people who have early-stage dementia and that these scales should be administered on an individual basis with assistance available as needed.
Self-Rating Scales
Questionnaire packet: Change from baseline (immediately before) to one week after Museum visit
We measured the subjective impression of family relationships of both the person with dementia and the caregiver with a scale that consisted of thirteen questions. There was an observable positive trend on this measure for caregivers, although the change did not reach statistical significance.
We measured the self-esteem of the person with dementia and the caregiver with a ten-item scale. There was little change in self-esteem for caregivers, but there was an observable positive trend for people with dementia.
We asked caregivers about the number of people to whom they felt close and about their satisfaction with social support. The number of people to whom the caregivers said they felt close increased from the first week to the next, with a meaningful change from an average of 7.0 to an average of 9.38 people.
Caregiver mood improved as a result of the Meet Me at MoMA experience. This was reflected in several of our outcome measures. For example, we observed that caregiver health-related quality of life improved. This was in large part due to a statistically significant improvement in one question that asked about caregiver emotional health: “During the past 4 weeks, how much have you been bothered by emotional problems (such as feeling anxious, depressed, or irritable)?”
“The program presented the opportunity to focus, to interact, to listen, and to conceptualize. Overall, I believe the experience was intellectually stimulating for my mother and cognitively awakened her.”
MoMA participant
Smiley-Face Assessment Scale: Measure of mood change from immediately before to immediately after Museum visit
Using smiley faces to elicit information about mood revealed a statistically significant and substantively visible change in mood in both caregivers and people with dementia, as illustrated by the graphs below. In fact, the Smiley Face Assessment Scale was the most effective measure in terms of statistical significance of the change observed. As the figures below illustrate, there was more variability in the responses of the people with dementia (longer distance from top to bottom of the error bars) than in those of the caregivers. Nevertheless, both groups clearly improved in mood on this measure, and no one left the Museum less happy than when they arrived.
Mood of Caregiver Reflected by Smiley Faces
Comparison of Intake and Immediately after Visit
Five faces from very unhappy (coded 1) to very happy (coded 5)
Mood of Person with Dementia Reflected by Smiley Faces
Comparison of Intake and Immediately after Visit
Five faces from very unhappy (coded 1) to very happy (coded 5)
At each monthly session, one person with dementia in each of two gallery tour groups was observed by two raters as the tour proceeded through the first four artworks. It should be noted that occasionally five artworks were included in the Meet Me at MoMA tour, but in those cases we did not rate the fifth one. While there was some variability between raters, they tended to code in the same general range, so we have aggregated their overall findings.
**Total time participants spent looking at the educator**
- **Artwork 1**
- 0-1: 1 participant
- 1-2: 1 participant
- 2-4: 6 participants
- 4-6: 4 participants
- 6-8: 10 participants
- 8-10: 13 participants
- **Artwork 2**
- 0-1: 0 participants
- 1-2: 1 participant
- 2-4: 2 participants
- 4-6: 9 participants
- 6-8: 6 participants
- 8-10: 15 participants
- **Artwork 3**
- 0-1: 0 participants
- 1-2: 4 participants
- 2-4: 2 participants
- 4-6: 8 participants
- 6-8: 5 participants
- 8-10: 13 participants
- **Artwork 4**
- 0-1: 0 participants
- 1-2: 3 participants
- 2-4: 3 participants
- 4-6: 2 participants
- 6-8: 14 participants
- 8-10: 6 participants
The majority of participants with dementia spent a significant amount of time looking at the educator and at the art. The majority of participants with dementia kept their eyes on the educators for more than half the time. There was a small reduction of attention during the discussion of artwork 4, but the majority still paid attention to the educator for at least six of the ten minutes they were observed.
Below, we illustrate the amount of time the people with dementia spent looking at the work of art. It is clear that they spent a significant amount of time looking at the art, and this continued throughout the four artworks.
During the course of the Meet Me at MoMA tour, participants with dementia rarely responded to the educator spontaneously, without prompting. This may be because they were waiting for the prompt from the educator before speaking. On the other hand, this may reflect reduced verbal ability or reduced initiative due to the illness. It may also be that the participation of some of the caregivers, which could be quite enthusiastic, discouraged some of the people with dementia from responding.
We were also interested in how frequently the people with dementia responded verbally to their family caregivers. The data suggests that this was not a frequent occurrence, and may be due to their being appropriately focused on the educator and the art rather than talking among themselves. However, when the group moved from one work of art to the next, we observed conversations between the person with dementia and the caregiver and sometimes overheard that they were related to the art.
We rated the number of times the participants used humor, smiled, or laughed. This occurred on numerous occasions, although the frequency did not increase from one artwork to the next. The group apparently felt comfortable with each other from the inception of the visit, perhaps because some of the study participants had eaten lunch together beforehand, and other members of the group (who were not part of the study) were repeat visitors. In general there was a mood of levity and occasional joking by the people with dementia.
Negative reactions such as crying, verbal expressions of sadness, or agitation were almost never observed among study participants. There were occasions when a participant appeared to fidget or to be distracted, but the distress, if that is what it was, never interfered with the participant’s ability to remain in the group or took away from the overall enjoyment of the experience.
**Group interaction during Museum visit**
At each monthly session two people observed group interaction in each of the two gallery-tour groups for the first four artworks discussed. In order to capture the overall group dynamics, each observer counted the number of times he or she saw people with dementia respond to the educator, the number of responses of people with dementia to their caregiver, the number of unprompted or spontaneous comments by people with dementia, the number of times people with dementia and their caregivers touched each other affectionately, the number of caregivers who responded to the educator, and the number of times participants laughed or used humor.
“It’s been a privilege for me as a caregiver to participate in this. The educators have been engaging and the commentary on the paintings and sculptures from the other group members with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers is thought provoking.”
*MoMA participant*
The average number of participants in a group was 13.8, of whom 6.72 were people with dementia, 6.09 were family caregivers, and .97 were professional caregivers. There was considerable variability, with the minimum number 10 and the maximum 20.
The average number of responses by the people with dementia to the educators ranged from 1.53 to 1.69, with no consistent trend from artwork 1 to artwork 4. Analysis of the average number of responses by the person with dementia to his or her caregiver (from .28 to .35) also yielded no trend from artwork 1 to artwork 4. It should be noted that there was a huge variability in responses.
We tabulated the average number of responses or comments that were made by participants with dementia spontaneously, without prompting. The average was about the same as the number of comments made to the caregivers (from .20 to .35), and again, there was considerable variability.
The number of times caregivers and patients touched to convey affection, while few, increased from artwork 1 to artwork 4.
Finally, we tabulated the average number of times people laughed or used humor, which we hypothesized was an indicator of group cohesiveness and comfort with each other. The average increased from artwork 1 through artwork 3 and decreased in artwork 4.
Our hypothesis was that all the interactions would increase from the first to the fourth artwork. While we did not observe all the trends we expected, the many interactions we saw suggest consistent interest and focus on the educator and the art.
Responses by caregivers
This form was designed to capture both quantitative and qualitative data about participants’ experiences during and up to three days after the program. Responses to pre-coded questions are listed in the tables below. Forty caregivers completed this form and returned it to MoMA (including a few who were not participating in the rest of the study).
1. What attracted you to the Meet Me at MoMA program? Responses provided by us are tabulated below:
| Response | Number | Percent |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|---------|
| An opportunity for the person with memory problems to participate in a | 34 | 85.0 |
| program | | |
| An activity I can do with the person with memory problems | 33 | 82.5 |
| A chance for a special outing with the person with memory problems | 26 | 65.0 |
| The opportunity to go to a museum | 17 | 42.5 |
Other responses from one or two caregivers conveyed common themes related to finding an experience that would meet the needs of the person with dementia and the caregiving family member in a stimulating yet nonthreatening environment.
2. Do you have past experience visiting art museums or creating art? The vast majority of respondents (93.8% of those who responded) had past experience with art.
3. We asked about caregiving responsibilities and relationships. 89.7% of respondents said they had primary responsibility and 87.5% lived with the person with dementia.
4. We asked whether the caregiver enjoyed the experience, and 97.5% (all but one) said yes. We asked if the caregiver thought the person with dementia enjoyed the experience, and again 97.5% said yes.
5. We asked, “Were you surprised in any way by the response of the person with memory problems?” and, “If so, please explain.” Among respondents, fifteen (37.5%) said they were surprised. Among those respondents, 80% were surprised by the degree of engagement of the person with dementia during the program. The increased alertness and
The Holocaust survivor who became a champion for human rights
By: Sarah Koenig
In 1942, when she was just 10 years old, Ruth Gruber was taken from her home in Hungary to a concentration camp. She was one of the few children to survive the war.
Gruber, now 87, is a Holocaust survivor and a champion for human rights. She has written several books about her experiences during the war, including “Children of the Holocaust,” which was published in 1956. She has also been involved in various organizations that work to promote peace and understanding between different cultures.
Gruber has received numerous awards and honors for her work, including the United Nations Human Rights Award in 1993. She continues to speak out against injustice and discrimination, and to advocate for the rights of all people.
interest in the environment was attributed to the skill of the educators, the stimulating yet calm atmosphere, and the sharing of the experience with others. The caregivers expressed their joy at sharing a pleasant experience with the person with dementia, which is evidenced in a subsequent question:
6. “What was the best thing about the Museum visit?” Responses are tabulated below:
| Response | Number | Percent |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|---------|
| Positive experience created by educators and staff | 12 | 80.0 |
| Engagement of person with dementia | 6 | 40.0 |
| Positive interaction of person with dementia and caregiver | 6 | 40.0 |
| Privacy due to Museum being closed | 5 | 33.3 |
| Enhanced self-esteem of person with dementia | 2 | 13.3 |
It seems that the positive responses to the Museum experience are results of the combination of the many aspects of the program. The approach of the educators seems to contribute to the positive and fulfilling experience. The experience is supported by all the staff and by the relative privacy afforded the participants because the Museum is closed. It suggests to participants that they are V.I.P.’s, as they are given a private tour when the galleries are empty.
7. We asked about other effects of the Meet Me at MoMA experience. From these non-pre-coded responses we get a sense of the uplift that people with dementia (as reported by their caregivers) derived from the experience:
| Response | Number | Percent |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|---------|
| Enhanced self-esteem of person with dementia | 4 | 26.7 |
| Person with dementia more responsive to environment | 2 | 13.3 |
| Person with dementia in a better mood | 2 | 13.3 |
8. We asked whether there was anything bad about the Museum visit. The overwhelming response was “No.”
9. When we asked whether these first-time participants planned to return for another Meet Me at MoMA visit, 92.5% said “Yes.”
10. We asked whether the caregiver was considering other activities with the person with dementia as a result of the Meet Me at MoMA experience. Among those who responded, 88.2% said “Yes,” and 11.8% said “No.” It is evident that the experience fills an important need, and that participants would like to engage in other activities that offer the same benefits as the MoMA program. They listed visits to other museums most frequently as other activities. A few participants also suggested activities like visiting public gardens or enrolling in other classes. These responses make it clear that caregivers are looking for activities that will be emotionally and intellectually stimulating.
11. We asked caregivers a series of questions about the effect of the Museum visit on the person with dementia: Did the visit have an effect on the person with dementia’s conversation, appetite, mood, and sleep? Possible answers were “more than usual,” “unchanged,” or “less than usual.” The effects on conversation and mood were especially positive. Among the responses, 55% said the mood of the person with dementia was better and 45% said it was unchanged. No one said the mood of the person with dementia was worse. Additionally, 55% said that there was more conversation than usual following the program.
12. We asked caregivers to rate their overall satisfaction with the Meet Me at MoMA experience. The responses were coded from 10 to 1, with 10 being very high and 1 being very low. Among the twenty-nine who responded, 75.9% gave the visit the highest possible rating.
Finally, we asked a series of open-ended questions. There are a number of remarks by caregivers that warrant direct quotation.
1. It was like the [man] I knew before this illness. The task of reacting to a picture is not beyond his capabilities — it has made me think of trying to focus more on “feelings” than “words” in my interaction with him. Thank you for a great day. Thank you.
2. The opportunity for a creative, artistic experience together with my spouse in a protected, suitable environment [was the best thing about our visit]. As my husband’s condition declines the MoMA experience becomes more and more a cherished blessing.
3. [The educator’s] pace and conversation, as well as the idea of seeing a few things well, was really perfect. Mom completely enjoyed the afternoon. I was worried at first that she was not commenting. However, when [the educator] asked her if she liked Picasso’s [Les Demoiselles d’Avignon], she replied, “I love this painting, the color, composition.” It was wonderful to see mother looking at art again. Thank you so much.
“Bill really looks forward to attending — our conversation on the way home is so positive.”
MoMA participant
4. The lecturer was very attuned to each individual and their capabilities. This made the visit just perfect. Thank you for this beautiful and touching day.
Overall, the responses confirm the high esteem in which family members hold the program and point to the elements of most value to them. The pleasure of the family members at sharing an experience that is gratifying both to them and to their relative with dementia, at seeing the person with dementia expressing himself or herself, and at seeing him or her being received with respect was described as a blessing. The importance of the group and the desire for more socializing with people in a similar situation in an environment both gracious and beautiful was touchingly conveyed.
**Responses by people with dementia**
We asked people with dementia to respond to a series of questions. To the question, “Did you enjoy the museum experience?” 100% of the participants said “Yes.” To the question, “Was there anything bad about the museum visit?” only one said “Yes.” When asked whether they talked about it afterwards, 90% said “Yes.” When asked if their mood was better, 96.4% (all but one) said “Yes.”
The take-home evaluation also provided an opportunity for participants with dementia to make comments and suggestions. When asked, “What was the best thing about your visit?” eleven participants listed the educators. Also noted were discussing and looking at the artwork, socializing with others, and the private atmosphere. To the question, “Was there anything bad about the visit?” only one participant responded affirmatively, stating that there was too much paperwork.
We asked participants if they observed any change in themselves as a result of the program. Three participants reported enhanced self-esteem. Also listed one time each were increased energy, sense of enlightenment, and recollection of the past.
As with caregivers, we asked participants with dementia if there were other activities they would like to do. Similar programs for people with dementia and visits to other museums were both listed five times each. Three participants expressed a desire to create their own artwork.
“I was able to reflect upon my appreciation of the artist and could recall much of what I learned in school.”
MoMA participant
Summary of take-home evaluation responses
The contribution of the educators to the MoMA program is evident in the very positive responses in the take-home evaluations, reinforcing this finding in other scales. The style of the educators, which encourages interaction and group cohesion, leads to a socially as well as emotionally and intellectually satisfying experience. The feeling of enhanced self-esteem and the desire for more programs like Meet Me at MoMA suggest that both the structure and content of the program are ingredients of its success. One respondent mentioned that the research protocol was too long, a view that was shared by the researchers. For future studies, the protocol, which was an experiment in and of itself, could be shortened to include only scales that showed change resulting from the Meet Me at MoMA experience.
Focus-Group Discussions
Four different couples attended each of the two focus groups that were held at least three months after each couple’s initial participation in Meet Me at MoMA. The expressions of gratitude for the program were extremely touching and speak to the excellence of the Meet Me at MoMA program and the great need for more such activities. The comments of the people with dementia pointed to the pleasure of enjoying a stimulating experience in a safe environment and to the resulting enhanced feelings of self-worth they derived from participation and learning. For the caregivers, the pleasure of the art experience is enhanced by sharing it with their spouses and with other couples facing the same diagnosis. Furthermore, the relief of knowing that their spouses will be treated with dignity and that all their responses will be met with acceptance was greatly appreciated.
The suggestions for improving the Meet Me at MoMA program included making the arrival experience less confusing and extending the program to allow for more socializing afterward. Finally, it was clear from the responses that the Meet Me at MoMA experience at least temporarily counteracts participants’ social isolation, which is a very poignant issue for families coping with dementia.
The fact that attendees of the Meet Me at MoMA program return month after month speaks eloquently to the meaning and value it holds for participants. Coming to MoMA again, a place many had visited in the past but were reluctant to return to, was a welcome confirmation that not all valued parts of life have to be forfeited to Alzheimer’s disease. This research has helped to identify the specific aspects of the MoMA program that individually and together coalesce to create its impact.
- **The Importance of the Educator:** Beyond a doubt, it is the style and approach of the educators—which is never overly didactic or condescending, but rather warm and interactive—and the interaction with them that participants single out as being of exceptional importance to them. The way in which they involve the participants with dementia and elicit their comments, which are then met with genuine interest and appreciation, rekindles feelings of self-worth.
- **Intellectual Stimulation:** Having the opportunity to learn, to be intellectually stimulated, to experience great art together was felt to be a “blessing.”
- **Shared Experiences:** The family members expressed profound gratitude that the person they care about could have such an experience and, just as important, that they could share it together. For married couples, the opportunity to participate in an activity that is of interest to both partners validated their identity as a couple. Sons and daughters also expressed their pleasure in taking part in an activity with their parents in which both could be relaxed and engaged.
- **Social Interaction:** For so many couples in which one has dementia, what were once “normal” social interactions become events fraught with strain and shame. While they did remark that the program was inherently a socializing activity, many participants expressed the wish that the program could be extended to include more social interaction after the gallery tour.
- **Accepting Environment:** The educators, together with the entire MoMA staff, create a sense of safety and convey feelings of regard for the participants. The value placed on the person with dementia at least temporarily removes the stigma of Alzheimer’s disease so that participants can enjoy the MoMA experience. It is possible that the extraordinary
attention that was lavished on study participants may have heightened their feelings of being welcome and important, but this also serves to point out how much people with dementia feel the loss of status in the community and how much they appreciate efforts made on their behalf. The wish to continue to attend as a couple, where the limitations of the ill spouse would not affect the experience for the well, makes this kind of program particularly valuable.
- **Emotional Carryover:** For both the persons with dementia and their caregivers there were positive changes to mood both directly after the program and in the days following the Museum visit. Caregivers reported fewer emotional problems, and all but one person with dementia reported elevated mood.
- **Program Extension:** Almost all caregivers planned to return to the Museum for future programs, which is a testament to their positive experiences. The Meet Me at MoMA program also serves as a catalyst for new conversation in the days to follow.
The study design, which included a variety of measures to gather both qualitative and quantitative data through self-report and observation has yielded a comprehensive understanding of how and why the Meet Me at MoMA program impacts attendees and provides suggestions for modifications and future expansion.
**Going Forward**
Study participants were very grateful for the Meet Me at MoMA program. As they began to know each other from repeated visits, the desire for more socializing became clear. The setting itself sends the message to the person with dementia that he or she continues to be a person of value, and those participants for whom it was a familiar place can now return with their self-esteem safe and even nurtured.
There were several statistically significant findings from this study, which is gratifying, considering the small sample of participants. They are suggestive of the potential of the Meet Me at MoMA program to improve the lives of people with dementia and their caregivers. A longer-term study with a larger number of participants to corroborate and expand the findings of this first study is recommended. This would provide additional evidence for programming that is geared to bring enjoyment and stimulation to people with dementia and their family members and could have major ramifications for the development of interventions for people with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers.
“A very pleasant ‘date’ for us both—after 42 years of marriage.”
MoMA participant
The practice of law is a profession that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and ethical standards. As a lawyer, you must be able to provide legal advice and representation to your clients while upholding the highest standards of professionalism and integrity.
One of the most important aspects of practicing law is maintaining a strong work ethic. This means being punctual, reliable, and committed to your clients' needs. It also means being willing to put in the extra effort to achieve the best possible outcome for your clients.
Another key aspect of practicing law is staying current with legal developments. This includes keeping up-to-date with changes in the law, as well as staying informed about new trends and technologies that may impact your practice.
Finally, practicing law requires a strong sense of ethics and integrity. This means always acting in the best interest of your clients, even when it may be challenging or uncomfortable. It also means being honest and transparent in all your dealings with clients and colleagues.
In summary, practicing law is a demanding but rewarding profession that requires a combination of technical skills, ethical standards, and a strong work ethic. By maintaining these qualities, lawyers can provide excellent service to their clients and make a positive impact on society.
This section details the practice of creating meaningful experiences with art. It contains four guides. The first guide, Foundations for Engagement with Art, presents an in-depth look at the preparations necessary to conduct an art-looking experience with individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers.
The next three guides, Guide for Museums, Guide for Care Organizations, and Guide for Families, also explain how to prepare content and lead discussions using works of art, while delving into considerations specific to their users.
| Guide | Page |
|-------------------------------|------|
| Foundations for Engagement with Art | 111 |
| Guide for Museums | 125 |
| Guide for Care Organizations | 143 |
| Guide for Families | 157 |
| 110 | PRACTICE: FOUNDATIONS |
Foundations for Engagement with Art
This guide explains how to engage individuals with dementia and their caregivers with art. The methods can be used with groups or one-on-one, and can be adapted for various settings, from art museums and galleries to care organizations and private homes. These foundations can help to create meaningful experiences in any environment.
| Section | Page |
|--------------------------------|------|
| Overview | 112 |
| Planning a Program | 112 |
| In Front of a Work of Art | 118 |
| Facilitation Strategies | 122 |
Overview
Engaging with Art
Engagement with art can have significant benefits for people with dementia and their caregivers. This is true whether the experience involves looking at and discussing art or creating art. In both cases, art can be used as a vehicle for meaningful self-expression. Indeed, engagement with art, through close looking and discussion, offers a person with Alzheimer’s disease the chance to:
- Explore and exchange ideas about art and artists
- Experience intellectual stimulation
- Make connections between personal stories and the world at large
- Access personal experiences and long-term memories
- Participate in a meaningful activity that fosters personal growth
In addition to the above benefits, caregivers also gain from art experiences by exploring their own interests in art while the person in their care is present, safe, and engaged. In some settings, such as museums and care organizations, they can interact socially with other caregivers, share stories, and learn in a supportive environment where they are relaxed both physically and mentally.
Furthermore, their relationship with the person in their care may be enhanced because art programs provide singular opportunities for communication and connection. Finally, participants learn about each other in a new context and gain new insights into each other’s ideas and interests.
Defining Art
Definitions of art vary greatly among theorists, philosophers, art historians, artists, and art educators. Indeed, one of the aims of individual artists and one of the primary characteristics of modern and contemporary art movements is the constant redefining of what constitutes art. Getting a sense of what is meant by “art” is important, regardless of how open-ended we leave that definition, since our concept of art dictates what objects or images will be discussed and how participants will engage in these discussions.
Overall, in this book, our use of the terms art, the arts, or artworks refers to works generally included in the categories of visual arts—namely, sculpture, painting, drawing, prints, film, photography, architecture, design, and multimedia projects. All of these mediums are represented in MoMA’s collection and whether on exhibit in the galleries or accessible online are freely labeled “art.” They can all be used to spark engagement and discussion.
Planning a Program
The most essential steps for preparing an art-looking experience are listed below and explained in detail on the following pages. A sample module for a museum program is detailed throughout to show you how a specific theme might be developed.
- Select a theme that will be your organizing principle.
- Select four to six works to view and discuss in relation to the theme.
- Determine the sequence in which you will view the works.
• Prepare three to five art-historical points per work to insert into the conversation at an appropriate moment.
• Prepare three to five questions per work that could spark conversation about each work.
• Plan small-group conversations to conduct toward the middle of your program.
If you are working with individuals or a group that you know — or if you learned of their interests in advance — try to choose a theme you think will pique their interest.
**IN OUR EXAMPLE**
For an upcoming tour at MoMA, we selected the theme *The City in Modern Art*.
### Selecting a Theme
Select a theme that is appropriate and relevant for individuals with cognitive impairment but that captures the interest and imagination of all participants. Your theme should be general enough to be accessible for everyone and appropriate for an adult audience.
Possible themes include:
- Portraiture
- Materials in Sculpture
- Art and Music
- The Road to Abstraction
- Why is This Art?
- The Portrayal of Women in Art
- Telling Stories through Photographs
- Museum Collection Highlights
You could also focus on a single artist (such as Pablo Picasso or Vincent van Gogh), an art movement (like Impressionism or Cubism), art from a geographical region (South America or Europe, for instance), or art from a certain time period (such as the Renaissance or the nineteenth century).
### Selecting the Works of Art
Once you have selected a theme, choose four to six relevant works. It is possible that you might not fit all the works within the allotted time, but it is better to be prepared with too many works than not enough. You may select the theme and the works simultaneously. You might have certain works in mind that you want to talk about, and you might select a theme that accommodates those works. You can create positive and purposeful experiences with almost any work of art. Choose works that you find interesting, that you are comfortable speaking about, and that you think will engage the audience. You can focus on just one medium (such as painting, sculpture, or photography) or present works in different mediums.
If you will be viewing original works in a museum or gallery, be aware of their scale and how they are installed. Very small works may be hard for a group to see, and works that are installed close to others may be difficult to focus on. Also keep in mind where the works are in relation to one another and the level of mobility of your group.
“From a museum perspective, it’s about being inclusive of all audiences, and thinking about the fact that so many of our supporters now are of the aging baby boomer generation. We’re going to be inclusive throughout one’s entire life.”
Courtney Gerber, Assistant Director of Education, Tour Programs, Education and Community Programs, The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
For our tour, we chose five paintings:
1. *London Bridge* (1906), by André Derain
2. *Street, Dresden* (1908), by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
3. *The City Rises* (1910), by Umberto Boccioni
4. *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities* (1940–41), by Jacob Lawrence
5. *Broadway Boogie Woogie* (1942–43), by Piet Mondrian
Because our tour focuses on a specific type of landscape (cityscape), we purposely selected works by artists who worked at different times and were from various geographical regions. The works present an interesting overview of several key styles and techniques while showing very different interpretations of the modern city. These points offer intriguing opportunities for discussion and allow participants to tap into their own lives and experiences.
**Determining the Sequence**
The sequence in which you view the works should offer a helpful way to connect them in the context of the theme you have chosen. It should be coherent in terms of the thematic connection between one work and the next and the location of works relative to one another (if using original works in gallery spaces). If the works are scattered throughout a museum or gallery, their various locations will influence the sequence. It may simply be chronological, from the oldest work to the newest or vice versa. The order will also depend on the questions you plan to ask and the activities you want to do with your group.
to ask and the ways you will link the works to each other. As a rule of thumb, it is often better to begin with works that are simpler in composition and move to those that are more complex or to move from more figurative works to those that are more abstract. Alternatively, you can begin with works that fit your theme in a literal fashion and move toward those that relate more metaphorically or conceptually.
While selecting the works and determining the sequence, ask yourself:
- How will I introduce the theme?
- How do the works relate to the theme and each other, and in what order is this best expressed?
- How will I make a seamless transition from one work to the next?
- What are some questions I will ask about the works?
- What art-historical information will I share?
- How will I relate the works to my theme in my summary and conclusion?
**IN OUR EXAMPLE**
We decided to use a chronological sequence for our selected works. Doing so allows us to organize our discussion through a logical progression in time. In addition, this arrangement progresses from a concrete, representational image to more abstract compositions. It also allows us to discuss developments in the history of modern art through various artists’ depictions of similar subject matter.
---
**Preparing Art-Historical Information**
Using online resources, exhibition catalogues, wall labels, and books, research the works and the artists that you will be discussing. Look into each artist’s practice, the time period in which he or she lived and worked, and information regarding any movements or artist groups he or she was a member of. You can also include information about the subject matter, quotations from the artist, or quotations from contemporary critics about the work or the artist’s general style. Of all this information, select a few main ideas that are relevant to the work and your theme and are conducive to conversation. Settle on a limited number of points for each work (three or four); this will help you avoid lecturing and encourage a wider range of participation.
Art-historical information should be used throughout the discussion to strengthen participants’ understanding and appreciation of the work and help place the work in the context of developments in art and world history. When discussing a work, always share the information typically found on a museum label with your participants — the name of the artist, date of the work, and materials used. This can be done at the beginning, the end, or at a relevant moment during the discussion. You can give the title of a work as a way to encourage further discussion. You might say, “Picasso titled this work *Girl before a Mirror*,” and then follow with, “Does knowing the title change the way you think about the work? How?” Provide additional information during the program as it becomes relevant based on participants’ responses. For example, if you’re looking at *Broadway Boogie Woogie* by Piet Mondrian, and someone says, “This looks like a map of Times Square,” you could mention that when Mondrian painted this picture in 1942–43, he had recently moved to New York City.
Remember that this is a conversation and not a lecture. Your goal is not only to provide art-historical facts but also to encourage the participants to engage in a discussion and share their own opinions. Sharing art-historical information can validate participants’ responses and spark new conversation.
**IN OUR EXAMPLE**
Here is some information about each work that we plan to bring into the conversation at appropriate times.
1. **London Bridge**, by André Derain
Derain was a member of the French movement that came to be known as Fauvism. The Fauves, or “wild beasts,” were known for their unbridled use of color. Their disregard for the natural coloring of objects shocked their contemporaries. In this painting, Derain applies wild color in his depiction of the heavily trafficked London Bridge, with multiple boats and barges in the River Thames below. Derain was encouraged to visit London in the early 1900s by the dealer Ambroise Vollard. While there he painted many different views of the city, focusing mainly on the various monuments and bridges along the Thames.
2. **Street, Dresden**, by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
Kirchner was a member of the German Expressionist group *Die Brücke* (The Bridge). The artists of *Die Brücke* explored the emotional effects of color and composition in the depiction of contemporary life. Through the use of bright, unrealistic colors, Kirchner energized this scene of Königstrasse street in Dresden.
3. **The City Rises**, by Umberto Boccioni
Boccioni was a key figure of the Italian Futurist movement. This group of motivated writers, musicians, and visual artists sought to abandon the air of nostalgia that they felt was restricting Italian society. They encouraged their compatriots to embrace the infinite potential of the future, powered by technological advancements and humans’ will for change. Boccioni uses “lines of force” to communicate this idea of progression in his dynamic composition of a city being built.
4. **In the North the Negro had better educational facilities**, by Jacob Lawrence
Lawrence’s family was one of the thousands of African American families to migrate to the North around the time of World War I. They eventually settled in New York City’s Harlem neighborhood, where Lawrence began taking art classes. In 1940 he began *The Migration Series*, a multipanel series of images that narrates this great migration in American history. Each panel was worked simultaneously, resulting in a uniformity of palette and similarity in overall composition among the sixty panels.
5. **Broadway Boogie Woogie**, by Piet Mondrian
Through the course of his career Mondrian abandoned representation to focus on the depiction of “pure” forms. For Mondrian this meant the exclusive use of primary colors and geometric shapes. In 1940 he moved from London to New York City. There he joined a vibrant society, constantly in flux. He was influenced not only by the rhythm of city life but also by the syncopated beat of jazz music.
“Participants may display symptoms of the disease when they first arrive—agitation, anxiety, and apathy. However, participants requiring wheelchairs at first have been known to cast aside the chairs soon after entering the intimate and quiet galleries.”
MoMA educator
Preparing Discussion Questions
Prepare three to five questions to frame the discussion of each work as it relates to your theme, knowing that when you are actually in front of the work you will inevitably ask many more questions based on participants’ responses.
Below are some helpful tips to keep in mind throughout the discussion:
- Ask concrete questions and be specific. Ask “What do you see in this painting?” instead of “What is going on here?”
- Alternate between open-ended questions and questions with definite answers, and be ready to mix in or switch to either/or or yes/no questions to keep the discussion moving. For example, you might ask, “Does this work suggest a specific season?” If no one responds, you could name the seasons, or ask, “Do the colors in the painting make you think of the summer or the spring?” Or, further, you could invite yes/no answers to simpler questions, such as “Does this painting make you think of springtime?”
- Be aware that some participants may not speak. This does not mean that they are not engaged. They are likely benefiting from the experience in multiple ways.
- Be conscious of making comparisons to works you have already discussed, which may not be easily recalled by the participants. You should only compare works that are easily visible at the same time.
IN OUR EXAMPLE
1. *London Bridge*, by André Derain
- What part of the city does this painting represent?
- What city do you think this might be, and why?
- Where is the viewer in relation to the bridge?
2. *Street, Dresden*, by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
- What are the people in this painting doing?
- What is peculiar about Kirchner’s use of color in this scene?
- What is the overall mood of this work?
3. *The City Rises*, by Umberto Boccioni
- What seems to be happening in this painting? What are the figures doing?
- What are some clues that reveal that this painting depicts a city?
- What is the emotional impact of the way Boccioni has decided to depict the city? Consider his choice of brushstroke, color, and composition.
“For the caregivers this is also a wonderful experience. Some have come because they are sent or because the person they work for can still ask. Some have come because once exposed to the program they want to.”
MoMA participant
4. *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities*, by Jacob Lawrence
- How is this work related to our theme of the city?
- Do the people in this work look like they come from a particular background?
- What is the impact of the formal choices the artist has made on our viewing experience?
5. *Broadway Boogie Woogie*, by Piet Mondrian
- How many shapes and colors are used in this painting?
- What does this painting make you imagine or think of? Does it represent any particular place or thing?
- The title of this painting is *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. Knowing this, how does your understanding of the painting change?
**In Front of a Work of Art**
It is essential to use inquiry-based techniques to facilitate the experience. That is, do not lecture or continuously provide information but rather ask questions to allow participants to reach their own interpretations through a lively discussion. In order to understand what types of questions to prepare and ask, it is important to familiarize yourself with the different parts of a discussion: Observation, Description, Interpretation, Connection, Small-Group Conversation, and Summary. While the framework for discussing a work of art that follows is designed for a group, it can be easily adapted for a one-on-one conversation. For an example of how this method can be applied directly to a specific work of art see *In Front of London Bridge* on page 121.
**Observation**
Invite participants to approach the work and take a close look before they take their seats. Make sure each participant has an unrestricted view of the work. Tell the group that the first step is to look closely, and provide a timeframe for this observation.
Participants should have adequate time to look at the work and not feel like they are being rushed. Encourage them to take a “visual inventory” of the work of art quietly, focusing on it and noticing details for about one minute.
**Description**
Next, begin to describe the work as a group to establish a fundamental understanding of what is being seen. It is useful to start by simply listing what everyone sees. Description rests upon the exploration of the formal properties of the work, as well as naming recognizable subject matter. Touch on:
- Line and Shape. For example, ask, “What lines and shapes do you see in this drawing?”
- Color. For example, ask, “Does any one color dominate this painting?”
- Composition. For example, ask, “Where is the female figure in relation to the landscape?”
- Material. For example, ask, “What do you think this sculpture is made of?”
“There are so many things Dad can’t do the way he used to, but when we go to the Museum it seems to engage his mind by triggering so many memories.”
MoMA participant
**Description**
- **Technique.** For example, ask, “By looking closely at this painting, can you describe the brushstroke?”
- **Subject matter.** For example, ask, “What objects do you see in this painting?”
This process allows a wide range of participation and will benefit future interpretation. If participants immediately interpret the work, ask them which visual clue led them to that idea. Once you feel that the group has thoroughly described the work, summarize all the elements mentioned and point out any important details that have been missed.
**Interpretation**
Now you are ready to interpret the work. Interpretation rests on assigning meaning to various elements of the work and thinking about its overall significance. Responses can vary widely. Encourage breadth and variety, and use ideas generated to expand the conversation. Ask questions that prompt participants to reflect on what is not clearly visible in the work but perhaps merely suggested. Touch on:
- **Time and Place.** For example, ask, “What season is suggested by this scene?”
- **Narrative.** For example, ask, “What is implied by the way these two figures are interacting?”
- **Mood or Psychological Effect.** For example, ask, “What overall mood is conveyed in this photograph?”
- **Artist’s Intention (related to choice of subject matter, use of formal properties and technique, and overall aesthetic philosophy).** For example, ask, “Why do you think the artist used these found objects together to create this sculpture?”
**Artist’s Biographical Information.** For example, ask, “What possible influence do you see of this artist’s native land in this drawing?”
**Historical and Social Context.** For example, ask, “This painting was done in 1940. Are there elements within the work that you associate with the political events of that time?”
Follow your inquiries with deepening questions, such as, “Could you say a little bit more about that?” or, “What do you see that makes you say that?” Balance your questions by sharing art-historical information relevant to the responses you receive from the group to validate individual interpretations, make connections, and encourage further discussion.
Allow for a wide range of interpretive freedom. Repeat remarks and link ideas. Enable participants to come to their own conclusions, instilling in them a sense of pride, accomplishment, and a deeper understanding of the work.
**Connection**
Encourage members of the group to connect the works to their life experiences. This process will help the participants gain new insights and will make the works more relevant to them. Ask if the participants like the works, and feel free to share your own opinions, making it clear that your remarks are subjective. There are various ways of making connections to:
- **Personal Life Experience.** For example, ask, “Does this look like the New York of today or the New York of when you were a child?”
- **Psychological and Emotional Effect.** For example, ask, “How does this painting make you feel?”
• Personal Opinion. For example, ask, “Do you like this painting?”
• Cultural Changes and World Events. For example, ask, “Does this war scene remind you of any specific war or historical conflict?”
• Other Artwork and the Art-Historical Canon. For example, ask, “How does this drawing of a landscape compare to the painting next to it that depicts the same scene?”
**Small-Group Conversation (Turn and Talk)**
When working with a group, conversations in smaller groups provide a chance for individuals to share stories and connect on a more personal or imaginative level to the work. This activity also gives participants who are more reticent in the larger group a chance to engage on a more intimate level.
At some point during the program have each pair of participants (the person with dementia and his or her caregiver) join one or two other pairs (for a total of four or six people in each smaller group). It is best to do this toward the middle of the program. Make sure to go through the observation, description, and interpretation phases before initiating the Turn and Talk.
Tell the groups to discuss a particular idea or theme that relates to the work of art. Your prompt should be straightforward and appropriate to the participants’ cognitive abilities. The discussions should last no longer than ten minutes. At the end of the period bring everyone back together and encourage participants to share their conversations with the whole group.
**IN OUR EXAMPLE**
At Kirchner’s painting we invite participants to imagine a busy street in New York City and think of how they would depict it. What medium would they use? What colors and techniques? How would those choices relate to the overall feel of that busy street?
At Jacob Lawrence’s work, we discuss societal transformations in the United States in past decades, including shifts in public policy and initiatives in social reform.
The first activity is more imaginative, while the second relates to participants’ personal histories. We do not necessarily do two activities in one tour, as they may take a long time. We’ve included these examples to demonstrate the variety of opportunities for integrating a small-group conversation. In addition, it always helps to have several activities prepared and to introduce the relevant ones based on the overall dynamics of the participants and the tour itself.
**Summary**
Toward the end of the discussion of each work (and at the end of the program), bring together the various threads of conversation, summarizing and synthesizing the points you have touched on. Thank the participants and open up the discussion to final comments.
“When we were discussing a painting by Chagall my husband said it brought back memories of the cemetery where his mother was buried when he was a child of eight. He had never mentioned that before.”
MoMA participant
In Front of *London Bridge*
We have included a list of questions for different parts of the discussion of Derain’s *London Bridge*, the first work in our example program, The City in Modern Art.
**Observation**
Before we begin our discussion, why don’t we take a minute to look closely at this painting?
**Description**
What are some recognizable buildings or structures in this painting?
Where is this scene? Indoors or outdoors?
Are the artist’s brushstrokes visible? If so, describe them.
What colors do you see in the water? What about the sky?
**Interpretation**
What is the overall feeling you get from this London scene?
Why do you think Derain chose to paint this bridge? Do you think it held special meaning for him or that he saw it often?
Why do you think the water is painted green and yellow?
What time of day do you think this scene represents?
What title would you give this work? Why?
**Connection**
How does this scene relate to your experience of the city?
The most prominent aspect of this work is the bridge. When you think of bridges, is there one in particular that comes to mind? Why?
Is this a place you’d like to visit? Why or why not?
Can you think of other artists who painted city scenes? How do they compare?
*André Derain, London Bridge, 1906*
Facilitation Strategies
Certain facilitation strategies can help create a supportive environment.
Frame of Mind
Throughout the program be sure to:
- Internalize the goals of the experience: share, explore, and enjoy the experience.
- Remain relaxed and allow the conversation to go in unexpected directions.
- Convey a sense of lightness and humor.
- Support and show interest in the comments and interpretations of all participants.
- Stay attuned to the effects of the disease on participants, and be patient.
- Never mention Alzheimer’s disease.
- Always keep in mind that this is a reciprocally rich and rewarding experience.
Communication Techniques
The communication strategies below address the specific needs of individuals with dementia.
- Make eye contact with the participants.
- Be aware of nonverbal communication: facial expressions, body language, and gestures.
- Talk directly to the person with Alzheimer’s disease, even if he or she is nonverbal.
- Emphasize and define key words.
- Avoid vague words and colloquial expressions.
- Supplement or reinforce words by referring and pointing to the artwork.
- If you are having trouble understanding a comment, try to interpret what is being said, and clarify with the participant.
- Never chastise any member of the group. Instead, validate frequently and with sincerity.
Group Dynamics
If you are working with a group it can be difficult to balance the interests, abilities, and personalities of each of the participants. Below are a few tips that will help keep the entire group engaged and involved.
- Always repeat answers and questions that come up so that all can hear. When you cannot hear what a participant is saying, approach him or her and listen, and then walk back to the front and repeat the comment for the whole group.
- Encourage genial debate among the participants.
- Do not create multiple planes of conversation; rather, maintain one thread of conversation that involves both caregivers and individuals with dementia.
- Allow participants to comment as much as they like, but do not let any one person monopolize the conversation.
- Patiently and creatively bring to a close a comment that goes on too long.
- Make a theme out of the responses, build on them, repeat them, and take them in different directions.
- Summarize often. This helps to keep people’s attention and reinforces the information shared.
Challenging Scenarios
Inevitably, challenging situations will arise, whether you are working with a group or one-on-one. Consider what you might do if the following scenarios occur: a participant is very enthusiastic and starts monopolizing the discussion; a participant makes a comment that seems to have little to do with the artwork being discussed; several people in your group seem reluctant to speak no matter what strategy you use to draw them out; a caregiver and a person with dementia keep having side conversations; a participant repeats the same point during the entire program. There are many ways to handle these different scenarios, but in all cases you should take into consideration the following when responding to the situation:
- Provide a meaningful and positive experience. You want people to leave the program feeling good about themselves and their participation. Never chastise or be patronizing. Being sincere in your interactions and genuinely committed to an exchange of ideas will go a long way in validating everyone’s experiences.
- Trust that nonverbal communication will go a long way in providing a positive experience. If people are not responding verbally, it does not mean that they are not engaged. Look for clues of engagement: are participants looking at you or at the work? Do they seem to be taking an interest in what is going on? Some people might be more reluctant to talk in a large group.
- Try to invite participants into the group conversation using different strategies. For example, you can ask questions that invite contributions from everyone (such as, “Do you like this painting?”). Or, if you notice someone smiling or pointing to the work, invite him or her to share what they are thinking.
- Remember that one goal of the program is to encourage positive interactions between individuals with dementia and their caregivers. If a person with dementia and his or her caregiver are having side conversations, allow them to continue as long as they are not disruptive to the group.
- Remember that personal connections and narratives should be encouraged. If a participant makes comments that seem unrelated to the work, trust that some element of the work or the experience is allowing him or her to make a direct or indirect link. For example, if someone begins to talk about lions in Africa when viewing a cityscape, it might be that they are associating colors or other elements of the painting with Africa or they are making indirect connections to life experience. They might have taken a trip to Africa in the past and thus are relating to the painting in terms of travel and their personal experience. Always be aware of the possibilities of these connections.
- Be aware of cognitive issues related to Alzheimer’s disease and prepare and act accordingly. If a person makes the same comment repeatedly, acknowledge it often, perhaps in different ways. Try to connect it to a new piece of information or another comment from the group, or use it as a jumping-off point to start a new thread of conversation.
After the tour, you might feel that you could have handled a situation better than you did on the spot. Do not be too hard on yourself. Learn from each experience and strategize how you will handle similar situations in the future.
Overall, your enthusiasm and sincerity will lead to positive experiences. Being well prepared and constantly aware of the dynamics at work one-on-one or in the group will go a long way in creating a positive atmosphere and a great interaction.
The museum’s collection is a resource for research and education, and should be made available to the public in appropriate ways. The museum should have a policy on access to its collections that is consistent with its mission and values.
The museum should ensure that its collections are properly cared for and preserved for future generations. This includes regular maintenance, conservation, and storage practices that minimize damage and deterioration.
The museum should also consider the ethical implications of collecting and displaying objects from other cultures or countries. It should strive to acquire objects through fair and transparent means, and should be mindful of the potential impact of its collections on communities outside the museum.
This guide details how to establish a museum program for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. Educational programming is at the heart of a museum’s public mission and serves as a gateway for exploring works of art and cultural history. Offerings should extend to all audiences, including individuals with cognitive disabilities. The program should focus on participants’ abilities in order to create an accepting and engaging environment in which the disease is a nonissue.
| Section | Page |
|----------------------------------|------|
| Designing a Program | 126 |
| Staffing the Program | 128 |
| Spreading the Word | 132 |
| Logistics | 133 |
| Art-Looking Programs | 135 |
| Art-Making Programs | 139 |
Designing a Program
Program Goals
It is important at the outset to have a clear idea of why you want to develop a program for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease and what you hope to accomplish. Think about the following:
- What are your goals?
- What would you consider a successful program?
- Who is your target audience — people with Alzheimer’s disease living in their own homes or those in assisted-living facilities, or both? What about caregivers?
- What difference will your program make for your museum? For the community?
- How can you use what you learn through working with this audience to improve other educational programs?
Once you have answered these questions, discuss them with other management staff in your museum. Talk to all the people who will need to support the initiative for it to succeed — involving them in framing the goals encourages their support from the beginning. It is also vital to keep an open line of communication between museum staff involved in the program and individuals affected by Alzheimer’s disease and specialists in the field. Their recommendations and input are essential to the success of your program.
Program Content
The museum setting is an ideal environment for both art-looking and art-making experiences. Depending on the size of your museum, the collection, spaces available for creative activities, and other considerations related to staffing and logistics, both of these types of engagement could provide meaningful experiences and could be sustained over time.
When developing the museum’s offerings, you will need to take into account the number of programs and the types of activities participants will engage in. It is possible to create separate art-looking and art-making programs, and it is also perfectly feasible to create models wherein participants look at works and subsequently go into classrooms or designated spaces to create their own works.
Program Types
Below are two types of programs you can offer on-site at the museum:
1. Programs for groups coming from care organizations — such as residential care centers, nursing homes, or other assisted-living facilities — or from support groups or other organizations. These could be regularly scheduled or offered upon request and could be initiated by either the museum or the outside organization. If possible, send educators from the museum off-site to work with participants at the facility. Ideally, if the condition of participants allows, extended off-site programs should include at least one visit to the museum. You may want to begin by focusing on a small number of care organizations, and then add others over time. If you already work with a specific facility, check to see if they have a dementia division that you could connect with.
2. Regularly scheduled programs for individual families in which a person with Alzheimer’s disease
visits in the company of one or more family members and/or a professional caregiver. These families would come to the museum and tour the galleries with other families in a group led by a museum educator. Participants would be required to register for the program in advance, and registration would be handled on a first-come, first-served basis.
The number of regularly scheduled programs for groups of individual families would depend on the museum’s capacity. Start with one event per month or every other month to allow you to make adjustments. As your audience grows, you may consider increasing the number of programs or implement changes.
**Dates and Times**
The dates and times you select must match the needs of your museum but also the needs of people with Alzheimer’s disease.
Identify dates and times that are best for the museum. These might include times when the museum is closed to the public, when other tour groups are not scheduled, or when normal attendance is typically low. With these dates and times in mind, consider what might be best for your participants. Typically, later mornings (after 10:30 A.M.) are better than early mornings for people with Alzheimer’s disease, and early afternoon, shortly after lunch, is better than later in the day. Programs should last no longer than two hours. Depending on the time you select, you may want to find a suitable space for participants to have refreshments before or after the gallery program.
**Number of Participants**
It is important to keep the size of each group small, ideally limited to eight people with Alzheimer’s disease plus their family members and caregivers, for a total of sixteen people. You may be able to host more than one group at a time, but the total number of groups your museum can accommodate will be determined by:
- the museum’s size.
- the presence of general visitors or other groups, such as school groups or membership groups.
- staffing.
- available funding.
Again, start small. After you gain experience, you will have a better sense of how many people you can accommodate and still offer an effective program. As demand for the program grows, you may find that your requests exceed your capacity. If so, share your needs and limitations with your colleagues to see if adjustments can be made to meet the demand.
**Costs**
Ideally the program would be free of charge for participants, but it also must be financially sustainable. Some ways to minimize costs are to:
- train volunteer docents or have full-time staff lead the program.
- have participants cover their own transportation costs.
- schedule group tours during open museum hours to avoid additional security costs.
“Working with this audience has improved my overall practice as an educator. The communication strategies used to ensure that the participants are getting the most out of their experience can really be applied to interactions with all visitors.”
MoMA educator
form partnerships with organizations and agencies that serve people with Alzheimer’s disease.
When you are beginning to plan your programs, look for potential sources of funding in local businesses, foundations, and the health-care industry. Invite the museum’s decision makers, board members from Alzheimer’s disease organizations, and city, county, and state officials to join you on a tour to get them interested in the program. Letters of support from participants may help make a case for additional funding.
**Contact Information**
Ensure that people interested in the program are able to learn more about it and to register. To the extent possible, establish:
- an e-mail address and a Web site.
- a phone number that connects directly to staff involved in the program.
- a staff member who can answer phone inquiries and handle registration.
**Evaluation**
Think about how you will evaluate your program from the very beginning, taking into consideration the goals you have established. How will you measure success? What is the best way to collect information? What tools and criteria will you use? Build your evaluation plan as you design your program rather than waiting until the program has already been implemented.
**Staffing the Program**
Effective programs rely on trained, capable staff. For this program in particular, you will need a team of educators, reservationists and check-in staff, program assistants, and security personnel.
**Educators**
Good educators are essential for a successful program. You will need one educator for each group of sixteen participants, eight people with dementia and their accompanying caregivers. Your program’s educators do not need to have prior experience working with people with Alzheimer’s disease or knowledge of the effects of the disease. They can acquire this information through training workshops and informational resources. They will expand their knowledge as they gain experience facilitating the program.
There are, however, some aspects of their backgrounds, experience, and expertise that are very important. Consider the pool of educators currently engaged in the other education programs at your museum — the full-time staff, freelance educators, and docents — especially those who:
- are comfortable and experienced with people of varying ages and abilities (older adults, special-education groups, nonverbal individuals).
- have a strong knowledge of art and art history.
- have a strong knowledge of the nuances of art education in general and museum education in particular.
Of the educators who have these qualities, approach those who best demonstrate patience, kindness, creativity, flexibility, and humor during their programs,
“It’s really a professional growth moment, as we’re picking apart what we do, fine-tuning parts of it, using the skills that exist, but also enhancing them. It’s fostering growth among all of us.”
Courtney Gerber, Assistant Director of Education, Tour Programs, Education and Community Programs, The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
and who do not simply lecture. Invite educators to a general information session about Alzheimer’s disease and the issues involved in working with people with dementia to gauge their interest.
Ideal educators for your program know how to invite and facilitate conversation while providing art-historical information at appropriate moments. They weave together the points made in the group’s conversation and manage the varying responses and opinions. They use their reservoirs of knowledge to give insight into the works and also to validate participants’ responses and ideas.
If your programs are led by docents, it might be useful to have guidelines for their participation in this particular program, such as requiring them to have previously worked with older adults; led interactive gallery tours on-site within the past six months; attended docent training on a regular basis; and been evaluated positively within the past year.
**Other Staff**
Whether you will be hosting a group attending as a single unit from a care organization or individual families that call in and register, you will need staff and/or volunteers to perform some important functions.
**Reservationists/check-in staff**
If possible, two staff members should be responsible for registering participants over the phone ahead of time and planning and coordinating the check-in process on the day of the program. Sharing this responsibility allows for backup in case of illness or vacation and ensures that someone knowledgeable is always available to talk to participants. These staff members should be paid individuals who are familiar with your museum and able to aid participants as needed. They should also have broad experience with visitors with disabilities. If your museum already provides accessible programs, the staff of those programs will be well suited to this one, too. Having consistent, dedicated employees for these two functions makes for closer relationships between staff and participants.
**Program assistants**
At least one additional person, either paid or volunteer, should accompany each educator on the tour. This person’s main function is to handle any logistical issues that arise, allowing the educator to concentrate on the group discussion. Common tasks include:
- distributing materials such as name tags.
- escorting participants to the restroom.
- getting wheelchairs when they are needed.
- distributing personal listening devices for sound amplification when necessary.
- carrying portable stools.
- protecting the art, along with the security guard.
Having a second staff member allows for one person at the front and the back of the group, keeping it intact as it moves through the museum. It may be possible for your staff to perform multiple functions, with one of the check-in personnel accompanying a group as it tours the museum and the other remaining at the check-in site for the first half hour of the program to greet late arrivals and help them join a tour already in progress.
In most cases, groups coming from care organizations will bring the appropriate number of professional caregivers and aides. Even so, a second staff member or volunteer assisting the educator with the logistics of the tour will create a smoother visit.
**Security personnel**
The security requirements and policies of your museum should be strictly followed. If the museum is closed, you will typically need one security guard for every group of up to twenty-five people. During open hours, you might not need guards assigned specifically to your group.
**Staff Training**
All staff and volunteers will need a working knowledge of dementia, its effects on cognitive capacities, its effect on caregivers, and the implications for the program. Plan an initial workshop for educators and volunteers to give everyone an overview of Alzheimer’s disease. Consider inviting a representative from your local Alzheimer’s Association chapter or medical center to provide this information. The workshop should include basic information about the program and communication techniques for working with this audience. Follow this initial training with a practical workshop that gives participants an opportunity to plan a tour themselves.
View your staff and volunteers as a team. Provide opportunities for strong and productive working partnerships, such as regularly scheduled meetings. Encourage educators to observe each other, to learn different styles, and provide critiques of teaching strategies.
**Proposed structure for staff-training workshop**
1. Invite all educators, docents, program assistants and other staff — anyone involved in the program at any level — to the workshop. Bring everyone up to date on the development of the program: the logistical issues, the dates the program will be offered, the number of participants you expect, and other matters. Go over the goals of both the program and the training.
2. Invite a representative from an Alzheimer’s Association chapter or local medical center to give an overview of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Ask him or her to cover such topics as the definition of Alzheimer’s disease, the number of people affected and what this means for the community as a whole, the effects of Alzheimer’s disease on the cognitive capacities of those affected, and the impact of Alzheimer’s disease on caregivers. It is essential to understand the disease and how it affects both the person with the diagnosis and his or her caregiver. This information will help educators and docents devise ways to tailor their gallery tours to this audience.
3. Invite a number of individuals living with the disease along with their caregivers to speak about their experiences. If possible, coordinate a panel discussion with these individuals, moderated by someone — whether from the museum or a care organization — that they already know and trust. A moderated panel will provide insight into the experiences of those affected by dementia, along with information about the types of experiences and programming they would value.
4. Demonstrate how to lead a tour. This demonstration should last about one hour and can take place in the galleries. Make the program’s different steps very clear by describing and discussing each of the components. The demonstration should give your educators a better idea of how to construct a tour, including what kinds of questions to ask and how to balance art-historical information with an interactive discussion.
5. Give the staff an opportunity to create their own tour in the galleries using original works of art or in the meeting room using reproductions. This exercise is most essential for those who will be leading tours, though all staff should be welcome to stay. Divide the educators and docents into teams of no more than six members. Tell each group to select a theme using images from your collection. Their preparation should include:
- the selection of four works that they will discuss in relation to the theme.
- a sequence for the works.
- a route through the galleries and other spaces that covers the works they want to address and takes into account the physical limitations of the participants.
- three to five discussion questions per work.
- three to five art-historical points per work.
- a small-group conversation activity (Turn and Talk) to introduce toward the middle of the tour.
Give the teams up to thirty minutes to prepare their tours, with the training leaders floating between groups to observe and help.
6. Have a spokesperson from each group present the tour. This is also an opportunity for everyone to discuss what to do in different scenarios that could unfold in a real program. Remind your staff that discussing these scenarios may help them to be more prepared, but that each tour will be very different and offer unexpected challenges and delights. For examples of situations that could arise, see the Challenging Scenarios section of Foundations for Engagement with Art (page 123).
7. Once you have shared the tours and discussed ideas, open the floor to questions and concerns. Assure the staff that the program will grow organically and that you will reassemble periodically to exchange experiences in order to improve the program.
8. Ask staff to evaluate the workshop, to tell you what worked, what did not, and what would improve the training in the future. Design simple forms for this purpose.
9. A homework assignment for the docents, to be presented in a follow-up workshop, might be useful. This will allow them the opportunity to practice, reflect, and decide whether they would like to lead tours, assist on tours, or not work with the program at all. It will also help the staff evaluate the docents and recommend those who are most committed.
10. Ask participants to read Background on Alzheimer’s Disease (page 12) in this book and visit www.alz.org for more information on the disease. Furthermore, ask them to read Foundations for Engagement with Art (page 11). This guide includes basics for planning tours and facilitating group discussions and will reinforce what was learned during the workshop.
11. Invite educators and docents to observe tours in action. Seeing an actual program before leading one can alleviate any remaining concerns and put educators and docents at ease.
Spreading the Word
As you design your program, think about how you will reach out to your community and develop the strong partnerships that will help your program grow and thrive.
Developing Partners
Identify and develop relationships with key groups and constituencies, such as:
- Alzheimer’s Association chapters and regional offices.
- local medical centers.
- assisted-living facilities.
- nursing homes.
- adult day centers.
Meet with representatives from these groups to familiarize yourself with the world of dementia care and to involve them in the program. The earlier in your planning you can do this, the better. Their advice and contributions will help your program meet your community’s expectations and needs. Ask people in these groups to suggest other organizations to contact and to elicit support for your marketing and outreach.
When you contact assisted-living facilities, adult day centers, or nursing homes, explain the program, determine whether or not there is any interest, and answer questions. Once you have determined that you will develop a partnership, visit the facility in order to:
- meet key staff.
- meet some of the people with Alzheimer’s disease.
- become more familiar with the environment and daily activities.
- learn about the special needs or requirements of individuals likely to participate in your program.
The visit should, if possible, include the facility’s activity coordinator and a museum educator who is likely to conduct the program. You might also bring some postcards or posters of artwork that might be included on a typical tour in order to help familiarize facility staff with your museum’s collection.
Informing the Community
You should use a variety of methods to let the community know about your program and invite participation. You can also share information and updates through the partnerships you have developed.
Regular mailings
Send invitations by regular mail and/or e-mail. At first you can use a mailing list made up of museum members and others included on community/access mailing lists, but eventually you should create a mailing list specifically focused on people with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. Send these invitations as often as you have programs. If you hold programs monthly, mail the notices monthly in enough time for recipients to register for the program you are advertising.
At each program, check that you have current mailing information for all of the participants and update and expand your address list accordingly. Ask your participants to help you by inviting other individuals and by informing facility staff who might be interested in the program.
“The woman who cares for my grandmother has recruited any number of caregivers to come with their charges. This experience has proved an important way for them to connect with the people they care for, as well as with each other.”
MoMA participant
Web site
Highlight the program on your museum’s Web site with a link to more detailed information on the program, such as:
- an explanation of its intended audience.
- dates and times of programs.
- a brief description of what happens before, during, and after programs.
- clear instructions and contact information for people who want to learn more or register.
- suggestions for what participants might do before and after a program to extend the experience.
- details about accessibility, transportation, parking, cost, and other logistics.
Use large type that is easy to read. Remember to credit your funders and supporters. Images of art to be included in upcoming programs can help make the site more inviting and enticing. Once the program is underway, you might also post photographs of the program, participants, and educators, but be sure to get written permission from them ahead of time.
Brochures
Prepare pamphlets or brochures that include much of the same information as the Web site. Use large print and images to enhance readability. Place these brochures in a prominent location at the reception desk of your museum. Mail them to key groups, constituencies, families, and healthcare professionals working in the field. Distribute them whenever you meet with or speak to community groups.
Meetings and conferences
Speak about your program’s offerings at support groups, community meetings, and local or regional conferences. Present the information and discuss the benefits for participants and the community as a whole.
Logistics
Paying attention to the administrative logistics early in your planning will pave the way for a smooth program later. Some important aspects are reservations and scheduling, transportation and parking, check-in and checkout procedures, and how you will handle last-minute adjustments.
Reservations and Scheduling
The person who handles phone reservations is the first point of contact for most participants. The initial telephone interaction sets the tone for your program and should be as clear as possible. When taking a group reservation it is important to find out:
- the number of participants with Alzheimer’s disease, their gender, and their age.
- the number of caregivers.
- whether any of the participants are nonverbal.
- whether any of the participants needs a wheelchair.
- if applicable, the relationship of the caregiver to the person with dementia.
- whether any participant has other disabilities, including hearing difficulties.
whether participants have any previous museum experience.
whether participants have any previous art-making experience.
how they learned about the program.
any other special needs or information.
Be sure to share the reservationist’s name and number for questions, your cancellation policy, and the cost of the program, if any. If you are registering a group, follow up a few days before the tour by contacting the group leader. Confirm all relevant information, including the date and time of the program, the number of participants, and arrival instructions.
If you are registering participants individually, take the same information for each reservation and compile it as you go. If many families register, it may be difficult to confirm with them before the program. It is always best to expect that some families will not make it, while others may show up without preregistering.
**Transportation and Parking**
Think ahead about how participants will get to and from the museum. Tell them about various options and help them as much as possible in their planning. Everyone will greatly appreciate a trip that is made as simple as possible. For individuals or groups providing their own transportation, consider:
- how far away they are and how long the trip will take.
- what the best route is to the museum.
- whether public transportation is available or there are free (or inexpensive) means of transportation for people with disabilities (such as Access-A-Ride or other services).
- whether there is reasonably priced parking close by or a lot that gives a museum discount.
**Check-in and Checkout**
Determine the optimal place for check-in and checkout. Look for a site that:
- is relatively small.
- is wheelchair accessible.
- has a coat rack or checkroom nearby.
- has restrooms nearby.
- is as close to parking and the entrance as possible.
- is protected from heavy pedestrian traffic coming in and out of the museum.
- is quiet and free from distracting noise.
- has enough chairs or benches for participants to sit comfortably while waiting to begin.
- is within a short walking distance to your destination or is close to elevators.
In addition to a list of all registered participants, arrange to have supplies and equipment at the check-in site: portable stools, wheelchairs, coat racks, personal listening devices (which amplify the sound of the educator’s voice), name tags (which help you communicate on a first-name basis with individual participants and will help them remember staff names), and information about future programs. If you are going to have more than one group at a time, assigning
different-colored name tags to each will help to distinguish them. Finally, plan what you will do at the end of the tour, including:
- sharing information about upcoming programs and offerings.
- collecting stools and personal listening devices.
- helping participants get their coats and other belongings.
- guiding participants to the restrooms.
- asking participants to complete written or oral evaluations (keeping in mind that individuals with dementia may need assistance).
- helping to locate cars, vans, buses, or other transportation.
If possible, provide small reproductions of works of art for participants to take home and offer participants passes so they can return to your museum on their own for free.
**Last-Minute Adjustments**
Very few plans are implemented exactly as designed, so expect the unexpected. When your program is in its early stages, try to meet with the staff the day before the program. Revisit your plan and identify any changes:
- Have there been cancellations?
- Has the number of participants changed?
- Do the groups need to be adjusted?
- Are enough educators/staff/volunteers available and ready?
- Are there any special issues (such as building maintenance, works no longer on view, special exhibit installations) to take into account?
- Is there anything else that could potentially affect the program, such as weather or holidays?
Stay in touch with each other during the hours preceding the program. Go over the details and make last-minute modifications, if necessary. Success requires close and direct communication among committed staff.
Most importantly, be flexible. Some participants will be early, others will arrive late. One of the check-in staff should remain at your check-in location for thirty minutes beyond the program’s scheduled start time to accommodate late arrivals. Welcome everyone who wishes to participate.
**Art-Looking Programs**
Whether you will be hosting a group from a care organization or a group of individual families for an art-looking program, you should develop a model that fits the specific needs and interests of your participants. Foundations for Engagement with Art (page 111) describes in detail the process outlined below and provides specific examples. If you are working off-site at a care organization, the essence of your program will be similar to the museum experience. You will, however, need to use reproductions or digital images, and take into consideration other logistical issues relevant to the site you are visiting. Guide for Care Organizations (page 143) touches on issues to consider at facilities outside the museum setting.
“Particularly for people who have Alzheimer’s and their caregivers, it is important to have a focused experience without any distractions—and that certainly is provided.”
MoMA participant
Preparing a Tour
Selecting a theme
Your theme should be appropriate and relevant for individuals with cognitive impairment and should capture the interest and imagination of all participants. You can focus on a particular artist, topic, or period, highlight important works from your museum’s collection, or focus on special exhibitions.
Selecting the works of art
Choose four to six works that fit into your theme and plot your route between them. Sequence the works in a way that connects them to the theme that you have chosen. The location of the works relative to one another (if using original works in gallery spaces) and the activities that will take place in front of them will also help determine the sequence. Make sure to take into consideration the scale of the works as well as the number of adjacent works: do not select artworks that are too small and avoid walls or areas where there is an overload of images. Avoid excess travel: do not choose works that are too far away from each other. Also consider the comfort level of the galleries you will visit (lighting, seating, temperature) and be aware of other events that might be taking place and could potentially distract participants.
Preparing art-historical information
Research the works and artists that you will be showing and discussing using your museum’s resources, exhibition catalogues, museum wall labels, and books. Plan to weave information into your conversation that will enhance participants’ understanding, help validate their interpretations, and spark their interest. You may also prepare to answer questions relating to general museum operation, such as protocol for acquiring work, planning exhibitions, and the logistics of displaying works. This “insider information” makes participants feel that they are getting a behind-the-scenes tour.
Preparing discussion questions
Plan three to five concrete discussion questions that invite exploration of each work. Start with simple questions like, “What do you see in this painting?” or, “What colors does the artist use?” As the group gets more comfortable, you will move on to more interpretive questions such as, “What would you title this painting?” or, “What do you think happens next?”
Planning a small-group conversation (Turn and Talk)
Prepare a discussion-based activity connected to one of the works to facilitate further discussion and foster interaction among the participants. The activity should be straightforward and allow participants to connect the work and theme to their personal lives and imaginations.
The artist and his wife, Mary, in front of one of his paintings.
The Day of the Program
Welcome
On the day of the program, prepare all necessary materials for check-in. As participants arrive, greet them warmly. Give them name tags, stools, and personal listening devices, if necessary. Take their coats and do whatever else you can to make them as comfortable as possible.
Starting your tour
While waiting for the program to begin, try to connect with the participants by chatting, asking about their day, or sharing some personal information about yourself. As the program begins, put participants at ease by giving them information about where they are and what they will be doing. Let them know that the program is meant to be an interactive, discussion-based exploration, not a lecture, and that they will concentrate on only a handful of works. This program may be quite different from what they are used to. Introduce the theme and mention the names of some of the artists whose works you will view.
In the galleries
As you move toward the first work, let the participants enjoy the space and environment of the museum itself. Move slowly, pointing out various elements of the architecture and design. Share some anecdotes about the history of the museum and its development. Allow the presence of the artworks and the museum environment to become a part of the experience.
While in the galleries, it is important to keep in mind the following structure and guidelines, which are also detailed in *Foundations for Engagement with Art* (page 111). Adhering to these steps creates a supportive and engaging environment. Maintain a sense of humor and sincerity in your conversation while you take participants through the following phases of their engagement with each work:
**OBSERVATION**
Invite participants to take a close look at the work of art before they take their seats. Give them plenty of time to settle in and get comfortable. The seating arrangement should allow for every person to have an unrestricted view of the work. Once they are seated, encourage participants to observe quietly for about one minute before they begin to describe what they see.
**DESCRIPTION**
Start by simply asking people to list what they see and to describe the work. Ask questions that prompt description, talk directly to each participant, and make eye contact. Repeat and summarize all the observations to create a full visual inventory of the work.
**INTERPRETATION**
After taking a complete visual inventory, prompt interpretation of the work. Encourage breadth and variety of interpretation. Ask different kinds of questions to foster more creative explorations. Provide art-historical information that is relevant to the group’s responses and interests.
**CONNECTION**
As the program progresses, have participants connect the artwork to their lives and experiences and to the world. This will enable the group to gain new insights about the work and each other. Do not hesitate to invite opinions or share your own perspective.
“I think for the people who are planning these programs and giving the tours we have to remember to be as selfless as possible. We should not get too tied up in our own anxieties and live in the moment as the people in the program are.”
Celeste V. Fetta, Manager of Adult and Higher Education and Acting Chair of the Adult Education Department, The Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia
SMALL-GROUP CONVERSATION (TURN AND TALK)
At the second or third work, integrate a smaller-group discussion. Divide participants into groups of six or fewer individuals to discuss works more intimately. Give the groups a prompt that will encourage them to explore an idea further or to connect the work to their own personal life experiences.
SUMMARY
Toward the end of the discussion of each work (and at the end of the program), bring together the various threads of conversation, summarizing and synthesizing the ideas and opinions that have come up. Show your enthusiasm, and focus on the value of these explorations. Thank the participants for sharing and open the discussion to final comments.
Art-Making Programs
There is a wide range of mediums, materials, techniques, and strategies that you can use within art-making programs. Projects will depend on the educator’s areas of interest and expertise, as well as the interests and abilities of participants. This portion of the guide provides an outline for general planning and implementation of art-making programs both at your museum and off-site. For sample projects related to specific themes, see the Art Modules included with this publication.
It is important to determine the participants’ interest in making art. Some adults who have not made art regularly throughout their lives may not be comfortable with this type of expression, while others may be very keen to get involved. When determining whether you will offer art-making programs, take the following into consideration:
- The experience and comfort-level of your staff. Are the educators comfortable facilitating both art-looking and art-making programs? Are they interested in working with the same group over time, if requested? Are they available to work off-site at a care organization, if necessary?
- The size of the groups. Is the group too large? Will members be sufficiently interested and engaged? Will group size affect their ability to participate?
- Logistical considerations related to the art-making program or to a program that includes both art-making and art-looking components. For example, if you are thinking of looking and discussing art in the galleries followed by an art-making activity, will you have enough time? (A program should not exceed two hours.) Will a studio space be available? Are the studios close to the galleries and easily accessible?
Designing the Projects
Project goals
Consider the goals of your program and the ways in which you will complement art-making projects in the studio with discussions of original works of art or reproductions. If you are working off-site, think about the amount of time you will spend discussing artwork and the amount of time you will spend creating artwork. Also, the nature of the project will depend on how many programs you will have with the same participants. You can produce more in-depth work if you have multiple art-making programs with the same group, but you can also create interesting work in one program.
Overall, keep the projects clear and enjoyable. You want to tap into participants’ artistic potential and creativity without overwhelming them with complex instructions. Design projects that are interesting and intriguing to participants, but do not necessarily demand advanced artistic skills, and avoid those that could be deemed childish. Provide some structure while leaving plenty of room for flexibility and individual adaptations. Be sure to take into account the physical limitations and reduced dexterity that may come with aging when choosing materials and processes. Invite caregivers to participate when possible and appropriate.
**Selecting a theme**
Your project should have an overall theme to provide structure and purpose to the experience. In relation to this theme, research artists whose work you can show as examples. If you are in the museum, you can visit the galleries prior to the studio component or after launching some of the activities. There should be a lot of synergy between discussion of artworks in the museum and the hands-on engagement of the participants. Make it clear that you are showing these works as reflection and study pieces only and not suggesting that the participants should try to produce similar results.
**Making samples**
Showing samples of finished artwork or works in progress will help participants get a better idea of what they can create. A handmade example will create an opportunity for you to share something personal with the group. The sample should demonstrate a level of ability that is accessible to all participants.
**Preparing materials and supplies**
Make sure you have enough supplies for everyone. Anticipate that some participants may want to make more than one object. If you are traveling off-site, make sure to plan ahead regarding what materials you need to bring and what the off-site facility can provide.
**Providing instructions**
Use step-by-step directions that are easy to understand and follow. For projects that have a limited number of steps, write out the instructions ahead of time to share on the day of the program. Showing examples of works in progress can help to make instructions easier to understand.
**Implementing the Program**
**Introducing the program**
Welcome the group with warmth and enthusiasm. Ask if any participants are artists or have experience making art. Explain what participants will be creating and how. Introduce them to the supplies you have brought and explain how to use them. Tell everyone the overall theme to help provide a framework for the project. Explain the amount of time you will be spending in the studio and the way you will connect the work in the studio to conversations in the galleries.
**Discussing artwork**
Using the strategies outlined in Foundations for Engagement with Art (page 11), lead participants in a discussion of one or more works by other artists, relating them to your overall theme. Make sure to address materials and techniques and the formal
properties of the works. Although it is always best to look at original works of art in the galleries, you could also use reproductions in the studio. Remember to leave images visible as participants work on their own projects. If you are working off-site, make sure to bring reproductions and/or plan to show digital images.
**Creating a positive work environment**
Choose the most comfortable and least distracting classroom or studio space available. The seating, lighting, and temperature should all be optimal in terms of comfort. During the participants’ first program, you might even tell them about the function of the studio for this and other programs at the museum in order to familiarize them with the space. If you are working off-site, make sure to plan with the staff of the facility ahead of time to reserve and prepare a space with minimal distractions.
Help participants get started with their projects by assisting them at any level necessary. Share instructions and repeat as often as needed. Make sure to balance your aims for the program with the particular mood and interests of the group. Do your best to adjust to distractions of all kinds.
**Supporting participants**
Create a “failure-free” experience, one that is safe and that builds confidence, and be ready to adjust if needed to accommodate differences in ability and interest. Show patience with your words and your tone, use humor, and share personal stories to set an informal mood. Do not be condescending. Offer positive reinforcement with specific praise; for example, “I like your use of green in this painting” is more useful than a general evaluative comment such as “This is great.”
**Presenting artwork**
Have participants share their work with the rest of the group and say as much as they like about it. They can do this alone or together with their caregivers. Presenting the work allows participants to connect with each other as well as with staff, and it helps everyone feel validated and successful.
**Displaying artwork**
If the museum has a space to display work created as part of education programs, consider reserving that space for an upcoming exhibition of the participants’ work. If you have secured the space and know that the exhibition will take place at the conclusion of the programs, let participants know from the outset. Invite family, friends, funders, and others you believe might be interested. Participants will be empowered by viewing their own and others’ creations. Works should be accompanied by labels that provide the artist’s name and title of the work in large, legible type. If you are working off-site, encourage the staff of the facility to display the participants’ works. If your studio programs have involved different groups, the final exhibition can include a chosen piece by each participant. After the show, return the work to the participants.
“We have witnessed incredible responses from participants. Many have been inspired by the gallery discussions and have made numerous connections to their own lives. In addition, working with our partners has been an extremely fulfilling and rewarding experience on many levels for the museum staff.”
Karleen Gardner, Curator of Education, The Memphis Brooks Museum of Art, Memphis
| **PRACTICE: GUIDE FOR CARE ORGANIZATIONS** | |
|------------------------------------------|---|
| **142** | |
This guide focuses on the structure and set-up of off-site programs at museums or art galleries and on-site programs at your facility. Programs at your facility can be a source of pleasure and pride for participants. They also allow everyone to engage with art in a safe and familiar environment and might allow for greater participation, as some individuals may not be physically capable of making a trip off-site. Museum visits can also provide intellectual stimulation through social experiences. At the end of this guide, you will find a brief primer on issues to consider when planning a trip to a museum.
| Section | Page |
|--------------------------------|------|
| General Planning | 144 |
| Art-Looking Programs | 146 |
| Art-Making Programs | 148 |
| Museum Visits | 150 |
General Planning
Logistical Considerations
Program content
Within your own organization, consider offering:
1. Art-looking programs: These programs could be initiated by your staff, participants, or art educators from nearby museums or other arts organizations. Artworks can be chosen from books, Web sites, or other collections and displayed as large-scale reproductions, projected slides, or digital images.
2. Art-making programs: Artists in your community may be interested in sharing their talents with your facility and leading a creative art-making experience. This could include drawing, painting, sculpture, collage, or photography. Your staff could also facilitate these art-making workshops.
You can also create a program that includes both art-looking and art-making. At the end of this guide you will find a sample program conducted by a MoMA educator at a care organization. This four-week program integrates both art-looking and art-making sessions.
Participants
With any program, keep the size of the groups small. A group of six to eight people with dementia is ideal. If more people will be participating, try to create smaller subgroups to individualize the experience as much as possible and to address the specific interests and needs of each person. You may also wish to invite family members and professional caregivers to participate.
Dates and times
Programs can be regularly scheduled or offered upon request. Choose dates and times that are best for your organization and the participants. Work around other scheduled or anticipated activities to avoid conflicts. Programs should last no longer than two hours. Start small, perhaps with a program every other month, and plan to expand as you gain experience. Prepare a schedule of programs and share it with your staff.
Spaces
Find a space that is relatively intimate and quiet, wheelchair accessible, and near restrooms and elevators. Try to use warm and welcoming rooms that evoke positive associations. Make sure the space has sturdy tables, enough comfortable chairs for all, and adequate lighting. Arrange the tables and chairs to encourage conversation and allow everyone to see the artwork easily. If you plan to make art, be sure to give each person enough space to work.
Costs
You may incur costs for art-making supplies, reproductions of art, equipment for displaying reproductions, and hiring educators. Consider minimizing expenses by seeking sponsors and patrons, applying for grants, soliciting donated artwork and reproductions, and exploring partnerships with other relevant organizations to share costs.
Advertising
Prepare a flyer and/or an article in your newsletter to let individuals and their families know about the program. Display the flyer around the organization in well-trafficked areas. Work with people in charge of public relations and marketing at your organization.
“Art has the potential to unlock doors and elicit responses that are unexpected and refreshing and energizing.”
Susan Puttermann Jacobson, former Curator of Contemporary Collection and Director of the Judaica Museum at The Hebrew Home at Riverdale, Riverdale, New York
who can help to further disseminate the information. Include an e-mail address and a phone number in the flyer that connects directly to knowledgeable staff who can answer questions.
**Preparation and last-minute adjustments**
To get off to a good start, set up the room and arrange any equipment and supplies one hour before the program begins. Ask the educator and other assistants to arrive early to help with set-up. Have another staff member bring the participants to the designated room and help them get comfortable. Prepare name tags for the staff and all the participants in order to help everyone become familiar with each other from the beginning. In addition, it is wise to recognize that very few plans are implemented exactly as designed, so expect the unexpected. When your program is in its early stages, meet with your program staff the day before the program to revisit your plan and identify needed changes. Then stay flexible and adjust to the abilities and interests of the participants.
**Resources**
There are many resources for artworks to discuss. Most art institutions have reproductions available for purchase in their stores, in the form of posters or postcards. If you will distribute reproductions to each participant, make sure to have one larger work to keep at the front to use as a reference. Museum Web sites often include reproductions of the works in their collections as well as information about the artists and art movements they are associated with. You can use these Web sites to download images to print or to project onto a screen. If you are using a computer or a television, make sure the screen is big enough, the lighting appropriate, and the environment comfortable.
In addition, you can tap into the interests of participants with artwork that you have in the facility or that they already have at home. Decorative objects, family photographs, and other works can all be used to engage in both art-looking and art-making experiences.
MoMA’s online collection is an extensive resource, containing images and information about modern and contemporary works and artists. You can access the online collection at www.moma.org/collection. A set of art modules with accompanying art cards and a DVD of images from MoMA’s collection are included with this publication.
**Staffing**
Effective programs rely on trained, committed staff. For this program, you will need a program coordinator, art educators, and assistants.
**Program coordinator**
You will need one staff person to coordinate and oversee the program. Ideally, this individual would be a paid, full-time staff member who is experienced with working with people with dementia, interested in art, and highly organized. He or she will be responsible for planning the programs, locating art educators and assistants, advertising the program, inviting and signing up participants, reserving appropriate spaces, gathering art supplies and other material, and troubleshooting during the program.
“This is a quality experience for Alzheimer’s patients and their caregivers out in the world. The benefit to the community is that it definitely helps to break down the stereotype of a person with Alzheimer’s.”
Kathleen T. Burg, Director, Chesed Project, Taos, New Mexico
Art educators
Ideally, your art programs would be led by professional art educators or teaching artists from your community who are hired by you or a partnering organization, or who volunteer their time and expertise. They can be identified through local museums, artists’ groups and consortiums, or local universities and art schools. Reach out to local organizations to elicit interest and involvement. Establish written agreements with the educator to document expectations and time commitments. Look for educators that engage the participants and have experience working with people with disabilities. Be sure that your staff interacts with the educators on a regular basis.
Assistants
Additional staff or volunteers can help support the art-looking or art-making experiences outlined in the following sections. They can help participants focus by giving them individualized attention. They can also be of great assistance in the planning stages, during workshops, or on visits to museums.
Preparing the Experience
Selecting a theme
Your theme should be appropriate and relevant for individuals with cognitive impairment and also capture the interest and imagination of all participants. Consider themes such as: Portraiture, Identity and Community, Materials and Processes, Landscapes, Real and Imaginary Worlds, Women in Art, or Storytelling in Art. You could also focus on a single artist, an art movement, art from a specific geographical region, or art from a certain time period. Themes like Relationships, Seasons, or Holidays and Celebrations might be especially accessible for all audiences.
Selecting the works of art
Choose four to six works that fit into your theme. Try to select works that you find interesting, that you are comfortable speaking about, and that you think will engage the audience. The more at ease you are with your choices, the more contagious your enthusiasm will be to others.
Preparing art-historical information
Research the works and artists that you will be showing and discussing using online resources, exhibition catalogues, museum wall labels, and books. Plan to weave relevant information into your conversation that will enhance participants’ understanding, help validate their interpretations, and spark further conversation.
Preparing questions
Plan three to five concrete discussion questions per work that invite exploration of that work. Start with simple questions like, “What do you see in this...
painting?” or, “What colors does the artist use?” As the group gets more comfortable, move on to more interpretive questions, such as, “What would you title this painting?” or, “What do you think happens next?”
**Planning a small-group conversation (Turn and Talk)**
Prepare a small-group activity connected to one of the works to facilitate further discussion and foster interaction among the participants. The activity should be straightforward and allow participants to connect the work and theme to their personal lives and stir their imaginations.
**Facilitating the Discussion**
If you or someone from your staff will be leading the discussion, it is important to keep the following structure in mind. These steps create a supportive environment that encourages each participant’s engagement.
**Welcome**
As participants arrive, greet them warmly. Be welcoming with your tone and body language. Introduce yourself and others. Never mention Alzheimer’s disease or dementia. Call people by name and speak slowly and clearly. Put participants at ease by letting them know where they are and what they will be doing. Reinforce this information throughout the program. Try to connect with the participants by sharing some personal information about yourself.
**In front of a work of art**
**OBSERVATION**
Invite participants to take a close look at any artwork before they take their seats. Original work or large reproductions can be displayed on an easel, a wall, or anywhere else they can be easily viewed by all. Reproductions can be passed around and/or shown on a screen or a white wall using a projector or on a computer monitor. Dim the lights closest to the projection wall so that the image is clear and visible, but keep as many lights on as possible. The seating arrangement should allow for every person to have an unobstructed view of the work. If you are passing around reproductions, make sure you allow enough time for everyone to have a close look. Encourage participants to observe quietly for a minute before they begin to describe what they see.
**DESCRIPTION**
Start by simply asking people to list what they see and describe the work. Ask questions that prompt description: What do you see in this painting? Is this person inside or outside? Talk directly to each participant and make eye contact.
**INTERPRETATION**
After taking a complete visual inventory, ask participants to begin interpreting the work. Encourage breadth and variety of interpretation. Keep building on what is said and connect ideas. Balance your questions with art-historical information that is relevant to the group’s responses and interests.
**CONNECTION**
As the discussion progresses, have participants connect the artwork to their lives and experiences, and to the world. This will encourage the group to
“The first time that we took a group to the museum we videotaped the tour. On the video you can actually see the affect of one of the people in the group change—from being, ‘I don’t want to be here,’ to, ‘Wow, look at that painting, and look at what I see in it.’”
Mary Ann Johnson, Program Director, The Alzheimer’s Association, Greater Richmond Chapter, Richmond, Virginia
interact in interesting ways and gain new insights into the work and each other. Do not hesitate to invite opinions or to share your own perspective.
SMALL-GROUP CONVERSATION (TURN AND TALK)
Toward the middle of the program, integrate a smaller discussion activity. Ask the group to divide into smaller groups of six or fewer people to discuss works more intimately. Give the groups a prompt that will encourage them to connect the work to their own personal life experiences: For example, ask participants to discuss whether they prefer to live in the city or the country and why, or to describe their favorite place to spend time and why it is meaningful.
SUMMARY
Toward the end of the discussion of each work (and at the end of the program), bring together the various threads of conversation, summarizing and synthesizing the ideas and opinions that have come up. Show your enthusiasm and focus on the meaning and value of these explorations.
Art-Making Programs
There is a wide range of mediums, materials, techniques, and strategies you can use in art-making programs. Projects will depend on the teaching artist’s areas of interest and expertise, as well as the interests and abilities of participants. This section provides an outline for general planning and implementation. The specifics of each art-making project determine the details both the coordinator and the art educator must take into account. For sample projects related to specific themes, see the Art Modules included with this publication.
Designing the Projects
Project goals
Consider the goals of your program and an underlying theme. Keep the projects clear and enjoyable. Tap into participants’ artistic potential and creativity without overwhelming them with complex instructions. At the same time, make sure to avoid projects that could be deemed condescending. Design projects that are interesting and intriguing to participants, while not necessarily demanding advanced artistic skills. Provide some structure while leaving plenty of room for flexibility and individual adaptations. Be sure to take into account the physical limitations and reduced dexterity that may come with aging when choosing materials and processes. Invite caregivers to participate when possible and appropriate.
Selecting a theme
Your program should have an overall theme to provide structure and purpose to the experience. In relation to this theme, research artists whose work you can show as examples. Sharing photographs and reproductions from catalogues or books or stories about relevant artists will spark interesting discussion among participants as they work on their own art projects. Make it clear that you are showing these works as inspiration only and not suggesting that the participants should produce similar results (i.e., avoid “create your own Van Gogh” or “create your own Pollock” projects).
Making samples
Showing samples of finished artwork or works in progress will help participants get a better idea of what they can make. A handmade example will create an
opportunity for you to share something personal with the group. The sample should demonstrate a level of ability that is accessible to all participants.
**Preparing materials and supplies**
Prepare your supplies ahead of time. Make sure you have enough for all participants plus some extra materials. Anticipate that some participants may want to make more than one work.
**Providing instructions**
Use step-by-step directions that are easy to understand and follow. You may want to write out the instructions to help participants remember them. Be mindful of your delivery: speak loudly, clearly, and at a moderate pace.
**Implementing the Program**
**Introducing the program**
Welcome the group with warmth and enthusiasm. Ask if any participants are artists or have experience making art. Explain what participants will be creating and how. Introduce them to the supplies you have brought and how to use them and tell everyone the overall theme in order to help provide a framework for the project.
**Discussing artwork**
Using the strategies outlined in the Art-Looking Programs section (page 147), lead participants in a discussion of one or two works by other artists that relate to your overall theme. This conversation links the work they will be making to the scope of art history and can act as a useful and inspiring prelude to the project.
**Creating a positive work environment**
Help participants get started with their projects by assisting them at any level necessary. Repeat instructions as often as needed. Make sure to balance your aims for the program with the particular mood and interests of the group. Do your best to adjust to distractions of all kinds.
**Supporting participants**
Support a “failure-free” experience, one that is safe and that builds confidence, and be ready to adjust if needed to accommodate differences in ability and interest. Show patience with your words and your tone, use humor, and share personal stories to set an informal mood. Offer positive reinforcement with specific praise; for example, “I like your use of green in this painting” is more useful than a general evaluative comment such as “This is great.” Offer insights and recommendations that can help a participant’s process.
**Presenting artwork**
Have participants share as much as they like about their work with the rest of the group. They can do this alone or with their caregivers. Presenting the work allows participants to connect with each other as well as with staff, and it helps everyone feel validated.
**Displaying artwork**
If possible, exhibit participants’ artwork for all to see. Viewing their own and others’ creations will empower participants and may inspire future engagement. Works
Museum Visits
Local museums may offer programs specifically for people with dementia. Learn more about them and how you can register. Your best contact is likely to be the museum’s education department, specifically the person who coordinates programs for individuals with disabilities or community groups. If you would like to lead a group within the museum, it would be best to contact the museum to learn about their policy regarding outside educators. If a museum in your area is interested in starting a program, refer them to the Guide for Museums in this book (page 125).
Logistical Considerations
Participants
Invite those individuals whom you feel will enjoy the experience and who are physically capable of making the trip. A group of six to eight people with dementia is ideal. If possible, invite family members and professional caregivers, including your staff, to either travel with you or meet you at the museum so that they can participate.
Scheduling
Coordinate with the museum in order to take into account their needs as well as those of your group. Consider your organization’s scheduling requirements and other factors when planning the trip. Visit on a day when the museum is not too busy or on a day when the museum is closed, if possible. Museum staff can assist you in determining which dates and times are best.
Costs
Ideally, your program should be free to participants, but it also must be financially sustainable. Consider minimizing costs by attending free existing programs, seeking sponsors, applying for grants, and exploring partnerships with museums or other organizations.
Transportation
Consider how you will get participants to and from the museum. Gather directions and maps, and locate wheelchair-accessible entrances and parking lots in order to ensure a stress-free experience. Find out ahead of time if the museum can provide stools for all participants and wheelchairs, if necessary.
Museum policies
Make sure that all participants, staff, and family members are aware of the museum’s rules and policies. Go over the most important factors, such as safety and respect for the works of art and the museum in your facility and right before entering the galleries.
The Museum Experience
Frame of mind
By taking the aforementioned logistical issues into consideration ahead of time, you will help to create a stress-free atmosphere that will enable participants
“We saw residents who often spent their day in silence look at works of art, create their own narrative about a piece, and talk thoughtfully about it. This held true for diverse works of art—abstract, representational, photographs, and sculpture.”
Susan Putterman Jacobson, former Curator of Contemporary Collection and Director of the Judaica Museum at The Hebrew Home at Riverdale, Riverdale, New York
to focus on the experience of being in a museum and engaging with art. Additionally, you can further improve the experience by:
- Giving your group plenty of time to get to the museum.
- Talking about the museum on your way there.
- Exploring the museum space once you are inside. As you walk through the galleries, you can talk about the architecture of the space. The goal is to experience art but also the museum itself.
- Remembering that fatigue can set in. In general, two hours in a museum setting is the limit for any visitor’s attention and concentration. Consider taking breaks and exploring non-exhibition spaces such as cafés and gardens for relaxation. You could also consider scheduling time for a snack or meal with the whole group after the museum visit.
- Making lightness and humor central to your interactions. Make sure to balance your aims with the particular mood and interests of the participants in the group.
- Adjusting to distractions of all kinds, like agitation, interruptions, or a lack of initiative or interest. It is fine if the viewing plan changes or you do not make it to a work you intended to see.
- Continuing to reflect on the experience after the program by sharing your experiences and listening to others share their stories. You can tie your visit to further discussions and art-making projects in your facility.
**In the galleries**
If you are participating in a museum program, take advantage of the fact that someone else is leading the group. Explore your own interests in the works of art while remaining with the group, and participate in the discussions.
If you are not participating in a structured museum program but rather designing one yourself, think of the visit as a two-tiered experience. In the first tier, you will be leading the group and should have a general idea of what you will be seeing in terms of particular works or a particular exhibition. Follow the strategies and structures detailed in *Foundations for Engagement with Art* (page 111). In the second tier, allow the group to roam freely and look at and discuss whatever appeals to them. You can divide the group into smaller units and assign volunteers and caregivers to each unit. Make sure there are people from your staff accompanying all groups. Do not attempt to cover too much ground in one visit. Rather, focus on in-depth engagement with fewer works.
The visit should be integrated into your organization’s overall art program. The museum experience can complement the art-looking or art-making programs that are offered on-site at your organization.
“I think one of the benefits is that this is an opportunity to see the person you love being successful in the community. It’s an opportunity to actually participate in an activity with the person who has dementia.”
Courtney Gerber, Assistant Director of Education, Tour Programs, Education and Community Programs, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Sample Program
To create a multiweek program for participants in your organization, refer to the Art Modules included with this publication. You have the option of sequencing multiple existing modules to create a multipart program that includes both art-looking and art-making components, or you can mix images provided as art cards or on the DVD to create your own themes. If possible, you may incorporate trips to a museum into the program.
The following example features a four-part program at a care organization that includes both art-looking and art-making sessions. This program was conducted by a MoMA educator with a group of individuals with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
The program was divided into separate art-looking and art-making, or studio, sessions. At the beginning of each studio session, the educator introduced reproductions of images from the previous art-looking session to incorporate the ideas discussed then into the art-making process. Although some participants who are in the early stages of the disease may be able to recall the artworks from the earlier discussion with little difficulty, it is always useful to reintroduce the images.
Part I: The Importance of Place
Theme
Choosing a broad theme for the first session is a good idea. Everyone can relate to “place” — feelings inspired by a place, loving a place filled with good memories, being moved by a specific scene in a specific place. By tapping into long-term memories, the educator thought she would get responses from a broader spectrum of the group.
Week I: Art-looking sessions
Jacob August Riis. *Bandits’ Roost, 59 ½ Mulberry Street*. 1888
Georges-Pierre Seurat. *Port-en-Bessin, Entrance to the Harbor*. 1888
Jacob Lawrence. *Street Shadows*. 1959
Piet Mondrian. *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. 1942–43
The educator took several factors into consideration when choosing these works. First, she wanted to show a range of mediums and a range of techniques or artistic styles to encourage experimentation with materials during the studio session to follow. She was also concerned with appealing to a broad range of interests: she tried to include works that are representational and works that are abstract.
During the program, when she realized that she would not have the opportunity to get through all four works, she decided to use the works done by New York artists — she had started with Riis, and participants loved talking about the way things used to look in New York, as most of them were native New Yorkers. She thought Jacob Lawrence was a perfect complement for their discussion of the city.
During this session, the participants were very engaged and constantly asked questions and shared personal experiences — to the point that they spent almost thirty minutes discussing just the first work. Rather than rushing them along, the educator felt it would be more beneficial to get everyone to share as much as possible. She adjusted the number of works and the amount of time spent discussing each work to the group’s interest.
Keep in mind the value and meaning of these types of connections. Rather than sticking to a plan without flexibility, it is much more fruitful to allow participants’ responses and interests to direct the discussion. Digressions, sharing of personal experiences, storytelling, and reflections on life and art should be encouraged.
**Week II: Studio session**
The educator chose a watercolor project so the group could experiment with color and composition in a free-form way. Each participant spent an hour creating a piece inspired by a place that was special to him or her. The images discussed during Week I were shown again in Week II to provide reference to a variety of styles and places.
**Overall response**
The educator was very pleased with the outcome of the first two sessions. The participants had much to contribute, and while some were more verbal than others, everyone seemed engaged and stimulated. Some group members were a little disconcerted that they would have to make art, saying things like, “I’m not an artist,” and, “You’ll want to throw it away when I’m done,” but everyone tried, and everyone — including a ninety-two-year-old woman who was very concerned because she had been an accountant and “not creative” — seemed pleased with their work. The educator considered the project a success the moment everyone had made a mark on their paper because this meant they had overcome their fear of doing something “right” and let their intuition take over.
Part II: The Power of a Portrait
Theme
The educator introduced this theme because it allowed for in-depth discussion of a topic that was easily accessible to all participants. She wanted to focus on artists’ choices to generate a lively discussion about technique in order to inspire participants to experiment during the studio session.
Week III: Art-looking session
Chuck Close. *Self-Portrait*. 1991
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. *Street, Dresden*. 1908
Henri Matisse. *The Red Studio*. 1911
Pablo Picasso. *Girl before a Mirror*. 1932
The educator chose works that demonstrated a range of artistic styles and techniques. She started with Close, and the group marveled at the large scale of the work (about eight feet tall and seven feet wide) and at what they felt was the psychological state of the painter. The group was very interested in the artist’s personal life and what caused him to paint the way he did. When looking at the work by Kirchner, participants brought up the idea of loneliness.
Also, the subject matter and time periods of the other paintings led the group to discuss feelings related to identity as well as the social and political context within which the works were made. This conversation also enabled some participants to access long-term memories, which led to very meaningful exchanges.
Week IV: Studio session
During the follow-up studio session, the group spent an hour working with self-hardening clay to create portraits that depicted themselves or someone else of their choosing. These could be done with any degree of realism and in any style they chose. The group worked with basic modeling tools, and the educator encouraged experimentation with materials. The project was sophisticated yet simple enough to complete in one session so that workshop participants felt a sense of accomplishment at the program’s end. It was also very important to the educator that every week be filled with some activity that was different from what had come before it. She wanted the group to have a chance to “get messy,” to work with various media, and to experiment with materials they had never tried before.
Overall response
The discussion was very productive, as participants made many connections to the works and to each other. The group was more comfortable this time when the educator presented the art-making activity. Some were intimidated by the clay, and some were unwilling to get messy — but everyone tried to work with the material. The group’s coordinator noted that the tactile materials seemed to bring many people out of their shells. She thought it might be nice to use clay again if there was time during a future session.
Some participants were very happy with their work and proud to take it home, while others were less impressed by their skills but welcomed the challenge and engagement during the workshops. Everyone reported having a very positive experience during the discussion and studio sessions. The educator remarked, “I do believe I learned more from them than they did from me in our time together!”
| 156 | PRACTICE: GUIDE FOR FAMILIES |
This guide provides information for planning a trip to a museum and creating stimulating art experiences at home. Visits to museums and cultural institutions foster positive interactions with others and with art. Explorations at home allow participants to engage with art in a familiar environment. It is ideal to relate your experiences at home with visits to museums, galleries, and other cultural institutions. An example that incorporates both runs throughout the guide.
| Section | Page |
|--------------------------|------|
| Art Outings | 158 |
| Art at Home | 164 |
Visits to art museums and galleries can be rich and rewarding experiences. Viewing original works of art in quiet, contemplative spaces that allow for social interaction can be beneficial for everyone involved and provide an opportunity for self-reflection and self-expression. There are many ways to visit a museum or gallery, and you can involve a variety of people in your experience.
**Independent Visits and Programs**
**Family visits to museums and galleries**
A trip to a museum or a gallery in a pair or with family and/or friends can be both convenient and rewarding. Such visits can be extremely enriching and can provide a relaxing break for everyone involved. They are easy to plan and are adaptable to various personal schedules and needs. You might also consider establishing an informal group of families dealing with memory loss who would like to travel as a group. These are families that you might meet at care organizations, in support groups, or in a number of other circumstances.
In our example, a daughter (D.) and her father (F.) plan to go to the The Museum of Modern Art together. F. has always had a passing interest in art, but has a hard time “appreciating” contemporary art because, he says, “I don’t really understand much of what’s going on in the works.”
**Museum programs**
Local museums may offer programs for people with dementia. Learn more about them and how you can register. The museum’s education department will most likely be the best contact, and some may have an access division, which caters to individuals with various special needs and disabilities.
**Support groups**
Visiting museums or galleries with a support group is also an option. You might want to join a support group that schedules regular outings to cultural centers or reach out to your local Alzheimer’s Association chapter or to other organizations that offer support groups. Encourage support-group leaders to contact museum staff to set up a tour or to establish a more extensive partnership program.
Day trips with care organizations
If at any point the care recipient attends an adult day center or other care organization, a group from the center may be planning art programs either on- or off-site. Consider taking trips together with members of the facility. If possible, invite other caregivers and family members to either travel with you or meet you at the museum so that they too can engage in interactive discussions with their loved ones.
Logistical Considerations
Scheduling
Whether you are considering an existing program or coordinating your own trip, make sure you are fully aware of the museum’s policies, hours of operation, and accessibility and other issues that might affect your trip. Familiarize yourself with the museum’s scheduling procedures, along with policies regarding small or large groups. Calling ahead to see when the museum is the least crowded can help make the visit work more effectively. Afternoon outings allow you adequate time to prepare.
Spaces
Make sure you are aware of the particularities of the space you are visiting. Having a sense of the flow of people in the lobby and in the galleries will help you avoid overcrowded areas or otherwise unwelcoming spaces. You should also know the locations of restaurants, bathrooms, and other amenities. If beneficial, ask if wheelchairs are available for loan. Most museums have wheelchairs and will provide them upon request.
Costs
Many museums, galleries, or cultural centers provide discounted or free admission for older adults and/or free programs for individuals with dementia and their caregivers. Before planning the trip, inquire about issues related to costs for yourself or for a group. Some museums offer passes that allow a free follow-up visit when you participate in a program. If you are attending as part of a larger group, you might consider minimizing costs by sharing transportation expenses and exploring museum membership discounts.
“I sat down and critiqued one of the paintings that I saw. And that brought back things that I had studied, and that made me start thinking that I didn’t lose everything that I was afraid I was losing.”
MoMA participant
D. and F. had previously attended a Meet Me at MoMA program and received passes that allowed them to come to MoMA for free with three other family members (up to five people). D.’s husband and his sister are also interested in attending and making the Museum visit a meaningful and enriching family experience. They decide to go to MoMA later in the afternoon, around 3:00 p.m. They commit to leaving at 5:00 p.m. at the latest, in order to prevent fatigue from setting in, and plan an early dinner to complete the outing. Luckily, D.’s sister-in-law has a car, so they decide to drive on a Wednesday afternoon and park in one of the parking lots that provide discounts to MoMA visitors.
**Transportation and parking**
For trips to museums or galleries, think ahead about how you will get to and from the site. Gather directions and maps, and locate wheelchair-accessible entrances and parking lots, if necessary, in order to ensure a stress-free traveling experience.
**The Museum Experience**
**Enjoying the museum**
Every effort should be made to make the museum experience as enjoyable as possible. Give yourself plenty of time to get there, and do not be in a rush. The goal is to experience and access art and also take in the benefits of the museum itself, as well as the social aspects of the outing. If you are participating in a program, take advantage of the fact that someone else is leading the group and use the time to relax, explore your own interest in the works discussed, and get a psychological and emotional lift. The experience will be more rewarding if you also feel that you are being personally nurtured.
**Choosing the works**
If you are not participating in a scheduled program and will be facilitating the experience yourself, be sure to provide a general framework that will focus all participants and give the trip purpose. When planning, think of your visit as a two-tiered experience. In the first tier, you should have a general idea of what you will be seeing, in terms of particular works or a particular exhibition. In the second tier, allow yourself to roam freely and look at and discuss whatever is most appealing. Make sure to take into consideration the interests and backgrounds of everyone in the group. Do not attempt to cover too much ground in one visit. Rather, focus on prolonged engagement with fewer works. Throughout take note of the works viewed so you can discuss them at home using reproductions or digital images.
“This opens a wonderful opportunity for people to connect and to get over the ‘fear’ or ‘discomfort’ of being with the elderly, especially those with dementia. This is a great gift, and an important one in an aging society.”
MoMA participant
D. thinks that taking her father to look at more iconic and accessible works will prompt him to explore some of the Contemporary galleries. She plans to focus on particular works in the Painting and Sculpture galleries that she has researched in advance using the Museum’s Web site. Afterward she plans for them to stroll through the Contemporary galleries, allowing their explorations to go into uncharted and unplanned directions and to make connections to the works they have just viewed. When they get to the Museum, they go directly to the Painting and Sculpture galleries on the fifth floor. They look at three works in depth, all of which depict cityscapes. One particular work is especially intriguing to them: *Street, Dresden* by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. They appreciate both the subject matter of the work and the signature style with which Kirchner transforms this urban street scene.
Remember that fatigue can set in, so make sure you do not tire yourself out or become frustrated with the range and scope of things to see. In general, more than two hours in any museum setting is physically and mentally taxing. Consider taking breaks and exploring non-exhibition spaces, such as the café and garden, for relaxation. You could also consider going out for a snack or meal after the museum visit to allow time for reflection and relaxation.
The family strolls through the third-floor galleries to explore some photography—a favorite of F.’s, who had dabbled in photography and always appreciated the extent to which black-and-white photography had infused artistic practices with new ideas and a new aesthetic. Without having planned it, they stumble upon some photographs by Helen Levitt depicting New York street scenes, which provide great fodder for conversation about the ways New York has changed and the beauty of the photographs themselves. In addition, a natural conversation unfolds around Kirchner’s depiction of street scenes in comparison to Levitt’s. (D. had bought a print of Kirchner’s painting that they use for comparison.) After another twenty minutes in the Photography galleries, the group takes a break in the Sculpture Garden, then goes to the Contemporary galleries.
“The program provides a wonderful opportunity, not only for the family members with dementia to participate, but everyone’s invited to participate in the discussion, and that makes it more fun than just watching your loved one blossom. The memories that I’ll have of this experience are quite moving, and they’re emblazoned in my temporal lobe.”
MoMA participant
Setting the tone
Throughout, use a positive attitude and enthusiasm to set the tone. Make sure to balance your aims with the particular mood and interests of everyone you are with. Do your best to adjust to distractions of all kinds. It is fine if the viewing plan changes or a work is not seen; there will be other opportunities. Finally, keep reflecting on the process by sharing your experiences and listening to each other’s stories.
Throughout, the pace is relaxed and the tone of the exchanges is jovial. Everyone makes sure to take their time looking. They describe elements and delve into some personal interpretations and associations. D. photographs the works viewed when allowed as they go through the galleries.
Leading the experience
Take time in front of the works of art. Ideally, you should spend about ten minutes looking at and discussing each artwork, depending on the number of people in your group, and less if you visit as a pair. You might consider taking longer in front of images of particular interest, but move on if there is a lack of conversation. You might want to mix in some extended explorations with faster viewing of works to add variety. If you are going to a particular exhibition, use the museum’s resources, such as wall texts, labels, and audio guides, to help facilitate your experience.
D. and F. make some connections to other times they have come to the Museum and to other personal experiences. In the Contemporary galleries on the second floor, they discuss the ways current artists are thinking about cities and incorporating those ideas into the materials they use. They come across some bewildering work that gradually becomes accessible as they explore it more thoroughly by reading the wall texts and continuing the conversation among themselves. They feel satisfied about being able to make connections to the more representational work nearby in the same gallery. A work by Tony Cragg catches their attention and provokes an interesting exchange: the artist had chosen to not just represent a city street but to bring materials found in an urban setting into the gallery to create an arresting and beautiful assemblage.
Deciphering the works of art
The following steps are meant to enhance your exploration of works and help develop a stimulating conversation. Adjust and adapt them as you see fit, based on the people you are visiting with. The following is an outline of the material covered in detail in Foundations for Engagement with Art (page 111).
OBSERVE
Make sure to take enough time to observe all aspects of the work independently. Encourage each participant to take a visual inventory of the work without speaking.
DESCRIBE
Next simply describe the work. Ask questions that prompt description: What do you see in this painting? What are some words you would use to describe this person or place? A complete visual inventory will help you to see details you might have otherwise overlooked and will enrich the conversation that follows. Once you feel you have spent enough time describing, summarize what has been said.
INTERPRET
Having described the work in detail, begin to interpret the various components. Touch on subject matter, composition, technique, and social and historical contexts. Encourage breadth and variety of interpretation.
CONNECT
As you continue your explorations, connect the artwork to your lives and experiences. This will encourage new insights and interactions. Do not hesitate to share personal opinions. Learn from each other and enjoy each other’s company.
SUMMARIZE
Toward the end of the exploration, bring together the various threads of conversation that have come up. Connect ideas and opinions, and consider the meaning and value of the day’s experience.
After another forty minutes, everyone is ready to call it a day. D.’s sister-in-law validates her parking ticket and goes out to get the car while the rest of the group waits in the lobby. They go uptown to have dinner at one of F.’s favorite restaurants, where they discuss what has affected them that day using reproductions of the artworks as prompts.
“I think it’s very interesting how my father—and others there with dementia—project feelings. I suppose we all do this, but it gives them a chance to express feelings in ways that I’m not sure they can otherwise.”
MoMA participant
Beyond the Museum
You can extend the museum experience to other settings using the suggestions included in the following section, Art at Home. Consider the themes explored during your museum visit and plan a follow-up discussion or a follow-up art-making project for you and other family members to do. Make sure that the context of the conversations or the project is stimulating and relevant to everyone’s interests. When at all possible, use reproductions of the works discussed to inspire the creative process. Gather reproductions of the works you concentrated on during your visit by either purchasing postcards or prints at the museum’s store or by locating them online. Introduce the images in future gatherings to help remember the museum trip and to further your discussion.
Art at Home
Engaging with art at home can also be enriching and rewarding. Because this experience is between the caregiver and the person with dementia, there is plenty of leeway to adjust and adapt the parameters and the components set forth in this section. Since there is a deep intimacy between you and the person you will be sharing these experiences with, feel free to transform the guidelines to best serve the psychological, emotional, and intellectual needs of both of you.
The next day, since their Museum experience had been an enlightening and fun outing, and unexpected connections had been made about street and city scenes, D. and her father decide to block out some time in the afternoon to visit the MoMA Web site (www.moma.org) and access additional work by artists they had seen the day before, bring out some of F.’s photographs and other reproductions of artworks they have in the house, and record some of F.’s stories about the city. F. had always been an avid reader and writer but recently had become reluctant to write. However, he is keen on recording the tales he would have written a few years earlier, and D. is excited to make an audio collection of her father’s stories. The afternoon proves a success.
“For me, the caregiver, it was a most enjoyable activity, while, at the same time, I was helping my husband. This doesn’t happen too often.”
MoMA participant
Logistical Considerations
Participants
You can engage in art-looking and art-making activities at home. However, if you think that other family members or families going through similar experiences would benefit from social time together, you could hold art-viewing gatherings with multiple families at each other’s homes. In that case, make sure to adapt the logistical elements to accommodate the number of people who will be present. For everyone to get better acquainted with techniques and strategies for facilitating art-looking and art-making activities, look into museum offerings, local art programs, and community resources.
Dates and times
Choose dates and times that are best for you. Work around other schedules or anticipated activities to avoid conflicts or overload. Your engagements should probably not last any longer than two hours, but if there is enough interest, factor in additional time for socialization or art-making.
Spaces
The optimal space is relatively intimate and quiet. Try to use warm and welcoming rooms that evoke positive associations. Make sure the space has sturdy tables, comfortable seating, and adequate lighting. Arrange the tables and chairs so that everyone can see each other to encourage conversation. If you plan to make art, be sure to have enough table space to work on.
Costs
There are minimal costs associated with these art experiences at home. You can use resources provided by MoMA, and you can use the Internet to download images from Web sites free of charge. Costs may be incurred for art-making supplies and reproductions of artworks.
Professional educator
The level of interest among family members or a group of families may be such that you think hiring a professional educator would be desirable. Ideally, this individual would be experienced in working with people with dementia, interested in art, and highly organized. He or she will
be responsible for planning the sessions, gathering supplies and other material, and leading the conversation. Educators can be identified through museums, arts organizations, and universities or art schools.
**Resources**
There are many resources for images to discuss with family members. First, consider what is already in your home: the art that you display in the house, decorative art objects, and family photographs. In addition, many art institutions have reproductions available for purchase in their stores in the form of posters, postcards, or prints. Museums Web sites often include reproductions of the works in their collections as well as information about the artists and the art movements they are associated with. You can download images from these Web sites to either print or view on a computer screen. If you are using a computer or a television, make sure the screen is big enough, the lighting appropriate, and the environment comfortable.
MoMA’s online collection is an extensive resource, containing images and information about modern and contemporary artists. You can access the online collection at www.moma.org/collection. Additionally, Art Modules with accompanying art cards and a DVD of images are included with this publication.
**The Viewing Experience**
The more familiar you are with the images you will be discussing the better. Follow the steps outlined below to ensure that you are prepared to lead an engaging discussion. It is recommended that you turn to *Foundations for Engagement with Art* (page 111) to equip yourself with the tools necessary to develop and facilitate a comprehensive viewing experience.
**Selecting a theme**
Your theme should be appropriate and relevant for all participants and one that you feel comfortable discussing. You could focus on artworks that share a subject matter or medium, a single artist, an art movement, art from a specific geographical region, or art from a certain time period. You should take into account those styles, periods, mediums, or artists that you like or that intrigue you and everyone else involved. If you know that particular themes will resonate, it is worthwhile to pursue them. Consider *Art of the Twentieth Century*, *Portraiture*,
Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, Materials in Sculpture, Landscapes, Women in Art, or Photography and Narrative. If you would like to pursue a more general overview of the definitions and histories of art, a theme such as What is Art? might be appropriate.
**Selecting the works of art**
Choose four to six works that fit into your theme. Be amenable to integrating personal items, such as family photographs, that might generate conversation. You might even consider beginning your exploration by making connection to the art that is around you. For example, you could suggest how a chair in the home might be a work of art. Steer clear of works that you think might be in any way unsettling.
**Determining the sequence**
The sequence in which you view the works should connect them in the context of the theme you have chosen. The sequence may simply be chronological, or it may move from works that are more figurative to those that are more abstract, or from simpler works to those that are more complex in composition. Order the works in a way that you feel is clear and sensible.
**Preparing questions and gathering information**
Plan to ask questions that provoke a lively experience. Your questions should promote further inquiry and exploration. Using online resources, exhibition catalogues, museum wall labels, museum audio guides, and books, research the works and artists that you will be discussing. Plan to weave historical and other relevant information into your conversation. Again, this should be very natural and unforced. Beware of the tendency to want to share all the information that you have about the work of art.
**Discussing the works**
Ideally, you should spend about ten minutes discussing any one image or work, depending on the number of people present. However, feel free to move on from a work if there is very little interest, or to continue and explore that work longer if it leads to further connections. Be open to digressions and to linking conversation points to personal experiences. Make sure that you are empathetic to all comments and questions, and allow all voices to be heard.
“We have some caregivers who keep coming to the program even after their loved one has passed. They say the program gave them memories at the end that were positive. Living within the moment is what they definitely do while here but they also create memories the caregiver can hold on to.”
MoMA educator
Creative Projects
Both you and your loved one can engage in creative endeavors, either individually or in a collaborative effort. Individual interests should be addressed in these art-making experiences, and they can include such mediums as drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, storytelling, and writing and any others that appeal to all participants. There is a wide range of materials, techniques, and strategies that you can use when making art. This section provides a general outline for planning and implementing the program. The specifics of each art-making project will determine the details. For projects related to specific themes, see the Art Modules included with this publication.
Finally, that weekend D. takes out her camera and with her father takes photographs of their neighborhood. They truly collaborate in terms of choosing the subjects, talking about the angles and composition they want to use, and debating the merits of one shot over another. They make great use of their digital camera, and when they return home they upload the images to the computer.
Creating optimal conditions
Consider the goals and the process of your project; keep it simple and fun. The aim is to initiate self-expression and tap into artistic potential. While instructions should not be too complicated, make sure to avoid projects that could be deemed childish. Design projects that are conceptually intriguing but do not demand advanced skills in any particular area. Provide some structure while still leaving plenty of room for flexibility and individuality. If applicable, take into account the participants’ physical limitations and reduced dexterity when choosing materials and processes.
D. makes sure to have all the necessary material and equipment ready and places the computer in a very accessible and cozy area, where F. feels comfortable. They have a good time juxtaposing Kirchner’s and Levitt’s images from the Museum’s collection with their own street scenes and cityscapes.
Preparing background information
Sharing photos and reproductions of works of art from catalogues or books may inspire the creative process. Research the artists whose work you will be showing and share this
information. If you are regularly going out to museums, it is useful to consider the works you have seen and discussed while engaging in your own creative endeavors. This links the work you will be making to the scope of art history and can provide ideas for the project. Make sure you are showing works as inspiration only and not suggesting that participants should try to produce similar works.
**Tailoring projects to participants’ interests**
Think of participants’ previous experiences with art-making. For example, if one person was interested in wood and furniture making, think of the ways you could channel that into a more focused practice. Adjust interests creatively: for example, if someone was fond of writing stories or poems but does not feel physically capable of writing, propose that they tell their stories and record them.
**Preparing instructions**
Use step-by-step directions that are not too lengthy and are easy to follow. Write out the instructions to help you remember them, and explain them clearly at a moderate pace.
**Supplying material**
Provide an ample amount of materials. Make sure you have enough to create more than one work. Showing samples of finished artwork or works in progress will help give a better idea of what the process could lead to.
In addition, D. had taken digital photographs of the works they saw at the Museum and she displays slide shows on the computer regularly over the following weeks. The slide shows allow D. and F. to continue to connect their experiences at MoMA to their photography project.
**Supporting participants**
Get started with your project, offering assistance to participants at any level necessary. Repeat instructions as often as needed and offer positive reinforcement. Show patience with your words and your tone, and use humor and stories to set an informal mood. Offer praise and critique with sincerity. If participants conclude that what they are producing is simply
“What the program will do for me is give me some memories. It gives me something to hang on to, because it’s been difficult to watch the man that I love dearly not be the man that I love. So I have something to hang on to. He now doesn’t remember it, but I have it. And that’s extremely important.”
MoMA participant
“no good,” find ways of getting beyond this response with positive reinforcement to help the person to see the merits in what they made. Avoid simplistic evaluations: saying something is “good” or “bad” may not sufficiently connect to the participant’s needs. Instead, allow your conversation about the works to become descriptive and associative rather than evaluative. For example, a comment such as “I really like the way you applied the paint and created so much texture in this work” or remarks about particular techniques, gestures, or choices can create a dynamic and fruitful conversation.
The Museum experience and the extended activities at home provide D. and her father with quality time together and some extremely meaningful engagement. They both grew and learned while revisiting their interests, thinking about their own lives, and discussing the ways other artists engaged with their communities using different mediums.
**Showing the work**
Displaying the art in a social context reinforces the fact that what has been created is of value. The work becomes a spark for further conversation and promotes continued pride. Sharing the work also provides opportunities for further discussion on the part of all participants.
The museum’s education department has been working to make the experience more accessible for people with visual impairments, including those who are blind or have low vision. The department has developed a series of programs and resources that aim to provide a more inclusive and engaging experience for all visitors.
One of the key initiatives is the development of audio descriptions, which are narrated descriptions of the artwork on display. These descriptions are designed to be accessible to people with visual impairments and can be accessed through a variety of devices, including smartphones and tablets. The audio descriptions are available in both English and Spanish, and are narrated by a professional voice actor.
In addition to the audio descriptions, the museum has also developed a range of other resources to support visitors with visual impairments. These include tactile art guides, which are designed to provide a physical representation of the artwork, and Braille labels, which are used to identify the artwork on display.
The museum’s education department has also worked to ensure that its staff are trained to provide a welcoming and inclusive experience for all visitors. Staff members receive training on how to interact with visitors with visual impairments, and are encouraged to ask questions and seek clarification when necessary.
Overall, the museum’s efforts to make the experience more accessible for people with visual impairments are an important step towards creating a more inclusive and welcoming environment for all visitors. By providing a range of resources and training for staff, the museum is helping to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to enjoy and appreciate the art on display.
Francesca Rosenberg is Director of Community and Access Programs in MoMA’s Department of Education. In her fourteen years at the Museum, she and her colleagues have won national respect for their efforts to make the Museum’s extensive resources accessible to all. In 2000 MoMA’s Access program was awarded the Access Innovation in the Arts Award by MetLife Foundation and VSA Arts. In 2007 Ms. Rosenberg received the Ruth Green Advocacy Award from the League for the Hard of Hearing and in 2002 was recognized as Community Leader of the Year by Self Help for the Hard of Hearing. Ms. Rosenberg serves on the steering committee of the Museum Access Consortium New York, and is the coauthor of *Making Art Accessible to Blind and Visually Impaired Individuals* (1996). She lectures widely and is the author of numerous articles on issues related to making art accessible to people with disabilities.
Amir Parsa has been Lecturer and Educator at MoMA since 2004 and is currently Manager of The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project. Mr. Parsa has designed and implemented programming for various audiences at MoMA, linking the arts to literacy, community, and health. He has lectured on a wide range of topics in modern and contemporary art as well as creative programming design at MoMA and at museums, libraries, and other institutions across the United States. He is an internationally acclaimed writer and poet and the author of several literary books in French, English, and Persian, most recently *Erre, Divan*, and *Drive-by Cannibalism in the Baroque Tradition*. He holds a B.A. from Princeton and an M.A. and M.Phil. from Columbia University.
Laurel Humble is Assistant for The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project. In that role she coordinates and teaches the Meet Me at MoMA program in addition to leading training for professional and family caregivers. Throughout her career at MoMA she has taught programs for individuals with special needs and disabilities and groups from community organizations, as well as high school students from across New York City. Ms. Humble graduated from the University of Georgia with a B.A. in art history with a concentration on the work of Jackson Pollock and the New York School.
Carrie McGee is Assistant Educator for Community and Access Programs at MoMA. She is responsible for developing and managing a variety of programs for people with disabilities as well as programs for community organizations, senior centers, and social service agencies. Ms. McGee also trains educators and teaches gallery and studio programs at the Museum. She has been a featured speaker at numerous national and international conferences. She holds a B.A. in English literature and a B.F.A. in photography from the University of Michigan and is currently pursuing an M.A. in art history at Hunter College in New York.
Wendy Woon, The Edward John Noble Foundation Deputy Director for Education, has over twenty-six years of award-winning experience in museum education. She oversees all educational departments at MoMA, including Interpretation and Research, Adult and Academic Programs, Community and Access Programs, Digital Learning, and School and Family Programs. Ms. Woon holds an M.F.A. from The School of the Art Institute of Chicago and a B.F.A., Honors, from Queen’s University, Canada. She has taught at the graduate level at The School of the Art Institute of Chicago and New York University. She was a New York City Scholar at Columbia University in 2007–8.
Anne Basting, Ph.D., is Director of the Center on Age & Community and an Associate Professor in the Department of Theatre at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Dr. Basting has written extensively on issues of aging and representation, and her essays have been published in such journals as *The Drama Review*, *American Theatre*, and *Journal of Aging Studies* and in the anthologies *Figuring Age*, *Mental Wellness in Aging*, and *Aging and the Meaning of Time*. Her latest book is titled *Forget Memory: Creating Better Lives for People with Dementia* (Johns Hopkins, 2009). Dr. Basting is the recipient of fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation and the Brookdale Foundation and numerous major grants for her scholarly and creative endeavors. Her creative work includes nearly a dozen plays and public performances. Dr. Basting continues to direct the TimeSlips Creative Storytelling Project, which she founded in 1998.
Gene D. Cohen, M.D., Ph.D., directs the Center on Aging, Health & Humanities at The George Washington University. He is a former president of the Gerontological Society of America. He served as acting director of the National Institute on Aging and as the first chief of the Center on Aging at the National Institute of Mental Health. He is the author of the first book on creativity and aging, *The Creative Age* (2001). His newest book, *The Mature Mind* (2006), is being translated into six languages. He recently created Making Memories Together, the first patented game for people and families affected by Alzheimer’s disease.
Cynthia Epstein, L.C.S.W., is a social worker and clinical investigator at the NYU Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia, where she helps develop, implement, and evaluate psychosocial research interventions for people with Alzheimer’s disease and their families. In addition to her private psychotherapy and geriatric consulting practice, she has coauthored *Counseling the Alzheimer’s Caregiver, A Resource for Health Care Professionals*, the handbook *How to Get the Best Health Care for Your Relative with Alzheimer’s Disease*, *The Comfort of Home for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Guide for Caregivers*, and
“Coping with Alzheimer’s Disease: Clinical Intervention With Families,” which was published in *Dementia and Social Work Practice*.
**Gay Powell Hanna**, Ph.D., M.F.A., is Executive Director of the National Center for Creative Aging. She served as Executive Director of the Society for the Arts in Healthcare from 2003 to 2007. She has held faculty positions at Florida State University and the University of South Florida and directed VSA Arts of Florida. Dr. Hanna is also a contributing author to numerous publications, including *Fundamentals of Arts Management, 4th Edition*; *Arts Education for the Exceptional Learner*; and *Aging and the Arts, Generations*. In addition Dr. Hanna is a practicing artist with an active studio and work in collections throughout the southeastern United States.
**Jed A. Levine**, Executive Vice President and Director of Programs and Services at the New York City Chapter of the Alzheimer’s Association, is the author of numerous articles on Alzheimer’s disease and Alzheimer’s care, including a monthly column for local newspapers. He is the coauthor of a chapter in *Improving Hospital Care for Persons with Dementia*. Mr. Levine holds a master’s degree in applied human development with a specialization in community recreation services and gerontology from Columbia University’s Teachers College and is trained as a creative-arts therapist. In addition to holding several university positions, he is a frequent lecturer on Alzheimer’s disease and related activities, early-stage programming, and person-centered care.
**Mary S. Mittelman**, Dr.P.H., is Director of the Psychosocial Research and Support Program at the NYU Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia and Research Professor in the Department of Psychiatry at New York University School of Medicine. She is principal investigator of the NYU-Spouse Caregiver Intervention study and a member of the scientific advisory boards of several Alzheimer’s centers and the Geriatric Mental Health Alliance. She recently received the Maggie Kuhn Award from Presbyterian Senior Services for her work helping older adults. Her publications include articles in *Journal of the American Medical Association* and *Neurology*, among others. Dr. Mittelman has co-written several books, including *The Comfort of Home for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Guide for Caregivers* (2008). Dr. Mittelman has also contributed to textbooks for researchers and health care practitioners.
**Peter Reed**, Ph.D., is former Senior Director of Programs for the Alzheimer’s Association National Office. In this position he coordinated the Association’s program planning and evaluation process by facilitating the translation of research into evidence-based programming to improve the lives of people with dementia. Dr. Reed was codirector of the Association’s Campaign for Quality Residential Care. Dr. Reed came to the
Association from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he received his Ph.D. from the School of Public Health. He is currently President and Chief Executive Officer of the Center for Health Improvement.
Mary Sano, M.D., Ph.D., is Professor of Psychiatry and Director of the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center at Mount Sinai School of Medicine. She is also Director of Research and Development at the Bronx Veterans Administration Hospital. Currently she is Director of a national multicenter study known as CLASP (Cholesterol Lowering in Alzheimer’s Disease to Slow Progression). Dr. Sano is a neuropsychologist by training and has been involved in designing and conducting clinical trials for Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and mild cognitive impairment of aging. In 1989 she received the Florence and Herbert Irving Clinical Research Career Award to develop methodologies for the assessment of therapeutic agents in Alzheimer’s disease.
Margaret C. Sewell, Ph.D., is Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, where she is Director of Education for the Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center and the Director of the Memory Enhancement Program. She earned her degree in clinical psychology from New York University and completed her postdoctoral fellowship at Weill Cornell Medical Center. Dr. Sewell lectures widely on issues related to healthy aging and memory, and she maintains a private practice where she conducts psychotherapy and neuropsychological evaluations.
Wantland J. (Jay) Smith, seventy, was diagnosed with early Alzheimer’s disease in the fall of 2005 after taking disability retirement in early 2004 due to fatigue. A member of the American Institute of Architects, over the course of his career he was involved in the creation of many facilities for the justice system and served as chair of its national Committee on Architecture for Justice in 1995. Mr. Smith has been active with the Alzheimer’s Association since his diagnosis, as cocreator of his chapter’s first early-stage memory-loss forum in Los Angeles and as a public policy advocate, and he was recently appointed to the board of directors of the organization’s Los Angeles Chapter.
Richard Taylor, Ph.D., a retired psychologist, was diagnosed with dementia, probably of the Alzheimer’s type, at the age of fifty-eight. He has discovered/created a new purpose for himself. After writing *Alzheimer’s from the Inside Out* (Health Professions Press, 2006), he now speaks out and speaks up to professionals, caregivers, politicians, and all who will listen about his experiences with and reactions to living with the symptoms of dementia. While Dr. Taylor still leads a vibrant life, control of his concentration is frequently elusive. His language facility is still mostly intact, although he increasingly searches for the right word. His garden becomes smaller and smaller each year, he plays bridge (with a cheat sheet) once a week, and is halfway through editing another book of his writings.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to MetLife Foundation for its visionary commitment to The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project and this publication.
This publication has come about thanks to a multitude of people.
Many thanks are offered to the experts and advocates whose voices are put into written words in the publication. The richness and depth of their contributions are evident in the diversity of issues addressed in their testimonials and interviews. Richard Taylor and Jay Smith’s unflagging work is paving the way for what will surely be more meaningful programming and greater awareness of issues associated with Alzheimer’s disease. The research, writings, and work of Anne Basting, Gene Cohen, Gay Powell Hanna, Jed Levine, Peter Reed, Mary Sano, and Margaret Sewell are not only leading the way for a better understanding of issues related to dementia and creativity, but spawning programmatic changes that can bring about social transformations.
We have relied, throughout the project, on the insights, assistance, and the wise counsel of participants in our Meet Me at MoMA programs. Rhoda and Arthur Auslander, Dr. Barry Belgorod and Madeleine Belgorod, David Green and Diana Holbrook, Doug Holbrook, Ina and Harold Heller, Karen and Rachel Henes, Harriette and Morris Jaffee, Florence and Hal Josephs, Edith and Paul Nathan, Gordon and Mary Ann Pradl, Natalie and Lee Robbins, Evelyn and George Rapoport, Ann and Jessica Willis, and Abby and Gloria Zalaznick have all responded to our many requests for commentaries, opinions, and review of material. Their contributions have been invaluable.
The New York University Center of Excellence for Brain Aging and Dementia team was a pleasure to work with throughout the evaluation of our Meet Me at MoMA program: Mary Mittelman, Cynthia Epstein, Olanta Barton, Courtney McKeown, Ronit Notkin, and June Aaronson, along with Linda Buettner, were instrumental in helping us understand the benefits of the program through evidence-based research. Lisa Mazzola, Barbara Palley, Gwen Farrelly, and Riva Blumenfeld from MoMA were extremely generous with their time during the observational phase of the study.
We deeply appreciate the assistance of our many partners at care organizations who have shared their stories and expertise, thereby helping us to better understand our audience and improve our programs. From the Alzheimer’s Association, New York City Chapter, they are: Jed Levine, Executive Vice President, Director of Programs and Services; Della Frazier-Rios, Senior Vice President, Director of Education and Outreach; Amy Trommer, Dementia Care Trainer; Nancy Lee Hendley, Dementia Care Trainer; and Paulette Michaud, Manager of Early Stage Services. From Art Education for the Blind, they are: Elisabeth Axel, Nina Levent, and Joan Pursley.
We thank the following people across the country from the Alzheimer’s Association for their guidance and efforts: Jeannette Ruby, former Associate Director,
Foundations Relations, National Office; Shelley Morrison Bluethmann, Director, Early Stage Initiatives, National Office; Marykate Wilson, Senior Director, Constituent Marketing, National Office; Mary Ann Johnson, Program Director, Greater Richmond Chapter; and Nicole Feingold, Early Stage Clinical Manager, California Southland Chapter. In addition, Marin Gillis, Director of Medical Humanities and Ethics, University of Nevada School of Medicine; Jackie Welsh, Director of Development and Marketing, New Jersey Visiting Nurses Association; Susan Putterman, former Chief Curator, Hebrew Home for the Aged; and Maureen Wells, Daytripping Program Director, have all been gracious with their time and consultation.
We gratefully acknowledge Artists for Alzheimer’s help as an initial resource for Meet Me at MoMA.
We would like to thank our colleagues at museums across the country who have launched programs for people with Alzheimer’s disease and kindly shared their experiences for this publication: Celeste Fetta, Manager of Adult and Higher Education and Acting Chair, Adult Education Department, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts; Courtney Gerber, Assistant Director of Education, Tour Programs, Education and Community Programs, Walker Art Center; Jennifer Kalter, Manager of School and Family Programs, American Folk Art Museum; Karleen Gardner, Curator of Education, Memphis Brooks Museum of Art; Holly Victor, Marketing Director, Kirkland Museum of Fine and Decorative Art; Colin Robertson, Curator of Education, Nevada Museum of Art; and Rebecca McGinnis, Access Coordinator, Metropolitan Museum of Art. All believe in the value of this program and have launched initiatives that will greatly benefit their respective communities.
Much closer to home, we would like to acknowledge those at The Museum of Modern Art for their direction and support. Thanks to Glenn D. Lowry, Director, for his commitment to making the Museum accessible to all. Wendy Woon, The Edward John Noble Foundation Deputy Director for Education, has been an enthusiastic advocate on this project from the start. She sets a tone of scholarship, warmth, and respect that defines the Department of Education. The Museum of Modern Art’s Board of Trustees and the Trustee Committee on Education are acknowledged with gratitude.
As always, the success of MoMA’s programs rests on the incomparable skill, passion, and dedication of the Community and Access Programs educators: Gema Alava-Crisostomo, Xanthe Alban-Davies, Riva Blumenfeld, Kirstin Broussard, Kerry Downey, Rebecca Goyette, Marisa Horowitz, Andrew Ondrejca, Sally Paul, Gordon M. Sasaki, Alexandra Perkinson, Anne Spurgeon, Paula Stuttman, Amanda Williams, and Calder Zwicky.
We would also like to thank the other MoMA staff, interns, and volunteers who have been involved in Meet Me at MoMA and The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project for their staunch support and hard work: Kirsten Schroeder, Community and Access Programs Coordinator; Kristy Maruca, Administrative Assistant; Alexandra Perkinson,
Twelve-Month Intern; and interns Meryl Schwartz, Jane Braun, and Barbara Johnson as well as volunteers Diana Holbrook, Hannah Kates, Linda Roberts, Michael Sohtz, Lois Tyson-Campbell, and Ellen Wilkinson.
We have relied greatly on the talents and dedication of colleagues throughout the Museum. Michael Margitich, Senior Deputy Director for External Affairs; Lisa Mantone, Director of Development; Sara Pinto, Associate Director of Development; Heidi Ihrig, Development Associate; and Elizabeth Piercey, Development Assistant, have been indispensable allies in their dedicated pursuit of the necessary financial support. Dan Nishimoto, Education Department Manager, has provided sage advice and assistance with all financial matters. Thanks are due to several people in the Department of Marketing and Communications for skillfully and tirelessly disseminating information about The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project: Kim Mitchell, Chief Communications Officer; Margaret Doyle, Assistant Director; and Kim Donica, Publicity Coordinator. In Imaging Services, Robert Kastler, Production Manager; Roberto Rivera, Production Assistant; and Collections Photographers John Wronn, Jonathan Muzikar, and Thomas Griesel graciously provided images for reproduction. Nancy Adelson, Associate General Counsel, and Henry Lanman, Associate General Counsel, provided sound advice on legal matters.
Various editors and consultants have been instrumental at the many phases of the creation of this publication. Consultant Susan Toal saw the program in action early on. With a keen eye and useful insights she provided assistance in detailing our program. Her professionalism and enthusiasm are appreciated. We are thankful to David Frankel, MoMA Editorial Director, for his support; Libby Hruska, MoMA Editor, who steered the earlyphases of the publication; Ron Broadhurst, who did the overall edit; and Rebecca Roberts, MoMA Senior Assistant Editor, who joined the editorial process at the final stage.
Finally, great gratitude is due to our graphic design team, an indefatigable and creative bunch who immediately entered into the spirit of the project and molded the publication into its unique and elegant design. The publication was overseen and executed by Hsien-Yin Ingrid Chou, Assistant Director; with Bonnie Ralston and Samuel Sherman, Senior Designers; Charles Watlington, Freelance Designer; and Claire Corey, Production Manager. Their imagination and boundless energy allowed us to translate the essence of our program and our endeavor onto the page.
The University of Iowa has been a place of learning and discovery for more than 150 years, and we are proud to be a part of that legacy. Our commitment to excellence in education, research, and service is rooted in our values of integrity, innovation, and community. We strive to create an environment where everyone can thrive and achieve their full potential.
As we look to the future, we remain dedicated to our mission of providing a world-class education and contributing to the betterment of society. We believe that by working together, we can make a positive impact on the lives of individuals and communities around the globe.
Thank you for your support and partnership. Together, we will continue to build a brighter future for all.
| Artist | Title | Medium | Dimensions | Source | Page |
|--------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|-----------------------------|---------------------------------------------|------|
| Umberto Boccioni (Italian, 1882–1916) | *The City Rises*, 1910. | Oil on canvas | 6' 6½" x 9' 10¼" (199.3 x 301 cm) | Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. | 62, 114 |
| Fernando Botero (Colombian, born 1932) | *The Presidential Family*, 1987. | Oil on canvas | 6' 8⅞" x 6' 5¾" (203.5 x 195.2 cm) | Gift of Warren D. Benedek. | 71 (detail) |
| Marc Chagall (French, born Belarus, 1887–1985) | *I and the Village*, 1931. | Oil on canvas | 6' 3¾" x 59 ¾" (192.1 x 151.4 cm) | Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris. | 75 (detail) |
| Chuck Close (American, born 1940). | *Self-Portrait*, 1991. | Oil on canvas | 8' 4" x 7' (254 x 213.4 cm) | Partial and promised gift of UBS. © 2009 Chuck Close. | 154 |
| Tony Cragg (British, born 1949). | *Grey Moon*, 1985. | Gray and white plastic found objects, overall approximately 7' 2¾" x 52" (220 x 132.1cm). | Partial and promised gift of UBS. © 2009 Tony Cragg. | 162 |
| André Derain (French, 1880–1954). | *London Bridge*, 1906. | Oil on canvas | 36 x 39" (66 x 99.1 cm) | Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Zadok. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York /ADAGP, Paris. | 61 (detail), 114, 121 |
| Edward Hopper (American, 1882–1967). | *Gas*, 1940. | Oil on canvas | 26 ¼" x 40 ¼" (66.7 x 102.2 cm) | Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. | 76 (detail) |
| Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (German, 1880–1938). | *Street, Dresden*, 1908 (reworked 1910; dated on painting 1907). | Oil on canvas | 59 ¼" x 6' 6¾" (150.5 x 200.4 cm). | Purchase. © Ingeborg & Dr. Wolfgang Henze-Ketterer, Wichtrach/Bern. | 65, 114, 154, 161 |
| Jacob Lawrence (American, 1917–2000). | *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities*, 1940–41. | Tempera on gesso on composition board, 12 x 18" (30.5 x 45.7 cm). | Gift of Mrs. David M. Levy. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. | 59, 114 |
| Jacob Lawrence (American, 1917–2000). | *Street Shadows*, 1959. | Egg tempera and pencil on gessoed board, 24 x 29 ¾" (61 x 75.9 cm). | Gift of Ellen Kern and Gail Garlick in memory of their parents, Jewel and Lewis Garlick. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. | 66 (detail), 153 |
| Helen Levitt (American, 1913–2009). | *New York*, c. 1940. | Gelatin silver print, 7 ½ x 5" (19.1 x 12.7 cm). | Purchase. © 2009 Helen Levitt, courtesy Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco. | 161 |
| Henri Matisse (French, 1869–1954). | *Dance (), 1909. | Oil on canvas | 6' 6½" x 12' 9¾" (198.7 x 390.1 cm). | Gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller in honor of Alfred H. Barr, Jr. © 2009 Succession H. Matisse, Paris /Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. | 72 |
| Henri Matisse (French, 1869–1954). | *The Red Studio*, 1911. | Oil on canvas | 71 ¼" x 7' 2 ¼" (181 x 219.1 cm). | Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. © 2009 Succession H. Matisse, Paris /Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. | 155 |
Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944). *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. 1942–43. Oil on canvas, 50 x 50" (127 x 127 cm). Given anonymously. Pages 114, 153
Grayson Perry (British, born 1960). *Map of an Englishman*. 2004. Etching, sheet: 44 ¼ x 59 ¾" (112.1 x 150 cm). Publisher: The Paragon Press, London. Printer Stoneman Graphics, Cornwall, Edition: 50. Patricia P. Irgens Larsen Foundation Fund. Pages 54–55 and 57, 68, 78, 83 (details)
Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973). *Girl before a Mirror*. 1932. Oil on canvas, 64 x 51 ¾" (162.3 x 130.2 cm). Gift of Mrs. Simon Guggenheim. © 2009 Estate of Pablo Picasso / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York. Pages 56 (detail), 155
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *Helen*. 1963. Oil and graphite on canvas, 42 ¼ x 39 ¼" (108.6 x 99.4 cm). Partial and promised gift of UBS. © 2009 Gerhard Richter. Page 77 (detail)
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *4.4.82 (9)*. 1983. Pencil on paper, 7 ¾ x 9 ¾" (19 x 24.4 cm). © 2009 Gerhard Richter. Purchase. Pages 84–85
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *G.4.2 (21.7.84)*. 1984. Colored ink, watercolor, pencil, and crayon on paper, 5 ¾ x 8 ¾" (15 x 21 cm). Gift of R. L. B. Tobin. © 2009 Gerhard Richter. Pages 50–51 (detail)
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *11.4.88*. 1988. Colored ink and watercolor on paper, 6 ½ x 9 ¾" (16.5 x 23.8 cm). Gift of Walter Bareiss. © 2009 Gerhard Richter. Pages 16–17 (detail)
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *23.2.87*. 1991. Colored ink and watercolor on paper with pencil on board, 9 ¾ x 13 ¾" (24.2 x 33.5 cm). Gift of The Patsy R. Taylor Family Trust. © 2009 Gerhard Richter. Pages 106–7 (detail)
Jacob August Riis (American, born Denmark, 1849–1914). *Bandits’ Roost, 59 ½ Mulberry Street*. 1888. Gelatin silver print, printed 1938, 19 ¾ x 15 ½" (48.7 x 39.4 cm). Gift of the Museum of the City of New York. Page 152
Georges-Pierre Seurat (French, 1859–1891). *Port-en-Bessin, Entrance to the Harbor*. 1888. Oil on canvas, 21 ¾ x 25 ¾" (54.9 x 65.1 cm). Lillie P. Bliss Collection. Page 152
Andrew Wyeth (American, 1917–2009). *Christina’s World*. 1948. Tempera on gessoed panel, 32 ¼ x 42 ¾" (81.9 x 121.3 cm). Purchase. Page 69
All works are in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York.
From the Archives
Postcard, Plaza Hotel and Heckscher Building, location of The Museum of Modern Art’s first galleries and offices in 1929, 1923. The Museum of Modern Art Archives, New York. Page 20
Poster, War Veterans’ Art Center, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 1942. Early Museum History: Administrative Records, 1, 3, 0. The Museum of Modern Art. Page 21
Installation view of the exhibition *Jasper Johns: A Retrospective*, October 15, 1998–January 21, 1997. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Photographic Archive. The Museum of Modern Art Archives, New York. Page 30
Board of Trustees of The Museum of Modern Art
David Rockefeller*
Honorary Chairman
Ronald S. Lauder
Honorary Chairman
Robert B. Menschel*
Chairman Emeritus
Agnes Gund
President Emerita
Donald B. Marron
President Emeritus
Jerry I. Speyer
Chairman
Marie-Josée Kravis
President
Sid R. Bass
Leon D. Black
Kathleen Fuld
Mimi Haas
Richard E. Salomon
Vice Chairmen
Glenn D. Lowry
Director
Richard E. Salomon
Treasurer
James Gara
Assistant Treasurer
Patty Lipshutz
Secretary
Wallis Annenberg
Celeste Bartos*
Sid R. Bass
Leon D. Black
Eli Broad
Clarissa Alcock Bronfman
Donald L. Bryant, Jr.
Thomas S. Carroll*
Patricia Phelps de Cisneros
Mrs. Jan Cowles**
Douglas S. Cramer*
Paula Crown
Lewis B. Cullman**
H.R.H. Duke Franz of Bavaria**
Kathleen Fuld
Gianluigi Gabetti*
Howard Gardner
Maurice R. Greenberg**
Vartan Gregorian
Agnes Gund
Mimi Haas
Alexandra A. Herzan
Marlene Hess
Barbara Jakobson
Werner H. Kramarsky*
Jill Kraus
Marie-Josée Kravis
June Noble Larkin*
Ronald S. Lauder
Thomas H. Lee
Michael Lynne
Donald B. Marron
Wynton Marsalis**
Robert B. Menschel*
Harvey S. Shipley Miller
Philip S. Niarchos
James G. Niven
Peter Norton
Maja Oeri
Richard E. Oldenburg**
Michael S. Ovitz
Richard D. Parsons
Peter G. Peterson*
Mrs. Milton Petrie**
Gifford Phillips*
Emily Rauh Pulitzer
David Rockefeller*
David Rockefeller, Jr.
Sharon Percy Rockefeller
Lord Rogers of Riverside**
Richard E. Salomon
Ted Sann**
Anna Marie Shapiro
Gilbert Silverman**
Anna Deavere Smith
Jerry I. Speyer
Emily Spiegel**
Joanne M. Stern*
Mrs. Donald B. Straus*
Yoshio Taniguchi**
David Teiger**
Eugene V. Thaw**
Jeanne C. Thayer*
Joan Tisch*
Edgar Wachenheim III
Thomas W. Weisel
Gary Winnick
| EX OFFICIO | TRUSTEE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Glenn D. Lowry | Hadley Palmer |
| Director | Barbara G. Sahlman |
| Peter Norton | B. Z. Schwartz |
| Chairman of the Board of P.S.1 | Anna Deavere Smith |
| Michael R. Bloomberg | Diana Taylor |
| Mayor of the City of New York | Pamela Thomas-Graham |
| William C. Thompson, Jr. | Maxine Prisyon Warshaw |
| Comptroller of the City of New York | Robin Wright |
| Christine C. Quinn | Lewis B. Cullman |
| Speaker of the Council of the City of New York | Christina R. Davis |
| Jo Carole Lauder | Margot Ernst |
| President of The International Council | Dr. Akosua Barthwell Evans |
| Franny Heller Zorn and William S. Susman | Kathy Fuld |
| Co-Chairmen of The Contemporary Arts Council | Dr. Howard Gardner |
| *Life Trustee | Vartan Gregorian |
| **Honorary Trustee | E. Louise Hartwell |
| | Alexandra Herzan |
| | Werner Kramarsky |
| | Marie-Josée Kravis |
| | Sydie Lansing |
| | June Noble Larkin |
| | Jo Carole Lauder |
| | Dr. Stuart Lewis |
| | Ruth Lipper |
| | Robert Menschel |
| | Ann Morfogen |
| | Victoria Niarchos |
| | Jamie Niven |
meetme ART MODULES
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART
The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project:
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
Made Possible by MetLife Foundation
The Museum of Modern Art strives to enable rewarding experiences with art for people of all ages, and MoMA’s Department of Education has a long history of serving children and adults with disabilities and special needs. In 2006 the Museum launched Meet Me at MoMA, a program specifically for people with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. One year later, thanks to the generosity of MetLife Foundation, the Museum began The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project, a national initiative to develop and share resources for making art accessible to this audience.
This kit — containing art modules and reproductions of artworks — is designed to serve as a framework for engagement with art. The primary goal is to help you create meaningful and interactive experiences that encourage self-expression and personal growth for people with Alzheimer’s disease and their caregivers. In the accompanying book you will find information that may enhance your experience using the art modules. Furthermore, the book also includes an overview of a program as it unfolds in the galleries at MoMA; commentary from experts in the fields of art, aging, and Alzheimer’s disease; findings from an evidence-based research study on the efficacy of the Meet Me at MoMA program; and, finally, resource guides for creating, developing, and implementing arts programs in a variety of settings, including museums, care organizations, and individual homes.
Looking at art and creating art have tremendous potential to improve quality of life for millions of people affected by Alzheimer’s disease. Indeed, experiences with art are often transformative, enabling all people to live with dignity, purpose, and joy.
Francesca Rosenberg
Director, Community and Access Programs,
The Museum of Modern Art, New York
# Table of Contents
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| Components of the Kit | 4 |
| Components of a Module | 5 |
| MODULE ONE: Tradition and Innovation in Modern Painting | 7 |
| MODULE TWO: Images of America | 11 |
| MODULE THREE: Modern Portraits | 15 |
| MODULE FOUR: The City in Modern Art | 19 |
| MODULE FIVE: Family Pictures | 23 |
| MODULE SIX: Music and Art | 27 |
| MODULE SEVEN: Modern Visions of Light | 31 |
| MODULE EIGHT: Art and Politics | 35 |
| List of Artworks | 39 |
Components of the Kit
Art Modules
These modules provide engaging and accessible ways to discuss and create art. Each is structured around a theme and includes five works of art, discussion questions, art-historical information, conversational activities, and an art-making activity.
The modules are not ordered sequentially, and each can be used independently as a single unit. When using this kit, it is important to be flexible and allow the needs and interests of the participants to shape the experience. For example, you do not need to cover all five works or engage in every activity included in a module. Additionally, you can extend a single module over multiple sessions. Also, any number of modules can be sequenced in order to create a coherent extended program. Furthermore, you can develop new themes by rearranging the reproductions provided in this kit.
Reproductions
All artworks presented in this kit are from MoMA’s collection. The DVD contains all the images included in all eight art modules. The ten art cards are reproductions of the artworks in the first four art modules only. The digital images can be viewed on a television or a computer or projected on a screen or wall, depending upon the equipment available to you. You can use the art cards or DVD to look closely at the work in a small group or one-on-one. More information about using the DVD can be found in the back of this kit.
Components of a Module
Images of Artworks
Each module is composed of five works from MoMA’s collection grouped thematically. They include work in various mediums, including painting, sculpture, and photography.
Discussion Questions and Art-Historical Information
The discussion questions should be used to invite description, interpretation, and connection. The art-historical content provides information for each work in relation to the overall theme. Together, the questions and information can launch and enhance your conversation.
Conversational Activities (Turn and Talks)
Each module contains two conversational activities, each in relation to a specific work. If you are working with a group, about midway through your discussion of a designated image divide everyone into smaller groups of four to six people. Give the prompt to foster interaction among the participants. After five to ten minutes, bring everyone back together and invite participants to share their conversations with the group as a whole. These smaller discussions allow for a more intimate experience. In addition, these prompts can easily be used in a one-on-one conversation.
Art-Making Activity
The final component of each module is an art-making activity that is related to the theme and works discussed. We suggest materials and processes that can be used in various settings and adapted to the abilities of all participants.
Please refer to Foundations for Engagement with Art in the accompanying book (page 111) for more information on close analysis of art. The guide also includes detailed information on strategies for leading conversations that can be applied to your discussions about the artwork in these modules.
MODULE ONE
Tradition and Innovation in Modern Painting
The selected works are among the most iconic in MoMA’s collection. They share a common medium — painting — and represent various steps in the development of new artistic languages at the turn of the twentieth century. They illustrate developments in modern art and demonstrate how celebrated artists have built on and broken with artistic tradition to forge new ground in representation and artistic practice. Given the focus on innovation, the works are arranged chronologically. This sequence allows the conversation to progress historically and shows how each work builds on tradition to bring about innovation.
Discussion Questions and Art-Historical Information
Vincent van Gogh. *The Starry Night*. 1889
- What do you notice first when you look at this painting?
- How would you describe the colors?
- How do you feel when you look at this painting? What in the painting makes you feel that way?
*The Starry Night*, by Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890), is among the most recognizable images in the history of art, and certainly one of the most reproduced. It is a landscape Van Gogh painted in Saint-Rémy, in the south of France. The painting is a quintessential example of the artist’s short and textured brushstroke. Furthermore, Van Gogh does not adhere to traditional uses of color but instead favors an imaginative, expressive palette, as in the rolling blue mountains in the background and the bright-yellow stars in the sky. His style influenced generations of artists who appreciated his sense of drama and unconventional use of color.
André Derain. *London Bridge*. 1906
- What time of day do you think is depicted in this painting? How can you tell?
- Why do you think Derain uses the colors that he does? What is the emotional effect of his color choices on the viewer?
- The title of this work is *London Bridge*. Can you imagine London looking the way it is represented here? Why or why not?
André Derain (1880–1954) was a member of the French group of artists who came to be known as the *Fauves*, or “wild beasts.” Their use of color, often not corresponding to reality, earned them this title. In the early twentieth century, Derain left Paris to travel to London, where he painted numerous cityscapes, frequently set along the River Thames, including this rendition of London Bridge. In his new surroundings, Derain continued his exploration of perception and color in his innovative style.
Pablo Picasso. *Les Demoiselles d’Avignon*. 1907
- What is the first word that comes to your mind when looking at this painting?
- How is the representation of these figures different from that in traditional paintings? Consider the shape of the figures and their facial expressions, proportions, and colors.
- This painting is eight feet tall and over seven feet wide. What are the emotional effects of the scale of this work? Why do you think Picasso created such a large painting?
This work by Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) is considered to be among the most important paintings of the twentieth century. Picasso innovated at multiple levels, exploring the formal possibilities of painting and radically shifting the experience of the viewer. Geometric shapes are used to delineate the women, as if they are seen from multiple perspectives. Picasso incorporated the traditional motif of female nudes as well as African art, as seen in the masklike faces of the two women on the right.
**TURN AND TALK:** In preliminary sketches Picasso included two male figures in this composition—a sailor and a doctor—but ultimately chose not to include them. How would these figures have altered the composition and your interpretation of the scene? How would you change the scene?
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. *Street, Dresden*. 1908
- What type of place is represented in this painting?
- Does anything in the painting give you a sense of the time period depicted?
- What words would you use to describe the overall mood of this work?
During the nineteenth century, the population in Dresden and other German cities skyrocketed, yet Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) wrote, “The more I mixed with people the more I felt my loneliness.” As a member of *Die Brücke* (The Bridge), a German Expressionist art movement, Kirchner investigated the expressive potential of color, form, and composition in depictions of everyday German life. In *Street, Dresden* he highlights the relationship between individuals and their urban environment, including the other people present. Through formal elements he conveys a sense of the highly congested street and at the same time the separateness and emotional isolation between the figures.
**TURN AND TALK:** Share a personal story of a trip to a big city. Did this experience take place during your childhood or more recently? Do you prefer cities, small towns, or suburbs? How do you feel when you are in a city?
In 1906 Umberto Boccioni (1882–1916) moved from the Italian countryside to Paris, where he was inspired by the modern city and by the new technologies available to him. After meeting Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, founder of the Futurist movement, Boccioni, along with other Italian artists, shifted the movement beyond writing into visual art. The goal of these artists was to abandon nostalgia for Italy’s past and propel society into the future by embracing technological advancements. Boccioni integrated notions of modernity and technology into his paintings not only through depictions of dynamic cities but also through optical distortion and blurred lines and figures, which capture the movement of the city like a camera would.
Umberto Boccioni. *The City Rises*. 1910
- Are there figures or objects that you can recognize in this painting? If so, what and where are they? What could they symbolize?
- The title of this work is *The City Rises*. How does knowing this title affect the way you view the painting?
- What is the significance of brushstroke in this work? How does it contribute to the mood of the painting?
In this module, we looked at different ways artists have altered traditional forms and styles in painting. Ask participants to create a simple landscape image (for example, trees or mountains) using acrylic, tempera, or watercolor paints on paper. They can depict the scene any way that they like. Once the first version of this landscape has been made, ask them to re-create the landscape on a different piece of paper. This time ask them to change either the color palette (for example, use colors that are not representative of what they really see) or the technique for applying paint (for example, use the tip of the brush, large brushstrokes, or a smaller paintbrush). Afterward, hold the works up side-by-side and discuss how the changes made have altered the overall appearance of the landscape. Ask participants about the motivation behind the changes. Repeat the activity with different materials and techniques as many times as participants would like or as the schedule allows.
MODULE TWO
Images of America
The selected works offer glimpses of life in the United States during the twentieth century. The images include scenes created by artists from different countries and offer a range of interpretations of both urban and rural life. The chronological sequence allows for a discussion of the important changes that were occurring not only in American history but also in the development of art. Throughout the discussion, consider how American culture and identity are defined and represented in visual art.
Discussion Questions and Art-Historical Information
Edward Hopper. *Gas*. 1940
- Is there anything in this painting that strikes you as distinctly “American”? Why or why not?
- What elements of the landscape are familiar to you, if any?
- If this painting were to depict a present-day gas station, how would it differ from the one seen here?
Edward Hopper (1882–1967) studied illustration and painting at the New York Institute of Art and Design, where he and his fellow students were encouraged to create realistic depictions of modern life. Because abstraction reigned supreme then, many critics considered Hopper and his colleagues to be painting in a style that was all but obsolete. Eventually, though, his work came to be considered an important precursor to a generation of Pop artists and Photo-Realist painters. Most of Hopper’s paintings concentrate on the subtle interactions of human beings with each other and/or their surroundings.
Jacob Lawrence. *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities*. 1940–41
- Who are the figures in this painting? Where do you think they are?
- Consider the title of this work. Do you think this work depicts educational facilities in the North or the South? Why?
- Have you or your family ever moved to another region, and, if so, what were the motivations for the move?
Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000) is among the best-known twentieth-century American artists. Throughout his lengthy artistic career, Lawrence concentrated on depicting the history and struggles of African Americans, and his work often portrays important periods in African American history. Lawrence was only twenty-three when he completed the sixty-panel series of paintings originally entitled *Migration of the Negro*. This series depicts the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North, of which Lawrence’s parents were a part. The paintings were shown in New York and brought him national recognition after they were featured in a 1941 issue of *Fortune* magazine.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss your own educational experience. What was your early schooling like? How do you think your opportunities and experiences compare to those of children today?
Piet Mondrian (1872–1944) made art intimately related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In his work he sought to transcend specific subject matter to represent the universal. Over the course of the development of his aesthetic doctrine, called Neo-Plasticism, he gradually limited his compositions to what he considered “pure” forms — horizontal and vertical lines — resulting in a strict rectilinearity and a palette of black, white, and primary colors exclusively. In 1940 Mondrian moved to New York City, where he would remain until his death. He took great interest in city life and jazz music, to which he was introduced in New York, and he soon began, as he said, “to put a little boogie-woogie” into his paintings.
Andrew Wyeth (1917–2009) was an American painter. He often depicted the land and inhabitants around his hometown of Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, and those near his summer home in Cushing, Maine. As a representational artist, Wyeth’s paintings sharply contrasted with abstraction, which gained currency in American art in the mid-twentieth century. Wyeth vividly recorded arid landscapes and rural houses and shacks, painting minute details and nuances of light and shadow. Wyeth’s paintings often contain strong emotional currents and symbolic content. There is great mystery in *Christina’s World*, and the ambiguities associated with the woman and the scene allow the viewer to form multiple narratives.
**TURN AND TALK:** Create a narrative for this scene. Consider the main figure. Why is she in this field? What is she about to do?
- **What shapes and colors do you see in this painting? Why do you suppose the artist exclusively uses straight lines and primary colors?**
- **If this image represented a place, where might it be? Would it be urban or rural?**
- **Mondrian titled this work *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. What does “boogie woogie” mean to you? How does knowing the title affect the way you look at the work?**
- **Why do you think this figure is in the field? What might she be looking at?**
- **What part of America does this painting depict?**
- **What is the overall tone of this work?**
Jeff Wall. *After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, the Prologue*. 1999–2000
- What kind of place is represented in this photograph? How would you describe it?
- Is this a real room? Do you think Wall found this place, or constructed it?
- What time period do you think this photograph suggests?
Jeff Wall (born 1946) is a contemporary artist living and working in Canada whose medium of choice is photography. This photograph, *After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, the Prologue*, is a reference to the famous American novel that tells the story of one unnamed African American’s struggle to be recognized by white society around the time of World War II. In this visual rendition Wall stays true to the time period in which the novel is set. The scene was imagined and created by the artist with the help of assistants, and incorporates many details from the novel, including 1,369 light bulbs: the exact number cited in Ellison’s prologue.
In this module, we looked at various representations of American life in the twentieth century. Ask participants to create a collaged image that represents America to them. Suggest that their image can depict the America of today or represent some time in the past. Provide newspapers and magazines in which participants may find the images for their collages. At the end, have participants share their collages with the rest of the group.
The selected works allow for an examination of some of the ways modern painters have depicted others and themselves. In looking at these works, consider how each artist’s style and his use of color, scale, and composition affects the figure he depicts. Also take into account the setting of the work and what information it conveys about the person represented or the artist himself.
Pablo Picasso. *Les Demoiselles d’Avignon*. 1907
- What is the first thing you notice when you look at this painting?
- How would you describe the faces of these women? How do they vary?
- The women in this painting are staring directly at the viewer. How does that make you feel?
Rather than adhering to established conventions of composition and painting technique, Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) broke with traditional methods of representation. In this painting he distorted form, accentuated some details while leaving out others altogether, and presented multiple perspectives within the same work, instead of trying to faithfully re-create likenesses of the figures and the scene. In *Les Demoiselles d’Avignon* Picasso represents five prostitutes posing. Avignon was a street in Barcelona famed for its brothels.
Andrew Wyeth. *Christina’s World*. 1948
- What do you think is happening in this painting? Where is this woman and what is she doing?
- How would you describe this woman’s posture and body language?
- If you could see this woman’s face, what do you think her expression would be? Why?
Andrew Wyeth (1917–2009) was an American painter who spent most of his life living and painting in Maine and Pennsylvania. In Wyeth’s style of painting, known as magic realism, commonplace scenes contain a sense of mystery and uncertainty. This painting depicts Christina Olson, the artist’s neighbor in Maine, who had a neuromuscular disorder possibly caused by polio. Wyeth described Christina as “limited physically but by no means spiritually.” Olson refused to use a wheelchair, preferring to crawl. Wyeth explained, “The challenge to me was to do justice to her extraordinary conquest of a life which most people would consider hopeless.”
Edward Hopper. *Gas*. 1940
- During what time period do you think this painting is set?
- What region of the country might this scene depict?
- How do you think this figure is feeling? What is the overall mood of the painting?
Edward Hopper (1882–1967) studied commercial illustration and worked as an illustrator in New York. He spent his summers painting in New England. In most of Hopper’s works, he highlights the mundane activities of the everyday in a realistic fashion. In paying attention to these quotidian tasks and often focusing on solitary figures, he imbued his paintings with a sense of loneliness and ambiguity and elevated the importance of each individual’s intimate relationship with his or her surroundings.
**TURN AND TALK:** Create a narrative for this scene. What do you think has just happened at this gas station? What could happen next?
Jeff Wall. *After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, the Prologue*. 1999–2000
- What is this figure doing? What might his posture reveal about his emotional state?
- How would you describe this environment? What does it convey about this man’s life?
- Why do you think he is living in this place?
Jeff Wall (born 1946) is a contemporary photographer from Canada. *After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, the Prologue* references a literary work: Ralph Ellison’s 1952 novel *Invisible Man*. In the novel’s prologue, Ellison introduces the protagonist and narrator, who is never named, in his underground home. In Wall’s rendition he presents this man from an angle that denies us a view of his face. Instead, he uses the figure’s surroundings to help the viewer establish his identity and his place within American society.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss your favorite story or book. Is there a character you identify with or a particular part you find most poignant? Why is it so meaningful to you?
In 1888 Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) went to Provence, where he found the brilliant light and vivid colors of the nighttime intoxicating. He remarked, “It often seems to me that the night is much more alive and richly colored than the day.” Even though this is a night scene, the colors are extremely bright and intense. While this scene was inspired by the view from Van Gogh’s mental institution in Saint-Rémy, the village depicted was partly invented, perhaps based on memories of his native Holland. Thus the painting is derived from actual observation but also from Van Gogh’s imagination and memories. Van Gogh championed individual expression over absolute realism. In *Starry Night* he offers a glimpse into his personal history as well as insight into his thoughts and imagination.
**Art-Making Activity**
In this module, we considered how different artists have represented themselves and others. Ask participants to work in pairs to make collage portraits of one another. Use colored poster board as a background and decorative papers of various colors, patterns, and textures for the collage. Ask participants to look at the overall shape or outline of their partner’s head. Suggest they sketch a light pencil line of that shape on their poster board to guide them. They can then start cutting, tearing, and gluing paper to fill in the outline of the portrait. You can also provide pre-cut pieces of paper. Next, instruct them to move on to the details. These can include hair, ears, neck, glasses, jewelry, or clothing. Tell them they can use different textures and colors of materials to describe the various surfaces they see and that the portrait need not be realistic.
The selected images are depictions of urban landscapes throughout the development of modern art. Each work illustrates the unique perspective of the artist as well as his relationship to his urban surroundings. The works progress in chronological order, ending with the highly abstract *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. Throughout, consider topics such as the development and growth of cities and the benefits and challenges of city life.
André Derain. *London Bridge*. 1906
- What part of the city does this painting represent?
- What city do you think this might be, and why?
- Where is the viewer in relation to the bridge?
André Derain (1880–1954) was a member of the French movement that came to be known as *Fauvism*. The Fauves, or “wild beasts,” were known for their unbridled use of color. Their disregard for the natural coloring of objects shocked their contemporaries. In this painting, Derain applies wild color in his depiction of the heavily trafficked London Bridge, with multiple boats and barges in the River Thames below. Derain was encouraged to visit London in the early 1900s by the dealer Ambroise Vollard. While there he painted many different views of the city, focusing mainly on the various monuments and bridges along the Thames.
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. *Street, Dresden*. 1908
- What are the people in this painting doing?
- What is peculiar about Kirchner’s use of color in this scene?
- What is the overall mood of this work?
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) was a member of the German Expressionist group *Die Brücke* (The Bridge). The artists of *Die Brücke* explored the emotional effects of color and composition in the depiction of contemporary life. Through the use of bright, unrealistic colors, Kirchner energized this scene of Königstrasse street in Dresden.
**TURN AND TALK:** Imagine a busy street in your town or city and think of how you would depict it. Which street would you pick? Why? What medium would you use? What colors and techniques?
Umberto Boccioni. *The City Rises*. 1910
- What seems to be happening in this painting? What are the figures doing?
- What are some clues that reveal that this painting depicts a city?
- What is the emotional impact of the way Boccioni has decided to depict the city? Consider his choice of brushstroke, color, and composition.
Umberto Boccioni (1882–1916) was a key figure of the Italian Futurist movement. This group of writers, musicians, and visual artists sought to abandon the air of nostalgia they felt was restricting Italian society. They encouraged their compatriots to embrace the infinite potential of the future, powered by technological advancements and humans’ will for change. Boccioni uses “lines of force” to communicate this idea of progression in his dynamic composition of a city being built.
Jacob Lawrence. *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities*. 1940–41
- How is this work related to our theme of the city?
- Do the people in this work look like they come from a particular background?
- What is the impact of the formal choices the artist has made on our viewing experience?
Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000) and his family were some of the thousands of African Americans to migrate to the North around the time of World War I. They eventually relocated to New York City’s Harlem neighborhood, where Lawrence began taking art classes. In 1940 he began The Migration Series, a multipanel series of images that narrates this great migration in American history. The panels were worked simultaneously, resulting in a uniformity of palette and similarity in overall composition among the sixty panels.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss the transformations you have witnessed in American society in the past decades, thinking in particular about shifts in public policy and initiatives in social reform.
Piet Mondrian. *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. 1942–43
- How many shapes and colors are used in this painting?
- What does this painting make you imagine or think of? Does it represent any particular place or thing?
- The title of this painting is *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. Knowing this, how does your understanding of the painting change?
Through the course of his career, Piet Mondrian (1872–1944) abandoned representation to focus on the depiction of “pure” forms. For Mondrian this meant the exclusive use of primary colors and geometric shapes. In 1940 he moved from London to New York City. There he joined a vibrant society, constantly in flux. He was influenced not only by the rhythm of city life but also by the syncopated beat of jazz music.
In this module, we discussed how artists have represented urban settings. Ask participants to make a representation of a city they have lived in, visited, or imagined. Encourage them to think about what elements of city life they will include and what materials they will use to represent the landscape. Provide various materials, such as paper, pencils, watercolors, and acrylic. Help them to think about how the formal decisions they make will affect the overall impact of their works. Make sure that participants are aware that their depiction does not need to be realistic but can be a rendition of a personal vision.
The selected works offer several perspectives on the idea of “family” as represented in modern art. The initial works exhibit more traditional interpretations, while the subsequent works are more abstract both in style and in relation to the theme. Throughout, consider such topics as the representation of the figures and their relationships to each other, to the artist, and to their surroundings.
Discussion Questions and Art-Historical Information
Édouard Vuillard. *Interior, Mother and Sister of the Artist*. 1893
- Who might these women be, and what is their relationship to each other? Do you think they have any relationship with the artist?
- What might Vuillard be telling us about their personalities by painting them in this way?
- Do you relate to either of these figures? What is your role in your family, either now or when you were growing up?
The majority of paintings by Édouard Vuillard (1868–1940) depict domestic interiors and public scenes. They are often rendered with an overall blurred quality, with different textures and patterns blending into each other. Vuillard’s mother earned a living for her family as a dressmaker. The influence of her profession can be seen in Vuillard’s inclusion of intricate decorative patterns. In *Interior, Mother and Sister of the Artist*, he incorporates these patterns throughout the domestic space, seen not only on the clothing of his sister (the figure on the left) but also on the wallpaper. The mother anchors the composition, with the walls and floor all angling in toward her seated figure.
Dorothea Lange. *Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California*. 1936
- When and where do you think this photograph was taken?
- Describe the face of the woman in the center. How do you think she is feeling? What might she be thinking?
- What is the role of this woman in her family?
Dorothea Lange (1895–1965) began her career as a photographer in her native New York City before moving to San Francisco. Together Lange and her husband documented the poverty and exploitation of migrant workers during and after the Great Depression. *Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California* is perhaps her most famous work and became the iconic image of the Great Depression. In an interview with the *New York Times*, Lange spoke about her experience taking the photograph: “I did not ask her name or her history. She told me her age, that she was thirty-two. She said that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields, and birds that the children killed. She had just sold the tires from her car to buy food. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her, and so she helped me.” Lange captures the desperation of this mother as well as the strong ties which existed in this family nucleus.
Max Beckmann. *Family Picture*. 1920
- Who is represented in this painting? What are the figures doing?
- How would you describe the relationship between the figures?
- The title of this work is *Family Picture*. How is this painting similar to or different from your own family pictures?
After serving as a medic in World War I, Max Beckmann (1884–1950) transformed his artistic style to incorporate altered perspective and proportion. In contrast to popular trends, he rejected abstract painting and embraced traditional subject matter such as portraits, still lifes, and genre scenes. In *Family Picture*, Beckmann paints a typical genre scene of the various stages of life, ranging from infancy to old age, within one family. The relationships of the figures, however, remain ambiguous.
Marc Chagall. *I and the Village*. 1911
- How does this work relate to our theme of family?
- What are some other ways to think about the idea of a family? Could it include friends? Animals? A community or village?
- Are there specific places that you associate with your family?
Marc Chagall (1887–1985) was born to a large Jewish family in a village in Belarus, at that time part of the Russian empire. In the early twentieth century he moved to Paris. His work often includes imagery from his childhood, including details of Hasidic culture. In *I and the Village*, Chagall includes figures in rural dress, vernacular buildings, and domesticated animals. The large man and goat in the center dominate the composition and seem to have a strong bond, as illustrated by a faint sight line that connects the two figures’ eyes.
**TURN AND TALK:** Which city or village do you consider your “hometown”? Is it where you live now or where you grew up? How would you paint this place? Which specific places or people would you include?
Colombian artist Fernando Botero (born 1932) traveled to Europe at a young age with the goal of studying the work of the Old Masters. Characterized by bloated figures, his work often depicts contemporary life in his native Colombia as well as portraits of militarists and people in power. In his work Botero explores both the nature of politics and power as well as the formal possibilities of painting.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss past or current depictions of political families in the United States or abroad. How are they represented? Are they posed or candid? Are they positive or negative depictions?
In this module we discussed how different artists have represented families, both their own and others’. Ask participants to create a work that depicts their family, using colored pencils and pastels. You might even ask participants to bring in actual family portraits or copies of photographs and other memorabilia. They can collage these family photographs into their work. Finally, have participants share a story that relates to their family or the work.
MODULE SIX
Music and Art
The selected works touch on various ways artists have explored music in art. The images offer a range of opportunities to discuss various styles, forms, and ideas related to movement, rhythm, and other elements related to music. The relationship between music, composition, and art is explored through subject matter, materials, and the overall interaction of the elements within the work.
Henri Rousseau. *The Sleeping Gypsy*. 1897
- How would you describe this scene?
- What time of day do you think is depicted in this painting?
- Why is this figure carrying a musical instrument? What is her role in society? Where do you think she is coming from? Where might she be going?
- What do you think the relationship is between the person and the lion?
Henri Rousseau (1844–1910) was a self-taught artist who went against the grain of academic style and subject matter by flattening figures and objects. His style was refreshing to some of the leading avant-garde artists of the time, including Pablo Picasso. In *The Sleeping Gypsy*, Rousseau exercises his acute sensibility for color and line in his depiction of a gypsy and lion in the middle of a desert-like setting. With minimal modeling, he reduces all forms to flattened shapes. There is an overall stillness in the setting, giving a dreamlike quality to the work.
Pablo Picasso. *Three Musicians*. 1921
- Which geometric shapes do you see in this image?
- How many musicians are there? How has Picasso depicted these musicians? What material has he used?
- Where might these musicians be performing? What kind of music do you think they are playing?
Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) and Georges Braque were the two pioneers of Cubism, developing it roughly between 1907 and 1914. Their collaboration spawned the collage technique, in which pieces of paper and other materials are adhered to a surface to create an image. *Three Musicians* is characterized by the illusion of this collage technique: the figures are composed of multiple painted shapes that resemble pieces of paper or other materials. Of the three figures, the two characters on the left, a masked Pierrot, or sad clown (far left), and a Harlequin, are associated with the *commedia dell’arte*, a form of improvisational theater that began in Italy in the sixteenth century. While these characters add a certain humor to the scene, the darkened palette lends a somber quality, creating an overall sense of ambiguity in the work.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. *La Goulue at the Moulin Rouge*. 1891–92
- What are the people in this painting doing? Where do you think they are? What are some elements that help you identify the specific time frame and location of this painting?
- How would you describe the central figure? How does she present herself? Can you determine her social status?
- What kind of music do you think is played at this dance hall?
After moving to the Montmartre district of Paris, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901) began frequenting dance halls and other social venues. This particular scene illustrates the Moulin Rouge, one of the many cabarets that were a distinguishing feature of Paris nightlife toward the close of the nineteenth century. The painting highlights one particular dancer, Louise Weber, nicknamed “La Goulue,” the reigning belle of this milieu. In his representation of the figures and the dance hall, Toulouse-Lautrec applied artistic techniques learned through his study of Japanese woodblock prints, including a cropped scene, shallow spaces, and outlined figures. These characteristics are also seen in his commercial posters, for which he was well known.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss your favorite music venue. What kind of music is played there? Is there dancing? What kind?
Henri Matisse. *Dance (I)*. 1909
- Where do you think this scene takes place and what are the figures doing?
- What kind of mood do their body positions and movements suggest?
- How do the artist’s decisions regarding color, composition, and lack of detail affect your interpretation of this scene?
Henri Matisse (1869–1954) was one of the main artists of the avant-garde movement known as Fauvism, which explored the expressive potential of color. After returning from travels in North Africa, he started to experiment with innovative treatments of the human figure, inspired by classical decorations, African tribal sculpture, and ongoing developments in the work of his contemporaries. *Dance (I)* combines remnants of the Fauvists’ use of color with Matisse’s desire to treat the female form as a fluid visual balance of opposing rhythms and volumes. In the year just before Matisse painted *Dance (I)* he wrote, “What I dream of is an art of balance, of purity and serenity devoid of troubling or depressing subject-matter . . . a soothing, calming influence on the mind, something like a good armchair which provides relaxation from physical fatigue.”
**TURN AND TALK:** If you were to paint a scene with dancers, what kind of dance would they perform and in what setting? What would the dancers be wearing? Would this performance be a large spectacle or a small show?
Romare Bearden. *The Dove*. 1964
- Who and what is represented in this work? Are these elements easy to identify?
- How do you think this work was made? What materials were used?
- In what different ways do movement and rhythm come into play in this work?
- What type of music do you associate with this scene?
Although he studied and worked as an artist for multiple decades before, it was not until 1964 that Romare Bearden (1911–1988) began to make the collages that would become his signature works. In *The Dove*, he uses the collage technique to represent his own Harlem community. This work is part of a series titled The Prevalence of Ritual, in which Bearden repeatedly represented the activities that made up everyday existence in his neighborhood. Using imagery found in newspapers and magazines, Bearden created a vibrant and rhythmic street scene.
In this module, we considered how different artists have incorporated or alluded to music and rhythm in their artistic practice. In this activity, play different styles of music while participants are creating a painting of a figure. Offer some suggestions: a musician, a dancer, a friend, a self-portrait, etc. The best materials for this project are those that can be used more fluidly while the music is being played. Consider using watercolors or acrylic paint. Provide paint brushes of different sizes and large pieces of paper to paint on. Allow participants to work at their own pace.
The selected works explore different ways that artists have incorporated the theme or image of light into their practice. Included are a photograph and four paintings: two mediums whose relationship with light is essential. When discussing these works take note of where light is seen and how it affects the viewer’s perception of the place that is depicted. Also consider the effect of the absence of light in some of the works.
René Magritte. *The Empire of Light, II*. 1950
- What are some words that you would use to describe this scene?
- What time of day would you say is depicted in this painting? What do you see that makes you say that?
- Why do you think Magritte has included elements of both night and day here?
As one of the most important Surrealists, René Magritte (1898–1967) often painted scenes filled with ambiguity. This image is one of a series in which Magritte presented the same street scene simultaneously during the day and at nighttime. In his adherence to this illusionist technique, Magritte’s aesthetic was similar to that of his fellow Surrealist Salvador Dalí, who referred to this style as “hand-painted dream photographs.”
Jacob August Riis. *Bandits’ Roost, 59½ Mulberry Street*. 1888
- Who are the people in this photograph and where are they?
- Photography literally means “writing with light.” What are the different ways that light is present and absent in this work?
- What are the differences between photography and painting? What possibilities does photography offer for depicting certain scenes?
Jacob August Riis (1849–1914) was an early proponent of the documentary potential of photography. He used his camera to capture the climate and conditions of the slums of New York City in an effort to promote social change. After the advent of the flash, Riis began photographing tenements and other overcrowded urban areas at night, casting a harsh light on the poor living conditions of his subjects. *Bandits’ Roost, 59½ Mulberry Street* represents a notorious spot in downtown Manhattan. Riis began photographing this street as a police reporter for *The Tribune* in 1878. From then on, this street and its surroundings would remain an important subject in his work.
**TURN AND TALK:** If you were to photograph certain parts of your hometown, which would you choose and why? How would your depictions differ based on the time of day?
Jacob Lawrence (1917–2000) is one of the most celebrated African American artists to date. While living in New York, he studied at the Art Students League and at Studio 306 in Harlem and worked under the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Although abstract paintings were in vogue at the time, Lawrence maintained a dedication to creating representational paintings. In *Street Shadows*, Lawrence depicts a busy urban block. The scene is filled with stylized figures and buildings as well as planes of light and shadow.
**Jacob Lawrence.** *Street Shadows.* 1959
- **Where does this scene take place? Can you determine the time of day or the season?**
- **How does Lawrence depict light and shadows?**
- **What title would you give to this work? Once you learn the actual title, does it change your perception of the work?**
Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) is often called the father of modern art. He used conventional content, such as landscape, still life, and portraiture, to deepen his explorations of form and perception and to question the traditions of painting. In this painting he applied large patches of different hues, laid on with wide brushstrokes that sweep rhythmically across the surface. No drawn contours bound the shapes of the houses, trees, or rocks. Rather, the play of light and shadow creates a sense of three-dimensionality. *L’Estaque* is one of many landscapes Cézanne created in the south of France, where he was able to paint numerous landscapes from a variety of viewpoints and angles, further investigating ideas of our visual relationship to our surroundings.
**Paul Cézanne.** *L’Estaque.* 1879–83
- **What natural and man-made elements do you see in this painting?**
- **Where can you see light in this scene?**
- **What is the emotional impact of the painting?**
Edward Hopper. *New York Movie*. 1939
- What space do you think this painting depicts? How does this theater look different than current movie theaters?
- What is the woman in blue doing? How do you think she is feeling?
- What are the different ways that lighting plays a role in this painting? Where can it be seen? What kind of mood does it create?
Paintings by Edward Hopper (1882–1967) are often realistic, but also often full of ambiguity. Feelings of loneliness and isolation pervade his paintings, particularly his later works, which typically contain one solitary figure or, at times, a few figures that do not interact. Through the use of strong, shadow-casting light, he emphasizes mood and illuminates the scene. Personal and emotive, his works are charged with narrative potential.
**TURN AND TALK:** Discuss the woman standing to the side. Why is she not watching the film? What might she be thinking about? What will she do once the movie ends?
In this module, we considered different ways artists have explored the effects of light on certain settings and how we perceive them. In this activity, have participants consider how daylight affects a certain place that they know well. Ask participants to think of a specific place from their past or present. Give them paint, pastels, or paper — any medium that allows for extensive use of color. Ask them to depict this place during the day. When they are done, ask them to consider the exact same place at night — and to illustrate it on a separate piece of paper. Lead a discussion to compare and contrast the two renditions: How do they differ? How has the lighting changed? Has a new tone or mood been created?
The selected images are depictions of political figures and conditions throughout modern history. Included are works from a variety of countries: Germany, Mexico, and the United States. Because of their inherent ties to political history, the works are ordered chronologically. Throughout, consider how politicians present themselves and how they are perceived by others. The works can stimulate discussion about the living conditions created by particular political movements and events as well as their effects in subsequent years.
Otto Dix, *Dr. Mayer-Hermann*. 1926
- Who is the man in this painting? What is his profession?
- Do you think this is a positive or negative representation of a doctor?
- How do the elements of the doctor’s office reflect Dix’s opinion of his subject?
Otto Dix (1891–1969) is best known for the depictions of indigent war veterans and prostitutes that he painted after his service in the German Army during World War I. He also painted portraits of members of the upper echelons of German society. In this portrait of Dr. Mayer-Hermann, Dix’s actual physician, he maintains his honest and unforgiving style. The frontal pose of the figure, as well as the various circular forms inside the doctor’s office, all emphasize his unhealthy rotundity. This realism was the signature characteristic of the *Neue Sachlichkeit* (New Objectivity) movement, of which Dix was a chief member. Through this almost satirical portrait Dix highlights and critiques the life of excess led by the thriving middle class of the Weimar Republic.
Diego Rivera, *Agrarian Leader Zapata*. 1931
- What are some possible narratives suggested by this scene? What has just happened? What will happen next?
- Which social classes do the people in this painting belong to?
- What emotions do you associate with these characters?
Diego Rivera (1886–1957) was one of the Mexican artists that became known for their murals depicting events related to important advancements and figures in Mexican history. Having visited Europe on multiple occasions in the early twentieth century, Rivera was exposed to both the avant-garde trends of Paris and the continent’s rich artistic history. He also traveled to Italy, where he studied the Renaissance fresco tradition. In *Agrarian Leader Zapata*, Rivera paints the revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, backed by his army of peasants, holding the proud horse of his enemy, who lies dead behind him. This fresco was created for a 1931 solo exhibition at The Museum of Modern Art. It is a replica of a portion of a mural painted the year before in the Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca.
Garry Winogrand. *Democratic National Convention*. 1960
- Where do you think this photograph was taken?
- How is it different from other photographs of politicians that you have seen?
- Why do you think the photographer chose to shoot from this viewpoint? How does this perspective affect the way you interpret the image?
This photograph is one of a series that depicts various gatherings and social functions, taken by Garry Winogrand (1928–1984) in the 1960s. Winogrand adhered to the documentary tradition of photography and commented on the social and political conditions that created the scenarios he focused on. In *Democratic National Convention*, Winogrand captures the future president John F. Kennedy speaking to his constituents from two different perspectives. In the foreground he shows the typical experience of the public, viewing the event on a television screen. This image is juxtaposed with a behind-the-scenes look. This photograph touches on different aspects of American politics, issues of honesty and transparency, and the role of the media in relaying political events.
TURN AND TALK: Discuss a specific political moment that was important to you. Where were you when it happened? Were you there in person, or did you watch it on television? How did that event affect your life and the country?
Jasper Johns. *Map*. 1961
- How has Johns altered the traditional image of a map of the United States?
- How would you describe Johns’s use of color and brushstroke in the painting? How does it inform your interpretation of this work?
- What are the political undertones of the transformation of this map?
Jasper Johns (born 1930) began his career in New York City during the height of Abstract Expressionism. Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, and Mark Rothko, the artists most associated with the movement, were celebrated for their individualistic and emotionally revealing large-scale works. In *Map*, Johns adopts their highly expressive brushstroke and applies it to the representation of a recognizable and rather mundane image: a map of the United States. Through the use of everyday images, such as maps, targets, and flags, Johns is able to focus on the process of creation rather than the subject matter. In addition, *Map* alludes to the representation and meaning of political symbols.
TURN AND TALK: Think about how you would create your own version of the map of the United States. Which elements would you change? What emotional effect would you try to create?
Gerhard Richter. *Flugzeug II*. 1966
- What type of airplanes do you think are depicted in this work? What are they used for?
- Why do you think Richter used a photograph as his starting point for this print?
- Have you seen similar images of aircraft elsewhere?
Gerhard Richter (born 1932) began incorporating photography in his practice in the early 1960s. Richter used images that he found in newspapers and other publications, and investigated the effect of mass media on perception. Richter began making prints in 1965 and has completed more than one hundred. This print of fighter planes reflects the World War II bombing of his native Dresden and the debates around German rearmament prevalent in the national press at the time. The printing strategy creates an effect for the viewer that is similar to that of newspaper illustrations.
In this module we discussed how artists have responded to and represented political events and ideas. In relation to this theme, ask participants to make a propagandistic poster of a particular political figure, party, or event. They can use a variety of materials and mediums. In addition, ask them to include a slogan to go with the poster. Invite participants to tell a story relating to an event or figure that is or was particularly important to them and influenced their life in some way.
List of Artworks
All works are in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Romare Bearden (American, 1914–1988). *The Dove*. 1964. Cut-and-pasted printed papers, gouache, pencil, and colored pencil on board, 13 3/4 x 8 ¾" (33.8 x 47.5 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Blanchette Hooker Rockefeller Fund
Max Beckmann (German, 1884–1950). *Family Picture*. 1920. Oil on canvas, 23 9/16 x 39 3/16" (60.1 x 99.9 cm). Gift of Abby Aldrich Rockefeller. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn
Umberto Boccioni (Italian, 1882–1916). *The City Rises*. 1910. Oil on canvas, 6' 6 ½" x 9' 10 ½" (199.3 x 301 cm). Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund
Fernando Botero (Colombian, born 1932). *The Presidential Family*. 1967. Oil on canvas, 6' 8 ¼" x 6' 5 ¾" (203.5 x 196.2 cm). Gift of Warren D. Benedek
Paul Cézanne (French, 1839–1906). *L'Estaque*. 1879–83. Oil on canvas, 31 ¾ x 39" (80.3 x 99.4 cm). The William S. Paley Collection
Marc Chagall (French, born Belarus, 1887–1985). *I and the Village*. 1911. Oil on canvas, 6' 3 ¾" x 59 ¾" (192.1 x 151.4 cm). Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris
André Derain (French, 1880–1954). *London Bridge*. 1906. Oil on canvas, 26 x 39" (66.9 x 99.1 cm). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Charles Zadok. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris
Otto Dix (German, 1891–1969). *Dr. Mayer–Hermann*. 1926. Oil and tempera on wood, 58 ½ x 39" (149.2 x 99.1 cm). Gift of Philip Johnson. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn
Vincent van Gogh (Dutch, 1853–1890). *The Starry Night*. 1889. Oil on canvas, 29 x 36 ¼" (73.7 x 92.1 cm). Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest
Edward Hopper (American, 1882–1967). *New York Movie*. 1939. Oil on canvas, 32 ¼ x 40 ¼" (81.9 x 101.9 cm). Given anonymously
Edward Hopper (American, 1882–1967). *Gas*. 1940. Oil on canvas, 26 5/8 x 40 5/8" (66.7 x 102.2 cm). Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund
Jasper Johns (American, born 1930). *Map*. 1961. Oil on canvas, 6' 6" x 10' 3 ¾" (198.2 x 314.7 cm). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Robert C. Scull. © 2009 Jasper Johns/Licensed by VAGA, New York
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (German, 1880–1938). *Street, Dresden*. 1908 (reworked 1919; dated on painting 1907). Oil on canvas, 59 ¾" x 65 6/16" (150.5 x 200.4 cm). Purchase. © Ingeborg & Dr. Wolfgang Henze–Ketterer, Wichtrach/Bern
Dorothea Lange (American, 1895–1965). *Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California*. 1936. Gelatin silver print, 12 ¾ x 10 ¾" (32.6 x 25.8 cm). Purchase
Jacob Lawrence (American, 1917–2000). *In the North the Negro had better educational facilities*. 1940–41. Tempera on gesso on composition board, 12 x 18" (30.5 x 45.7 cm). Gift of Mrs. David M. Levy. © 2009 Jacob Lawrence
Jacob Lawrence (American, 1917–2000). *Street Shadows*. 1959. Egg tempera and pencil on gessoed board, 24 x 29 ¾" (61 x 75.5 cm). Gift of Ellen Kern and Gail Garlick in memory of their parents, Jewel and Lewis Garlick. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
René Magritte (Belgian, 1898–1967). *The Empire of Light II*. 1950. Oil on canvas, 31 x 39" (78.8 x 99.3 cm). Gift of D. and J. de Menil. © 2009 C. Herscovici, Brussels/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Henri Matisse (French, 1869–1953). *Dance I*. Paris, Hôtel Biron, early 1909. Oil on canvas, 8' 6 ½" x 12' 9 ¾" (259.7 x 390.1 cm). Gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller in honor of Alfred H. Barr, Jr. © 2009 Succession H. Matisse, Paris/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944). *Broadway Boogie Woogie*. 1942–43. Oil on canvas, 50 x 50" (127 x 127 cm). Given anonymously
Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973). *Les Demoiselles d’Avignon*. Paris, June–July 1909. Oil on canvas, 8' x 7' 8" (243.9 x 233.7 cm). Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest. © 2009 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973). *Three Musicians*. 1921. Oil on canvas, 6' 7" x 7' 3 ½" (200.7 x 222.9 cm). Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund. © 2009 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
Gerhard Richter (German, born 1932). *Flugzeug II*. 1966. Screenprint, comp.: 19 ¾ x 32 ¾" (48.6 x 81.4 cm); sheet: 24 x 33 ¾" (61 x 86 cm). Publisher: Galerie Rottloff, Karlsruhe, Germany; Printer: Löwenbergart, Germany. Edition: unique. Ann and Lee Feinberg-Hatcock Fund; Alexandra Herzan Fund, and Virginia Cowles Schroth Fund. © 2009 Gerhard Richter
Jacob August Riis (American, born Denmark, 1849–1914). *Bandits’ Roost*, 59½ Mulberry Street. 1888. Gelatin silver print, printed 1938, 19 ¾ x 15 ½" (48.7 x 39.4 cm). Gift of the Museum of the City of New York
Diego Rivera (Mexican, 1886–1957). *Agrarian Leader Zapata*. 1931. Fresco, 7' 9 ¾" x 6' 2" (238.1 x 188 cm). Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Fund
Henri Rousseau (French, 1844–1910). *The Sleeping Gypsy*. 1897. Oil on canvas, 51 ¾ x 7" (129.5 x 200.7 cm). Gift of Mrs. Simon Guggenheim
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. (French, 1864–1901). *La Goulue at the Moulin Rouge*. 1891–92. Oil on board, 31 ¾ x 23 ¾" (79.4 x 59.0 cm). Gift of Mrs. David M. Levy
Édouard Vuillard (French, 1868–1940). *Interior, Mother and Sister of the Artist*. 1893. Oil on canvas, 18 ¾ x 22 ¾" (46.3 x 56.5 cm). Gift of Mrs. Sadie A. May. © 2009 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris
Jeff Wall (Canadian, born 1946). *After “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison, the Prologue*. 1999–2000, printed 2001. Silver dye bleach transparency; aluminum light box, 5' 8 ¾" x 8' 2 ¼" (174 x 250.8 cm). The Photography Council Fund, Horace W. Goldsmith Fund through Robert B. Menschel, and the Museum through the generosity of Jo Carole and Ronald S. Lauder and Carol and David Appel. © 2009 Jeff Wall
Garry Winogrand (American, 1928–1984). *Democratic National Convention*. 1960. Gelatin silver print, 15 ¾ x 10 ¾" (39.8 x 26.7 cm). Purchase and gift of Barbara Schwartz in memory of Eugene M. Schwartz. © 2009 The Estate of Garry Winogrand
Andrew Wyeth (American, 1917–2009). *Christina’s World*. 1948. Tempera on gessoed panel, 32 ¼ x 47 ¾" (81.9 x 121.3 cm). Purchase
Included in this kit are eight art modules, a DVD, and ten art cards. The DVD contains all the images discussed in all eight art modules. The art cards are reproductions of the artworks used in the first four modules only.
There are two ways to navigate the DVD:
1. By Art Module: Select an individual art module and go through all five of its works, using the questions and art-historical information printed in the booklet to aid your discussion.
2. By Artwork: You can select single images to discuss independently or in conjunction with other artworks to create your own theme. The images are listed alphabetically by the last name of the artist. You can also view the entire set of images as a fifteen-minute slideshow.
The DVD does not contain the questions and the art-historical information provided in the art modules. Its main purpose is to provide multiple ways of arranging and displaying artworks, and to allow for the creation of new themes. The art modules booklet should be used in conjunction with the DVD in order to facilitate an art-looking and/or art-making experience.
For more information on making art accessible to people with dementia, visit The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project’s Web site at www.moma.org/alzheimersproject.
The MoMA Alzheimer’s Project:
Making Art Accessible to People with Dementia
Made Possible by MetLife Foundation | 6f3b74e9-310a-425e-a051-0706cd032239 | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.moma.org/visit/accessibility/meetme/_assets/momaorg/shared/pdfs/docs/meetme/MeetMe_FULL.pdf | 2021-11-30T11:26:04+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358973.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20211130110936-20211130140936-00182.warc.gz | 949,444,222 | 78,788 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.978166 | eng_Latn | 0.998268 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"... | true | rolmOCR | [
80,
193,
201,
356,
4062,
6333,
7556,
9153,
10376,
12746,
12920,
14389,
16747,
18960,
21390,
22916,
22932,
23707,
25710,
25929,
26207,
26388,
26637,
28125,
28291,
29179,
29931,
31186,
32225,
33326,
33673,
34183,
34199,
34244,
35221,
36351,
36904... | [
2.90625,
1.046875
] | 2 | 0 |
The Jackal’s Loss
Author: Saura Writers’ Group
Illustrator: Pradip Kumar Sahoo
Translator: Amrit Mishra
Level 2
The crocodile was very hungry and decided to go hunting for food. He went to the river and saw many animals drinking water. The crocodile waited patiently until he saw a big elephant coming towards him. The elephant was so big that it blocked the whole river. The crocodile thought, "This is my chance to catch some food." So, he jumped out of the water and tried to catch the elephant. But the elephant was too big and strong, and he couldn't catch it. The crocodile was disappointed and went back to the river. He saw a group of deer drinking water and thought, "These are easy targets." So, he jumped out of the water again and tried to catch them. But the deer were too fast and clever, and they ran away from the crocodile. The crocodile was frustrated and went back to the river. He saw a group of monkeys climbing on the trees and thought, "These are easy targets." So, he jumped out of the water one last time and tried to catch them. But the monkeys were too quick and clever, and they climbed up the trees and escaped from the crocodile. The crocodile was very sad and went back to the river. He realized that he had been chasing after easy targets and had not been able to catch any food. He decided to change his strategy and start hunting for more challenging prey.
In the green and cool forest of Maranda, there were many streams. Some of them flowed into ponds where small animals came to drink water.
Others were big rushing rivers where you could even find crocodiles.
The Tortoise and the Hare
Once upon a time, in a land far away, there lived a tortoise and a hare. The hare was known for his speed, while the tortoise was known for his slow but steady pace.
One day, they decided to have a race. The hare, confident in his speed, took off running at full speed. He soon left the tortoise behind and felt very proud of himself.
Meanwhile, the tortoise kept on moving slowly but steadily. He didn't give up even when he saw the hare getting farther and farther ahead.
As the race went on, the hare got tired and decided to take a nap. He thought that since he was so far ahead, he could rest and wake up later. But the tortoise continued to move forward, inch by inch.
When the hare woke up, he found that the tortoise had already reached the finish line. The hare was amazed and realized that sometimes, it's not about who starts fast, but who finishes strong.
From that day on, the hare learned to appreciate the tortoise's perseverance and determination. They became good friends and often raced together again, but this time, they enjoyed each other's company more than winning the race.
Moral: Perseverance and determination can lead to success, no matter how slow or steady you start.
A hare and a tortoise lived near a small pond in Maranda forest. They were the best of friends.
One fine day they set out to the market.
The tortoise and the hare
Once upon a time, there was a hare who was very proud of his speed. He challenged all the animals in the forest to a race. The tortoise accepted the challenge and agreed to run with him.
The hare started running at full speed, leaving the tortoise far behind. He soon realized that he had made a mistake and decided to take a nap. While he was sleeping, the tortoise slowly crawled towards the finish line.
When the hare woke up, he saw that the tortoise was already crossing the finish line. The hare was amazed by the tortoise's determination and realized that slow and steady wins the race.
Moral: Don't be too proud of your abilities and always remember that hard work and perseverance can lead to success.
Suddenly, there was a jackal with an evil grin blocking the road! Where did he come from?
Looking at his scary face, the hare said, “Run, run!” and ran away as fast as he could.
The Tortoise and the Hare
Once upon a time, in a land filled with tall trees and rolling hills, there lived two animals: a tortoise and a hare. The hare was known for its speed, while the tortoise was famous for its slow but steady pace.
One day, they decided to have a race. The hare, confident in his speed, took off running at full speed, leaving the tortoise far behind. However, the hare soon grew tired and decided to take a nap under a tree.
Meanwhile, the tortoise continued to crawl slowly but steadily towards the finish line. When the hare woke up, he found that the tortoise had already reached the finish line and won the race.
The hare realized that sometimes, it's not about who starts fast, but who finishes strong. From that day on, the hare learned to appreciate the tortoise's perseverance and determination.
Moral: Perseverance and determination can lead to success, even when faced with challenges.
Things were happening too fast for the tortoise. Before he could peer at the jackal he had been carried away in his mouth!
The tortoise had just enough time to put his head inside his shell.
10/20
The hare saw what had happened as he hid behind a tree. He knew he had to help his friend.
He walked up to the jackal, and asked, “Hello Jackal uncle, what have you got there?”
The fox and the rabbit
Once upon a time, there was a clever fox who lived in a forest. One day, he saw a rabbit carrying a basket full of delicious fruits. The fox was very hungry and decided to trick the rabbit.
He approached the rabbit and said, "Hello, little rabbit! I haven't seen you in a long time. How are you doing?"
The rabbit replied, "I'm fine, thank you. And you? How have you been?"
"I've been doing well," the fox answered. "But I haven't had any fruit for a while. Would you mind sharing some of your fruits with me?"
The rabbit thought for a moment and then said, "Sure, I'd be happy to share my fruits with you. But first, let's find a nice place to sit and enjoy them."
So they found a spot under a big tree and started eating the fruits. The fox ate quickly and greedily, while the rabbit enjoyed his fruits slowly.
After a while, the fox noticed that the rabbit was eating more slowly than usual. He realized that the rabbit was trying to trick him again. So he decided to play a trick on the rabbit.
He said, "Oh no, I think I've lost my appetite. I'm feeling sick and can't eat anymore."
The rabbit was surprised and asked, "What's wrong with you, fox? Are you feeling unwell?"
The fox replied, "Yes, I'm feeling unwell. I think I need to go home and rest."
The rabbit was worried and asked, "Do you need help getting home?"
The fox said, "No, I can manage. But thank you for your concern."
And with that, the fox ran away as fast as he could, leaving the rabbit behind.
From that day on, the rabbit learned to be more cautious around the fox. And the fox learned that it's not always wise to trust everyone.
Moral: Be careful when you meet someone new, and don't trust everyone you meet.
“I’ve got my food here,” the jackal replied.
“Oh, I see!” the hare said. “I had seen it long ago, but it was too hard for me to eat. I think you should leave it in the water for some time. When it grows soft, you will be able to eat it.”
The Tortoise and the Hare
Once upon a time, in a land where the sun shone brightly and the air was filled with the sweet scent of flowers, there lived two animals: a tortoise and a hare.
The hare was known for his incredible speed, while the tortoise was famous for his slow but steady pace. One day, they decided to have a race to see who was faster.
The hare took off running at full speed, leaving the tortoise far behind. He soon grew tired and decided to take a nap under a tree. Meanwhile, the tortoise continued his slow but steady pace, determined to win the race.
When the hare woke up, he found that the tortoise had already crossed the finish line. The hare was amazed by the tortoise's determination and realized that sometimes, it's not about who starts first, but who finishes last.
From that day on, the hare learned to appreciate the tortoise's hard work and dedication. They became great friends and often raced together, always learning from each other.
Moral: Don't give up easily, even if you start last. With determination and hard work, you can achieve your goals.
The jackal liked the hare’s idea as the shell of the tortoise was very hard.
He dropped the tortoise into the river.
The tortoise swam away to safety. The hare also ran away.
The Tortoise and the Hare
Once upon a time, in a land far away, there lived a tortoise and a hare. The hare was known for his speed, while the tortoise was known for his slow but steady pace.
One day, they decided to have a race. The hare, confident in his speed, took off running at full speed. He soon left the tortoise behind and felt very proud of himself.
Meanwhile, the tortoise continued to crawl slowly but steadily towards the finish line. The hare, feeling bored, decided to take a nap under a tree. He soon fell asleep and slept for hours.
When the hare woke up, he realized that the tortoise had already reached the finish line. The hare was shocked and embarrassed by his laziness.
From that day on, the hare learned the importance of perseverance and hard work. He realized that even though he was faster than the tortoise, he could not win the race without putting in the effort.
Moral: Perseverance is key to success. Even if you start slow, as long as you keep going, you will eventually reach your goal.
The clever hare had saved his friend from the jackal!
The Concept
India’s diverse linguistic landscape has a rich seam of stories for children. Unfortunately, many tribal languages do not have literature for children in book form or books for reading pleasure. As increasing numbers of tribal children go to school, it is now more necessary than ever to create a body of children’s literature in their languages. Literature that reflects their own world and opens up the world beyond because books are magical, powerful things that inform, amuse, educate and entertain in the most interactive way. Books make every child an independent and life-long seeker of knowledge in her own unique way. For education to be truly meaningful to every child, she must get good books to read in her own language.
The Project
Pratham Books and IgnusERG, with the support of Bernard van Leer Foundation have created the first ten books for children’s reading pleasure in Munda, Kui, Saura and Juanga languages from Odisha. The stories were written and illustrated by authors and illustrators belonging to these tribes in a series of workshops. This series of books is called Adikahani. It is a significant first step towards giving a voice to cultures that do not find adequate representation in mainstream discourses.
The Partners
IgnusERG is a guild of resource persons working to support teachers and enhancing the quality of education, particularly in government schools. They focus their efforts on bringing equity in education and addressing the needs of marginalized children.
Bernard van Leer Foundation is an international grant-making foundation based in The Hague. Its mission is to improve opportunities for young children growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances. It has a particular interest in supporting mother-tongue based education.
This story was written by the Saura Writers’ Group consisting of Aben Sabar, Ajam Gamango, Isak Karji, Pradin Gamango and Srinibas Gamango. With a background in ECCE, they all interact with children regularly. It has been illustrated by Pradip Kumar Sahoo, using the Saura mural style as a base. The ancient Saura language has over 3 lakh speakers in Ganjam, Rayagada and Gajapati districts of Odisha. Saura wall murals have attracted the attention of art lovers across the country. The spellings of the language in Odia script are not definitive as many new sounds are being rendered in print for the first time.
20/20
This book was made possible by Pratham Books' StoryWeaver platform. Content under Creative Commons licenses can be downloaded, translated and can even be used to create new stories - provided you give appropriate credit, and indicate if changes were made. To know more about this, and the full terms of use and attribution, please visit the following [link](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
**Story Attribution:**
This story: *The Jackal’s Loss* is translated by [Amrit Mishra](#). The © for this translation lies with Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Based on Original story: 'জঙ্গলের অনুমান', by [Saura Writers’ Group](#) © Pratham Books , 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
**Other Credits:**
'The Jackal’s Loss' has been published on StoryWeaver by Pratham Books as a part of Adikahani series of ten books. The development of this book has been supported by Bernard van Leer Foundation along with our Content Partner IgnusERG. www.prathambooks.org
**Images Attributions:**
Cover page: [Jackal holding a tortoise in its mouth and a hare in front of it](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 2: [Elephant, crocodiles and a deer drinking water from a stream](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 3: [Yellowish background](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 4: [Hare and a tortoise](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 5: [Greenish background](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 6: [A jackal, a hare and a tortoise](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 7: [A yellowish background](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 8: [A jackal looking at a tortoise very closely](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 9: [A greenish background](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license. Page 10: [A jackal holding a tortoise in the mouth](#) by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
**Disclaimer:** [https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions)
Some rights reserved. This book is CC-BY-4.0 licensed. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. For full terms of use and attribution, [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
This book was made possible by Pratham Books' StoryWeaver platform. Content under Creative Commons licenses can be downloaded, translated and can even be used to create new stories - provided you give appropriate credit, and indicate if changes were made. To know more about this, and the full terms of use and attribution, please visit the following [link](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
**Images Attributions:**
Page 11: [Plain and yellow background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 12: [A jackal, a hare, a tortoise by a stream](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 13: [Plain and green background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 14: [A jackal and a hare, and a tortoise in water](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 15: [A yellow and plain background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 16: [A tortoise and a hare together](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 17: [A greenish background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 18: [Borders on green background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 19: [Borders on yellow background](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
Page 20: [One jackal](#), by [Pradip Kumar Sahoo](#) © Pratham Books, 2014. Some rights reserved. Released under CC BY 4.0 license.
---
**Disclaimer:** [https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions](https://www.storyweaver.org.in/terms_and_conditions)
Some rights reserved. This book is CC-BY-4.0 licensed. You can copy, modify, distribute and perform the work, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. For full terms of use and attribution, [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
The Jackal’s Loss
(English)
A clever hare helps his friend, the tortoise. Read on to see how they tricked the jackal.
This is a Level 2 book for children who recognize familiar words and can read new words with help.
Pratham Books goes digital to weave a whole new chapter in the realm of multilingual children's stories. Knitting together children, authors, illustrators and publishers. Folding in teachers, and translators. To create a rich fabric of openly licensed multilingual stories for the children of India and the world. Our unique online platform, StoryWeaver, is a playground where children, parents, teachers and librarians can get creative. Come, start weaving today, and help us get a book in every child's hand! | 8ba851ef-9285-49b3-8c64-c4392b92d2e2 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://data.booksie.org/pratham-books/18422-the-jackal-s-loss.pdf | 2020-10-26T21:03:16+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107892062.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20201026204531-20201026234531-00174.warc.gz | 281,184,658 | 4,336 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.949869 | eng_Latn | 0.998526 | [
"ind_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
... | true | rolmOCR | [
113,
1393,
1602,
2833,
2972,
3714,
3894,
4820,
5013,
5020,
5199,
6927,
7167,
8261,
8439,
9468,
9523,
10776,
11949,
11956,
14992,
17368,
18100
] | [
3.9375
] | 1 | 0 |
## CONTENTS
### Helps for the Teacher
- Welcome! ........................................ T4
- The Catechetical Ministry in the Catholic School .......................... T4
- The Foundations of Catechesis .................................................. T5
- A Spiral-Thematic Curriculum Based on the Four Pillars of the Catechism ........................................... T6
- BLEST ARE WE FAITH & WORD Program Overview ......................... T7
- BLEST ARE WE FAITH & WORD Scope and Sequence ....................... T10
- Learning Styles and Strategies .................................................. T14
- Profile of the Fifth-Grade Child .................................................. T16
- The Learning Environment ......................................................... T18
- Involving the Parish ................................................................. T20
- Involving the Family ................................................................. T22
- Introducing Take Home Family Time Pages ................................. T23
- Teaching Doctrine ................................................................. T24
- Teaching Scripture ................................................................. T25
- Teaching Worship ................................................................. T27
- Teaching Morality ................................................................. T28
- Introducing Faith in Action ...................................................... T29
- Teaching Prayer ................................................................. T30
- Online Resources at blestarewe.com ........................................ T31
- Learning Activities ................................................................. T32
- Assessment ................................................................. T34
### Scripture
- Understanding Scripture ..................................................... T35
- A complete minicourse on the Bible for the teacher
### Core Chapters ......................................................... 3
- Planning pages and step-by-step suggestions for teaching all twenty chapters of BLEST ARE WE FAITH & WORD Grade 5
### Feasts and Seasons ..................................................... 313
- Eleven lesson plans on the liturgical year and major feast day celebrations
### Our Catholic Heritage .................................................. 391
- A brief survey of Catholic doctrine, organized according to the four pillars of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
### Celebrating Catholic Schools Week .................................. 411
### Resources ................................................................. T43
We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ
Background for the Teacher
The Gospels tell us that John the Baptist called people to repent and he baptized them in the Jordan River. Jesus himself came to John and asked John to baptize him. But Jesus did not need to be baptized because he was without sin and did not need to repent. Jesus requested that John baptize him to show human beings that he had come to save them from their sins. His baptism was a way of saying, “I am one with you.”
According to the Gospel of Mark, when Jesus came up out of the waters of the Jordan, “And a voice came from the heavens, ‘You are my beloved Son; with you I am well pleased’” (Mark 1:11). Thus began Jesus’ public life in which he lived the Good News of God’s love for us.
The Body of Christ
In Jesus, we find the mystery of God’s goodness, mercy, and graciousness fully revealed. Christ freely offered himself for our Salvation. He is the Savior of the world. Christ is the Head of the Church, and we are his Body. This is how closely we are united to Jesus through Baptism.
Faith Focus
Through the Sacrament of Baptism we become members of the Body of Christ, the Church.
Time for Reflection
Think about the groups you belong to—your family, the teaching staff, and so on. Write about which groups help you become more at peace with yourself and more content with life.
A Teacher’s Prayer
Lord Jesus, I believe that only in you can I find Salvation. Thank you for the Sacrament of Baptism. Guide me and help me as I strive to faithfully teach your Good News to the students in my class. Amen.
Beginning at Home
Many of the students will have spent some time with their families working with the Take Home Family Time pages at home. You can help the students connect with what was done at home by discussing the saint featured or using A Prayer for the Week at an appropriate time.
Getting ready for Chapter 5
We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ
Through the Sacrament of Baptism, we become children of God and members of the Catholic Church. Baptism washes away our sins and fills our souls with God’s grace. Through Baptism, we become part of the Body of Christ and no longer live for ourselves but for Christ and his Church.
ACTIVITY
**FISH**
The sign of a fish was a secret sign that early Christians used to identify themselves to one another. In Greek, the word for fish is IXHUS (pronounced “ik-hus”), which means “fish.” Make a fish symbol to identify yourself as a Christian.
WEEKLY PLANNER
On Sunday: Make the Sign of the Cross with holy water to remember your Baptism.
On the Web: blestarewe.com
Saint of the Week: Saint Maximilian Kolbe
During World War II, Father Kolbe, a Polish priest, was arrested by the Nazis and sent to Auschwitz, a concentration camp. Rather than suffer, he chose to give up his life so that another prisoner would be spared.
Patron Saint of: political prisoners, Pro-Life Movement
Feast Day: August 14
A Prayer for the Week
Father, you have welcomed us into your family and have given us your Son, Jesus. Send your Spirit to guide our family, now and forever.
Amen.
Scripture Background
In the Time of Jesus
The Jordan River The name “Jordan,” meaning “descender,” aptly describes a river that, when it reaches the end of its journey to the Dead Sea, arrives at the lowest point on earth. From the slopes of Mt. Hermon in Syria, the river flows to the Sea of Galilee, then winds its way to the Dead Sea. Today, in a region where water is scarce, the Jordan is a highly valued source of water for both Jordan and Israel, and has often been the source of disputes between the two countries. For Christians, the Jordan is esteemed as the place where Jesus was baptized. Read about Jesus’ baptism in Matthew 3:13–17.
Our Catholic Tradition in Leadership
The USCCB The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) is an assembly of all the bishops of the United States and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The work of the USCCB includes coordinating Catholic activities in the United States, organizing church change, and social welfare work at home and abroad, aiding in education, and helping immigrants. The USCCB has a staff of more than 350 priests, deacons, religious, and laypeople. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C. To learn more about the USCCB, visit www.usccb.org.
Sunday Connection
Visit Our Web Site Teachers and parents can visit blestarewe.com for:
- resources related to the Sunday liturgy
- summary of the Sunday Scripture readings
- Reflection Question of the Week
- seasonal activities
More About the Saint of the Week
Saint Maximilian Kolbe Ordained a Franciscan priest. Published religious magazines and founded a seminary in Poland. Intensely devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Remembered as one of the great martyrs of the twentieth century.
Praying A Prayer for the Week
A Prayer for the Week relates to the theme of becoming members of the Body of Christ through Baptism. Display a copy of the prayer in the classroom and invite the students to pray it with you.
5 We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ
God’s Spirit baptized each of us and made us part of the Body of Christ.
Based on 1 Corinthians 12:13
Share
Imagine that your parish priest has asked you to create a club for Catholic kids your age to help them become stronger in their faith. Fill in the chart below with information about your club.
What is your club’s name? Responses will vary.
Who is the patron saint of your club?
What kinds of activities does your club do?
Design a symbol for your club.
When did God announce that Jesus was his Son?
Additional Activity
Creating a Strong Catholic Identity
- Encourage the students to apply the questions from the activity on page 85 to their religion class. Have the students decide on a special name for their class, a patron saint for the class, and a class symbol.
- Have the students make badges that display the special class name, the name of the patron saint, and the class symbol. The students can wear these badges during class to reinforce their Catholic identity.
Day 1
Share Objective
To explore the value of belonging to a group
1 Introduction
Praying with Scripture
- Gather the students in the prayer corner, and light the candle.
- Explain to the students that the Scripture verse they are about to pray is from the First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians, a book of the New Testament. Explain that Saint Paul wrote this letter to the Church in Corinth, a city in ancient Greece.
- Have the students pray aloud the Scripture verse from the top of page 85. Tell them that in this chapter they will learn about what it means to be baptized into Christ’s Body, the Church. Conclude by singing the unit song on page 82.
2 Development
Personal Experience
- Have a student read aloud the introductory paragraph.
- Invite the students to name some things that might help them to become stronger in their Catholic faith.
Doing the Activity
- Have the students complete the activity.
- Invite several volunteers to share their responses, explain their symbols, and share why they chose them.
3 Conclusion
- Remind the students that, as a class learning about their Catholic faith, they are working together toward becoming stronger in their faith.
- Close by praying the Scripture verse from the top of page 85 together.
Looking Ahead
Have the students reflect on the question in the arrow, and explain that they will learn the answer in the next day’s lesson.
Day 2
Hear & Believe
Objective
To learn that Jesus gave us the Sacrament of Baptism, which frees us from sin and makes us children of God.
1 Introduction
Sharing Experiences
- Ask “What are some of the communities to which you belong?” (Students may mention their school, teams or clubs, neighborhood, parish, family, and so on.)
- Say “We are members of the Catholic Church. Let us read about the Sacrament which Jesus Christ gave us in which we become members of the Catholic Church.”
2 Development
Discussing the Scripture Story
The Illustration
Direct the students’ attention to the illustration on pages 86 and 87. Explain to the students that Jesus began his public ministry by being baptized by John the Baptist, the event depicted in the illustration.
The Scripture
- Have a volunteer read aloud the introductory paragraph and a second volunteer the Scripture story.
- Ask “What does the name Jesus mean?” (“God saves.”)
“What does Jesus save us from?” (our sins)
“What happened after Jesus was baptized?” (The Holy Spirit, like a dove, descended upon Jesus. A voice came from heaven, saying, “You are my beloved Son. With you I am well pleased.”)
- Say “Jesus Christ is the Son of God. He gave us the Sacrament of Baptism. Baptism frees us from Original Sin and all personal sins and makes us children of God.”
- Ask “Jesus never committed a sin, so why was Jesus baptized?” (to show sinners that he loved them and would save them from their sins)
Hear & Believe
Scripture The Baptism of Jesus
In the following Scripture story, we read that Jesus went to his cousin, John, to be baptized. Jesus was baptized to show sinners that he loved them and would save them from their sins. The name Jesus means “God saves.” We find Salvation because Jesus Christ has saved us.
The waters of the Jordan River swirled gently about as John the Baptist baptized Jesus. As Jesus emerged from the water, the heavens tore open. The Spirit, like a dove, descended upon Jesus. And a voice came from Heaven, saying, “You are my beloved Son. With you I am well pleased.”
Based on Mark 1:9–11
Scripture Background
The Jordan River
- The Jordan River is the largest river in Palestine. It is about 200 miles long. It is fed by melting snow from Mount Hermon, in Syria, and flows to the Sea of Galilee, 689 feet below sea level. The Jordan River’s average width is 90 to 100 feet, with a depth of only 3 to 10 feet.
- According to Christian tradition, John baptized Jesus at the Hajjah Ford, which lies a little north of the Dead Sea and southeast of Jericho. Jesus would have knelt in the river shallows with John standing beside him.
We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ
Jesus gave us the Sacrament of Baptism to free us from sin and to make us children of God. Baptism is necessary for our Salvation.
In the Sacrament of Baptism, we are freed from Original Sin and all personal sins. Original Sin is the sin of Adam and Eve. When Adam and Eve sinned in the Garden of Eden, they disobeyed God and turned away from his love. Through Baptism, we are freed from Original Sin and reborn as God’s children.
In Baptism, we also become members of the Body of Christ. The Body of Christ is the Church, or the People of God. We believe that Jesus Christ is the Head of the Church and that we are his Body. Jesus lives with us and in us. The Church lives from Christ, in Christ, and for Christ.
Activity
What three things happen to a person when he or she is baptized?
The person is (1) freed from Original Sin and all personal sin, (2) made a child of God, (3) becomes a member of the Body of Christ.
Understanding the Scripture
- Have the students read aloud “We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ.”
- Ask “What Sacrament is necessary for our Salvation?” (Baptism)
“What does the term Body of Christ describe?” (the Church, or the People of God)
“Who is the head of the Body of Christ?” (Jesus Christ)
Faith Words
Have volunteers explain the meaning of the Faith Words in their own words.
Doing the Activity
- Read aloud the activity directions.
- You might wish to have the students reread “We Are Baptized into the Body of Christ,” identify the three things that happen to a person when he or she is baptized, underline them, and then use this information to complete the activity.
Conclusion
- Remind the students that Original Sin is the sin of Adam and Eve that has been passed on to all human beings and that Baptism frees us from this sin and from all personal sins.
- Close by leading the students in a prayer of thanksgiving to Jesus for saving us from our sins.
Looking Ahead Have the students reflect on the question in the arrow, and explain that they will learn the answer in the next day’s lesson.
Additional Activity
Making Dioramas
- Have each student make a diorama of the baptism of Jesus.
- Provide shoeboxes, tape or glue, drawing paper, scissors, colored markers and crayons, and other decorating materials.
- Have the students take their dioramas home to show their families. Encourage the students to tell their parents what they learned about the Sacrament of Baptism in today’s lesson.
Day 3
Hear & Believe
Objective
To understand that we are reborn of water and the Holy Spirit in the Sacrament of Baptism
1 Introduction
Sharing Experiences
- Ask “What are some of the things in the world or in nature that remind you of new life?” (Possible answers: springtime, newborn babies or newborn animals, plants or flowers growing.)
- Say “Today you will learn more about how the Sacrament of Baptism gives us new life.”
2 Development
Discussing the Scripture Story
The Illustration
- Direct the students to look at the illustration on page 88. Point out the figure of Jesus and tell the students the name of the other person, Nicodemus.
- Ask “What do you think is happening in this illustration?” (Answers will vary.)
The Scripture
- Ask volunteers to read aloud the Scripture story about Jesus’ meeting with Nicodemus. Direct the students to identify the words of Jesus in the story that relate to new life.
- Ask “What did Jesus say was necessary in order to enter the Kingdom of God?” (being born from above)
“What did Nicodemus tell Jesus he did not understand about this?” (how a person could be born again or born from above)
“What was Jesus’ response to Nicodemus?” (“No one can enter the Kingdom of God without being born of water and the Spirit.”)
“How are the members of the Church born of water and the Holy Spirit?” (in the Sacrament of Baptism)
“To what did Jesus compare the Holy Spirit?” (wind)
Hear & Believe
The Way to Eternal Life
One night, a Jewish leader named Nicodemus came to Jesus in secret. He said to Jesus, “Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God, for no one could perform such miracles unless God was with him.”
Jesus answered him, “Nicodemus, no one can see the Kingdom of God without being born from above.”
Nicodemus was puzzled, “How can this happen?” he asked. “How can a person be born again? Surely, a person cannot be born again once he has been born of his mother.”
Jesus answered, “Amen, Amen, I say to you. No one can enter the Kingdom of God without being born of water and the Spirit. The Spirit is like the wind. You can feel the wind, but cannot see it. It has no beginning or end, but you know it is all around you. The same is true of the Holy Spirit. You must be born from above by the power of the Holy Spirit.”
Then Jesus said, “For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him might not perish, but have eternal life.”
Based on John 3:1–16
Scripture Background
Leaders in Israel
- The nighttime discussion between Jesus and Nicodemus occupies the entire third chapter of John’s Gospel. Nicodemus is identified as a Pharisee.
- Pharisees were laymen who believed in the strict observance of the Law of Moses. Their lives were focused around the synagogue and Temple.
- Pharisees expected the Messiah to come from among their ranks. Nevertheless, Nicodemus addressed Jesus in a way that suggested he thought Jesus might be the Messiah.
- Nicodemus appears again briefly and significantly in John’s Gospel (John 19:39), supplying the myrrh and aloes for Jesus’ hurried burial.
Our Church Teaches
Just as Jesus taught Nicodemus, in the Sacrament of Baptism, we are “born from above” with water and the Holy Spirit. We are filled with sanctifying grace and begin our spiritual journey as children of God.
We Believe
Through Baptism, we become children of God and members of the Body of Christ.
Activity
On the lines, answer the following.
1. What does it mean to be born from above?
To be born from above means to be born of water and the Holy Spirit.
2. Why are all Catholics and other Christians born from above?
All Catholics and other Christians are born from above because they have received the Sacrament of Baptism.
In the Sacrament of Baptism, we are baptized with water and receive the Holy Spirit.
3. Even though Nicodemus didn’t understand what Jesus meant when he said we must be born from above, he remembered Jesus’ words. Later, he became a disciple of Jesus, and after Jesus was crucified, he showed his love for him in a very special way.
Read John 19:38–42. On the lines, describe what Nicodemus did in this Scripture passage.
Nicodemus helped Joseph of Arimathea prepare Jesus’ sacred body for burial.
Understanding the Doctrine
- Have a student read aloud Our Church Teaches.
- Ask “In what Sacrament are we ‘born from above’ with water and the Holy Spirit?” (the Sacrament of Baptism)
We Believe
Read aloud the We Believe statement. Make sure the students understand that it is only through the Sacrament of Baptism that we become members of the Body of Christ, the Church.
Doing the Activity
- Read aloud the activity directions. Invite the students to write their answers to the three questions. For the third question, allow the students sufficient time to find and read the Scripture passage.
- When the students have finished writing, discuss their responses.
Conclusion
- Remind the students that through the Sacrament of Baptism we are filled with sanctifying grace and become children of God.
- Close by praying aloud the Scripture verse from the top of page 85 together.
Looking Ahead Have the students reflect on the question in the arrow, and explain that they will learn the answer in the next day’s lesson.
Additional Activity
Writing Profiles
- Invite the students to write profiles of people who are good examples of being “born from above.” Explain that each student should choose someone who has lived in a way that demonstrates what it means to be a child of God and a member of the Body of Christ.
- You might suggest that the students peruse the pages of their books, particularly the pages in Unit 2, to find an appropriate saint or holy person to write about.
Curriculum Connection
Art Have the students make torn-paper collages of water as a sign of the conversion from death and sin to life and holiness. Challenge the students to focus on the power and energy of water as a sign of life. Provide colorful magazines, poster paper, and glue for the students to use in making their collages.
Day 4
Respond
Objective
To identify examples of building up the Body of Christ
1 Introduction
Sharing Experiences
• Ask “As a member of the Catholic Church, how might you contribute your gifts and talents for the good of the Church?” (Answers will vary.)
• Say “All of us are called to build up the Body of Christ by using our gifts and talents for the good of the Church.”
2 Development
Discussing the Saints Story
The Illustration
Direct the students’ attention to the two illustrations. Explain that these are illustrations of two saints who helped build up the Body of Christ.
The Story
• Read aloud the introductory paragraph. Then have the students read about Saint Maximilian Kolbe and Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne.
• When the students have finished reading, invite volunteers to share their impressions.
• Say “Saint Maximilian and Saint Rose persevered in their faith and trust in God despite living through very difficult, even frightening, times.”
“Saint Maximilian suffered greatly in the concentration camp, but he continued to trust that God loved him and was helping him.”
“Saint Rose did not give up her dream of being a religious sister even when the French government persecuted Catholics and she had to leave her convent. Instead she trusted that God would show her a way to fulfill her vocation.”
• Discuss with the students how persevering in our faith and trusting in God helps to build up the Body of Christ.
Respond
Building Up the Body of Christ
As baptized Catholics, we are called by God to build up the Body of Christ. The saints did this by using their gifts and talents for the good of the Church. Reading stories about the saints can inspire us to think of ways that God may be calling us to serve his Church.
Saint Maximilian Kolbe
Raymond Kolbe was born in Poland in 1894. When he was twelve years old, the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to him. From then on, Raymond developed a great love and devotion for Mary. When he grew up, he became a Franciscan priest and took the name Maximilian Mary. Several years later, World War II broke out, and Father Maximilian was arrested and sent to a Nazi concentration camp. Although he suffered great abuse, Father Maximilian gave spiritual help to the other prisoners. Together, they prayed the Rosary and sang hymns to Mary. Father Maximilian told the other prisoners that the Nazis might kill their bodies, but they could never kill their souls.
Finally, Father Maximilian made the greatest sacrifice—his life. He volunteered to take the place of another prisoner who was condemned to death. Pope John Paul II called Maximilian Kolbe the patron saint of the difficult twentieth century. During a time of war, he brought many people to a deeper faith in God when everything else was lost.
Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne
As a young girl in France, Rose dreamed of traveling to the United States to be a missionary to the American Indians. When she grew up, she joined the Visitation Sisters. This was during the French Revolution, a very dangerous time in France. Priests and religious brothers and sisters were persecuted, and many were killed. Rose was forced to leave her convent and return home. However, she showed great courage by hiding priests and caring for prisoners. When the war was over, Rose joined the religious sisters of the Society of the Sacred Heart.
Enriching the Chapter
Mother Rose and the Potawatomi Indians
• Share with the students that Mother Rose had a great longing to serve Native Americans. In 1841, after she had worked in the United States for twenty years, her superiors gave her permission to go to Sugar Creek, Kansas, and found a school for the Potawatomi Indians.
• The Potawatomis gave Mother Rose the name “Quah-kahka-num-ad,” which means “the woman who prays always.” This name is pronounced (QUAH kah kay nuhm ad). Invite the students to repeat the name after you.
In 1818, Mother Rose’s childhood wish was fulfilled. She and four other sisters traveled to the United States, where they opened schools and orphanages. Mother Rose was greatly admired by the Potawatomi Indians of Kansas. They called her “the woman who prays always.” When Pope John Paul II named her a saint in 1988, he said, “This great pioneer looked to the future with the eyes of the heart—a heart that was on fire with God’s love.”
**Activity**
You can help build up the Body of Christ at home, at school, and in your parish. Look at the examples below, then write ways that you can be a part of building up Christ’s Body.
| Justin |
|--------|
| **Home:** Do chores without Mom or Dad having to remind me. |
| **School:** Defend a student who is being teased. |
| **Parish:** Become an altar server. |
| Rachel |
|--------|
| **Home:** Baby-sit my younger sister while Mom makes dinner. |
| **School:** Try not to talk in class when I’m not supposed to. |
| **Parish:** Really pay attention at Sunday Mass and join in the singing of the hymns. |
| **Home:** Answers will vary. |
| **School:** |
| **Parish:** |
**Doing the Activities**
- Read aloud the activity directions.
- Invite the students to read the ways Justin and Rachel decided to help build up the Body of Christ, the Church; and then have them write, in the bottom box, ways that they can be part of building up the Church.
- When the students have completed the activity, invite volunteers to share their responses.
- As an alternative, you might make three columns on the board, titled “Home,” “School,” and “Parish.” Then invite the class to brainstorm ways they can build up the Body of Christ in each of these places.
- You might have one or two volunteers write the students’ suggestions on the board.
**3 Conclusion**
Close by leading the students in a prayer that they will be able to build up the Body of Christ in the ways they suggested in the activity on page 91.
**Looking Ahead** Have the students reflect on the question in the arrow, and explain that they will learn the answer in the next day’s lesson.
**Additional Activity**
**Making Puzzles**
- Give each student a sheet of poster paper, colored markers or crayons, scissors, and a brown bag. Tell the students to draw a picture representing something they learned from Chapter 5. For example, students could draw the baptism of Jesus, a scene from the life of Saint Maximilian or Saint Rose.
- Tell the students to avoid looking at one another’s pictures. As the students finish their drawings, have them cut their pictures into puzzle pieces and place the pieces in their brown bags. Collect all the bags and then distribute each bag to a different student. Time the students to see who can put together their puzzle the quickest.
**Catholic Social Teaching**
**Religious Freedom**
- Remind the students that Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne lived in France during a period when religious freedom in the country was at risk. Tell the students that the Church teaches that religious freedom is a basic human right. Every person should have the right to practice their faith in peace and freedom.
- Share with the students that, even today, people’s religious rights are violated in some countries, such as Cuba, Sudan, China, and North Korea.
Day 5
Prayer
Objective
To pray for the Church, the Body of Christ
Prayer Celebration
Preparing for Prayer
- Select a leader and a reader for the prayer celebration. Tell the students that they should all pray aloud the “All” part.
- Tell the students that today they will be praying for the Body of Christ, the Church. Before beginning the prayer, invite volunteers to share something new that they learned in this chapter.
A Prayer for the Body of Christ
- Light the candle. Have the students remain seated and invite the leader and reader to come forward to read their prayer parts from their books.
- After the reader reads aloud the Scripture passage, invite the students to share different ways that fifth graders can help to build up the Church on earth.
- Finish the prayer celebration, and then sing the hymn you have chosen for today’s celebration.
A Prayer for the Body of Christ
Leader: Saint Paul wrote a letter to the early Christians who lived in the city of Corinth. He told them that all the members of the Church must work together. To help the Corinthians understand this idea, Saint Paul used a comparison. He said that the Church, or Body of Christ, is like a human body. All the parts need each other and must work together.
Reader: A reading from the Letter of Saint Paul to the Corinthians.
A body is one, but it has many parts. It needs all its parts: feet, eyes, ears, everything to work. For example, the body has eyes. Is the ear a part of the body even if it is not an eye? Yes! The body needs hearing as well as sight. It is the same with Christ and his Church. Each of us makes up the Body of Christ. No matter who we are, we are all baptized into one Body, the Church.
Based on 1 Corinthians 12:12–26
Leader: Let us now pray for the Body of Christ, the Church.
All: Jesus, help us to carry out your mission in the world. Help us to use our gifts and talents for the good of your Church. We ask this in your name. Amen.
Looking Ahead to Chapter 6
Take Home
Tear out the Take Home Family Time pages for the next chapter. Remind the students to work on these at home with their parents and other family members.
Cultural Connections
blestarewe.com/familytime
Visit our Web site for the Take Home Family Time pages in Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Vietnamese.
Chapter Review
A Complete the sentences with words from the box.
1. When we receive the Sacrament of Baptism, we are filled with ____________.
- sanctifying grace
2. The Body of Christ is also called the ____________ or the People of God.
- Church
3. The sin of Adam and Eve that has been passed onto all human beings is called ____________.
- Original Sin
4. The name ____________ means “God saves.”
- Jesus
5. The Sacrament of ____________ welcomes us into the Church and frees us from Original Sin.
- Baptism
6. When Jesus was baptized, the ____________ descended upon him like a dove.
- Holy Spirit
7. We can find ____________ because Jesus Christ has saved us.
- Salvation
8. At Baptism, we become members of the ____________.
- Body of Christ
B Match column A with column B by writing the correct number on the line provided.
| A | B |
|------------|----------------------------------------|
| 1. Maximilian Kolbe | 3. opened schools and orphanages in the United States |
| 2. Jesus | 4. said the Church is like a human body |
| 3. Rose Duchesne | 5. baptized Jesus |
| 4. Paul | 2. means “God saves.” |
| 5. John | 1. gave up his life to save another prisoner in a Nazi concentration camp |
Answer Locator
| A | p. 89 | p. 87 | p. 87 | p. 86 | p. 86 | p. 87 |
|---|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| 1 | | | | | | |
| 2 | | | | | | |
| 3 | | | | | | |
| 4 | | | | | | |
| B | p. 90 | p. 92 | p. 86 | p. 86 |
|---|-------|-------|-------|-------|
| 1 | | | | |
| 2 | | | | |
| 3 | | | | |
Day 5
Chapter Review
Reviewing the Chapter
- The Chapter Review exercises will help the students recall the key concepts of the chapter as well as prepare for the Chapter 5 test.
- Review the effects of the Sacrament of Baptism in our lives, including freeing us from Original Sin and all personal sin, making us adopted children of God, filling us with sanctifying grace, and making us members of the Body of Christ, the Church.
- Be sure the students can define the Faith Words Sacrament of Baptism, Original Sin, and Body of Christ.
Completing the Exercises
- Invite the students to complete the Chapter Review. Allow them to look back at the pages of the chapter to find answers they cannot recall.
- The Answer Locator gives the page number where each answer may be found.
- Be sure to discuss the responses with the group and to go over concepts that were misunderstood or forgotten. Then have the students correct any mistakes they have made.
Chapter 5 ♦ Page 94
Day 5
Chapter Review
Optional Testing
After the students have completed the Chapter Review, you may wish to administer the Chapter 5 Test using the reproducible pages in the test book or on the CD-ROM for Grade 5. If you use the CD-ROM version of the testing program, you may customize the test to meet the needs of your class.
C Describe the role of John the Baptist, God the Father, and the Holy Spirit in the baptism of Jesus.
John the Baptist John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the Jordan River.
God the Father God the Father said to Jesus from Heaven, “You are my beloved Son. With you I am well pleased.”
The Holy Spirit As Jesus was being baptized, the Holy Spirit descended like a dove.
D Respond to the following.
What did Jesus tell Nicodemus?
Possible answers: You must be born from above by water and the Holy Spirit; God so loved the world he sent his only Son so that everyone who believes in him will have eternal life.
E Respond to the following.
Write two ways that fifth graders can help to build the Body of Christ.
Accept all reasonable answers.
Self-Evaluation
This session was
☐ one of the best.
☐ pretty good.
☐ in need of improvement.
What worked out best was ____________________________.
For next time I would change ____________________________.
I will be sure to prepare for ____________________________.
Answer Locator
| | |
|---|---|
| C | p. 86 |
| D | p. 88 |
| E | p. 91 |
Faith in Action
Godparents
Invite the students to turn to Faith in Action on page 131. Discuss the ministry and then have the students complete the related activities. | 9ff7841a-02ee-4b99-8dee-8da9e4834732 | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://www.comcenter.com/media/files/87816101d523d2ec095ee3b37c9ecfb1/rclb-s6215re.pdf | 2021-03-01T23:18:50+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178363072.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20210301212939-20210302002939-00175.warc.gz | 695,485,032 | 7,701 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.941195 | eng_Latn | 0.996902 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2730,
4322,
7790,
10235,
12883,
15380,
18510,
21494,
25396,
28695,
31006,
33823,
35442
] | [
4.3125,
4.46875
] | 1 | 0 |
WINTER SILENCE
Once when the din of a classroom of young students was pushing the limits of my sanity, I led my charges across the street from the school and placed them each twenty paces apart in a nearby alfalfa field. I asked them to remain absolutely silent for ten minutes and to note on paper what they saw, heard, thought or felt. One child wrote, “At first I couldn’t hear anything. Then something weird happened. I heard everything.” Another wrote, “I feel like I’m coming home.”
What these children heard were the rustlings of grasshoppers climbing dried grasses, birds singing in the far field, children playing in the distant gym, and the beating of their own hearts. What they heard was the voice of the world they live in.
Nature is always speaking to us. Now, in the depth of winter, her voice can be heard most clearly. Nature’s words are spoken within her silences. Silence echoes the crackle of snowflakes as they touch the ground. The quiet yuletide warmth of family and friends is framed in silence. The long, dark silence of mid-winter’s night sets the stars themselves to singing. Inasmuch as we too are nature we cannot help but hear.
Winter is silence. Of all the seasons it most reflects calm, quiet and peace. We turn introspective like the season. Winter calls us to thoughtfulness. We think of a new year, of beginnings and fresh resolve.
It is easy to think of silence as a dull, empty nothingness. An end. An abyss. But there is a silence that is active, full and ripe with meaning. It is the inspiration and renewal that comes with relaxed calm. It is the bonding and warmth that grows between friends doing “nothing” together. It is the spaces between the notes which gives music texture and feel. It is the passing of that electric glance of empathy between two humans. It is a living silence that moves us deeper than the best of words.
I believe that we all tend to talk and do too much. We fill up and crowd silence with sound, space with things, and stillness with activity. The question is always, “What are we going to do about it?” Seldom do we ask what we are now doing too much of. Much of our incredible penchant for busy-ness, activity and progress seems merely an outlet for an uneasy nervousness, machine-paced, with no place to rest. We know activity, but we seem largely ignorant of how much is enough, or when to quit. There is precious little quiet, stillness or peace within our design of the world.
Continued on page 3
INSIDE
LANDSCAPING FOR CACHE VALLEY ......................... 3
ISSUES FORUM ............................................. 4
THE KIDS’ PLACE ........................................... 5
February Calendar
Meetings
Thursday, February 3, 7:00 p.m. Board of Trustees Meeting at the home of Bryan Dixon, 10 Heritage Cove in Logan. This month we continue our discussion on conservation and begin planning for spring outings. All BAS members are invited to join us as we review ongoing projects, priorities and issues.
Tuesday, February 8, 7:00 p.m. Audubon Council of Utah Legislative Update meeting at the Ogden Nature Center. This meeting will review the status of pending legislation that affects our environment in Utah. Carpooling will be available, leaving from Logan at 6:00 p.m. Call Bryan Dixon, 752-6830, for more information.
Thursday, February 10, 7:00 p.m. General Meeting, 2nd Floor of Chapter Two Books, 130 N 100 E, Logan: The Practical Side of Owling. Dick Hurren, BAS Trustee and director of our nesting box program, will share the real poop about how and where to find owls right here in Cache Valley and the Bear River Range. He’ll show us photos of our local owls, play their calls and tell us about local owl hangouts in our valley and mountains. We’ll get to take apart some owl pellets from different species to see what they’ve been eating January through March are prime courtship months for our owls, and Dick’s presentation will help us understand and appreciate these special raptors. The public is invited (bring your friends!); refreshments following.
Advance Notice: Saturday-Sunday, April 29-30, Audubon Council Retreat, The Amalga Barrens – A Place Misunderstood. The spring retreat of the Audubon Council of Utah will be held in Smithfield, Utah to focus on the Amalga Barrens. We will be offering field trips during the day and a panel discussion Saturday night. Saturday night will feature a potluck dinner and BAS will treat everyone to a pancake breakfast Sunday morning. We’re expecting a number of visitors from out-of-town, and would like to offer Saturday night accommodations in the homes of BAS members. If you’d like to volunteer a bed in your home to our visitors or if you’d like to help organize this retreat, please contact Bryan, 752-6830 or firstname.lastname@example.org. The Council is a fun group of dedicated environmentalists – come get to know them and join in the discussions.
Field Trips
All BAS trips are open to the public. For more information, call the trip leader listed at the end of each description.
Saturday, February 12. Wetlands in Winter. Take an easy walk among the reeds and rushes of the Cutler Marsh to look for tracks and signs of wildlife in winter. Meadow voles, beaver, and muskrats, cattails, rushes, and willows; all try to make it through the winter somehow. Their tracks and trails tell the tales of their life – and death – in the marsh. Depending on the weather, we may venture into the Bud Phelps Wildlife Management Area or the marshes near Benson. Either way, we’ll enjoy a winter day in the Valley. Meet 9:00 a.m. at the parking lot north of the Straw Ibis at 150 North 50 East, Logan. Dress warmly; back by noon. For more information, call Kayo, 563-8272.
Saturday, March 11. Bald Eagles in Willard Canyon. This is a perfect trip to chase away cabin fever and get some exercise for spring. This is an annual outing to observe Bald Eagles, Golden Eagles, and other raptors from a vantage point above. We leave at 10:00 a.m. from the parking lot north of the Straw Ibis (150 North 50 East, Logan) and carpool to Willard Bay State Park about 10 miles south of Brigham City. From there the group will drive to the Willard gravel pit and climb up the slopes to a breathtaking (literally) overlook of Willard Canyon. For a change, we’ll have the vantage point from above the eagles (which probably makes them really nervous, don’t you think?) and we’ll look for others roosting in the conifers across the canyon. We may even see some wildflowers poking up toward the spring. It’s a strenuous hike, so bring good boots, warm clothes and lunch. Return by late afternoon.
Saturday, March 25. Birding the Sewage Lagoons. Ah, sewage . . . Covering 200+ acres of our valley floor, the Logan Sewage Lagoons are known affectionately as the Square Lakes, an endearment coined by those who’ve climbed the surrounding mountains and looked down on their unnatural shape. But though unnatural, they are a haven for waterfowl, a refuge of open water isolated from hominids where they can mingle in relative peace. “Relative,” because late March and early April is the peak of the waterfowl migration, and these birds are on their way north with lusty hearts and ambitions for new families. They’ll find nesting sites in the lakes and streams of Idaho, Montana and Canada where they find swarms of insects and rich plant life to feed their young. They pause in Cache Valley for a bit of R&R. We’ll see thousands of them chasing each other, trying to impress the opposite gender, and strutting their avian abilities. Meet at 9:00 a.m. at the parking lot north of the Straw Ibis (150 North 50 East, Logan) to carpool to the lagoons; we return by lunch. For more information, contact Keith Archibald, 752-8258.
Friday night and Saturday, tentatively for April 7-8. Grouse Courtship Camping Trip. Visit the Curlew National Grassland in southern Idaho to observe Sage and Sharp-tailed Grouse strutting their stuff. We’ll camp Friday night at the Curlew Campground north of Snowville at the south end of Stone Reservoir and get together at 7 p.m. around the campfire to listen to Ken Timothy, Forest Service biologist, discuss the grouse mating rituals. Saturday, we’ll get up before dawn to watch the birds on their leks, and then return to camp for breakfast. Afterward, we’ll visit other places at the grasslands to look for other birds and creatures. We may even get to hear a loon! Return Saturday afternoon. Carpools encouraged; reservations required; call LeRoy Beasley at 753-7491.
Board Stuff (as opposed to bored stiff . . . )
Environmental Education – Hot news on another Jack Greene project! Pacifircorp has just announced a $2000 GreenCorps grant awarded to the Stokes Nature Center for a Bear River Watershed Education Project, “A River Runs Through Us.” The grant will be used to purchase monitoring equipment for the ongoing project that continues to gain momentum. The Bear is finally getting its due!
Five sets of equipment will be shared by the 10 neighboring school districts that are participating in the project. The mission is to link teachers, students, and field professionals throughout the 500 mile Bear River watershed for the purpose of monitoring the chemistry, biological and physical parameters of the watershed to determine its health and problems. Considerable monitoring activity has already begun. Schools will also participate in restoration projects, presentations of their data to decision makers, and celebrate the Bear River resource by writing a chapter about the Bear that runs through their school district (county). A web site is nearly completed, so the field data collected by students can be compiled and shared, along with project updates and narratives on the Bear.
Robes Parish, a USU grad student, is coordinating the project and doing an excellent job. There’s a strong steering committee, and they’re establishing volunteer coordinators and mentors whom will assist schools in their region. They are pursuing additional funding to expand participation and assure continuation of the effort over time. Congratulations, Jack!
On the Bird Front – Reinhard Jockel became the eighth member of the “200 Club,” having seen 200 species in Cache County in one year. Yes! Dave Drown has just reached the 225 life milepost and Sue Drown has 237 species identified in Cache Valley.
Changes in the Stilt – Pretty neat issue, huh? We’ve had several authors volunteer to begin more or less regular columns for our monthly newsletter. Krista McHugh is starting a Kid’s Corner to help parents get their kiddos out of the house and into nature – without disowning them (or being disowned). Kayo Robertson is offering a feature describing changes in our local natural world that we might look for in the coming month. Jim Cane and Dick Hurren are publishing information on wildlife and environmentally friendly “yardscapes.” If you’ve found particular plants or landscaping techniques that work well right here in Cache Valley, give them a call (numbers on the back of the Stilt). All of these folks will enrich our Stilt. Give ‘em feedback on how you like their stuff, and I’m sure they’d love to get some new ideas from time to time.
A pretty bizarre winter, I know. Look for nature to be a little different this winter, and take note. It’s the change that’s often most interesting.
— Bryan Dixon, President
Winter Silence
Continued from page 1.
Thoreau once wrote, “In wildness is the preservation of the world.” Wild country is quiet country, it’s fundamental features, space and silence. Wild creatures spend most of their lives in a state of silent, aware watchfulness. Whether hunted or hunter their survival depends upon it. Although we need no longer fear the quiet tread of wild predators, our survival may well still pivot upon our ability to listen to the world.
Beyond our towns, farms and fields, now mantled with snow, we still have the fortune of some measure of wild country. My New Year’s wish is that we all might go there, turn off our engines and listen. This beautiful planet of ours, spinning so silently in an ocean of space, stillness and peace, is saying some wonderful and frightening things. We need to hear them.
— Kayo Robertson
Bird Friendly, Water Miserly Landscaping for Cache Valley and Northern Utah
Most of us are busy stocking our feeders this time of year, but we could be growing feeders for those species that like seeds or fruits. As a relative new-comer to Utah, I find that our area is rather complex in terms of soils and climate, and not at all like Alabama where I was before this! Moreover, many of our landscaping plants are chosen as though water were an unlimited resource in our converted sagebrush desert. We can’t simultaneously ask the Wasatch Front to rein in their
water use (rather than building the Amalga reservoir) and then water our own properties profligately (or when we do, then it should be to gain a specific benefit).
I've found a few limited attempts to list some of the local landscaping possibilities for our area and circumstances, but I think that vastly more expertise, observations, and personal experience can be tapped through many of you, our Audubon membership. After all, who knows birds better and watches them more? And among you I know there to be some avid gardeners and landscapers. A compilation of what trees, shrubs and herbaceous garden plants feed or shelter our native birds will be very useful to share, not only among each other, but with the local nurseries and community at large. If the plant is native or tolerant of drought, then so much the better for our yards. If it feeds native pollinators \textit{and} bees, well, those of you that know me know that I will be highlighting these species in particular! If it is invasive and exotic (e.g. Russian olive), we should note that too and avoid it.
Where do we start? The logistics of efficiently reporting and compiling this information is still being developed by your Board; interested members should definitely express that interest to any one of us during a meeting or by mail (my address is 1710 E 1140 N, Logan UT 84341). Please note if you use the Internet or not. During the coming month, as you page longingly through the new seed catalogs, list down the locally-grown plants you know to shelter birds, or feed birds with their seeds and fruits. You can skip the more obvious plants (for instance, spruces and junipers for winter shelter) unless you know varieties that are superior (for instance, \textit{which} crabapple's fruits are eaten first by waxwings?). We are especially interested in plants that you grow (or have seen grown locally) that are attractive, water miserly, feed or shelter birds, may be native, and seem to be overlooked by the local nurseries and homeowners. If you are an apartment dweller, keep your eyes open for which birds eat from which plants when. For instance, birds other than waxwings and robins that dine on fruits here during the winter months. As a start, what can you tell us about any of these:
Evergreen shrubs with fruits attractive to birds.
Winter fruits taken by birds other than waxwings and robins.
Seed-producing trees that are attractive to winter birds (e.g. siskins) but use less water than birch.
Shrubs or trees whose fruit is taken by birds early in the winter.
Attractive, reliable sunflower varieties with seeds appealing to birds like gold finch. What about other members of the sunflower family (e.g. \textit{Gaillardia}, \textit{Echinacea})?
Any thistles that are not invasive but are popular with siskins and gold finch?
Crabapple—varietal names with smaller fruit sought out by birds.
Hackberry (\textit{Celtis})—\textit{C. reticulata} is native. Which birds eat the fruits?
Hawthorn (\textit{Crataegus})—desirable species and varieties whose fruit attracts birds.
Other fruits: What is your experience with cultivation and avian benefits of: serviceberry (\textit{Amelanchier}), elderberry (\textit{Sambucus}), buffaloberry (e.g. \textit{Sheperdia argentata}, \textit{rotundifolia}, more?), silverberry (\textit{Elaeagnus commutata}), currants (esp. golden currant—\textit{Ribes aureum}), sumacs (\textit{Rhus}), aronia and more?
— Jim Cane
Nominations Needed
Bridgerland Audubon Society is seeking nominations for officers and members of its board of trustees. A slate of candidates must be presented to the membership by our annual banquet, in mid-April. Consequently, the nominations committee (Bruce Pendery, Val Grant, and Allen Christensen) is seeking nominations from you, our members. We need nominees for president, vice-president, and secretary. These are two-year terms. We also need two (or more) nominees for the board of trustees. These are three-year terms.
If you would like to nominate someone for one of these positions, please call Bruce, Val, or Allen (see phone numbers on back of the \textit{Stilt}). Or you can e-mail Bruce at \email@example.com}. Don’t be bashful—nominate yourself! It’s a great way to get involved in many interesting and worthwhile activities and to meet many interesting people. All nominations will be kept confidential.
— Bruce Pendery
Third Great Salt Lake Issues Forum
Scheduled for Friday and Saturday, February 25-26, the Third GSL Issues Forum has a slate of notable speakers on science \textit{nd} public policy. The forum takes place at the Quality Inn Downtown at 14 West 600 South in Salt Lake City, beginning at 1:00 p.m. on the 25th and continuing until Saturday about 5:00 p.m. Some of the speakers include: Charles F. Wilkinson; Moses Lasky, Professor of Law at the University of Colorado; Bob Adler, Professor of Law at the University of Utah; Genevieve Atwood, Chief Education Officer at the Earth Science Foundation; Cameron Davis, Lake Michigan Federation; Mike Hirshfield, Chesapeake Bay Foundation; Jim Corven, Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences at the Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network; and others.
This forum is sponsored by Friends of the Great Salt Lake. Registration is $50 ($60 after February 11). For more information call Lynn de Freitas, 801-583-5593 or 801-582-1496, or \firstname.lastname@example.org}.
Birds’ Winter Clothes
It’s COLD out there! Have you ever thought about how birds stay warm? They don’t have clothes and blankets to hold body heat in like we do; they don’t have warm fur coats like a cat or dog; they just have feathers…they must be freezing!
Not so! In fact, birds are able to keep warm in some very cold places, thanks to the way their bodies are constructed and the way they behave. Here are some of the ways they keep warm…
Birds’ Boots
Birds don’t wear shoes like we do. Most of them don’t even have feathers on their feet! But they are able to avoid freezing their toes off in several ways. For starters, in cold weather the blood vessels in birds’ feet constrict, or become smaller. That reduces the amount of blood that flows to the feet and the amount of heat that’s lost. If you see a goose on an icy lake, it’s quite possible that her feet are only slightly above freezing, but her body is warm. Our blood vessels can do that too…have you ever sat in a cold place and noticed that your hands were cold while your body was warm?
A bird can also keep its legs and feet warm by standing on one leg and tucking the other into its breast feathers. Sometimes they’ll drop down, lay down, and even tuck in their bills to keep their body heat from escaping.
Birds’ Coats
Though birds’ feathers may not look too warm, anyone who’s worn a down coat knows just how cozy feathers can be. When it’s cold outside, birds fluff up their feathers. This increases the amount of warm air trapped near their bodies. Have you ever seen a little bird at your feeder that has puffed up its feathers so much that it looks like a round ball?
Birds’ feathers can be not only warm, but dry as well! Birds have an oil gland at the base of their tails. They use their beaks (and sometimes feet!) to spread the oily wax over their feathers. Birds that spend lots of time in the water have very large oil glands and regularly spread the waxy stuff on to keep their feathers in good condition and waterproof.
Activities
• If you have a feeder, have your children watch the birds that forage on the ground (like juncos, sparrows, and other finches). Do they pause, drop down, and cover their legs and feet while looking for food? Are some of them all puffed up in trees or oiling their feathers? See if your child can predict how warm or cold it is outside by how the birds are acting.
• Take a trip to Logan’s First Dam, or any other kid-friendly viewing place, to look at wintering waterfowl. See if the kids can identify ways that the birds are keeping warm.
• Take a hike along Logan Canyon’s River Trail, or any river or stream that’s safe for strolling with kids, to look for wintertime birds and to identify how they’re keeping warm. Make sure to look for American Dippers!
• Play “I Spy” for birds that are actively keeping themselves warm anytime you’re in the car or on a hike.
• Ask your kids to draw pictures of how they keep warm and compare it to how birds keep warm.
Information Sources:
Ehrlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., and D. Wheye. 1988. *The Birder’s Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds*. Simon and Schuster, Inc.
Author’s Note:
Part of the fun and frustration about young children is that they have minds, interests, and schedules of their own. Sometimes it’s thrilling to have such young humans express their thoughts, other times it can be downright discouraging—like the time you plan an afternoon hike, only to have the kids voice their boredom less than five minutes down the trail.
The purpose of this column is to help parents minimize those painful experiences during family nature outings by sharing information and creative ideas that appeal to kids. Hopefully, this will help open our children’s eyes, minds, and hearts to the wonders of the natural environment.
If you have ideas to share, please contact Krista at 258-1232.
Banquet Birding Bonuses
We stated earlier this year that we wanted to reinstitute the BAS awards for listing. In years past, Allen Stokes used to present patches for having seen 150 species in Cache County and hats for reaching the 200 level. Earlier this year we announced a similar program for year lists, but we want to open it up. At this year’s banquet, we’ll recognize all those members who have identified 100, 150, and 200 total species within Cache County – not just in 1999. We’ll be presenting awards, so get your lists in to us as soon as possible. Mail your list to Reinhard Jockel, 127 North Main #10, Logan, or send them to BAS, P.O. Box 3501, Logan, UT 84323-3501 (email:email@example.com).
The Bridgerland Audubon Society meets the second Thursday of each month, September through June in the upstairs of Chapter Two Books, 130 N. 100 E. Logan. Meetings start at 7:00 p.m. The BAS Planning Committee meets at 7:00 p.m. on the first Thursday of each month, September through June. Locations may change monthly. Check calendar page. Everyone is welcome to attend.
President Bryan Dixon, 752-6830
Vice President Chris Wilson, 753-3769
Secretary
Treasurer Susan Drown, 752-3797
Conservation Bruce Pendery, 792-4150
Education Jack Greene, 563-6816
Membership Alice Lindahl, 753-7744
Field Trips Keith Archibald, 752-8258
Newsletter Lois Olson, 752-9085
Circulation Susan Durham, 752-5637
Hospitality Tim & Jackie Henney, 755-6888
Hotline Nancy Williams, 753-6268
Trustees
1997-2000 Mae Coover, 752-8871; Teri Peery, 753-3249
1998-2001 Jack Greene, 563-6616; Ron Hellstern, 753-8750;
Merr Lundahl, 753-1707; Lois Olson, 752-9085
1999-2002 Jim Cane, 713-4668; Allen Christensen, 258-5018;
Val Grant, 752-7572; Dick Hurren, 734-2653
Membership in the Bridgerland Audubon Society includes a subscription to *The Stilt*, as well as the *Audubon* magazine. The editor of *The Stilt* invites submissions of any kind, due on the 15th of each month. Send to 280 N. 300 E., Logan, UT 84321.
---
**National Audubon Society**
**Chapter Membership Application**
Yes, I’d like to join.
Please enroll me as a member of the national Audubon Society and of my local chapter. Please send AUDUBON magazine and my membership card to the address below.
My check for $20 is enclosed.
NAME ____________________________________________
ADDRESS __________________________________________
CITY ___________________ STATE ______ ZIP __________
Please make all checks payable to the National Audubon Society.
Send this application and your check to:
National Audubon Society
Chapter Membership Data Center
P.O. Box 51001 • Boulder, CO 80322-1001
LOCAL CHAPTER _______________________
Bridgerland Audubon Society
P.O. Box 3501
Logan, UT 84323-3501
W-52 Local Chapter Code
7XCHA
Subscriptions to *The Stilt* are available to non-members for $10.00 per year. Call Susan Durham, 752-5637. Also, call Susan for new subscriptions or address changes. | 7c6c2ffb-6107-45d1-ac99-846ea56fd229 | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://bridgerlandaudubon.org/documents/BAS-Stilts/Stilt-2000/Vol%2028%20Issue%206.pdf | 2020-10-30T10:48:04+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107910204.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20201030093118-20201030123118-00316.warc.gz | 234,782,320 | 5,752 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.987554 | eng_Latn | 0.997808 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2666,
8529,
12809,
18225,
22838,
25077
] | [
1.84375,
2.359375
] | 1 | 0 |
The Adventures of Smoke Bailey
James Morrow
The Adventures of Smoke Bailey
James Morrow
Spinnaker Software Corporation
Cambridge, MA 02142
Copyright © 1983 by Tom Snyder Productions, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review.
Illustrations by Anna Dividian
To my daughter Kathy
I used to think that my home planet was the dullest place in the galaxy.
Now I know better. Porquatz, it turns out, is a huge planet. I mean HUGE.
Porquatz makes Planet Jupiter look like a bowling ball. It makes Earth look like a marble. So the truth is that only half of Porquatz—the half where my parents decided to live—is the dullest place in the galaxy. The other half of Porquatz is pretty exciting. And frightening. And dangerous. And strange.
We lived in the country. My mother and father raised cows. The breed is called the Spotted Woggle. Spotted Woggles are quite dull, even for cows. If you’ve seen one Spotted Woggle, you’ve seen them all. The reason is that Spotted Woggles are all the same cow. They are mass produced, like automobiles and digital watches.
The Genetic Engineering people did some very clever things with the Spotted Woggle. You know the old joke about brown cows giving chocolate milk? In the winter Spotted Woggles really do give chocolate milk. In the spring they give ordinary milk. In the fall they give apple cider. In the summer they give lemonade or root beer, depending on
what you feed them.
A Spotted Woggle is about as intelligent as a barn door.
Until my adventures began, my mornings on the farm went like this.
5:30 a.m. Wake up to buzzzzzzz of the alarm clock.
5:40 a.m. Get dressed.
5:50 a.m. Feed the stupid chickens.
6:00 a.m. Slop the dumb hogs.
6:10 a.m. Water the crummy goats.
6:20 a.m. Go to the cow pasture and count the Spotted Woggles to make sure none have wandered off.
6:45 a.m. Eat breakfast.
7:00 a.m. Start running to school.
Every morning. Day in, day out. Rain or shine. Saturdays and Sundays, too, except for the school part.
By the way, I should tell you that none of the Spotted Woggles ever wandered off. Somehow they knew there was no place worth wandering off to. Maybe the Spotted Woggles were smarter than I thought.
There’s something else I should say. I didn’t really run to school—I walked. I’m a pretty poor runner; always tripping over my feet. Tanglefoot Terry, people call me. My dad says he’s lost track of how many times I’ve knocked over Spotted Woggle milk pails. And, to tell you the truth, I was never very good at school things, either. I tried to do well in math and geography. I really did. But in the middle of a class my mind would wander, and I’d imagine I was an explorer or an astronaut or a lion tamer.
Maybe I just take after my strange relatives. My family tree contains some pretty odd fruit. Grandfather Wilmur, for example. He used to teach chickens to walk a tightrope. And my Aunt Maude, who lived in a house with 87 cats. But the oddest one of all was my Uncle Smoke. Weird Smoke, everybody used to call him. Nutty Smoke. Crazy Smoke Bailey.
Smoke left the farm when he was just a kid, long before I was born, but Dad never tired of telling tales about him. Like me, Smoke was not cut out for farm life. Or school life. Or any sort of life where you did the same thing every day. No one thought he would amount to much.
“I’m sick of Spotted Woggles,” was young Smoke’s favorite thing to say. His other favorite thing to say was, “There must be something on this boring planet besides cows.”
So one day he just flew away. That’s right—he flew. He flew away in a hot-air balloon called the A-Liner. Smoke had borrowed the A-Liner from a carnival. Well, Dad says he borrowed it. Mom says he stole it. He was eleven years old, the same age I was on the morning my adventures began.
That morning was different for me in every way.
For one thing, I wasn’t awakened by the alarm clock. I was awakened by a funny whirrrrrring. It was like the sound a Spotted Woggle’s udder makes when you squeeze it after all the root beer is gone.
For another thing, I didn’t go out and feed the chickens or slop the hogs. The whirrrrrring seemed to be coming from the cow pasture, so that’s where I went.
For a third thing, a strange object had landed in the
Even in the pale light of dawn, I could tell that the object was silver, shiny, and big as a hen coop. The cows were mooing at it. It had windows, but no doors. It also had wheels. Six doughnut-shaped wheels, three on each side.
The object wasn’t sitting on its wheels, however. It floated about two feet off the ground, held up by a hot-air balloon. The balloon was orange on top with red and blue stripes on the bottom. There was a name painted on it in silver letters.
The B-Liner.
I thought. Uncle Smoke is back! He’s traded his silly carnival balloon for a wondrous airship! After all these years, he’s come to tell us tales of unknown lands.
A ladder was bolted to the side of the B-Liner. Taking the rungs two at a time, I reached the roof and discovered a hatch. It looked like the door to a bank vault. I pulled open the hatch and climbed down.
Uncle Smoke had certainly made a wise move in getting rid of his original balloon. As a matter of fact, the B-Liner was more like a spaceship than like a hot-air balloon.
First I noticed the control panel, a glittering array of switches and meters. Then I noticed a computer keyboard with a display screen above it. Then I noticed a bunk bed.
What I didn’t notice was Uncle Smoke. Where was he?
I scrambled up to the bunk bed. Two envelopes lay on the blanket. One envelope was addressed to “Mark and Jenny Bailey.” That’s my mother and father. The other was addressed to me.
I opened the Terry Bailey envelope with one swift stroke of my thumbnail. A letter tumbled out.
Dear Terry:
This is the most important letter you will ever read in your life.
Now that you are no longer a child, I feel you are worthy of the challenge I am about to present.
Believe it or not, there is much more to our planet than farms. As a matter of fact, a great city lies on the far side of Porquatz. I am living there. The city was built in a swamp called Darksome Mire. Lying under a blanket of Nearmist, Darksome Mire is larger than any swamp you can imagine. Darksome Mire is a continent. It is a world. And somewhere in its sticky reaches lies The Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy.
I want you to find this Most Amazing Thing. I think you can do it. I would look for myself, but my age has caught up with me.
So you have a choice. You can spend the rest of your life counting Spotted Woggles. Or you can come to my city and let me prepare you for your destiny.
If you choose to stay behind, then I say—good luck, my friend. Kiss a cow for me.
If you choose to come, then you must give your parents the second letter. It tells why I have summoned you, and why they must not try to follow, and why you will learn even more from me during the next several months than you would have learned in school. After you deliver the letter, return to the B-Liner, push the autopilot switch, and wait.
Love,
Uncle Smoke
When my father snores, he makes a sound like a pencil sharpener. When my mother snores, she makes a sound like a dog having a nightmare.
Grrunnggrruunngg went my father as I tiptoed into the bedroom.
Growwwggrowwwgg went my mother as I put the letter on the nightstand. Untipping my toes, I kissed my sleeping parents good-bye.
I dashed back to the pasture. The cows were still mooing at the B-Liner. Sunlight glinted off its golden hull. Entering the wondrous airship, I turned on the autopilot, just as Uncle Smoke had told me to, and suddenly felt the sensation you get inside a rapidly rising elevator. The display screen showed the pasture rushing away. The Woggles looked up. I began to count them. There were nineteen. There should have been twenty, but there were only nineteen.
For the first time in years, a Woggle had wandered off.
Chapter Two
A Tour of Metallica
The B-Liner sailed over farmlands. On the display screen, windmills, cornfields, and Spotted Woggles flashed by.
I sailed over a forest whose trees were cloaked in purple leaves.
I sailed over a lake. A fish popped out, grew two wings, caught a dragonfly in its mouth, and returned to the waters.
I sailed over a desert. Snakes zigzagged across hot sands.
I sailed and sailed. Day after day, week after week. I was never hungry. Uncle Smoke had stocked the pantry with some stuff that tasted like chicken, some object that smelled like bread, some things that looked like cookies, and some junk that sounded like Crickle-Crackle Breakfast Cereal.
At last the B-Liner began to go down. The screen showed nothing but fog. The fog was white, thick, and impossible to see through. It hung in the air like a great wad of wet cotton. I realized that this was the Nearmist my uncle had described in his letter.
When the B-Liner finally dropped below the Nearmist, I got my first view of the landscape.
Imagine a desert. Flat. Smooth. Shining. An endless
sandy plain rolling to a dim horizon. Now imagine that all the sand has been turned into black sticky tar. That’s Darksome Mire.
But why was the B-Liner going down? If the ship got stuck in the mire, I would probably need a hot-air balloon the size of Porquatz itself to break free. Was the autopilot on the blink? Was something wrong with the balloon? And where was the “great city” Smoke had mentioned in his letter? Had my crazy uncle gone crazy?
Clunk, wump, bump. I had landed. But on what? Darksome Mire didn’t look like the sort of place that gave off clunks, wumps, and bumps when you hit it. It should have given off slooshes and burrrrupps.
Climbing down the outside of the B-Liner, I found myself on a small concrete island. There was room on the island for myself, the B-Liner, and a rusty hatchway—nothing more. The air was filled with a thick, swampy smell. Meanwhile, fifteen feet above my head, the Nearmist stretched like a rubber ceiling, so that I had the odd feeling of being indoors even though I knew I was out.
The hatchway opened. Out popped Uncle Smoke.
He was an old man now. His skin was crumpled. A great white beard gushed from his jaw like a frozen waterfall.
“Terry?” he asked in a creaky voice.
“Uncle?” I asked back.
“Welcome to the city of Metallica, kiddo,” he said, throwing his bony arms around me.
“I don’t see any city,” I said. “All I see is tar. And where did you get this great balloon? And what happened to the A-Liner? And how do I find The Most Amazing Thing in the Galaxy? And why are you living out here? And who—?”
“Hold on,” Smoke broke in with a smile. “One thing at a time.” He stomped his boot against the rusty hatchway. “Metallica is below our feet—an underground city! If you’re not too tired, I’ll give you the grand tour right now.”
Pulsing with excitement, I ran to the hatchway. A ladder of solid stone led into the ground. As we went down, a strange glowing insect buzzed over and began lighting our way. It looked like a giant firefly. Then I realized that it wasn’t a real insect, but a thing of metal and wires and glass.
“A robot?” I asked.
“Yes,” Smoke replied. “A robot. Everybody who lives in Metallica is a robot. Except me, of course. And my cat.”
The ladder took us to a small chamber consisting of three marble walls and a fourth wall made of gold. As we came near the gold wall, it slid upward, glittering in the light from the robot firefly. Beyond, an elevator waited.
We entered, and my uncle said good-bye to the firefly. The bug answered with three bright blinks.
Five buttons decorated the elevator control panel.
“First we should visit the Great Metallica Auction,” said Smoke. “That’s on Level Three.”
“The Great Metallica Auction?”
“Yes. Quite different from most auctions. Back home you go in with money and walk out with antiques, gadgets, and junk. But here at the Great Metallica Auction, you come in with those things and walk out with money.”
“What do Metallicans use for money?”
“You’ll see,” said Smoke.
I pushed the Level Three button.
Smoke and I went down. My stomach stayed on Level Five. We stopped. My stomach returned to me. The gold door flew open.
Stepping from the elevator, we found ourselves in a sports arena so huge it could have hosted a football game, a horse race, a circus, and a Bailey family reunion all at the same time. Six Metallican Elders were sitting in the best seats. The place was lit by a swarm of robot fireflies.
I shall never forget my first view of the Metallicans. They looked like what might have happened if you put a tribe of elves and a bunch of washing machines in a matter transmitter and then scrambled their molecules. The Metallicans had pointy metal heads, shiny metal stomachs, and two pairs of thin metal arms. I found myself liking them in spite of their rather grouchy-looking metal faces.
A seventh robot stood in the middle of the arena, holding up a gadget that I took to be a kind of radio receiver. “Will you give me thirty green chips for my latest invention?” the robot asked.
“You’re living in a dream world, tin head,” an Elder shouted from the grandstand. “Try asking us for twenty.”
“Pay close attention to what happens here, kiddo,” Uncle Smoke whispered to me. “When you begin your journey, you’ll need as many green chips as you can get.”
The Inventor Robot and the Elders spent nearly an hour arguing over the worth of the radio. At last the price was set, and the satisfied Metallican walked off with sixteen green chips in his pocket and a big smile on his face.
After we returned to the elevator, Uncle Smoke said that our next stop would be Level Two. The Galactic Store. “It’s the place where you’ll spend your green chips,” Smoke explained.
If I ever end up raising dinosaurs for a living, and need some place to put them when company comes over, right away I’ll think of the Galactic Store. The walls were at least a hundred feet tall, and the main aisle was the width of a six-lane highway. Instead of running from one end of the store to the other, however, the aisle went from floor to ceiling, twisting around itself like a spiral staircase. Metallicans were everywhere, busy as ants on a candy cane, pushing their shopping carts in front of them as they looked over the towering racks of goods.
And what goods! Never had I seen such a huge variety of gizmos, gadgets, doohickies, thingamabobs, and whozie-whats for sale. Even the household items were mechanical: electronic toothbrushes, infra-red window washers, laser mousetraps, microwave garbage disposals, macrowave burglar alarms, nuclear barbeque grills, and digital lawnmowers. Glowing spheres the size of Spotted Woggles floated among the racks, bathing the goods in a brilliant light.
“The B-Liner is not yet ready for the kind of trip you’ll be taking,” said my uncle as we started down the curved aisle. “You’ll have to outfit it with gizmos purchased at the Galactic Store.”
Leading me back to the elevator, Smoke promised that our next stop would be “the city itself.” He pushed the Level One button.
Getting off, we started across a catwalk. Above our heads: a dark, starless ceiling. Below: the night-covered City of Metallica. The windows of its many houses and public buildings were a million chips of light. From the catwalk, Metallica looked like a great cluster of stars.
“Amazing,” I said.
“Amazing,” Smoke Bailey agreed. “But not as amazing as the Amazing Thing you’re going to find!”
This time the elevator took us up. Past the Galactic Store. Past the Great Auction. We got out on Level Four. A narrow hall paved with steel bolts led to Smoke’s apartment.
The living room was as simple and snug as the inside of the B-Liner. My uncle was a man of few needs. A fire crackled merrily in a stone hearth, and, as if that weren’t cozy enough, Smoke’s fluffy gray cat rubbed up against my legs. Before long I noticed an old wooden trunk of the type that Earth pirates would fill with treasure and then bury. The rug we sat on was just as old—it looked like the flying carpets of the Arabian Nights stories, the kind that carried genies and princesses in the days before jet packs.
Smoke gave me a hot mug of root beer, a “local blend” as he put it. I have never tasted anything so sweetly delicious. There’s a fortune waiting for the farmer whose Spotted Woggles start producing Metallican root beer.
“Well, kiddo, are you ready to learn about the search that lies ahead of you?” Smoke asked, tugging at his beard.
“Ready as I’ll ever be,” I replied.
“Then sip your root beer, pat the cat, and listen to my story.”
Chapter Three
Night Rocks, Popberries, and Mire Crabs
"I was about your age when I ran away from the farm," my uncle said to me. "Come to think of it, I looked a bit like you, too. A little fatter, maybe. A little shorter. Anyway, the first thing I should tell you is why I left."
So he did.
Smoke's plan had been to join up with a traveling circus called Wintergreen's Floating Carnival. Every spring, as soon as the first patches of grass popped through the snow and the first robins were jumping around, the carnival would appear out of nowhere and set up outside the Village of Freehaven. The boy knew he was too clumsy to work in the clown act, and he was too afraid of wild animals to clean out the gorilla's cage. He wanted something simple—say, polishing the sword swallower's swords or repairing the fat lady's chair.
Arriving at the carnival, Smoke decided to have some fun before starting on his job hunt. First he tried knocking over a pyramid of milk bottles with a baseball—the prize was a stuffed Woggle. But on his first throw he accidentally hit the woman who ran the game. The woman yelled and shook her fist at him as a bright red lump grew on her forehead.
Next Smoke took a ride on the ferris wheel. He came away feeling as if he had four stomachs, all of them upset. Maybe I’ll do better at finding a job, Smoke thought to himself.
Wintergreen’s Floating Carnival was run by Horace Wintergreen, who had set up his office in a torn and tattered tent on the far edge of the carnival grounds. Mr. Wintergreen had angry eyes, snarling lips, and two warts on his nose. As soon as he heard Smoke’s request for a carnival job—some sort of a job, any sort of a job—he told him to forget it. “It looks to me as if you’re running away from home, son,” said Mr. Wintergreen. “My advice is—go back before you get into trouble.”
Tired, discouraged, and not very far from tears, Smoke left Horace Wintergreen’s office and started across the carnival grounds. Something caught his eye—a bright red tent with a painting of a giant hand on the flap. A message was written on the palm of the hand. MADAME FATEFUL: FORTUNES TOLD, FUTURES PREDICTED, DESTINIES DIVULGED.
Smoke pushed back the flap, and entered timidly. A lone candle burned amid the gloom. Madame Fateful sat hunched over a crystal ball. She was tall and shriveled. She looked like a long prune.
“The ball . . shows all,” said the fortune teller.
“Wow!” exclaimed Smoke. “Does it show me?”
Madame Fateful held up her palm as if to say, be quiet, kiddo. She fixed her gaze on the bright milky sphere. She spoke.
“I see you on a high, high perch . . .”
“I see you on a long, long search . . .”
“I see you take a gas-bag wing . . .”
“To find the Most Amazing Thing . . .”
Of course Smoke wondered what this Most Amazing Thing could be. When he asked the fortune teller, all she said was, “It’s no ordinary Most Amazing Thing, I can tell you that. It’s The Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy.”
Leaving Madame Fateful’s tent, Smoke came across one of the less popular attractions at Wintergreen’s Floating Carnival. This attraction was a hot-air balloon. White painted stars shone on a blue gas-bag. A nearby sign said, “Take the A-Liner into the Stratosphere—One Dollar Per Ride.”
A gas-bag! Just as Madame Fateful had predicted! Already his fortune was starting to come true!
Smoke gave a dollar to the roly-poly man who ran the A-Liner ride. The man had a tin whistle slung around his neck on a piece of twine.
“Just climb into the wicker basket and throw one of the sand bags over the side,” said the man. “You’ll go right up. Maybe not as high as the stratosphere, but pretty high. Five minutes later I’ll blow my whistle, and then you should open the valve. Some hot air will escape, and you’ll come down.”
Climbing into the wicker basket, Smoke noticed that it contained five sand bags. Instead of tossing just one over the side, however, he got rid of them all. One...two...three...four...The fifth one almost hit the roly-poly man. Immediately the balloon zipped into the sky. When he looked down, Smoke saw that the roly-poly man was hopping mad. First he hopped on his left foot, then he hopped on his right foot.
Smoke felt a little guilty about borrowing the balloon. But a destiny is a destiny, he said to himself, and my destiny is to find The Most Amazing Thing... or at least to have an exciting time.
The A-Liner kept rising. The winds carried Smoke far past the carnival grounds, far past the Village of Freehaven. He was heading for the unknown side of planet Porquatz!
Whenever Smoke got hungry, he would let some hot air out of the A-Liner and go down to the nearest farm. The farmers he visited were amazed by my uncle’s courage, his energy, and his spirit of adventure in going on such a trip. They also thought it was a stupid idea.
“As I heard tell,” each farmer would say in one way or another, “there are rivers of acid on the far side of this planet. And hurricanes a thousand miles wide. But the worst of it is the human-eating giraffes.”
The farmers gave the boy whatever he asked for—food to eat, clothes to wear, firewood to burn under his hot-air balloon. And so it was that Smoke happened upon the fabulous land called Darksome Mire.
Then the Nearmist came.
His troubles had begun.
It was like being buried alive in marshmallows. No sounds could be heard through the mist. No sights could be seen through its whirly white gobs.
Of course, for a change of scene Smoke could always go below the Nearmist and look at the landscape. But that didn’t help much. Darksome Mire—that goopy plain, that gloppy field, that gucky swamp—was every bit as boring as the mist.
Once in a while, Smoke saw a rock.
Black as moonless nights, big and fat as armadillos, the rocks of Darksome Mire were scattered about the swamp like bread loaves left for a giant pigeon. A strange dark ooze bubbled up around them. Night Rocks, Smoke decided to call them.
As his food and his fuel supplies got lower and lower, Smoke had no choice but to visit the mire several times a day. He would drop to ground level, look for supplies, rise into the mist, sail for a mile, drop to ground level, look for supplies, rise into the mist, sail for a mile, drop to ground level, look for supplies, rise...
And so on.
Smoke got hungrier and hungrier.
The firewood pile got smaller and smaller.
One gloomy afternoon, as the A-Liner hovered a few inches above the ground, the boy set fire to his last piece of wood. He blew the match out and tossed it overboard. The burning log filled the balloon with hot air. The A-Liner began to rise.
Before the winds took Smoke aloft, he happened to look down. And a lucky thing he did.
There was a fire on the mire. Green flames shot from the ooze around a Night Rock. Smoke realized that, when he threw away the hot match, it had hit the ooze and started it burning. The ooze burned just like oil. Or coal. Or wood. Or any other fuel.
So the fuel problem was solved. That left the food problem.
Another day passed. And another.
The hunger in Smoke’s stomach felt like an angry woodpecker trying to get out. He was becoming weak. He thought he was going to die.
Then one morning he saw it.
A tree.
A strange tree with long, spiky leaves that looked like porcupine quills.
A fruit tree. At least, Smoke hoped that the bumpy yellow balls hanging among the quill-leaves were fruit.
Smoke steered the A-Liner to within a few inches of the lowest branch. He dropped anchor. The great iron hook sank into the mire. Leaning out of the basket, he touched a quill with his index finger. The quill was so sharp that it almost broke his skin.
Smoke decided not to mess with the quills.
But how to knock the fruit down? Smoke knew he couldn’t get his ship near enough to start shaking the branches—not without driving a quill through his balloon and ending the whole adventure right then and there. And, of course, walking over to the tree on foot was out of the question. It is easier to build a skyscraper on quicksand than to walk on Darksome Mire.
Smoke balanced himself on the edge of the basket. He jumped. He landed in the crook of the tree—where the trunk split into two thick branches.
Crawling upward, Smoke stopped in front of a bunch of quills. The nearest quill nicked his nose. He began rocking back and forth. The branch bobbed up and down.
Pop! A big yellow berry shot out of the tree. Splat! It landed a few inches from the balloon basket. The berry lay in the tar like a gumdrop on chocolate icing.
Weak and tired, Smoke waited in the tree for several minutes, gathering together what remained of his strength. And then suddenly—splloosh—the berry sank into the tar.
Smoke’s breakfast was gone.
His stomach growling, the boy shook another berry down. This time he didn’t stop to rest. Before you could say Spotted Woggle, he jumped back into the basket, reached toward the tar, grabbed the berry, and wolfed it down.
Food at last! The Popberry tasted like an olive stuffed with sardines, but Smoke didn’t mind. The fruit was saving his life.
The boy sailed on. He would drop below the mist only to collect Popberries and Night Rock ooze. It was on his sixth fueling stop that he learned something new about Night Rocks.
As usual, Smoke steered the A-Liner until the basket was beside a rock. As usual, Smoke leaned over to scoop up the jelly-like fuel. As usual, Smoke gave no thought to the rock itself.
Then the not-as-usual things happened.
Not-as-usual, the rock started moving. It scuttled like a crab.
Not-as-usual, the rock popped into the air and began zooming in wide circles around the A-Liner. It no longer looked like a scuttling crab. Now it looked like a flying crab.
Not-as-usual, a ray of blue light shot from the flying crab and hit Smoke in the forehead.
Seconds later, Smoke found that he could not move. Or talk. Or think very clearly. Fear shot through him. He was so scared he expected to start sweating, but then he realized that he couldn’t even do that.
Satisfied that Smoke could no longer pester him, the Mire Crab returned to the tar and went back to sleep.
It took hours for the stiffness to wear off.
Ever since that frightening day, Smoke was very careful when gathering fuel. While approaching a Night Rock, he would always keep a hand on the burner controls. The instant that the rock showed any sign that it was not a Night Rock—that it was really a Mire Crab—Smoke would turn the heat up and shoot into the Nearmist. The plan worked well. During the next two months, Smoke met five different Mire Crabs—each one grumpier than the last—and he always zoomed away in time.
A year after entering the Nearmist, the boy realized that he was not having any fun. He realized that he was, in fact, unhappy. He had left the farm hoping to find lost tribes, forgotten cities, secret mountains, marvelous beasts, magical rivers. And ever since his meeting with Madame Fateful, he had been hoping to stumble across The Most Amazing Thing in the Galaxy. Instead he had found an ornery kind of crab, an odd variety of fruit, and a lot of tar.
Period.
It was at this low point in his adventures that Smoke noticed a strange-looking man running across the mire.
Chapter Four
Travels with Merton
Before telling me about the man on the mire, my uncle rose from the oriental rug, went over to the hearth, and chucked in a log. Flames curled around it. The soothing hiss of burning wood filled the room.
"Gosh!" I said. "I didn't know anybody lived on Darksome Mire. Who was he? What was he doing there? Where was he going? Why didn't he sink into the tar?"
Smoke sat down, stroked his beard, and told me the next part of the story.
It went like this.
The man on the mire was not running for the fun of it. He was not running for his health. He was running because a whole army of Mire Crabs—over twenty of the beastly things—were chasing him. Blue stun-rays filled the air.
The Mire Person was strange. He had antennae growing out of the top of his head, long thin rods that looked like stalks of asparagus. He was very tall. But the strangest feature was the Mire Person's feet. They were as large as a kangaroo's. And they were webbed, like a skin diver's flippers. With those big webbed feet, the Mire Person was able to move across the tar at a pretty fast clip.
“Over here!” called my uncle as he let out some hot air, bringing the A-Liner to within a foot of the tar. But then Smoke realized that the Mire Person and he might not speak the same language. Smoke began waving his hands. “Get in the basket!” Smoke’s hand signs said.
Clearly the Mire Person thought this was a really fine idea. Springing off his great webbed feet, he landed in the basket. Smoke turned the burner up high. The A-Liner zoomed away, leaving the startled crabs far behind.
Smoke looked at his new passenger. The poor fellow was painfully shy. He hunched in one corner of the basket and whimpered like the puppy Smoke had received for his ninth birthday. Smoke had decided to call his puppy Merton, and now he decided to call the Mire Person Merton.
As the A-Liner plowed through the Nearmist, Merton remained shy, but he also began to look happy. He picked out a cozy looking corner and settled down in a permanent sort of way.
Smoke was right about one thing. Merton did not use words. Merton spoke by bending, twisting, curling, and shaking the long rods on his head. As the days dragged by, Smoke learned Merton’s language. He talked to Merton by moving his hands the way Merton moved his antennae.
Smoke learned that Merton, too, was only eleven years old. Merton was running away because Merton’s parents treated Merton’s older brother like a prince while they treated Merton like a broken rocking chair.
Merton was also out to have himself an adventure. “Imagine that,” signed Smoke with his hands. “So am I!”
Merton explained that he belonged to a culture called the Girfleezes.
"The rest of the cultures around here have some pretty odd names," he said. "The Thomizeks, for example. And the Zyzys. And the Laskas. If the winds don't change, we'll soon be entering Laska territory."
By the way, seeing Merton say the word Thomizek using his antennae was an amazing experience in itself.
Flying one thousand feet above a swamp in a wicker basket provides a great chance for talking. These two lost souls soon discovered that they enjoyed each other's company. They talked about Merton's fear that his family would miss him, or, worse, that they would not miss him. They talked about Smoke's fear that he would always feel like something the cat had not bothered to drag in. They talked about Merton's favorite hobby, which was weaving baskets from strips of Popberry bark. They talked about Smoke's favorite hobby, which was collecting anything worth collecting and even some things that were not worth collecting. Back on the farm, Smoke had a shoebox filled with broken rubber bands.
"You've never told me where you were headed when I plucked you from the clutches of those Mire Crabs," signed Smoke one day.
"I was sort of half pretending to be on a search," said Merton with his antennae. "In my culture, a boy or a girl grows up hearing about a hidden object with extraordinary powers. Some people call this object The Most Amazing Thing in the Galaxy. I'm not sure I believe the legend, but I had to have something to do during my Big Running-Away-From-Home Act."
Smoke's heart began to thump. Hands flashing like batons, he told Merton of Madame Fateful's prediction that he would find The Most Amazing Thing.
"What is The Most Amazing Thing supposed to be?" asked Smoke.
"I don't know," answered Merton. "I'll tell you what I've heard. It becomes different objects at different times. But no matter what form it's in, The Most Amazing Thing holds secrets more astounding than anyone can imagine. It will reveal the meaning of life."
So Smoke and Merton agreed that they would work together to find The Most Amazing Thing.
At dawn the next day, a golden dome appeared on the horizon. As the sun rose, the dome's polished clay surface began to glow. It was as if some wonderful little moon had fallen out of the sky and lodged in the mire.
"This hut belongs to a Laskan family," said Merton. "Laskans aren't as civilized as Girfleezes, but they might be able to tell us about The Most Amazing Thing."
As the A-Liner glided toward the golden hut, Smoke saw a large hole at the top. The hut looked like a cookie jar without its lid. Smoke and Merton dropped anchor and jumped onto the hut. A ladder led into the hole. The two friends went down.
There were round metal chips all over the place. Red chips, yellow chips, green chips. The Laskan children played tiddlywinks with them. The Laskan grownups wore them as
necklaces, bracelets, headbands, belts, and earrings.
Seeing their visitors, all the Laskans ran and hid under the tables and behind the chairs. They were every bit as shy as Merton.
At last a Laskan stuck her antennae out from behind a bureau and signed, “Hello.”
“Hello,” Smoke signed back.
“What brings you to Laska?”
“We’re trying to find The Most Amazing Thing,” Merton replied.
“We shall tell you all we know,” signed a Laskan whose long gray beard ran all the way to his toes, “but we’d like something in return. Do you have any chips?”
“No,” said Smoke.
“How about a song, then?”
“A what?” signed Smoke.
“A song. We trade in songs as well as in chips. Give us a song, and we’ll give you a clue that may help you find The Most Amazing Thing.”
“A song, eh?” The boy was not what you would call musical. The first song he thought of was “Happy Birthday to You.” He doubted that the Mire People would like it. Next he thought of “Mary Had a Little Lamb.” No, that wouldn’t do it either. “For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow?” Never! Finally Smoke remembered a song that he and his brother used to sing down on the farm. He stood back, took a deep breath, and belted it out.
Old MacDonald had a farm
That made the people laugh,
He crossed a horse with a maple tree
And got a green giraffe.
Old MacDonald had a farm
That made his friends say wow,
He crossed a calf with an old screen door
And got a holey cow.
Old MacDonald had a farm
That caused the mind to boggle,
He crossed a mule with a lump of coal
And got a Spotted Woggle.
The Laskans loved Smoke’s song. They had him sing it five times, after which they gave him a clue plus two red chips.
THE MOST AMAZING THING IS NOT IN DARKSOME MIRE. That was the clue the Laskans gave the boy. Thanks a lot!
Smoke and Merton left the hut, boarded the A-Liner, and floated off. The next three huts they happened across also belonged to Laskan families. All the families adored Smoke’s song – they made him sing it again and again. Most of the time he got chips for his song, but he also got another clue about The Most Amazing Thing.
TO FIND THE MOST AMAZING THING, YOU MUST FIND THE MOST AMAZING BEING. That was the new clue. Big deal!
“Perhaps the Muffijis or the Camawhys can help you,”
the Laskans would suggest to Smoke and Merton. "They're not very bright, you know. Still, they can probably tell you a thing or two."
By the time Smoke and Merton left the Laskans, their cargo included five red chips, ten green chips, and twenty-five yellow chips.
At last another hut appeared. Smoke and Merton were now in the Muffiji culture.
The Muffiji family took them in, gave them tea, heard the song, and looked at their chips.
A bargain was struck. All five red chips for ten green chips and one clue. This gave Smoke and Merton a total of twenty greens. "And now for your clue," signed the leader of the Muffijis.
The clue was: THE MOST AMAZING BEING LIVES AMONG MOUNTAINS MADE OF GLASS.
"I've heard of those Glass Mountains," signed Merton fearfully. "It's a dangerous place, full of strange creatures and terrible weather. To tell you the truth, I'm not looking forward to that part of our trip."
"If the Most Amazing Thing is in the Glass Mountains," Smoke replied, "Then that's where we've got to go."
The following month found the travelers staying with a Camawhy family. They took twenty green chips in exchange for a hundred yellows and one clue.
THE SMOKE FROM THE MOST AMAZING BEING'S FIRE IS ALWAYS RED.
After leaving their Camawhy friends, Smoke and Merton hoped that the winds would next take the A-Liner to another culture. They wanted to keep collecting clues and chips.
But the winds did not take the A-Liner to another culture. Instead, the winds gave them a much greater gift, carrying the balloon far beyond the Nearmist, away from the Darksome Mire, into the land called the Otbrak. The A-Liner was blown across a deep, wide sea. The sea was blue-green. It looked like molten jade.
And then they appeared.
The mountains.
The amazing mountains described in the Muffiji clue.
The fabulous realm of the Glass Mountains.
The tallest peaks were five miles high. They rose from the land like glittering knives. Their slopes were mirrors. Slick, silvery, polished mirrors that reflected whatever drifted across their faces: sun, stars, moons, clouds, and, of course, the balloon. As they got closer to the mountains, Smoke and Merton were dazzled by a dozen shining images of the A-Liner.
Suddenly a black bird-shape came sailing out of the nearest cloud.
The noise that the shape made—a loud, high skreeeee—was like a hundred fingernails scraping across a field of slate.
Two spear-like objects protruded from the shape. And, worst of all, the shape and its spears were heading right for the A-Liner.
When my uncle started talking about the bird-shape with the two spears coming out of it, I jumped about a mile off the floor. My root beer spilled all over the rug.
"Don't stop talking," I said as Smoke got up to find a sponge. "What sort of a bird was it?"
"Merton called it a Gaxonfrax," my uncle replied. "I would have called it a vulture. It had a vulture's mean eyes and scraggly wings. But in one respect, the Gaxonfrax wasn't at all like a vulture—or like any other bird I'd ever seen. It had two heads."
"Two?"
"Two. And each head had a beak that looked like the claw of a ten-ton lobster."
"Let's get back to the story," I said anxiously. "You and Merton are standing in the balloon basket, watching the Gaxonfrax zoom toward you. What did you do?"
"There wasn't much we could do, was there? Except go down."
So Smoke and Merton went down.
They let out some hot air, and the A-Liner began dropping between two Glass Mountains.
The Gaxonfrax did the same.
Smoke and Merton were about twenty feet from the ground when the Gaxonfrax closed in. With a loud skreeeeeee, the monster drove both its beaks into the hot-air balloon. The ship exploded. KER-POW-BAM! The next thing they knew, the basket had flipped upside down, and the two adventurers found themselves with no choice but to fall head-first toward the ground.
Lucky Smoke, lucky Merton! The ground was covered with small, white, cold, spongy balls, a kind of rubber snow. When Smoke and Merton hit the rubber snow, they bounced about two feet into the air.
The boy looked at his ruined ship. The punctured balloon was beyond repair. The basket was a heap of wicker.
The shadow of the Gaxonfrax wheeled across the white ground. Pleased that it had been able to cause so much trouble, the monster skreeeeeed and flew off.
Smoke and Merton set out on foot. Everywhere the two adventurers looked, two adventurers looked back at them, reflected by the Glass Mountains.
Squick, squick, squick went the rubber snow beneath the adventurers' boots. Squick, squick—a day passed. Squick, squick—another day passed. Smoke and Merton found a Popberry orchard and ate until they were stuffed.
Squick, squick—another day.
Squick, squick—a week.
Squick, squick—two weeks.
On their fifteenth day in the mountains, the adventurers suddenly found their path blocked by a most unfriendly-looking animal. Merton explained that this animal was called a Snow Snake.
"What can you tell me about Snow Snakes?" asked Smoke.
"Nothing you want to hear," Merton signed back.
The Snow Snake was about eighty feet long. Its fangs looked like swords. Poison glands bulged from its cheeks like a bad case of the mumps. The Snow Snake was pure white—white as snow, in fact. It lay directly in their path.
At first the situation looked hopeless. The snake was bigger than Smoke and Merton. And stronger. And probably even smarter.
Then Smoke thought of a plan. He signed his plan to Merton.
"What do you think of my plan?" Smoke asked.
"It doesn't matter what I think of your plan," Merton replied, moving his antennae in a slow, whispery sort of way. "If we don't put it into action right now, we're going to be bitten."
So they put the plan into action. They turned around and started running in another direction, away from the Snow Snake. Smoke's feet had never moved quite so swiftly or gracefully. Merton followed just a few steps behind.
"What a plan!" signed Merton.
Squick, squick.
On the twenty-fifth day Smoke and Merton once again found their path blocked. This time it was blocked by a river. The surface was smooth and silver, as if the river were made of liquid mercury.
"To get across this river," said Merton, "We will need a plan at least as good as your last one." Merton looked around at all of his choices. Very few choices.
"Can those fantastic feet of yours walk on mercury as well as on the tar of Darksome Mire?" Smoke asked casually.
"It's hard to say," replied Merton. He lifted one of his flippers to give Smoke a better look.
"Those are quality flippers," said Smoke as he hopped piggyback onto Merton. "Let's try it."
The two friends jogged to the middle of the silver river. So far, so good. But suddenly Smoke and Merton realized that Merton was no longer standing on the river.
"We're on top of something!" signed Merton.
"What is it?" signed Smoke. Looking down, he saw a great mass of white fur.
"I know what it is," signed Merton.
"Yes?" signed Smoke.
"I'd rather not tell you."
"Tell me anyway."
"It's a Fuzzle—related to Mire Crabs, but covered with fur, and larger, and meaner."
"You bet I'm a Fuzzle," said the Fuzzle. It was moving in circles now, round and round in the middle of the river, which meant that Smoke and Merton were also moving round and round in the middle of the river. "Frank's the name."
"Pleased to meet you, Frank," said Smoke.
"No, you're not," growled Frank. "Everybody hates a Fuzzle, and, as a result, I hate everybody. So if you think I'm going to ferry you across this river, you'd better think again."
If you’re lucky, I’ll keep you on my back, taking you everywhere I go. If you’re not so lucky, I’ll eat you for dinner tonight.”
Smoke had the creepy feeling that the Fuzzle was not kidding. To get out of this situation, Smoke knew, it would be necessary to use some imagination.
“Nobody hates Fuzzles where I come from,” Smoke began. “As a matter of fact, in my home town the people all love Fuzzles. Absolutely adore them. They worship Fuzzles.”
“Really?” said Frank. “What’s the name of your home town?”
“The Village of Whitefuzzford, on the other side of Porquatz.”
“Never heard of it.”
“You should check it out. It’s your kind of town. Walk into any house and you’ll see a picture of a Fuzzle hanging over the fireplace, right where you’d expect to see somebody’s grandfather. You’ll see children playing with stuffed Fuzzles. And that’s not the half of it. Every second Tuesday of the month, we all crowd into the local zoo and throw a big party for the Fuzzles. There’s dancing and cake and singing and ice cream . . .”
“And fish?” asked Frank. “I like fish.”
“Oh, yes. All sorts of fish. But the really big event occurs in the middle of winter. National Fuzzle Day. We build an enormous Fuzzle out of snow, and when it’s finished we lay great baskets of flounder at its feet, and then we join hands and sing a little hymn called ‘Without Fuzzles the Universe Would Be a Mistake.’”
“Tell me this town’s name again,” said Frank.
“Whitefuzzford.”
“You folks have a good attitude.”
Frank decided to ferry Smoke and Merton to the other side of the river.
Squick, squick.
The thirtieth day found Smoke and Merton standing near a waterfall. It was the strangest waterfall they had ever seen. The water flowed up.
In the dim distance, smoke twisted toward the sky. Red smoke. The two adventurers remembered the clue they had gotten from the Camawhy tribe. THE SMOKE FROM THE MOST AMAZING BEING’S FIRE IS ALWAYS RED.
“We did it, Merton!” signed Smoke, hopping up and down on a mound of rubber snow. “We found The Most Amazing Being! We’ve practically got The Most Amazing Thing in our pockets!”
“Wait a minute,” Merton replied. His face showed fear, and he was shaking all over. His antennae were droopy.
“What’s the matter?” asked Smoke.
“Look, friend,” replied Merton. “I didn’t mind that Gaxonfrax too much. And the Snow Snake wasn’t so bad. And that Fuzzle was really a pussycat. But this Most Amazing Being isn’t anything to fool with. If you don’t mind, I think I’ll wait here by this waterfall. You’d better go on alone. Remember, for me the search for The Most Amazing Thing was just an interesting way to spend my Big Running-Away-From-Home.”
“I’d rather have you with me,” said Smoke.
“No. Sorry. My mind is made up,” answered Merton as
he sat on the rubbery snow.
“Very well,” Smoke signed sadly. “I’ll be back as soon as I’ve fulfilled my destiny or as soon as I’ve made a hopeless mess of things, whichever comes first.”
When a Mire Person rubs your nose with one of its antennae, it means, “Good luck!”
Merton rubbed Smoke’s nose ten times with one of his antennae.
And then the boy set off, alone, toward the red smoke.
At this point in his story, my uncle decided that he should fix us some supper. Anxious as I was to find out about The Most Amazing Thing, I had to admit that I was pretty hungry. Smoke disappeared into his kitchen, returning a few minutes later with two bowls of hot soup. The soup was pale yellow. There were pieces of white meat floating in it.
"Chicken?" I asked, gulping down a large spoonful.
"No," my uncle replied. "A beefy kind of termite raised by the Paelazia tribe. Tasty, eh?"
My hunger vanished. "Let's get back to your adventures," I said.
"Don't you want your termite soup?" my uncle asked.
"I want the next part of your story," I answered.
And that's just what he gave me. The story went like this.
After several hours of squicking across the rubber snow, Smoke reached the source of the red smoke. The Most Amazing Being's huge fire blazed beneath the mightiest peak in the entire mountain range. The mountain looked like an Egyptian pyramid with its top cut off. Sunlight shone on its four glass sides.
An iron cauldron swayed over the fire. The handle of the
cauldron was hooked around a spit made from Popberry branches. As Smoke came closer to the cauldron, he saw a green liquid cooking inside. Bubbles covered the surface like bumps on the back of a frog.
"Good afternoon, traveler!" The voice was like a church bell: clear, clean, metallic.
Smoke turned toward the bell-voice. For the first time, he noticed a dark doorway cut into the base of the mountain. A figure stepped out of the gloom.
"The Most Amazing Being?" asked Smoke.
"You have found me," replied the voice.
The Most Amazing Being looked neither old nor young. In fact, Smoke couldn't tell whether it was a human-like machine or a machine-like human. Its silvery hair tumbled in waves to the ground. Its skin had the smooth sheen of a robot's. But when the creature stared directly at Smoke, one part of it seemed very much alive.
The eyes.
Deep as wells.
Red as hot embers.
Filled with the wisdom of the ages.
Moving swiftly to the seething cauldron, The Most Amazing Being threw a handful of red dust into the fire. The smoke grew thicker and changed shades, red to redder, as it snaked toward the sky.
"You seek The Most Amazing Thing," said the creature. It was not a question, but a statement of fact. There were probably no facts in the universe that The Most Amazing Being did not know. "I've been expecting you."
"Will it be hard to find?" Smoke asked. He had the strange feeling that he had met this creature before. And suddenly he knew. Something in its voice and manner reminded him of the fortune teller at Wintergreen's Floating Carnival.
"Finding The Most Amazing Thing is never easy, traveler. But a smart, strong, brave person has a good chance of succeeding in the end."
"But I'm none of those things, Amazing Being. You should see the grades I get in school. And I'm pretty clumsy, too."
"I know about your grades, traveler. I know about your clumsiness. I also know that, to reach my cave, you've had to locate food and fuel, avoid Mire Crabs, outrun a Snow Snake, cross a river of mercury, and flatter a Fuzzle. Only a person who was smart, strong, and brave could have made it this far."
All that Smoke could think to say was, "Gee!"
"Follow me," said The Most Amazing Being, wheeling suddenly and gliding silently into the mountain.
Like the outside peaks, the creature's cave was a place of mirrors. Floor, ceiling, walls: all mirrors. The furniture was made from Popberry wood. Smoke noticed a low wooden bench, a long wooden table containing a bowl of fruit, and a wooden bookcase holding twelve thick withered volumes.
Smoke and The Most Amazing Being sat on the glassy floor. The wall mirrors turned them into a crowd.
"It is well that you are here," said The Most Amazing Being. "The time left to me is short. I have made a bargain with the Guardians of Space and Time. In exchange for nature's secrets, I have agreed to become part of nature. Already the change is starting to overtake me."
The Most Amazing Being pointed to its left foot, which had begun to look like the roots of a bush. When the creature opened its right hand, Smoke saw that its fingers were twigs. Soon afterward, the boy noticed that one of its long, silvery arms seemed to be covered by tree bark.
"Luckily," The Most Amazing Being continued, "the secrets I have gathered over the ages will not be lost. Everything I know has been stored inside The Most Amazing Thing."
"What does it look like?"
"At the moment The Most Amazing Thing is a golden metal ball. It changes form with the ages. In the past it has been a platinum helmet, a silken cape, a ruby ring, a silver mirror, a leather book, and a diamond-encrusted crown. By this time next year it may be something else. But for now The Most Amazing Thing is a Sphere. A Sphere containing a song that will end wars. A Sphere filled with a cure for every illness. A Sphere holding the meaning of life. Find this metal Sphere, traveler, and you will have found The Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy."
"I don't suppose the directions for finding the Sphere are in those," said Smoke feebly, pointing toward The Most Amazing Being's books.
"Ah! You have noticed my Encyclopedia Obscura!" With a swoop of its one remaining hand, The Most Amazing Being yanked Volume Ten off the shelf. "These books were my teachers. Perhaps they alone will satisfy you. This particular
one, for example, tells you how to travel forward and backward through time. It tells you how to see through solid objects. It even offers tips for calming earthquakes and volcanoes."
"No," said Smoke. "My destiny is to find The Most Amazing Thing."
"It is very powerful," said The Most Amazing Being. "As soon as the Sphere falls into your hands, the Guardians of Space and Time will grant you two wishes."
"Two wishes? Only two? Not three?"
"Yes—two. We're talking reality now, traveler, not fairy tales. For most people, two wishes are quite enough. You really can't complain. Remember, you get them without even opening the Sphere."
"A Sphere that can be opened?"
"Indeed. It can be cracked like an egg. If and when you do open it, the Ultimate Powers of the Universe will be set free. Thus, before you dare to crack the Sphere, you must know exactly what you are doing. Mark my words, traveler, the forces within The Most Amazing Thing can be the doom of you."
Smoke had never before felt so sure of himself. "Once I have the Sphere," he said in a strong, clear voice, "I'll decide whether or not to crack it. For now, all I know is that I want to find The Most Amazing Thing. Is it far from here?"
"It is right above our heads. On top of this mountain is a glass plateau. On the glass plateau sits The Most Amazing Thing."
"The slopes of this mountain are pure glass!" Smoke protested. "How can I possibly climb them?"
"I'll show you."
They left the cave, squicked across the rubber snow toward The Most Amazing Being's fire. Fierce winds rushed up. As the sun began to set behind the Glass Mountains, the slopes exploded with blinding reds, oranges, pinks, and violets.
The creature's hand pushed against the thick red smoke of the fire. "Touch this," it said. The smoke streamed toward the darkening sky.
The boy touched the smoke. His fingers pulled back as if the smoke were hot. But the smoke was not hot. It was just... firm.
"It feels like rope!" gasped Smoke.
"Quite so," said The Most Amazing Being. "And tomorrow morning, when you start to climb it, you will find it to be stronger and safer than any rope you have ever used. It will take you all the way to the glass plateau, traveler. It will take you to The Most Amazing Thing."
"Sounds easy," said Smoke Bailey, bursting with confidence.
"Yes," said The Most Amazing Being. "But let me offer a warning. Others have come before you. They all failed. You must beware."
"Beware what?"
"Beware the Keeper of the Sphere."
Before going on with his story, my uncle announced that we ought to have some dessert. “I can understand why you didn’t finish your termite soup,” he said, “but I’m sure you’ll like Metallican ice cream.”
Smoke was right. Metallican ice cream is the greatest thing since Metallican root beer. Shoveling a great, cold, creamy wad of the stuff in my mouth, I asked, “So what happened next? Did the red smoke ladder work as well as The Most Amazing Being said it would?”
“Oh, the ladder worked fine,” my uncle replied. “I was no monkey, of course. My climb to the top was not exactly the sort of thing you’d see in Wintergreen’s Floating Carnival—unless maybe you’re watching the clown act. But up I went, hand over hand, foot over foot, winds tugging at my hair and whistling in my ears…”
To make a long journey short, fifty minutes of climbing, and Smoke stood on the glass plateau.
It was a harsh place: cold, wind-swept, lifeless. Ungraceful birds flapped through the thin air. Mounds of rubber snow cluttered the glass ground. Gray clouds clogged the sky.
Smoke looked over the edge of the mountain and saw
the morning sun pushing between the distant peaks. Fog hung low in the valleys.
In the exact center of the plateau, an object floated about five feet off the ground.
A metal ball.
A yellow sphere.
The Most Amazing Thing!
The boy charged forward. Could this be all there is to it? he wondered. I just have to run up and snatch the treasure?
The Sphere looked dead and cold. But then, suddenly, the clouds moved apart. Bathed by the morning sun, The Most Amazing Thing appeared to grow warm. A rosy-golden glow danced on its surface. Then a series of halos grew outward from the Sphere: purple, blue, green, orange, yellow, red. A circular rainbow. The boy had never seen anything so beautiful.
But Smoke was not the only one rushing toward the treasure. Looking up, he saw his competition. He saw the Keeper of the Sphere.
Until that moment, Smoke had naturally supposed that the two-headed Gaxonfrax who had popped his balloon was a grownup. Now he knew that it was just a child. He knew this because he was staring at the Gaxonfrax’s mother. Or maybe it was the Gaxonfrax’s father. In either case, it was about the size of a rocketship. Its talons looked like iron gates. The beating of its wings sent the rubber snow whirling. When it skreeeeeee’d, the sound was so loud it cracked the glass under Smoke’s pounding feet.
He ran faster.
The Keeper of the Sphere opened its left beak. A jet of flame shot out, blasting Smoke’s hair, making him as bald as a clam. Skreeeeeee.
The Sphere was only a few feet away. But then, as Smoke reached forward, his legs became tangled up in each other. He tripped. The Gaxonfrax swooped down. Its right talon closed around Smoke’s right ankle. Its left talon closed around Smoke’s left ankle.
“I’ve really made a mess of things,” thought Smoke.
He was off the ground now, waving his arms like a child having a tantrum. And then, just when all seemed lost, the Gaxonfrax’s huge form glided directly over the Sphere. Smoke stretched out his arms as far as he could. His fingers brushed The Most Amazing Thing. He grabbed it. It was incredibly heavy, a hundred pounds at least. To this day, Smoke is surprised that he did not drop it.
Two wishes. According to The Most Amazing Being, that was what the Guardians of Space and Time now owed Smoke. As the Gaxonfrax’s talons dug into Smoke’s legs, he decided the moment was ripe to try out a wish.
“O, Guardians of Space and Time,” Smoke screamed, “vanquish this terrible beast!”
The Guardians of Space and Time answered quickly.
The Gaxonfrax opened its talons. Still clutching the heavy prize, the boy fell into a snowdrift.
Meanwhile, the Guardians of Space and Time continued to take Smoke’s wish seriously. A darkness came. At first the boy thought something had gone wrong with his eyes. Then he thought something had gone wrong with the sun. But then he realized that a vast shadow was slithering across the ground.
Still lying in the snowdrift, Smoke looked up at the shadow’s owner.
Another Gaxonfrax.
The largest one yet. It was about the size of the town that Smoke had grown up in. Either of its two beaks could hold a house. Or a herd of Spotted Woggles. Or the Keeper of the Sphere . . . which is exactly what happened.
Snap! Crunch! Gulp! And the Keeper was gone. Swallowed. “Vanquished,” as Smoke had said in his wish. About as vanquished as it could get.
And then the impossibly large Gaxonfrax soared away.
In his mind, the boy checked off Wish One.
Getting back down the ladder with the Sphere was probably the most difficult and dangerous thing Smoke had ever done. Three different times the hundred pound ball nearly sent him tumbling into the clouds. But at last he found himself on solid ground.
The Most Amazing Being’s fire burned brightly. Its cauldron bubbled merrily.
And The Most Amazing Being itself?
Smoke looked around. Near the entrance to the dark cave, a Popberry tree grew. It had not been there when Smoke had started up the ladder. He knew that this tree was The Most Amazing Being. Strolling up to it, Smoke plucked a bright yellow Popberry and dropped it in his pocket. A souvenir.
One wish left. Of course Smoke didn’t want to run
through his entire supply of miracles in a single morning. But he wanted to leave the Glass Mountains as quickly as possible, and there seemed to be no other solution.
Smoke hugged The Most Amazing Thing to his chest. A warm, weird energy flowed into him. The Sphere hummed and shook.
“O, Guardians of Space and Time, restore my ship, the A-Liner, to me!”
Once again, the Guardians of Space and Time did not fool around. One second Smoke was staring at a low-hanging cloud. The next second the A-Liner was dropping out of it.
A brand-new basket hung beneath the gas-bag. The bag was completely repaired. Only by looking closer did Smoke see the thin seam that had once been a hole.
Smoke placed the heavy Sphere in the balloon basket, covering it with a rug from The Most Amazing Being’s cave. Then, after carefully tying the A-Liner to the Popberry tree, he ran to get Merton.
The shy Girfleez was still waiting by the upward-flowing waterfall.
“Come on, Merton!” signed Smoke. “You needn’t be afraid any longer! The Most Amazing Being is nothing but a tree now!”
As they rushed back to the cave, Smoke told Merton all about the great deeds he had accomplished: climbing the strange ladder, outwitting the Keeper of the Sphere, getting the treasure, and restoring the A-Liner (with a little help from the Guardians of Space and Time).
Before setting off, Smoke and Merton decided to take the Encyclopedia Obscura with them. They figured that, being a tree, The Most Amazing Being would have no further need of it.
And so it was that, when the time came for the repaired A-Liner to rise into the winds, it had to lift the combined weights of twelve encyclopedia volumes, one golden Sphere, one Girfleez, and one Smoke Bailey. Huffing and puffing, the balloon ascended slowly. Soon it was caught by a strong breeze.
Smoke and Merton sailed over the Glass Mountains. They sailed across the jade ocean. They sailed into Darksome Mire. They sailed through miles of Nearmist. And yet they were still a long, long way from home.
Chapter Eight
Smoke’s Choice
“I’m confused,” I said.
“Confused?” my uncle replied.
Although it was very peaceful having Smoke’s cat on my lap, my legs were falling asleep. I pushed the cat away and stood up. “Yes. You had the treasure. And you had A-Liner back. So what went wrong?”
“I’ll tell you what went wrong,” said Smoke.
And he did.
For the first couple of weeks, it appeared that Smoke and Merton would have no trouble bringing The Most Amazing Thing back to civilization. The Night Rocks were many, the Mire Crabs were few, and the Popberries were at their peak of ripeness. They tasted like honey-covered peaches with chocolate pits.
But then the air darkened. Winds howled. The mist began to curl and turn like the surface of The Most Amazing Being’s brew. Storm!
Not just any storm, either. Merton claimed it was the biggest, fastest, most violent storm ever to muscle its way across Darksome Mire. The A-Liner was caught in a wildly twisting tornado of Nearmist. The balloon basket
became a roller coaster car. Up and down, round and round, up and down, round and round.
Round and round. That wasn’t so bad.
Up. This was all right too.
Down. Ah, that was the problem. Every time the storm pushed the A-Liner toward the ground, Smoke feared that they would hit the tar—hit it so hard that the A-Liner would be buried right to the top of its balloon. They would be shipwrecked!
And so it became necessary to lighten the load. Smoke grabbed Volume One of the Encyclopedia Obscura. Opening it, he saw a diagram for assembling a device that could turn a pound of mud into a pound of gold. Oh well, he thought, I’ve never had much use for money. He threw Volume One over the side—splat!—and watched it disappear into the tar. The A-Liner moved up a few feet.
But the winds continued to shake the balloon, pounding on it like a hammer pounding a nail, driving it nearer and nearer to the tar.
No doubt about it. Other books would have to go.
Splat! Volume Two. Among its secrets were instructions for building a machine that would make your bed and walk the dog.
And still the storm raged.
Smoke tossed out Volume Three. With it went a method for teaching a six-month old baby how to play the violin, read eight different languages, and program a computer. Next Smoke gave up Volume Four, including a map that showed all the planets in the Milky Way where you could get a really good pizza.
But it was no use.
So the rest of the encyclopedia went overboard. Splat! Splat! Splat! Splat! Splat! Splat! Every last volume. And still the A-Liner was out of control.
“Well,” signed Merton, “it’s been dandy knowing you.”
“What are you signing about?” asked Smoke.
Merton slung his left leg over the side of the basket. His enormous webbed foot dangled in the air. “There’s only one way to save this ship. You’ve got to get rid of all the extra weight, including the 250 pounds of Girfleez Mire Person you’ve been carrying around.”
“Don’t leave, Merton!” signed Smoke. “We’ll think of another way to lighten the ship! I’ll go on a diet! I’ll even toss out The Most Amazing Thing!”
Merton stuck his right antenna in his left ear, which in the Girfleez language meant, “Phooey.” He went on. “I belong down there, anyway. I’ll be fine. I can’t be more than . . . oh, I’d say a few miles from home.”
“A few thousand miles, Merton. Get back in the balloon, and let’s figure out something together.” Smoke gripped Merton’s arm to make sure that his web-footed friend did nothing rash.
“Very well,” signed Merton. “But I simply can’t stand the thought of your throwing The Most Amazing Thing over the side. You earned that Sphere and you should keep it.” Even as Merton signed, a downward wind, the strongest one yet, pushed them swiftly toward the mire.
Merton reached toward Smoke and placed his palm on
Smoke’s forehead.
“What are you doing, Merton? We’re dropping to a gooey death and you’re —”
“In Girfleez the palm on the forehead means good-bye,” signed Merton as he tore himself free and leaped over the side of the A-Liner. Smoke saw his friend land on the tarkersploosh! went Merton’s webbed feet—and begin jogging toward the horizon.
Freed of Merton’s 250 pounds, the A-Liner shot skyward. With equal speed, Smoke’s spirits fell. He missed his friend already.
An hour later, the storm ended. And Smoke’s troubles—did they end, too? No such luck.
Like the Pied Piper leading the rats out of Hamlin, the storm took with it every bit of wind that had ever blown across Darksome Mire. Suddenly there wasn’t enough breeze around to lift a feather. There wasn’t enough breeze to make a spider’s web tremble. Or to cool the face of a flea.
When the winds died, the A-Liner happened to be hanging about fifteen feet from the surface of the mire. Smoke was becalmed in the exact dead center of nowhere.
Hours passed. At first Smoke decided to be brave. “Fine with me,” he signed to himself. Signing without Merton made him feel lonely.
After three days of nothingness, a small breeze began scooting across the sky, somewhere above Smoke’s head. He looked up. A Popberry quill sailed by on the newborn winds. Then, a hundred quills.
Immediately Smoke fed the last of his fuel to the
fire beneath his balloon. The added heat lifted the A-Liner several dozen feet, but the winds remained frustratingly out of reach.
I've got to get higher, Smoke thought, as the balloon started to drop again.
He stared at The Most Amazing Thing, his last bit of extra weight. The Sphere sparkled in the sun. It seemed to be grinning at him.
A choice, then.
A difficult choice.
The most difficult, most terrible, most stomach-burning choice a person should ever have to make.
Choice One. Crack open the Sphere. But to do so meant unleashing energies that would ....
That would what? Turn Smoke into an Amazing Being? Or turn him into a Popberry tree? Lead him out of Darksome Mire? Or lead him toward forces he would spend the rest of his life trying to tame?
Choice Two. Lighten the load.
With both his hands, Smoke grasped The Most Amazing Thing. It had never felt heavier. Slowly he lifted the metal Sphere from the floor to the edge of the basket, his muscles straining, almost popping out of his skin.
Smoke studied the landscape. No Night Rocks. No Popberry trees. No Mire People huts. Nothing. Once the Sphere was gone, finding it again would be a nearly impossible task.
And yet Smoke's mind was fixed. He would take the low road. The smooth road. The safe road. He nudged the Sphere. It rolled several inches along the rim of the basket. Gravity did the rest.
There was a high-pitched whistling as the Sphere pierced the Nearmist. Then, a THUD as it struck the tar.
Instantly the A-Liner rose up. Higher, higher. How massive that Sphere must have been! Higher. How cold the air was becoming! Higher. How good those winds felt!
As the winds nudged the ship along, Smoke thought about The Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy. He pictured it sinking into the depths of the Darksome Mire.
And now he had no choice but to leave it there.
Chapter Nine
My Choice
A stillness crept through my uncle’s apartment. The cat slept silently atop the old wooden trunk. Nothing remained of the fire but orange embers and a few lingering twists of smoke.
“There’s not much more to tell,” said Smoke. “The winds continued to push me around the mire—this way and that, hither and thither, yon and beyond. The days piled up and became months. The months piled up and became years.”
“But then, at long last, I happened upon the great city of Metallica. At first I was happy just to be living in a place where you didn’t have to worry about Mire Crabs or Nearmist storms. But before long I grew restless. I still hungered for The Most Amazing Thing—though by now it was probably not a Sphere but another sort of object. And then I got the idea of making a new and better balloon.”
“The B-Liner!” I exclaimed.
“Right. The Galactic Store had all the stuff I would need to build it. Only they wouldn’t sell me anything unless I had green chips. And I couldn’t get any green chips unless I did a lot of trading at the Metallican Auction.”
“So I began using the A-Liner for day trips into the mire.”
I’d sing a song or play a tune, and the cultures would hand over whatever junk they had lying around. The Logretches, for example, gave me some feathers from a cockatoo. The Beribeys gave me some fur from a swamp lynx. The Watersis gave me a jar of pickled Popberry rinds.
“The Metallicans went wild over these relics—they love anything that’s natural, anything that isn’t a machine. Soon they sold me more than enough stuff to assemble the B-Liner. But the project took years and years. When I was finished, I was no longer a young man. I simply didn’t have the energy to go into the far reaches of Darksome Mire.
“Then one night I had a dream. In this dream I saw my brother’s only child setting out to find The Most Amazing Thing. So I sent the B-Liner to fetch you.”
“What a fantastic story!” I gasped. “I’ve never heard anything like it!”
“Do you think I’ve been exaggerating?” Smoke asked. “Well…some of it is a little hard to believe.”
“Such as?”
“Such as the part about The Most Amazing Being turning into a tree.”
Instantly Smoke reached into his shirt and pulled out a yellow Popberry. “Here!” he exclaimed. “This should prove I’ve been telling the truth. It’s the one I plucked from The Most Amazing Being!”
Even in the dim light of the dying fire, the Popberry looked shiny. Smoke set it gently on the rug. “So, Terry,” he said, “you’ve got an important decision to make. You can tell me to forget the whole thing, and I’ll have the B-Liner take
you back to the farm. Or you can reach into my trunk here, gather up some Darksome Mire relics, visit the auction, get some green chips, go to the store, buy the things that will aid your journey, and then, at last, set off in search of The Most Amazing Thing, whatever form it has taken!"
Smoke snatched the snoozing cat off the trunk and lifted the lid. The hinges sounded like frightened mice. Inside, I saw a wild jumble of artifacts, including a basket woven from Popberry bark, a hat made from a Mire Crab shell, and a petrified snake.
I closed my eyes. I watched the darkness.
Pictures flashed into my brain. I saw myself getting zapped by a Mire Crab. I saw myself shaking with hunger because I couldn’t find any Popberry trees. I even saw myself sinking into Darksome Mire and disappearing forever.
"Sorry, Uncle," I said. "I don’t feel ready for something like this. The whole idea scares me. After all, I’m just a kid."
"You’re a lot more than just a kid, kiddo," my uncle replied. "You’re a Bailey. But if your mind’s made up…well, then I guess it’s made up."
"I’m not going," I said firmly.
"Do me one favor," said Smoke, hauling a blanket out of the wooden trunk. "Curl up by the fire and go to sleep. Tomorrow morning we’ll have breakfast together. It gets pretty lonely around here, and nothing would please me quite so much as sharing some eggs with my brother’s only child."
"That’s fine with me."
Smoke went to the fireplace, fed it some sticks. Once they were blazing, he added a fat log.
A yawn broke through my uncle’s beard. He shuffled toward his room. "See you in the morning, kiddo."
I picked up the blanket and stretched out near the fireplace. Finding my uncle, touring Metallica, hearing the legend of The Most Amazing Thing—no doubt about it, this had been a big day, probably the biggest of my life so far. I was exhausted. Sleep, however, did not come to me. I stared at the dancing flames, my eyes locked open.
A tinkling sound filled the room. It was like hearing a bell being rung underwater. As I rolled over, my stare fell upon the Popberry my uncle had supposedly taken from The Most Amazing Being’s tree.
And suddenly I remembered Smoke’s description of the creature’s voice. He had said it was like a bell. Yes, I was sure now. The curious noise was coming from the Popberry.
Someone spoke my name. "Terry Bailey?" said the bell-voice. "Can you hear me, Terry Bailey?"
All I could say was, "Here!"
"Don’t be afraid."
A thick, silvery mist rose from the Popberry. Gradually the mist took on a human-like shape, and I knew I was seeing The Most Amazing Being. Its red eyes hovered like candle flames in a dark window.
"Why did you refuse your uncle’s invitation?" the creature asked.
"I’m not smart enough to get around on Darksome Mire. Or strong enough. Or brave enough."
"Who says you’re not smart?" asked The Most Amazing Being. "Remember that time, back on the farm, when your
mother was trying to figure out how to keep the caterpillars from eating all the leaves off the pear trees? Who decided to put peanut butter on the tree trunks so the caterpillars wouldn’t climb up?”
“I did,” I said.
“And who says you’re not strong? Remember when Fletcher Twilt’s kitten fell into the well? Who climbed down to the bottom, grabbed the poor soaking animal, and then got all the way to the top again?”
“I did,” I said.
“And as for being brave, I’d say it was pretty brave of you to take a long balloon trip to the unknown side of Porquatz.”
“I guess you’re right.”
“I’m always right,” said The Most Amazing Being.
“Good-bye, my friend. Remember what I have told you.”
Then all traces of the creature disappeared: its bell-voice, its misty form, its ember eyes. Only the Popberry remained.
For a long time I lay staring at that berry, thinking about everything The Most Amazing Being had said.
I had a sudden urge to run into my uncle’s room and wake him up. But I wasn’t so sure he would like that.
No, I said to myself, I’ll let Uncle Smoke get a full night’s sleep. Tomorrow will be soon enough to tell him that I’m going to find The Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy.
The Adventures of Smoke Bailey
Born and raised in the farmlands of the planet Porquatz, Smoke Bailey never expected his life to be adventurous. But when a fortune teller reveals that Smoke’s destiny is to find the Most Amazing Thing in the Whole Wide Galaxy, he steals a hot air balloon and sets off for the unknown side of his world. There he faces hunger, hardship, marauding vultures, monstrous Mire Crabs, a strange creature called a Fuzzle—and the ultimate secret of the universe.
Anyone who has played the software game IN SEARCH OF THE MOST AMAZING THING™ will want to read how Smoke came to possess—and then lose this strangest of objects.
James Morrow is a science fiction writer whose works include The Wine of Violence and, soon to be released, The Continent of Lies. He lives in western Massachusetts with his wife Jean, his daughter Kathy, and two cats. | 63472a4a-e433-4e59-9f45-ba6d920b4451 | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.mocagh.org/spinnaker/isotmat-novella.pdf | 2021-11-27T18:01:35+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358208.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20211127163427-20211127193427-00412.warc.gz | 979,667,992 | 17,987 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.981116 | eng_Latn | 0.999387 | [
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
44,
142,
521,
1640,
4483,
5922,
8207,
9295,
12283,
14026,
16888,
18071,
21106,
23929,
25450,
28148,
29258,
30798,
33721,
35972,
38516,
39461,
42161,
43561,
46329,
46722,
47810,
49150,
52174,
54681,
55796,
57142,
59977,
62012,
63015,
65838,
6722... | [
2.265625,
0.435546875
] | 2 | 0 |
Ancient and Modern Britons
Vol. II
David MacRitchie
Ancient and modern Britons, a retrospect [by D. MacRitchie].
Digitized by Google
THE
HISTORY OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION
BY
JOHN ADAMS
VOL. I.
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.
1850.
ANCIENT AND MODERN BRITONS.
ANCIENT
AND
MODERN BRITONS:
A RETROSPECT.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
1884.
BODLEIAN
17 JUL
OXFORD
CONTENTS.
BOOK III.
CHAPTER I.
Will Marshall and his Biographers—Our Seventeenth-Century Seamen—Seventeenth-Century Cavaliers—Marshall’s “Position”—“Banished Dukes” and their Successors—The Typical Moss-Trooper—“Moors or Saracens”—Characteristics of the Borderers—Descriptive Titles—The Minstrels of Britain—Representatives of Archaic Scotland—“The Great Distinguishing Feature” of Gypsyism—Gypsy Lords and Lairds—Gentle Blood—Will Marshall again—His Exploits—Might versus Right—Last Years of the Tory Chief—His Death and Burial—His Characteristics—The Galloway Marshalls—The Old Order “Yielding Place to New”—1692 and 1792—Marshall’s “Position” Defined
CHAPTER II.
“The Ancient Nobility of the Country”—Northumbria in the Ninth Century—Forgotten Kings—The Baillie Clan—Gypsy Cavaliers—“Friends at Court”—The Berwickshire Gordons—The Principal Tories in Scotland—The Baillies and the Faws—The Castes of Gypsydom—The Decay of Nomadism—A Daughter of the Tories—A Descent from Sir William Wallace—Baillies, Settled and Unsettled—The Dresses of the Cavaliers—Gypsy Complexions—White Gypsies.
CHAPTER III.
The “Black Divisions” of North Britain—The Egyptian Kingdom of Carrick—The Enemies of Bruce—Fate of the Carrick Kingship—The Tory Kennedys—Tribal Feuds of the Eighteenth Century
CHAPTER IV.
British Ethnology—The Faw Territory—Scoto-Pictish Scotland—Tory Passports—The Hieroglyphics of the Scots—The Egyptian Invaders of Britain—"The Sculptured Stones of Scotland"—Extinct British Animals—Egyptian Features in Gaelic—Egypt in the British Islands—The Era of the Scotch Hieroglyphs—The Religious Ceremonial of Asia and Europe—The Magians of the East and the West . 101
CHAPTER V.
The Beginnings of "Gypsydom" in Scotland—The Kingdoms of North Britain—"The Improvement of the Isles"—Rival Sovereignties—The Kingdom of Ettrick-Forest—Annexed by Scotia—Gypsy Colours—The Chief of the Ruthvens—A Scoto-Saracen Nation—The Border Country—Kings of the Border—Invasion of Liddesdale—British Indians: "Commonly Called Egyptians"—Gypsy Supremacy—A Reign of Terror—A Gypsy Gentlewoman—Plain Speaking and Tall Talk—Scott, Considered as an Antiquary—The Value of his Romances . 128
CHAPTER VI.
Civilization and Barbarism—The People of Ettrickdale—Burghers versus "Savages"—Conquest of the Scots—Army of King David of Scotia—Colonists and Natives of "the Moors' Country"—Conquerors and Conquered—Early Scotland—Immigrations from the Continent—The Winning Side . 168
CHAPTER VII.
The Tory Tribes of the Borders—A "Black Quarter" of Wigtownshire—Differing Complexions of Tories—The Dukes of Ancient Northumbria—"Country Keepers" . 188
CHAPTER VIII.
Esther and David Blythe—Representative Border Tories—Some of Esther's Traits—Border "Thrift"—Old Border Customs—Tweed-dale Moss-Troopers Described—Inter-Tribal Feuds—The Two Populations of the Borders—The Moss-Troopers, of Fiction and of Fact . 199
CHAPTER IX.
Tory Provinces—Archaic Britain—Nationalism and Provincialism . 218
CHAPTER X.
Medieval Gentry—Yeomen and Nobles—Nomadic "Courtiers"—The "Courtier" and the "Villain": in the Fifteenth Century and in the Eighteenth—The Combative Castes of Britain—The Fifteenth Century—Gypsies of "The Upper Class"—The Decline of Gypsyism—Increase of "Peace-Lovers"—Clans of Sorners—"The Doones of Badgery"—Past Aristocracies—Cavalier Traits—The Tories of Modern Days—Habits of the Seventeenth-Century Royalists—Melanochroic Confederacies—The Tory Clans of England—"Something like Gypsies"—The Various Grades of Gypsydom—Blue-Blooded Romani Families—"Two Entirely Different and Even Hostile Races"—Cavaliers, as we Really Know Them—The Remains of Gypsyism
CHAPTER XI.
Egyptian Bishops—Fire-Worship, Astrology, &c.—"Magi and Enchanters and Soothsayers"—Marriage Ceremonies—"Marrying O'er the Sword"—Marital Rights—Sacred Circles—Black Monks—Priestly Emblems and Ceremonial—Sanctity of the Horse—Christians or Pagans?—Chanting and Incantation—The Ritual of the East—The Creed of Christianity—Heathen Aristocracies in Britain—Regimental Traditions—"Black Bandsmen"
CHAPTER XII.
The Tongues of Gypsydom—The Decline of "Rom" and "Romany"—Language of the Welsh Bards—"Romance" and "Romanes"—Troubadours, or Jugglers, or Gypsies—The Jugglers' Language—Edinburgh in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries—Gypsies, Nomadic and Stationary—"Egyptians," or "Moors," or "Moryans"—Buffoons and Actors—The Jugglers' "Contempt for Agriculturists"—French and British Romanes—Knight-Errantry—The Latest Phase of "Romance"—The Language of the Lists—The Sorners and Vagrants of History—The Ghost of an Ancient System
CHAPTER XIII.
The Romani—The Romani of Annandale, Clydesdale, and Tweeddale—The Romani of Italy—The Romani of Egypt and Ethiopia—The Egyptians of Ancient Scotia—The Roman Language—The Language of the Romani—Roman customs
CHAPTER XIV.
Warfare by Legislation—The People Legislated Against—Nomads and their Enemies—"Glamour," "Witchcraft," and "Sorcery"—The Modern-British Nationality—"As Others See Us"
CHAPTER XV.
Orthoepic Changes—The Accent of the Elizabethans—"Tory" Meanings and Accentuation—Dental Sounds—Labial Sounds—Old-Fashioned British Castes
CHAPTER XVI.
The Component Parts of British Gypsydom—The Modernized British—The White Races—Our Ancestry—The Real Gypsies—Race Mixtures—The Black Tribes of Denmark—Tartar Loris—Tudors and Pagans—Numismatical Evidence—Asia in Europe—"The Turban'd Race of Termagaunt"—Advent of the Black Heathen—"Fire-Rain" and "Fire-Drakes"—Magical Arts—Persecution of the Magi—Star-Gazers—The Magi of Ireland—Galloway Cannon-Founders—Egyptian Arts and Sciences—Antagonistic Principles—The Sakas—British Huns—Painting and Scarifying—"Gypsy" and "Tory"
Appendix
BOOK III.
VOL. II.
ANCIENT
AND
MODERN BRITONS.
CHAPTER I.
If it is not yet too late in the day to look up the antecedents of the famous Galloway Pict, "Billy Marshall," the results obtained from such a research would almost certainly repay the trouble of obtaining them. He is introduced by several modern writers, though he was really of "the antique world." Not only because of his way of living, but literally so on account of his great age. For, although he lived on almost to the close of last century, his birth is placed as far back as the year 1671. This fact, therefore, gives him a great value; for if, like other true "gypsies," he clung tenaciously to all the customs of his forefathers—as far as the times would let him—then, in Billy Marshall, we have a representative of the Galloway Pict of the seventeenth century.
Without attempting anything that can be dignified by the name of "research," let us see what some of these modern writers say of him. Of these, none has a better right to the first word than Scott: and this is what he tells us* of the Galloway chief:
"Meg Merrilies is in Galloway considered as having had her origin in the traditions concerning the celebrated Flora Marshal, one of the royal consorts of Willie Marshal, more commonly called the Caird [Tinker] of Barullion, King of the Gipsies of the Western Lowlands.
* In his "Additional Note" to "Guy Mannering."
That potentate was himself deserving of notice, from the following peculiarities. He was born in the parish of Kirkmichael, about the year 1671; and as he died at Kirkcudbright, 23rd November, 1792, he must then have been in the one hundred and twentieth year of his age. It cannot be said that this unusually long lease of existence was noted by any peculiar excellence of conduct or habits of life. Willie had been pressed or enlisted in the army seven times; and had deserted as often; besides three times running away from the naval service. He had been seventeen times lawfully married; and besides such a reasonably large share of matrimonial comforts, was, after his hundredth year, the avowed father of four children, by less legitimate affections. He subsisted, in his extreme old age, by a pension from the present Earl of Selkirk's grandfather. Will Marshal is buried in Kirkcudbright Church, where his monument is still shown, decorated with a scutcheon suitably blazoned with two tups' horns and two cutty spoons."
Beyond giving the details of one of his many robberies, and stating that his consort, Flora, was finally "banished to New England, whence she never returned,"—Scott does not say more about Billy Marshall.
The compilers of the *New Annual Register* for 1792 thought that his death was worthy of notice as one of the "Principal Occurrences" of that year. And this is the entry:
"December 31. Lately died, at Kirkcudbright, in Scotland, aged 120, Wm. Marshal, tinker. He was a native of the parish of Kirkmichael, in the shire of Ayr. He retained his senses almost to the last hour of his life; and remembered distinctly to have seen King William's fleet, when on their way to Ireland, riding at anchor in the Solway frith, close by the Bay of Kirkcudbright, and the transports lying in the harbour. He was present at the siege of Derry, where having lost his uncle, who commanded a king's frigate, he returned home, enlisted into the Dutch service, went to Holland, and soon after came back to his native country. He was buried in the Churchyard of Kirkcudbright. A great concourse of people of all ranks attended his funeral, and paid due respect to his astonishing age. The Countess of Selkirk, who, for a course of years, had liberally contributed to his support, on this occasion, discharged the expense of his funeral."
An extract has already been made from the sketch given to us by the author of the *Gallovidian Encyclopedia, more suo*;—but it will be well to quote the whole account; as it is that of a Galloway-man.
"BILLY MARSHALL.—The famous Gallovidian gypsy, or tinkler. He was of the family of the Marshalls, who have been tinklers in the south of Scotland time out of mind. He was a short, thick-set little fellow, with dark quick eyes; and, being a good boxer, also famous at the quarterstaff, he soon became eminent in his core; and having done some wonderful trick by which he got clear off, he was advanced to be the chief of the most important tribe of vagabonds that ever marauded the country. The following was that trick:—He and his gang being in the neighbourhood of Glasgow when there was a great fair to be held in it, himself and two or three more of his stamp, having painted their faces with keel, they went to the fair and enlisted, getting each so much cash. They then deserted to their crew in the wild mountain glen, leaving the soldiers without a single clue [clue?] whereby to find them. For all, Billy once really took the bounty, joined the army, and went to the wars in Flanders; but one day he accosted his commanding officer, who was a Galloway gentleman, this way: 'Sir, ha'e ye ony word to send to your friends in Scotland at present?' 'What by that?' returned the officer 'Is there any person going home?' 'Ay,' continued Billy, 'Keltonhill fair is just at hand. I ha'e never been absent frae it since my shanks could carry me to it, nor do I intend to let this year be the first.' The officer, knowing his nature, knew it would be vain to try to keep him in the ranks, so bade him tell his father and friends how he was; he also gave him a note to take to his sweetheart. So Marshall departed, was at Keltonhill fair accordingly, and ever after that paid much respect to the family of Maculloch of Ardwell.
It is not my intention to give a lengthened portrait of this character, as one of the above family, who personally knew him, has done this for me, and much better, than I could, in Blackwood's Magazine. Suffice it to say, that the Corse o' Slakes* was a favourite haunt of his. There did he frequently waylay the unwary, and sometimes deprived them of both life and purse. Billy's gang were seldom ever beat by any others. When they met at fairs, he generally drove all before him; for the Irish took up with him from Down and Derry,—and who can overcome them at the handling of the stick? To those country Cock Lairds who were kind to him, he would do them no injury, but all the good in his power; whereas, those who were his foes,—Billy was upside with them.
He would not have cared to have taken up lodging [did not scruple to, &c.,]—he and his core—in one of these gentlemen's kills,+—to have purloined the greater part of the poultry, and roasted them with the wood of the roof of said kill—to have there staid a week, perhaps, in spite of everybody—gone away at his own time—and left a world of desolation behind him. It was in one of these scenes that he drank,
* "Corse o' Slakes.—... In Galloway there was no roads so wild as the one which leads over the celebrated pass of the above name, between Cairnsmoor and Cairnhattie; it is a perfect Alpine pass, and was a haunt of Billy Marshall and his gang in the days of yore; even yet it is frequently selected as a suitable station for the 'bludgeon tribe.'" ("Gallov. Encyc.") This district lies on the eastern side of Wigtown Bay. On the western side, in a corner of the southward-jutting promontory known as The Maghers (maigh, a marsh), is the Fell of Barullion or Barhullion, from which Marshall derived one of his titles. The map shows a ruined fort upon its summit.
† Outhouses.
May ne'er waur be among us—a toast that can be construed in many shapes. Thus did he flounder on through a long life. When he got old, his people though, in a great measure, forsook him.
It seems that he had both the good and bad qualities of man about him in a very large degree. He was kind, yet he was a murderer—an honest soul, yet a thief—at times a generous savage—at other times a wild Pagan. He knew both civil and uncivilized life—the dark and fair side of human nature. In short, he understood much of the world—had no fear—a happy constitution—was seldom sick—could sleep on a moor as soundly as in a feather-bed—took whisky to excess—died in Kirkcudbright at the age of 120 years—was buried there in state by the Hammermen, which body would not permit the Earl of Selkirk to lay his head in the grave, merely because his Lordship was not one of their incorporated tribe. Such was the end of Billy Marshall, a brother of Meg Merriless [sic].”
Mr. Simson’s History only makes casual reference* to Marshall, repeating one or two of the facts already quoted; and adding—on the authority of Sir Walter Scott—a little adventure of his with two Highland pipers, who had sought shelter in a certain cavern in Galloway, which had long been the retreat of Marshall and his band. The writer in Blackwood, referred to by McTaggart, is also cited—to this effect: “Who were his descendants I cannot tell; I am sure he could not do it himself, if he were living. It is known that they were prodigiously numerous; I dare say numberless.” Which is quite in accordance with the statements made, in this respect, by the other writers quoted.
Although Mr. Leland’s experience of “Gypsies” does not seem to take in those of Scotland, yet the fame of the celebrated Galloway chief has reached him also. Speaking of the surname, Marshall, he says (Gypsies, p. 306,) that it is “as much Scotch as English, especially in Dumfriesshire and Galloway, in which latter region, in Saint Cuthbert’s churchyard, lies buried the ‘old man’ of the race, who died at the age of one hundred and seven.”
Who was this man? And what is one to make of all these statements, apparently so much at variance with each other? Is there, in all history, a figure more difficult to place. In this “William Marshall, tinker,” we have a real historical man; and yet one who contradicts the received ideas of history, at every turn. The king of the Galloway “gypsies,”
* At pages 148-9 (note), 265 (note), and 388 (note).
lurking in some mountain defile with his gang of dark-skinned, crimson-visaged desperadoes, ready to rob and murder at the first opportunity, differs very little from the leader of any band of dark-skinned, crimson-visaged Wasaji braves, ambuscading in some Western gulch. And yet this Scottish "Indian" was the nephew of a naval officer in the service of William of Orange.
If we reflect, however, the contrast is not so very violent as it at first appears. Setting aside the figure of the officer, let us recall the probable appearance of the ordinary British tar of the seventeenth century. His head (like that of the half-Indian, half-sailor Macleod, who rowed Dr. Johnson) was uncovered, and his hair was probably plaited into a long pigtail at the back. His nether garment was a short petticoat or kilt like the Malay sarong. Of anything resembling trousers, he was quite innocent. He may logically be assumed to have tattooed himself more thoroughly—and more seriously—than his representative of the nineteenth century. And since Nelson's sailors went into action naked to the waist,—it is not unlikely that those of King William's fleet carried this notion still farther. That, in short, the painted Gallowaymen that assailed King Robert Bruce were not more naked than they.*
* The use of clothing seems to have been far from prevalent in the British Islands, only a few generations ago. A last-century writer (of a very inferior grade), known as Dougal Graham, makes one of his characters—a woman living near Edinburgh—state that her grandparents wore little or no clothing. And these people may be placed at about the middle of the seventeenth century. Mr. Borrow, again ("Wild Wales," Vol. II. p. 305), describes a Welshman of last century as "stripping himself stark naked" on the occasion of an encounter with a rival. And Carleton, in his "Battle of the Factions," shows us one of the combatants in a like condition; and, from his way of referring to this, it would seem that—though not the rule—it was not an odd thing for one or more of the participators in an Irish faction-fight, in the beginning of this century, to be absolutely nude. Indeed, one of the descriptions in Mrs. Houstoun's "Twenty Years in the Wild West" (of Ireland) leads one to assume that, even at the present day, garments are not regarded as essentials by certain existing natives of the United Kingdom. The glances that have previously been cast upon Ireland have shown that that island has contained unclothed races for many centuries. Spenser's "naked rebels"; the "carrows" who used to gamble away the mantle that was their only garment, after which they were content to "truss" themselves with straw and leaves; those fourteenth-century kings of the neighbourhood of Dublin (Dubhlinn, "the black pool or water"); and the nobles of that or a later period, who, on entering their wigwams, cast aside their sole
Suppose this to have been the case—and there is every reason to suppose it was so,—are we to imagine that the leaders of such warriors differed entirely from them in fashion? The "love-lock" of the seventeenth-century cavaliers may or may not have a racial meaning;—but, at any rate, worn as it was "on the left side, depending from the ear, and decorated with a knot of riband;" its effect, combined with a dark complexion, must have been very gypsy-like.* And there must have been many such "gypsies" among the cavaliers of the seventeenth-century: not the least notable of whom was Charles the Second, who was—if Marvell's picture is a true one—"of a tall stature, and of sable hue" (which shows how little of the Norman remained in his race by his time). Although his father had, very sensibly, snipped off his love-lock in the year 1646,† there is no evidence that the fashion was not continued by the Royalists for a considerable time afterwards. The seventeenth century was undoubtedly too near our own time to be an era in which a dynastic or political movement also denoted a struggle between races; (although the historian must find it difficult to put down his finger on the exact date when racial feelings ceased to be an important factor in British politics).‡ And it would be impossible to show that the wearers of the "love-locks" were mostly men of swarthy complexion. But when such of them as resembled Charles II. in complexion, had played the not garment as a matter of course: all these—whether they were of one race or diverse—regarded the wearing of clothes as scarcely necessary, or not at all. And the "Abram-men" of England were of the same opinion. There are other races now alive who hold similar views, and we are often inclined to stamp them as "savages," for this reason alone. But perhaps we are too much swayed by custom in deciding thus. The early Greeks and Romans do not seem to have worn overmuch clothing. And an incident in St. Peter's life shows that he did not always think it necessary to put on the "fisher's coat" that seems to have constituted his apparel; while, in the same memorable epoch, there is mention of a "young man" who escaped his captors by leaving his only garment, a linen cloth, in their hands. Yet it can scarcely be argued that any of these last-mentioned people were "savages."
* See note to Dekker's "Gull's Hornbook," ed. 1812, p. 137. Compare with this fashion the long locks of the Hebridean women, "depending from the ear, and decorated with a knot of riband."
† Ibid.
‡ It will be seen, at a later page, that there are some grounds for believing that the seventeenth-century struggles really were, to some extent—perhaps, to a considerable extent—of a racial nature.
uncommon part of Roger Wildrake; and having run through all their patrimony, found—as many of them did—that the only course left open to them was to "go and beg their food,"
"Or with a base and boisterous sword enforce
A thievish living on the common road,"—
it is difficult to see wherein such men differed from the "flash" gentlemen-gypsies described by Simson. Positively, there was no difference between them.
So that the incompatibility between Marshall, the gypsy, and Marshall (if he was a paternal uncle), the naval officer, becomes less and less as you regard the facts of the case. It is even possible that that latter worthy was not unacquainted with the war-paint of his forefathers. Thackeray describes the "Chevalier de Balibari" as painting his face, in accordance with the custom of his time. But as this practice may be nothing more than that species of Pietism which is now practised by a portion of the gentler sex; and as its claim to be regarded as a "survival" may reasonably be disallowed; this point cannot be pressed. Against such a conjecture, it might also be objected that such portraits as we possess of seventeenth-century officers, do not give any hint of this Pictish proclivity. To which, on the other hand, it might be replied, that, as the custom of putting on war-paint was only practised when going into action, it would not make itself apparent on ordinary occasions. But it is most likely that the practice had been abandoned by the upper ranks—of whatever race—for many generations; since statutes had been passed against tattooing many centuries previously. Still, such habits are tremendously tenacious, and we know that tattooing is not given up even yet; and that painting the face was quite common among the most conservative section of our own population, so lately as the latter part of last century. As for the side-locks of the gypsy and the Cavalier, they seem to have been retained in the army till about the same period: since Washington Irving, in making his "General Harbottle" the representative of the British "soldier of the old school," pictures him "with powdered head, side locks, and pigtail."
It is quite evident that "William Marshall, tinker;" "king of the gipsies of the Western Lowlands;" "the Caird of
Barullion;" whose family had been "tinklers in the south of Scotland time out of mind," but whose uncle commanded a royal frigate; private soldier, and deserter; thief and murderer; sorner and brigand—it is quite evident that he was not a nobody. The license allowed him by his commanding officer, during time of war, may not signify much; though it is unlikely that, then or now, an ordinary private would be quietly permitted to desert, after giving due notice of his intention to do so. But, apart from this, and apart from the rank held by his uncle, which some might dispute as a myth of his own making, there yet remains the significant fact that, for many years, he was supported by an Earl and a Countess of Selkirk,—the latter of whom defrayed the expense of his funeral—no trivial matter in Scotland, in the year 1792, when "a great concourse of people" attended to pay "due respect," after the fashion of the country and the time. "His astonishing age" is by no means a satisfactory explanation of this final honour; or of the fact that the Earl of Selkirk made an ineffectual effort to take the most important place in the last ceremony; a place which the hammermen* of Galloway did not hold him entitled to occupy.
What had he to recommend him? From our modern point of view he was simply a disreputable old scamp. He was more than that: he was a notorious murderer and thief. Viewed in this light alone, it is impossible to understand why he should have been the pensioner of a noble family; or why an earl should have desired to act the part of "chief mourner" at his funeral. That he was utterly disreputable in the restricted sense which this word is sometimes understood to bear, is beyond question. Although Scott states that he had been "seventeen times lawfully married," it is not to be imagined that he had outlived sixteen consecutive "wives," before he wedded his seventeenth spouse. A glance at Mr. Simson's valuable chapter on the "gypsy" marriage and divorce ceremonies, will show how unnecessary it is to suppose this, even though Marshall had been a monogamist gypsy (a most unlikely combination). The ceremony of divorce consists (or did consist) of the performance of certain
* Who, by the way, get the credit of bearing the expense of the funeral, according to Mactaggart. These Hammer-men were evidently no other than the Tinkers of Galloway.
observances round the body of a horse, sacrificed for the occasion; the time, noon; the officiating priest, any gypsy who may be selected by lot, even the husband himself, if need be. Marshall himself may be the gypsy whose summary procedure, in this way, is related by Mr. Simson. "I have been informed (he says, at page 274.) of an instance of a gipsy falling out with his wife, and, in the heat of his passion, shooting his own horse* dead on the spot with his pistol, and forthwith performing the ceremony of divorce over the animal, without allowing himself a moment's time for reflection on the subject." As this event "took place many years ago, in a wild, sequestered spot between Galloway and Ayrshire," the gypsy in question was very likely one of Marshall's followers, if not that chief himself.
It is apparent, then, that the King of the Gypsies of the Western Lowlands might have been lawfully married, and as lawfully divorced from his seventeen wives, all within the space of one year. But the probability is that—like others of his race, in the Hebrides, on the Borders, or among the moors of the Ochils; or, like his far back ancestors in the East—Marshall was an open and avowed polygamist. And that however his mode of life was opposed to modern ideas, there was nothing in it that was not sanctioned by the customs and the creed of his race. For in him, as in the other Scottish examples briefly indicated, we have a specimen of our pagan ancestors: one to whom Christianity was nothing, because he had never forsaken the religion of his forefathers: and in whose eyes the modern laws were no laws; although those of his tribe (inherited from a remote antiquity) were inviolable.
This is the standing-point from which we shall most likely learn the true position in history of this celebrated "gypsy." Mactaggart's explanation of the circumstance that led to his appointment as King over the South-Western Picts is not a very satisfactory one; although it is no doubt the relation of
* Both the horse and the fire-arms tend to confirm the statement that this "took place many years ago," when gypsies were still formidable marauders—mounted and armed—moss-troopers, bog-trotters, or "hobblers." Which period is remembered by their civilized descendants under the designation of "the riding days."
an episode in his life. It can scarcely be believed that a successful trick of this sort would, of itself, entitle him to the chiefship of a people so tenacious of old customs, and so ready to recognize the rights of high descent. Much more likely is it, that, by examining the pedigree of this particular Marshall family (if that can yet be done) we shall find the key to the triple mystery of his own station, of his uncle's rank, and of the honour paid to him by a family of consideration. That he was the lineal representative of a family of ancient standing, seems exceedingly probable. It may be remembered that the King of the Faws (of the eastern Anglo-Scottish border-country) who was buried at Jarrow, on January 13, 1756,* bore the name of Francis Heron. Though this name has had representatives in Kircudbrightshire for several centuries, it seems to have been originally Northumbrian; and it is well-known in Border history. Scott has introduced it into Marmion, as everybody knows: in the persons of "Sir Hugh the Heron" and his frail spouse. Scott adds, in a note, that "Hugh" is a fictitious personage; the original being William Heron of Ford. At any rate the Herons were, at that date, a powerful border family. But although,—like the Douglases—they have never ceased to be represented, in some degree, by families of good position, yet the fate of the main line of that race has apparently been similar to that of the Douglases. We know that, since 1455, the genuine Douglasses have been outlaws and wanderers: what we call gypsies. So, although their decadence must have been of later date, we find that the power of one branch (presumably, not so much a branch as the main stem) of this ancient clan had shrivelled into the shadowy sovereignty of the tories of their race—and these alone—by the year 1756. That Francis Heron, the acknowledged chief of the Northumbrian Picts (that is, of the Irreconcilables of this division of the race), in the eighteenth century, was the purest representative of the chiefs of the Heron clan is most probable. Any one who has paid the slightest attention to the pedigrees of families or of clans, knows that—where that pedigree is of any considerable length, the nominal wearer of the family honours is, as likely as not, in a very slight degree the de-
* Halliwell's "Dictionary"; under the word Faw-gang.
descendant of the founder—and often is of wholly alien blood. The play of *New Men and Old Acres* is the oldest in the world. Indeed, it is almost impossible that, in a country which has been governed by a great variety of races—as this has—any one family could remain in power through every change. Although every successive chieftain had no more principle in him than the Vicar of Bray, his family must lose its power one day. Mr. Disraeli has some very true remarks of this sort in *Sybil*. But the fact is too patent to require argument. To take examples from this particular neighbourhood: not only did the purest-blooded *Douglasses* cease to belong to the successful and governmental party after the fifteenth century, but so also was it with the *Graemes*, wherever situated. Graeme of Claverhouse, for example, may or may not have inherited a share of the blood of those from whom he derived his surname. But the purest Stirlingshire *Graemes* of modern times were the swarthy marauders of last century. And although more than one honourable family lays claim to the blood of the Graemes of the Debatable Land, we know that the greater portion of that clan was exterminated, or expatriated, and that those of them who were sent into Ireland (and whose descendants probably bear other and various names to-day) or those who, as the *gypsies* of the Debatable Lands, resented so strongly the attempted partition of the territory of their forefathers,* must be regarded as, without doubt, the genuine "Graemes of the Debatable Land." And as Francis Heron, King of the South-Eastern Faws in 1756, was the possible, and probable head of the mediaeval clan of the Herons (by right of blood), so William Marshall, King of the South-Western Faws,† at the same period, was as likely the lineal descendant of a race of powerful border chiefs. The surname of his ancestors might even have been Heron also. For Marshall is not necessarily an old name. It does not indicate a particular family any more than Faa, or Fall does,
* Simson, pp. 149–50: already referred to.
† It may not be strictly correct to use Faw, "of various colours," in connection with those Picts who appear to have only made use of iron ore, or ruddle. But, in the meantime, *Faw* and *Pict* may be used with some freedom.—The expressions *South-East* and *South-West* are, of course, here used from the Scottish standing-point.
though it eventually, like Faa, or Fall, attached itself to one particular line. (This, however, may be said of all surnames.) Like Stewart, Constable, and other names, it originally signified an office. For example, Sir George Bowes of Streatham, Durham (inter alia, father-in-law of Knox the Reformer), was Knight Marshall, or Miles Marescallus, of his province: and Sir William Keith, who was "great marischal of Scotland" in the fifteenth century, became Earl Marischal; the name of his descendant, the eighth earl, being written "Earl Marshall." So that if the Northumbrian Herons, who held various high offices, were at any time Marischals of the Borders, it is not at all unlikely that this dignity might cling to one branch of the family as a surname. It is of some importance to notice that although settled in Galloway for several centuries, the Scottish Herons trace their origin to the older Northumbrian stock. And it is a curious coincidence (if a coincidence) that the history of the word itself* shows that it has borne the meaning—not only of "a marshall of a kingdom or of a camp"—but also of "a blacksmith," "a farrier,"—that is, in Galloway, a Tinkler.
Therefore, if the Faw King represented an ancient and powerful—though decayed—race, it is easily understood how the Selkirk family, knowing this; and perhaps aware that, in point of descent, "William Marshall, tinker" was greatly their superior;—possibly aware also that he was, genealogically regarded, the head of one of the families from which they traced their descent;—would pay him a respect which was immeasurably above his merits. Looked at in this light—his robberies and murders were only the excusable ravages of an irreclaimable Border moss-trooping chief; his numerous wives and mistresses were the lawful consorts of a man of his rank, race, and religion; his custom of sorning on a country
* "MARSHAL, a master of the horse; variously applied as a title of honour. . . . The original sense is 'horse-servant,' a farrier or groom; it rose to be a title of honour, like constable. . . . Old French mareschal (mod. F. maréchal) 'a marshall of a kingdom or of a camp (an honourable place), also a blacksmith, farrier; . . . O.H.G. marah, a battle-horse, whence the fem. merihá, a mare . . . and schalh, M.H.G. shale, a servant, whence G. schalk, a knave, a rogue," &c. (Professor Skeat's "Etymological Dictionary.") That marshal was used in Scotland during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in the sense of farrier, is seen from various entries in the Treasurer's Accounts.
laird for days at a time, without leave asked or given, was only the inherited right of *coshering*, practised by the *Sorohen*, or nobles of his race, for countless generations; the two ram's horns and horn-spoons, crossed, that were sculptured on his tombstone, were the armorial bearings of a chief whose people had never recognized the right of any Norman-Feudal herald to modify or alter these; the tomb-stone itself ought rather to be regarded as the latest of the non-Christian "sculptered stones of Scotland," than as any ordinary Christian tablet,—the church itself being, for the moment, a druidical temple, such as those within whose precincts the earlier "Moors" used to bury their dead;—and all such particulars ought to be held to prove the purity of the Faw chief's descent, as much as did the scarlet war-paint on his face, or the swarthy skin which it overlay.
As for his uncle, the sea-captain, we have seen that, at a time long after his, the "gypsy" fashion of side-locks* and pigtail still prevailed among the officers of the sister service; while it is by no means certain that the use of war-paint had wholly died out in his day, among the higher classes. It was at least quite a recent thing among the Blue Donalds and Green Colins who led the Hebridean pirates: it, or its kindred practice of tattooing. Among the ordinary seamen of his ship, most of these peculiarities formed part and parcel of their life. And if Marshall, the elder, did not *adopt* any of these customs which our British sailors have inherited from the Frisians who once manned the South-British navy, he might easily have *inherited* them from those Frisians who settled in one portion of his native Galloway—Dumfries,† "the town of the Frisians." There is no mention of the outward appearance of this elder Marshall, but it may be assumed
* The word "fore-lock" is also somewhat suggestive. Though I am not aware of any proof of the fashion, the name seems certainly to hint at a long lock trained over the forehead, not very different from the North-American scalp-lock (and perhaps grown for the same purpose).
† Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. III. p. 25. In speaking of the Frisian origin of the British navy—in a previous chapter—it was stated that, as a separate people, the Frisians of Britain had ceased to exist. This is likely; though, as in the navy, many of their customs must have lingered long in the districts wherein they settled. It is possible, however, that one or other of the "gypsy" families of Dumfriesshire are of pure Frisian descent.
that he was not unlike his nephew—and, if so, not unlike another celebrated Galloway "gypsy"—the notorious adventurer, Paul Jones. This man's "forebears," in the preceding generation or so, do not display any peculiarly "gypsy" proclivities: rather the reverse. But his own nature and outward appearance suggest a descent from such men as that famous land-pirate, Billy Marshall; who, indeed, may have had reason to include Paul Jones among his numerous descendants.* Marshall, it may be remembered, is pictured to us as "a short, thick-set little fellow, with dark quick eyes;" and the same writer says† of the formidable corsair, that "he was a short thick little fellow, above five feet eight in height, of a dark swarthy complexion." He, too, was a native of Galloway. Although a man "above five feet eight" is only "little" in the eyes of tall men, yet the general appearance of Jones's figure—short and thick-set—is a token of what Mr. Simson might call "a thorough gypsy;" for he tells us‡ that, "with gipsies of mixed blood, the individual, if he takes after the Gipsy, is apt to be short and thick-set." And there is a Scotch word.§ interchangeable with other Scotch terms for a female "gypsy," which has also the radical meaning of short and "stumpy." Therefore, although not described as a "gypsy," and although born and brought up among people of settled habits, Paul Jones—by his manner of life and his
* The surnames borne by this man's parents were Paul and McDuff, and his mother's father is said to have been a local farmer. But as Paul Jones (or, more correctly, John Paul) was born in 1747, and as the date of Marshall's birth is usually fixed at about 1671, the latter might easily have been the grandfather, or the great-grandfather, of the former.
† McTaggart, at pages 373 and 376 of his "Encyclopedia."
‡ "History of the Gipsies," p. 139, note.
§ Cutty. McTaggart enlarges this into cutty-glies, the complete etymology of which he explains to his own satisfaction. Physically, he describes a "cutty" of this sort as "a little squat-made female"; and since he ascribes certain moral (or immoral) characteristics to women of this description, it is quite evident that he, unknowingly, refers to the women of a particular race. Cutty—along with gypsy, quean, and randy—is used in ordinary Scotch phraseology, in an uncomplimentary sense. Mr. Simson believes the last of these words is the "gypsy" rance, or raunie, "a queen." If so, all these four words are applicable to gypsy women; but when used by gypsies they are honourable—dis-honourable when used by civilized people. And this is quite consistent with facts. For as the half-tamed raunie is a "queen" to her people, but a "quean" to those of more settled habits, so are gypsies synonymous with thieves and blacks—in the estimation of the latter class.
physical characteristics—was nearly as much entitled to be styled a "gypsy" as was his renowned compatriot (and possible ancestor); and as much entitled to be so denominated as was Marshall's uncle, the naval officer.*
It would be tedious and difficult to ferret out other modern examples of the sea-faring "gypsy;" but such types must have been more and more numerous the farther one goes back in time. Allan Mac Ruari, the black-skinned Hebridean pirate of the fifteenth century, is one notable instance: and others of the same kind may be seen in those "Blueskins"—Green and Blue Colins and Donalds—that infested the Hebridean creeks at about that period or later. *In Highland tradition, there are many "sea-tinkers"—such as "the black smith of Drontheim":—and in this Galloway district, specially, the legendary Blackamoor, Black Murray, or Black-Douglas, is remembered in one account as a searover, and in another as one of a company of sea-faring "Moors or Saracens." And—as on the land, so on the sea—they assume quite national proportions, when one looks at them from a still greater distance; before their numbers had been diminished by conquest, or their individuality rendered indistinct by their blending with white-skinned races. When, in short, they were savage, sea-faring "black heathen;" known under various historical names; sacking churches and monasteries, killing and ravishing; and, at one time, actually conquering the greater portion of the British Islands.
Apparently, then, this patriarchal leader of the tory section of the Galloway Faws was a genuine descendant of the ancient Moors, or Picts. Of the conservative remnants of these races, other examples were seen in the Graemes, Moors, or Gypsies of the Debatable Land: who proved the purity of their ancestry—if in no other way—by the resistance they offered to the would-be claimants of their territory; in doing which they showed, instinctively, that they, and no other, were the graemes of that "debatable" district.
* More so. Because Paul Jones, though he eventually rose to positions of real eminence in foreign services, seems to have been a mere marauder at the first. Whereas, for anything we know to the contrary, this British naval officer of the seventeenth century had never occupied a more equivocal position than that in which he momentarily appears to view.
And they themselves are well aware of their history. Like all other "gypsies," their traditions and songs are full of reference to that history which is partly the history of the general population of these islands, but which is distinctly that of their forefathers. "As far as I can judge (says Mr. Simson, p. 306), from the few and short specimens which I have myself heard, and had reported to me, the subjects of the songs of the Scottish gipsies, (I mean those composed by themselves,) are chiefly their plunderings, their robberies, and their sufferings. The numerous and deadly conflicts which they had among themselves, also afforded them themes for the exercise of their muse. My father, in his youth, often heard them singing songs, wholly in their own language. They appear to have been very fond of our* ancient Border marauding songs, which celebrate the daring exploits of the lawless freebooters on the frontiers of Scotland and England. They were constantly singing these compositions among themselves. The song composed on Hughie Graeme, the horse-stealer, published in the second volume of Sir Walter Scott's 'Border Mintrelsy,' was a great favourite with the Tinklers." So many of these Border Moors were distinguished by this title of Graeme, Grim, or Black, that one cannot very easily discriminate; but this "Hughie the graeme," apparently the most ferocious of all those who bore that name, seems to be the same as "Graeme, the Border Outlaw," and "Graeme, the Outlaw of Galloway." Perhaps, so, perhaps not. We saw that a redoubtable Douglas (known historically under that equivalent of Graeme, Moor, Murray, Black, &c.) was "Archibald the Grim," or black; and one or other of the three titles just given may apply to a descendant of his. Like the Douglases proper, "Graeme the Border Outlaw" was lord of a castle,—thereby a Black Castle,—situated "at the head of the Vale of Fleet."† Again, "Graeme, the Outlaw of Galloway," is only styled "a freebooter" and "a ruffian named Graeme;" but his home is
* Really, their "ancient Border marauding songs," though the language is a newer form of speech than theirs—out of which, to some extent, it has been evolved. To some extent, also, those songs are the property of the civilized mixed-bloods who apparently form the greatest part of the Border population.
† "Historical and Traditional Tales of the South of Scotland." John Nicholson, Kirkcudbright, 1843, p. 304.
the Debatable Land. Of him, it is said, "many acts of bloody cruelty, too gross to be mentioned, are on record." The account of him from which these expressions are quoted,* gives the following sketch of the Debatable Land and its occupants, which, although partly a repetition of former statements, is worth extracting:
"The people of the English borders, in common with those of Scotland, were in those days nothing less than clans of lawless banditti who were engaged in predatory excursions. The track which they occupied extended about fifty miles in length and six in breadth, and was called 'the debateable land,' both nations laying claim to it, though in fact it belonged to neither,† as their utmost efforts were ineffectual for the subjection of its inhabitants, whose dexterity in the art of thieving was such, that they could twist a cow's horn, or mark a horse, so that its owner could not know either again . . . . Since the union of Scotland and England, those scenes of contention and barbarism, which rendered existence and property equally precarious, have been gradually disappearing . . . .
"However, it was not with the English borderers alone that the Scotch clans were always at war. Deadly quarrels often arose among themselves which were not quelled during a lapse of centuries . . . . It was only on occasions of general warfare between the monarchs of the contending nations of England and Scotland, that these ancient feuds were laid aside,—when the chieftain of each opposing clan forgetting their former deadly enmity, joined the common cause against their hostile foe. But even at that period, and on the eve of battle, some fancied insult would again add fuel to the half-smothered flame, their former animosities would again break forth, and bloodshed and murder reigned triumphant.
The writer of this—since he distinguishes between "the freebooters of the forests," and "these opposing clans," and for other apparent reasons,—did not know that the moss-trooping thieves he described were popularly known as "Gypsies." But had he been writing an appendix to Mr. Simson's History, he could not have used more appropriate
* "Historical and Traditional Tales of the South of Scotland," pp. 31-34.
† This is a simple fact. So long as the laws of the British Government were successfully defied in this scrap of territory, or, as we have seen they were, in portions of the Hebrides, the larger of the British Islands was not really a "United Kingdom." Contemptible though the opposition was, it was, nevertheless, the latest assertion of a sovereignty which was not Modern-British, whether we call it, somewhat vaguely, "Pictish," or, more distinctly, "Black-Danish." The first term includes the second.
language. That book gives two examples (at pp. 142-3 and 148) of that "dexterity in the art of thieving" which so characterized the Borderers,—only Mr. Simson calls his moss-troopers, "Gypsies." But the two sets of men are, in every respect, identical. The Border writer when he says of the "lawless banditti" of the debatable lands, "engaged in predatory excursions,"—"Deadly quarrels often arose among themselves, which were not quelled during the lapse of centuries,"—might almost be accused of copying Mr. Simson's very words—who tells us of "the numerous and deadly conflicts which they [the gypsies] had among themselves;" of which he gives us many instances,—and the inveterate character of which he dwells upon (pp. 236-7), with reference to the never-ending feud between the Baillies and those Fawes to whom this descriptive epithet eventually clung as a surname. And when the Galloway writer adds that the outlawed Graeme stipulated for "a sum of money in the meantime, and a future annuity, by way of black-meal," he indicates a notorious practice of such gypsies as Henry [the] Faa, who exacted a similar tribute from "men of considerable fortune" on the southern Border, in the beginning of the eighteenth century;—of such gypsies as the leader of that tribe which a modern writer* tells us "for years levied black mail over the county of Aberdeen," about the same period; —or of those "black watches," generally, who, we saw in a preceding chapter, used to traverse the Highlands (about that era), and to whom there was yearly paid "in black-mail or watch-money, openly and privately," the sum of five thousand pounds: and, in all these cases, as in that of "the tribute of the blacke armie," which a white-skinned nation of Wales was forced to pay to the swarthy pirates whom history knows as Danes, or Cimbri;—or as in that of the yearly sum exacted from the Roman Empire in the fifth century, by the probable kinsmen and ancestors of these Black Danes,—the equally swarthy Huns;—in all these cases, the tax was most fitly and naturally designated "black" mail, or tribute.
The distinction, then, between such Graemes as "Hughie Graeme, the horse-stealer," and such Graemes as are mentioned by various "Gypsy" writers under the title of Gypsies,
* Dr. John Brown, in his sketch of "A Jacobite Family."
is only one of nomenclature. And even this distinction vanishes when one reflects that "Graeme," strictly interpreted, is "Moor," or "black man." Indeed (to dwell for a moment longer upon this particular branch of the race), the nicknames of those of the clan who were—in Scott's opinion—the probable associates of the celebrated "Hughie," might be those of any Gypsy gang. Such names as "Flaugh-tail," "Nimble Willie," "Mickle Willie," and "Muckle Willie Grame," accord well with "The Whistler" (Black Duncan's adopted son), "Muckle William Ruthven," "Little Wull" (Ruthven), "Gley'd Neckit Will" (supposed by Mr. Simson to have been "old Will Faa," a Yetholm chief), and such-like. The use of nicknames seems indeed to have been regarded as a peculiarity of the black races, since a nickname is sometimes spoken of as a "black."* It may be said that the use of descriptive names is not peculiar to any race; but is merely a primitive custom. And this may be readily admitted without any damage to the argument. For it is only another way of saying that the tories of Scotland are nothing else than archaic Scotchmen.
And this is what everything goes to prove. In whatever part of Scotland we have looked at them, the tories, or robbers, or moss troopers, or "gypsies," have been seen to be tories in the modern sense of that word.† They are Scotch-
* "What a fool I was to give him a black," says Tom Brown, on the occasion of his fishing adventure, when he realizes that he hasn't improved his position by addressing the keeper as "Velveteens."
Prize-fighters, who have been identified with "gypsies" from the earliest records, are also known rather by their nick-names than by any other; and bear such titles as "The Game Chicken," "The Tipton Slasher," or "The Putney Pet." Minstrels, or harpers, who also are "gypsies," follow the same custom. In Mr. Burnand's amusing "Little Holiday" (Punch, No. 2,148), we are told that the Bard whom he meets "has a title in his own language, which translated means 'The Soaring Eagle';" and that "all the Bards have descriptive titles, such as The Roaring Lion, The Howling Deer, and so forth. It reminds me (adds the chronicler) of the names in Fenimore Cooper's novels about the Redskins," which is a very suitable observation. It is worth remarking that this Bard, when he makes his appearance, is black-haired, and generally so like a "foreigner" that his appearance gives rise to a most ludicrous situation. Of course, the adventure is half-mythical; but this minstrel has precisely the appearance he ought to have—as a member of that brotherhood whose oldest living representative speaks the "gypsy" of Wales as his mother-tongue.
† That is to say, accepting Toryism as the equivalent of Orientalism, or the abhorrence of change and innovation: the caricature, so to speak, of that conmen who have not progressed: "Scotchmen," that is, in the most comprehensive acceptation of the term,—whatever race-names they may have borne when they landed in North Britain. Like their kinsmen, the swarthy minstrels and jugglers of the southern portion of the island,—during mediaeval times,—the "Moorish" divisions of the Scotch nation have been the minstrels of the north. And, conversely, the minstrels,—wherever they can be seen—are "Moors." The songs that the people of the North-West used to "carol as they went along," were the ancient songs of that district: and the singers were "Gypsies:" members of that (then) "lowest rank of peasantry," whose females, in the speech of the local aristocracy were "black girls," and whose "vernacular" was "black speech." Of these Highland gypsy minstrels the latest distinct example is, perhaps, the gypsy composer of "Macpherson's Lament;" though the well-known ballad of "Donald Caird," or "Gypsy Donald,"—which pictures a most typical gypsy,—shows that this characteristic of his people was once taken for granted.*
* Scott's version is called "Donald Caird's come again," but it is set to the air of an older ballad—"Malcolm Caird's come again." In either case Caird is evidently not used as a surname, but as signifying "gypsy." The line alluded to is the opening one, "Donald Caird can lilt and sing."
That the gypsy of the Highlands is even yet a Minstrel, or Piper, is seen from the description given of these people in the sketch of "Two Little Tinkers" by the author of "John Halifax." Mrs. Craik explains that Highland Tinkers "are not gipsies"; but, as she speaks of the "brown skins" of the two in question, and as the father of one of them is "an ugly wee black man," one may be excusably allowed to think otherwise. We are here told that these Tinkers "live the roughest, wildest, most wandering of lives, 'tinkering' pots and pans, and going about in bands, each band having attached to it one absolute idler, the 'piper,' who plays his bagpipes at feasts and weddings, and is usually the most confirmed drunkard of the whole." This is precisely the character of the ancient Bard, Minstrel, or Jongleur, of mediaeval and of earlier times: of those days when "to be a Bard freed a man." And such Gypsy-Pipers are much truer representatives of that caste than are those specimens attached to modern mansions (and modern chiefs) in the Highlands of Scotland—often as artificially created as were Catherine of Russia's "happy peasants."
So also with the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. Wherever we have looked for special examples of the Border Minstrels, we have found them among the kindred of those tawny people who sang so "bonnily" before the Earl of Cassilis' gate; and wiled away the love of his Lady. When we ask for the singers of those ancient Border songs—of battle, and rapine, and love,—we are directed—not to the civilized, prosaic folk that constitute the general Border population; and whose blood is either wholly that of the phlegmatic white-skinned peoples, or is largely dashed with it;—but to the dusky dwellers among the camps, who are so attached to those "ancient Border marauding songs" that they are "constantly singing them among themselves." And who can so perfectly appreciate such minstrelsy,—impregnated as it is with a spirit of reckless daring and lawlessness, utterly opposed to the ideas of modern civilization,—but quite in consonance with the creed of the gypsies,—as those lingering representatives of that archaic life? Everywhere have the Minstrels and the gypsies gone hand-in-hand. The man who laments the decay of "Minstrelsy," and he who mourns the approaching death of "Gypsydom," must read the self-same page of history, if they want to know when these flourished most.
As with their rhythmic traditions, so with their spoken legends. Just as the oldest living harper in Wales owns the speech of those "Gypsies" as his mother-tongue, so is the folk-lore of the Welsh Gypsy equally the property of the general population there. In giving us a "Gypsy" story, Mr. Leland tells us of British Merlin.* "Alike in Wales and Turkey," says the Encyclopædia writer, the "Gypsy" tales "may be identified with those of other Aryan races; scarce one has yet been published but its counterpart may be found
* It is true that the gypsy narrator of the story states that—"A Welsher told me that story." But, then, what kind of "Welsher"? If of the same race as the Welsh Minstrels, the preservers of tradition, he was a Welsh gypsy. This very form of "Welshman" is significant. For it has become identified with a certain class of men, unpleasantly prominent on race-courses, the members of which are—or were—described in Scotland as "blacks," and in England and elsewhere as "blacklegs" at the present day.
It is surely unnecessary to add that the connection between the Welsh Minstrel and the Welsher has been broken off long ago.
in Grimm's, Ralston's, or other collection of European folklore." And when Mr. Campbell collected his famous West Highland Tales, he gathered them, in great measure, from the lips of "Tinkers." A previous chapter has shown us that the inherited superstitions, of the existing "Scotch" people, and the obsolete customs of a portion of their ancestors, are the superstitions and the customs of the Scottish "Gypsies."* We have seen that the "turf-built cots" of the "vagrant gypsies" on "Yeta's banks" were quite common last century in Inchegall, The Isles of the Foreigners, and commoner still throughout Scotland, at an earlier date. And
* Mr. Leland advances as plausible, if not capable of proof, that a common nursery rhyme (used for "counting out") is good sense in "gypsy," though nonsense in "English." The version he takes begins with "ekkerri. akkery, u-kery an": that given by Dr. John Brown in "Pet Marjorie" goes thus—
"Wonery, twoery, tickery, seven;
Alibi, crackaby, ten, and eleven;"
and so on; and this is the version familiar to all Scotch children. In any case, Mr. Leland's theory as to the manner in which this rhyme became first known to non-gypsy children is—with all deference to him—very difficult to accept. But in view of the facts above stated, it is quite a superfluous theory. For the children of Scotland—not to regard others at present—have clearly obtained this rhyme, with many other customs, by inheritance. It has been previously pointed out that the Scotch game of Jing-ga-ring is almost certainly an archaic marriage ceremony; whether the etymology of its title (and burden) be connected with the word Zingari or not. Possibly it is the very ceremony indicated by McTaggart under the words "Owre Boggie," i.e., "too moor-ish." "People (he says) are said to be married in an owre boggie manner" when they are married "contrary to the common laws" by men of the stamp of the Gretna Green blacksmith, who were popularly known as auld boggies.
These are only two examples out of the mass. Men who have studied those nursery rhymes and games know how much sense lies hidden in what, at first sight, seems a heap of nonsense. It would be going too far to say that children never invent games and rhymes, or that all nonsense-verses were once sense; but it has become apparent within this century that our children are, in a measure, our historians. Children, it must be remembered, form a separate caste as much as does the Army, the Navy, or the Church; and, like any of these, their ways are deserving of the most precise analysis for the sake of the historical facts they teach. All of these, as distinct societies or castes, are to-day using certain words, and performing certain acts, that have been handed down to them, as castes, from remote ages. And although the members of these societies, in some cases, make use of words and actions which it would puzzle them to explain clearly, yet each of these was once full of meaning. So is it, as we have been lately taught, with the traditions of childhood. And it might be said that almost all—if not all—rhymes of the one-ery, two ery order, and all burdens such as lero, lero, lillibulero, and of the tol-de-rol kind generally, are quite intelligible and translateable. The former of these burdens, indeed, is stated to have been Irish-Gaelic.
that, so lately as 1547, the whole of the soldiery of the Scottish army at the Battle of Pinkie, were housed "in gypsy tents;"—at that time "the common building of the country,"—though now only used by the scattered Irreconcilables of the race. Is it a matter for surprise that the songs and legends of these yet un-tamed Scots are those which commemorate the deeds of those far-back days, when a large section of the people of Scotland were in customs, in blood, and in the fierceness of their disposition—"Gypsies"?
From whatever side we regard them, we see that the so-called "gypsies" of Scotland are simply Scotchmen who have fallen behind in the march of progress. This is as evident in their old-fashioned customs, language, and ideas, as it is in the marked individuality of their physical natures,—the result of their aversion to mix their blood with that of other types. But as we see the remains of the ancestral stock in the physique of the general population of Scotland, so we find kindred evidence in the surnames common throughout the country. Of these, many have already been given—such as Black, Brown, Dunn, Grey, Duff, or Dow, Dougal, Glass, Douglas, and others,—all indicative of swarthy ancestors: while others show that at one time or another, nearer or more remote, the bard or caird of an obsolete polity has become the progenitor of modernized Bairds and Cairds.
But the general character of these Scottish "Gypsies" is what stamps them so clearly as archaic Scots. They are people who are still in the swaddling-clothes of civilization—who have never outgrown the ideas that were prevalent centuries ago, but are now as dead as the dodo. They still think that "a dexterous theft or robbery is one of the most meritorious actions they can perform," just as their savage ancestors thought—whether these were called Border moss-troopers or Highland banditti.* They have not yet realized that tribal life has been out of vogue for many generations, and that Scotland developed first a national existence, and then became
* Compare Simson's "History," pp. 96 and 164, or Dr. John Brown's story of Mary Yorston (quoted at second-hand in his review of "Biggar"), with Burt's Letter xxiii., or Scott's remarks upon the Borders, or with the statutes that were enacted from time to time against fire-raising, sorning, and plundering.
identified with a newer nation still, out of which has grown a great and world-wide empire. Those wretched "gypsies" still think that a Baillie is the born enemy of a "Faa;"—though the vast majority of their kindred recognized, ages ago, that a "Scotchman" had no rightful enemy north of the Borders,—later on, that a "Briton" (to use this makeshift of a word) had no legitimate foe but a Frenchman,—later still, that it was doubtful whether he ought to have any enemy at all. And, while the general British population regards the whole world as the scene for its battles and aggrandisements,—if these must be,—these representatives of thirty generations back are incapable of looking further afield than their own parish or district; or of imagining anything more heroic than the midnight plundering of farm-yards and stables, or the commission of some act of violence and murder.*
These characteristics—even more than the obvious links of custom (such as polygamy and painting, or tattooing) that join them to the past—distinctly mark them out as the little-altered descendants of the earlier Scottish races. And, of them all, the practice of sorning is not the least emphatic. "The great distinguishing feature in the character of the gipsies (says Mr. Simson, at page 164,) is an incurable propensity for theft and robbery, and taking openly and forcibly (sorning) whatever answers their purpose. A Gipsy of about twenty-one years of age, stated to me that his forefathers considered it quite lawful, among themselves, to take from others, not of their own fraternity, any article they stood in need of." These are not the ways of a straggling and disunited caste of beggars, hypothetically assumed to have entered the country in comparatively recent times. They are most visibly the evidences of bygone power, which did not require either to beg for lodging or gear; but which followed out its own royal pleasure. Not only does this custom of sorning show, by its inherent nature, that it is the right of a decayed aristocracy; but we have seen that there is actual, historical proof that the men who first (so far as we can see) practised it, were
* Probably an acquaintanceship with modern "Scottish Gypsies" would convince one that these remarks do not apply to those of the present day. They bear more exactly upon the period chiefly spoken of by the elder Simson—say, eighty years ago.
the nobles of the territory—Irish or Scotch—wherein it was law. And of this defunct sovereignty, one is forever feeling the touch, in whatever way one examines this "Gypsy" question.
Even quite lately, they were the actual rulers of the Debatable Land. Small though that territory was, it was under their sway. And men are yet living who can remember how this or that "moss," or moor-land was virtually possessed by the intractable "gypsies" that haunted it;—unless, momentarily, if a military or constabulary force should happen to be present. Last century, we see them in several places, exacting tribute from all who would dwell peaceably within their territory; much in the same way as (though certainly in a lesser degree than) the monarchs of this or that African district will protect European traders on somewhat similar terms.* And prior to last century—and farther and farther back—we see them as armed bands, desolating whole districts, over which—earlier still—they were the nominal as well as the virtual lords.
If we take individual cases, we see again this tendency. Much weight need not necessarily be attached to the fact that, instead of being mere vagrants, under the ban of the law, the "Gypsies" of Peeblesshire were, so lately as 1772, employed as "peace officers, constables, or country-keepers." And not only in Peeblesshire. "A gipsy chief, of the name of Pat Gillespie, was keeper for the county of Fife. He rode on horseback, armed with a sword and pistols, attended by four men on foot, carrying staves and batons. He appears to have been a sort of travelling justice of the peace." The practice seems to have been general. About the commencement of the late French war, a man of the name of Robert Scott (Rob the Laird,) was keeper for the counties of Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh."† But, if not very significant, these
* Only in these African cases the representatives of modern civilization are numerically few; whereas, at so recent a date as last century, the peaceably-disposed section of the community formed a distinct majority, and, had it been necessary, could have stamped out the "black-mail" banditti in a month. But partly from the dis-united character of the general population, partly from sheer laziness, and partly for the sake of peace, the lairds, farmers, and others continued (as we have seen) to tacitly acknowledge—by the yearly payment of "black" tribute—the right of "gypsy" chiefs to assert their sovereignty over various districts.
† Simson, pp. 218 and 343-4; also pp. 253-4.
statements are, at least, quite in accordance with the belief that "gypsies," have not always been degraded outlaws. Nor are they at variance, either, with other remarks of Mr. Simson's as to the social accomplishments formerly possessed by "gypsies,"* who—in dress, in manners, and in education—were distinctly entitled to be ranked as "gentlemen." Such men, for example, as Alexander Brown, of the Lochgellie band; the Fifeshire gypsy, Charles Wilson; and, pre-eminently, William Baillie,—of whom Mr. Simson's great-grandfather, "who knew him well, used to say that he was the handsomest, the best dressed, the best looking, and the best bred man he ever saw." This "Captain" Baillie appears to have been quite an ideal "knight of the road:" "the stories that are told of this splendid gypsy are numerous and interesting." Mr. Simson's conjectures as to his pedigree are very conflicting. At one time, he tells us that he was "taken notice of by the first in the land," because he gave himself out to be a natural son of one of the Baillies of Lamington; at another, that he was "in all probability, a descendant of Towla Bailyow," one of those who rebelled against John the Pict, "Lord and Earl of Little Egypt," in the reign of James V. of Scotland. If, therefore, his surname came to him from his reputed father, this William Baillie, though a chief of the very highest gypsy rank, was not "in all probability" a descendant of Towla Bailyow, or Baillie. But, as these Bail-yows, or Baillies, as a clan, were once the most powerful of their race, the likelihood is that this eighteenth-century Baillie was the representative of this ancient stock. Had his title to consideration been a bastard connection with a family of merely local power, and of Modern, or Norman, or Feudal descent (socially), he could not have been looked up to, on that account, by the general population;—and he certainly could not have been, on that account, regarded—as he was—by all the gypsies of Scotland as belonging to their very highest caste.
These Baillies, or Bailyows, will be spoken of again. But the point at present to be attended to is the former high social position of Scottish "Gypsies." Although landless, generally, it will be seen that, in many cases, they were dis-
* Simson, pp. 149-50, 157, 199, 202, 213-215.
tinguished by titles of respect. William Baillie was "Captain" and "Mr." Baillie; Robert Scott, the peace officer, was "Rob the Laird;" while a third, Mr. Walker, of Thirkstane, Yetholm, was a veritable "laird." Earlier than these, "Johnny Faw," who ran away with the Countess of Cassilis, was, according to one account, "a gallant young knight, a Sir John Faa of Dunbar;"* and that John Faw, or John the Pict, who is spoken of in an act of James V. as "Lord and Earl of Little Egypt," is also referred to in McLaurin's Criminal Trials as "this peer;" and is stated to have been possessed of "divers sums of money, jewels, clothes and other goods, to the quantity of a great sum of money." Old William Faa, who died 1783-4, "persisted to the last that he himself was the male descendant, in a direct line, from the Earl of Little Egypt," and though he does not appear to have claimed that title, he was the acknowledged head of the Yetholm bands; and, at his funeral, it is said that "his corpse was escorted betwixt Coldstream and Yetholm by above three hundred asses." Whether this "Little Egypt" was situated within the bounds of modern Scotland may be doubted—although there are two Egypts in that country at the present day. But, at any rate, this particular Faw—he of whom McLaurin speaks as "this peer"—was acknowledged in all seriousness as the bearer of that title, both by his suzerain, James V., King of Scots, and also, in 1553, in a writ of Mary, Queen of Scots:† having been quite plainly
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. I. p. 606. The Earl of Cassilis is said to have overtaken his fugitive wife at "a ford over the Doon, still called 'the gypsies' steps,' a few miles from the Castle." (This name may be regarded as another form of "the Black Ford.") It is stated that the incident of her flight has been worked into a piece of tapestry, "which is said still to be preserved at Culzean Castle," in which she is represented "mounted behind her lover, gorgeously attired, on a superb white horse, and surrounded by a group of persons who bear no resemblance to a band of gipsies." The tapestry may or may not be a representation of this event; but it would be curious to learn the ideas of the writer just quoted, regarding the outward appearance of the Scottish "gypsy" of two hundred and fifty years ago.
† The founder of this dynasty of Kings and Queens "of Scots" was himself a Norman, and it is likely that for several generations after the Norman Conquest of Britain the successful race still remained on the surface, little affected by the strata underneath (although by the time of Charles II., as we have noticed, they had reverted to a "gypsy" type, whether through his French mother, or by earlier alliances). But there is nothing inconsistent in a "King of Scots" regarding an
regarded as a man of rank by both these monarchs. Another gypsy earldom, and a rather disagreeable one, is that of "Earl of Hell." It seems that it is quite "a favourite title among the Tinklers,"—and that it is also to be met with in modern Burmah. This title is—or has lately been—borne by a borderer of the name of Young; and it was also attached to a celebrated "gypsy," or "dubh-glas," of the Lochmaben district, otherwise known as "Little Wull Ruthven"—his tribe, the Ruthvens, being famous in "gypsy" annals. One of those "Earls of Hell" bore, according to Mactaggart, the alternative title of "Laird o' Slagarie," and his mansion was apparently at Auchenhoul, presumably in Kirkcudbrightshire. Although the Galloway writer states that he was "one of the wildest wretches ever known in the world," he does not call either him or his friends, Black Jock and Major Gaw, by the title of "Gypsy":* though it is probable that all these would not have been mis-named, had he done so. Here again, we have, as in the case of Mr. Walker of Thirkstane, a modern example of the "laird" who is both "laird" and "gypsy,"—and it is likely that the family-name of this proprietor of Slagarie and Auchenhoul (for Mactaggart writes of these places as having an actual geographical existence) is known to those acquainted with the annals of Galloway. Yet another "gypsy" who is visibly a man of good birth—though of decayed fortune—is the "caird" or tinker, described in Dr. John Brown's sketch of a Jacobite Family. Dr. Brown says of this man, John Gunn, that he, "had come of gentle blood, the Gunns
"Egyptian" chief with a certain amount of favour; for the Early Scots, it will be remembered, were "Egyptians" in name, in colour, and in certain customs, of which the use of hieroglyphics is one. We saw that, fully a century after James V., a "Scot" was regarded (in Edinburgh) as synonymous with a "mosser," or "thief," or "gypsy," and that (Simson, p. 113), in 1612, the modernized and hybrid aristocracy of the clan Scott were obliged to "cut" that section of their kindred that still adhered to the ancestral customs of thieving and murdering, which customs had been voted vulgar by the ruling class of the country.
* Probably for a reason indicated in the above note. "Gypsy" had long been an opprobrious term, and the purest-blooded members of that race having been long dispossessed of their lands, a "gypsy" was almost always a vagabond. Therefore, the few that did retain something of their ancient power were not likely to be identified with "gypsies."
of Ross-shire." He was Captain of a band of Cairds that "for years levied black mail over the county of Aberdeen;" and, although latterly he occupied the modest position of domestic servant in the "Jacobite family" written of, he continued to retain "his secret headship of the Cairds, . . . . using this often in Robin Hood fashion, generously, for his friends." Now, if "gentle" blood means—as it is conventionally held to mean—the blood of a ruling race, this John Gunn, being of the North-Scottish Gunns, had inherited "gentle" blood. For that tribe was at one time dominant in Gallibh (pronounced Galliv, a variety of Galloway and Galway); as Caithness used to be called, on account of its settlement by Galls, or foreigners. Those Gunns are believed by some to be descended from Olave the Black, who was the Prince, or Leod of Man and the South Hebrides in the thirteenth century, and who was evidently, by blood, a dubh-gall. The name of Gunn, or Gun, is said to be the same as the Welsh Gwynn and the Manx Gawn. If so, it is probably the same as the Scotch Gawain (pronounced Gawn), Gavin, Gowan, Gove, Gow, and, perhaps, Cowan—which names, Mr. Cosmo Innes has said, and with reason, are probably varieties of the Gaelic Gobha, or Gobhainn. If sprung from the black Leod of Man (who, by the way, would connect them with Hebridean Macleods and Welsh Lloyds) the Gunns of Gallibh might well have a descendant who was, by blood, well fitted to lead a band of eighteenth century "gypsies." And, that such was his ancestry, is very probable. For the racial characteristics are everywhere the same. Whether we look at John Gunn and his swarthy comrades levying blackmail throughout Aberdeenshire; or at his savage ancestors exacting Dane-gelt, or "the tribute of the blacke armie," many centuries earlier; we see the same fierce, piratical race. Or, if we examine the accounts regarding the Gunn sept of that race, during the intervening period, we learn that "the long, the many, the horrible encounters which happened between these two trybes,"—the Gunns and the Sliochd-Iain-Abarach, or the Seed of Abarach John,*—"with the blood-
* This Abarach John was the second son of Black Angus (circa 1400), chief of the race of Mackay, or Morgan. This tribe is assumed to have descended
shed and infinite spoils committed in every part of the diocy of Catteynes by them and their associats, are of so disordered and troublesome memorie," that the historian of the Earldom of Sutherland waives the details of them.* So that, in this "inveterat deidlie feud" between those two savage races, we have a northern counterpart of the immemorial warfare of the more southern Baillies and Faas. Thus John Gunn, in being the Captain of an eighteenth-century league of "gypsies," proved himself to be a true representative of the Gunn tribe,—just as the "gypsies" of the Debatable Land showed themselves to be genuine Graemes,—or as the "Gypsies" of Galloway are undoubtedly the purest Douglasses of Galloway: (though, in these, and in many other instances, such surnames have come down to men who—as often as not—also inherit the blood of the founder; but whose ancestors have, in each successive generation, laid themselves open to receive the culture of their time, and have not hesitated to ally themselves with other races;—by these means modifying and almost wholly transforming the parent type.) And, if John Gunn as a typical Gunn was a typical Gypsy, he fully bore out—in either aspect—the etymology of his name. For, if the word Gunn be really another spelling of Manx Gawn, and Scotch, or English Gawain,—the meaning of which is found in Gaelic dictionaries,—then "Gunn" is simply an equivalent of "Caird." Since Gobhainn (pronounced, variously, Gawn'n, from the earlier races of Caithness, prior to the Black-Danish invasion, according to one account: and the word Morgan is perhaps identical with Moryan, which in sixteenth-century Britain signified a "Moor," and was applied to more than one black-skinned Briton of that period. Their name of Siol Mhorgan, or race of Morgan seems also to point to a later Danish origin. The Morgans of Wales (says Mr. Wirt Sikes) believe their surname to be derived from a word signifying "the sea," from which they themselves came. This reminds one that all the words relating to the Mauri, Moors, Morrows, Moravienses or Moray-men, suggest the same origin; and that the words signifying morass or marsh, like the thing they denote, seem to be the outcome of (Cornish and Armorican) mor, (Gaelic) muir, (Latin) mare, the sea. Which agrees with the fact that the early Mauri of Scotland were Meatae or marsh-dwellers. Now, the radical meaning of Abarach is "marshy." So that Abarach John is twice connected with the marsh-dwellers: both as Abarach and as Morgan. (It is immaterial whether his home was Loch-abar or Strath-'n-abhair: either signifies a marshy situation.) The Morgans of Wales and of Caithness may, therefore, have sprung from any sea-faring or marsh-dwelling people at or before the era of the Black Danes.
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. II. p. 385.
Govan, Gavin, and Gawn) and Ceard (pronounced Caird) are synonyms for "smith" or "tinker."
Thus, these desultory glances at the pedigrees of individual "gypsies" disclose to us that the position of the Galloway chief, Billy Marshall, is in no way unique; and they help to make us understand how—though stained with crimes that, if he had as many lives as a cat, would assuredly have hanged him at the present day—he was so respected for the vanished power of his race, that a nobleman strove for precedence at his grave, and the whole neighbourhood turned out to honour his memory. Whatever may have been the particular lineage of this Pictish chief, he was—as nearly as may be—an exact reproduction of those savage, swarthy, polygamous Picts of Galloway, whose existence as a national power may be said to have received its deathblow in the year 1455.
There is something so fascinating in the personality of this man—the latest visible specimen of the Galloway Pict—that one may be pardoned for reverting again to the consideration of his attributes; and, indeed, it seems hardly excusable to content one's-self with a mere passing reference to what is probably the most detailed account of him, published in this century,—the article, namely, that was contributed to Blackwood's Magazine by one who was personally acquainted with
* Armstrong states that the Cornish ceard (sometimes spelled keard, though this does not alter the pronunciation) signifies "an artificer" generally. This accounts for the fact that a tinker is in Cornwall a tinkeard, "the original having been in all probability (says Mr. Robert Hunt) staen or ystaen-cerdd, a worker in tin." In Gaelic, ceard is so rarely used in the sense of "tradesman" or "artificer" generally, and so exclusively—almost—to denote an iron or tin worker; that it is seldom found with a complementary word specifying the variety of ceard. But a Gaelic equivalent for the Cornish staen-cerdd does exist: in the shape of ceard staoin, a tinsmith. A Tinker proper, however, is a Ceard (pronounced Caird).
It is curious that the common Scotch equivalent for Tinker—namely, Tinkler—used as far back as the twelfth century, has apparently quite a different history from Tinker, though the two words approach each other so closely.
It may be noticed also that the name of the Scottish "Earl of Little Egypt," in whose favour James IV. of Scotland granted a letter of recommendation to the King of Denmark in the year 1506, was Anthony Gavin (referred to at pp. 99 and 100 of Mr. Simson's "History"). There really seems no good reason for believing that this "Little Egypt" was situated outside of North Britain. The surname of its lord, at any rate, is one of the oldest in these islands, and—as Gawain—is familiar to every reader of the Arthurian legends.
this "tory" king. The writer of that article was a mere youth when he made Marshall's acquaintance,—and the "gypsy" patriarch was then within a few years of his death. Therefore, the particulars he gives can only be regarded as absolutely trustworthy, in so far as they relate to the short interview which he describes: as far, also, as various statements which his position, as the descendant of a Galloway family of Marshall's acquaintance—entitled him to make. In his account, as in those previously quoted, there are certain discrepancies apparent: but it must be remembered that, if Marshall actually reached the great age with which he is credited (and on this point there is wonderfully little disagreement), the chief events of his life had taken place long before his oldest biographer was born. The following are some of the statements made in the *Blackwood* article; contributed to the August number of the year 1817:
"..... I am one of an old family in the stewartry of Galloway, with whom Billy was intimate for nearly a whole century. He visited regularly, twice a year, my great-grandfather, grandfather, and father, and partook, I daresay, of their hospitality..... [The writer's great-grandmother] died at the advanced age of one hundred and four; her age was correctly known. She said that Wull Marshal was a man when she was a bitt callant (provincially, in Galloway, a very young girl). She had no doubt as to his being fifteen or sixteen years older than herself, and he survived her several years..... Billy Marshal's account of himself was this: he was born in or about the year 1666; but he might have been mistaken as to the exact year of his birth;* however, the fact never was doubted, of his having been a private soldier in the army of King William, at the battle of the Boyne. It was also well known, that he was a private in some of the British regiments which served under the great Duke of Marlborough in Germany, about the year 1705. But at this period, Billy's military career in the service of his country ended: [and the story of his desertion from
* This version, it will be seen, places his birth five years earlier than the date usually given. But the above writer is probably not far wrong when he states that "his great age never was disputed to the extent of more than three or four years: the oldest people in the country allowed the account to be correct."
the army, in order to attend Keltonhill Fair, is given much as Mactaggart gives it;—with the addition that his commanding officer was one of the family of the McGuffogs of Ruscoe] . . . . it was about this period, that, either electively, or by usurpation, he was placed at the head of that mighty* people in the south-west, whom he governed with equal prudence and talent for the long space of eighty or ninety years. Some of his admirers assert that he was of royal ancestry, and that he succeeded by the laws of hereditary succession; but no regular annals of Billy's house were kept, and oral tradition and testimony weigh heavily against this assertion. From any research I have been able to make, I am strongly disposed to think that, in this crisis of his life, Billy Marshal had been no better than Julius Cæsar, Richard III., Oliver Cromwell, Hyder Ally, or Napoleon Bonaparte: . . . . . . it was shrewdly suspected that [he] . . . . had stained his character and his hands with human blood. His predecessor died very suddenly, it never was supposed by his own hand, and he was buried as privately about the foot of Cairnsmuir, Craig Nelder, or the Corse of Slakes . . . . .
"For a great period of his long life, he reigned with sovereign sway over a numerous and powerful gang of gypsy tinkers, who took their range over Carrick in Ayrshire, the Carrick mountains, and over the stewartry and shire of Galloway; and now and then . . . they crossed at Donaghadee, and visited the counties of Down and Derry. His long reign was in the main fortunate for himself and his people. Only one great calamity befel him and them, during that long space of time in which he held the reins of government. It may have been already suspected, that with Billy Marshal ambition was a ruling passion; and this bane of human fortune had stimulated in him a desire to extend his dominions, from the Brigg end of Dumfries to the Newton of Ayr, at a time when he well knew the Braes of Glen-Nap, and the Water of Doon, to be his western precinct. He reached the Newton of Ayr, which I believe is in Kyle; but there he was
* The underlinings in these extracts are repeated from the original. It is necessary to do this in order to show that various words are used with mock gravity, though, in several instances, the italics are rather superfluous.
opposed, and compelled to recross the river, by a powerful body of tinkers from Argyle or Dumbarton. He said, in his bulletins, that they were supported by strong bodies of Irish sailors, and Kyle colliers. Billy had no artillery, but his cavalry and infantry suffered very severely. He was obliged to leave a great part of his baggage, provisions, and camp equipage, behind him; consisting of kettles, pots, pans, blankets, crockery, horns, pigs, poultry, &c. A large proportion of shelties,* asses, and mules, were driven into the water and drowned, which occasioned a heavy loss in creels, panniers, hampers, tinkers' tools, and cooking utensils; and although he was as well appointed, as to a medical staff, as such expeditions usually were, in addition to those who were missing many died of their wounds. However, on reaching Maybole with his broken and dispirited troops, he was joined by a faithful ally from the county of Down; who, unlike other allies on such occasions, did not forsake him in his adversity. This junction enabled our hero to rally, and pursue in his turn: a pitched battle was again fought, somewhere about the Brigg of Doon or Alloway Kirk; when both sides, as is usual, claimed a victory; but, however this may have been, it is believed that this disaster, which happened A.D. 1712, had slaked the thirst of Billy's ambition. He was many years in recovering from the effects of this great political error."
Before making a concluding extract from this account, it may be well to notice another episode in Marshall's life; placed at about the year 1723. During the eighteenth century, the appropriation of common-lands by the adjacent proprietors was going on all over Scotland. This—a fruitful source of litigation between rival lairds—was a course of action that was wholly unjustifiable: and, though now a grievance of too old a date for fretting over, it was resented very much at the time by those who assuredly possessed a distinct right to the use of such "commonties," though not themselves the owners, in fee, of any land whatever. We have seen that the "tories" of the Debatable Land protested most resolutely against the appropriation of their ancestral
* The small "Galloways" or "Irish hobbies" that gave to these moss-troopers the designation of "hobbylers"—at a somewhat earlier period.
territory, supporting their protest by force of arms. A similar movement took place in Galloway, about the same period. When the landed proprietors of South-Western Scotland—seeing the manifest advantage (to themselves) of extending their landmarks as widely as possible—began to build "march-dykes," or boundary-walls, across stretches of land which did not belong to them, the aggrieved parties (small farmers, cottars, and "gypsies") combined to defeat the aggrandising aims of their wealthier neighbours. Their plan of action was first suggested at the annual Fair of Keltonhill, and the prime mover in the proceedings was "the celebrated Gipsy-chief, the redoubted William Marshall." The course which he and his fellow "Levellers" followed, was simply to knock down the offending "dykes"—thus earning their temporary title of "Levellers." "Having divided themselves into companies of about fifty men, they appointed a person of suitable age or influence to each, as commander, whom they styled captain." (And, although this crowd was composed to a large extent of peaceable agriculturists, this very title of "captain," and the systematic way in which the thing was gone about, indicates strongly the supervision of the "gypsy" chief.) "The mode of their operations was this: they arranged themselves in companies along the ill-fated fence; and, their instruments of destruction* being applied to it, at the word of command, it was overthrown with shouts of exultation that might have been heard at the distance of several miles." This kind of thing appears to have gone on throughout various parts of Galloway, and so determined was the attitude of the country people that it became necessary to despatch several troops of dragoons "from Dumfries, Ayr, and even Edinburgh, to assist in terminating the disorder and apprehending the delinquents." Without discussing whether the term "delinquents" was not more applicable to those who unwarrantably transformed communal land into private freehold property,—it may be stated that after various slight skirmishes, which would have ended most seriously had it not been for the self-control and sagacity displayed by the
* "Each man was furnished with a strong kent (or piece of wood) from six to eight feet in length, which he fixed into the dyke at the approved distance from the foundation, and from his neighbour."
military, this movement was quelled; and much trouble and bloodshed was saved—though undoubtedly at the expense of equity.
The book from which this information is obtained* gives some additional particulars regarding Marshall and his clan. "Two bands of gipsies (it is stated), at this time, and for some years afterwards, infested the district (of Galloway), and occasioned great loss to the inhabitants, by constantly committing all sorts of depredations. One of them, headed by Isaac Miller, acted as fortune-tellers, tinkers, and manufacturers of horn spoons; but they lived chiefly by theft. The other, commanded by William Baillie,+ represented themselves as horse dealers: but they were in reality horse stealers and robbers. William Marshall, commonly called Billy Marshall, belonged to the first-mentioned party; but having killed his chief, at Maybole, who he considered was on terms of too much intimacy with his wife or mistress, Billy entered the army.‡ He afterwards returned, however, and followed his former calling."
From the same source we learn that, in the year 1732, "Margaret and Isabell Marshall," with others of the same kind, were brought before the quarter sessions for the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, "as being vagrant people of no certain residence, guilty of theft, pickery, and sorners and oppressors of the country, and so common nauseances, and therefore ought to be punished in terms of the acts of parliament made against sorners, vagrants, Egyptians, &c." The two male prisoners (one of whom was John Johnstone, the Annandale chief, who was afterwards hanged at Dumfries; as Mr. Simson incidentally mentions), "acknowledge that they kept two durks or hangers that they had for defending of their
* Mackenzie's "History of Galloway," in which, at pages 401–3, 433–4, and 493 (note) of Vol. II., there are various statements made regarding Marshall or his kindred.
† As Mr. Simson states that the Baillies were the chiefs-paramount of all the Scottish "gypsies," this William Baillie could only have been present in Marshall's territory as a sovereign, not as a rival chieftain.
‡ The Blackwood writer places the murder of his predecessor after his desertion from the army. And this version is more likely to be correct than the one just quoted above, since the place of chief was rendered vacant by the deed. Apparently, then, this Isaac Miller was "King of the Galloway gypsies" in the beginning of the eighteenth century.
persons." All these prisoners were sentenced "to be burnt on the cheeks severally, by the hand of the common hangman, and thereafter to be severally whipped on their naked shoulders, from one end of the Bridge-end of Dumfries to the other by the hangman," and after this punishment to be banished out of the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright "for ever." That these Marshalls were related to the chief of their clan is quite likely. There is no doubt, whatever, regarding Anne Gibson, "daughter of William Marshall, the gipsy and robber who had long harassed Galloway,"—who was transported to "his Majesty's plantations," in the year 1750. Nor is there doubt, either, as to the ancestry of "'Black Matthew Marshall,' grandson of the said chieftain," who is referred to in Blackwood (Sept. 1817). But the "prodigiously numerous" descendants of this celebrated "Galloway" scarcely merit attention.
The first—and only—occasion on which the Blackwood contributor saw his redoubtable fellow-countryman, is described in these words:—
"The writer of this, in the month of May, 1789, had returned to Galloway after a long absence: he soon learned that Billy Marshal, of whom he had heard so many tales in his childhood, was still in existence. Upon one occasion he went to Newton-Stewart, with the late Mr. McCulloch of Barholm, and the late Mr. Hannay of Bargaly, to dine with Mr. Samuel McCaul. Billy Marshal then lived at the hamlet or clachan of Polnure, a spot beautifully situated on the burn or stream of that name; we called on our old hero, he was at home, he never denied himself, and soon appeared; he walked slowly, but firmly towards the carriage, and asked Mr. Hannay, who was a warm friend of his,* how he was? Mr. Hannay asked if he knew who was in the carriage? He answered, that his eyes 'had failed him a gude dale;' but added, that he saw his friend Barholm, and that he could see a youth sitting betwixt them, whom he did not know. I was introduced and had a gracious shake of his hand. He told
* This friendship had an odd beginning; for one of the stories told (by Sir Walter Scott) of Billy Marshall relates to a highway robbery committed by him on "the Laird of Bargally," who, no doubt, was either this Mr. Hannay or his predecessor.
me I was setting out in life, and admonished me to 'tak care o' my han', and do naething to dishonor the gude stock o' folk that I was come o'; he added, that I was the fourth generation of us he had been 'acquaint wi'. Each of us paid a small pecuniary tribute of respect,—I attempted to add to mine, but Barholm told me he had fully as much as would be put to a good use. We were returning the same way, betwixt ten and eleven at night, . . . . the moon shone clear, and all nature was quiet, excepting Polnure burn, and the dwelling of Billy Marshall,—the postillion stopt . . . . and turning round with a voice which indicated terror, he said, 'Gude guide us, there's folk singing psalms in the wud!' My companions awoke and listened,—Barholm said, 'psalms, sure enough;' but Bargaly said 'the deil a bit o' them are psalms.' We went on, and stopt again at the door of the old king: we then heard Billy go through a great many stanzas of a song, in such a way that convinced us that his memory and voice had, at any rate, not failed him; he was joined by a numerous and powerful chorus. It is quite needless to be so minute as to give any account of the song which Billy sung; it will be enough to say, that my friend Barholm was completely wrong, in supposing it to be a psalm; it resembled in no particular, psalm, paraphrase, or hymn. We called him out again,—he appeared much brisker than he was in the morning: we advised him to go to bed; but he replied, that 'he didna think he wad be muckle in his bed that night, they had to tak the country in the morning' (meaning, that they were to begin a ramble over the country), and that they 'were just takin a wee drap drink to the health of our honours, wi' the lock siller we had gi'en them.' I shook hands with him for the last time,—he then called himself above one hundred and twenty years of age!"
How long he continued to live in this retreat does not appear, but he is said to have died in the town of Kirkcudbright (which lies about twenty miles to the south-east of Polnure), three years and a half after the meeting recorded above, on the 28th of November, 1792. The circumstances of his burial have already been related; but a slightly different version must be referred to here. This version not only states that "he subsisted in his extreme old age by a
pension from Dunbar, Earl of Selkirk," but it adds that "Lord Daer attended his funeral as chief mourner, to the churchyard of Kirkcudbright, and laid his head in the grave."* Instead of the Earl of Selkirk himself, we have here his second son, the "noble youthful Daer" who entertained Burns. And this statement is a flat contradiction of Mactaggart's account; whether we take Lord Daer or his father as having been "chief mourner." Mactaggart, it will be remembered, affirms that the gypsy king "was buried in state by the Hammer-men, which boay would not permit the Earl of Selkirk to lay his head in the grave, merely because his Lordship was not one of their incorporated tribe." One would think that, even at this date, it would be no very difficult matter to ascertain which is the correct version.
Scott states that the grave of this savage chief was within the church of Kirkcudbright: others say, the church-yard. As the present building is of modern date, and built on a new site, it is possible that Marshall's grave was situated within the precincts of the old church. But if the "armorial bearings" upon his tombstone were sculptured shortly after his burial, it seems plain that that stone did not form a portion of the flagged pavement of the church. For these emblems are cut upon the reverse side of the stone, which is now standing erect. This is only worth referring to for the reason that to be buried within the walls of a church was apparently a special honour paid only to the memory of men of consideration, in former times; the rank and file being relegated to the churchyard itself. Be this as it may, the tombstone of this "Tinkler" chief is still to be seen in the churchyard of Kirkcudbright, remounted on a modern base (evidently by the hands of those of his kindred, whose remains, after lives of less famous but of more honourable
* Mackenzie's "History of Galloway," Vol. II. p. 403 (note). One of the facts given in this book—namely, that Marshall killed his chief at Maybole in Ayrshire—is taken from the "Life of James Allan." Another reference to Marshall, in this "History of Galloway," is the following extract from Chalmers's "Caledonia":—"William Marshall, a tinker, died in Kirkcudbright on the 28th of November, 1792, in the 120th year of his age." And the only additional reference I have encountered is the announcement of his death in the Scots Magazine of December, 1792—"[Nov.] 28, at Kirkcudbright, aged 120, William Marshall, tinker. He was a native of the parish of Kirkmichael, Ayrshire."
description, are lying beside his). The inscription on his gravestone is simply this:
THE REMAINS OF
WILLIAM MARSHALL,
TINKER, WHO DIED
28th Nov! 1792,
At the advanced age of
120 YEARS.
And on the back, rudely carved, are the two ram’s-horns and “cutty-spoons” crossed, of which Scott and others speak.
The Blackwood writer sums up the character of his hero in words that echo the sentiments expressed by Mactaggart and by Scott:—“It is usual for writers to give the character along with the death of their prince or hero: I would like to be excused from the performance of any such task as drawing the character of Billy Marshal; but it may be done in a few words, by saying that he had from nature a strong mind, with a vigorous and active person; and that, either naturally or by acquirement, he possessed every mental and personal quality which was requisite for one who was placed in his high station, and who held sovereign power over his fellow creatures for so great a length of time: I would be glad if I could, with impartiality, close my account here; but it becomes my duty to add, that (from expediency, it is believed, not from choice,) with the exception of intemperate drinking, treachery, and ingratitude, he practised every crime which is incident to human nature, those of the deepest dye, I am afraid, cannot with truth be included in the exception; in short, his people met with an irreparable loss in the death of their king and leader; but it never was alleged, that the moral world sustained any loss by the death of the man.”
The poetical effusions with which Mactaggart concludes his references to the gypsy king do not throw much additional light upon the subject. In these, various allusions are made to certain of Marshall’s most notable points—those, at least, which latterly distinguished him and his kind from their more “respectable” neighbours; to his many drinking-bouts, to his cudgel-fights, to his amorous nature, and to the
annual gathering of all the Galloway gypsies, with their "wallets and cuddies" [asses], at the great fair of Keltonhill, beside the old town of Carlingwark, now known under its modern name of Castle-Douglas. And, like the writer quoted above, Mactaggart recognizes in Marshall the last real leader of the gypsies of Galloway:
"The duddy deils, in mountain glen,
Lamenteth ane and a' man;
For sic a king they'll never ken,
In bonny Gallowa man."
The author of the Gallovidian Encyclopedia is the only one who tells us that Marshall was of an old Galloway stock, for the Blackwood contributor throws doubt upon his claims to an ancestral right to the chiefship; although it may be noted that he proves "Wull Marshall" to have been a somebody during his earliest manhood. This Blackwood writer —himself, presumably, of good descent—states that this distinguished gypsy "visited regularly, twice a year" his own ancestors as far back as the time of his great-grandfather, at which date Marshall cannot have been older than thirty or thereabouts; and the same writer mentions that his great-grandmother knew him when she was "a very young girl," Marshall being her senior by fifteen or sixteen years;—that is to say, he was a well-known personage at that period. The fact that he was in a position to sorn upon a country gentleman twice a year, "partaking of his hospitality," (and in return respecting the belongings of his host) speaks for itself. But the other statements of this writer are sufficient to prove his early celebrity. Since they place the date of his "accession" at the very beginning of the eighteenth century, and record his famous battle near the Water of Doon as having taken place in the year 1712. These facts, however, do no more than show that he reached his height at an early date. Mactaggart speaks much more distinctly as to his antecedents. He tells us that "he was of the family of the Marshalls, who have been tinklers in the south of Scotland time out of mind." This, a local tradition, given to us by a local man,—is worthy of some consideration. If it be true that his people were known by the name of Marshall for
very many generations (and this is pretty clearly what Mac-
taggart means to convey), then any one attempting to trace
his pedigree would not require to regard him as the descen-
dant of men bearing such surnames as Heron or Douglas,
along with the office of Marshall, as was suggested. His
own surname is enough of itself.
There were really Marshalls in Galloway at an early date:
one finds them on the surface. Among those Scotchmen
who swore fealty to Edward I. in the year 1296, there was
a certain lord of Toskerton, in Galloway, dictus marescallus,
miles, "at other times called John le Mareschal de Toskerton,
who held the land of Toskerton, in that shire . . . and who
was forfeited by Robert I." ("Bruce"). This was most likely
the "John Mareschal" and "John le Mareschal, knight,"
who appears as the recipient of wages due to him by
Edward III. of England, for services rendered to that
monarch, during the first half of the fourteenth century.*
From which it becomes probable that this John Marshall
was one of those very "Galloways" who sought to check
the career of Bruce, during his struggle for the monarchy.
The forfeiture of his lands by Bruce, and the fact that he
(for we may reasonably assume that it was he) was in the
pay of the English king afterwards; this English king being
the sworn foe of the Brucean dynasty—argues strongly in
support of this belief. If he was himself a "Galloway" by
blood, he was then a Pict, or dubhglass, or Moor, or gypsy. The
languages used in designating him give no clue whatever to
his race. But when we hear it said that the Marshalls of
Galloway, represented last century by the "little dark-grey
man," of whom we have been speaking, had been "Tinklers"
in that neighbourhood "time out of mind," and when we
remember that the "Tinklers of Galloway" (to use the com-
monest Scotch equivalent of "gypsy," or "Moor," or "Pict,")
were the relentless foes of Bruce; and that this fourteenth-
century Galwegian leader, John Marshall, was throughout,
one of Bruce's most consistent enemies—aiding the English
king after his own lands had been forfeited as the penalty of
his opposition; then the probability that the Marshall of
* Mackenzie's "History of Galloway," Vol. I. pp. 198 and 294. At either
page the facts are taken from Chalmers's "Caledonia."
the fourteenth century, like him of the eighteenth, was a Pict, Moor, or Gypsy of Galloway, becomes very great. And it is quite likely that William Marshall, born 1671, was a lineal descendant of this John Marshall, born in the thirteenth century. There would be less reason for believing this if it were not for the fact that, although used to denote an office, then and subsequently—the word "Marshall" appears to have adhered as a surname to this particular lord of Toskerton. Although previously styled "John le Mareschal," on more than one occasion, the last reference made to him (1346-7) speaks of "John Mareschal;" not "John the Marshall" nor "John of Toskerton," but simply "John Marshall." Wherefore, one may fairly assume that his male descendants continued to bear that designation, as a surname.
It is curious to reflect upon the fact, already noticed, that the word "marshall," is etymologically considered, almost a synonym for "gypsy." We have seen that "gypsies" are or were most notable horse-dealers and farriers: and that a "marshall" has been a "farrier," in France and Britain. Sometimes the word was amplified into "horse-marshall." The exact meaning must have been unknown to those who used this expression: since a "marshall" was a marah-chal, or "horse-fellow."* (Of which compound word, the first portion survives in our English mare, and the word chal is still used to denote "a man," among our "tory" classes.) This word "marshall," in more than one of its meanings, would thus be a very appropriate designation of those "travelling justices of the peace," referred to by Mr. Simson, who supervised certain districts of Scotland, so recently as last century, who were mounted men, and "gypsies." A specimen of these was seen in the Fifeshire "gypsy" chief, Gillespie, who "rode on horseback, armed with a sword and pistols attended by four men on foot, carrying staves and batons." Such men were styled "peace-officers," "constables," and "country-keepers." One of these names,
* "The 'Ingliiss hors Marschael' often occurs in the [Scottish] Treasurer's Accounts: 1498, April 22, 'Item, gifsin be the Kingis command to the Ingliiss hors Merchael, to hele the broun geldin, 18s.'" (Note to Kennedy's "Flying"; Patterson's edition of Dunbar's poems.) See also Skeat's "Etymological Dictionary."
"constable," is compared by Mr. Skeat to "marshal," in the fluctuations it has experienced. Both have been used to denote men of the highest rank: both are now used (in America and in the British Islands) to denote the less exalted office of "policeman," though in France "marshal" is still held in great esteem. In the Scotland of last century, such a "constable" as this Fifeshire chief assuredly held a position much above that of a "constable" of to-day. There is, in fact, no modern British official who can be regarded as his equivalent. And it may be that the "gypsy" Gillespie represents a still higher function, in remoter times. If such hypothetical officials were those known to history as the "marshals" of this or that district, and if they were of the same race as those eighteenth-century "travelling justices of the peace," then such officials, marshals and constables, were selected from the "gypsy" races. If the central government of Scotland desired to keep the mosstrooping gypsies in check, it is certain that no better peace-officers could be found than those mosstroopers who were loyal to the crown.
There is less of speculation in the consideration of the word "Tinkler." For we know that the twelfth-century "Tinklers" were recognized by William the Lion as forming a distinct portion of the population of North Britain. Like marshal and constable, tinkler has deteriorated during the lapse of time. Whether it is still the common Scotch term for a "gypsy," or whether that word, and "tinker," are now more generally used; it is pretty evident that no one wishing to do honour to the memory of a famous leader would put "Tinker" on his tombstone,—as was done at Kirkcudbright in 1792. It is a difficult thing for men of this generation to realise that Scotch "tinkers" were feared by the farming and labouring classes, and entertained by landed gentry of the highest rank (sometimes unwillingly), only a hundred and fifty years ago. And that these "nobles and gentlemen" paid a yearly tribute to such people; either in the form of money, or by giving them and their followers house-room and food whenever they chose to demand it.
The real explanation can be nothing but this. That these nomadic sorners were decayed Sorohen, or nobles; that they
represented a system that ante-dated the polity under which these modern squires and nobles had gradually grown into power: that that ancient system—founded upon force—had not yet, a hundred and fifty years ago, subsided into what we should now call its proper level: and that the newer system, "the reign of law," was not yet powerful enough to assert itself completely, in the face of force. That is what "black mail" signified: that must be the true position of those to whom that tribute was paid.
Even in William Marshall's brief existence (for the longest life seems short when one tries to measure the life of societies), we can see the indications of this tendency—the setting of the one star and the growing splendour of the other. When he was living in his little cottage at Polnure, content to accept as a favour the gifts that he would once have forcibly taken as a right, addressing as "your honour" men of a class which he once counted beneath his own, all his following compressible into the narrow limits of his cottage-walls, his greatest exploit the robbery of a farm-yard or a hen-roost, Billy Marshall was hardly one remove above the common "blackguard" of to-day. But eighty years earlier? When he was at the head of a powerful confederacy that terrorized all the peaceable agriculturists and townsfolk of Galloway; when he exercised an absolute sway over such outlaws "from the Briggend of Dumfries to the Braes of Glen-Nap and the Water of Doon;" when he could quarter himself and his own immediate followers, wives, mistresses, and kinsmen, upon any of the "nobility and gentry" of that territory, without fear of opposition; when, although known to be guilty of innumerable robberies and murders, no man presumed to have him brought to justice; when, backed by a powerful force of painted savages, mounted, armed, and equipped as completely as any Tartar tribe on the war-path, he encountered an opposing force on the banks of the Doon, and fought a battle as important (if we count by bloodshed) as many that we now think worth chronicling in our newspapers—what was this "Tinker Chief" then? He was something—or, at least, he represented something—that was vastly greater than the largest lordship in Galloway. He was either landless, or he was the greatest land-lord in that
territory. If his own forefathers had ever possessed a parchment-right to any estate there, that estate had passed away from them in the days of Bruce. The Marshall-Picts had become "gypsies" a century and a half before the Douglas-Picts. What his position by descent was, is uncertain; but there is no doubt as to what it was in effect. If you look at a map of Scotland, you will see what the boundaries, beyond which, "he well knew," he ought not to pass, really signifies. "From the Briggend of Dumfries" means from the present town of Maxwellton, the western bank of the river Nith. "To the Braes of Glen-Nap and the Water of Doon" defines his limits on the West—the ocean, and on the North-west the northern extremity of the district of Carrick. And the country so bounded is the province of Galloway, as it existed after the twelfth century*—say, after the Norman conquest of Scotland. Outside of this province, the Picts of Galloway knew they had no right to go: that, if they tried to enlarge their boundaries, they were invading a foreign country and must fight their way. That they did try to do this, under Marshall's leadership, we have seen, and with what result.
If "Billy Marshall," when he came of age, in the year 1692, had taken to civilized courses, and had become "a respectable member of society," it is probable that his descendants would now occupy a position of eminence, with all their alliances duly entered in the stud-books, and the family-pedigree so clearly printed that no one could question its authenticity. But he did not do so. He preferred to live the wild marauding life of his forefathers, at that time still followed by many thousand British people. Instead of going with the tide, as he ought to have done, he stood still. He was a tory, as that word was then understood. And, as his natural powers were almost incredibly strong, he lived through a period of changes that affected him and his kind to a tremendous extent. He lived to see the practices that, in
* Galloway-after-the-twelfth-century is commonly defined as consisting of the modern counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. But Marshall's province takes in also the district of Carrick—the southern portion of Ayrshire. And, on the strength of this fact, though it savours of "begging the question," I am inclined to think that Carrick ought to be counted a part of Modern Galloway, and that it has only been omitted through a loose fashion of expressing Galloway by modern counties.
his boyhood, had been condoned and even practised by men of rank, placed in the catalogue of crimes. To kill a man, or to steal a horse, was a small matter in seventeenth-century Galloway; at the close of the eighteenth century the man who did either of these things was a criminal. When young Marshall "took the country" at the head of a powerful body of mosstroopers, he was simply a Border Chief of a type that was then becoming old-fashioned; when Marshall the patriarch—never altering, to the very end of his life—started off with his meagre band on such an expedition, after a night of drinking and unholy songs, he and his comrades were nothing better than a gang of outcasts and thieves. And it is because his biographers have persisted in regarding him in the light of modern times, never thinking how Marshall would have fitted into the social life of 1692, that these writers—and others like them—have seen nothing but what was ludicrous in the "gypsy's" claims to rank, and that of the highest kind. Such men—no doubt without intending it—take up precisely the position of the British snob who regards all the natives of India as so many "damned niggers;" although it was only by dint of being very polite to such "niggers" that we gained a footing in Hindostan. Because the Red Indian of America is merely a "gypsy" in certain States of the Union, is one to deny the historical fact that a century ago he was the ruler of these districts, in whose eyes the wandering white trader was the "gypsy"? Philip, the Pokanoket chief—to take an example more near the time we are speaking of—was a real power in the New England of 1676, and a terror to half the colony; but if he had lived, on the scene of his old exploits, to witness the Declaration of Independence, what "power" would there have been remaining to him? If he had then been rash enough to take the life of a colonist, he would simply have been treated as a malefactor. In his day-to-day existence, he would have found it necessary to work, or steal, or beg; and any assertion on his part of vanished greatness would have been received with an incredulous smile by men of newer growth and unacquainted with the history of him and his tribe. To judge Marshall by what he was in 1792, is to form a very imperfect idea of what he must have been a century earlier.
VOL. II.
Setting aside his claims to high descent—which seem to have been disputed—it is enough to gauge Will Marshall by the rank he actually held for eighty or ninety years, by whatever token his right to that position had been admitted by his fellow-countrymen. And his position, as understood by himself and his followers, was this: he had no equal in the whole of Galloway. Farmers and farm-labourers and shopkeepers were nobodies in the estimation of the Galloway "gypsies;" and the "landed gentry" were so many vassals whose duty it was to furnish them with food and lodging when required, on peril of incessant trouble by robbery and murder. To men who lived after the old fashion, these "aristocrats," though no doubt of their own stock (in many cases) were only half-gentlemen. The Border "gypsy" regarded farmers with unbounded contempt; and farmer-lords were only a degree higher. All these people—sedentary people, civilized people as we now recognize them—were only there to be plundered and "sorned" upon. The deeds by which these landowners held their estates were worthless in the eyes of the Galloway Pict, whose only title was the strong arm. Until they began to encroach too much upon the uncultivated country, and to build walls across common-lands, these peaceable agriculturists and traders might live according to their own fashion, and transfer, or pretend to transfer, the land from one to another. But let no one attempt to enter Galloway by force! Parchments and other legal procedures were harmless enough; but forcible invasion of their territory by outside "gypsies" was an affair of another order. That large communities of men could continue to live an archaic life, quite blind to the march of progress as seen in other communities within the same territory, seems wonderful nowadays. But "gypsydom" can never be rightly understood until this possibility is admitted as an actual fact.
So that "Billy Marshall"—a landless vagabond, according to modern ideas—was really the greatest landowner in Galloway—in his own estimation and in that of his followers. While this or that nobleman possessed an estate of such and such an extent, the Gypsy Chief reigned over a territory whose limits were the limits of Galloway. And, however much he and his like had suffered by the spread of modern
civilization; and although the terms of "gypsy" and "tinker" have now become expressive of the lowest classes in our social scale; yet these Galloway marauders of last century represent the latest phase of a very ancient and powerful system. The plain little tombstone, with its simple inscription and grotesque emblems, that has been raised over the remains of "William Marshall, Tinker," in the old churchyard overlooking Kirkcudbright town, records the existence of an incorrigible old heathen, possessed, up to the last, of all the faults and all the virtues of the savage chief. Such people as he have quite fallen into disrepute throughout the British Islands. And yet no one of his contemporaries filled a position that was more intensely interesting. For this man was really nothing less than the latest representative of the Pictish lords of Galloway.
CHAPTER II.
Generally, this remembrance of ancient rank forms one of the most striking features of "gypsydom." "With British gipsies (says the writer in the 'Encyclopædia Britannica,'") one is bewildered by the host of soi-disant kings and queens, from King John Bucle, laid side by side with Athelstan in Malmesbury Abbey in 1657, down to the gipsy queen of the United States, Matilda Stanley, royally buried at Dayton, Ohio, in 1878." The two cases cited are not the most appropriate in a consideration of the Scottish divisions of the race, but the remark itself applies with equal force to Scotland. Mr. Simson refers again and again to the high "pretensions" of certain castes of North British gypsies.
That so many families claiming royal lineage should be found among our lowest classes is not astonishing. History tells us of change after change in the ruling dynasties of these islands, and of the advent of races the most varied in time and origin. During the last two thousand years enough kings and nobles have sunk from power to furnish a royal pedigree to half the population of the country. It is true that the present Royal Family, and the present aristocracy, inherit, to some extent, the blood of extinct dynasties. But only to some extent. The Prince of Wales has lawfully succeeded to various dignities; but these are of such opposite origin that they cannot possibly be typified in the person of one man. He cannot be, at the same time, a typical Prince of Wales and a typical Prince of Scotland; a genuine Duke of Cornwall and as genuine a Duke of Rothesay; a perfect specimen of the Lords of the Isles and an equally perfect Earl of Chester; he cannot be a thoroughbred Plantagenet, Stewart, Tudor, and Guelph—though a certain proportion of the blood of each may run in his veins. The circumstances that developed such titles have been matters of history for
many generations; the titles themselves are now merely so many graceful honours, attaching by right of birth to the Heir Apparent.
When, in a struggle between two factions, the one went under, the chiefs of that faction were the very last that were likely to appear in the ranks of the new aristocracy. They were either killed or outlawed. The Douglases that obtained lands and power in the latter part of the fifteenth century were not the chiefs of their race. These were hunted down and killed; or, when they managed to survive, it was only as marauding banditti, or "gypsies." So, during the civil wars that divided England at the same period, we are told that "eighty princes of the blood, and the larger proportion of the ancient nobility of the country" were slain; and that "many noble families were either extirpated on the field and the scaffold, or completely ruined." But when a family is "completely ruined," it does not cease to exist. Being landless and penniless it disappears from the sight of all "respectable" people, and the heralds very soon omit to chronicle the births and alliances of its members. But they do get born and married, nevertheless. And at what point does such a family cease to forget its ancestry? Do the "banished Duke" and his courtiers think themselves churls because their places have been usurped; or do they cease to address each other by their titles because they have to camp like gypsies in leafy Arden? And if their lost power is never regained, do they not still continue to be kings and nobles, in their own eyes? Was the posterity of the Douglas leaders likely to forget its headship of the Picts of Galloway, although the Douglas lands and honours had been given to a younger and half-breed branch, and to strangers? Were they not still, by virtue of their blood, Kings of the Faws, or dubh-glasses, of the South-West of Scotland?
It has just been said that such "banished Dukes" camped like gypsies among the woods and fastnesses. But there was more than likeness; there was identity. When such dispossessed nobles had to live from day to day, without either revenue or beeves of their own, after what fashion did they live? Fate had decreed that the deer in the forest, and the cattle in the fields were no longer theirs, legally; but it is
not to be supposed that, therefore, they starved. The idyllic life of Shakespeare's courtly outlaws may have been theirs occasionally, but they did not live from year's end to year's end singing catches "under the greenwood tree." If they were dispossessed Scottish nobles of the fifteenth century (as the black Douglases were), they would shelter themselves from the rain and snow under the covering of the turf-built, conical wigwams, or the low, half-open tents of skin, or of canvas, which were then "the common building of their country," though we now call them the habitations of "gypsies." And if these outlawed nobles were the descendants of any of the earlier *Mauri*, or "blackamoors" of Scotland, or of the later "black foreigners," as were the Galloway earls just referred to, and as were innumerable other clans of the race of "Dubh of the three black divisions," then these coteries of marauding "kings" and "dukes" were, *in every detail*, the people whom writers generally speak of as "gypsies." And, however ridiculous seemed their high-sounding titles to people who were ignorant of their history, these landless lords had once a legal right to the titles they so uselessly clung to in their degradation. The "gypsy" *rya* had been once the *ri* of Scottish history.*
The "king" of early British history, in general, was much more *regulus* than *rex*; more *riah* than *king*. With regard to North Britain more particularly, this is pointed out by Mr. Skene in various places (*e.g.*, "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. p. 343). And Northumbria, during the ninth century, was partitioned into various districts, whose rulers were certainly nothing more than *reguli*. "There is no doubt that not long before the accession of Kenneth Mac Alpin to the Pictish throne the kingdom of Northumbria seems to have fallen into a state of complete disintegration, and we find a number of
* This word *rya* is usually placed side by side with the Hindu *ravah*, with which it is almost identical. But it is almost, or altogether, the same (also) as the *ri* or *riah* of Gaelic. (The shorter spelling appears to be the earlier.) No doubt the pronunciation of this word, in Gaelic, is usually *ree*, but it is also *ry*; as in *Dal-ry* (the king's dale), of which one spelling—*Dal-a-raidhe* (Dalriada)—gives, according to Gaelic pronunciation, exactly the sound of *Dal-a-rayah*. In Gaelic also, as in "gypsy," *ri* or *rya* is rather "a kinglet," "a chief," "a gentleman," than a modern king. The many "kings" of Mr. Campbell's "West Highland Tales" could not, it is clear, have been what we understand by "king." But they were exactly like the *rya*, or chief of the "gypsies."
independent chiefs, or 'duces' as they are termed, appearing in different parts of the country and engaging in conflict with the kings and with each other, slaying and being slain, conspiring against the king and being conspired against in their turn, expelling him and each other, and being expelled. Out of this confusion, however, one family emerges who appear as lords of Bamborough and for a time govern Bernicia." ("Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. p. 373.) And we are told that "these dukes, or lords of Bamborough, seem to have had some connection with Galloway." Northumbria—a country vastly greater than modern Northumberland, since it took in South-Eastern Scotland up to the Forth—was thus, a thousand years ago, altogether given over to marauding "kings" and "dukes," who—according to Mr. Skene—were, in a great measure, Picts, that is, Faws. Therefore, the chief difference (and it is a vital one) between the Northumbria of the ninth century, as pictured by a historian of unsurpassed ability, and the Northumbria of the eighteenth century, as described by the chief historian of the Scottish gypsies, is this—that, in the ninth century, these painted tribes constituted the ruling, if not the only power within that territory, whereas in the eighteenth century the system that we call civilization had almost wholly asserted its supremacy over barbarism. It matters little, at the present moment, whether that civilization was matured by a gradually-refining aristocracy of barbarians, or by the influx of people of a newer and higher race, or by a combination of two such elements. It is enough that it was so. It is quite clear that Mr. Simson's Northumbrian "gypsydom" was virtually the wreck of Mr. Skene's Northumbrian Picticism. Or, if this is not quite clear at this juncture, it is more likely to become so as the question is more closely examined. Thus the whole of the South of Scotland (for Skene's Galloway of the ninth century is not very different from his Northumbria of the same period) was, a thousand years ago, the scene of many rival conflicts between warring tribes of Picts, or Faws. And this includes the North of England also, since Northumbria included, at least, the modern county of Northumberland, as well as a large division of Southern Scotland.
These Northumbrian chieftains were called "dukes" by
the monkish chroniclers who wrote about them. It is as well to speak of them as "dukes." We call them duces (in the singular, dux), but no one can say that they were not spoken of as dukes. If there is one thing more uncertain than another, in questions of an archaeological nature, it is this question of accent. No one can say how the word duces was enunciated in the ninth century. It is not unlikely (since we are told that veni, vidi, vici was pronounced waynie, weedie, weekie,) that these duces were spoken of as dukes. Or, perhaps, in the now obsolete accent (though it is quite a recent one, among men of good education), as dooks. At any rate, ninth-century Northumbria was distracted by the rivalries of innumerable Faw dukes, very much as eighteenth century Northumbria was, except that the latter was little more than the shadow of the former (so far as concerns the doings of this particular race).
Ninth-century Northumbria—or Galloway of the same period—is, of course, a great distance beyond the epoch of the Wars of the Roses. But the principle involved is the same. At whatever period one chooses to glance, one seen innumerable jealousies between rival tribes, or kingdoms; and, out of this turmoil of rivalry, one dynasty emerges triumphant. It may be "the lords of Bamborough" in the tenth century, or it may be the Tudors in the fifteenth,—but, at whatever time, one particular chiefship gains the ascendency over the others, and these others, whether the scene be Northumbria or England, disappear from history. But the leaders of these varying factions counted themselves "kings" quite as much as did those who eventually triumphed. History—that arch time-server—may have ignored them from the date of their final defeat, but "kings" these leaders would still hold themselves to be. And, at the remote period to which we are just now referring,—the ninth and tenth centuries, namely,—these "kings" and "dukes," of Galloway and Northumbria, were largely Picts, or Faws—that is, Gypsies.
Our popular nursery tales are full of references to such reguli; who prove, by their ways and the extent of their dominion, that their power and importance is very limited. The West Highland Tales are full, also, of such "kings":
and Mr. Campbell received a great number of those traditions from the narrations of "Tinklers." He names several. There is the King of Sorcha, and the King of Laidheann; and we have already referred to the King of Rualay. Many of such kingdoms are nameless now. Others are still well-known in Europe; and these may, or may not (as recorded in legend) point to a great antiquity. Such are the King of France, the King of Spain, the King of Greece. A title may easily be borne by a "king," long after he has left the country that gave him his right to it. Whatever their origin, there were several 'kings' and 'nobles' of this sort in fifteenth-century Scotland; as the books of the Lord High Treasurer shew. "In a 'King of Rowmais'... 'the Erle of Grece'... 'King Cristal'... and the 'King of Cipre,'" says the Encyclopædia writer, quoting from these records, "one dimly recognizes four Gipsy chiefs." And the "Lord and Earl of Little Egypt" was formally acknowledged as a "peer" in sixteenth-century Scotland.
Nothing but patience, and the critical examinations of scholars, can ever tell us who such people really were. Until the last generation or so, everything has been hearsay—or mostly so. History of the Tales-of-a-Grandfather sort has been quite content to accept everything printed as truth. Writers of that kind slump the earlier nations of Britain under such a comprehensive and vague description as "the Picts and Scots." Others tell us a little more by characterizing them as so many "black herds;" and relate how they crossed the fenny waters of the Forth basin ("the Scythian Vale,") in their skin canoes, and ravaged Wales and Southern Britain. But they tell us nothing of the titles of their chiefs. They were only the leaders of these "black herds of painted people and vagabonds,"—Picts and Scots. Such leaders,—black of skin, savage in nature, and yet possessed of the evidences of a certain civilization (having jewels, gold ornaments, chessmen of gold, of ivory, or of bone),—are confusedly remembered in the popular traditions of Wales, of the Western Highlands, and probably of other portions of the United Kingdom. And these legendary tales, in many cases, reveal those savage chieftains as the kings, or reguli, or dukes of various neighbourhoods; in the centre of which is their stronghold. As,
for example, the castle of the black "giant" Gwrnach, in the Welsh *Mabinogion*; or that of the Black Oppressor, or of the Black Knight of Lancashire; or, more historically, that of the Black Dubh-glass of Galloway—whose memory is still execrated in that territory.
Without any more remarks of a general nature, let us turn again to the consideration of the *tory* classes of Scotland, as these have figured in modern times, and regarding them under their popular designation of *gypsies* or *tinklers*. By scrutinising the person of a famous Galloway *gypsy*, we saw that, in place of his bearing out—in the history of his family and in his own characteristics—the accepted theory that such people have straggled into Britain within the last few centuries, "Billy Marshall" displayed most strongly the attributes that were the property of one or more of the earliest known inhabitants of his fatherland. Let us see if any evidence of a parallel kind can be gleaned by the consideration of any other Scottish *gypsy* of comparatively recent date.
It may be remembered that, although Marshall was the King of all the Torics in Galloway, there was some reference made to another leader, of the same kind of people and in the same territory, who was his contemporary. This man was named William Baillie, and the writer who spoke of him in this connection stated that he and his followers "represented themselves as horse dealers, but they were in reality horse stealers and robbers."
The recognition of *two* separate bands of these people, living in the same territory but acknowledging a different head, would at first sight seem antagonistic to the belief that Marshall reigned supreme over *tory* Galloway. And it really was not strictly accurate to say that that leader had no "equal" in that province. This slip may be amended by saying that he was the supreme chief of the Galloway gypsies, *when William Baillie was outside of the bounds of Galloway*. The reason for making this amendment will become apparent when we look into the statements that are made by Mr. Simson and others with regard to the Baillie sept of the Scottish "gypsies." If William Marshall, like other gypsies of equal rank, was a kinglet, or rye; William
Baillie was very much more. For he was a king, a baurie rye, a very great gentleman indeed.
Of all the modern titular nobles, described by Mr. Simson as Scottish gypsies, the head of the Baillie clan was facile princeps. There was, it is true, a perpetual rivalry between the Baillies and the Faws for the right to the "gypsy crown:" but until we can learn the pedigree of the family that was specially distinguished by this latter name (once, as we have seen, applied collectively to the Clarkes, the Winters, the Herons, and other Border tribes; and plainly signifying Pict)—it is needless to speculate upon their possible right to the supremacy. But with the Baillies it is otherwise.
So lately as the latter part of the last century, the leaders of this formidable clan were men who arrogated to themselves the rank of gentlemen, and bore themselves as such. Not "gentlemen" of the stamp that the heroine of the Wife of Bath's Tale holds up for example (and which, of course, is the highest kind), but "gentlemen" of the Roger Wildrake order; "swashbucklers;" "cavaliers."* This is seen in a story told by Mr. Simson (at page 196). "About the year 1770," he tells us, "the mother of the Baillies received some personal injury, or rather insult, at a fair at Biggar, from a gardener of the name of John Cree. The insult was instantly resented by the gipsies; but Cree was luckily protected by his friends. In contempt and defiance of the whole multitude in the market, four of the Baillies—Matthew, James, William, and John—all brothers, appeared on horseback, dressed in scarlet, and armed with broadswords, and, parading through the crowd, threatened to be avenged of the gardener, and those who had assisted him. Burning with revenge, they threw off their coats, rolled up the sleeves of their shirts to
* The word "cavalier" has only an offensive meaning nowadays when used as an adjective—the sense it then bears being "arrogant," "overbearing," "rude." It is with this shade of its meaning in view that it is used substantively above. And it is not out of place to remark that the word "rogue," which was ultimately applied to vagabonds and "gypsies," signified originally a man of a "cavalier" disposition. Mr. Skeat, in his "Etymological Dictionary," shows us that—as French rogue, and Breton rog—this word is an equivalent of "arrogant, proud, haughty, presumptuous, brusque." Therefore, "cavalier" and "rogue" can be used with equal fitness, in speaking of those sorners, masterful beggars, and such like runners about, who retarded so much the progress of civilization.
the shoulder, like butchers when at work, and, with their naked and brawny arms, and glittering swords in their clenched hands, furiously rode up and down the fair, threatening death to all who should oppose them. Their bare arms, naked weapons, and resolute looks, showed that they were prepared to slaughter their enemies without mercy. No one dared to interfere with them, till the minister of the parish appeased their rage, and persuaded them to deliver up their swords. It was found absolutely necessary, however, to keep a watch upon the gardener's house, for six months after the occurrence, to protect him and his family from the vengeance of the vindictive gipsies."
William Baillie, the grandfather of these four "gypsies," has already been spoken of. He was "well known, over the greater part of Scotland, as chief of his tribe within the kingdom." A contemporary of his has described him as "the handsomest, the best dressed, the best looking, and the best bred man he ever saw." And another writer sketches him thus:—"Before any considerable fair, if the gang were at a distance from the place where it was to be held, whoever of them were appointed to go, went singly, or, at most, never above two travelled together. A day or so after, Mr. Baillie himself followed, mounted like a nobleman—[Mr. Simson's ancestor, previously quoted, states that "he generally rode one of the best horses the kingdom could produce; himself attired in the finest scarlet, with his greyhounds following him, as if he had been a man of the first rank:"]—and, as journeys, in those days, were almost all performed on horseback, he sometimes rode, for many miles, with gentlemen of the first respectability in the country. And, as he could discourse readily and fluently on almost any topic, he was often taken to be some country gentleman of property, as his dress and manners seemed to indicate."
We shall find a parallel case to this of the Baillies (though there are many others), by looking southward to Exmoor, where, in the persons of the notorious Doones of "Badgery," precisely the same characteristics are seen. It may be convenient to refer to that clan more particularly,—but every reader of Lorna Doone is aware that they also were the dread of their district, being guilty of endless acts of murder and
rapine; that they—like other "gypsies"—were never busier than at local fairs; that they—like the Baillies—were men of proud bearing and good education; to which qualities they—like the Baillies—added the claim of high descent. And it is beyond question that such men, if found among the Royalists of the preceding century, would not have differed—in any degree—from many of their fellow-cavaliers. However dark in complexion a Baillie was, he was not likely to be swarthier than Charles II.: if he wore a gypsy love-lock, tied with a gaudy ribbon, so did his brother cavaliers: if he swaggered, and bullied, and rode through a crowd of peasants with threatening looks and a brandished sword, so would every alternate one of his comrades have done, had they fancied themselves similarly insulted: and if, by a political revolution, or by personal extravagance, such a family as the Scottish Baillies had found themselves wholly bereft of land and treasure; and, finding themselves thus, had resorted to means of violence, "enforcing a living on the common road;" they would only have acted as scores of ruined seventeenth and eighteenth-century "gentlemen" actually did. In every way, such men were tories. Their fault lay in not recognizing the changed sentiment of the times. What at one time was a common practice of the ruling classes (even of the blood-royal, if Shakespeare's Prince Henry may be taken as a true picture)—became regarded, in course of time, as criminal and disreputable. The swagger, the gay dresses, the long hair, and the life of dissipation and crime, that were inseparable concomitants of "Gypsy" life,—though latterly regarded with disfavour by men of good station, were precisely the characteristics of the nobility of an earlier age. Later on—such qualities, and the language of the classes who displayed them, received the same contemptuous name,—flash. At the present day, no one with pretensions to good-breeding would imitate the "loud" manners, and ostentatious style of dressing of the cavaliers. Nor is it nowadays counted more honourable for a reduced gentleman to live by sorning and robbery, than to follow an honest calling, however humble. So much higher is the nineteenth-century standard of gentility than that of the days of the Charleses.
Although convicted of the deliberate murder of his wife,
James Baillie—one of the four brothers that distinguished themselves at Biggar Fair—succeeded in obtaining a royal pardon, "on condition that he transported himself beyond seas within a limited time, otherwise the pardon was to have no effect." Not only did he quite ignore this condition, but, on regaining his liberty, he resumed his former brigand existence; and, three years later, he was again sentenced to be hanged. Again he was pardoned, on the same condition; and again he scouted its terms. How often, afterwards, he was imprisoned, and how often he attained his liberty, in one way or another, is not particularly stated. But the fact that a notorious thief and murderer was twice pardoned at a period (1770–5) when hanging was an everyday matter is rather startling. Or, at least, it would be startling, if we had not already remarked a similar instance in Galloway. And just as Billy Marshall lived under the protecting shield of the Selkirk influence, so had this James Baillie an advocate in the person of Mrs. Baillie, of Lamington; to whose exertions he is said to have been indebted for the pardons referred to. A third case of this kind is also quoted by Mr. Simson, the offenders being "Captain" Gordon, the head of the Spittal gypsies, and his son-in-law, Ananias Faa. "They were convicted and condemned for the crime [sheep-stealing and threatening to kill]; 'but afterwards, to the great surprise of their Berwickshire neighbours, obtained a pardon, for which, it was generally understood, they were indebted to the interest of a noble northern family, of their own name.'"
Owing to the alleged aversion to owning the charge of the possession of "gypsy" blood, one might have some diffidence in referring to particular families; at any rate, when the date under consideration is not very far removed from our own. (When the period is more remote, such remarks cease to have the slightest tinge of personality. For, even in the rare cases in which a long pedigree is authentic from end to end, it only shows one particular line of descent. An early ancestor on such a tree is equally the ancestor of thousands of other people, who may or may not be aware of their relation to him, but who, in any case, would be as well entitled as any other of his posterity to regard him as personal property.) That the taint—if taint it be—is shared by a considerable number
of people in the United Kingdom is shown by Mr. Huxley's statement, that the "dark whites" constitute the majority of our population. And if, as some gypsiologists aver—and as there is every reason to believe—genuine "gypsies," of thorough "gypsy" descent (and not merely nineteenth-century men who have lapsed), can be found without the faintest indication of "dark" blood—and yet pure "gypsies"—then the unreason and absurdity of the "gypsy" prejudice is revealed. For this would show, what everything in the foregoing pages tends to prove, that "British gypsy" is only an expression for "pagan" or "archaic Briton." And that the most a man of cultured ancestry can say is—that his people ceased to be "gypsies" at an earlier stage than some others.
But, in the particular cases at present under discussion, it is hardly necessary to say anything in the way of apology. For the names of these "gypsies," and their friends, have been public property for some time past.
Although there is no proof that the celebrated Galloway Faw was a kinsman of the Selkirk family, and perhaps the actual chief (by blood) of one of its branches, this has been inferred: with what justice may some day be ascertained. But, in the instances of "Captain" Gordon and James Baillie, it is plainly stated that the two ladies of recognized position who exerted themselves to save these two "gypsies" from the gallows, did so because they were relations. Namesakes, at any rate; and relations in the case of Baillie. It is difficult to guess at any other motive that would prompt such people to become the champions of notorious thieves and cut-throats. In the last of these cases, it is stated that the relationship was of an illegitimate kind, and that Baillie the "gypsy" was Baillie by surname, because he was the offspring of an intrigue between a Baillie of Lamington and a "gypsy" girl. But, it has been already pointed out that, if this had been so, it would knock on the head the theory that the influential "gypsy" Baillies of the eighteenth century were the male descendants of the influential "gypsy" Baillies (or Bailyows—the name is admitted to be the same), of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which would be manifestly absurd. Besides, not only is it alleged that James
Baillie (of the Biggar Fair incident) "pretended" to be a natural son of a Baillie of Lamington, but so did "his fathers before him." It is incredible that such ties between the two families were formed in three or four successive generations, or that they would be regarded by the reputable side of the connection as so binding that everything must be done to obtain pardon—again and again—for the crimes committed by the morganatic branch. Nor is it likely, again, that if a relationship did not really exist at all, as the use of the word "pretended" suggests, the landed Baillies would ever lift a finger on behalf of a clan of alien "gypsies," merely because these claimed kinship with them.
Mr. Simson, the younger, arguing from his own standing-point, speaks to the same effect: (and, indeed, the above remarks are partly an unconscious reflection of the following):
I am very much inclined to think that Mrs. Baillie, of Lamington, mentioned under the head of Tweeddale and Clydesdale gipsies, was a gipsy; and the more so, from having learned, from two different sources, that the present Baillie, of ——, is a gipsy. Considering that courts of justice have always stretched a point, to convict, and execute, gipsies, it looks like something very singular, that William Baillie, a gipsy, who was condemned to death, in 1714, should have had his sentence commuted to banishment, and been allowed to go at large, while others, condemned with him, were executed. And three times did he escape in that manner, till, at last, he was slain by one of his tribe. It also seems very singular, that James Baillie, another gipsy, in 1772, should have been condemned for the murder of his wife, and also had his sentence commuted to banishment, and been allowed to go at large: and that twice, at least. Well might McLaurin remark: "Few cases have occurred in which there has been such an expenditure of mercy." And tradition states that "the then Mistress Baillie, of Lamington, and her family used all their interest in obtaining these pardons for James Baillie. No doubt of it. But the reason for all this was, doubtless, different from that of 'James Baillie, like his fathers before him, pretending that he was a bastard relative of the family of Lamington.'"
At the same place (pp. 470-1), Mr. Simson hints that the Duchess of Gordon, who obtained the pardon of "Captain" Gordon, was herself a "gipsy;" and the existence of "gypsies," in great numbers, in all ranks of society, is a fact he repeatedly insists upon.
But, all throughout, Mr. Simson is clogged with the conventional belief that "gypsies" are Orientals, who entered these islands a few centuries ago (though there is no historical record of such an arrival); instead of being—as a fuller examination of the question must inevitably prove them to be—the un-christianized and un-modernized remnants of various Oriental races, whose advent in this country, at a much earlier period, is chronicled on a thousand pages of history. Therefore, the most that Mr. Simson can urge, in the case of "Captain" Gordon is that the Duchess of Gordon who befriended him was herself a "gypsy." Whatever may be the ethnological history of her family (a well-known division of the Maxwells) it is plain that the relationship was much more likely to exist between the marauding chief and her own husband, the nominal head of the Gordons, than with herself. And the history of those Gordons favours the idea. That they were once marsh-dwellers, or "mossers," is seen from the fact that the oldest title of the Duke of Gordon was *The Gudeman of the Bog*; "from the Bog-of-Gight, a morass in the parish of Bellie, Banffshire, in the centre of which the former stronghold of this family was placed." Another title of this chief was *The Cock of the North*; a style of name which, like *The Wolf of Badenoch*, and others,* once borne by men of real power, is now
* Other such names have been already noticed. It was remarked that the early *mormaers*, or earls, of the territory of Buchan, bore the name of *Mac Dobharcon*, that is, "the children of The Otter." Also that one king of Alban, in the tenth century, was known as *Cuilean*—in Latin, *Caniculus*—*The Whelp*: that another was *Hundason, The Son of the Dog*: that the traditional Cuchullin was *The Hound of Cullin*, sometimes styled *An Cu—The Hound*, and sometimes *Cu nan Con, The Hound of the Hounds*; and that Allan, the swarthy pirate that ravaged the Hebrides in the fifteenth century, was known as "the black-skinned *Boar*." The custom that gave rise to such titles was, it is evident, the fashion of wearing the skins of various beasts, the animal chosen being that which was the totem of the tribe. And that the whole tribe dressed itself in one particular fashion was seen from an extract from a Gaelic poem, which stated that—of three battalions in the army of the "King of Rualay"—one battalion was composed of *Cat-heads*, and another of *Dog-heads*, and the third of *White-backs* ("brown the rest, though white the back"). This *Dog-head* tribe is known to have inhabited "the marsh of the *Dog-heads*" (Moygonihy) in County Kerry; and to have been always at war with the race of Fionn. Other such-named tribes that can be localized are the *Calves* and *Heifers* (for so Mr. Skene is inclined to render the *Lugi* and *Mertæ* of Ptolemy) of modern Sutherland, and their neighbours the *Cats*, or Clan Chattan. Perhaps also the *Adders* of the "black isle" in Ross-shire, as suggested by the name *Edderdale*.
relegated to the ranks of prize-fighting "gypsies" of the Game Chicken order, or "gypsy" minstrels like the Soaring Eagles and Cooing Doves of Wales. But the county of Banff was not the earliest-known residence of the Gordons. They are first found in Berwickshire, the district in which "Captain" Gordon and his band held sway. And we are told* that the descendants of the first great man of the family—those, that is, who remained in the earliest home of the clan—"continued to possess their original estates in Berwickshire till the beginning of the fifteenth century;" in which century, the era of the Black-Douglas overthrow, it is inferred that they became landless. But, though landless, they did not cease to exist. And, if they acted like other men of their time and station, they would continue to hold themselves as of as much consequence as ever, and take by force what had formerly been theirs by law. They would become sorners, or "masterful beggars," or (to use the more catholic term) gypsies. Which would account for such a statement as this—that "in Berwickshire, the original seat of the Gordons, the gipsies still retain the surname [Gordon]," and which would account also for the assistance rendered by the titular head of the Gordons to the chief of the Berwickshire division of his race.
So, also, in remarking on the conduct of the lady of Lamington, Mr. Simson assumes that she was of "gypsy" blood: which she may easily have been. But her maiden name was not likely Baillie. In this case, also, the kinship was evidently through the husband; more especially as another squire of that blood was recognizably a gypsy. Here, again, the presumption clearly is that the marauding Baillies, who were gentlemen in manners, in dress and in education; who bore themselves as men placed above "the common people," though their real tangible warrant for doing so had long been lost; and who, in their worst moments, as robbers and murderers, were simply reproductions of the mediæval "noble;" that these Baillies were lineal descendants of the chiefs of their race, and that it was for this reason that the more civilized branch of the family did so much to aid them.
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. II. pp. 316-321.
Of all the "gypsy" clans, none is of more importance than that of the Baillies. Mr. Simson tells us that they and the Faas (a most provoking surname, as it points nowhere) are "the two principal families in Scotland;" "giving, according to their customs, kings and queens to their countrymen." This recognition—among gypsies—of varying degrees of rank is a fact of vital importance. That it is a fact, Mr. Simson repeatedly mentions. "Among those who frequented the south of Scotland were to be found various grades of rank, as in all other communities of men. There were then [in former times] wretched and ruffian-looking gangs, in whose company the superior gipsies would not have been seen:" (a statement which is quite in accordance with those made by Mr. Leland and others, regarding the greatly-differing racial characteristics of "gypsies," who appear capable of the most minute ethnological analysis). In referring to the Johnstones of Annandale (known popularly as "the Thieves of Annandale,") he further says—"These were counted a kind of lower caste than Baillie's people, who would have thought themselves degraded if they had associated with any of the Johnstone gang." Again, George Drummond, whose manner of dancing the Morris-dance, prototype of the harmless hornpipe and jig, has already been referred to, is spoken of as "a gipsy chief of an inferior gang in Fife," and as being, "in rank, quite inferior to the Lochgellie band, who called him a 'beggar Tinkler,' and seemed to despise him." Like Johnstone of Annandale, this Drummond was a chief, who never travelled without his harem and his followers. Nevertheless, though chiefs, there were "gypsy" castes higher than they.
That particular family of faws which latterly became known by the surname of Faa, Faw, or Fall, was apparently of nearly equal greatness with the Baillies. And in their case, as in that of the Gunns, the Gordons, the Marshalls, the Douglases, the Graemes, the Herons, and many others—their social rank is more elevated the farther back one goes. Prior to 1774, Henry Faa, a Border chief, "was received, and ate at the tables of people in public office," and "men of considerable fortune paid him a gratuity, called blackmail, in order to have their goods protected from thieves." In 1734,
"Captain James Fall, of Dunbar, was elected member of parliament for the Dunbar district of burghs." "The family of Fall gave Dunbar provosts and bailies, and ruled the political interests of that burgh for many years." "So far back as about the year 1670, one of the bailies of Dunbar was of the surname of Faa." A century earlier, "John Faw, Lord and Earl of Little Egypt," was recognized as a man of rank and authority, both by King James the Fifth, and by Mary Queen of Scots; and McLaurin, in his *Criminal Trials*, speaks of him as a "peer." And, in the same century, the *Herons*, whose descendant, Francis Heron, was king of the English-Border *Faws* in the middle of last century, were ranked among the most powerful clans on the Border.
From this last-mentioned fact, it cannot be concluded that Heron was necessarily the surname of this nameless "Faa" family, in every generation. The original meaning of *faw* having been gradually forgotten, it was confusedly interchanged with such surnames as Winter, Clarke and others; as Wilson, in his *Tales of the Borders* has told us. The first-named of these is included by Sir Walter Scott as among "the most atrocious families" of the Borders, and by his time he believes them to have been wholly extirpated.*
* These Winters are referred to at pp. 96–7 of Mr. Simson's "History," and also in Sir Walter Scott's report of the gypsies in his shirevalty, transmitted to Mr. Hoyland. Scott's remarks upon the Border *grames*, formerly quoted, tend to the same conclusion—namely, that the worst type of "Picts" has long ago disappeared. People like the cave-dwelling cannibals of St. Vigeans, Forfarshire, who—in the fourteenth century—were eventually captured and burned alive by the country people; or, like those other cave-dwelling cannibals, "Sawney Bean" and his incestuous clan, who—in the following century—infested a certain district of the Galloway coast; or, like the ferocious and untameable moss-troopers generally—have been quite exterminated. The incessant and relentless war between tribe and tribe, century after century, tells plainly of the continuous elimination of the fiercer elements of these races. Where two tribes, equally savage, lived in the same district, and in a state of continual antagonism, it is clear that their numbers would constantly be thinning. Or where one ferocious clan lingered on in a mountainous or marshy district—long after the surrounding country had been settled by people of peaceful tendencies (whether these were new-comers or the cream of the older savages)—then that clan had either to become civilized, or to be killed off as a league of criminals. So that, although modern "gypsies" are *tories*, as far as it is possible to be, yet they are not unaltered specimens of the earliest Picts. The hideous Moor of heraldry has
other family of Faws. Still, there is some ground for believing that the later kings of the Border Faws were the Herons of earlier history.
"I am inclined to believe," says Mr. Simson, "that the Faws and the Baillies, the two principal gipsy clans in Scotland, had frequently lived in a state of hostility with one another. . . . At the present day the Baillies consider themselves quite superior in rank to the Faas; and, on the other hand, the Faas and their friends speak with great bitterness and contempt of the Baillies, calling them 'a parcel of thieves and vagabonds.'" In spite, however, of this last remark, the Baillies must be regarded as distinctly the overruling caste of the "gypsies" of the South-Eastern half of Scotland (if not of the whole northern half of Great Britain, including Northumberland). This will become apparent presently.
Surnames do not form reliable supports in any genealogical inquiry, extending over a great stretch of time. A dubh-glass of Galloway may be the founder of a line of Scotts, or of Moors, or of Mac Dubh-Galls, or of any of the similar names already sufficiently reiterated. And from any one of these may branch off innumerable Robert's-sons, Dick's-sons, Tom's-sons, and Will's-sons. The same family may be, as Dr. Johnson learned, alternately called John's-son and Mac-Ian (which latter name is one of those popularly styled Gaelic; but which may be as fitly called Old English or Old Dutch, since it is maga- or maag-Jan, "the son of Yan"); or the posterity of two brothers may become known, in the one line as Saunders, or Sanderson, and in the other as Mac-Alastair. While, again, a man may have received the surname of his feudal superior, without having the slightest relationship to his lord. A "Douglas' man" was not, of necessity, a "Douglas" (strictly so called).
Therefore, it would be somewhat rash to conclude that the Baillies derived their unsurpassed rank, from the unequalled position of the greatest man of their name. Nevertheless, disappeared: partly by extirpation, partly by education, partly by intermarriage with more refined races. When Hugh Miller's colliers emerged from underground, after an isolation of some centuries, they had no nearer "marrows" than the savages encountered in the memorable voyage of the Beagle.
this is not unlikely. For the greatest (in rank) of the family of Baillie, Bailyow, Balleul, Ballou, or Balliol, was once—as everybody knows—the actual king of Scotland. The Lamington Baillies,—those who identified themselves so closely with the outlawed Baillies, and one of whom was, in Mr. Simson’s eyes, a veritable “gypsy,”—these Baillies (if not all of that surname) believe themselves to be the descendants of John Baliol, the thirteenth-century king of Scotland. Which is quite in keeping with the exalted position accorded to the tory Baillies, claimed by them, and admitted by those of inferior castes, who repeatedly affirm that “kings and queens have come of that family.”
But Baliol is supposed to have been a Norman? And the outlawed Baillies, being “gypsics,” must have been men of dark complexion, which the Normans are not supposed to have been. If a descendant of the ex-king had really been a man of swarthy skin, there would have been nothing extraordinary in the matter; since his own niece was married to John, the Black Comyn, Earl of Badenoch. That she herself was white, is hinted by the fact that the son of this marriage was styled the red Comyn; red or ruadh having then the signification of “tawny,” and having been applied to the half-breed branches of other black clans, such as the Douglases and the Mercers. A daughter of this ruadh Comyn—the Comyn slain by Robert Bruce—was also married to the tenth Douglas chief, and so became the grandmother of Archibald the Black. So that, at least, the descendants of John Baliol’s sister became dubh-glasses. But it is not necessary to assume that his own direct posterity mixed their blood with that of the “Moors.” The nomadic Baillies of this century are described as, “in general, of a colour rather cadaverous, or of a darkish pale; their cheekbones high; their eyes small, and light-coloured; their hair of a dingy white or red colour, and wiry; and their skin, drier and of a tougher texture than that of the people of this country.” That is, of the people of this country who have lived civilized lives for many generations. The “Autocrat of the Breakfast Table” tells us that the possession of wealth for only four or five generations “transforms a race:” and what is true of individual families is true of
societies. People who have never forsaken the wild life of our common ancestors cannot be expected to be identical, in body or in mind, with those who have made use of the accumulating culture of many centuries.
This elastic nature of the term "gypsy" (and its comprehensiveness is realized by few) allows us, therefore, to regard the outlawed Baillies as direct descendants of the powerful Baliol family. "Gypsies," we are beginning to see, are of the most diverse character. This is not only enunciated very distinctly by Mr. Simson; but, in a more indirect way, by Mr. Leland also. For, in spite of his various allusions to the "gypsy eye," and to the "black blood" that, beyond question, marks the great majority of "gypsies," he yet includes, in his list of their various tribes, such clans as the Bosvilles, Broadways, Grays, and Smalls, who are pure "gypsies," and, at the same time, of fair complexion.* Moreover, he says of the class generally (for one cannot, in the face of such statements, speak of the gypsy race):—"In the Danubian principalities there are at the present day three kinds of gypsies: one very dark and barbarous, another light brown and more intelligent, and the third, or *élite*, of yellow-pine complexion, as American boys characterize the hue of quadroons. Even in England there are straight-haired and curly-haired Romanys, the two indicating *not a difference resulting from white admixture, but entirely different original stocks*." These two last divisions may be held to be fairly represented by the long-haired, cave-dwelling *ciuthachs* of West Highland tradition (the "glibbed" *tories* of Queen Elizabeth's time); and by the curly-headed Moors of British heraldry (historic specimens of whom are visible in the curly-haired, swarthy Silurian "Picts"). At any rate, it is easy to see why—on the ground of difference of race—the Lochgellie caste of Fifeshire "gypsies" should despise the alleged "inferior" race of Fifeshire Drummonds; or why the Baillies "would have thought themselves degraded if they had associated with any of the Annandale Johnstones;" or
* This is negative evidence. Mr. Leland does not characterize these clans as "half-bloods": therefore, it is to be presumed he regards them as pure. It is important, however, to observe that most of his "fair" families are labelled "half-blood."
why the Baillies should "consider themselves quite superior in rank to the Faws."
And this last parallel may perhaps start from a very important historical fact. For, let it be granted that the so-called "gypsy" Baillies are the posterity of the Norman king, and it will be evident that they had an ancestral reason for their self-conceit. Because the Balliols were of a race of successful conquerors; because their dynasty was for a while the ruling family in the country; because the Normans had achieved a higher civilization than the Picts, under which denomination the Faws must, of course, be classed. The clan that came to be known specially as that of "the Faws," being so high in rank that it rivalled that of the Baillies, must have been of a comparatively high caste; much above those "wretched and ruffian-looking gangs, in whose company the superior gipsies would not have been seen." But they were Faws. Therefore, of the race, or races, that the Normans overcame. There is great significance in this im-memorial enmity of the Baillies. For the Normans are nowhere stated to have practised the customs of painting or tattooing. And the Balliols are supposed to have been Normans: therefore, they were not Faws, but the enemies of such.
This view of the ancestry of the tory Baillies, accords well with what we know of them. For, though daring and intractable outlaws, they have been always, so far as one may see them—men of brave presence and of good education: quite the equals, in every respect, of the highest classes of their neighbourhood; with whom they associated on equal terms, as stated on several occasions. The only differences between these and those were—and they were important differences—that, while the ordinary nobility and gentry of, say, William Baillie's time (about 1700), were believers in the spread of liberty, of education, and of peace, the tory Baillies, and others like them, adhered to the ideas of earlier times, when a "noble" or a "gentleman" was simply a robber on a very large scale, who took as much land, and money, and power as his weaker neighbours permitted him to take, and who paid no heed whatever to any assertion of individual right, where the individual had not a
backing of armed followers. (It is true that many kindly and graceful acts are recorded of such tories, in the way of giving to the poor what they had taken from the rich, but these were the outcome of a generous impulse; not the acknowledgment of a demand.) Hence, though worthy enough representatives of the eleventh century, such men became less and less in harmony with the spirit of their time, in each generation; as the rights of all men, strong or weak, became more fully recognized. Consequently, they who were once within the law became out-lawed; for, in the modern estimation, what was once legal, or, at least, permissible, is now crime. Thus, those Baillies who would not adapt themselves to the newer ideas, and grow with the growth of the nation, became, by degrees, a caste of landless outcasts, without a fragment of that kind of power that the national law recognized (though their ancient right of command was still admitted by men of their own stamp).
It must be remembered that such tories, though faithful reproductions of their ancestors, represent only one phase of the ancestral life. They are, as it were, petrifications. They are some of the roots out of which the British nation has grown. Just as druidism or magic, fortune-telling, juggling, astrology, and superstition, still exist among "gypsies" and charlatans; while astronomy, science, and a high religion, have been developed from the same fundamental source; so the aggressive characteristics of these stunted "gypsies" are seen in the conquests of the British people: and so the higher attributes of this or that "gypsy" tribe are displayed in the civilized families who bear the same name and inherit some of the same blood. The tory Baillies are certainly reproductions of the mediaeval noble, but not of all his qualities. Those intractable robbers are suitable descendants of the Norman invaders; but the qualities of the founder of Baliol College were most fully inherited by such a man as Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, "the Scottish Sidney." Mr. Simson may say, with all truth, "The nomadic gipsies in general, like the Baillies in particular, have gradually declined in appearance, till, at the present day, the greater part of them have become little better than beggars, when compared to what they were in former times." But these only constitute the sediment of their race. What one loses another gets. The tory Baillies have withered away: but the blood of the same stock has flowed in the veins of thousands of civilized and often eminent men.
In short, then, the claims of the "gypsy" Baillies to the "gypsy" crown seem well-founded. Though, in one sense, "the sediment of their race,"—it is by no means certain that they are not its hereditary aristocracy. That is, by right of primogeniture. This, indeed, is what they claim. When Mr. James Simson speaks of "the presumptuous pride, the overweening conceit of a high-mettled Scottish gipsy; his boasted descent—a descent at once high, illustrious, and lost in antiquity; his unbounded contempt for the rabble of town and country"—he has in view that very class of "gypsies" of which this particular clan is avowedly the chief. It is their boast that "kings and queens" have come of their family; and their superiority is recognized by "gypsies" of every degree of caste. To give every warrant to this assertion,—the very branch of civilized Baillies that made such strenuous efforts to save the lives of their discredited namesakes, assert the same thing. The Lamington Baillies have good reasons for believing themselves to be of a race that gave at least one king to Scotland. An oral tradition, handed down through centuries from sire to son is by no means infallible; but those who have studied such things know how startlingly true such inherited beliefs sometimes are; and how, after many generations, the discovery of a lost document, or a lost fact, will demonstrate with absolute certainty the truth of an unwritten tradition. It is impossible to understand the attitude of the tory Baillies, or of any of this type of "gypsy," without perceiving that they are cases in point. No ordinary scamp, ignorant of grandparents, or even of parents, could possible look down with contempt upon those of his contemporaries who possess the wealth, the education, and the authority of his day and generation; the men who may almost be said to hold his destiny in their hands. It is incredible that such a man could hold the firm conviction that his descent was "at once high, illustrious, and lost in antiquity," and that all the magistrates and "swells" throughout the land were so much "rabble." But such a
standing-point is perfectly conceivable in a man of really high descent, however degraded he may be himself.
This opinion, that the "gypsy" Baillies and the landed Baillies of that particular district of Scotland were, substantially, the same people, has received confirmation from an additional fact recently brought to light (and after the preceding sentences were written).
The English-speaking world has lately read and heard a great deal about the private life of one of these Baillies,—certainly not the least eminent of all that clan. In her *Letters and Memorials*, so recently published, Mrs. Carlyle states that . . . "my maternal grandmother was 'descended from a gang of gipsies;' was in fact grand-niece to Matthew Baillie who 'suffered at Lanark,' that is to say, was hanged there . . . . By the way, my uncle has told me that the wife of that Matthew Baillie, Margaret Euston by name, was the original of Sir W. Scott's Meg Merrilees.* Matthew himself was the last of the gipsies; could steal a horse from under the owner if he liked, but left always the saddle and bridle; a thorough gentleman in his way, and six feet four in stature!"
It is possible that Mrs. Carlyle's uncle may have mixed up the pedigree a little. The Matthew Baillie who married Margaret Euston (*Yowston*; sometimes *Yorstoun*; sometimes *Yorkston*) was certainly not "the last of the gipsies," even of those bearing his own surname. For he had a son, Matthew, and many other descendants, recognized as "gypsies." But we may accept as a fact that the Matthew Baillie, senior, was the great-uncle of that Jane Baillie, whose celebrated granddaughter has given an added interest to the Baillie lineage. Jane Baillie's grandfather, therefore, was a brother of this elder Matthew Baillie; and these two were sons of the celebrated William Baillie, king over all the gypsies in Scotland; accounted by one who knew him to be "the handsomest, the best dressed, the best looking,
* This adds one to the many "originals" of Meg Merrilees. Jean Gordon, Billy Marshall's wife Flora, his sister, and now Margaret (who, by the way, is sometimes called Mary) Yorstoun. At Gilsland, also, a belief has been developed that "Meg Merrilees" lived there, and they show you her cottage as a proof of it.
and the best bred man he ever saw:” “the stories that are told of this splendid gipsy (says Mr. Simson) are numerous and interesting.” And Miss Baillie’s grandfather was also, therefore, an uncle of those four cavaliers who, throwing off their scarlet coats, and rolling up the sleeves of their shirts to give full play to the sword-arm, “furiously rode up and down the fair” at Biggar, “with glittering swords in their clenched hands,”—roused by an insult offered to their mother, the celebrated Margaret Yowston, or Yorkstoun, wife of the elder Matthew Baillie. With this part of her lineage before our eyes, can we wonder that a personal friend of William Baillie’s eminent descendant should have said of her, that “she was the proudest woman—as proud and tenacious of her dignity as a savage chief”?
To speak of Mrs. Carlyle as “a Baillie” is not strictly correct. But she was as much “a Baillie” as she was “a Welsh.” Had her connection with the Baillies come to her through her father, she would have been spoken of as “a Baillie”—though not inheriting any more of that blood than she actually did. To speak of her as “a gypsy” would be quite incorrect; unless one held, with Mr. Simson, that the descendants of gypsies—though after generations of civilization—ought always to be regarded as “gypsies.” But Mrs. Carlyle was, by blood, as much “a Baillie” as any other of her Baillie kindred; unless their fathers had married back into the same stock.
Carlyle does not seem to have fully realized the exact nature of his wife’s Baillie lineage. He does not speak of her kin as “gypsies.” In the second volume of his Reminiscences (page 103) he says—"By her mother’s mother, who was a Baillie, of somewhat noted kindred in Biggar country, my Jeannie was further said to be descended from ‘Sir William Wallace’ (the great); but this seemed to rest on nothing but air and vague fireside rumour of obsolete date.” Again (at page 128 of the same book)—“Walter [Welsh, Mrs. Carlyle’s maternal grandfather] had been a buck in his youth, a high-prancing horseman, etc.; I forget what image there was of him, in buckskins, pipe hair-dressings, grand equipments, riding somewhither . . . . He had married a good and beautiful Miss Baillie (of whom already) and settled
with her at Capelgill, in the Moffatt region . . . From her my Jeannie was called 'Jane Baillie Welsh.'
The impression derived from these remarks of Carlyle's is quite in keeping with the statements made by Mr. Simson, as to the fine manners, rich dress, and good education of this Jane Baillie's great-grandfather ("Captain" William Baillie) and the other near relatives of that "splendid gipsy." His great grand-daughter is remembered as "a good and beautiful Miss Baillie;" she is regarded as the suitable wife of a dashing young squire; and there is no word of her "gypsy" belongings. If we had learned these facts about her fore-fathers through some other source, who would ever have thought of calling her a "gypsy"? We should probably have said that these Baillies, by their bearing, education, and dress, were nothing else than broken-down aristocrats,—the landless descendants of the cavaliers of the preceding (the seventeenth) century.
What may be regarded as the most important point—the point of the evidence brought forward by the Carlyles*—is the statement that Jane Welsh was descended from the Scotch hero of the thirteenth century through these very "gypsy" Baillies—through a race of assumed wanderers who "entered Europe about the fifteenth century." Not only does this fact show, by implication, that (like other Scotch-gypsy families) these Baillies have been associated with the history of Scotland from a very early period, but it also helps to clinch the connection between the landed and the landless sections of that race. For this alleged descent from Sir William Wallace is one of the articles of belief of the family who did so much to succour the "gypsy" Baillies when in distress,—saving them from death and banishment, on several occasions. "It is traditionally stated that the celebrated Sir William Wallace acquired the estate of Lamington by marrying Marion Braidfoot, the heiress of that family, and that it passed to Sir William Baillie on his marriage with
* Quoted from Mr. Froude's "Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle," Vol. II. p. 54; also from pp. 103 and 128 of the second volume of Carlyle's "Reminiscences." It is perhaps superfluous to add that the reference to Mrs. Carlyle's characteristics is found in the article contributed to the Contemporary Review (May, 1883) by Mrs. Oliphant.
the eldest daughter and heiress of Wallace. The statement, however, is incorrect. Sir William Wallace left no legitimate offspring, but his natural daughter is said to have married Sir William Baillie of Hoprig, the progenitor of the Baillies of Lamington."* So that, peaceable squire and robber-chief, the same pedigree is claimed by each.
When one glances at these Baillies, in the mass, there seems no reason why one should ever imagine that they owned a differing origin. Biggar, Lamington, Lanark (where, alas! Matthew Baillie was at last doomed to "suffer"),—all these, and other localities connected with that name, are situated within a radius of twenty miles or so. The favourite family-names of the two sections of the clan are the same. The celebrated "Captain" William Baillie (who was killed in November 1724, and of whom we have just been speaking) was succeeded in his tory kingship, by his son Matthew (the husband of Mary Yorstoun); and the four sons of this Matthew that have been noticed in the incident at Biggar Fair were named respectively—Matthew, James, William and John. Hoprig and Lamington seem to be the names of the oldest possessions accorded to this clan, and that chief of the name who is said to have married the daughter of Wallace, and who is described as the lord of these places, was a William Baillie. It must be through him that Mrs. Carlyle, and other descendants of the "gypsy" William Baillie, claim a descent from the hero of Scotland. It is through him that the records of the other branches (not called "gypsies") proclaim a like ancestry. The names of the four "gypsy" Baillies, just named, may be found among the "civilized" divisions of the same stock. Matthew Baillie, a boy of nine years old at the time when his namesake, with his three brothers, was scaring the peasants at Biggar Fair,—is known to history as "a distinguished anatomist and the first physician of his time." And his sister's name is more widely known than his—the celebrated Joanna Baillie. These two—brother and sister—were born in Lanarkshire (1761-2) and were the children of Dr. James Baillie, a Presbyterian clergyman, and latterly a professor of divinity in Glasgow University. This James Baillie was believed to have
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation": name Baillie.
descended of the Baillie of Jerviswood line,—an offshoot from the Lamington stock, which branched off in the person of a John Baillie. In looking at these Baillies from the "stud-book" or Herald's Office point of view, we discover "that Mr. Alexander Baillie of Castlecarry, a learned antiquarian, was of opinion that the family of Lamington were a branch of the illustrious house of the Baliols, who were lords of Galloway, and kings of Scotland."* In viewing the condition of those members of the clan who represented toryism, we see that their eldest-born was held, by all men of that kind in Scotland to be the baurie rye, ard-ri, or King of all the "gypsies" in the country; that, therefore, being lord of the lord of Galloway, he was himself lord of Galloway; and that his family was believed by all their archaically-disposed followers to have "given kings and queens to Scotland." What difference between the two varieties of these Baillies was there but this—that the one, throughout a constantly increasing civilization, adhered to the ideas and manners of the remote ancestors common to both divisions,—while the other continued, generation after generation, to rise to the level of the tide of progress? A Baillie who lived after the fashion of the horse-stealing "gypsy" who "suffered" at Lanark was no rarity in that part of Scotland a thousand years ago; he was then the rule. But a Baillie who was born in a "manse," or who lived a quiet, harmless life as a country squire, in a modern mansion, and in the modern way, was a being who could not possibly have existed under the conditions prevailing in Lanarkshire at the date of the War of Independence in Scotland. If there could be no such thing as increasing culture; if Scotland had ceased to advance in the thirteenth century; all of these Baillies would have been "gypsies." There would have been no manse, and no mansion; and, instead of the trim, sleek ways of modern life, in the houses of the well-to-do, there would have been the dingy, turf-built wigwam, or the rude gypsy-tent, at one time "the common building of the country,"—without a chimney but the hole in the roof that served, in windy weather, to blow the smoke downward into the tent,—without any of the thousand household comforts of
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation": name Baillie.
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,—and with the primitive "gypsy" modes of cooking that were commonly practised in the Scotland of earlier days.
It is not to be supposed that this divergence between the two kinds of Baillies began at one easily-determined date; and that, from that period onward, the one division went on its way "civilizing," while the other continued as steadily to decay. Nothing but a complete knowledge of all the histories (not the alleged histories) of all the families of that clan could enable one to realize the truth. This is as impossible to obtain as it is superfluous. But one can guess that, in each generation, there was at least one conversion from gypsydom to civilization. Some Baillies have been "educating" themselves for centuries—others for generations only. When Joanna Baillie's father was an inoffensive divine, Mrs. Carlyle's ancestor was a fierce, marauding robber, a gentleman-of-a-very-old-school. But it must only be necessary to ascend Joanna Baillie's family-tree a little higher, in order to discover that she, too, possessed forefathers of a like type to Matthew Baillie, the "gypsy." Even one of the best specimens of her clan, Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, "the Scottish Sidney" (a probable ancestor of Joanna Baillie), belonged to a period when he might have lived as reckless and wild an existence as his contemporary, Captain William Baillie, without losing caste. It does not require much acquaintance with seventeenth-century ideas, to be able to say this. And, as a matter of fact, we know that the "distinguished gypsy" just referred to, used to associate on an equal footing with "gentlemen of the first respectability in the country." And that he himself not only was a gentleman by education and in manners, but a very prince of men: "the handsomest, the best dressed, the best looking, and the best bred man I ever saw," says one of his local contemporaries. "He was considered, in his time, the best swordsman in all Scotland:" and "his sword is still preserved by his descendants, as a relic of their powerful ancestor." Such a man, had he chosen, might have rivalled a Raleigh, or a Drake: from whom he did not differ in any essential degree. If the eighteenth-century descendants of Drake and Raleigh had lived as their great ancestors did—if they
had been genuine tories—they would have been little else than outlawed adventurers, as liable to be hanged as any "gypsy" Baillie. And, being tories, their way of dressing would have been that of their sixteenth-century ancestors—and of high-caste "gypsies." One reads everywhere that the gypsies wore dresses of scarlet and of green: what did the sixteenth-century Cavaliers wear? Certainly not the "sad-coloured" garments of the nineteenth century. The class that—eighty years ago—most resembled the Cavaliers, in dress—as in other traits—was assuredly our British "gypsies." When Mr. Borrow's friend, Jasper Petulengro, came in his best attire to visit the strangely-associated dwellers in "Mumpers' Dingle," he was dressed much more like a Cavalier, than any ordinary gentleman of that period:—"with a somewhat smartly-cut sporting-coat, the buttons of which were half-crowns—and a waistcoat, scarlet and black, the buttons of which were spaded half-guineas; his breeches were of a stuff half velveteen, half corduroy, the cords exceedingly broad." His shirt was of "very fine white holland." "Under his left arm was a long black whalebone riding-whip, with a red lash, and an immense silver knob. Upon his head was a hat with a high peak, somewhat of the kind which the Spaniards call calané, so much in favour with the bravoes of Seville and Madrid." Among the articles of his wife's apparel was a necklace of "what seemed very much like very large pearls, somewhat tarnished, however, and apparently of considerable antiquity." She had inherited this "from her grandmother, who died at the age of a hundred and three, and sleeps in Coggeshall churchyard. She got it from her mother, who also died very old, and who could give no other account of it than that it had been in the family time out of mind."* These people when they took it into their heads to go to church, selected the (then vacant) pew of the lord of the manor as their proper place: and the fact that they could not read the
* Mr. Borrow's gypsy descriptions, though placed before us in a half-fictitious framing, are believed to be from life; and the eccentric doings of the "Romany Rye" are understood to be largely the experiences of the author himself. Therefore, the above quotations can be reasonably accepted as the descriptions of realities.
VOL. II.
Prayer-Books which they held in their hands rather increases than diminishes their affinity with the gentry of an earlier period, who despised such attainments as only fit for "clerics" and "scriveners." These were gypsies of England, but Mr. Simson has much the same thing to say of the high-caste gypsies of North Britain. "I have already mentioned how handsomely the superior order of gipsies dressed at the period of which we are speaking [more than a century ago]. The male head of the Ruthvens—a man six feet some inches in height—who, according to the newspapers of the day, lived to the advanced age of one hundred and fifteen years, when in full dress, in his youth, wore a white wig, a ruffled shirt, a blue Scottish bonnet, scarlet breeches and waistcoat, a long blue superfine coat, white stockings, with silver buckles in his shoes. Others wore silver brooches in their breasts, and gold rings on their fingers." The females of the Baillie clan "also rode to the fairs at Moffat and Biggar, on horses, with side-saddles and bridles, the ladies themselves being very gaily dressed. The males wore scarlet cloaks, reaching to their knees, and resembling exactly the Spanish fashion of the present day."* They were also "dressed in long green coats, cocked hats, riding-boots and spurs, armed with broadswords, and mounted on handsome gray ponies saddled and bridled; everything, in short, in style, and of the best quality." Whether these Baillies wore powdered wigs, like the Ruthven chief, is not stated: but if they wore their natural hair only, it is likely they wore it as the Cavaliers did. We get a hint or two that comparatively-modern "gypsies" let their long tresses hang down either cheek: we know that the earlier "Cavaliers" did so, tying a bright-coloured ribbon, sometimes, to a favourite lock. "The Scottish Sidney" himself, "learned and worthy gentleman" though he was, wore his dark, abundant hair in great masses falling down upon his shoulders—just as a thousand of the best men of his time were accustomed to do. Had his own nature been fiercer, and had he lived an out-door life for a few months, his general appearance would have been quite as "barbarous" as that of the English gypsy whom Mr. Simson saw at St. Boswell's fair. If his
* Or the Cavalier fashion of the sixteenth century.
kinsman, Captain William Baillie, was as fair of skin as some of his descendants are pictured, a hundred years later,—then "the Scottish Sidney" (supposing him to be of a wilder nature than he really was) would have looked more like the conventional "gypsy" than his redoubted cousin, the head chief of all the "gypsies" in Scotland. For though not of an actually swarthy hue, his complexion seems* to have been rather dark than fair,—his eyes were apparently black,—and his hair unmistakeably so. Joanna Baillie and her brother, Dr. Matthew, though not particularly gypsy-like, yet resemble the conventional dark gypsy, much more than do those fair-skinned nomadic Baillies, of later times, described in the Scottish History. The distinction between the two kinds of Lanarkshire Baillies seems to have been purely one of habit: there is no hint of a racial difference. Or if there is (though one cannot argue from a few examples), the black-haired individuals would appear to belong rather to the civilized than to the predatory section.
This leads one to consider, in passing, the question of gypsy colour. The statements made by the Messrs. Simson (though not necessarily the theories deduced therefrom), with regard to the Scottish gypsies of the last two centuries, must always be accounted as of great value. In their book, we get glimpses of an archaic state of society which no one else has so fully described; and which it is probably too late for any one to attempt to investigate now, when gypsydom is only "the shadow of a shade." It seems certain that, but for this book, many valuable facts would have been wholly lost. But, to turn to this question of the complexion of the Scottish gypsies, it is plain that neither of these gentlemen had very clearly formulated their ideas respecting the ethnological position of the people they wrote about. We are told of the dark skin as being a gypsy feature, and that their name for "us" (the general, sedentary population of these islands, popularly assumed to be white people, though scientifically asserted to be mostly dark-white people, or Melano-
* This is only based upon the woodcut in Anderson's "Scottish Nation"; but as the portraits in that work are carefully executed, and show the light and shade sufficiently well, it is probable that an inspection of the original painting would not contradict the above statements.
chroi) is gorgio (in the plural gorgios), or "white man;" "gorgio-like" being rendered "like the white." But, in the same book, we are told that there are pure "gypsies," who are perfectly white people. For instance, we read such a description as this, which is of a Fifeshire family:—"Not one of the whole party could have been taken for a gipsy, but all had the exact appearance of being the family of some indigent tradesman or labourer. Excepting the woman, whose hair was dark, all of the company had hair of a light colour, some of them inclining to yellow, with fair complexions. In not one of their countenances could be seen those features by which many pretend the gypsies can, at all times, be distinguished from the rest of the community. The manner, however, in which the woman at first addressed me created in my mind a suspicion that she was one of the tribe."* The test applied was the putting a question in that particular form of speech commonly used by such people; and this family being accustomed to speak in that fashion are, thereafter, conclusively gipsies in the estimation of their interlocutor. Other such examples might be cited, but this is enough to show the catholic nature of the term "gipsy," as that word is used by the principal historian of these people in Scotland. The vagueness of his creed is seen in a single sentence (p. 341), relative to this subject: "This question of colour has been illustrated in my enquiry into the history of the gipsy language; for the language is the only satisfactory thing by which to test a gipsy, let his colour be what it may." Now, if there is one thing about which there is more unanimity than about another, at the present day, it is this, that language is the least satisfactory thing by which to ascertain the ethnological position of a people. Curiously enough, a most apt illustration of the truth of this is furnished by Mr. Simson, the younger, who, in his introduction, points out that an implicit belief in the identity between language and race would lead one "to maintain that the Negroes in Liberia originated in England because they speak the English language."
A few pages back the Baillies and other Midlothian gypsies of this century were spoken of as "in general, of a colour
* "History of the Gipsies," p. 299.
rather cadaverous, or of a darkish pale; their cheek-bones high; their eyes small, and light coloured; their hair of a dingy white or red colour, and wiry; and their skin, drier and of a tougher texture than that of the people of this country." This was quoted by Mr. Simson from a local account. On reflection this description seems of little value. It refers to a single generation (of the year 1839) of at least three families—Baillies, Wilsons, and Taits—in one parish of Mid-Lothian; to any one of whom these physical peculiarities might be said to belong; and there is no good reason why we should hold this representation as descriptive of the seventeenth and eighteenth century Baillie chiefs. If any of these Mid-Lothian Baillies of 1839 had inherited some drops of the blood of that line, it is quite evident that none of the good looks of the family had come down to them. Of the civilized branches, the three members who have been particularised—Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, Joanna Baillie, and her brother Dr. Matthew Baillie—are comely-featured people, Miss Baillie being, indeed, handsome. Of the Tory division, its most celebrated representative, William Baillie, has already been referred to as one of the best-looking men of his day; and it is said of his grandson, Matthew (son of Matthew Baillie and Mary Yorstoun, and one of the four heroes at Biggar Fair), that he "married Margaret Campbell, and had by her a family of remarkably handsome and pretty daughters." It is idle, however, to attempt to show that handsome features belonged peculiarly to that Baillie line: and it may easily be that the "remarkably handsome and pretty daughters" of the younger Matthew had inherited their good looks through the mother, Margaret Campbell. But this, at least, may be said, that if "Captain" William Baillie, who died in 1724, was as white of skin and as golden-haired as the Fifeshire "gypsies" just referred to, he was—being "the handsomest man," etc.—a very good specimen of the ideal aristocrat of the Norman era (a type of man whose existence in Western Europe may be vastly more ancient than that period), possessing, as he did, many of the chief characteristics of that extinct form of "gentleman." In his day the cavalier was still chivalrous (as many stories of him show). The declination of his kind of men had just begun.
A man could be a "gypsy" chief and yet, on the whole, as good a "gentleman" as most of his civilized brethren. Therefore, it is pleasant to think of this "splendid gypsy" as the descendant of one of the most courageous figures in history; and as, at the same time, the chief (by primogeniture) of another celebrated line. For it is pretty evident that the acknowledged head of all his tribe was the most probable seventeenth-eighteenth-century representative of the son-in-law of Wallace, William Baillie of Hoprig and Lamington. Which view is quite supported by the history of these estates; apparently often owned by junior and female members of the family: in the latter cases, the surname being artificially continued.
To recognize, however, that there are or were "gypsies" who did not, in the least, resemble the conventional dark-skinned "Egyptian," is to make a very important admission, with regard to which much might be said. For the present, then, the complexion of the gypsy Baillies need not be entertained. It is enough to point out that this redoubtable clan, like other Scotch-gypsy tribes already glanced at, possess several indications of an immemorial connection with Scotland. But as it would appear that the date of their supremacy over the robber-tribes was vastly later than that of other—and dark-skinned—clans, it will be better to defer the consideration of any other white-skinned "gypsies," and rather turn to those who were Mauri as well as Picti.
CHAPTER III.
The supreme ruler of Alban during one portion of the tenth century was, we have been told, Kenneth (or Cinaed) alias "Niger" or "Dubh,"—"The Black." He seems to have reigned for some years over "white" provinces, as well as those inhabited by people of his own colour; but he is particularised as "The Black,—of the three black divisions." The names of these divisions,—"kingdoms," they were then called,—are given us in Gaelic, "the language of the white men," and in Latin. Being thus given, they tell us as little of the designations given to these kingdoms, by their own inhabitants, as do the words Australia or Patagonia inform us of the language of the aborigines; or the names which they give to their country, or to their kings. We have guessed that one division of the posterity of this powerful black king, of the tenth century, became known to Gaelic-speaking people as Maga Dubh (shortened into Mac Duff), or "the clan of The Black:" which race was for a long time paramount in the kingdom of Fibh (Fife)—itself, in all probability, one of "the three black divisions." And we noticed that, so recently as Queen Mary's time, a descendant of this clan (though bearing a different surname) was one of the ruling class in that district; and when spoken of was particularised as "black." And, further, that those of the natives of Fife who—two centuries after the death of Queen Mary—still continued to follow the fierce, marauding habits, and to display the haughty, overbearing disposition of the early "noble," were to be found among the confederacy of swarthy "gypsies," known as "the Lochgellie band:" who were precisely the kind of "gypsies" that their historian has in mind, when he dilates upon "the presumptuous pride, the overweening conceit of a high-mettled Scottish gipsy; his
boasted descent—a descent at once high, illustrious, and lost in antiquity; his unbounded contempt for the rabble of town and country." And, as the earlier Pictish language was unintelligible to the Gaels and to the Normans, so the speech of those eighteenth-century Picts was described as "gibberish" and "jargon," by the civilized and modernized portion of the community.
The life of those painted Moors, or faws, therefore, has never been specially described until recent times. Or only described from the outside. The names by which their kings are remembered show this. Such names as that by which "Niger of the three black divisions" is generally known are purely outside names, or nick-names, given by another people. Kenneth, or Cinaed, when analysed, seems to mean nothing more than The King,—or, possibly, The Chief of the race of Aedh. At any rate, the Cinaed vel Dubh who reigned from 962 to 967, was succeeded by his own brother, also named Kenneth; which seems to show that the name was more a designation than an individual cognomen: and that it belonged to the occupier of a certain position, for the time being. This particular Niger would thus be the Black, in the sense that his chief rival was the White, and the Whelp;—or as their contemporary, Dubdon Satrapas Athochlach, was the Black-Brown, Satrap of Athole;—or as the chief of the Moraymen was Dobharcu, the Otter. The most notable of all those who bore this appellation of Kenneth, Kynadius, Kinat, or Cinaed,* was assuredly the son of Alpin who, "was the first king of the Scots who acquired the monarchy of the whole of Alban, and ruled in it over the Scots." This was in the year 844, "the twelfth year of Kenneth's reign, and the Chronicle of Huntingdon tells us that 'in his twelfth year Kenneth encountered the Picts seven times in one day, and having destroyed many, confirmed the kingdom to himself.'"† Thus, by the year 844, "the black herds of Scots and Picts,
* A son of this Cin-aed, who reigned over the Picts for one year (877-8), was known as Aed, or Aedh. And the name is frequently introduced in Mr. Skene's last book. It is quite likely an appellative name, translateable into some such expression as "The Foreigner" or "The Moor." Generally, it is translated "Hugh"; but "Hugh" must have signified something, at one time. It is also, more rarely, rendered "king."
† "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 308 321, 366
somewhat different in manners, but all alike thirsting for blood," had completely fallen out among themselves, and the former had conquered the latter. To use their alternative titles—the vagabond "Egyptians" had overcome the painted "blackamoors." The latter, it is believed, were half-exterminated; though the year 844 did not put an end to the reign of Picts in Scotland. From that date, however, the customs of the Egyptians [Scots Proper] must have been paramount for a considerable time, in certain parts of North Britain.
Whatever the genealogy of this conquering Cinaed (and he is said to have descended from Swarthy Conall, son of Yellow Eochaid), he had apparently ruled over the Galloway district before attaining the supreme power. One writer (not of Mr. Skene's calibre, but at least the recorder of a tradition) states that "in 850, Kenneth was thane of Carrick." And he adds that "in that district and in Galloway [which really included "that district" at one time], where the Kennedys had, at one time, extensive possessions, the surname Kennedy is to this day pronounced Kennettie."* From which we see that the name of Kenneth, or Kynadius, or Cinaed, has come down to us in the form of Kennedy, as well as in that of Kenneth: (and that the earliest Kennaths and Kennedys were probably of the same stock as the race named MacDuff). The Clan of Kennedy, the son of Alpin, of the stock of Swarthy Conall and Tawny Eochaid, were thus the kings of Carrick a thousand years ago. They remained so for a long time. Scott tells† us that "the name of Kennedy held so great a sway [in that district] as to give rise to the popular rhyme,
"Twixt Wigton and the town of Air,
Portpatrick and the Cruives of Cree,
No man need think for to bide there,
Unless he court Saint Kennedie.'"
This district—the south-western corner of Scotland—remained, therefore, under the dominion of the race of Kennedy from the middle of the ninth century onward to very recent times: the designation of the first Kennedy, Cinaed, or Kenneth, becoming gradually fossilized, in that quarter, into
* Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. II. p. 600.
† In his preface to "The Ayrshire Tragedy."
a tribal name. The chiefs of those south-western Kennedys from 840-850 onward, were styled (it is stated) Thanes, or Kings of Carrick. A title, rooted so far down, naturally became overshadowed in course of time by the later creations of an incoming and successful Norman power,—until, at length, the Chiefs of those Kennedys were only remembered locally as Kings of Carrick. So lately as the dawn of the seventeenth century the holder of this position was known as "King of Carrick;" although there had only been one legitimate kingship in Scotland for several generations prior to that. The King of Carrick who preceded this one just referred to, is chiefly remembered by an act that reveals his ferocious nature. His attitude is best understood and defended, by bearing in mind that he held his lands—or believed that he held them—by right of a conquest preceding that of the Normans by four or five centuries: and that, therefore, deeds and grants proceeding from a race that did not come into power till the fourteenth century were only respected by him when it suited his arrangements. We are told that, "after he had, by forgery and murder, possessed himself of the abbacy of Glenluce, he cast his eye on Crossraguel,"—a neighbouring abbacy. Securing the person of the Commendator of that Abbey, he conveyed him to his castle of Dunure; the earliest stronghold of the Kennedy chiefs. In order to compel him to sign a feu charter conveying the Crossraguel lands to him—(the King of Carrick)—this savage chief caused his servants "to convey the commendator to the 'black vault of Dunure,' where a large fire was blazing, under a grit iron chimblay." "He then presented to him certain documents to sign, and, on his refusal, he commanded 'his cooks,' says the annalist, 'to prepare the banquet,' and so, first, they stripped the unhappy commendator, to his 'sark and doublet,' and next they bound him to the chimney, 'his legs to the one end and his arms to the other,' basting him well with oil, that 'the roast should not burn.' When nearly half roasted he consented to subscribe the documents, without reading or knowing what was contained in them." "And thus the earl obtained, in the indignant words of the describer of the scene, 'a fyve yeare tack' [lease] and a 19 yeare tack, and a charter of feu of all the landis of Croceraguall, with the clausses
necessaire for the erle to haist him to hell. For gif adulterie, sacriledge, oppressione, barbarous creweltie, and thift heaped upon thift diserve hell, the great king of Carrick can no more eschape hell for ever nor the imprudent abbott eschaped the fyre for a seasoune.'"
John Kennedy, the son and successor of this King of Carrick, was not very different in nature from his father. He "is remarkable chiefly for the slaughter of Gilbert Kennedy of Bargany." The Bargany branch was only second in importance to the Kings of Carrick themselves, and a constant vendetta seems to have been pursued, between these two septs. Hearing that the Bargany chief was about to go from Ayr to his house on the water of Girvan, with only a small following, the King of Carrick, attended by two hundred armed men "took his station at the Lady Corse, about half a mile north of Maybole." (This was in the year 1601.) Bargany soon appeared "at the Brochloch, on the opposite side of the valley;" but, when he saw the strength of the enemy, he "said to his men that he desired no quarrel, and accordingly led them down the left bank of the rivulet by Bogside, with the view of avoiding a collision." But his relentless foe "followed down the south side, and coming to some 'feal dykes,' which offered a good support for the fire-arms of his followers, he ordered them to discharge their pieces at Bargany and his men." Thus brought to bay, Bargany and his few followers fought with great courage, but he and two of them were killed. One of those who escaped—Mure of Auchindrane, the brother-in-law of the slain chief,—then set about plotting an act of revenge. This was consummated a few months later, the victim being the guardian of the King of Carrick (during his minority) and the actors being Mure and another of his name, along with the brother of the slain Kennedy, and five or six followers. These, having waylaid this kinsman of the King of Carrick, "assaulted and cruelly murdered him with many wounds. They then plundered the dead corpse of his purse, containing a thousand merks in gold, cut off the gold buttons which he wore on his coat, and despoiled the body of some valuable rings and jewels." So the vendetta went on. During the same year, the King of Carrick bribed his brother, Hugh
Kennedy of Browns'-town, "commonly called the master of Cassillis," by the promise of a yearly payment, to undertake the murder of Mure, the ringleader of his enemies. But this villain, after skulking about the west country for several years, and committing at least one more murder, was finally beheaded at Edinburgh, and his lands forfeited.*
These two Kings of Carrick seem to have been examples of atavism, or "throw-back," upon the most savage line of their ancestry. For their immediate predecessors, and successors, were men of a much higher quality. It is because they were, in disposition, true representatives of that "Egyptian" Kennedy, or Cinaed, who, in the year 844, "encountered the Picts seven times in one day, and having destroyed many, confirmed the kingdom to himself," that I have preferred to regard them under the title which he and they were known by—that of "King of Carrick." But the Cinaed of the year 1509 had received a new title from King James the Fourth of Scotland; one of whose advisers he was, and with whose ancestors his own forefathers had intermarried. The new title he received was not "Earl of Carrick;" because his family were not recognized as thanes of that territory by the Stewart power. "Earl of Carrick" was a Norman creation, and had been borne by Bruces and Stewarts, through whom it became a title of the Prince of Scotland (and, on the erection of the new monarchy of 1603, of the eldest son of the reigning British monarch). Accordingly, the Early-Scottish Kings or Thanes of Carrick, became, in 1509, the Norman-Scotch "Earls of Cassillis,"—that name being taken from one of their possessions in Carrick. But, though nominal Earls of Cassillis, those two occupiers of that position, who have just been glanced at; with their miserable clan-fights, their murders from behind "feal-dykes," and by hired assassins: their constant petty jealousies and wranglings, their treacherous robberies of land and goods, their "adulterie, sacriledge, oppressione, barbarous creweltie, and thift heaped upon thift," were in no way worthy of being regarded as noblemen and statesmen, but only as (what they were) the chiefs of a tribe of sixteenth-century Egyptians, or Scots Proper,—the kind
* See Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. I. p. 604; and Sir Walter Scott's Preface to "The Ayrshire Tragedy."
of people that the Stewart kings, and the best portion of their countrymen, were endeavouring to put down by enactments of the severest kind. If these two Kings of Carrick ever did figure in a higher attitude, it was because they could not wholly evade the duties of their rank. But in nature they were truculent "Egyptians;" and, for that reason, they ought to be regarded under their popular and traditional title. For, it must be remembered, they were not the actual possessors of the whole of the large district of Carrick. Their "kingship" had faded away long ago: though they were still called "kings." By the latter part of the sixteenth century—the date of these incidents—there was only one real king in the whole of Scotland. Those Kennedys were neither kings nor earls of Carrick: they were only the earls of Cassillis. But the first man ever distinguished by their name was King of the Scots of Carrick—then a race of conquerors. And, if those Kennedys were his descendants, they too were Kings of the Scots of Carrick,—by right of blood. But the Scots, as a distinct people, had long ago been overcome. The Scots of that very district of Carrick were those naked warriors, who, in the beginning of the fourteenth-century, had assailed the new Earl of Carrick, Robert Bruce, at the crossing of one of their own rivers: and, assail ing, they had been vanquished. And, as in this one instance, so throughout Scotland. The early kingdoms of Picts, Scoto-Picts, Scots, and Black-Danes, gave way before the advance of the national Scottish movement, initiated (though not for the first time) by Wallace and Bruce: the motive power of which was newer, and better, than that of the early Scots. From the time that the Norman Earl of Carrick gained the Scottish throne, the decay of the Scots of Carrick had begun. And, by the close of the sixteenth-century, their power was fast approaching its end. The best part of the various races of Scotland had, by this time, become welded into one nation: and the Nationalists would not tolerate the survival of ancient sovereignties and barbarous usages (though these had really formed the foundation of the new system). Statutes were framed every year with the aim of wholly stamping out those expiring kingships; and the system of force and oppression upon which they were
based. Scotland was, in short, becoming "respectable." By the year 1612, the modernized and hybrid Scots of the Borders who were distinguished by that name (Scott), finally agreed to repudiate those of their kindred who came under the designation of "common thieves and broken clans." By the year 1662, civilized Scotchmen spoke of the "Scots" and "mossers" as criminals and outlaws: as "felons—commonly known, or called by the name of moss-troopers:" as murderers and thieves: as "gypsies."* Therefore, although it had been once necessary for those living in the modern county of Wigtown, and the south of Ayrshire, to "court Saint Kennedie,"—in other words, to acknowledge the Kennedy supremacy,—that supremacy became less and less felt as the power of the Norman-Scottish Kings became consolidated. And when the last of these kings became the first king of United Britain, the blows dealt against such threadbare "kingships," as that of the Scots of Carrick, were rapid and decisive: resulting, as just observed, in the general outlawry of all who followed the customs of the Early Scots. With this effect, among others, that the threefold use of the term "Scot" (as distinguishing the general Scottish nation,—the mixed clan of "Scott,"—and the "mossers" of the south of Scotland), became contracted so as to bear only two meanings,—the designation of all North Britons, and of "Scott" families. While the marauding Scot became known chiefly by the name he had apparently always given to himself, the name of Egyptian.
Consequently, the "kingship" exercised by the Kennedys over the district of Western Galloway was the kingship of its "Egyptians," or "gypsies." But it was a kingship that had been one of a genuine kind. And, just as the Earl of Angus was admitted by the ruling party to have inherited the right of leading the van of the Scottish army (he being nominal
* Simson's "History," pp. 113, 201, note; and Scott's introduction to "The Minstrelsy." The identity of "thieves" with "gypsies" has already been shown. For example, when the chief of the Annandale Johnstones (gypsies) was hanged at Dumfries—about the year 1733—it was necessary that the execution should take place in front of the prison, and under the protection of a strong guard, because it was reported that "the thieves were collecting from all quarters" to effect a rescue. And it may be remembered that the severe statutes, formerly quoted, were enacted against "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians."
leader of the *dubh-glasses*, Moors, or Picts of Galloway, after the overthrow and outlawry of the real chiefs) so was the kingship of Carrick—quite an independent thing from the ownership of all that territory—held to be vested in that Kennedy line. In acknowledgment of which, the eighth Earl of Cassillis received the sum of eighteen hundred pounds in the year 1747, as compensation for the quasi-regal power possessed by his line; which power was abolished, with all others of that nature throughout Scotland, by the Act of Parliament passed in that year—for the purpose of preventing a second Culloden.
But the Earls of Cassillis—considered as such—were in the position of the Earls of Angus. In each case the substantial privileges of the line were possessed by the nominal representative of the man who had gained those privileges. But in the Angus case (at least) the nominal head of that line was only a *dubh-glass* in a very slight degree. The real, inveterate *dubh-glasses*—the main stem of the tree—were underfoot. In such a case, family honours, or those of a royal dynasty, do not utterly lapse, until there is no one left to claim them—a rare circumstance. But it often happens—and, plainly, in the Douglas instance it did happen—that the oldest wearers of the title have to give place to those in whom the claim of blood is less strong, or wholly absent. That this had been gradually happening in the case of the Kennedy chiefs, seems clear from the records of their marriages; and also from the characteristics of most of these chiefs, within historical times. For the two Kings of Carrick, who have been sketched, were quite exceptional Earls of Cassillis. Either that portion of the pedigree is at fault, or else they were, as suggested, reproductions of their earlier marauding Scot-Egyptian ancestors—those "shameless Irish robbers" who desolated the civilized portions of Early Britain. At any rate, the latter of these two was the last Earl of Cassillis who was a "King of Carrick"—in the earliest sense.
Who it was that took up the kingship of the Carrick Egyptians, when their nominal leaders rose to the higher duties of Scottish nobles,—cannot easily be ascertained. It is curious to notice that the Cassillis-Egyptian connection did not cease altogether with the death of the last "King of
Carrick." It was the wife of his successor, the sixth earl who eloped with the Faw leader, celebrated in the ballad. This event took place about the middle of the seventeenth century. But the lineage of the Countess's lover, John the Faw, has never been ascertained. It is important to notice how full of "gypsy" memories this Cassillis neighbourhood is.* The ford near the castle is called "the gypsies' steps:" and, from the word "steps," one may guess that it is not so much a ford as a crossing,—formed by large stones, placed at intervals,—a kind of crossing that antiquaries agree in ascribing to "Ancient Britons." Moreover, Cassillis is situated in the parish of Kirkmichael, and it was in that parish that the famous leader of the Galloway Picts of the eighteenth century was born,—"about the year 1671." And there was nothing in his history at variance with his birthplace. Because he was specially the King of the Scots of Carrick. The district that was particularly connected with one of his titles—"The Caird of Barullion"—lies in the south-eastern corner of Carrick, between "Portpatrick and the Cruives of Cree." He was more than King of the eighteenth-century Scots of Carrick: he was King of all the Scots and Picts in Galloway (of which Carrick is—or was—a part). And though Barullion was his most notable retreat,—he was (as Mactaggart tells us) almost as much in his own country when haunting the wilds of Cairns-moor, that lie to the south-east of the Cruives of Cree. While the extent of the territory over which he ranged—sorning for weeks at a time on the country lairds—was only limited by the limits of Galloway. Barullion, his peculiar haunt,—Kirkcudbright, the place of his burial,—and Kirkmichael, the place of his birth—denote, by their far-separated positions, the wideness of the territory over which he exercised
* And, therefore, of "black" memories. The district of Carrick teems with "black" localities, some of which have been previously given. Moors'-town, Morris-town, Dubh-glass-town, are in the centre of the Kennedy country; and such names as these abound in the neighbourhood—Dunduff (the Black Dun), Craigdow (the Black Craig), Dalduff (the Black Dale), Blackdales (another form of the preceding); while there are very many Black Burns, Black Lochs, and Black Craigs. The Devils' Dyke, or Picts' Dyke (and, therefore, the Moors', Blacks', Carrs', or Grims' Dyke), crosses the south of Carrick from west to east and there is another Black Dyke at its northern boundary, besides a stretch of marsh, called Airds' Moss.
a certain kind of influence. And the closing years of his life (sufficiently enlarged upon, already) have shown us something of the peculiar rank he held. Whatever his connection with the seventeenth-century Kennedys, this man had all the characteristics of a king of the Galloway Scots.
Though holding the hereditary position of Kings of the Scots of Carrick, and showing—in two notable instances—the fierce disposition of that race, the Kennedys of Cassillis may have had little of the Early-Scottish blood. They may have had as little of the "gypsy" in them as some of Mr. Simson's scarcely-to-be-recognized "gypsies": (such as Wilson of Stirlingshire). But though the Cassillis Kennedys ceased to be "gypsies," it was not so with all of their name. "The Battle of the Bridge" at Hawick, fought in 1772–3, was between Kennedys and Ruthvens on the one side, and Taits and Gordons on the other. Like that Kennedy of Bargany who was shot at from behind a "feal dyke," in the previous century, the chief of the Kennedys in this fight was "a handsome and athletic man." He is placed, in rank, as above all of his party, including his own father-in-law, "the Earl of Hell." "Battle" is rather a large name to give to this struggle, though no battle could have been fought more desperately. And most of the weapons used were only bludgeons, though some of the Kennedys' foes were armed with cutlasses, and other deadly weapons. Like their predecessors—the druidesses ("witches," or "female gypsies") of Anglesey—the women of either party fought as savagely as the men: the chieftainess, Jean Kennedy, being slashed all over with cutlass-strokes. It is stated that every one of the combatants "except Alexander Kennedy, the brave chief, was severely wounded; and that the ground on which they fought was wet with blood." Curiously enough, this battle was not decisive, although all of Kennedy's followers were beaten from the field, which he himself would not desert. "Posting himself on the narrow bridge of Hawick, he defended himself in the defile, with his bludgeon, against the whole of his infuriated enemies. His handsome person, his undaunted bravery, his extraordinary dexterity in handling his weapon, and his desperate situation (for it was evident to all that the Taits thirsted for his blood, and were determined to despatch
him on the spot), excited a general and lively interest in his favour, among the inhabitants of the town, who were present, and had witnessed the conflict with amazement and horror. In one dash to the front, and with one powerful sweep of his cudgel, he disarmed two of the Taits, and cutting a third to the skull, felled him to the ground. He sometimes daringly advanced upon his assailants, and drove the whole band before him, pell-mell. When he broke one cudgel on his enemies, by his powerful arm, the townspeople were ready to hand him another. Still, the vindictive Taits rallied, and renewed the charge with unabated vigour; and every one present expected that Kennedy would fall a sacrifice to their desperate fury. A party of messengers and constables at last arrived to his relief, when the Taits were all apprehended, and imprisoned; but, as none of the gipsies were actually slain in the fray, they were soon set at liberty."
"The hostile bands, a short time afterwards, came in contact in Ettrick Forest, at a place on the water of Teema, called Deephope. They did not, however, engage here; but the females on both sides, at some distance from one another, with a stream between them, scolded and cursed, and, clapping their hands, urged the males again to fight. The men, however, more cautious, only observed a sullen and gloomy silence at this meeting. . . . In the course of a few days, they again met in Eskdale Moor, when a second desperate conflict ensued. The Taits were here completely routed, and driven from the district, in which they had attempted to travel by force."
"The country people were horrified at the sight of the wounded Tinklers, after these sanguinary engagements. Several of them, lame and exhausted, in consequence of the severity of their numerous wounds, were, by the assistance of their tribe, carried through the country on the backs of asses; so much were they cut up in their persons. Some of them, it was said, were slain outright, and never more heard of. . . . These battles were talked of for thirty miles around the country. I have heard old people speak of them, with fear and wonder at the fierce, unyielding disposition of the wilful and vindictive Tinklers."*
* Simson's "History," pp. 190-193.
These rather long extracts have been made with the purpose of showing those who have not read Mr. Simson's graphic descriptions, the exact nature of those tribal wars. And the sanguinary engagements of these eighteenth-century Kennedys do not differ, in essence, from those of their forefathers of the previous centuries by a single hair's-breadth. Kennedy of Bargany, keeping the stream between him and his foes, because they were in greater force, or Kennedy of Cassillis, firing at Bargany and his men from behind the shelter of a "feal dyke," are only prototypes of Alexander Kennedy and his vindictive enemies, the Taits, at the Bridge of Hawick, or on either side the water of Teema. There is no real difference between the two sets of men. The Kennedys of the sixteenth century where they were pure Scots, were dubh-glasses, or men of swarthy skin: all of them, except the very chiefs, lived in turf-covered, conical wigwams, and "gypsy" tents—"the common building of their country:" they cooked their food as "gypsies": their superstitions, legends, and manners were those of "gypsies": they were "gypsies." The only distinction between the men of the two periods is one of degree. By the eighteenth century the savage, high-handed ideas of those robber races were almost wholly out of fashion; and the men who persisted in putting them into practice became degraded outlaws. Before their day the better qualities of their race had floated away from its most inveterate section, and were turned to higher and national uses. But the Kennedys, and such-like, of the sixteenth and those of the eighteenth centuries are almost identical. And, in either case, the forces of order eventually interfere, and measure out punishment to those offenders against civilization. In either scene there is a background of quiet, undemonstrative spectators,—"the country people" and "the town's people"—people who do not particularly care for bullying and cutting throats,—people who may possibly be styled poltroons and cowards; but who, from their very avoidance of warfare, have necessarily been the progenitors of the great majority of our present population. And although it is "a far cry" from the ninth century to the eighteenth, and there is little light in those dim regions to guide us, it is by no means improbable that the men who wrote down the wars
of the Scots and Picts,—who tell us how the gypsy Kennedy of the year 844 "encountered the Faws seven times in one day, and having destroyed many, confirmed the kingdom to himself,"—were as little akin to those Kennedys and Faws as are many of our living "gypsy" writers to the people they write about.
CHAPTER IV.
In speaking of "gypsies," however, one must discriminate. The greatest family of all the Scottish gypsies, says Mr. Simson, is that of Baillie. And the Baillies are white men: as their reputed ancestor, Baliol, King of Scotland, pretty surely was. Nevertheless, although more than one gypsio-
logist indicates that pure "gypsies" may be out-and-out white men, yet it is beyond question that the generally-accepted representative of that type of man is black-eyed, black-haired, swarthy-skinned. If we do not now say, like Penn, "as black as a gypsy," we at least say "as dark as a gypsy." And this—the main body of the class—is divided by Mr. Leland into two distinct sections: the one straight-haired, the other curly-haired; "the two indicating not a difference resulting from white admixture, but entirely different original stocks."
Those of us who are dark-whites, therefore, may represent—in a partial degree—either of these stocks; or both. ("Represent," only,—because the British population has so long been mingled that, as already stated, dark-whites and fair-whites are, often enough, brothers: and, while the dark brother is the modified representative of a swarthy ancestor, his fair-skinned brother is equally that ancestor's descendant.) Accordingly, any dark-white—or any man owning a dark-skinned, or black-haired progenitor cannot be regarded as altogether not akin to the conventional "gypsy;" whether of the ninth century or of the nineteenth. But it is probable that the men who wrote about the "black herds of Scots and Picts," and who designated the latter division, "nimble blackamoors" (as Claudian did), were themselves of almost—or wholly—white stock.
Whether the whites of Britain were always in the majority may be questioned. A mere handful of successful invaders
—being successful—might kill off the earlier races in great numbers: at first, in open warfare, and latterly by passing laws which awarded death to all those practising the religion and customs of the conquered people. Thus, although the British Islands, at the present day, contain many millions of fair-whites, and not a single pure black (of British descent), this fact does not predicate a similar distribution of colour at —say—the date of the Norman Conquest. At any rate, whatever the date of its ascendancy, and whatever the mode, it is clear that the white race (or races) gained the victory, physically, over the black. This is seen in the greater numbers of the former, at this time; in certain words which make "black" a term of reproach or contempt; and in the fact that the modern British tone is white. (Since the swarthiest Modern-Briton will talk of the Chinese as "yellow men," without reflecting that he himself is much darker than a Chinaman.) This physical ascendancy may, or may not, be the result of a white conquest. If the quasi-white conquerors of India—or, rather, if those of them now living in that Dependency—were to become wholly isolated from all other white races for five hundred years, the rulers of India in the twenty-fourth century might call themselves "British," and might speak something very like the present English speech, but the chances are that they would have lost many of the physical traits that now distinguish them. Indeed, this future ruling caste might be largely, or altogether, composed of one or other of the native races that at present occupy a subordinate position. Not by any sudden political movement, but by the bloodless victory that time and numbers bring about. An example of which we saw not very long ago, when an Indian Juarez ruled over the whole country that a semi-white race had conquered only three centuries earlier. What has happened in Mexico may easily happen in the India of the future,* or may have happened in the Britain of the past. A conquering race—white or black—may gain a temporary ascendancy; but, if numerically weak, it will certainly become quite lost in the subject race, in course of time; if the latter be not exterminated, or diminished by violence.
* So long as India remains a dependency of this country it will not, of course, form a case in point.
But, whether the victory was political or physical, the prevailing British tone, at the present day, is white. And this too, was the tone of the educated men, in remote centuries, who have been quoted. Therefore, there are grounds for believing that the historians of "gypsies"—then and now—need not themselves be regarded as much akin (if at all) to the fierce, swarthy races they describe. Not although those races were actually the temporary rulers of the country.
"Gypsy" has, however, been used in its conventional sense,—in the last two or three paragraphs. That is, it has been taken to denote a dusky, black-eyed, black-haired people. But "gypsy" seems capable of infinite dissection. The royal Lochgellie, Fifeshire gypsies, hold their heads (or once did) above all other gypsies in their neighbourhood. These again were made up of layer under layer, each of which may represent a separate phase of history, and of race. And over-lording all the heterogeneous mass of conventional, dark-skinned gypsies, there is (in Scotland) the ruling caste of the Baillies—who are whites.
As these Baillies are apparently no other than the Norman Balliols, it seems unnecessary to call them "gypsies." Being Normans, they were certainly not Egyptians. Their supremacy is of a much more recent date than that of any Scot or Pict. The Baillie chiefs look down with the greatest contempt upon the dusky Pictish tribes that their ancestors subdued. The date of the Baillie supremacy is the date of the Norman Conquest, and the "gypsy" Baillies are stunted Normans. To admit this is to take the first step toward ascertaining the "gypsy" pedigrees, which are manifold and various.
There is thus really nothing—on consideration—to connect this tribe with the black-eyed, black-skinned sections of the "gypsy" classes; the naked Picts of history. No kinship, that is to say. The common bond of outlawry has placed them all on the same level in the eyes of the Moderns; and it is possible that, in course of time, they have also occasionally forgotten the restrictions of caste. But the pure tory Baillie is simply the embodiment of certain phases of the character of the Norman chief. The distinction between him
(at his best; not nowadays—when, if he exists,* it is as a poverty-stricken outcast,) and his kinsman, the civilized Baillie, is the difference between the meaning of the adjectives cavalier and chivalrous. Both have the same origin, but they have come to denote very different attributes.
After all, then, we do not get very far back by examining the Baillie lineage: if we want to learn more, we must look at the tribes that underlie them. These are really all comprehended under the denomination Faws. Or, at least, they ought to be.
The habitat of the Faws (so-called, latterly,) is delineated by Mr. Simson in these words: "It would appear that the district in which the Faw tribe commonly travelled comprehended East-Lothian, Berwickshire and Roxburghshire; and that Northumberland was also part of their walk." He adds—"I can find no traces of gipsies, of that surname, having, in families, traversed the midland or western parts of the south of Scotland, for nearly the last seventy years; and almost all the few ancient public documents relative to this clan seem to imply that they occupied the counties above mentioned." As the statement of a man who has preserved a great deal of most valuable information, regarding the lapsed classes of Scotland,—information which was the result of close personal observation,—this statement has a certain value. But, unfortunately, it does not reach very far back. The name of the faw kirk, beside the graemes' town, in the fens of what is now Stirlingshire, indicates the presence of the Faws in that district also; which, from many other sources, we are aware was once Pictish territory. In fact, wherever the word fah signified "of various colours," there were the painted "gypsy" classes denominated "Faws." Moreover, we know that the "Moors" of Galloway were Picts up till the very close of the eighteenth century. It is possible that such ruddled tribes as those of Galloway were not painted "of various colours," and, therefore, were not Faws: (though
* Although the Scottish Gypsies are spoken of in these pages in the present tense, the remarks made with regard to them ought to be held to apply to the period at which the elder Simson wrote. An examination of any vestiges that may yet remain of Scottish Gypsydom would, in all probability, show that little is left of those characteristics and of that state of society which Mr. Simson described.
it has; hitherto, seemed scarcely necessary to make this distinction between the two terms). Be this as it may, it is clear that the Faws were not confined to the district limited by Mr. Simson.
The territory marked out by their historian as that within which the reigning Faws exercised jurisdiction includes the counties of Haddington, Roxburgh, Berwick, and Northumberland. There is no doubt that the last of these was distinctly a Faw district. Francis Heron, the Faw king who died in 1756, was buried at Jarrow, on the southern shore of the Tyne estuary. Wilson, in speaking of the bardic clan of the Allans, the gypsy bagpipers already referred to, tells us they were Northumbrians and Faws. If he does not distinctly say so in so many words, he does so inferentially. Besides, he gives as his impression that "the 'muggers' of the present day belong to the Faa aristocracy:" and the Allans were muggers; according to Dr. John Brown, whose dog "of the pure Piper Allan's breed" is styled "the mugger's dog." Wright, in his Provincial Dictionary, broadly defines a Faw as "an itinerant tinker, potter, &c.;" while Halliwell seems to limit the term to Cumberland. Wright's definition is the most correct, because even so lately as Grose's time, all "gypsies" were accustomed to "artificially discolour their faces." But, without farther hair-splitting as to whether the muggers (potters) constituted the ruling caste of all the Border Faws, or as to the exact date at which the term Faw died out in this or that district,—it is evident that Mr. Simson is mainly right in associating the name, in later times, with the territory he circumscribes.
The division of the country into various provinces is a feature of "gypsydom" that is more than once pointed out. When "the distinguished northern poet, Walter Scott, who is Sheriff of Selkirkshire," sent in his report to Mr. Hoyland, he made this remark, with respect to the Scottish "gypsies," generally: "They are said to keep up a communication with each other through Scotland, and to have some internal government and regulation as to the districts which each family travels." And he indicates something of this kind when he quotes the seventeenth-century author, Martin, (he who "conceived" the wandering Cairds, or Jockies of Scotland,—pipers and harpers—"to be descended from the ancient bards")—to this effect:—"One of them told me there were not now above twelve of them in the whole isle; but he remembered when they abounded, so as at one time he was one of five that usually met at St. Andrews." The dubh-chis, or "black tribute" that they levied in their days of power is another evidence of this. It is not to be supposed that John Gunn and his Aberdeenshire "black watch" would permit the Captain of an Argyleshire band to finger a penny of the yearly "watch-money" that was paid by the lairds and farmers of Aberdeenshire; or that he would calmly allow the Cairds of another district to encroach upon his territory. And the Taits, we have seen, were ultimately expelled from the country of the Kennedys, "in which they had attempted to travel by force." In speaking of the horner caste of "gypsies," Mr. Simson remarks:—"Some of the principal families of these nomadic horner bands have yet districts on which none others of the tribe [that is of the tory castes] dare encroach." And, regarding the Scottish "gypsies" in general, he makes the following most pregnant statements:
"These curious people stated to me that Scotland was at one time divided into districts, and that each district was assigned to a particular tribe. The chieftains of these tribes issued tokens to the members of their respective hordes, 'when they scattered themselves over the face of the country.' The token of a local chieftain protected its bearer only while within his own district. If found without this token, or detected travelling in a district for which the token was not issued, the individual was liable to be plundered, beaten, and driven back into his own proper territory by those gipsies on whose rights and privileges he had infringed. These tokens were, at certain periods, called in and renewed, to prevent any one from forging them. They were generally made of tin, with certain characters impressed upon them; and the token of each tribe had its own particular mark, and was well known to all the gipsies in Scotland. But while these passes of the provincial chieftains were issued only for particular districts, a token of the Baillie family protected its bearer throughout the kingdom of Scotland; a fact which clearly proves the superiority of that ancient clan. Several gipsies
have assured me that 'a token from a Baillie was good over all Scotland, and that kings and queens had come of that family.' And an old gipsy also declared to me that the tribes would get into utter confusion were the country not divided into districts, under the regulations of tokens."
Here, then, is a most vivid illustration of what has been said on a previous page. By sheer force of tradition the modern Picts of Scotland have preserved the memory of a state of things which the eminent historian of the ancient Picts has lately presented to us. What the latter has ascertained by painful and scholarly research, the former could have told him as an indisputable, inherited truth. Scoto-Pictish Scotland, says Mr. Skene, was once partitioned off into various provinces. According to one account, Transmarine Scotland, or Scotland north of the Scythian Valley (the basin of the modern River Forth), was divided into seven provinces, each of which was made up of two districts. These had their respective kings and sub-kings. So lately as the tenth century three of these provinces were wholly "black;" and the supreme ruler of these became, for a time, the paramount king of Transmarine Scotland: being known to history as Kenneth, Cin-aed, Kennedy, Niger, Dubh, or The Black, "of the three black divisions." Whether The White, who eventually displaced him, was in any way the ancestor of the royal, white-skinned Balliol line (who may at the same time have been Normans,—or earlier Nor'-men) can only be a matter of conjecture: though not an improbability.
These divisions do not include Southern Scotland. And, possibly, the long-standing rivalry between the Faw chiefs (whose country, as described by Mr. Simson, is very like ancient Northumbria) and the Baillies—for the kingship of the tories of Scotland—may be properly regarded as the clashing of "Transmarine Scotland" with the important kingship that stretched from the Forth to the Humber. While the Galloway confederacy may have had an origin independent of either. But these, being matters of speculation, need not be longer dwelt upon.
Of the use of these passes, or tokens, we have some interesting instances in modern times. (Of the tory passes—that is to say—the ordinary documentary passport being the modern
outcome of this custom.) In Mr. Simson's chapter on the "gypsies" of the county of Linlithgow, we are told that two local chiefs, "McDonald and Jamieson, like others of the superior classes of gipsies, gave tokens of protection to their particular friends of the community generally. The butchers of Linlithgow, when they went to the country, with money to buy cattle, frequently procured these assurances from the gipsies. The shoemakers did likewise, when they had to go to distant markets with their shoes. Linlithgow appears even to have been under the special protection of these banditti. Mr. George Hart, and Mr. William Baird, two of the most respectable merchants of Bo'ness, who had been peddlers in their early years, scrupled not to say that, when travelling through the country, they were seldom without tokens from the gipsies." Again,—it is said, that "the gipsies gave passes or tokens to some of their particular favourites who were not of their own race" (that is, of their own way of living); and that one particular chief,—of a Stirlingshire gang—not only "issued tokens to the members of his own tribe," but, "besides these regular gipsy tokens, he, like many of his nation, gave tokens of protection to his particular friends of the community at large."
This chief, last referred to,*—a "principal gipsy" of Stirlingshire, but "closely connected by blood with the Fife bands,"—is stated to have been "of that rank that entitled him to issue tokens to the members of his tribe." And the two Linlithgowshire chiefs, above-mentioned, possessed the
* "The name of this chief was Charles Wilson, and his place of residence at one time was Raploch, close by Stirling Castle, where he possessed some heritable property in houses. He was a stout, athletic, good-looking man, fully six feet in stature, and of a fair complexion; and was, in general, handsomely dressed, frequently displaying a gold watch, with many seals attached to its chain. In his appearance he was respectable, very polite in his manners, and had altogether little or nothing about him which, at first sight, or to the general public, indicated him to be a gipsy. But, nevertheless, I was assured by one of the tribe, who was well acquainted with him, that he spoke the language, and observed all the customs, and followed the practices of the gipsies. . . . This gipsy chief died within these thirty-five years [say, about 1810–15] in his own house on the castle hill at Stirling, whither he had removed from Raploch. It is stated that for a considerable time before his death he relinquished his former practices, and died in full communion with the church."
This, again, is one of those "gypsies" of the Baillie order. A gentleman in dress and bearing, and belonging to the class of "fair whites."
same privilege, "like others of the superior classes of gipsies."
"But while these passes of the provincial chieftains were issued only for particular districts, a token of the Baillie family protected its bearer throughout the kingdom of Scotland." In other words, a Baillie token was a royal warrant: the passes of the other ruling families were those of subordinate kinglets. "If found without this token, or detected travelling in a district for which the token was not issued, the individual was liable to be plundered, beaten, and driven back into his own proper territory, by those gipsies on whose rights and privileges he had infringed."
These tokens, it is said, "were generally made of tin, with certain characters impressed upon them; and the token of each tribe had its own particular mark, and was well known to all the gipsies in Scotland." They were not invariably of tin. There is a story told of a Dumfriesshire carrier of the early part of last century, who encountered the head of the royal Baillies one evening at a country inn. "This man, once, in returning from Edinburgh, stopt at Broughton, and in coming out of the stable he met a man, who asked him if he knew him. Robert, after looking at him for a little, said: 'I think you are Mr. Baillie.' He said, 'I am,' and asked if Robert could lend him two guineas, and it should be faithfully repaid. As there were few people who wished to differ with Baillie, Robert told him he was welcome to two guineas, or more if he wanted it.... [The money being accepted,] Baillie then gave him a kind of brass token, about the size of a half-crown, with some marks upon it, which he desired him to carry in his purse, and it might be of use to him some time, as he was to show it, if any person offered to rob him. Baillie then mounted his horse and rode off." The story goes on to say, that some time afterwards this man was accosted by two suspicious looking men, while travelling through an out of the way district. "But recollecting his token, he said a gentleman had once given him a piece of brass, to show, if ever any person troubled him. They desired him to show it, as it was moonlight. He gave it to them. On seeing it, they looked at one another, and then, whispering a few words, told him it was well for him he had the token, which they
returned; and they left him directly." Now this was a Baillie token, and good for the whole of Scotland; so it is possible that, being such, it was made of a different metal from the ordinary counters, which were of tin. But the chief feature of the token was the writing impressed upon it. These circular counters were plainly the orthodox style of pass,—but any other article could be transformed into one, by the marking of certain characters upon it. This is exemplified in two or three other incidents, similar to that just related. And Mr. James Simson plainly states: "A pen-knife, a snuff-box, and a ring are some of the gipsy passports. It is what is marked upon them that protects the bearer from being disturbed by others of the tribe."
What *was* marked upon them? It is too likely that not one of these tokens is now extant. The unceasing persecution of "gypsies," generation after generation; the numerous statutes enacted against "sorners, masterful beggars, and such like runners about;" the belief, so often acted upon, that they "might lawfully be destroyed, without any judicial inquisition, as who carry their own condemnation about them"; all these—down to the milder laws of recent days—have most effectually done their work. No civilized man can regret the result, however harshly attained; but such a complete effacement of an ancient polity must be a source of sorrow to all of the Dryasdust clan. That these characters impressed upon the tokens of the Scoto-Pictish kinglets were of the same kind as those which Bishop Nicolson saw in the "book of spells, and magical receipts, taken, two or three days before, in the pocket of one of our moss-troopers,"*—may be regarded as extremely probable. It is true that the bishop regarded these "barbarous characters" as derived from the black Danes, being "very near akin to Wormius's Ram Runer, which, he says, differed wholly in figure and shape from the common runæ."
* Referred to in a previous chapter, and quoted from the Introduction to "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border." Bishop Nicolson cites this "book of spells" as a proof that the Border mossers, or marsh-dwellers, or bog-trotters of his day were not "utter strangers to the black art of their forefathers." It may be remembered that, in this "book of spells," "among many other conjuring feats, was prescribed a certain remedy for an ague, by applying a few barbarous characters to the body of the party distempered."
Whatever they were, it is plain they were unintelligible to a man of mere Latin training. If they were black-Danish, their use in Scotland must have been more recent than the Pictish, or the later Scoto-Pictish dominion. But "Gypsydom" ranges from a quite recent period back to an undefinable limit; and it is within the bounds of possibility that the "particular mark" of each tribe differed in origin from each of the others. But this is much less likely than that all the tribal tokens bore a legend, stamped in "common runæ," and that the "particular mark" was only the totem of the clan. And, since the bulk of the "gypsy" classes seem, by complexion and other characteristics, to belong to the race of Egyptians (Scots) and Moors (Picts), it is probable that the prevailing character of these symbols was of the kind intimated by Boece; who, writing of the Auld Mannieres of Scottis, says—"In all their secret business they usit not to write with common letteris usit among other peplis, but erer with sifars, and figures of beistis maid in maner of letteris; sic as thair epitaphis and superscriptions above thair sepulturis scheu." And that the determined—and excusable—persecution of these Scottish Egyptians (whose alternative title of Scot gradually floated away from its original possessors, and became the national designation of the hybrid Scotch people);—and the attitude which the best part of the Scotch people eventually reached,—namely, the regarding of a "habit and repute Egyptian" as the equivalent of everything shiftless, savage, and irreconcilable;—gave rise to the state of things that Boece indicates when he adds:—"noch-the-less this crafty maner of writing, be quhat slenth I can not say, is perist, and yet they have certaine letteris propir amang themself, quilkis war some time vulgar and common." That this assumption is correct, there is no reason to doubt. For Boece, born at Dundee, in the fifteenth century, of a family that had been landowners in Forfarshire for four or five generations, wrote as a Scotchman—not as a Scot: when he spoke of the Scots he used the third person (though his own family-tree may quite easily have contained pure Scots, as well as Normans, Angles, Danes, Moray-men, and all the ingredients that compose a Scotchman). And it is quite evident that he had in view
a distinct division of the people of Scotland; the same division—there can be no question—as that spoken of by the Scotch writer in the *Mercurius Politicus* of the year 1662,* when, writing from Edinburgh, he relates that "the Scots and moss-troopers have again revived their old custom, of robbing and murthering the English." That this man writes in the broad spirit of a Modern Briton (using "English" only as a convenient designation for the southern portion of his fellow-countrymen) is proved by his added statement that "a Scotchman, who was with them [the English]," escaped from the clutches of these Scots, to tell the tale. Therefore when Boece, and his fellow-Scotchman, Leslie, described the ancient manners of the Scots, it is an absolute certainty that they had in view the Egyptians of Scotland. And, consequently, the "barbarous characters" that neither Bishop Nicolson, nor the peaceful traders and hinds who received those passes could read, must have been mainly (if not wholly) those "sifars and figures of beistis maid in maner of letters" that the Egyptian-Scots had made use of from the earliest times. In short, they were Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Farther, the symbols and pictures that are carved upon the well-known "sculptured stones of Scotland," must be the work of the same Egyptian people. Boece distinctly says so:—"In all their secret business, they (the Egyptians of Scotland) used not to write with common letters used among other peoples, but formerly with cyphers, and figures of beasts made in manner of letters; such as their epitaphs and superscriptions above their sepultures show." That the "Sculptured Stones" are of a sepulchral nature is what all the best modern antiquaries are agreed upon: and here is a fifteenth-century writer stating as a matter of course that the sculptors were the Early Egyptians of Scotland.
Whatever of uncertainty and error may attach to the conclusions reached in the foregoing pages, now, at any rate, we are on solid ground. Ethnology tells us that one stream of Modern British blood has come down from a common source with that of the aboriginal people of Egypt. Tra-
* Formerly quoted. The extract is given by Sir Walter Scott in his Introduction to the "Minstrelsy" (Murray's reprint, London, 1869, p. 27, note).
dition states that our islands were overrun, at an early period, by swarthy marauding tribes;—of which one section alleged its descent from the daughter of a Pharaoh, from whom they took their name of *Scot*: that word, therefore, becoming synonymous with "vagabond,"—in the speech of the Celtic peoples who tried to repel these invaders. This name of *Scot* did not cease, until (at most) two centuries ago, to designate one particular division of the people of North Britain; although, by a common freak of nomenclature, it also became identified with the heterogeneous Scottish nation.* And that particular division was composed of those dusky, ferocious, pagan, and magic-working Egyptians, whose ideas and practices the more peaceable and civilized of the Scottish people have always regarded with abhorrence. For which reason, this element of semi-Christianity (though doing the greatest violence to its professed creed) continually fought against and eventually persecuted and hunted down all those who perversely remained "habit and repute Egyptians:" so that that title was at length equivalent to "outlaw" and "criminal," and its bearer liable to be killed without mercy. The name of "Egyptian"—loosely and erroneously given to a whole class—is still claimed by certain of the
* We still find it convenient to use the name of a long-defunct kingdom when speaking of Scotland, and to designate those of us who are born within its limits as Scotchmen, or Scotsmen. These are slightly-different pronunciations of Scottish-men or Scottis-men: the former being the equivalent of the modern sound of Inglis, which we now call English. When Archdeacon Barbour wrote of Scottis-men, and Boece of the Scottis, they may have pronounced the word as Scottish, Scotch, or Scots. That Barbour used "Scottis" in its widest sense is clear; and when he spoke of the Scots (Proper) of Galloway, he called them "Galloways." But, like "Englishman" (of this century) and "American," the words Scottish, Scots, &c., must have meant very different things in different mouths. Mr. Skene ("Celtic Scotland," Vol. II. pp. 460-462) tells us that about the twelfth century "the name applied to the Gaelic language of Scotland was that of Scotic or Scotch"; but that, while Barbour denominated his language "the Ingli: toung" (and it is almost identical with what we still call English), Gavin Douglas, writing in 1516, "in the same Lowland dialect," terms it "Scottés," or Scotch. And the miscellaneous natives of Galloway, who—referring to Barbour's "Galloways"—style them "the wild Scots of Galloway," lay claim to the general title of Scots themselves. There has, therefore, been a great diversity of meaning attached to this epithet, as there is to-day in the two parallel instances just cited. Nevertheless, the various references in the foregoing pages show very plainly that a distinction between the Scot Proper and the Scot General has long been observed.
VOL. II.
Scottish "gypsies," who believe themselves to be "Pharaoh's folk." As gypsies and faws, they were—till quite lately—dictators of the whole of Scotland; so far as concerned the safety of travellers passing through the various provinces into which they had divided that country; each province the home of a certain tribe, and obeying the laws of its tribal chief,—and all the provinces and all those tribal chiefs recognizing the supremacy of one ruling family. As Egyptians, or Scots, and Moors, or Picts,—precisely the same thing is recorded of them: except, that, under these names, they had undoubted power and a historical position. As gypsies, we have seen that each tribe protected the infringement of its territory by a system of passes, issued by the higher castes; and there may yet be proof that this custom was in full force during the historic age of the Scoto-Pictish kingdom,—as, manifestly, it must have been. The writing upon these tokens was illegible to men of modern English education,—and was only so many "barbarous characters" in the eyes of a bishop, of presumed latinity. "In all their secret business," these gypsies "used not to write with common letters used among other peoples." We do not actually know that the characters impressed upon such tribal tokens were "cyphers, and figures of beasts made in manner of letters:" though this is very probable. We do know, however, that the swarthy dwellers in the Hebridean wigwams of last century wore, upon their persons, broad plates of silver or brass, "curiously engraved with various animals, &c.;" and we do know that, prior to the fifteenth century, the "cyphers and figures of beasts made in manner of letters," which the Scots Proper of that period made use of in their "secret business," were identical with those composing the "epitaphs and superscriptions" above their tombs. And this confronts us with the Sculptured Stones of Scotland.
These have been sketched, their inscriptions transcribed and deeply studied, and the result of these studies published—by men of great linguistic and antiquarian knowledge: who are, indeed, the only kind of men qualified to discuss such a subject. There are, of course, differences of opinion as to their meaning, and their probable age. On this last
point, Colonel Forbes Leslie makes these remarks:* "The sandstone, on which so many of the Roman inscriptions taken from the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus are graven, is not to be compared in durability to Aberdeenshire granite; yet Roman inscriptions carry us back sixteen or seventeen hundred years. There is therefore no limit within the historical or even the traditional period to which sculptures in Aberdeenshire granite need be restricted, so far as depends on arguments founded on the wasting effect of atmospheric action on the surface of the stone. By far the greatest number, and those of most interest in the sculptured stones, in which there is no Christian emblem, are found in Aberdeenshire, and are of Aberdeenshire granite." Against this, however, must be placed the effects of time, in raising the superficies of the earth (principally through the agency of worms,—we have lately been told): thereby rendering it improbable that an upright stone would be visible at the present day, had it been reared at a very remote period.
The sculptured stones of Scotland,—dotted here and there over the country, are found in greatest numbers in the north-eastern district. Of their inscriptions, it is said:† "Some of these emblems indisputably, and all of them probably, are of Oriental derivation." "The most remarkable of these are the double disc; double disc and sceptre; crescent; crescent and sceptre; altar; altar and sceptre and hawk; serpent; serpent and sceptre; elephant; horse; bull; boar; bird of prey; human figure with dog's head; fish; dog's head; horseshoe arch; mirror; mirror-case; comb; comb-case, etc." To these may be added lions, apes, camels, dragons and other "monsters," and the inter-linked loop known as "Solomon's Seal."
As these are admittedly sepulchral monuments, the most natural explanation of such devices is that they were the badges or totems of the dead. Thus the crescent would be the proper emblem for one of the many moss-trooping "thieves" or "gypsies" of the Border country; of whom Scott says that the heavenly bodies formed their favourite crests. The dog's head would represent any one of that dog-headed battalion of the clan of the "King of Rualay"—
* "Early Races of Scotland," chapter xv. † Ibid.
already noticed: the bull, such a man as the bovine-headed figure of the Céland sculptures, or the cow's-skin-clad tinker of Cornish tradition, or any one of the "Calves" and "Heifers" of Sutherlandshire: the serpent, any native of Edder-dale: the boar, such a warrior as the fifteenth-century "black-skinned boar" of the Hebrides: and the horse, such a "giant with horse's ears" as that one slain at the battle near Ballybeg Abbey, County Cork, "in the time of all the battles." In this way, the lion would indicate the grave of one of the race of "Dubh of the three black divisions;" and the elephant, one of the progenitors of the Olifant clan; both of these tribes having borne such cognizances. And the dragon might fitly be carved upon the tombstone of any one of the "Sons of Uisneach,"—who are remembered as "the three dragons of Dunmonadh." The addition of the sceptre might be taken to denote that a king was buried below: while the altar may possibly bear reference to a priest.
It is doubtful to what extent the drawings of animals—now strangers to Britain—are tests of the foreign extraction of the artists. Although camels were not familiar objects in this country at the date of the Norman Conquest, or soon after, they were not unknown. The Irish Annals record that, in the year 1105, "a camel, which is an animal of wonderful size, was presented by the King of Alban to Murcertac O'Brian." And, no doubt, it was not the only one imported. Besides this, it is sometimes argued that, because the elephants carved upon Scottish monoliths show, by their grotesque outlines, that the artist had never seen a living elephant,—therefore, the forefathers of such a man belonged originally to a warmer climate than that of Britain. This, however, need not have been the case. The artist may have learned, incorrectly enough, the appearance of an elephant,—and that by tradition,—although his ancestors had inhabited Britain for an illimitable period. Mr. Bonwick has some remarks bearing closely upon this. "A human skull, near Falkirk (he states*), was discovered twenty feet below the surface, and associated with the fossil elephant. In Essex such remains have been side by side with the hippopotamus and rhinoceros, which then roamed about all England. At
* "The Daily Life of the Tasmanians," pp. 219, 220.
Curragh, an older Irishman than the Celt hunted after what we call the fossil elk. The Betages, or slaves of the Celts, may have been his descendants." In the limestone caves of Denbighshire, the skeletons of men are found beside those of the hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, lion, hyena, bear, and reindeer. No one can tell at what date the last lion, elephant, or hippopotamus of the British Islands was seen and slain. If tradition is to be believed, the last-named of these was of very recent date (comparatively speaking): for the Celtic legends are full of stories of water-horses and water-bulls. (But as this may have another, and wholly different explanation—this point need not be pressed.) At any rate, it is not impossible that descendants of the men who hunted the living British elephant may have incised its likeness—though not very faithfully—upon pillars of Aberdeen granite. There is indeed a curious hint of such a traditional elephant, in the form of the supporters of the Oliphant shield. The earliest known chief of this tribe seems to have been a David de Oliphant, one of those twelfth-century Scottish barons who accompanied King David of Scotland in his unsuccessful invasion of England. Likely enough, this David (of Oliphant) was a Norman. But the people of the district over which he ruled may have been British for countless generations. At any rate, the supporters of that shield—"two elephants proper"—are, according to a very carefully-drawn representation of the year 1826,* delineated with tufts of shaggy hair upon the haunch; unlike any elephant that a modern herald could have seen, though suggestive of some animal that had not lost all resemblance to the hairy mammoth.
Accordingly, those creatures on the Scottish monuments need not of necessity be exotic,—though strangers to this country for a long period. But with regard to others of the inscriptions, there is no doubt. "Some of these emblems indisputably . . . . are of Oriental derivation," says Colonel Forbes Leslie. And a more recent authority,† speaking less dogmatically, but with conviction, has expressed the opinion that the inscriptions upon the "Newton Stone," in the Garioch,
* Given in "The Pocket Peerage of Scotland," Edinburgh, 1826.
† Lord Southesk, in a paper read before the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 11th December, 1882.
Aberdeenshire, form a compound of Oriental and Western ideas, beliefs, and languages. And among these elements, he includes the Egyptian.
Inscriptions of this variety are not emblematic, but are written in various recognized characters. That one stone, such as the Newton Stone, should bear on its surface an inscription that unites Greek with Irish, Gothic, and Egyptian, is extremely probable. Whatever the origin of an incoming race, it could not possibly preserve its distinctive features for several centuries, unaffected in the slightest degree by the customs of those with whom it came in contact. Though the Egyptian-Scots were at first "somewhat different in manners" from the painted Moors who were their allies in the invasion of South Britain, such an alliance would of itself result in a blending of ideas, of manners, of speech, and of blood. And this again would be affected by the invasions of later races. Therefore, when a man's investigations lead him to see a mixture of several languages and creeds in one individual inscription, on a Scottish monument, the likelihood is that his conjectures are pretty correct.
The belief in an Eastern origin of certain intra-British languages and peoples is very old, and very old-fashioned. There is, I believe, a mass of presumptive evidence in its favour—in what is called the Gaelic language. Those of us who know little or nothing of Gaelic can guess at its heterogeneous character, from the fact (already noticed) that when Shaw's "Gaelic" dictionary was brought out a hundred years ago, it was pronounced by others of his fellow-countrymen to be something that was not Gaelic, whatever it was. And it was also noticed that an eminent living student of Scottish Gaelic has stated that that form in use a few centuries ago was very different from that spoken and written at the present day. In whatever part of the world—and at whatever epoch—"the language of the white men" reached maturity, it is plain that it has become greatly altered, in various places, and in varying degrees, by amalgamation with other forms of speech. "Black speech," for example. A last-century archaeologist,* with what correctness I do not
* A contributor to the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy for the year 1788.
know, makes these statements regarding this question: "If they [the inhabitants of ancient Scotia, now Ireland] had not an intercourse in former days with the Phœnicians, Egyptians and Persians, how is it possible so many hundreds of words, so many idioms of speech, so many technical terms in the arts of those ages, could have been introduced into the old Irish dialect? . . . . What people, the Egyptians and Irish excepted, named the harp or music ouini, Irish Aine . . . . What people in the world, the Orientalists and the Irish excepted, call the copy of a book the son of a book, and echo the daughter of a voice? With what northern nation, the Irish excepted, can the Oriental names of the tools and implements of the stone-cutter, the carpenter, the ship-builder, the weaver be found? And with what people, the old Irish and Egyptians excepted, does the word Ogham signify a book, and the name of Hercules or Mercury?" If only one half of these queries be grounded on positive truth, the connection between the old East and the later West is most distinctly proved by the evidence of language.
These are questions that belong to Egyptology rather than to Gypsyology—though it is difficult to say where the one begins and the other ends. And as "gypsies" are of all races, so are these references to Persians and Phoenicians not out of place. For, like gypsy, Egyptian must be taken to include a good deal: Assyrian, Jewish, Chaldean; as well as Phœnician and Persian. The "black art" (dubh-chleasachd) of the conjurers and "magicians" (druidhean*) of Early Britain, was regarded by Pliny as almost identical with that practised by the magi of Persia. And the "enchanters," "magicians," and "wise-men," attached to the court of the Pharaoh mentioned in the Book of Exodus, were akin to both of these, in custom. The Liuth Messeath, and the Fodhan Morain, worn by the druidhean of Ancient Scotia, were—it has been observed—identical with the breastplates and the Urim and Thummim of Jewish and Chaldee priests: which
* The name of one of these magicians, Dearg or Dargo, indicates a history similar to that of the word ruadh, which means both "red" and "dusky." Dearg nan Druidhean, as he was called, was literally—The Red One of the Magicians. In Gaelic dictionaries (as we have seen) this word is translated "red"; but when it is called an Anglo-Saxon word, it is translated "dark": and it is so spelled nowadays, and has this meaning, in what we call "English."
is not at all remarkable if those priests of Ireland were Early Scots,—that is, Egyptians. The hieroglyphical tablets of the Early Scots, their long "glibbed" tresses, and the ruddle with which they smeared their dusky faces, may all be matched in Egypt and Assyria. While such varieties of the "magic," just referred to, as sun-worship, serpent-worship, astrology, and soothsaying or fortune-telling; and also the customs of passing children "through the fire to Baal,"* and the burying of the dead in sarcophagi,+ are as much the property of the British Islands as of the East.
And most of these properties have remained longest in the possession of those Tory classes,—commonly called gypsies. The divining-rod with which the magician at the court of the Pharaohs performed his incantations was swayed also by the British druidh.‡ And by the ban-druidh, female gypsy, or witch, also: and, just as this modern sibyl of the hedgerows refuses to prophesy unless her palm is crossed with silver, so have her kidney done in Britain as far back as the days of Cæsar.§ Like these also, she pretends to gain her prophetic knowledge from the stars. Thimble-rigging,—the peculiar property of those classes who, in Mr. Leland's opinion, are more or less of gypsy blood, and who, according to Mr. Simson, are distinctly gypsies,—is of Egyptian origin,—or, at least, was a practice
* Some modern authorities (both Mr. Skene and Dr. Hill Burton, I think, and perhaps others) agree in deciding that the word Beltane, Bel-teinne, or Bealtine—popularly translated "Baal-fire"—is not connected with the name of the god Baal. If this be the case, the similarity of name is only a coincidence. But the name is of little importance: it is beyond question that the ceremony of passing children through the fire was quite commonly practised in Britain a thousand years ago, and survived in some parts of the country up till last century. (For remarks upon this, and instances adduced, see, for example, Colonel Forbes Leslie's "Early Races," pp. 113-115.)
† How common this custom was in this country we cannot tell, the questionable practice of opening our ancient burial-mounds being yet in its infancy. But there is, at least, one instance of the discovery of sarcophagi—namely, in the neighbourhood—or at the base—of a hill in East Lothian, named Traprain Law.
‡ "It appears all the gipsies, male as well as female, who perform ceremonies for their tribe, carry long staffs." (Simson's "History," p. 272, note.)
§ "The fraud of the astrologers in taking money for predictions pretended to be derived from the stars is here compared to a similar imposition practised by the Druids, who borrowed money on promises of repayment after death." (Note to Bell's edition of "Hudibras," Part II. Canto III.)
of Ancient Egypt (Simson, p. 325, note). The Morris-dance, Moors'-dance or Blackamoors'-dance,—so distinctly a British dance that Handel regarded it as the national dance of our country,—was, even so recently as the era of the Fifeshire gypsies, described by Mr. Simson, scarcely one remove better than the degrading riot of the worshippers of Osiris.* Survivals of such worship may be seen (says Mr. Groome in his Britannica "gypsy" article) "in the honour paid by the three great German gypsy clans to the fir-tree, the birch, and the hawthorn . . . . and in the veneration in which Welsh Gipsies hold the fasciated vegetable growth known as the broado koro." The same low religion (Colonel Forbes Leslie points out in his chapter on menhirs) has been firmly rooted in Armorica and Brittany, and in portions of the British Islands. Of the serpent-worship with which this is inextricably mingled, traces "may be also found in various phrases, stories, emblems, and customs," belonging to "gypsies" in general,—says the article in the Encyclopædia: and a relic of this is also visible in the Gaelic language, in which there is one word for "serpent" and "father."†
* Mr. Tylor, in his "Anthropology," suggests that "the eye of Osiris, painted on the Egyptian funeral bark," is connected with all such "eyes" painted on the bows of boats from Valetta to Canton. It is possible that this "eye of Osiris," if used as a caste-mark, is the explanation of all Polyphemuses, Gaelic or Greek, whose huge, solitary eye in the middle of the forehead cannot be accounted for, either naturally or mythologically.
† The words given in Armstrong's Gaelic Dictionary as signifying "father" are—athair, daidean and gintear. The second of these is plainly a variation of the "gypsy" dad or dada, which is claimed by so many languages: being styled Welsh when it is tad, Transylvanian gypsy ("the Kolosvárer dialect") when it is dad, Modern-Slang when it is dad or daddy, Irish-Gaelic when it is dada, English-Romany when it is dadas. Gintear, says Armstrong, is simply genitor. But the other word, athair, was once nathair. In an Irish-Gaelic Prayer-book of 1712, the Lord's Prayer begins with Ar Nathair. (Probably the feminine of this was mnathair: at least, this is suggested by certain cases of the word bean, "a wife, a woman;" which, in the genitive singular, is mna, in the nominative plural mna; and mnathan, and mnathaibh in the dative plural.) But ar Nathair, which, in the Lord's Prayer, must be translated "our Father," is literally "our Serpent." The modern Gaelic dictionaries give no other meaning but "serpent" to nathair; and athair with them means only "father." It is in what we call "English" that the former of these meanings has adhered to both variations of the word. In "English" we pronounce athair as adder. Nadder or adder is claimed as "Anglo-Saxon," nathair or athair as "Gaelic"; but they are clearly the same word. In Gaelic, nathair has become athair, just as a nadder has become an adder (or as, conversely, an eke-name became a nick-name, and an
of such beliefs, it has been shrewdly remarked by an observer, who has been already quoted, that the area which is most thickly studded with "the sculptured stones of Scotland," is that in which the Christian ideas of marriage have found least favour.
It is also worthy of notice that, in "the language of the white men," the word *dubh-cheist*—literally, "a black enigma"—is rendered (by Armstrong) not only as "a puzzle," "an enigma," but also as "a motto," "a superscription." In the first two instances, it might be understood as meaning nothing more than "a dark saying;" which expression may be derived with equal reason from the darkness or obscurity of the thing it expresses, and from the complexion of such people as those who were essentially adepts in "magic," or "black" art. But it is difficult to see why "a motto," "a superscription," should be designated "a black enigma" (*dubh-cheist*), unless one particular class of superscriptions was originally signified by this name: the class of superscriptions to which Boyce (or Bocce) refers, when he speaks of the epitaphs of "ciphers and figures of beasts made in manner of letters," inscribed on the grave-stones of the Early Scots, Scots Proper, or Egyptians of Scotland.
With regard to the dates of such inscriptions, there can be little unanimity of opinion—until the meaning of the legends has been thoroughly mastered by scientific men. Colonel Leslie's comparison between the hardness of the granite on which they are carved, and the less durable nature of the stone that still bears the impression of Roman graving-tools, would give a greater antiquity to the Aberdeen sculptures—were that required. But the tomb-stones of the Early Scots of Scotland may post-date the Roman invasion; because the Scot invasion of Scotland was apparently subsequent to the days of Caesar. The supremacy of the Scots in Scotland most certainly was: and their arrival in that country seems,
*cat* or *cft*, *a nctv*). In Middle English, says Mr. Skeat, *maddere* and *addere* are interchangeable forms.
It may be added that of these three so-called "Gaelic" words for *father*, the last-named, *gintear*, is probably the only one that belonged to "the language of the white men." For *gintear* is identified by Armstrong with *genitor*; and it is likely the Latins were "white men," whatever the earlier Roman races may have been.
at the earliest, to have been contemporaneous with the arrival of the Roman legions in South Britain. Therefore those of the sculptures that Boece particularly refers to, are of comparatively modern date: some of them, indeed, only three or four centuries old.
We get little chronological information from the presence, on some of these monuments, of so-called "Christian" emblems. There are a good many sweeping statements made, with regard to this. Probably the emblem most of all in the minds of those who make this distinction between Christian and Pagan sculptures is the sign of the cross. There can be no doubt that this emblem has been, for many long centuries, closely associated with the Christian religion, with which it is now almost absolutely identified. (Though there are yet, I believe, certain "Pagan" races,—the Kabyles of Africa, for example,—who tattoo the cross upon their breasts, without the least reference to Christianity.) The fallacy of thus confusing this religion with the emblems that, at various times, became associated with its practice, is most clearly seen by considering this fact: that the founder of Christianity taught a religion; but that—if he taught the use of any religious emblems—the cross was not one of them. Nothing that was not taught by Christ can be distinctively Christian: consequently, the cross is not a Christian emblem.
Perhaps one of the best tangible proofs of this truth is found by regarding the form of the mediaeval cathedral. The men who built and worshipped in these cathedrals were essentially Christian: though their Christianity was often clothed in pagan garments. But there is much in their ritual that, of itself, would argue them pagans. The cruciform cathedral of the middle ages was no more distinctively Christian than was the cruciform pagan temple from which it was evolved. A very perfect example of this early cathedral is seen in the temple of Callernish, or Classernish, in the district of Lewis—the chief division of the largest of all the "Islands of the Foreigners," or Deucaledonian Islands. The bird's-eye view of this temple (as given by Colonel Forbes Leslie, in his Early Races; Plate XXIII.) clearly shows us that in it—and others like it—we have the germ of the later cathedral. The Callernish stones are arranged exactly
in the form of the so-called Celtic cross: and the circle that circumscribes the point of intersection seems to hint that the cross grew out of the circle; and that, therefore, stone circles without any lines projecting from the circumference were places of worship at a date anterior to the formation of such temples as that of Callernish.
This confusion of Christianity with Paganism—resulting from the adoption of various Pagan emblems and ceremonies by people of the Christian faith, is more fully dwelt upon by Colonel Leslie, in the book already quoted from; for example, in his chapter on Solar and Planetary Worship in Britain. To go over these various details, in this place, would occupy too much space, and would only be a repetition of what others with better information have told us. It is enough to bear in mind that almost everything in the shape of outward ceremony,—whether sunk now into the abyss of "popular superstition,"—or whether still practised (as is the case all over the world) by men of the very highest kind,—is, of necessity, extra-Christian. The worshippers of Osiris and the pagans of Rome honoured the "May-pole" ages ago: and as early an origin is assigned to the familiar "Hot Cross Bun." Easter eggs, Beltane cakes, and other dead or dying observances, had no doubt a serious meaning to various heathen races, in Britain and out of it. The lighting of fires on Beltane-day, or on Twelfthday-eve; the forced-fire, or fire-by-friction, of the early British magicians (druidhean); the burning wheels that used to be rolled down hill-sides, on certain annual occasions (a ceremony still extant in some parts of Scotland, I believe); are as distinctly traces of fire-worship as such customs as burying the dead with their faces to the east, the "orientation" of churches, the eastward posture when repeating a Belief,—are distinctly relics of the sun-worship that was once almost universal. These things, and others not referred to, though practised by some of the very best "Christians" in the world—now and formerly—are not themselves marks of Christianity. The Buddhists of Asia;—with their censers, incense, holy water, celibate monks (with tonsured heads), and celibate sisterhoods; with their practice of confession to a priest; with their chanted services and intoned prayers; with their cathedrals—divided into
nave, choir, apse,—entered from the west, and with the east as the most sacred extremity;—the Buddhists of Asia, by all these tokens, proclaim their identity (in outward things) with the ritualistic sections of Christianity. If religion were a matter of form, and nothing else, the Asiatic Buddhists—the Greek Christians—the Roman Catholics—and the Ritualist-Anglicans, would all be merely sections of one corporate Church: and each and all of them be separated by a wide gulf from any sect of Christians—Methodist, or what not—that ignored such observances.
It is, therefore, evident that we cannot affirm that this or that inscription, burial, or temple belongs to the Christian Period,—merely because it bears the impress of some fashion that the Christians of such and such a date had adopted as their own. The cruciform "cathedral" of Callernish (being the merest rough, sky-roofed, skeleton of a cathedral) is probably of great antiquity. Even such a cathedral as that of Karli, situated in the Australioid Dekhan, was a complete, finished cathedral more than five hundred years before the birth of Christ.* Consequently, such a cathedral-germ as Callernish must either antedate such a finished cathedral as Karli by a long period; or else it is the work of a people that separated from the (ultimate) builders of Karli long before that temple was built;—they themselves never advancing (architecturally) after the era of their schism.
That—apart from the consideration just given—"the sign of the cross was in use as an emblem, having certain religious and mystic meanings attached to it, long before the Christian era," has been, for some considerable time, an article of belief among those who investigate such matters. And, in support of this belief, there are the facts just stated: the simplest and most forcible of which is, that as there is no evidence that Christ taught the use of such an emblem, it cannot therefore be regarded as Christian.
Of which long digression, the result is that nothing short of the translation of these inscriptions,—or the discovery of some fact that tells us, in the several instances, when and to
* 543, B.C., is the date given by Colonel Leslie, in his chapter on Solar and Planetary Worship in Britain, whence these facts are taken.
whom the monoliths were reared, can solve the question of the Sculptured Stones. But this, at least, is certain—that those of them that bear "ciphers and figures of beasts made in manner of letters" were inscribed by the Scots, or Egyptians-of-Scotland, in or before the fifteenth century, when Boyce wrote.*
The presumptive evidence that enables one to hold the Early Scots and the Egyptians-of-Scotland as one and the same people, cannot, I think, be gainsayed. Their traditional descent from Scota, the daughter of a Pharaoh, may be counted as worth little. But their origin has been indicated in many ways. As regards their complexion—we saw that they were slumped together with the Picts of Scotland, whom Claudian calls "the nimble blackamoors, not wrongly named 'the Painted People.'" And these Picts and Scots were spoken of by a civilized South-Briton as so many "black herds," "somewhat different in manners, but all alike thirsting for blood." The earliest British home of these Scot-Egyptians was Ireland; and the conglomerate speech of that country is full of words and expressions that are paralleled in Ancient Egypt;—while its soil has yielded up the emblems of Chaldean priests. Whether there is a connection between the "glibbed" locks of the Wild or Black-Irishman, and those of the sculptured Egyptians may be questioned. But, at any rate, the hieroglyphics of the Early Scots—if not identical with the hieroglyphics of the Ancient Egyptians (or one division of the people coming under that all-embracing term)—were, at least, based upon the same principle. The Egyptian and British customs and attainments—religious and otherwise—sun-worship, fire-worship, serpent- and phallus-worship, astrology, soothsaying, fortune-telling and other forms of divination—all these have just been glanced at. These were equally the property of the Magi of Britain, the Magi of the Pharaohs, and the Magi of Persia: and Pliny, on whose authority the last of these comparisons is made,
* This extract from Boece—now repeatedly made—is merely taken at second-hand (from a pamphlet on the "Sculptured Stones," by Mr. Carr Ellison, Durham). An examination of his remarks upon the "New and Old Manners of the Scots," made on the understanding that Scot is therein used to signify Scotch-Egyptian, must inevitably yield much important information.
states that the Early Britons (or a section of them) were as "black as Ethiopians." According to Mr. Skene, and other students, South-Britain contained, at the date of the Roman invasion, two very distinct types of men. And one of these—said to be the earlier—Mr. Skene regards as closely akin to the Deu-Caledones of Scotland; who were so far "Egyptians," in that they were Painted People, blackamoors, and probable Australioids. (For the Australioid skulls of Caithness were found in a district once known as Pict-land: and though this does not prove their owners to have been Mauri or Picti, there may be evidence yet forthcoming to warrant such a belief.) Indeed, the early Scot and the early Pict are, like their modern representatives, the Egyptian or Gypsy, and the Faw, not easily distinguished, the one from the other: the early Scoti-Picti (Pictish Scots; Painted Vagabonds) of Argyleshire belonging as much to the first division as to the second.
CHAPTER V.
The period in which the powerful Scot-Egyptian began to lapse into the outlawed "Egyptian" cannot well be fixed. Assuming that Scot could be—and perhaps was—applied to all tribes that were "vagabonds" or nomadic; that were swarthy of skin; like the Scots Proper; the painted Mauri, Moors, or Morays; and the "black heathen" invaders, called Cimbri, or Dani; then the decadence of the Scots of South-Western Scotland may fairly be said to have reached an advanced stage in the year 1445, when the power of the black section of the Douglases (who were once all dubh-glasses) was completely overthrown. This is the date at which gypsydom has hitherto been held to begin in Scotland (although it has been acknowledged that the Scotch Tinklers are spoken of as early as the twelfth century—in a document of the reign of William the Lion). To a certain extent, this may still be held as the beginning of "gypsydom" in that district of Scotland. Because by "gypsy" we do not understand (conventionally) anything of national and political importance. And it was at that date that the Moors, or Dubh-glasses, or Picts, of Galloway fell from their high estate into the position of outlawed and landless marauders: became, in short, gypsies and faws rather than (Scot-) Egyptians and Picts. It was about that period, also, that the laws against sorners, Egyptians, and such like began to be passed, by the Governmental party—which was the party of Norman, or semi-Norman ascendancy. These laws were continued, generation after generation, until all the tories of Scotland were either converted to Nationalism and Modernism, or were exterminated (except for the few and feeble specimens still visible here and there). It is plain that racial and quasi-religious feelings must have underlain this persecution.
Those *tories* were hunted down and banished because they were guilty of "sorcery, murder, incest, vagabondage, robbery, sorning, and heathenism," or non-Christianism, generally; against which things the current of feeling throughout these islands had been setting strongly for a very long time. One who persisted in remaining a *Scot* (in the earlier sense of the word, as distinguished from the more modern and National *Scot*, *Scottish*, or *Scotch*-man), pure and simple, remained therefore a vagabond, a marauder, a mosser, a "habit and repute Egyptian:" until, at length, the name of *Scot* forsook him wholly. That such *tories* were, for the most part, descendants of the swarthy tribes of Britain, is seen from the fact that the "gypsy" of the popular imagination is indubitably a dark man: this being so much the case that Hume, a Scotch lawyer of two generations back, held that "black eyes should make part of the evidence in proving an individual to be of the gipsy race." Although this popular belief requires to be greatly modified, it seems that, of the many races of Britain, the slowest to accept the modern life have certainly been those of swarthy skin.
But, although 1455 may be taken as the date at which one important section of the Picts of Galloway became divorced from all connection with the party of progress, civilization (as we understand that term), and government; yet no precise era can be fixed upon as that in which the black races of Scotland—or the "heathen" races of Scotland (to take an expression that includes "gypsies" of every hue)—degenerated into unimportant bands of marauders. That is to say—the era in which the *inveterate* sections of such races (their *tories*) sank into this condition: (their other members added themselves, from time to time, to the mixed population that formed the Scottish nation). Powerful tribes and families were becoming "gypsies" in every century. When the Egyptian Kennedy of the ninth century conquered the powerful bands of painted Blacks seven times in one day, and so "secured the kingdom (a portion of modern Scotland) to himself,"—he was a man of great position and of historical influence. When the *Gypsy* Kennedy of the eighteenth century fought the Battle of Hawick Bridge against the Faws of Eastern Scotland, he was a (politically) insignificant outlaw. But, between these dates a great deal had happened: the whole of the authentic history of Scotland had happened. And, though this eighteenth-century "Egyptian" Cin-aedh, or the eighteenth-century gypsy Marshall, may be taken as the kings of the tory Scots of their districts, and therefore as representatives of King Kennedy or Kenneth of 844,—yet these are only the petrified specimens of their race. The higher qualities of the Scots Proper had animated the breasts of men who helped to change the whole life of Scotland,—of the British Empire,—of the world. In the doing of this, however,—in the making of Mediæval—and perhaps of Later—Scotland, innumerable dynasties had risen and fallen: innumerable combinations, physical and political, had been made between the various races, of whatever origin, that had entered Britain. From the earlier of these, it is plain we get the lower castes of "gypsies": from the later—almost recent—dynasties, have come the "cavalier" families,—included by such writers as Mr. Simson under the designation of "gypsies."
That certain districts of Scotland retained their Faw (Pict) and Scot (Egyptian, or Gypsy) character up to quite recent times, we have seen. And it must be remembered that, in emphasizing such characteristics, it is by no means intended that these existed, to the total exclusion of all others. The others are not insisted upon simply because they do not belong to the present theme: which intentionally avoids all evidences of modern education and culture in Early Scotland, though these co-existed with the savagery that is more especially indicated. Because wigwams and gypsy tents formed the chief habitation of certain races in certain districts of Scotland, it is not to be forgotten that at the same period there were gracefully-carved churches and monasteries (the latter the homes and safeguards of all our learning and much of our refinement)—that there were strongly built castles, and fortified towns—that these towns were the nurseries of much of our present civilization.
But it has been shown, beyond question, that turf-covered wigwams and gypsy tents did form the chief habitation of important sections of the Scotch people within almost recent times: that, in short, these people lived as gypsies; cooked, as gypsies; dressed, or went naked, as gypsies; painted their
skins, as gypsies; sang the songs, and held the superstitions of gypsies; practised the religion, and lived the polygamous (and more than polygamous) lives of gypsies; in fine, were nothing else but gypsies. That ideas so dissimilar as those of Christianity and of various Paganisms should hold sway, at the same period, within so small a territory as Modern Scotland, is wonderful to us—who see the whole world united by railways and telegraphs. It requires something of an effort to realize the condition of this—or any other—country, even a century ago: when districts, protected by natural boundaries—of fen, or of mountain-ridge—were, to a great extent, isolated from the national life; so that Sir Walter Scott was able to say that the carriage which took him into Liddesdale was the first that had ever entered that valley—through which the steam-engine now whistles fifty times a-day. Under such conditions, it is really not so wonderful that archaic customs should continue, or that kingships, nominally dead, should retain their vitality, in various districts of Scotland, up to the very morning of the Modern Age.
It is by remembering this, that we shall best understand why the various recorded instances of arrivals of "gypsies," in certain towns or provinces, were regarded as the arrivals of "foreigners," and allusion made to "their own country." Even at the present day, there are English rustics who will call any intruder into their parish "a foreigner." Rightly considered, the countries of Europe—a few centuries ago—were confederacies of smaller kingdoms, rather than strictly unified states. This was certainly the case with Scotland,—the country we have been most considering. The kingship of Carrick was not formally abolished till after Culloden; and, even yet, Scotch people talk of the kingdom of Fife. The Debatable land of the sixteenth century belonged to its Graemes (black men, or gypsies),—and not either to England or Scotland. When the whole of Great Britain was nominally under the rule of James the First, that monarch was obliged to characterize one portion of the Hebrideans as "wild savages, void of God's fear, and our obedience;"—one of his bishops (the Bishop of the Isles) having also described these people in a letter to the King—as "void of the true
knowledge of God, ignorant of the most part of your Majesty's laws and their duty towards their dread Sovereign, without civility or humane society."* An act of the Privy Council, passed thirteen years after James had been proclaimed "the first monarch of this happy isle" (as Waller afterwards puts it)—plainly states that, because the children of Hebridean chiefs "see nothing in their tender years but the barbarous and incivil forms of the country [that is, of the Hebrides]—they are thereby made to apprehend that there are no other forms and duties of civility kept in any other part of the country [that is, the United Kingdom]." What these last "barbarous and incivil," or, to phrase it more fairly, those alien usages were—we have seen to some extent. Those Hebrideans lived in turf wigwams, dressed in a picturesque "gypsy" or "Red-Indian" fashion, wore breastplates or brooches, engraved with hieroglyphics;—and the wilder natives of that archipelago, at perhaps a somewhat earlier date, were known by such epithets as "the black-skinned boar," "the one demon of the Gael;" as "devils"; and as bearing such cognomens as Green Colin and Blue Donald, significant of the appearance of their skins. We saw that, at a period not much earlier than the Puritan settlement of Massachusetts, the Christians of the Hebrides—like these same Puritans—required to go armed to church, "and for the same reason, the dread of savages." That, in short, the "plantation" of New-England was not far from being contemporaneous with the "plantation" of the Hebrides. To what extent the civilizing of these Islands affected the blood of the "heathen" races need not be considered. The fact stands, that this archipelago was fitly styled "the Isles of the Foreigners," even at a time when James the First's most illustrious subject was still writing his marvellous plays. Whatever the nominal kingship of that monarch, he could not be called actual king of even Great Britain (not to speak of Ireland) so long as his laws were not acknowledged throughout every inch of his apparent kingdom. And that he realized the incomplete nature of his sovereignty is shewn by those words of his quoted above. Their context, quoted
* These references have been made in a former chapter, and are extracted from Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis, pp. 113, 115, and 121.
more fully, discloses the truth more clearly. The King states—and this is in the year 1608—as his reasons for appointing a Commission for "the Improvement of the Isles"—"First, the care we have of planting the Gospel among these rude, barbarous and incivil people, the want whereof these years past no doubt has been to the great hazard of many poor souls, being ignorant of their own salvation: Next, we desire to remove all such scandalous reproaches against that state [by which he means either the United Kingdom, generally, or, more particularly Scotland—which by that date was a province of the United Kingdom], in suffering a part of it to be possessed with such wild savages, void of God's fear and our obedience:" and, as a consequence of this, his third reason (which, though he puts it last, was perhaps not the least important) is "herewith the loss we have in not receiving the due rents adebted to us out of these Isles, being of the patrimony of our crown." Even so lately as 1635 (it was noticed in a former chapter) a distinction was drawn between "the Islanders" and "his Majesty's subjects." The former, it was stated, used to "come in troops and companies out of the Isles where they dwell, to the Isles and Lochs where the fishes are taken, and there violently spoil his Majesty's subjects of their fishes and sometimes of their victuals and other furniture, and pursue them of their lives." In all this, it was previously observed, there was distinct proof that the various kingships into which Scotland was once divided had not wholly lost their power in the days of the last nominal King of all North Britain. He, indeed, was not even so much as the nominal king of what we call Scotland until thirteen years prior to his becoming nominal King of the United Kingdom. Until the year 1590, the Orkney Islands did not form a portion of Scotland—but of Denmark. At a period not much before this, the northern mainland of Scotland was known to Gaelic-speaking people as Gallibh,—The Country of the Foreigners: the whole of the Hebrides formed Innse Gaili,—The Islands of the Foreigners. Galloway was (according to Mr. Skene) The Country of the Gaels-and-Foreigners. The roots out of which these foreign kingships grew were many and various: but it is enough to notice that they unmistakably existed.
Therefore, when we read the recorded instances of the arrivals of troops of "gypsies" in various Continental and British districts, we can understand how they were "foreigners"—to certain communities—and yet themselves of British or Continental nationality. The black-skinned, tattooed, and long-haired "gypsies" who entered Paris in the year 1427,—their women looking like "witches," and most of them, men and women, wearing silver ear-rings, "which they said, were esteemed ornaments in their country,"—may have come from no more remote district than the "marshes" of England and Scotland, or the Hebridean Islands. We saw that those Border "gypsies" were discovered, in several instances to be so irreclaimable, that "the evil was found to require the radical cure of extirpation." And, accordingly, they were banished the country—not to return under pain of death—or were enlisted as a kind of legion of enfans perdus, for the wars in the Low Countries and elsewhere. Whether from the Borders, or from the Hebrides, or from any other "out-land-ish" district (that is, any outlying district—remote from a township)—they contained in their ranks all the varied qualities that the vague designation "gypsy" comprises: they were "sorners," vagabonds, bards or minstrels, "jugglers or such like," otherwise styled "profest pleisants," or mountebanks;—"the entertainment and bearing with" whom (it was stated in 1609), was "amongst the remanent abuses which, without reformation, have defiled the whole Isles:" and not "the Isles" only, as we have otherwise seen. The "band of 300 wanderers 'black as Tartars, and calling themselves Secani,' that came to Lüneburg "late in 1417;" or the "troop of fully 100 lean, black hideous Egyptians," that entered Bologna in 1422,—whose queen (the wife of "Duke Andrew") was a druidess, witch, or sorceress, and "could read the past and future of men's lives;" these, so far as complexion and characteristics go, may have come from any portion of the British Islands. It is not necessary to suppose that these had come so far; for we have been told that—considered as gypsies—such people were known in Vienna, as well as in Scotland, during the twelfth century, "and that nowhere were they regarded as new-comers." And that, hundreds of years before the
twelfth century, the whole of Europe was overrun with various races of conquering "Saracens." But it is quite possible that such wandering troops were simply the exiled tribes of Scotland, in many such instances.
We are not dealing with the Continent, however; and scarcely with any other part of our own country than Scotland, in the meantime. The facts just pointed out;—that Scotland, during the greater part of its history, was composed of a collection of separate kingdoms and chiefdoms,—whose existence could be prolonged wonderfully by physical aids, such as the barrier of a mountain-ridge, unpierced by any road; these facts show how the natives of one portion of Scotland could be perfectly different from those of another in language, dress, complexion, custom,—everything. There can be no doubt that a nucleus of Scottish nationality existed in Central, Eastern, and part of Southern Scotland for a very long time: and that, from this centre, the national power was steadily spreading with every generation. But it is also clear—from the rough sketches previously made—that the Kings of Scotland were, to a considerable extent, only Kings of Scotland by courtesy. In the first half of the fifteenth century, the dubh-glasses of Galloway—the "Moors, or Saracens" of tradition—were its actual rulers. No one need think, at that time, of entering South-Western Galloway, unless he "courted Saint Kennedie." In other words, unless he acknowledged the supremacy of the Scot-Egyptian aristocracy, founded by a Cin-aedh, Kennedy or Kenneth of the ninth century. The latter half of that century (the fifteenth) saw the nominal King of Scotland assert his supremacy over one of those local kings—after much hard fighting: though the rule of the Scots of Carrick did not cease then. At an earlier date than this, Mr. Skene has shewn us that almost the western half, and all the north of Scotland, was under the dominion of invading races: Finn Galls and Dubh Galls—White Heathen and Black Heathen—North-men and East-men—Norse and Danes. One of these sovereignties was that of the Danish Prince or Leod, "Olave the Black"—the King of Sodor and Man (or Man and the South-Hebrides). Other foreign kingships there were, varying with every generation, and with the varying fortunes of their kings, or kinglets.
But none of these was the kingship that Bruce fought for. These were among his chief impediments in his difficult march to a supreme throne. It was those *dubh galls*, or "swarthy men of Lorne" that, in one instance, nearly cut short his career: it was against those painted "Moors" that he fought his solitary battle, on that moonlight night by the River Cree. And it was with the death-throes of such kingships that the last nominal King of Scotland was struggling, when (after he had ascended the British throne) he sent his Commissioners to the Hebrides, for the purpose of making such arrangements as would "remove all such scandalous reproaches" against his sovereignty, as that a part of his nominal dominions should be "possessed with wild savages, void of God's fear and our obedience."
One other instance of this feature (and it will be the last) is found in the Border ballad, known as *The Sang of the Outlaw Murray*. This ballad is known to every reader of the *Minstrelsy*. The identity of the hero of it is not regarded by Scott as fully established. "It is true, that the Dramatis Personæ introduced seem to refer to the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth, century; but from this it can only be argued, that the author himself lived soon after that period." At any rate, whether the King of Scotland who figures in it was James the Fourth, or an earlier monarch, it is evident that his unquestioned sovereignty did not reach to the Cheviot Hills.
This outlaw is known as "Murray,"—like his namesake, "the black Murray" of Galloway tradition. In the latter case, we know that this name means nothing more than "the black Moor," or "the blackamoor." In the former case, there is no hint of complexion, *except* in the name. This, however, proves nothing; since this outlaw's name may have reached the "fossil" stage, and himself have been a descendant of the earlier family of *de Moravia*. This outlaw is introduced as living in Ettrick Forest, with a "royal company" of five hundred men, clad in Lincoln green: himself and his lady "in purple clad." He dwells in a "fair castle" of stone and lime, with armorial bearings sculptured over the doorway (which renders it likely that he was descended from the Norman *De Moravia*). We are told thatWord is gane to our nobil king,
In Edinburgh, where that he lay,
That there was an Outlaw in Ettricke Foreste,
Counted him nought, nor a' his courtrie gay.
"I make a vowe," then the gude king said,
"Unto the man that deir bought me,
I'se either be king of Ettricke Foreste,
Or king of Scotlonde that Outlaw sall be!"
One of the king's nobles then advises him to send a message to the outlaw, desiring him to acknowledge the king's supremacy, and to hold his territory—not as absolute owner—but as a vassal of the king. "If he refuse to do that," adds this noble, "we'll conquer both his lands and himself."
All this is a distinct admission on the part of this king and his court, that this "outlaw" was as yet an actual, independent king; and that modern Selkirkshire was not a part of Scotland. The following words quite bear out this impression. The king is laying his injunctions upon his ambassador:
Ask him of whom he holds his lands,
Or man [i.e. vassal], who may his master be,
And desire him come, and be my man,
And hold of me yon Foreste free.
And say to him that—if he refuse—
We'll conquess baith his lands and he.
The messenger reaches Ettrick Forest, and sees everything as described: the retainers in Lincoln-green, "shooting their bows on Newark Lee:" the knight himself armed from head to heel.
Thereby Boyd [the ambassador] ken'd he was master man,
And served him in his ain degree.
"God mot thee save, brave Outlaw Murray!
Thy ladye, and all thy chivalry!"
To which the chief replies—
"Marry, thou's well-come, gentleman,
Some king's messenger thou seems to be."
The answer to this interrogatory remark (which itself could never have been made by a vassal to the representative of
his own sovereign) is conceived in the same spirit as the question:
"The king of Scotlonde sent me here,
And, gude Outlaw, I am sent to thee;
I wad wot of whom ye hold your lands,
Or man, who may thy master be?"
"These lands are mine!" the Outlaw said;
"I ken nae king in Christentie;
Frae Soudron I this Foreste wan,
When the king nor his knights were not to see."
The messenger then delivers the king's orders, adding the threat that, in the case of refusal,
He'll conquess baith thy lands and thee.
"Aye, by my troth!" the Outlaw said,
"Then wald I think me far behinde.
"E'er the king my fair countrie get,
This land that's nativest to me!
Mony o' his nobles sall be cauld,
Their ladies sall be right wearie."
Murray's statement that he had conquered this territory from one or other of the sub-kings of Ancient Northumbria, and that it had not hitherto formed a part of Scotland, is endorsed by the king; whose question, on the return of his messenger, shows that that district is a terra incognita.
"Wellcum, James Boyd!" said our noble king;
What Foreste is Ettricke Foreste free?
"Ettricke Foreste is the fairest foreste
That ever man saw wi' his e'e.
"There the Outlaw keeps five hundred men;
He keeps a royalle companie!
His merryemen in ae livery clad,
O' the Linkome grene sae gaye to see;
He and his ladye in purple clad;
O! gin they live not royallie!
"He says, yon Foreste is his awin;
He wan it frae the Southronie;
Sae as he wan it, sae will he keep it,
Contrair all kingis in Christentie."
When the king receives this challenge, he at once gives
orders to raise the men of his kingdom; and the verse in which he does so seems to indicate that its limits were the limits of Early Scotia (not Ancient Scotia, or Ireland, but Scotia as it is defined by Mr. Skene;—being, roughly stated, the eastern half of Modern Scotland):
"Gar warn me Perthshire, and Angus baith;
Fife up and down, and the Louthians three,"
* * * * * *
It is unnecessary to quote much more. The Border chief—hearing
That the king was coming to his countrie
To conquess baith his landis and he,
at once prepares for defence; and sends messages to the neighbouring chieftains who are his allies—some of them his kinsmen. In the references they make to the King of "Scotland," they undoubtedly recognize in him a much more powerful personage than any one of themselves: speaking of him as "the king," and as "a king wi' crown." But, nevertheless, they as clearly regard themselves as independent potentates: which the foregoing extracts show was, in a great measure, the opinion of the king himself. Eventually, the matter is compromised,—"Murray" agreeing to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king (and thereby adding all his territory—won from Northumbria, or perhaps Cumbria—to the increasing Scotch kingdom). In return for his homage, the king makes him Sheriff of Ettrick Forest,—and his posterity after him,
"Surely while upward grows the tree."
Like other ballads and legends, this is, no doubt, partly true, partly fanciful and untrue. As Scott states, a Murray certainly did become heritable sheriff of Ettrick Forest, "by a charter from James IV., dated November 30th, 1509," which continued in those of that name (the Philiphaugh family) till such jurisdictions were abolished, after Culloden. But some parts of this tale speak of an earlier time than 1509. And the traditions regarding this "outlaw" vary. "The tradition of Ettrick Forest bears, that the outlaw was a man of prodigious strength, possessing a batton or club, with which he laid lee (i.e., waste) the country for many miles
round." This account would give him a wilder aspect than that with which he is invested in the ballad,—and suggests rather the characteristics of the "Black Murray" of Galloway, of the "big, black giant with a club," who figures in the popular tales of the Highlands and Wales, of the "Black Oppressor," whom Welsh Peredur slew, of the Black Knight of Lancashire, and of that particular Black Dubh-glass who is remembered, locally, as "one of the most horrible devils that ever appeared in Scotland" (being, perhaps, no other than the Black Morrow of the same neighbourhood,—or of the same family). The club has always been a weapon of the "Moors" of Scotland—from the days of Severus down to our own; when "the bludgeon tribe" is used—in Galloway, at least—as a synonym for "the gypsies."
Though none of the traditions seem to make reference to his complexion, beyond calling him a "Murray" (which may have been nothing more than a meaningless surname, in his case), yet the very spot in which the King's messenger is supposed to have found him, the locality of his stronghold has—in close proximity—a counterpart to the Black Morrow Wood, or Blackamoor's Wood of Kirkcudbright, namely, the Black Andrew Wood. Moreover, there are such names in the same immediate neighbourhood as Black-house Tower, situated on the Dubh-glass Burn; the Craig of Dubh-glass; Duchar Law, and Duchar Tower; the last of which names signifies "the Black Fort."* And a portion of the important rampart known as "the Catrail" or "the Picts' Work;" that is, "the Blackamoors' Work,"—runs across the hills that overlook Black Andrew Wood. Therefore, it is not unlikely that "Black Andrew" was no other than the "outlaw" himself.
* This name of Duchar, Deuchar, Duchra or Duchray is given to many places in Scotland, and its recognized meaning is "the black fort." One would hesitate to make use of such a translation, if it were not recognized as the right one. Because Dubh-Kath, "the black fort," does not easily reach the stage of even Duch-ra. Dubh-Kath is naturally pronounced as if written Door-Ra or Doo-Ra (which probably gives Dura as another form of the name); but the step from the labial v to the guttural ch is a pretty long one. However, it was likely by the way of Doo-Ra that this guttural sound was reached. At any rate, this etymology is the accepted one. And, moreover, it is stated by Mr. J. F. Campbell that this guttural pronunciation of dubh is by no means uncommon.
The Lincoln-green dresses of his followers are worth noticing. The terms "Lincoln-green," and "Kendal-green," must have had a connection with the lineage of those inhabiting these districts. This colour has been "British" from the earliest times—ever since woad, equally blue or green, was in use. We have seen that gorm is translated either "blue" or "green": uaine, also, is "green": and both gorm and uaine were used as distinctive epithets. Woad, used as a dye for the skin, when no clothes were worn, would naturally be used as a dye for clothing, when the gorm tribes began to wear garments. Gorm, when translated "green," gives us the oldest colour of Ireland: when translated "blue," it gives us the tory colour throughout the country. That red was also a tory colour, is known from an anecdote of the seventeenth century: that it was a tory colour eighty years ago, is expressed by the ruddled faces of the Galloway "gypsies": that red, blue, and white, form the colours of the British Standard, every one knows, and the reason of this may be guessed: but that green was the colour of a large section of the Early-Britons is beyond dispute. We know that duine-dubh, "a black man," in Scotch-Gaelic, is duine-gorm, "a green—or blue—man," in Irish-Gaelic: and that "a blue-skin" is the "cant" term for a mulatto. Therefore (without regarding the claims of other hues), one is not surprised to hear that green, according to the historian of the Scotch "gypsies," is "a favourite gipsy colour." And a more recent writer (Mr. C. G. Leland) corroborates this. "Till within a few years in Great Britain, as at the present day in Germany, their fondness for green coats amounted to a passion." "The male gipsies in Scotland," says Mr. Simson, "were often dressed in green coats. . . . . The females were very partial to green clothes." Like the followers of the Ettrick Forest chief, they wore "the Linkome grene sae gaye to see." Or, like the followers of the outlaw of Sherwood Forest: whose life was very similar to that of this Ettrick "outlaw," whose men are discovered "shooting their bows on Newark Lee." Either of these would have been styled "gypsies," by a fifteenth-century gypsyologist, had such existed.
It has been noticed that a swarthy skin is not necessary
to constitute a "gypsy." A "gypsy" is made, says one writer, by the living a certain archaic, "heathen" life, and speaking certain archaic languages. He may be a white man. The greatest "gypsies" in Scotland—the Baillies—are white men. The Scotch "gypsies" are, in short, only stunted Scotchmen: stunted at various stages of the national growth; and so, according to the length of the tory pedigree of each tribe, giving us examples of the various stages of "culture" in Scotland.
This Philiphaugh Murray, and his green-clad archers, were, therefore, "gypsies." Whether the leader was descended from none but white men—as the Baillies were—is immaterial. It is likely that his followers were, for the most part, genuine "Murrays." Because they formed part of the South-Scottish Moravienses: and the villages of their neighbourhood are still said to be "stocked" with "gypsies."
Like the Galloway Douglases—like the Baillies—like the Gordons—the Philiphaugh Murrays seem to have thrown out a tory branch. Or, more correctly, the main stem must have gradually lost hold of its possessions, by being tory: by not forsaking the wild and lawless life that was "the mode" some centuries ago: the following of which course—or refusing to follow the course of civilization—resulted in "outlawry," as the land grew more peaceful and its laws more peace-helping. This assumption, with regard to the Murrays of Philiphaugh, is suggested by a statement of Mr. Simson's,* to the effect that "the chief of the Ruthvens (a "gypsy" family) actually wept like a child, whenever the misfortunes of the ancient family of Murray of Philiphaugh were mentioned to him."
This Ruthven chief was one of the high-caste "gypsies." He is thus spoken of—
"I have already mentioned how handsomely the superior order of Gipsies dressed at the period of which we are speaking [the middle of last century]. The male head of the
* "History," pp. 187 and 213. The references in this book for the remarks made in the foregoing pages with respect to the division of Scotland into provinces, the limits of which were protected by a system of passes, are pages 121, 128-note, 130, 131, 157, 158, 159, 180, 181, 199, 200, 218, 219, 236, 237, 318-note, 341, 348, and 350.
Ruthvens—a man six feet some inches in height—who, according to the newspapers of the day, lived to the advanced age of 115 years, when in full dress, in his youth, wore a white wig, a ruffled shirt, a blue Scottish bonnet, scarlet breeches and waistcoat, a long blue superfine coat, white stockings, with silver buckles in his shoes."
This, then, was the outward appearance of the "gypsy" chief who bewailed the decadence of the Murrays of Philiphaugh. His brave exterior placed him among the "gentlemen" of his time, outwardly;—and as he belonged to "the superior order of gipsies," those who boast of their ancient and lofty lineage, and who look down with contempt upon "the rabble of town and country," it is evident that he was otherwise well entitled to the name of "gentleman." The clan of which he was chief was one of the three principal Tweed-dale castes, we are told: the other two being the Baillies and the Kennedys. "Gypsies" of this description were men of graceful bearing, and polished manners, who associated as equals "with gentlemen of the first respectability in the country," who could "discourse readily and fluently upon almost any topic," and who rode "the best horses the kingdom could produce." This was the kind of man indicated to us in the person of the venerable chief of the tory Ruthvens. All those "gypsies" were distinctly gentlemen (accepting this word in its conventional sense); dressed like other gentry of the day; the Baillie chiefs "attired in the finest scarlet;" they and such-like wearing "silver brooches in their breasts, and gold rings on their fingers," silver buckles on their shoes, powdered wigs, ruffled shirts,—in short, the full dress of seventeenth-century gentlemen. The wives of the Baillie chiefs, we are told, "rode to the fairs at Moffat and Biggar, on horses, with side-saddles and bridles, . . . . themselves being very gaily dressed. The males wore scarlet cloaks, reaching to their knees, and resembling exactly the Spanish fashion of the present day." If, therefore, the Murray of Philiphaugh, whose misfortunes the Ruthven patriarch wept over, resembled that chief himself, his attire was almost identical with that of his namesake of the ballad—"he and his ladye in purple clad;" and his followers in "the Lincoln green sae gaye to see."
So long as the regulus of Ettrick Forest held himself aloof from his northern neighbour (the king of Scotia, or Scotland), refusing to pay him homage, then Ettrick Forest was an independent kingdom; forming no part whatever of "Scotland." And Ettrick Forest, at that date, seems pretty clearly to have been a gypsy kingdom. "Scotland," indeed, extended a very little way to the south of the Forth basin, only a few centuries ago. It is not a great while since people spoke of going "out of Scotland into the Largs;" Largs (or "the Largs") being situated in the district of Cunninghame, and only about half-a-dozen miles to the south of the latitude of Glasgow. Before the overthrow of the black Douglases in 1455, Galloway was not really a portion of Scotland. The chief of those Douglases was an actual king, who held a court of his own, created knights of his own, moved about the country with a following of two thousand men, and possessed a separate mint from that of the king of Scotland, in which were struck coins of an order quite distinct from those of Scotland. Some of these were popularly remembered as "Douglas groats;"* and it is most probable that "certain peeces of silver, with a strange and uncouth impression thereon, resembling the old Pictish coine," which Symson chronicles as having been dug out of the ruins of an old castle in the parish of Borgue (in Galloway), came out of the Douglas mint. Whether called "Pictish" or "Douglas," such coins were, of course "Moorish,"—or, to use the alternative form, "Saracen." (Now-a-days, the word is "gypsy.") That the chiefs of the black Douglases were attended by the jugglers and mountebanks that are inseparable from "gypsydom" is seen from the carvings on an antique bedstead, taken out of the castle of Thrave, and stated to have belonged to the last of the black lords: and in these bas-reliefs such
* It is quite likely that another of these coins was that known as the baubee; which Mr. Halliwell says was "a copper coin, of about the value of a halfpenny." He adds that "the halfpenny itself is sometimes so called," and it is well known that this usage is quite common in Scotland; being, indeed, popularly regarded as peculiarly Scotch. But as Mr. Halliwell, and one (at least) of the "cant" vocabularies, do not confine the word to any particular district, it may be assumed that "baubees" were current in many other parts of the country. It is not improbable that the "inferior foreign coin," called the "gally-halfpenny," which was prohibited by Henry the Eighth, was identical with the "baubee."
figures occupy a most prominent place. Of the actual appearance that a troop of fifteenth-century black-Douglasses presented, one can only form an imperfect notion; but, as a counterpart to the fact that they are remembered in tradition as "Moors or Saracens," and also to the fact that crescents and stars were the commonest emblems of families asserting a descent from them (or their kin), it may be stated that the curved sword which is so generally associated with the East was in use in the Douglas territory so recently as 1666. From which circumstances, it would seem that, although often acknowledging the superiority of Scotland Proper, the South-Western division of North Britain was, until modern times, so independent in its character and customs, and large sections of its people were of such an individual ethnic stamp, that the people and their country were as "foreign" to Eastern Scotland (Scotland Proper) as they could well be.
It has now been sufficiently insisted that "gypsies" of all kinds are only decayed aristocrats. The day when the most barbarous tribes (though these really do not exist nowadays) were in power, must be very remote. But tories such as these we have just looked at are of the most recent date. They are the people sketched by Professor Masson, in his remarks bearing upon the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, during the sixteenth century. "In these old days the one and universal process in Scotland for intimating that a person was disobedient to the law, in any way or form, was to denounce that person rebel, and put him to the horn. . . . Hence the highest personages in the land—earls, lords, lairds, and lawyers—found themselves again and again rebels to the king, and at the horn. . . . the 'horners,' specially so-called, were those who obstinately and persistently remained in their state of rebellion, by not appearing to the charges, whatever they were, that had been issued against them, or by not paying the debts they had been decreed to pay, or finding the securities they had been decreed to find. The word 'outlaws' defines their position accurately enough; they were 'the King's rebels,' standing out in disobedience, and liable to very summary further process against them personally or in their goods. [Being, eventually, nothing less than 'pursuit with fire and sword as
enemies to God, His Majesty, and the common weal.] This was the theory and the law; but, in fact, the country was full of 'horners' or 'King's rebels' of all sorts, who laughed at those summary processes of arrest or escheat of goods to which they were liable, had no goods to be escheated, and lived secretly with their friends, or went about openly, defying arrest." And, as we have seen, in the cases of the Baillies and the Gordons, the friends of such "outlaws" were even powerful enough to save them from a well-merited death on the gallows.
Such outlaws "going about openly, defying arrest," and with "no goods to be escheated,"—plainly must have lived by violence and the right of the sword, as their ancestors had done: "enforcing a living on the common road." And, while they did so, their relations quietly stepped into lawful possession of their titles and the lands which they had forfeited, or dissipated. The banished Duke had always a "usurper" at hand, to take his place: a discredited Chief of the Black-Douglasses had always a Chief of the Tawny-Douglasses ready to sway the sceptre of the race. This is not to be deplored; nor are such terms as "usurper" or "time-server" (applicable enough in such cases) to be understood in their most offensive sense. No doubt, there were many cases of unfair and gross usurpation; but the "time-servers" were the representatives of civilization. A loyal Earl of Angus, though he succeeded in "feathering his own nest" very skilfully, was a great improvement on a savage, marauding Black-Douglas; a wandering, irreconcilable "Moor or Saracen;" whose hatred of stone-and-lime was embodied in his saying, that he "liked better to hear the lark sing than the mouse squeak." Civilization had made a distinct stride in Scotland, when "the Red Douglas put down the Black."
The references, made above, to the "gypsies" of very modern date, are a little out of place. What we have been considering is, that the earlier "gypsies" represented various intra-Scottish kingdoms, that had been "foreign countries" to Scotia, or East Scotland. When there were no roads—to speak of,—and no means of locomotion except by riding on horseback, or in a litter or palanquin; and when the many jarring forces, that composed even the most civilized community, were still in a constant state of friction; the King of the largest of all the distinct kingships of Scotland—that of "Scotia"—had enough to do inside his own realm, without attempting to make his way into this or that contiguous kingdom. *The Sang of the Outlaw Murray* says very plainly that the King of Scotia knew actually nothing of the country that lay to the south of the Lothians. It is only a ballad, to be sure, and it likely speaks of an earlier time than 1509,—but a glance at the maps in *Celtic Scotland* show us how several nationalities did co-exist in the small territory of North Britain. But, after all, this era need not antedate 1509 by very much. It was seen that so lately as the first quarter of the seventeenth century the Hebrides were still inhabited by people who did not own the Christian religion or the British law: and regarding whose language, laws, dress, customs, and complexion an ordinary burgher of Edinburgh or of Aberdeen must have been wholly ignorant. These differed as greatly from each other as if an Atlantic, and not only the breadth of Scotland, had separated them.
There is, positively, no exact date, that can be fixed as that in which this Border kingship finally ceased. When the Graemes, or Gypsies of the Debatable Land protested against the survey of their territory, by representatives of the central Government,—and when they backed up their protest by summarily ejecting the would-be "settlers," with all their belongings,—the independence of the Border Kingdom had not been wholly crushed. And this was only last century. The farther back we go, the larger is the size of this kingdom, and the greater the power of its rulers. The era of "the outlaw Murray" (whenever that was) marks the date at which the district of Ettrick Forest was added to the Kingdom of Scotia. But that only placed the boundary of Scotia about twenty miles to the south of its former limit. Between this new frontier and the Cheviot Hills there remained as wide a district still independent: and the country lying to the south of the Cheviots was not "England" either. 1509 is given as the period at which Ettrick Forest became formally a part of "Scotland." But, in 1529, James V. had to march an army of eight thousand men across the southern boundary of Ettrick Forest, and into the country of "the thieves" of
Teviotdale, Annandale, and Liddesdale. Indeed, so little under his power was even Ettrick Forest itself, that the "King of the Border" at this time (Adam Scott), lived at his stronghold of Tushielaw, in the upper portion of the Vale of Ettrick.* In this campaign—and during his brief reign—James did much to enlarge the sway of the Modern-Scotch monarchy. This King of the Border, and another "gypsy" chief, Piers Cockburn, he hanged before their own peels, or towers:† (as, it may be remembered, we noticed in a previous chapter). A still more powerful "king," whose sway extended more to the southward, met with a similar fate, on this occasion. This was the celebrated "Johnny Armstrong," of whom it is stated, that "he always rode with twenty-four able gentlemen, well horsed, and from the borders to Newcastle every Englishman, of whatever state, paid him tribute." "He and all his followers, some accounts make them forty-eight, were hanged (by the King's orders) on the trees of a little grove at Carlinrigg chapel, two miles north of Moss Paul, on the road between Hawick and Langholm." The
* ? Aed-rik.
† Wilson, in his "Tales of the Borders," associates those "peels" with the faws. "In the wilderness between Keyheugh and Clovencrag . . . . stood some score of peels, or rather half hovels, half encampments—and this primitive city in the wilderness was the capital of the Faa King's people." The cattle which they had carried off were seen "grazing before the doors or holes of the gipsy village," and "it was impossible to stand upright" in these huts themselves. ("The Faa's Revenge.") The era of this legend is 1628, but (though the writer was a Borderer) it cannot be relied upon in every particular, the relative positions of the military and the agricultural castes being that of the second half of the eighteenth, rather than the first half of the seventeenth century, at which period the former was most distinctly the ruling caste (though time, and the operation of peace-helping laws, gradually increased the power and importance of the latter till it became paramount). But, in spite of this palpable and important misrepresentation, Wilson's picture is of some value. It bears out the description given by Æneas Sylvius—formerly quoted. "Upon the Borders he found [in the first half of the fifteenth century] that most of the houses were not even huts, as they were generally a small breast-work composed of mud, or such materials as were at hand, and raised to a sufficient height by three or four poles meeting a-top, and covered with straw or turf." Such were the wigwams of the Isles of the Foreigners last century, and such were the dwellings of the "gypsies" "on Yeta's banks" a little later.
It is also worth remarking that this application (by a Borderer) of the word "peel" seems to denote a wider use of that term than the present. For it is now, I think, applied solely to the square, stone-built tower that can yet be seen on the Borders.
power of this latter confederacy—that ruled by the Armstrongs—was not finally broken till the following reign.* After which, the sovereignty seems to have passed over to the Herons,—since we saw that Francis Heron, who was buried at Jarrow in 1756, was the faw king of that period. His probable successor was Henry the faw; of whom it was stated that he "was received, and ate at the tables of people in public office," and to whom "men of considerable fortune paid a gratuity, called blackmail, in order to have their goods protected from thieves." And "Will Faa," who died at Yetholm in 1847, seems to be the latest representative of this withered sovereignty.†
In the beginning of the sixteenth century, then, it is clear that the Border country,—as far north as the Vale of Ettrick,—was virtually an independent territory,—whatever may be the historical name of the nationality it represented (which perhaps was "Cumbria": or "Northumbria"). No doubt at this, and an earlier period, the various Border Chiefdoms did not form one distinct, unified kingdom: or, if so, it was of a shifting nature. At one time this or that tribe of the Borders would form an alliance with the Scotch—at another
* The account from which I have been quoting (Anderson's "Scottish Nation") states that "the hostile and turbulent spirit of the Armstrongs . . . . was never entirely broken or suppressed until the reign of James the Sixth, when their leaders were brought to the scaffold, their strongholds razed to the ground, and their estates forfeited and transferred to strangers; so that throughout the extensive districts formerly possessed by this once powerful and ancient clan there is scarcely left, at this day, a single landholder of the name. Their descendants have been long scattered, some of them having settled in England, and others in Ireland." (In reference to one of these statements, it may be here repeated that the thoughtless custom of regarding the bearer of a modern surname as the representative of the race whence he derived it is an utter fallacy. Of the four great-grandfathers of a modern "Armstrong," two may have been Baillies and another Elliott. If so, this Armstrong is more an eighteenth-century Baillie than an Armstrong, though his surname has accidentally come to him from the latter. This is ignoring great-grandmothers, and all the thousand ancestors that went before them, who may have belonged to any one of the nations, clans, and families of Europe. To talk of a man being "a thorough Brown" or "a true Jones"—in a genealogical sense—is a misuse of language.)
† He was succeeded by Charles Blythe, who again was succeeded by his daughter, Esther Faw Blythe. But as Blythe was not of the swarthy Faw blood, and as his daughter (though inheriting some of that blood through her mother) was not very much more of a "Faw" than her father, these two were most imperfect representatives of this Border chiefship.
time with this or that other Border tribe—against whatever foe it seemed convenient to fight. Moreover, the more important chiefs unquestionably did acknowledge the Scottish King as their sovereign—after a fashion. But when (as with the Galloway *dubh-glasses* and Island *dubh-galls* of the fifteenth century) there seemed a chance of success in a united attack upon the monarchy of "Scotia," their vassalage was thrown to the winds. Indeed, it was chiefly because the attitude of the Border leaders was formidable and threatening in the extreme, that the young king (James the Fifth) had to act with such severity in his invasion of the Border country. Those leaders, then, were "outlaws" and "King's rebels" in a certain sense. In an exact sense, as we get nearer our own time: in a very inexact sense, as we go back to the period of the "outlaw Murray;"—who had conquered his own territory for himself, from "the Southrons," and who was therefore, least of all, a "rebel" to the King of Scotland.
The "Debatable Land," therefore, or the Border portions of *Cumbria-cum-Northumbria*, maintained its integrity—as a really important district—up till the end of the sixteenth century: at which period James the Sixth of Scotland finally rooted out the Armstrong aristocracy (whose place, nevertheless, other and feebler clans of "mossers" continued, in a manner, to fill). Not only did the chief of the Armstrongs refuse to acknowledge "either Henry or James" as his over-lord; but, on one occasion, when he and his tribe had been out on the war-path in the north of England, the English warden of the West Marches (Sir Robert Carey), having "demanded satisfaction from the king of Scotland," "received for answer, that the offenders were no subjects of his, and that he might take his own revenge." This was in 1598; five years before the "King of Scotland" became "King of Great Britain and Ireland." At that date—1598—this "King of Scotland" had only been the undoubted sovereign of the Danish Orkneys for eight years; on his own confession, the Hebrides were, for several years after this, not under his rule (whatever they were nominally); and here also, on his own confession, a large tract of country in the south of Modern Scotland was possessed by tribes who "were no subjects of his."
Sir Robert Carey, on receiving this answer from the king of Scotland, "accordingly entered Liddesdale, and ravaged the land of the outlaws." In doing this, he was assisted by those subjects of King James whom Carey styles "the foot of Liddisdale and Risdale;" and Scott states* that "the garrison of King James in the Castle of Hermitage" is included in this term. These statements, and further allusions to the "English side" of this territory, and "the high parts of the marsh towards Scotlande," leave no room for doubting its independent character. And "the garrison of King James in the Castle of Hermitage" may not inaptly be compared with a modern United States regiment, in a fort of Southern Arizona.
Because these, be it remembered, were our British "Indians:" from whom, or whose like, a large number of us are descended. The article on the Minstrelsy, in the Edinburgh Review of 1803, says:—"In these traits [of the Borderers], we seem to be reading the description of a Tartarian or Arabic tribe, and can scarcely persuade ourselves that this country contained, within these two centuries, so exact a prototype of the Bedouin character." One might echo Hamlet—"Seems! nay, it is; I know not 'seems.'" It is the description of Tartarian tribes: who were called by that very name, "thieving Tartarians," by their civilized contemporaries: whose complexion and customs can yet be paralleled in Arabia: who—geographically, chronologically, ethnographically—connect the "Old" World with the "New." These are the Thieves, Scots, Mossers and Felons referred to in the Edinburgh newspaper of 1662;—wherein they are spoken of as notorious robbers and murderers: who are characterized by Scott, on various occasions,† as "hardy and ferocious," "savage and licentious:" and regarding whom he has made many statements that fully justify the use of these terms. Of the "Southern Reivers" (or mossers south of the Cheviots) who captured the castle of Fairnihurst, during the sixteenth century, he states: "The commander and his followers are
* In his prefatory remarks to the ballad of "Johnnie Armstrong."
† See the "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," pages 19, 23, 27, 32, 96, and others (in the edition here quoted—Murray, London, 1869), for information of this sort.
accused of such excesses of lust and cruelty 'as would,' says Beaugé, 'have made to tremble the most savage moor in Africa.'" And when this stronghold was re-taken, in the year 1549, by a mixed force of Frenchmen and Northern "Reivers," the latter displayed the same savage qualities as their southern kindred (and enemies). The arrows of the besieged mossers having proved useless before the fire of the French musketry, and the savage archers themselves being driven from the walls; and finally, the wall of the inner stronghold being shattered in one place, by a mine; the southern leader crept through the breach thus made, "and, surrendering himself to De la Mothe-rouge, implored protection from the vengeance of the borderers. But a Scottish marchman, eycing in the captive the ravisher of his wife, approached him ere the French officer could guess his intention, and, at one blow, carried his head four paces from the trunk. Above a hundred Scots rushed to wash their hands in the blood of their oppressor, bandied about the severed head, and expressed their joy in such shouts, as if they had stormed the city of London. The prisoners, who fell into their merciless hands, were put to death, after their eyes had been torn out; the victors [not the more civilized Frenchmen, who led the attack] contending who should display the greatest address in severing their legs and arms before inflicting a mortal wound. When their own prisoners were slain, the Scottish, with an unextinguishable thirst for blood, purchased those of the French; parting willingly with their very arms, in exchange for an English captive. 'I myself,' says Beaugé, with military sang-froid, 'I myself sold them a prisoner for a small horse [one of their "galloways"]. They laid him down upon the ground, gallopped over him with their lances in rest, and wounded him as they passed. When slain, they cut his body in pieces, and bore the mangled gobbets, in triumph, on the point of their spears.'" It is of these "Red-Indian" tribes that Scott is speaking, when he describes their gathering-song, with its savage burden of $a' a' a' a'$, "swelling into a long and varied howl;" and when he states that, when raising their tribe for pursuit, or "the Hot trod,"—"they used to carry a burning wisp of straw at spear head, and to raise a cry, similar to the Indian warwhoop:" which similarity—apparent throughout all this paragraph—was still further increased when (like the "Gallo-
ways" of the twelfth century, in the army of William the Lion)* their bodies were naked from head to heel,—when they rode their little Indian-ponies without saddle or bridle,—and when their dusky skins were painted over with the "various colours" of the faws, or scarlet with the ruddle of the Wild Scots of Galloway.
It is of these races that Fuller—at a date long subsequent to the twelfth century, and after many changes of custom, of blood, and of political position—writes as follows: † "These compelled the vicinage to purchase their security, by paying a constant rent to them. When in their greatest height, they had two great enemies,—the Laws of the Land and the Lord William Howard of Naworth. He sent many of them to Carlisle, to that place where the officer doth always his work by daylight." (Fuller, of course, refers more particularly to the Southern Borderers—whom he styles "English Tories"—and the laws he speaks of were those of England.) "After that they are outlawed...they lawfully may be destroyed, without any judicial inquisition [he is quoting from Bracton], as who carry their own condemnation about them, and deservedly die without law, because they refused to live according to [South British] law." These marauders, lurking in the marshes of Tarras, and "the Merse," are the Scots of whom the Scotchman Lesley, bishop of Ross, has given this sketch:‡—"They sally out of their own borders, in the night, in troops,
* This reference—already given—is page 39 of Nicholson's "Historical and Traditional Tales" of the South of Scotland; Kirkcudbright, 1843.
A distinct identification of these Picts, Faws, or Moors of Galloway with the gypsies of Scotland (of which the presumptive evidence already adduced is so strong that it may surely be regarded as incontrovertible) under the name of gypsies or of "Tinklers" (which, in Scotland, is the same thing), may, perhaps, be discoverable in that charter of William the Lion, in which (says the Encyclopaedia writer) there is special mention of Tinklers. We know that the Douglases of Galloway claimed the right that Mr. Skene accords to the Picts of Galloway: that is, to the Moors of Galloway: that is, to the dubh-glasses of Galloway. And we know that white Scotchwomen used to frighten their children with a song that threatens the appearance, in one version, of "the black dubh-glass"—in another, of "the black Tinkler." But this charter may, perhaps, prove the identity more clearly still.
† Appendix to "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," note N.
‡ Already extracted: from the Introduction to the "Minstrelsy."
through unfrequented bye-ways, and many intricate windings. All the day time they refresh themselves and their horses, in lurking holes they had pitched upon before, till they arrive in the dark at those places they have a design upon. As soon as they have seized upon the booty, they, in like manner, return home in the night, through blind ways, fetching many a compass. The more skilful any captain is to pass through those wild deserts, crooked turnings, and deep precipices, in the thickest mists and darkness, his reputation is the greater, and he is looked upon as a man of an excellent head. And they are so very cunning that they seldom have their booty taken from them, unless sometimes, when, by the help of bloodhounds following them exactly upon the tract, they may chance to fall into the hands of their adversaries. When being taken, they have so much persuasive eloquence, and so many smooth insinuating words at command [“Gitano, Gipsy, flatterer; Gitanada, wheedling”], that if they do not move their judges, nay, and even their adversaries . . . . to have mercy, yet they incite them to admiration and compassion.” These “moon-men” (as Grose states the “gypsies” were called), mossers, or moss troopers, of whom Bishop Nicholson, writing in the end of the seventeenth century, said that they were not at that time “utter strangers to the black art of their forefathers,” are similarly described in that act* of James the First (of the United Kingdom), which states “that the thieves and limmers aforesaid, having for some short space after the said act of parliament, (of 1609, “anent the Egyptians,” or “vagabonds, sorners, and common thieves, commonly called Egyptians,”) . . . . dispersed themselves in certain secret and obscure places of the country . . . . . they were not known to wander abroad in troops and companies, according to their accustomed manner, yet, shortly thereafter, finding that the said act of parliament was neglected, and that no enquiry . . . . was made for them, they began to take new breath and courage, and . . . . unite themselves in infamous companies and societies, under . . . . commanders, and continually since then have remained within the country [from which—either regarded as Scott’s moss-troopers, or as Simson’s gypsies—they had been pronounced banished], com-
* Quoted in Mr. Simson’s “History” (p. 114).
mitting as well open and avowed rieffis (robberies) in all parts... murders... pleine stouthe (common theft), and pickery, where they may not be mastered; and they do shamefully and mischievously abuse the simple and ignorant people, by telling fortunes, and using charms [“spells, magical receipts,” and “other conjuring feats,” as Bishop Nicholson says], and a number of juggling tricks and falseties, unworthy to be heard of in a country subject to religion, law, and justice.”
These are the people who as “common thieves” were “commonly called Egyptians;” and as commonly called “Tartarians,” as we have previously noticed.* Either term—there is much reason for believing—correctly indicates the extra-British homes of certain marauding British castes (known to history as Scots, Black-Danes, &c.), though the changes of many centuries must, of necessity, have deprived those designations of their original correctness. The links of complexion, of custom, and of character, that unite the Black Dane with the Hun, seem to justify the use of the word “Tartarian:” the identity of the fifteenth century Scot with the fifteenth century Egyptian (as seen from the remarks of Boece and of Lesley, from the fact that Scot and mosser were interchangeable terms later on, and for other reasons already stated), and also the probable-identity of the Scots and Ancient Egyptians—tracing backwards from the fifteenth century to the third or fourth, and so to Egypt—seem to justify, with equal force, the use of the word “Egyptian:” both of which robber-nations, or the tory remnants of which, were styled “common thieves” so recently as the seventeenth century. (Their earlier and considerably remote Oriental connection with each other—if such connection existed—is a question with which we have nothing to do here.)
But before their “decay” and “ruine”—to quote Fuller
* The references were from “The Merry Devil of Edmonton”—“there’s not a Tartarian, nor a carrier shall breath upon your geldings:” and from “The Wandering Jew” (1640), wherein the Hangman says, “... and if any thieving Tartarian shall break in upon you, I will with both hands nimbly lend a cast of my office to him.” And the Modern-Danish law denounces “the Tartar gipsies, who wander about everywhere, doing great damage to the people, by their lies, thefts and witchcraft.”
again—those "common thieves" of the Borders—like their fellows in Galloway and the Islands of the Foreigners, formed one, or many, important communities. They "obeyed the laws of neither" of the two chief countries that lay to the south and to the north of the Debatable Land, because they had laws of their own. They "went to church as seldom as the 29th of February comes into the kalendar," because they were not Christians, but heathens (Heyden being still used in one Teut-ish, Teutsch, or Dutch country, as the term for a Gypsy); with a religion of their own. Though latterly they had degenerated, or their "irreconcilables" had degenerated, into the position of "common thieves,"—they had once been "thieves" in the same sense as the Modern-British are "thieves" of Australia, or of India;—and the Americans of the territory of the United States.
During the indefinable period of which Scott mostly treats, they were in their transition stage. At one moment, you feel disposed to call them Sorohen,—at another Sorners. Even the objectionable term, "Thief," was accepted in a larger sense, in the days when James the Fifth of Scotland marched eight thousand men over his southern frontier, "to daunton the Thieves of Liddesdale:" who were "no subjects of his" (any more than of his grandson, the Sixth James). Two of his most celebrated subjects—Sir David Lindsay and Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington—regarded Liddesdale as peculiarly the home of Falsehood, Common Theft, and Oppression: the last of which qualities can only exist with Power. "Sir David Lindsay, in a curious drama, introduces, as one of his dramatis personæ, Common Thief, a borderer, who is supposed to come to Fife to steal the earl of Rothes' best hackney, and lord Lindsay's brown jennet. Oppression, also (another personage there introduced), seems to be connected with the borders; for, finding himself in danger, he exclaims—
War God that I were sound and hail,
Now liftit into Liddesdail;
... Again, when Common Thief is brought to condign punishment, he remembers his border friends in his dying speech"—wherein, as once referred to before, he names
various "gypsy" tribes. And "when Common Thief is executed... Falsehood... pronounces over him the following eulogy:
Waes me for thee, gude Commoun Thief!
Was never man made more honest chift,
His living for to win:
Thair wes not, in all Liddesdail,
That ky mair craftelly could steil,
Whar thou hings on that pin!"
Maitland's Complaynt against the Thievis of Liddisdail, written at the same period, tells us the same story. It complains that "the common thieves of Liddesdale" have "almost completely harrowed Ettrick Forest (by this time a portion of 'Scotland') and Lauderdale,"—and are now even extending their depredations into the Lothians. Not content with merely levying black-mail, they have so thoroughly cleaned out the country to the south of Edinburgh, that those who once had "meat, and bread, and ale," have now to be content with "water kale;" which Scott renders "broth of vegetables." After recounting all their iniquities, and the names of some of their chiefs, he states that—
"Of sum great men they have sic gait,
That redy are thame to debait.
And will up weir
Their stolen geir,
That nane dare steir
Thame air [early] or late."
And he indignantly asks—"What, but want of justice among us, causes us to be so overborne by these robbers?"
Even in the end of the sixteenth century those Thieves were not only "no subjects" of James the Sixth of Scotland,—inhabiting a country of their own, and fighting against Scotland on the north, and England on the south,—but they were virtually the rulers of Southern Scotland, up to the very walls of Edinburgh. Maitland's Complaynt says as much: and his statement that they were countenanced by "some great men," shows how important was their position. They were really the kinsmen and followers of the said "great men." But these—perhaps because they were connected by blood with the National aristocracy, perhaps because they knew that barefaced marauding on the part of a noble of Scotland (as in the earlier day of the Dubh-glass power) could no longer be tolerated—for either, or both, of these reasons, the "great men" took care not to identify themselves openly with their own "thieves." Scott of Satchells plainly says that they were actuated by the latter motive. "He mentions, that the laird of Buccleuch employed the services of the younger sons and brothers only of his clan, lest the name should have been weakened by the landed men incurring forfeiture." Of course, only those inhabiting Scotland Proper required to protect their reputation thus. The pure Thieves, or Gypsies, of the Debatable Land were wholly indifferent to the opinion of the Scotch king,—for they were "no subjects of his," and he could not therefore have forfeited their desolate territory, in any event. Such independent chiefs, or kinglets, "had little attachment to the monarchs, whom they termed in derision, the kings of Fife and Lothian; provinces which they were not legally entitled to inhabit,* and which, therefore, they pillaged with as little remorse as if they had belonged to a foreign country:" which was actually the case.
At this period, and in this portion of Scotland, there were therefore three chief divisions of society. There were the civilized burghers, and the civilized Scotch, generally—there were the half-civilized "nobles" of the country south of Edinburgh, to the frontier—and there were the quite uncivilized followers of these "nobles," together with the equally savage tribes of the Debatable Country—leaders or led. The "half-civilized 'nobles,'" being part of the aristocracy of the country, bore at this time, the two-fold character of "noble" and "gypsy-chief." One result of which was, as we see from Maitland, that a reign of terror existed throughout southern Scotland: against which the peaceable burghers and agriculturists could not lift a hand. These
* "By Act 1587, c. 96, borderers are expelled from the inland counties, unless they can find security for their quiet deportment." The state of things thus indicated, when referred to in another place, was likened to that existing in the United States, and those "borderers" to the half-wild "Indians," who are not allowed to leave their reservations without some such authority. (The extracts given at this point are all taken from the "Minstrelsy.")
terms, "burghers" and "agriculturists," are not here used in a restricted sense; but rather as including all those whose power did not rest solely on force, and whose daily food was provided after a more civilized fashion than "thieving." Of this civilized element Sir David Lindsay and Sir Richard Maitland are good specimens,—whether we regard them as gentlemen, or as scholars, or as squires whose land was tilled by peace-loving peasants. The uncivilized element we see in its perfection, in the troops of armed and mounted gypsies that were the terror of this peaceable population, and whose outrages—murder, robbery, and fire-raising—form the theme of Sir Richard Maitland's Complaynt.
The immense importance of the gypsy castes at this period (it seems only yesterday—the reign of James the Sixth of Scotland), is evinced by an extract that Scott makes from Birrel's Diary. "This good old citizen of Edinburgh [Birrel] also mentions another incident, which I think proper to insert here . . . . as tending to show the light in which the men of the Border were regarded, even at this late period, by their fellow-subjects. The author is talking of the King's return to Edinburgh, after the disgrace which he had sustained there, during the riot excited by the seditious ministers on December 17, 1596. Proclamation had been made, that the earl of Mar should keep the West Port, lord Seaton the Nether-Bow, and Buccleuch, with sundry others, the High-gate. 'Upon the morn at this time, and befoir this day, there was ane grate rumour and word among the tounes-men, that the Kinges M[ajesty] sould send in Will Kinmonde, the common thieffe, and so many southlande men as sould spulyie the toun of Edinburgh. Upon the whilk, the haill merchants tuik their hail gear out of their buiths or chopes, and transportit the same to the strongest hous that was in the toune, and remained in the said hous, thair, with themselfis, thair servants, and luiking for nothing bot that thaye sould have been all spulyeit. Sic lyke the hiall craftsmen and commons convenit themselfis, their best guidis, as it wer ten or twelve householdes in ane, whilk wes the strongest hous, and might be best kepit from spuilyeing or burning, with hagbut, pistolet, and other sic armour as might best defend themselfis. Judge, gentil
reader, giff this was playing.' The fear of the Borderers (continues Scott) being thus before the eyes of the contumacious citizens of Edinburgh, James obtained a quiet hearing for one of his favourite orisons, or harangues, and was finally enabled to prescribe terms to his fanatic metropolis. Good discipline was, however, maintained by the chiefs upon this occasion; although the fears of the inhabitants were but too well grounded, considering what had happened in Stirling ten years before, when the earl of Angus, attended by Home, Buccleuch, and other Border chieftains, marched thither to remove the earl of Arran from the King's councils; the town was miserably pillaged by the Borderers, particularly by a party of Armstrongs, under this very Kinmont Willie, who not only made prey of horses and cattle, but even of the very iron grating of the windows."
Here we have that very King who did so much afterwards—and previously—to crush these marauding habits, actually employing his tory castes as a political engine. Kinmont Willie, the gypsy chief, and all the savage "Tartarians" of the Borders, threatening the security of his most civilized subjects; because, being alienated for the moment from these subjects, he had absolutely no other weapon to rely upon. At this crisis, the gypsies and semi-gypsies of Scotland had a distinctly historical position.
The two-fold aspect in which those Border chiefs appear to men of education, in this century—is what renders the term "gypsy" only partially appropriate. The word now signifies so degraded a caste, when used conventionally, that it is not easy to realize that certain "gypsy" families of one century back were richly-dressed, well-mannered, and even well-educated people: and that the social importance of such families increases as one looks back in time. Till we reach people who are not only fitted, by their ferocious and heathen customs, to be the ancestors of the most savage eighteenth-century tories; but who also possessed certain qualities that entitle them to be regarded as the (unrefined and pagan) progenitors of all the civilized
* For this and other such extracts see "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," Murray & Son, London, 1869; pp. 29, 159, 232, 247, 264, 265, &c., &c.
Melanochroi of Britain. Black Agnes of Dunbar, directing the defence of her husband's castle against the forces of the Earl of Salisbury, was the prototype of the modern lady—so far. But the modern gentlewoman, if one could fancy her in such a place, would not have shouted over the battlements, taunting and jeering at the besiegers. To find women of this description, in modern times, you have to look at the female-gypsies—Taits and Kennedys—on either side the Water of Teema (in Ettrick Forest), "scolding and cursing, and, clapping their hands, urging the men to fight." Ladies with such proclivities are no longer regarded as ladies. The "tory" ranee is a noisy randy, in the estimation of the modernized Scotch: the "gypsy" queen is only a quean to others. And this particular action of Black Agnes was nothing exceptional in her day. "This sort of bravado (says Scott) seems to have been fashionable in those times."
It is now one of the chief characteristics of Mr. Simson's swaggering "gypsies." Just as the showy finery of the Baillies and Ruthvens and other eighteenth-century "gypsies," scarlet and green, is paralleled with the gay attire of the earlier "outlaw Murray," his consort, and his tribe. The prevalence of which tastes is indicated by Scott, when he says: "Their only treasures were, a fleet and active horse, with the ornaments which their rapine had procured for the females of their family, of whose gay appearance the Borderers were vain." (The "fleet and active horse" was at last denounced by statute;* so that when the gypsy chief wished to divorce his wife after the ancient tory fashion, he had to imitate the ceremony by shooting one of the asses of his troop; and for every purpose, that useful animal took the place, as far as it could, of the banished "hobby," "Galloway," or "Indian pony.")
It is because Scott did not see his Border predecessors in this light that his fancied representations of early Border life are essentially false. Whatever his lineage—according to the flesh—he was the intellectual descendant of men like
* "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," Murray's reprint, 1869, p. 27, note 1. The use of fire-arms and other weapons was also prohibited to the Border gypsies by this enactment, but Mr. Simson states that they continued to carry pistols in their wallets for a long time after this, and even their amazons carried long heavy-bladed knives.
Lindsay and Maitland; in whose eyes the chiefs whose deeds he never tired of singing were simply "common thieves." If he had ever thought of describing an encounter between two opposing tribes of eighteenth-century moss-troopers—the Taits and the Johnstones, for example,—he would never have employed the respectful language which he used to their ancestors. In a mortal struggle between two chiefs the victor would have been styled a "murderer;" and the whole moss-trooping population were "ferocious and vindictive" "vagrants." The aptness of these last expressions (Scott's own) cannot be disputed; but, although he applied them to the eighteenth-century moss-troopers, he would never have thought of so characterizing their earlier forefathers,—who were equally "ferocious and vindictive," and "equally "vagrant." This is how he describes an encounter between sixteenth-century gypsies:—"The only blood then spilt was in a duel betwixt Tait, a follower of Cessford, and Johnstone, a west border man, attending upon Angus. They fought with lances, and on horseback, according to the fashion of the borders. The former was unhorsed and slain, the latter desperately wounded." But, in writing of the same kind of people in his own day, he writes in this manner:—"By the by, old Kennedy the tinker swam for his life at Jedburgh, and was only, by the sophisticated and timed evidence of a seceding doctor, who differed from all his brethren, saved from a well-deserved gibbet. He goes to botanize for fourteen years. . . . Six of his brethren were, I am told, in the court, and kith and kin without end. I am sorry so many of the clan are left. The cause of the quarrel with the murdered man, was an old feud between two gipsy clans, the Kennedys and Irvings, which, about forty years since, gave rise to a desperate quarrel and battle at Hawick-green, in which the grandfather of both Kennedy and the man whom he murdered were engaged." When he writes of "Hughie the Graeme," unanimously sentenced by a Carlisle jury to "a well-deserved gibbet," his sympathies are all with the "kith and kin" in the court; not with either jury or judge. Because the event happened long ago, and the thief and murderer occupied a vastly higher position than in his own day. When he writes of "Hobbie Noble" (another specimen of the
"ferocious and vindictive vagrant"), these are his words:—
"We have seen the hero of this ballad act a distinguished part in the deliverance of Jock o' the Side, and are now to learn the ungrateful return which the Armstrongs made him for his faithful services,"—and so on. What this "hero" had really done was to break into Newcastle Jail one night, and rescue the said "Jock o' the Side" from an equally "well-deserved gibbet." The contrast between the two forms of phraseology is ludicrous: since they were applied to the one set of men and by the same individual. "Hero," "distinguished," "faithful services": "ferocious and vindictive vagrants," "a well-deserved gibbet,"—"I am sorry so many of the clan are left." The utter falsity of Scott's attitude is seen when we realise that he had neighbours living precisely the life of those earlier marauders—identically that life, in every particular, so far as the times would allow—and yet he had to be told by Mr. Simson that they were very fond of the ancient Border ballads, and that "they were constantly singing these compositions among themselves." His visitor could have told him—if he did not know—that the Minstrels of the Scottish Border* were not extinct, as a caste; but half-merryandrew, half-musician (jongleur-juggler), formed the life of every country-wedding among the humbler classes—the classes which adhere the longest to ancient customs. But, no—Scott's love of gypsydom was purely sentimental and archaic. He glorified the robber-tribes that were the terror of fifteenth-century scholars, burghers, and husbandmen: but when their least-altered descendants came before him in their hereditary character (comparatively harmless and insignificant by his day)—he did not know them! Sir Walter Scott of Abbotsford regarded them precisely as Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington had done—as "common thieves:" the instincts of the modern squire were aroused in him—not those of the robber-chief represented by the gypsy captain: "it appeared to me (says Mr. Simson) that the mind of the great magician was not wholly divested of the fear that the Gip-
* The identity of "Border Gypsy" with "Border Minstrel" has already been pointed out. For Mr. Simson's confirmatory remarks see pages 226, 229, and 307 of his "History."
sies might, in some way or other, injure his young plantations."
It matters little what Scott's precise pedigree was. He himself has told us that, though it took the civilized forces of Scotland a hundred years to do it, the marauding castes of the Borders were at last schooled into Christian civilization: though, in the process, the most intractable sections had to choose between death and banishment. Consequently, a great number of civilized and refined modern Scotchmen must be (as Mr. Simson continually preaches) the descendants of those ferocious gypsies. So that, for that matter, Scott's people might have been pure "pagans" not very long ago. But, in reality, it seems that he had comparatively little of this blood in his veins. It was his boast (the author of Waverley's boast) that his birth "according to the prejudices of his country," "was esteemed gentle;" that his lineage was that of the aristocracy of the Border Scots. And that aristocracy had, for many generations, been identified with the Anglo-Norman and Dutch * element, whose power superseded that of the earlier Scots: the leaders of those Border Scots being little more than Scotts by name. No doubt, this aristocracy—as we have just seen—was closely bound up with the commonalty of the Borders, in many ways; but, slowly and surely, the civilized and civilizing sections of these tribes came to repudiate all connection with the "common thieves." The heads of families would not allow their names to appear as leaders in those plundering expeditions (which they secretly countenanced), for fear of incurring forfeiture. And, at last, they had to wholly cut the connection. In 1612, the chiefs of the clan particularly named "Scott" (as the chiefs of many other clans did), formally bound themselves by contract "to give up all bands of friendship, kindness, oversight, maintenance or assurance, if any we have, with common thieves, and broken clans, &c." Possibly, they
* No doubt this "element" included many others of kindred nature, which might be called Norse and Celtic, Latin and Greek. Perhaps it would be better to call it the "English-speaking element." For the "English" tongue was the language of the Governmental party—the party of Bruce and his successors—from at least the fourteenth century onward. It was in "the English tongue" that the fourteenth-century Barbour wrote; and though Gavin Douglas and others afterwards called that language "Scotch," it was still the same speech.
did not at once adhere to the terms of this contract, and may have been among the Border gentry complained of in the proclamation of 1616, which sets forth that, not only do these "common thieves" "wander abroad in troops and companies," committing outrages of all sorts, but that "great numbers of his majesty's subjects, of whom some outwardly pretend to be famous and unspotted gentlemen, have given and give open and avowed protection, reset, supply and maintenance, upon their* grounds and lands, to the said vagabonds, sorners and condemned thieves and limmers, and suffer them to remain days, weeks and months together thereupon, without controlment, and with connivance and oversight, &c." His descent being therefore deduced from this—not the toriest—section of the clan Scott: the party of expediency and compromise: Scott himself was little of a "gypsy" by descent. Had he been descended from those who were nobles prior to the success of the Anglo-Norman or English speaking party he would have been himself a gypsy-minstrel. He was a minstrel: but his lays are full of a spirit that the earlier minstrels did not know: the spirit of refinement, of civilization, of Christianity; by which he saw even while he sung them, that the deeds of his moss-troopers were the deeds of savages. None of his ballads tell us that the women of the Borders fought with a bravery and fury not inferior to that of the men. The genuine moss-trooping songs do so, as we are told:† but his lays tell us only of "gentle maidens" and "fair ladies"—whose existence is very doubtful.
Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe, whom Scott regarded as a Scot-
* "Their grounds and lands." This is the "root of bitterness" out of which have grown half the troubles of this country. By craftily remaining in the background, and leaving the "younger sons and brothers" to risk the doom of "rebels" and "thieves," the heads of these tribes found themselves in course of time the absolute owners of what had once been small kingdoms—the common property of each little "nation." So long as the "younger sons and brothers," with the humbler tories of the tribe, brought in plunder, or conquered fresh territory, without falling under the ban of the central government, their kinship was duly recognized. But, when the day came in which it was declared unlawful to retain such followers, these were calmly repudiated, and the tribal chief became proprietor, in fæ, of the territory of his disowned clan.
† "Simson," p. 193; and compare the Border virago in "The Fray of Suport" (in the "Minstrelsy").
tish Horace Walpole; as a "very remarkable man;" and as having "a great turn for antiquarian lore;" has left us his impression of Scott's antiquarian abilities—in very plain and uncomplimentary language. Dr. Daniel Wilson, in his interesting sketches of Sharpe,* tells us that—as a marginal note, referring to some of Scott's statements—Sharpe has written these words: "Sir Walter knew nothing of antiquity, though he pretended to understand it. In that he was the greatest dunce and liar I ever knew." Dr. Wilson appropriately adds: "Browning has entitled one of his poems, 'How it strikes a contemporary;' and here we have the very thing,—we who have since seen, and shared in, the world's celebration of a Scott Centenary!"
To echo Sharpe's ungracious words would be unpardonable in any man now living: pardonable least of all in one whose scattered antiquarian facts have chiefly been taken from Scott himself. But this angry snarl over the dead lion is not without excuse;—proceeding, as it did, from a man of real learning and considerable talent: who, though miles behind Scott in greatness, was—considered as an antiquary—distinctly his superior. That Scott should have attempted so often to realise the life of the past, is a thing to be for ever regretted. To realise the past is impossible. A few stray facts come down to us out of various ages: and, when some of these facts are contemporaneous, we can indeed form some dim and hazy idea of the life of that period. But, at the best, it is guess-work. We know a few things as positive certainties—"so dim, yet so indubitable; exciting us to endless considerations:" firing an imagination like Scott's to the consideration of things that never happened; to the supposition of ways of life and thought of which he could know nothing. What can a few isolated certainties tell us about the myriad other certainties of their day? "Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders, and again lost by them; and Richard Cœur-de-Lion 'veiled his face' as he passed in sight of it: but how many other things went on the while!"
Therefore, it is a most unfortunate thing that Scott wasted his genius in attempting the unattainable. His weakness consisted in the fact that he was not a good antiquary. He
* "Old Edinburgh," Vol. I. p. 42 (D. Douglas, Edinburgh, 1878).
collected a great mass of floating traditions—gave them to the public—and, in doing this, made the public appreciate antiquity; as no mere Dryasdust could ever have done. And for this he cannot be sufficiently thanked. But his miserable error lay in this—that he didn’t even make a proper use of such "isolated certainties" as he possessed; that, while some of the figures in his canvas are undoubtedly correct, the general effect of the picture is as plainly untrue. His moss-troopers are not his only mis-creations. But the false conclusions which he arrived at regarding them—he, a man intimately acquainted with the modern social life of the Borders—are quite sufficient of themselves to damn him as an antiquary. The provoking part of the thing is, that he did not require to write about the past. The Author of "The Antiquary," of "Redgauntlet," of "Guy Mannering," might have written such books all his life, and only made himself more famous; and have left an infinitely richer legacy to us. For, of course, it is only as an antiquary that he failed. Setting that aside—one can admit everything else that is said of him. It is impossible not to admire him otherwise: not to feel the strong, virile humour that runs throughout his writings—the exquisite tenderness of some of his touches—the splendid swing of his verse: to recognize, in short, the whole genius of the man: and yet to know that—as an antiquary—he failed. For he did fail—greatly. And his mediaeval romances cannot possibly be accepted as the fictitious presentment of a real state of society. Hardly any more than Cymbeline or Macbeth.
CHAPTER VI.
Scott, then, had he lived three centuries earlier—as Poet and Author—would have regarded those who, he says, were among his own ancestors, as "common thieves" or "gypsies." There might have been this additional modification, that he himself might have been a trifle less refined. Perhaps this modification is dubious: but this, at least, is certain, that the gypsy tribes that were his aversion would assuredly have been much more powerful—their chiefs, in many cases, having a historical position and great social influence,—a position and an influence vastly superior to that of the best-bred Baillie or Faa of the eighteenth century.
It is really doubtful whether Scott, as a sixteenth-century Man of Letters, would have been less refined;—extremely doubtful. The idea that he might be so presented itself to my mind rather in connection with Beaugé, the historian-soldier, than as associated with the cultured men of Scotland, at that period; in the mass, or individually. And Beaugé was, of course, a soldier. Still, he represents the civilized section of the combatants, in the siege of that Border tower, previously sketched. The question is, did he fairly represent the civilized Scotchmen* of his day? If so, then the civilized men of to-day—American, British, French, or what not—are not so savage as those of three centuries ago. When Beaugé tells us how the Border Indians tortured their prisoners—"contending who should display the greatest address in severing their legs and arms before inflicting a mortal wound"—killing them after their eyes had been torn out—laying one of them, pinioned, upon the ground, and
* Though a Frenchman, Beaugé was there as a civilized Scotchman. And besides, the early-modern French element in the blood, the manners, and the speech of Scotland, is not inconsiderable.
utilising his prostrate body as their butt, in a kind of bloody tent-pegging; and, after the unfortunate wretch had succumbed under the lance thrusts (cautiously though these were given), galloping to and fro with pieces of his quivering flesh upon their spear-points:—in recounting all this to us, Beaugé merely observes, dispassionately,—“I cannot greatly praise the Scottish for this practice.” And he frankly tells us that the victim of “this practice,” a prisoner captured by him, was sold to those savages for “a small horse” (one of their “Galloways” or “Irish hobbies”). Moreover, he adds that, as the mossers of the Southern or English Border had behaved with the greatest barbarity to their Northern foes, in their hour of triumph, “it was but fair to repay them, according to the proverb, in their own coin.”
The outrages of the English savages, being such “as would have made to tremble the most savage Moor in Africa,” went far to justify the pitiless revenge of their Scottish neighbours. The insulted husband who, “at one blow,” struck the head of his worst enemy “four paces from the trunk,” must have many sympathisers, at the present day, and among civilized men. But the way in which the “Northern Rievers” paid back their Southern kidney—though the payment was made in the same coin—how many modern men would extenuate that?
At the first thought, one would say that no civilized man would regard such barbarities, except with disgust; and that Beaugé is a long way behind any modern military officer or war-correspondent: that—to continue the comparison formerly made—no American officer would sell a prisoner to a tribe of “friendlies,” for the sake of an Indian pony; and aware of the fate in store for the captive.
But, then, one remembers barbarities on the part of “civilized” people, of very recent date. It will be long before men forget the horrid death of the Kabyles in the caves of Dahra; or the superfluous savagery attending the execution of the Sepoys—blown from the cannon’s mouth—; or the wholesale massacre of the Piegans of America. The last example, like that of Dahra, means the slaughter of women and children: and I have heard it said that, when one of these American soldiers—with some strange touch of
pity—asked his commander if the Indian baby was to follow its murdered mother, he received an oracular response, to the effect that an Indian man-child—if let alone—would one day be an Indian man.
These things are, fortunately, exceptional at the present day. But if some one, many generations after this, ascertained that such barbarous deeds were done—in the middle of the nineteenth century, and by the representatives of three of its most civilized nations,—he might hastily assume that these "civilized nations" were so many hordes of heartless savages. And, therefore, though a civilized Frenchman of the sixteenth century did hand over a prisoner to the horrors of Red-Indian torture; and although, at the close of that century, the King of Scotland made use of his "Tartarian" subjects in order to enforce his will against that of "the contumacious citizens" of Edinburgh and Stirling; yet it does not follow therefrom that the most refined people of that day endorsed such acts. Consequently, had Scott lived as a sixteenth-century writer, he might not have differed in any degree from what he actually was.
It is important to bear in mind that Scott—apart from all his "vain imaginations"—was, in everything but blood (and, perhaps in that, too, to a greater extent than he knew), the descendant of such sixteenth century men as the scholars Maitland and "Davie" Lindsay.* Because these were on the winning side. Although,—owing to the national importance of their leaders (though these kept in the background), the Common Thieves of Liddesdale were permitted to terrorise all the south-east of Scotland, and to sorn upon the husbandmen of the Lothians, till the latter had been despoiled of everything—clothes, household goods, everything but the actual necessaries of life—this did not continue for ever. (At Maitland's date, indeed, this state of matters—brought about by the extreme youth of the King—was distinctly a relapse into the rule of violence, so far as concerned the agricultural districts.) His consolatory prophecy, that—
* Maitland and Lindsay themselves may, of course, have descended from "gypsies" of a certain era. Whether that era was only a century before their day, or a whole millenary, is of little moment. They are here taken as representing the educated men of their time.
may not have been so completely fulfilled as he could have wished, during his lifetime. But such a death became more and more the fate of those who persisted in living the lives of "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians," for whose suppression statute after statute was enacted. The process was a slow one. The agricultural inhabitants of the Vale of Ettrick, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, were—as described by Maitland—completely under the sway of the Common Thieves; to whom they not only paid black mail, but were also forced, most unwillingly, to render up nearly everything that their dwellings contained. But the descendants of these husbandmen, even so recently as the first half of the eighteenth century, were—as we are told by the most famous of all the Ettrick Shepherds*—by no means free from this galling yoke: and when one energetic farmer was at last roused to a distinct protest against those sorners (a branch of the Kennedy clan), refusing point-blank to suffer them to live at their pleasure in his own out-houses, and on his own sheep, poultry, and "all superfluous and movable stuff, such as hams, &c.," he was forced in the long-run to admit the folly of his insubordination; and, "after a warfare of five years' duration," "he was glad to make up matters with his old friends, and shelter them as formerly." Moreover, it can scarcely be said that the yeomen or farmers—with their labourers—constituted the majority of the population of certain Border districts, even in the eighteenth century. A Blackwood correspondent, writing in 1817, and referring to his schoolboy days (which could not have been earlier than the middle of the previous century), recalls "the peculiar feelings of curiosity and apprehension with which we sometimes encountered the formidable bands of this roaming people, in our rambles among the Border hills, or when fishing for perch in the picturesque little lake at Lochside." When "a gang of them came to a solitary farm-house, and, as was usual, took possession of
* Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. I. p. 53.
some waste out-house;" and when "another clan," arriving there on the same day, contested the possession of the place until the ground "was absolutely soaked with blood;" which constituted "the population" of that district—the dwellers in the "solitary farm-house," or the "common thieves"? To repeat the Transatlantic simile—whether was Kentucky an "Indian territory," or the country of the (soi-disant) white man, in the time of Daniel Boone?
The importance of remembering that Scott—whatever his pedigree—was, in all his tastes, habits, and ways of thought, a representative of the civilized scholars, burghers, and yeomen of sixteenth-century Scotland; and not of the Common Thieves of sixteenth-century Liddesdale, or Debatable-Land; cannot be too strongly insisted upon. Because these, as just said, "were on the winning side." The ultimate victory, long-delayed, of the party by whom those statutes against sorners were enacted, means the victory of those scholars, burghers, yeomen, and peaceably-disposed aristocrats; who were the resolute opponents of that rule of violence. And there is clearly an ethnological fact underlying this.
Those enactments of the sixteenth century (and the earlier part of the seventeenth) directed against the people of the Hebrides, or Isles of the Foreigners, which have been several times noticed, were "raised at the instance of the whole inhabitants of The Burghs of this Realm;"* otherwise spoken of as "the free burghs." Such burghers were denominated "his Majesty's subjects," and "the lieges;" whereas the greater part of the island-population was described as composed of "wild savages, void of God's fear and our obedience," and as following "the barbarous and incivil forms of the country" (their country); at so recent a period as the closing years of Shakespeare's life,—the words quoted being those of Shakespeare's sovereign. The British monarch's relation to the Hebrideans had plainly been hitherto more that of a suzerain than of a sovereign. And, during the time of his several predecessors in the kingship of "Scotland," that kingship had not even exercised a suzerainty over various parts of North-Britain: then divided into wholly
* Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis, pp. 102, 115, 121.
separate nationalities. Of which the chiefest* were—the Kingdom of Sodor and Man (or the South-Hebrides and Man)—the Kingdom of Carrick, being the western portion of Galloway—the Kingdom of Innse-Gaill, or the Islands of the Foreigners (the Northern Hebrides)—Gallibh, or the Foreigners' Country, which is now best indicated by modern Caithness and the archipelagoes lying north of the Pentland Firth—and, lastly, the independent stretch of territory that latterly shrunk into the Debatable-Land Proper, but that formerly included all the south-east of Modern Scotland, and the north of Modern England; which territory was itself sub-divided into various provinces, such as Ettrick-Forest, Liddesdale, Annandale, Nithsdale (the Dale of the Niduari), and The Waste. These were all quite distinct countries from "Scotland," though they were absorbed by that power, one after another. And the people who made them to be "foreign" countries were "foreigners" in the eyes of those who spoke the forms of speech which we call "Gaelic" and "English." Other kingdoms, within the pale of early-Modern Scotland, continued also to exhibit signs of individual life, long after they had become portions of "Scotland;" but the countries just specified distinctly retained their independence for a longer period. Of these, the Kingdom of Carrick, or West-Galloway, may be regarded as standing mid-way between the wholly-independent and the nominally-extinct countries: for although the Kings of Carrick came gradually to be known by titles emanating from the Kings of Scotland, yet the rhyme which tells us that one need not attempt to live in Carrick without "courting Saint Kennedie"—or the power founded by Kenneth—is a rhyme composed by men who spoke the Scotch (or English) tongue. To the same speech belongs the saying, "Out of Scotland into the Largs," which was "at one time a common expression;"† the town of Largs being situated in the north-western corner of Ancient Gallo-
* Those, at any rate, that catch one's eye in a hasty glance at North Britain in early-modern times; and which seem to have maintained their individuality the longest. For actual scholarly information on the subject of the earlier kingdoms of North Britain, "Celtic Scotland" is, I presume, the unsurpassed authority. But it is enough, for our purpose here, to cite the few kingdoms mentioned above.
† Mackenzie's "History of Galloway," Vol. I. p. 146.
way. And it is in the same "Inglis toung" (as the fourteenth-century Aberdonian, Barbour, calls it) that the painted Moors, or Gypsies of Galloway, are known as "the wild Scots of Galloway" and "the Galloways;" *Picti qui vulgo Galweyenses dicuntur*, as sixteenth-century Camden puts it, in the less "vulgar" speech.
It is quite evident, then, that the main current of Scotch history has come down to us from those people who, in the fifteenth and subsequent centuries, were "his Majesty's subjects," "the lieges," "the whole inhabitants of The Burghs of this Realm:" and that the laws (promulgated at Edinburgh or Stirling, Falkland or Linlithgow) which eventually became current throughout the whole of North-Britain, were made *on behalf of* "his Majesty's subjects;" and *not* of those "wild savages, void of our obedience," who inhabited the various half-dying kingdoms just indicated. Such "wild savages"—living according to their own ideas—were offered the choice of conversion to Modern-Scotch ideas of life and religion, or of extermination. They were treated precisely as such races are now treated by modern colonizing races: certainly not *less* mercifully. The earliest distinct movement of this sort, it may be remembered, seems to have been "the plantation of Moray," or Moravia, or "the Moors' country," in the latter part of the twelfth century. This "plantation" was effected by King Malcolm of "Scotland," grandson and successor of David, Earl of Northamptonshire and King of "Scotland." This David was the youngest son of the gentle and pious Margaret—sister of Eadgar Aetheling and queen of Malcolm *Ceann-mor*—who did so much to civilize her husband, and her husband's people. Her youngest son,—the future King of "Scotland,"—in addition to the gentle training which he must have received from his mother, had also been "polished from a boy by intercourse and familiarity with" the Anglo-Norman nobility. And his reign—says Mr. Skene—"is beyond doubt the true commencement of feudal Scotland;" and marks the adoption, in Scotland proper, of Norman ideas and usages. Whatever may have been the condition of North Britain prior to David's accession to power—*Fionn* (white) contending with *Dubh* (Black) for the sovereignty of the chief kingdom; and whatever the ethnological distribution of the population; it is clear that a fresh start was made in this twelfth century—the impetus of which is still felt at the present day. The remonstrance made by Robert Bruce (ancestor of the famous King) to this semi-Norman monarch, at the date of his invasion of England,—is plainly that of one of a conquering race; few in number, probably, but holding the country by right of conquest. This Norman noble speaks of "the Scots" and "the Gallo-ways" (the latter a more special term) as the subdued natives of the country; against whom he and his kindred had fought "so often," "because of thee and thine" (addressing the King),—and whom "we have... deprived... of all hope in rebelling, and altogether subdued... to thee and thy will." That they had not "altogether subdued" these races is seen from the revolts and wars that took place afterwards, but it is evident that these twelfth-century Normans (and others) were in Scotland as a ruling caste: and this Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, was ruler of that district much in the same way as a British magistrate is ruler of an East-Indian territory (though with various apparent differences). And, moreover, that "the English"—or, more correctly, the Anglo-Norman nobles—were the friends of the twelfth-century Scoto-Normans, is as clearly seen from this speech of Bruce's: although they gradually became estranged, afterwards.
The "plantation of the Moors' country"—or "the settlement of the Indian territory"—did not take place until 1160, after King David's death. But that territory had really been added to the Kingdom of "Scotland," in the year 1130; having been conquered by King David's commander-in-chief—Edward, the son of Siward, Earl of Mercia, a cousin of his own—who had defeated the Moors, under "their King Oengus,* son of the daughter of Lulag," in a decisive battle. And, consequently, King David was enabled to make use of the conquered Muravenses at the Battle of the Standard, eight years later.
* This name is elsewhere spelled Ungus, which is really very like Uncas. Ungus, Oengus, Anagus, or Angus, is said to have been originally Aenas. But there is no reason against its identification with either Aenas or Uncas—separated as these are by such a vast stretch of time.
The statements here made are from "Celtic Scotland," Book I. Chapter IX.
It is worth while to waive for a moment "the plantation of the Moors' country," in order to glance at this northern army—whose motley character may be dimly seen. The van was composed of the painted Galloways, or *dubh-glasses*—who took that position as their acknowledged right: their chiefs, it is stated, being "Ulgrice and Dovenald [Domh-vall?], who were both slain." These "Picts of Galloway" were, in the opinion of Mr. Skene, the probable descendants of the second-century *Novantæ*, spoken of by Ptolemy. And the same author "does not doubt" that these *Novantæ* were no other than the Pictish *Niduari,* or Faws of Nithsdale. From the second century to the twelfth is a long period, and it is pretty certain that—if derived from those Nithsdale Faws of a thousand years back—the *dubh-glasses* that formed the vanguard of King David's army had likely changed somewhat since the days of those remote ancestors. However, if we look at them as they appeared when heading the army of William the Lion, forty years later, we shall probably receive a correct impression of the figure they presented at the Battle of the Standard. It is likely that they were all mounted men—as these moss-troopers seem always to have been; as they were, at any rate, when they came against the Norman Bruce beside the river-ford, about two centuries later. These fierce warriors were entirely naked, and their swarthy skins were gleaming with war-paint, or covered over with the "rude figures, iron-graved," that distinguished their savage ancestors, in the days of the Roman invasion. The little mustangs they bestrode had no better saddle than "an unshorn hide;" and their riders, innocent of stirrup or of spur, guided them by a rough bridle of "rope or thong," held in the left hand. The left arm bore a skin-covered wooden shield; and, at the left side, hung a small dirk or "black knife." The right hand grasped a long spear; which was used either as a lance, or hurled at the enemy as an assegai—when required; these warriors being "very expert in throwing and aiming their javelins at great distances." To these weapons were probably added the tomahawks that have been found in the territory of the Galloways, within recent times. If they
* "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 132-3.
resembled their kindred in Ireland, two centuries afterwards, these Galloway *dubb-glasses* had plaited their long black tresses into manifold plaits or "glibbes;" forming a natural thickset, stout enough to bear off the cut of a sword. When they galloped to the charge against the English host at Northallerton, they raised the "loud, horrid, and frightful" war-whoops of their race.*
The formation of the rest of the Scotch army was, we are told, as follows:—The second body, led by Prince Henry, was composed of "soldiers and archers" (race not specified), with the natives of Strathclyde and Teviotdale—who were "Welsh." The third body consisted of the Anglian Lothian-men, and the Islanders and Men of Lennox. King David, surrounded by "many of the Norman and English knights who still adhered to him," commanded the rearguard, which was largely made up of the conquered Scots and the quite-recently-conquered natives of "the Moors' country."
Of all this heterogeneous army, it is probable that the "soldiers and archers" of the second body, and perhaps the Lothian-men of the next battalion, were most akin to the Celtic-Norman king and his Anglo-Norman officers. But the more savage element was very strong. The "black herds of Scots (gypsies) and Picts (Faws)" that had ravaged the civilized districts of South Britain many centuries before, appear to have constituted the greater part of this Northern army: though acting under the direction of a ruling caste that was strongly imbued with Norman ideas; and whose blood seems to have been chiefly Celtic, Norman, Anglic, and Flemish.
To return, then, to the "plantation" of that "Indian territory"—which comprised (approximately) the eastern halves of the modern counties of Ross and Inverness, together with the counties of Nairn and Elgin, and those detached
* The references on which these statements are founded have, in some instances, been already given. One or other of these particulars may be seen in Mackenzie's "History of Galloway" (Vol. I. pp. 27, 236 and 237); Nicholson's "Historical and Traditional Tales" (pp. 37 and 39); the Appendix to "Rokeby" (Notes 2 R and 3 C); and, of course, "Celtic Scotland," Book I. Chapter IX. There can be little doubt but that the Tinklers mentioned in the charter of William the Lion (referred to in the "Gypsy" article of the Encyclopædia Britannica) formed one division of his Faw auxiliaries.
parts of Cromarty that are surrounded by Ross-shire, or project from that county on the east. Although defeated by King David's general in the year 1130, and made to fight in the ranks of his army at the Battle of the Standard, in 1138, these northern "blackamoors" do not seem to have been wholly subdued at that date. In the year 1160, Malcolm, the grandson and successor of David, found it necessary to march into this nominally-conquered country in order to quell a revolt of the natives; and to follow up his invasion with a proceeding that was calculated to put an end to any further trouble in that quarter, from these people. In that year (it is stated by Fordun), he "removed them all from the land of their birth, and scattered them throughout the other districts of Scotland [not modern Scotland, but twelfth-century Scotland], both beyond the hills and on this* side thereof, so that not even a native of that land abode there, and he installed therein his own peaceful people." And this settlement of "his own peaceful people" is known to history as "the plantation of Moray;" just as a similar movement, at a later period, was styled "the plantation of Virginia."
Mr. Skene does not regard Fordun's description as wholly accurate; and Fordun, be it remembered, did not write until two hundred years after this event. Since the north-eastern corner of this twelfth-century "Moors' country" has continued to bear the name of "Moray" down to the present day, and as another portion of that large territory is still known as "the Black Isle;" it would appear that various "reservations" were left to the native tribes, after the conquest;—or that such scraps of their original country were retained by them against the will of their enemies. However, Mr. Skene endorses Fordun's statement to this extent—that Malcolm certainly granted large tracts of the more fertile regions† of "the Moors' country" to certain of his followers (two of whom were Flemings, named Berowald and
* It seems that Fordun wrote from Aberdeen or from St. Andrews.
† One of the fertile districts particularized by Mr. Skene is in that very portion that longest retained the name of "Moray;" which seems rather to contradict the theory that that corner was longest inhabited by "Morrows" or "Morays." Perhaps, as in the case of the adjoining inlet—"the Moray Firth"—the name lingered on more by accident than because it conveyed any special meaning.
Freskine, understood to be the respective ancestors, inter alia, of the north-country Inneses and the modern dukes of Athole). But, though these Flemish colonists, and others of "his own peaceful people," supplanted the intractable "Moors" in certain districts of that northern "Moravia," yet Mr. Skene seems to think that considerable numbers of the earlier inhabitants continued to inhabit their fatherland, even after the ownership of it had been given to others. And that these were perhaps the mountain-gypsies ("Highland Scots") that—with the Galloway Faws—formed the main part of William the Lion's army, in his invasion of England, in 1173. Fordun says that this army was chiefly composed of "Galloways" and "mountain-Scots, whom men call Bruti;" and another writer of the same date speaks of King William's "Scots and Galloways."* All through this twelfth century, indeed, these half-suppressed races appear to have been in a state of ferment: now acting as auxiliaries in the armies of their over-lords; and again asserting their rights as distinct nationalities. Particularly these Faws or dubh-glasses of Galloway. It may be questioned, however, whether these mountain-Scots, or Bruti, ought to be regarded as Scots Proper—Scots of Ancient Scotia (Ireland). The Scots Proper, invading North Britain from Early Scotia, had overcome the native Mauri many centuries before this; and, even in the middle of the ninth century, those earlier Mauri had begun to be styled Scoti.† It is generally believed that the conquering Scots nearly exterminated the native‡ North-Britons—those "nimble blackamoors," or "painted men," whom the Romans had previously encountered. But if any of them retained some fragments of
* These particulars are taken from Book I. Chapter IX., of "Celtic Scotland."
† "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. p. 328.
‡ This word "native" must necessarily be used rather loosely. The "nimble blackamoors" of Claudian were "natives" to the incoming Scots. These Scots, again, with all other ex-foreigners ("black heathen" and "white heathen") of ante-Norman times had become "natives" to later colonists, such as the Normans and Flemings. The "native men" of the various Highland tribes—spoken of in the Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis—may have been of the most varied and once-foreign origin, their rulers being (as so many individual pedigrees show) of Continental extraction, at various dates subsequent to or contemporaneous with the Norman Conquest.
their former independence, these would most likely be found among the mountains—the last refuge of all conquered peoples. Therefore, it is not unlikely that those "mountain-Scots" of the twelfth century, distinguished from other Scots by that qualifying designation, and, more particularly, by the term "Bruti," represented—in a partial degree, if not wholly—the earliest known inhabitants of North Britain. And their designation of "Scot" would therefore have no racial meaning whatever;—as it apparently had not when first applied to their kindred in the ninth century (as just noticed). Thus it would seem that the term "Scot" was employed in a non-racial sense a thousand years ago; and was applied equally to conqueror and conquered,—much as "American" was used a few generations ago, and as "Australian" and "New Zealander," at the present day. And yet, concurrently with this loose practice, we have seen that certain particular tribes among the Scots-general were remembered as Scots (Proper) up till the close of the seventeenth century.
As already stated, the remonstrance made to King David of "Scotland" by Bruce, the Norman lord of Annandale,* clearly shows that the speaker and his king were much more nearly related to the party that had conquered South Britain than to the Scots Proper of North Britain and their subject Mauri. To this ruling caste David belonged wholly by breeding, and partly by blood. Whether his pedigree—on the North-British side—may be assumed to indicate a descent from races akin to this Anglo-Norman caste (such as Northmen, or "Gentiles of pure colour," and Gaels Proper, or those whose particular speech was once "the language of the white men," and to whom "Scots" were scuits, or vagabonds); or whatever may be the ethnological meaning of the incessant warfare that had agitated North Britain prior to his time; it is quite plain from this speech of Bruce's that the people vaguely styled "Scots" were not so much the friends and kinsmen of their king as his half-alien subjects. "Against whom dost thou this day take up arms and lead this countless host?"—says Bruce to the Scotch king, on the eve of his English invasion. "Is it not against the English and Normans? O King, are they not those from
* "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 465-466.
whom thou hast always obtained profitable counsel and prompt assistance? When, I ask thee, hast thou ever found such fidelity in the Scots that thou canst so confidently dispense with the advice of the English and the assistance of the Normans, as if Scots sufficed thee even against Scots? This confidence in the Galwegians ["the Picts (or faws) who, in the common speech, are styled Galloways;" who, in Gaelic, were known as dubh-glasses, or Mauri; and who formed the vanguard of the North-British army] is somewhat new to thee who this day turnest thine arms against those through whom thou now rulest.* . . . . With what forces and by what aid did thy brother Duncan overthrow the army of Donald and recover the kingdom which the tyrant had usurped? Who restored Eadgar thy brother, nay more than brother, to the kingdom? was it not our army? . . . . Recollect last year when thou didst entreat the aid of the English in opposing Malcolm, the heir of a father's hate and persecution, how keenly,—how promptly,—with what alacrity, Walter Espee and many other English nobles met thee at Carlisle; how many ships they prepared,—the armaments they equipped them with,—the youths they manned them with; how they struck terror into thy foes till at length they took the traitor Malcolm himself prisoner, and delivered him bound to thee. Thus the fear of us did not only bind his limbs but still more daunted the spirit of the Scots, and suppressed their tendency to revolt by depriving it of all hope of success. Whatever hatred, therefore,—whatever enmity the Scots have towards us, is because of thee and thine, for whom we have so often fought against them, deprived them of all hope in rebelling, and altogether subdued them to thee and to thy will." This appeal undoubtedly indicates—what modern historians agree in telling us—that the greater portion of Great Britain, during this twelfth century, was dominated by Normans and semi-Normans. And this lord of Annandale—Norman and North-
* The words which follow "whom thou now rulest," are "—beloved by Scots and feared by Galwegians." The expression "beloved by Scots" is hardly in keeping with the general tenor of this appeal, referring as it does—again and again—to "the Scots" as King David's unwilling vassals. Perhaps the explanation of this seeming inconsistency is that Bruce—like other "Scotchmen" after him—did not invariably employ "Scot" in its strictest sense.
man—clearly regarded "the Scots" as conquered aborigines. That this ruling caste, to which the King of "Scotland" and his nobles belonged, was composed chiefly, or altogether, of white-skinned men, may be regarded as almost certain. And it is equally certain that a considerable portion of the North-British army at this period (the middle of the twelfth century) was made up of "gypsy" tribes:—the vanguard being wholly composed of the painted "Indians" of Galloway; and the main portion of the rearguard consisting of the newly-conquered "Moors" of northern "Moravia" (Moor-, or Morrow-, or Murray-Land), together with other "Scots,"—this rear battalion being under the immediate supervision of the King and his Norman or semi-Norman nobility.
The "Scotland" of this period—we have been told*—"was limited to the districts between the Forth, the Spey, and Drumalban,"—which last name denotes "the range of mountains which divides the modern county of Perth from that of Argyll." This kingdom only began to be known by that name in the tenth century;† and for three centuries after that date "Scotland" was confined within these narrow limits. This twelfth-century Scotland was nothing more than that territory which is represented on modern maps by the counties of Banff, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Forfar, Perth, Clackmannan, Kinross, and Fife: a mere fragment of Modern-Scotland. "The Moors' Country," on its north-western side; Cathanesia, or Gallibh, to the north of that; The Islands of the Foreigners; all the Western Highlands; and the whole of Modern-Scotland lying south of the fen-country of the Forth‡ (now called Stirlingshire); all these countries were
* By the author of "Celtic Scotland."
† Prior to which, "Scotia," or "Scotland," "was Ireland, and Ireland alone." To avoid confusion, Ireland up till the tenth century may be regarded as "Scotia;" and the small North-British kingdom (indicated above) as "Later-Scotia," or "Early-Scotland."
‡ The greater part of the Forth basin is now solid, cultivated ground; though, in its north-western extremity, there are still large stretches of bog-land. But even so recently as the end of the thirteenth century, the high ground on which the Castle and Old Town of Stirling is built was surrounded by "carse-land" of so marshy a nature that it was "impracticable for cavalry," at certain seasons (as Dr. Jamieson, quoting from Lord Hailes, pointed out—under the word "Carse" in his Dictionary). Some centuries earlier, it must have been one of those districts of which it was said that "being constantly flooded by the tides of the ocean, they become marshy." ("Celtic Scotland," Vol. III. pp. 9 and 10.)
quite outside of twelfth-century Scotland. Edinburgh—afterwards the capital of the later kingdom—was no more a town, or stronghold, of the "Scotland" of William the Lion, than is Dublin a city of Wales. It was situated in the kingdom of Laudonia, or The Lothians; whose kings, or kinglets, were contemporaneous with the kings of "Scotland," to the north of them; and with the many other kings or kinglets that ruled over the various countries of North-Britain—all of which were "furth of Scotland" (outside of it).* Therefore the forces which David and William the Lion led across the Cheviots during the twelfth century were rather confederacies of allies (allied for the time being) than national armies. Early-Scotland was clearly regarded as the principal among these twelfth-century kingdoms of North-Britain; and—more than that—as occupying a higher position than any other of these kingdoms. For not only was the leadership of such hosts assigned to the Kings of "Scotland," but the right of these monarchs—during the twelfth century—to exact homage and military service from the lesser kingdoms, was clearly acknowledged, in several instances. But, nevertheless, this particular period was emphatically one of transition. The hold which the Norman nobles had upon various territories must have been very slight. For example, after Bruce, the Norman lord of Annandale, had in vain tried to dissuade King David from his impending invasion of England, he—being to a much greater extent an Anglo—than a Scoto-Norman (in virtue of possessions and dignities)—had found it necessary to resign his lordship of Annandale in favour of his second son, because that lordship was tributary to the crown of "Scotland." (And, oddly enough, in the subsequent Battle of the Standard, Bruce the elder, fighting as an Anglo-Norman against the northern army, took as prisoner his own son, fighting in David's host as Scoto-Norman lord of Annan.
Indeed, when these particular words were written—namely, in the third century,—the Forth basin, up to Aberfoyle, can scarcely have reached the category of marshy districts: for this was the "Scythian Vale" across which the "nimble blackamoors" of the north ferried themselves in their skin-covered canoes. And there is further testimony to show that this level district (not wholly dried-up even yet) was the bed of the Firth of Forth not very long ago, in the fact that skeletons of whales have been discovered in various parts of that neighbourhood, at no great distance from the surface, during the present century.
* This is proved most distinctly in the Introduction to "Celtic Scotland."
dale.) But it is questionable if many of the "native men" of Annandale accompanied their Norman lord to battle. Or whether they recognized his supremacy at all; except when forced to do so. At any rate, when the most famous of all these Bruces of Annandale began his memorable resistance to the rule of the English Edward, the men of Annandale refused to help him at the very outset. That they would have followed a chief of their own race is most likely: it is not improbable, indeed, that the men of Annandale were among those very "Galloways" that were the King's bitterest enemies. And although the Bruces became, later on, the Earls of Carrick, yet the people of that territory recognized as their kings the representatives of a dynasty ante-dating the Norman Conquest by many centuries,—of a dynasty founded by Cin-aedh, the Picto-Scot.
Unquestionably, the power of the kings of Early-Scotland (the outlines of which country have just been indicated) increased tremendously during the twelfth century. In that century, the great territory known as "The Moors' Country" was annexed, its natives half-exterminated, and the remnant placed upon various reservations throughout "Scotland,"—their most fertile districts being handed over to such "peaceful people" as the Flemish colonists. Moreover, the same kings that subdued this northern territory, directed their arms against various other nationalities in the south and west of North Britain, reducing them to—at least—a nominal subjection. And this century, Mr. Skene assures us, is the period from which we ought to date the successful assertion, in North Britain, of Norman ideas and usages.
It is clear, then, that Early-Scotland of the twelfth century—the North-Eastern portion of Modern-Scotland—is the germ out of which the later Scotch nationality was developed. And if the laws and customs of Early-Scotland were largely Norman, and the blood of its aristocracy also Norman to a considerable extent, it is equally clear that the Flemish element was largely represented too. Not only is this to be surmised from the fact that the Normans were assisted, everywhere, by Flemish allies,—and from the fact that various North-British pedigrees prove the same thing,—but also because the ways of the townspeople of North-Eastern
Scotland (as elsewhere in Britain) are—very plainly—Flemish. It is stated that, in the early part of last century,—and probably there is no appreciable difference at the present day,—"the Flemish style of building was common in all the towns on the Murray Frith."* The steady influx of Dutch immigrants—into various parts of Britain—during many centuries after the Norman Conquest; and the fact that this immigration—because silent—has been greatly overlooked by historians; has been pointed out by a living authority.† And this immigration cannot be overlooked. For these very people—being traders, agriculturists, burghers,—are precisely the people who ought to be most considered in any question affecting the pedigree of Modern Britons. Such people do not figure in "gypsy" battles, of the kind we have been glancing at. Soldiers they have shown themselves to be, at various dates; but not mere fighters for fighting's sake. It must be of this kind of Scotchman that the saying arose—"a Scot will not fight until he sees his own blood." Such a proverb could by no possibility have ever been applicable to the wild tribes of Scotland; call them Scots, or moss-troopers, or Egyptians, or Tartarians, or whatever name may seem most suitable—according to locality and epoch. Men of this kind were roused to anger and bloodshed by a single word: they lived for nothing else but fighting. They drew their sustenance, not from the soil or from peaceful barter and manufacture, but from the spoils which they gathered by violence from others. They carried on a constant vendetta with like-natured tribes—their neighbours and rivals; never forgetting an injury, and handing down their blood-feuds from father to son, interminably. Therefore, when you have two kinds of people, occupying one country for many centuries;—the one living as peacefully as possible, encouraging industry and learning and religion, and making laws to foster the growth of these;—the other continuing, generation after generation, to rob and murder at every opportunity; and when you know (as we do know with regard to Scotland) that the former party gained more and more, century after century, the direction of the government of that country; you
* The description of house to which these words relate is referred to by Captain Burt in his "Letters" (Letter III.).
† Mr. Skeat, in the Introductory Notes to his Etymological Dictionary.
cannot but see that the ultimate ascendency of their ideas and laws denotes a racial victory. Since the people who believed in settled laws, in order, in education, in agriculture, and in the advance of civilization, eventually became the victors—it is clear that the people who did not believe in any of these things must have waned as the others increased, and have only saved themselves from extermination by renouncing the life of their ancestors. But when we first dimly see this conflict of opinions in Scotland—namely, in the twelfth century—the winning party was, pretty clearly, composed of white races. And the people whom they overcame, and whose lands they appropriated for the uses of civilization, were—more distinctly—of black complexion: being the "nimble blackamoors" of Claudian; with their conquerors, "somewhat different in manners" but also "thirsting for blood," the Scot-Egyptians or gypsies; and—in the Borderlands, as elsewhere,—various clans descended from "the black heathen" Danes.
It is important to consider this. Because, although we have seen that various British "gypsies," regarded as unmixed "gypsies" by more than one modern gypsyologist, are quite void of any trace of "black blood," yet there can be no doubt that the great portion of the unreclaimed sections of the British people—popularly called "gypsies"—are of swarthy skin: that, in the estimation of most men, to be "like a gypsy," is to be black-haired, black-eyed, and of dark complexion. Therefore, in whatever way the white "gypsy" may be accounted for, it is plain that the orthodox "gypsy" is descended from, at least, two of the black races of Britain. "At least, two,"—because a diligent student of such people has told us that "even in England there are straight-haired and curly-haired Romanys,"* the two indicating not a difference resulting from white admixture, but entirely different original stocks:" because, also, with regard to Scotland, we have seen that not only "at least, two," but, at least, three
* Mr. Leland applies this term "Romany" to all "gypsies." But we have seen that they are known in Europe by many names—such as Saracens, Tartars, Heathens, Ishmaelites, and Tinklers—while in Scotland (of which we are at present, almost exclusively, speaking) the name of "Romany" seems to be little known. Scotch people, generally, apply to the tories of Scotland such titles as Cairds, Tinklers, and (formerly) Jockies; and Mr. Simson says that they style themselves Nawkens and Tinklers.
black races have entered that country,—“the nimble blackamoors, not wrongly named the Painted Folk;” the “black herds” of Egyptians, or Scots; and the “black heathen” pirates from the Cimbric channels. None of these races were the ultimate rulers of any part of Britain. And although nowadays the “dark whites” and “fair whites” of our country have long been inextricably mingled; yet the white element is beyond a doubt numerically the greater;* and the prevailing Modern-British sentiment is distinctly white; while the popular speech is full of expressions that render “black” a synonym (whether justly, or from mere racial hatred) for everything that is objectionable.†
Note.—The argument advanced in this chapter—“that the main current of Scotch history has come down to us from those people who, in the fifteenth and subsequent centuries, were ‘his Majesty’s subjects,’ ‘the lieges,’ ‘the whole inhabitants of The Burghs of this Realm’;” as opposed to the turbulent races that formerly ruled the country districts and the provinces of North Britain that lay outside of Early-Scotland—this argument receives confirmation from a statement recently made by one whose opinion is worthy of consideration. The “Convention of Royal Burghs” of Scotland has been defined by Lord Rosebery (in a speech made at Sydney on 10th December, 1883) in these terms:—It “is a body which sits in Edinburgh.... It is an ancient body—some three centuries old—and entirely represents the feeling of Scotland.” Now, any “feeling” that may be peculiar to Scotland at the present day is quite of a provincial character; because, ever since the year 1603, “Scotch history” has been a part of Modern-British history, and many Scotch people have been making their homes in other parts of their country than Scotland. So that, since that date—in some degree—and since 1707, beyond question, any assertion of local feeling in Scotland (as distinguished from the rest of the country), or in England (as distinguished from the rest of the country), has been of a purely provincial and archaic nature. Scotland, qua Scotland, has no “feeling” that deserves to be represented; although, as an aggregate of British counties, it forms an important division of the country. Nevertheless, this statement of Lord Rosebery’s reveals to us the fossil of Scotch nationality; and that nationality was “entirely” represented by a convention of the royal burghs of Scotland.
* For, although the Melanochroi of Britain are said to outnumber the Xanthochroi, yet, according to Professor Huxley, the former are half-bloods—descended from earlier Xanthochroi.
† Notably in Ireland, where “a wild Irishman” was once “a black Irishman;” and where, at the present day, such expressions abound as “a black villain,” “a black rogue;” and where “a nagur” is one of the commonest terms for “a scoundrel.”
CHAPTER VII.
When the children of Ettrick-dale farmers, exploring among the Border hills,—about a hundred years ago,—encountered most "formidable bands of this roaming people;" or when some remote farm-house entertained a gang of such wanderers, for the night,—repaid by an evening of *Border Minstrelsy*, and the knowledge that they had made friends of possible foes; at the period when the state of things indicated in the first volume of *Blackwood* constituted the life of the Scottish Border-land;—at that time we can distinctly see that Southern-Scotchmen were divisible into two wholly different sections. The one composed of prosaic, hard-working, sedentary yeomen and shepherds: the other of unresting clans of fighters, minstrels, and hunters. The entirely opposite character of either class was tacitly admitted by each. The shepherds and husbandmen did not court the society of the "gypsies," whom they stood in considerable awe of: the "gypsies" looked down upon the "bucolics" with the most lordly contempt—though often utilizing their dwellings and substance for their own uses. To what extent this difference was one of *blood*, is a problem that is most difficult to solve.
This, at least, is certain: that those fierce, marauding "gypsy" clans were no other than the "Borderers" of whom Scott has written so much. Their very surnames tell us this. Border history (and when not solely "Border" then *British* history) is interwoven with their names for many long centuries. Excluding altogether the deductions of the foregoing chapters, and accepting as "gypsies" *only* those who have hitherto been popularly accepted as such,—here are some of the names of "gypsy" or "Egyptian" tribes:—*Douglas, Gordon, Lindsay, Ruthven, Montgomery, Shaw, Irving, Heron, Fenwick, Allan, Rutherford, Young, Baillie, Fetherstone, Simson,*
Arington, Kennedy, Stirling, Keith, Wilson, Tait, Graham, Jamieson, Geddes, Gray, Brown, Robertson, Anderson, Yorkston, Faw or Fall, Johnstone, Blythe, Fleckie, Ross, Wallace, Wilkie, Marshall, Miller, Halliday, Gavin.* All of these names—the names of supposed interlopers of three centuries back—are of distinctly British association, and some of them are the oldest in these islands. And although, in some of these examples, the owners of the names appear as isolated individuals, others are mentioned as clans—as "gypsy" clans. Such as the Kennedys, the Douglases, the Herons, the Gordons, the Ruthvens, the Johnstones,—and so on: the very clans that have been the most prominent in North-British history. That such names have been borne by men who have been civilized,—and whose individual line has been civilized for as many generations as they can prove,—we all know. But individual families do not make a tribe. Individuals whose habits and manners are those of the ever-changing Present are of no use in studying the Past. When one wishes to learn what the manners of an earlier period were, one does not look to the men and women who follow the fashion,—changing from generation to generation. One must look at the people who do not change. The Douglas who—in the fifteenth century—became the follower of King James of Scotland, was a sensible man who understood "the spirit of his age." But, for that very reason, he was not a representative man of the past. He was ready to adapt himself to any change that might come. It was the Douglases who would not change that represented an earlier day, and a previously existing polity. Those Douglases continued to live on as they had always done: not adopting newer customs; not acknowledging an alien king; not intermarrying with those of other races, but continuing their tribal life (and, consequently, maintaining their own individuality of type). And such men were gypsies.
Apparently, the first recorded instances of particular Borderers being styled "Egyptians" was only three hundred years ago; when, on the 8th of August, 1592, "Simson, Arington, Fetherstone, Fenwicke, and Lanckaster, were
* Most of these names will be found in the "gypsy" contributions to the first volume of Blackwood, or in Mr. Simson's "History of the Gipsies."
hanged [at Durham], being Egyptians."* By what means a Borderer was recognizable as "an Egyptian," is a matter that could be very easily decided, if we were sure that "gypsies" were invariably swarthy. That a "Borderer" differed distinctly, in appearance, from the people of other districts, is quite clear. When (as Scott tells us) a Borderer was prohibited from entering, or dwelling in, the central parts of Scotland without a passport, it is evident that something in his appearance prevented him from travelling through those districts, undetected. If one were not hampered by this tremendously-loose application of the term "gypsy" (a term applied to men of all complexions), one would say he was recognizable because he was a "gypsy." Indeed, they were so recognized—whatever the term may be held to include. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, the Annandale Borderers—"the Thieves of Annandale"—were known to the burghers of Wigtown by a rather odd variation of one of the Scotch equivalents for Caird, Tinker, or Gypsy—namely, Jockey. We are told, by a writer of the year 1684,† that "they [the people of Wigtown] have a market for horses and young phillies, which the Borderers from Annandale, and places thereabout, (the stile the country calls them by, is Johnnies,) come and buy in great numbers."‡ Now, there can be little doubt but that those "Borderers of Annandale" were Jockies," that is "Gypsics;" whether the writer just quoted had altered the name for the sake of euphony, or whether those Wigtown people really did use another form. So that, if those Wigtown burghers and agriculturists understood "a black man" by "a gypsy"—as William Penn, at exactly that period, certainly did—then those Annandale Borderers were "gypsies" of the orthodox, black-skinned kind. And if so, then it is likelier still that "Simson, Arington, Fetherstone, Fenwicke,§ and Lanckaster," who were hanged at
* Blackwood's Magazine, September, 1817.
† Andrew Symson, in his "Description of Galloway."
‡ It will be remembered that it is stated in the "History of the Gipsies" that the "gypsy" dialects are still much used by Scotch horse-dealers,—whether nominal gypsies or not.
§ In May, 1714, a John Phennick [Fenwick] was convicted at Jedburgh of being a "notorious Egyptian," and, with others, was "sentenced to be tranDurham a hundred years earlier (1592), for "being Egyptians," were also "gypsies" of the orthodox, swarthy type. Moreover, it would appear that the south-western corner of Scotland had not developed a caste of dark-whites in the year 1684; or, at any rate, that there was still a considerable part of its population that had refused to mingle its blood with that of the opposite—the white—party. For the same writer of 1684 tells us that at that date the parish of Portpatrick (Wigtownshire) was "yet called the black quarter" of the parish of Inch; of which parish Portpatrick had once formed a part. And this Portpatrick was one of the boundaries of the "Kennedy" kingdom: and it was at this port—at various times in his career—that Will Marshall and his band of swarthy Picts—embarked, in "the ships of the Piccardach," to encounter their Irish kindred of the opposite coast. Thus, granting that all the "gypsy" followers of Billy Marshall were dark-skinned men, there is plenty of reason why not only one but many districts of Galloway should be fitly known as "black,"—so recently as 1684.
The "black quarter" of the parish of Inch was one of the boundaries of the kingdom founded by Kennedy, Kenneth, or Cin-aedh. Simson does not tell us whether the Kennedies were black-skinned gypsies or not, though he includes them among the "three principal clans" of Tweed-dale gypsies (the other two being the Baillies and Ruthvens). When the Kennedies had retreated to the wilds of Tweed-dale, they—like the Black Douglases—had been driven some distance from their earlier home. But a son of one of the "Kings of Carrick"—Walter Kennedy, a celebrated minstrel,—was plainly of tawny skin. He was of the latter part of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries; and is remembered chiefly for his "Flying" with his contemporary Dunbar (a kind of rhyming battledore-and-shuttlecock; the language on either side being Billingsgate of the most pronounced description). In this "Flying," his opponent taunts Kennedy with his complexion,—using such expressions as these:—"Thy skolderit [scorched] skin, hued sported to the Queen's American plantations for life." (Blackwood, September, 1817.)
like ane saffron bag;" "blackenit is thy blee" ["your complexion is black"]; "blae [blackish], barefoot bairn;" "loun-like Mahoun" [i.e. "Saracen"]; "Fy! fiendly front!" ["devil-like visage"]];—all of which denote that this "Irish thieving minstrel" (another of Dunbar's pretty epithets) was of "gypsy" blood: which quite bears out his reported descent from the Egyptian-(Scot) Kennedy, of the ninth century.
[As Kennedy retorts upon Dunbar in similar terms, it would seem that both of them,—like a contemporary royal minstrel, Peter the Moryen,—were of the same race as those earlier black jongleurs of the John-of-Rampayne anecdote. Kennedy speaks of Dunbar as—"Lucifer's lad, foul fiend's face infernal," "Saracen," "juggler," and "jow"; which last title, it appears, means nothing else than tinker or gypsy.*]
Therefore, if this Kennedy was a good representative of his tribe, the Kennedies were gypsies of the genuine kind.
These remarks have been rendered necessary by the fact—which has forced itself forward—that the term "gypsy" has certainly been applied of late years, if not earlier, to people who do not belong to either of the two black stocks that Mr. Leland regards as making up the Gypsies Proper. Mr. Simson gives us many instances of "gypsies" who were fair-skinned, blue-eyed, yellow-haired; the very opposites of the conventional "gypsy." And unquestionably, if one looks at any gathering of Scotch nomads, such as that seen annually at St. Boswell's Fair (which Mr. Simson characterizes as "an Asiatic encampment, in Scotland") one sees that not only a few, but the great majority of those "campers" are Xanthochroi. If such people are to be called "gypsies," then the word has completely lost its original signification. And it really has done so,—in Scotland, if not elsewhere. Not only does Mr. Simson speak of the white-skinned Baillies, and others, as "gypsies," but the celebrated colony at Yetholm was composed of tribes of perfectly-opposite stock. One who visited that neighbourhood fifty years ago
* At page 84 of "The Yetholm History of the Gypsies" (by Joseph Lucas, Kelso, 1882), it is pointed out that Jow, as used by Chaucer and others, does not signify a Jew, but a juggler or gypsy.
writes thus of the inhabitants:—"The principal names of the gypsies residing at Yetholm are Faa, Young, Douglas, and Blythe. The two latter are the most numerous, but they are evidently not of the same race. The Douglases, the Faas, and the Youngs, are generally dark-complexioned with black hair; while the Blythes mostly are light-haired and of fair complexion."* If, then, "gypsy" is to be held to mean nothing more than "heathen" (as in Dutch *heyden*), or "tory," or "nomad"—although at one time it bore special reference to those "gypsies" who were swarthy *Egyptians*—then it becomes a matter of great difficulty ever to determine the ethnological position of the various tribes of Borderers. It both simplifies the question, and complicates it. It renders it easy to understand how an ordinary fair-white might be able to prove a descent from a genuine Border "gypsy," and to prove that none of that lineage were anything else than fair-whites, and yet to know that there was no contradiction between the physical appearance of all the clan and their title of "gypsy" or "Borderer." The point that needs to be ascertained is the date at which "gypsy" first became indiscriminately applied.
But, at least, those turbulent, marauding, non-agriculturist clans of "Borderers" were clans of "gypsies;" forming as distinct a species in the time of Maitland of Lethington as in the time of the Ettrick Shepherd. The "Borderers of Annandale" were "the gypsies of Annandale," whether we regard them as *Jockies* ["Johnnies"] or under their well-known designation of *The Thieves of Annandale*. They were "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians;" and when one of their most daring leaders, *Jock Johnstone*, was hanged at Dumfries last century as a notorious *gypsy*, it was still the *thieves* that attempted a rescue. It was against the denomination of those "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians," that Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington (in the sixteenth century) "complained" so bitterly; ending his complaint with the fervent prophecy—
* Oliver's "Rambles on the Scottish Border." He discriminates still more closely—"The Douglases (he says) may be distinguished from the other dark-complexioned families, in consequence of most of them being rather in-kneed." [Perhaps because they were pre-eminently moss-troopers, or riders.]
a prophecy that was fulfilled in his own and subsequent generations. Those sixteenth-century "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians," not only exacted a "black tribute" from the non-combatant people of "Ettricke forest and Lawderdail," and even of the Lothians, but they had so sorned upon those unfortunate people that their houses were "harried" of food and chattels, and themselves almost reduced to famine.
As already pointed out, the position of those sixteenth-century "Egyptians" was that of a fierce, idle, marauding aristocracy: employed, sometimes, by the Scotch king to overawe his citizens; fighting, occasionally, on the King's side against England; fighting, incessantly, amongst each other. Such "Egyptians" as those hanged at Durham in 1592,—Simson, Arington, Fetherstone, and Fenwick;—or such as "Francis Heron, King of the Faws," who was buried at Jarrow nearly two centuries later;—may be taken as representing those of the Southern Border—"our English Tories," as they were once called:—while, on the northern side were the Gordons, Douglases, Johnstones, Irvings, and other tribes—whose latest battles, and whose ways of living, are pictured to us in Mr. Simson's History.
From what period "the Borders" presented this scene of strife and rivalry between people of that sort, one cannot definitely say. We have seen that we may go back a thousand years—at the least—to find anything different. "There is no doubt that not long before the accession of Kenneth MacAlpin to the Pictish throne, the kingdom of Northumbria [i.e., "the Borders"—and a great extent of territory stretching south and north of that district] seems to have fallen into a state of complete disintegration, and we find a number of independent chiefs, or "duces" [dukes] as they are termed, appearing in different parts of the country and engaging in conflict with the kings and with each other, slaying and being slain, conspiring against the king and being conspired against in their turn, expelling him
and each other, and being expelled."* And such expelled "dukes"—whether Picts of the earlier "Moorish," or of the Egyptian-Scottish, or of the Black-Danish division,—or of a jumble of all three—must have been people like the swarthy "Duke Andrew" with the Druidess, his wife,—who are recorded as having entered Bologna in the year 1422, and of whom, or whose like, it was said that "the men were black, their hair curled; the women remarkably black, and all their faces scarred." Duke Andrew's era was the beginning of the fifteenth century, while that of Mr. Skene's Northumbrian Faw dukes was about the ninth century: but those of the latter who were expelled—not killed—must have left representatives in one part or other of Europe; and, conversely, Duke Andrew and his following of "lean, black, and hideous Egyptians" must have had ancestors during the ninth century, who were as likely to be living in Northumbria as in any other part of the world.
Just as the thieves of the northern side of the Borders were distinctly recognizable as "Borderers" or "Gypsies" (whether we ought to accept the latter term in its strictest sense or not), so were those of the Southern districts. Herons, Fenwicks, and others,—they were dubbed "Egyptians;" and hanged as such. The English "Borderer" was quite as much an object of aversion to the burghers of the North-of-England towns, as his brother of Scotland was to the Scottish burghers. We are told that there existed formerly "a by-law of the corporation of Newcastle prohibiting any freeman of that city to take for apprentice" a native of the territory known as the Waste of Bewcastle—the home of those Mossers;—which again indicates a racial difference. That (in spite of the modern white-gypsy usage) this difference was one of colour is most probable; since in this quarter also, the tax exacted by those marauding chiefs was known by the peaceable castes as "black tribute:" one of the latest distinct specimens of those chiefs (Henry the Faw, who—circa 1700–1750—"was received and ate at the tables of people in public office") being a member of that clan whose Yetholm representatives, a century after, are pictured to us as "dark-complexioned, with black hair."
* Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. p. 373.
This Henry the Faw was accustomed—it will be remembered—to receive from "men of considerable fortune" a "gratuity, called blackmail, in order to have their goods protected from thieves;" a "gratuity" which their forefathers had paid to another "common thief" of an earlier day—the notorious Jock Armstrong. In the Scotch Highlands this tax, paid to a similar caste by a similar caste, was called by the same (or a similar) name;—being known as *dubb-chis*, or "blackmail," and otherwise as "watch-money." The chiefs to whom such tribute was paid were, in the Highlands, styled "captains" of "watches;" which, when composed of "gypsies," were "black watches." There is a hint that a kindred term was in use in the Border districts,—in "the old tune, 'Black Bandsmen, up and march!'"*
It is interesting to notice how this "blackmail" became gradually and insensibly legitimized. When, in the beginning of last century, Henry Faw "was received and ate at the tables of people in public office," he was tacitly recognized as holding a position that, if not actually official, was semi-official; the guardian, namely, of a certain district, conditional on his receiving a certain "gratuity" (which no one was foolish enough to withhold). But Will Faw, who probably succeeded him, and who was buried at Yetholm in 1783-4, occupied a position that was even less equivocal. "Will
* Sir Walter Scott's *Auchindrane*, Act III., scene I.
It is stated with regard to a fifteenth-century Borderer, named Cuthbert Blackadder, and styled "Chieftain of the South" [of Scotland], that "on his expeditions against the English, who crossed the borders for plunder, he was accompanied by his seven sons who, from the darkness of their complexion, were called the 'Black Band of the Blackadders.'" In this instance the "Black Band" was distinctly so called on account of the black complexion of its members. And it is worth remarking that the district in which they lived was called "Blackadder," from the name given to a river flowing through that territory (a portion of the Merse, or Marsh, of Berwickshire). On one bank of the Blackadder there is "an ancient camp," known as "Blackcastle;" and an entrenchment on the other side of the river is called the "Black Dikes." "Blackadder" itself is said to mean "Blackwater;" (and it is a tributary of the Whiteadder which drains the country lying to the north-east of the Blackadder valley). Here, then, we have a small district containing at least three "black" names of a topographical nature. It cannot be supposed that the camp, the entrenchment, and the river are all black. But the rulers of that district in the fifteenth century were spoken of as a "black band," on account of "the darkness of their complexion." (They are referred to in Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. I. p. 309.)
exercised the functions of country keeper (as it was called), or restorer of stolen property; which he was able often to do, when it suited his own inclination or interest, very effectually, through his extensive influence among the neighbouring tribes, and his absolute dominion over his own."* What Henry Faw was in reality Will Faw was in name—as well as in fact. And, by the latter half of the eighteenth century, this official position of the "gypsy" chiefs was acknowledged in other districts. One of them, Patrick Gillespie, who was "keeper" for the county of Fife, has been figured to us as mounted on horseback, "armed with a sword and pistols," and "attended by four men, on foot, carrying staves and batons." Another—"Robert Scott (Rob the Laird)—was keeper for the counties of Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh." And a friend of Mr. [Walter] Simson's stated that he was present when several "Gypsy constables, for Peebles-shire," were sworn into office. (That, in this last instance, the "gypsies" possessed certain racial characteristics may be gathered from the added comment, that "he never saw such a set of gloomy, strange-looking fellows, in his life.") That, in all these instances, the men were installed formally into such offices because of their "extensive influence among the neighbouring tribes," there can be no doubt. Thus, the wages which the county paid to them for maintaining order in the district, and safe-guarding the goods of the inhabitants, was virtually a modified form of "blackmail."
The Peebles-shire farmer who "never saw such a set of gloomy, strange-looking fellows" as those Border chiefs, may have been of the same race as—and certainly was of one mind with—the sixteenth-century Ettrick-men whose lands and houses the ancestors of such "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians," had "neirhand herreit hail" ("almost wholly harried"). But had he expressed to them the surprise he felt, that such offices should be held by men of whom "not one . . . . had a permanent residence within the county," they might have answered him that, since they and their forefathers had controlled that district for many centuries, no one was better entitled, or
* Blackwood's Magazine, May, 1817. † Simson's "History," p. 344.
better fitted, to control it than they. And that, although it was not the regular custom of their race to have a permanent residence anywhere, yet that territory—and that territory alone—had been the home of their people for many generations. And that—although a newer race, or newer fashions, or both combined, had made it the custom to dwell in towns of stone-built houses, and to live plodding, sedentary lives—yet, at one time, "the common building of their country" had been those turf-built wigwams which they still reared, and the common way of living had been the predatory existence which many of them still continued to follow.
CHAPTER VIII.
DURING the past year (1883), two interesting figures have vanished from Border life: interesting beyond a doubt, although the attention paid to them was perhaps in excess of their merits. These two were David and Esther Blythe, the nominal heads of the Yetholm "tories." They were brother and sister; having inherited through their father the blood of the white-skinned "gypsy" Blythes,—and, through their mother, that of the dusky Faws. Their Faw lineage is traced back to the "Will" who is mentioned in the previous chapter: their "Blythe" pedigree was, apparently, of less note.
In complexion, these two Blythes were not so dark as many Scotch people who are never thought of as "gypsies;" and the character of their features was that of many other Scotch folk. They were both born in the closing years of last century; and it is probably more than fifty years since Esther was married to "John Rutherford, chief of one of the many gipsy tribes." (His occupation was, I believe, that of a mason: if so, and if he really was—by descent—the chief of the Border clan of Rutherfords, he only offers one example out of many of the social decline of an old stock; a decline that has been brought about, in all such cases, by the refusal to fall in with new ideas.) In 1861, after her husband's death, Esther was promoted to the vacant position of "Queen of the Border Gypsies"—being thus the latest representative of that "King of the Borders" (Scott of Tushielaw) who was hanged by King James the Fifth in the year 1528. Her brother, David, had previously declined the office. As there must be many of her kindred, now in America and the Colonies, her right to the position was probably of a very dubious nature; but at least none could have been found
who was better fitted to fill it. Were it not for the sentimental halo that, during the past few generations, has been thrown around those people who have longest continued to live after the once-universal fashion of their neighbourhood, it is probable that she would never have been known by any more poetical name than that which she was entitled—by her marriage—to bear. But the real kingship exercised by the sixteenth-century "King of the Borders" could not have faded away into unreality and anachronism under a gentler personification. For this woman—while a true "gypsy" in her wit, her vivacity, her graceful bearing, and her love of the songs and traditions of her fatherland,—seems to have been delightfully free from any of the unpleasant attributes with which those of her kind, in former days, are often credited.
She and her brother were essentially, and in all respects, "tories:" and this dear old woman did not speak with much respect of those people whom she sometimes spied from her poor little room in Kelso—those who "called themselves 'ladies and gentlemen.'" And she had still some of the moss-troopers' contempt for the farming classes. "My folk" were the oldest families of the district: and in what sense they were "hers," she herself was perhaps best fitted to explain. "I ken naething about thae new folk"—her brother David is reported to have said, referring particularly to some of this despised class—"they come frae goodness kens whaur; there's naething o' the bluid o' the auncients in them." They themselves, at least, were not "new folk:" as any one might learn from their own lips. To the query—"Your people have been settled at Yetholm for a very long time, I believe?"—Esther's answer came, with a world of force, "For generations!" Whether those Faws were of the stock of Francis the Faw who was buried at Jarrow in 1756, does not appear. If they were, then the patronymic of their mother was properly "Heron." And the Flodden sword*
* The Flodden sword is evidence of a rather ambiguous nature. One account says it was "found on Flodden Field." On the other hand, Esther distinctly told Mr. F. H. Groome that it had belonged to one of her ancestors. These extracts are chiefly taken from "The Yetholm History of the Gypsies," by Joseph Lucas; and "David Blythe," by C. Stuart, M.D. (both published by J. & J. H. Rutherfurd, Kelso).
which had belonged to their ancestors may have been wielded by that Heron whom Scott speaks of in *Marmion*.
But though her people had been settled at Yetholm "for generations," she disowned all kinship with the present dwellers in that place. "'The inhabitants were,' she said, 'maistly Irish, and nane o' her seed, breed, and generation.'" She insisted strongly that the *muggers* and *trampers* going about the country, and "passing themselves off as 'gypsies,'" were not of her kind at all. (Nor were those Yetholm people recognized as "gypsies" by a genuine English "tory"—of the swarthy type—who had looked in on them, out of curiosity, some years ago:—"They're not *gypsies*," he said with great emphasis, "they're *muggers*, that's what they are: goin' about with pots and pans, and caravans. *They* ain't gypsies. When we was near Yetholm,—at a place about five miles off,—me and the boys went over there with the horses. And when we tried one o' them fellows with Romany, he didn't understand a word: just opened his mouth and gaped. Yah! *they* ain't gypsies!")
This David Blythe seems to have been a wonderfully good specimen of the old Borderer. "In nature a true wild man, he was fond of sport, and had a profound contempt for the game laws, which he considered the most unjust statute in the calendar. 'Lang syne, when I walked owre the moors, and cam to a Moorfowl on her nest, I stept aside, thinking I wad get a crack at the covey some day. But noo naething but watchers and keepers, . . . . .' On one occasion his son was seen to lift a dead fish by the water-bailiff, and was summoned to the court at Duns for doing so. Old David was in a state of great indignation, and went with his son to the court, who, when fined in the usual penalty, or go to jail, the audience was electrified by David getting up and shaking a bag of sovereigns, saying, 'I hae plenty to pay the fine wi', but ye'll jist get him to keep.'"
In maintaining this defiant attitude, David Blythe acted precisely as any unaltered Border moss-trooper should do. The Game Laws, as now intensified, are entirely modern. Some one or other of Scott's characters is made to say that, to take a deer from the hill, or a salmon from the river, is a deed that no man need be ashamed of. And these must be the
sentiments of all "true wild men," in whatever locality they may be found. In the Border Country of past times, there could be no such thing as "poaching"—unless when the hunters trespassed upon the lands of a neighbouring tribe. For example, any "Annandale Thief" was free to hunt the game of Annandale: whether he was the chief of the clan that ruled that district, or merely one of his followers. The wild animals of a certain independent territory were no more the sole property of the chief who ruled over that territory, than are those of this United Kingdom the sole property of the reigning monarch. Consequently, any Borderer adhering to the ideas of his forefathers must necessarily regard all "watchers and keepers" as impertinent intruders, and the laws that give them authority as outrageously unjust. It would be hopeless to attempt to make such a man understand that the Game Laws have reason upon their side: that, however it may have been three hundred years ago, it is now absolutely necessary that there should be laws for the protection of wild animals, if such are to exist in a thickly-populated country. But, as in everything else, the "true wild man"—the true "gypsy"—is the true "tory;" and what we moderns style "poaching" is as natural to him as sleeping and waking. For this manner of supporting life—by hunting and fishing, or by stealing from the herds of his neighbours—made up the chief part of the existence of the Borderers of three hundred years ago. So that, when we say that a "gypsy" is an inveterate "poacher," we simply say that he is an inveterate "tory."
David and Esther Blythe were both married in the old Border fashion; that is, by one of their own kind, and not by any Christian priest.* After the birth of his first child,
* David Blythe states that "in 1817 Patie Moodie tied me and ma auld neebour [his wife] at Coldstream Bridge;" and it is added in a foot-note [p. 16 of Dr. Stuart's "David Blythe"] that "his sister, Queen Esther, was also 'tied' at Coldstream Bridge." In a sketch of Border Life, called "Fastern's E'en in Scotland Forty Years Ago" (by P. Landreth, 1869), it is further stated that Coldstream Bridge was "a refuge for lovers which was only less famous than Gretna Green;" the priest is a bibulous blacksmith; and the lovers who are united in marriage by him are sedentary Scotch Borderers, following peaceful avocations. If those Patie Moodies were invariably blacksmiths (as they often were), one might say that the term "tinker" would describe them more accurately. But one thing is clear: that Gretna Green and Coldstream Bridge did not
David Blythe acknowledged the existence of the local clergyman, by getting him to baptize the infant; but the marriage itself does not appear to have been homologated by any Christian ceremony. Which is just what one ought to expect of the descendants of those Border moss-troopers, who "came to church [a Christian church] as seldom as the twenty-ninth of February comes into the calendar;" and who never travelled without "books of spells,"—written in a character which was apparently not English, nor Latin, nor Greek—but which may easily have represented the speech of the "Romany."
Whether or not the ability to speak the language of the "Romany," constitutes a Gypsy Proper or Egyptian, it is plain that both Esther the Faw and the English gypsies referred to previously,—all of whom spoke this tongue,—regarded themselves as "gypsies," and quite denied the right of ordinary trampers and campers to make use of this designation. The consideration of the languages used by "gypsies" is a large question, and cannot be more than referred to in this chapter. But the fact just stated, that the late Esther Blythe and her brother regarded themselves as different from the modern inhabitants of Yetholm—who could not speak their speech—is quite clear. And also that they looked down with contempt, not only upon certain vagrant classes, but also upon many who are now accounted "highly respectable:" these being "new folk," from "goodness kens whaur," with "naething o' the bluid o' the auncients attain to matrimonial celebrity, because (being situated on the Border line) they were the respective points at which English runaways entered Scotland. They were so situated; but this fact alone will not explain the presence there of non-Christian priests. For this reason: both of these places were utilized by Scotch as well as by English people. The villagers in the book just referred to were Scotch villagers, who might easily have been married by the parish minister, had they chosen. And David Blythe, though born at Wooler, in Northumberland, was apparently living at Yetholm (in Scotland) when he and his "auld neebour" were married at Coldstream Bridge. Esther, also, was presumably living there, too, on a like occasion; and both she and her brother were accepted as Scotch Borderers. Thus all of these villagers, sedentary or half-nomadic, passed out of Scotland into England (or, at least, to the very confines of England) in order to get married by this blacksmith-priest. The explanation of which fact seems to lie in the assumption that the attributes of those priests (who correspond with Mactaggart's Galloway "auld boggies"), much more than the situation in which they lived, formed the original reason for their being sought after.
in them." That they regarded themselves as of "the blood of the ancients"—and the "ancients" of that particular district, is to be inferred in more ways than one. And, farther, that they also looked upon certain modernized local families as being, to some extent, "their folk:" although these had adopted the manners in vogue during each changing generation,—and had subscribed the laws of British nationality.
These latter, when their pedigrees are avowedly derived from earlier "mossers" or "moss-troopers," are descended from those of whom Scott (in his Introduction to the "Minstrelsy") says that "numbers . . . . were executed [during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries], without even the formality of a trial; and it is even said, that, in mockery of justice, assizes were held upon them after they had suffered. . . . . By this rigour, though sternly and unconscientiously exercised, the border marauders were, in the course of years, either reclaimed or exterminated; though nearly a century elapsed ere their manners were altogether assimilated to those of their countrymen." In reality, a much longer time elapsed before this consummation was reached; if the time has come even yet. It is only the other day (as Leyden's lines remind us) that the "tories" of the Debatable Country were inhabiting the same kind of dwellings that all of "their countrymen"—the people of ancient Northumbria—had lived in, a few centuries earlier. But, of course, when Scott speaks of "their countrymen," he means the people whose attitude toward the Borderers was that of enemies; who hated them for their religion—or irreligion—their "handfasting" and other un-Christian unions, their "sorcery," their idle, plundering habits, and their whole way of living: whether or not they also hated them out of the lower instinct of racial difference.
But Esther Blythe, Faw, or Rutherford was apparently as good a specimen of the Border chieftainess as could possibly exist in these degenerate days. Those who knew her personally tell us of her deep attachment to the ancient life, her intimate acquaintance with the genealogy of the Borders, and with its traditions, songs, and music. Had it not been for the continual tightening—year after year—of the cord that has almost strangled "gypsydom" in the British Islands,
it is likely she would have lived and died as her forefathers. To one who saw her on what proved to be her death-bed, she said, "I never was happier than when lying on the heather—by the corner of my tent—and the sky above me. I don't like these clothes over me [thrusting at the bed-clothes, and perhaps half-unconscious of what she was saying—for, by this time, body and mind were nearly worn out, and she seemed to wander a little]—I don't like these clothes—I like to be nätteral-like. . . . I've lived a gypsy, and I'll die a gypsy." And, as a "gypsy" she had traversed the Faw territory again and again, though apparently never quitting it; never, for example, going farther west than Dumfries, the boundary, on the eastern side, of the country of the Galloways. Though she had approximated, in many ways, to the modern standards, she was yet at heart "a true wild woman;" or (if the phrase may pass) "a true wild lady"—for there was nothing of gaucherie in her, either in her physical or her mental structure. In one respect, she fell short of the typical Egyptienne, for she only admitted one occasion on which she had descended to personal strife: which was, when, hustled by some inquisitive plebeians at a railway station, she had "lifted her bit nievie [fist]" and struck the nearest offender, a woman, in the face—giving her a black eye, she contritely owned (though the laughter that lurked in her countenance as she made the confession made one doubt whether her repentance was very deep). She must also have been truly a Borderer in her ideas on the subject of "mine and thine;" although it does not appear that she was ever punished for any transgression of the modern laws. Possibly, the "tribute" that was—chiefly from sentimental reasons—paid to her by casual visitors and by those local families of note, among whom she periodically made what she called "voyages" (something very like the coshering of an earlier day); and the earnings of her husband prior to her elevation; preserved her from the necessity of following the ancestral custom of living upon the goods of others. But she must, at least, have tacitly countenanced the doings of all those "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians," over whom she reigned. As she was an old woman when she died, she had lived when the old Border ideas were still
in force among all "tories." The idea of gaining a livelihood by ploughing and sowing and reaping, or by shopkeeping, could find no favour among Borderers of the old school, so long as it was possible to obtain food by hunting, or by moonlight raids upon farm-yards. If Esther Rutherford's husband really worked as a mason, it is not likely that she ever hinted the readiest way to fill her empty larder by some modern adaptation of the "pair of clean spurs," served up as "dinner." And if so, she also failed in this respect to represent the true "tory" spirit.
But if Esther Blythe was not strictly a "gypsy" in this detail, another noted Borderess, who has been previously mentioned, supplies the deficiency—and in an era that probably overlapped Esther's youthful days. Mary Yorkston, Yorstoun, or Youston, the wife of Matthew Baillie, the celebrated Tweed-dale chief, is thus pictured to us:—"In height she was nearly six feet, her eyes were dark and penetrating, her face was much marked with the small-pox, and her appearance was fierce and commanding." Another writer represents her in these words—"She was fully six feet in stature, stout made in her person, with very strongly-marked and harsh features; and had, altogether, a very imposing aspect and manner. She wore a large black beaver-hat, tied down over her ears with a handkerchief, knotted below her chin, in the gipsy fashion. Her upper garment was a dark-blue short cloak, somewhat after the Spanish fashion, made of substantial woollen cloth, approaching to superfine in quality. The greater part of her other apparel was made of dark-blue camlet cloth, with petticoats so short that they scarcely reached to the calves of her well-set legs. [Indeed, all the females among the Baillies wore petticoats of the same length.] Her stockings were of dark-blue worsted, flowered and ornamented at the ankles with scarlet thread; and in her shoes she displayed large, massy silver buckles. The whole of her habiliments were very substantial, with not a rag or rent to be seen about her person. [She was sometimes dressed in a green gown, trimmed with red ribbons.] Her outer petticoat was folded up round her haunches, for a lap, with a large pocket dangling at each side; and below her cloak she carried, between her shoulders,
a small flat pack, or pad, which contained her most valuable articles. About her person she generally kept a large clasp-knife, with a long, broad blade, resembling a dagger or carving-knife; and carried in her hand a long pole or pike-staff, that reached about a foot above her head." Mr. Simson further states that she "went under the appellation of 'my lady,' and 'the duchess';" and that "she presided at the celebration of their barbarous marriages, and assisted at their equally singular ceremonies of divorce"—a true ban-druidh.
What rendered her a fit consort for a Border chieftain was, more especially, the peculiarity dwelt upon by the writer* first quoted. Mr. Simson has told us how she was known to have stripped a shepherd's wife—whom she encountered among the Tweed-dale hills—as naked as the day she was born, leaving her to find her way home in this condition. And Dr. Brown writes in the same strain:—"She was even more dreaded than her husband, as she was more audacious and unscrupulous. Few persons cared to give her offence, because, if they did, they were sure in the end to suffer some loss or injury. . . . She was, like her husband, a dexterous thief and pickpocket . . . Many stories of her sayings and exploits were at one time prevalent among the peasantry of the Biggar district. We give a specimen or two. One day Mary arrived at the village of Thankerton, with several juveniles, who were usually transported from place to place in the panniers of the cuddies [donkeys]. She commenced hawking her commodities amongst the inhabitants, when some of the children of the village came into the house where she was, and cried, 'Mary, your weans are stealing the eggs out of the hen's nest.' Mary quite exultingly exclaimed, 'The Lord be praised! I am glad to hear that the bairns are beginning to show some signs o' thrift.'"
One is disposed to question whether the heroine of this amusing little incident was the dreaded "duchess" or not. But her words reveal the attitude of the genuine "tory," "gypsy," or (in this instance) "Borderer." Because, when a moss-trooper's children began to walk in the way they should
* The late Dr. John Brown of Edinburgh, in his review of "Biggar and the House of Fleming."
go, they began to steal. And, according to Border ideas, this was "to show some signs o' thrift:" for no Borderer of the old school could expect to thrive if he did not know how to steal. And of this class, generally,—not only in the Border districts, but elsewhere,—it is worth noting that "to work" and "to steal" are expressed by one word. That is to say, what we call "stealing" they call "working." When a "gypsy" speaks of choring, he means what modern people know as stealing: when modern people use what is clearly the same word, slightly altered, as charring and chores (a provincialism for daily drudgery), they indicate innocent manual labour.
Thus, if Esther Blythe did not wholly sustain the character she professed to act, Mary Yorstoun certainly did. She, however, was of an earlier generation; and had she lived in the present century without, in some degree, "assimilating her manners to those of her countrymen," it is extremely probable that she would have "suffered" like her unclaimed ancestors of the previous centuries, or have been banished to Botany Bay, like many of her kindred. It was impossible for a Mary Yorstoun to flourish in nineteenth-century Scotland; though less-pronounced "Egyptians," such as Esther Blythe, contrived to retain a good deal of their ancient manners.
Esther, then, was only faute de mieux the "Queen of the Borders." There must have been many Borderers who had, by right of blood, a better title to the position; but who—and whose immediate ancestors—never dreamt of limiting their nationality to a small "country," whose boundaries were being obliterated every year. Such people had taken their position as "Scotchmen" and, latterly, as "Modern-Britons;" and, when compared with this newer and nobler citizenship, the territory and the nationality of their forefathers seemed alike paltry and mean. If the sixteenth-century Scott of Tushielaw was represented by any civilized descendants (as it is very probable he was) when the Border throne became vacant in 1861, it is not likely they panted for the ancestral title of "King of the Border Thieves." No doubt, too, there were others—Faws, Herons, and what not,—who were entitled, both by blood and by adherence to
archaic notions, to claim the position occupied by Esther Blythe; but these, again, were living in America and Australia, to which places they or their fathers had, in most cases, been sent by the British Government. And, at any rate, the attractions of the position were nearly all gone: so much so, that he who should have been "King"—David Blythe—does not appear to have troubled his head about the matter. Indeed, a considerable amount of modern humbug seems to have clustered round "Queen Esther,"—of which her own "royal proclamation" has a distinct flavour. Nor is it to be wondered at that a person who, though not uneducated, was certainly not highly educated,* should have assumed some of the mystery and romance that were popularly attached to those of her description; or that, after being "interviewed" by every tourist that came to Yetholm, she should have, in some ways, accepted herself at their valuation.
But, whatever their claim to the leadership, she and her brother were distinctly old-fashioned Borderers; and that before everything else. As with the "outlaw Morrow" of the song, that Border country was the "land that was nativest to them;" and they cherished all its oldest customs, songs, and legends, as only children of the soil can do. Nor were they solitary examples. In the Yetholm of fifty years ago, when the inhabitants were chiefly Black-Douglasses, Faws, Youngs, and Blythes, these people are described by a passing visitor† as identifying themselves with the traditional Eastern's E'en—or Shrove Tuesday—festivities of that neighbourhood; of which a football game (ending sometimes in bloodshed) was one of the chief features. This is only one particular: but Mr. Simson gives many others—most of which have already been pointed out. This special observance, however, was intimately associated with the gypsies of Yetholm—and, probably, of other places. "Kirk Yetholm ball on 'Eastern's E'en' is one of the keenest that can be played;" says one writer. And it is also stated that
* Esther was certainly not uneducated, and had received good schooling in the days of her girlhood, Latin being included among her studies. She states that "one Trumbull" had been one of her teachers at Yetholm, and that she had altogether received a "very good education."
† See Oliver's "Rambles in Northumberland, &c." p. 270.
the late Faw chief, "Will Faw," who died at an advanced age in 1847, was "a great football player" in his youth. This same writer* further states that Kirk Yetholm "is, perhaps, the only place where females engage in the game of football, and they still play as eagerly as any man." Some ancient heathen rite seems to underlie this particular game upon this particular day. We are told that, on Fastern's E'en, "all over the [Scotch] Borders, this game was played not only vigorously, but also with a fierceness quite unknown in the contemporary matches between any two English parishes, and often led to serious fighting at the time and to worse-blooded feuds afterwards."† It is, apparently, still the practice of the mixed and modernized population of these localities to celebrate Fastern's E'en in this way. But it was never more keenly played than by the "tories" of Yetholm.
So many extracts have been made from Mr. Simson's valuable book, that it seems scarcely pardonable to quote from it again, unless for the sake of additional information. But the following paragraphs, although in a great measure the repetition or confirmation of former statements, present so graphic a picture of archaic Border life that their introduction here (even when not strictly germane to the subject) may not be out of place. The writer is the elder Mr. Simson, and as he is picturing the "gypsies" of Tweed-dale, it is to be presumed that those of the Yetholm district are included in the description:—
I will now describe the appearance of the gipsies in Tweed-dale during the generation immediately following the one in which we have considered them; and would make this remark, that this account applies to them of late years, with this exception, that the numbers in which the nomadic class are to be met with are greatly reduced, their condition greatly fallen, and the circumstances attending their reception, countenance and toleration, much modified, and in some instances totally changed.
Within the memories of my father and grandfather, which take in about the last hundred years, none of the gipsies who traversed Tweed-dale carried tents with them for their accommodation. The whole of them occupied the kilns and out-houses in the country; and so thoroughly did they know the country, and where these were to be found, and the dis-
* Mr. Lucas, in his "Yetholm History of the Gypsies," p. 131.
† Mr. Landreth's "Fastern's E'en in Scotland," p. 8.
position of the owners of them, that they were never at a loss for shelter in their wanderings.
Some idea may be formed of the number of gipsies who would sometimes be collected together, from the following extract from the *Clydesdale Magazine*, for May, 1818: "Mr Steel, of Kilbucho Mill, bore a good name among 'tanderal gangerals.' His kiln was commodious, and some hardwood trees, which surrounded his house, bid defiance to the plough, and formed a fine pasture-sward for the cuddies, on a green of considerable extent. On a summer Saturday night, Mary came to the door, asking quarters, pretty late. She had only got a single ass, and a little boy swung in the panniers. She got possession of the kiln, as usual, and the ass was sent to graze on the green; but Mary was only the avant-garde. Next morning, when the family rose, they counted no less than forty cuddies on the grass, and a man for each of them in the kiln, besides women and children." Considering the large families the gipsies generally have, and allowing at this meeting two asses for carrying the infants and luggage of each family, there could not have been less than one hundred gipsies on the spot.
My parents recollect the gipsies, about the year 1775, traversing the county of Tweed-dale, and parts of the surrounding shires, in bands varying in numbers from ten to upwards of thirty in each horde. Sometimes ten or twelve horses and asses were attached to one large horde, for the purpose of carrying the children, baggage, &c. In the summer of 1784, forty gipsies, in one band, requested permission of my father to occupy one of his out-houses. It was good-humouredly observed to them that, when such numbers of them came in one body, they should send their quarter-master in advance, to mark out their camp. The gipsies only smiled at the remark. One-half of them got the house requested; the other half occupied an old, ruinous mill, a mile distant. There were above seven of these large bands which frequented the farms of my relatives in Tweed-dale down to about the year 1790. A few years after this period, when a boy, I assisted to count from twenty-four to thirty gipsies who took up their quarters in an old smearing-house on one of these farms. The children, and the young folks generally, were running about the old house like bees flying about a hive. Their horses, asses, dogs, cats, poultry, and tamed birds were numerous.
These bands did not repeat their visits above twice a year, but in many instances the principal families remained for three or four weeks at a time. From their manner and conduct generally, they seemed to think that they had a right to receive, from the family on whose grounds they halted, food gratis for twenty-four hours; for, at the end of that period, they almost always provided victuals for themselves, however long they might remain on the farm. The servants of my grandfather, when these large bands arrived, frequently put on the kitchen fire the large family *kail-pot*, of the capacity of thirty-two Scotch pints, or about sixteen gallons, to cook victuals for these wanderers.
The first announcement of the approach of a gipsy band was the chief female, with, perhaps, a child on her back, and another walking at her
feet. . . . This chief female requests permission for her gudeman and weary bairns to take up their quarters for the night, in an old out-house. Knowing perfectly the disposition of the individual from whom she asks lodgings, she is seldom refused.
Instead, however, of the chief couple and a child or two, the out-house, before nightfall, or next morning, will perhaps contain from twenty to thirty individuals of all ages and sexes. The different members of the horde are observed to arrive at head-quarters as single individuals, in twos, and in threes; some of the females with baskets on their arms, some of the males with fishing-rods in their hands, trout creels on their backs, and large dogs at their heels. The same rule is observed when the camp breaks up.
A considerable portion of the time of the males was occupied in athletic amusements. They were constantly exercising themselves in leaping, cudgel-playing, throwing the hammer, casting the putting-stone, playing at golf, quoits, and other games; and while they were much given, on other occasions, to keep themselves from view, the extraordinary ambition which they all possessed, of beating every one they met with, at these exercises, brought them sometimes in contact with the men about the farm, master as well as servants. They were fond of getting the latter to engage with them, for the purpose of laughing at their inferiority in these healthy and manly amusements; but when any of the country-people chanced to beat them at these exercises, as was sometimes the case, they could not conceal their indignation at the affront. Their haughty scowl plainly told that they were ready to wipe out the insult in a different and more serious manner. Indeed, they were always much disposed to treat farm-servants with contempt, as quite their inferiors in the scale of society; and always boasted of their own high birth, and the antiquity of their family. They were extremely fond of the athletic amusement of "o'rending the tree," which was performed in this way: The end of a spar or beam, above six feet long, and of a considerable thickness and weight, is placed upon the upper part of the right foot, and held about the middle, in a perpendicular position, by the right hand. Standing upon the left foot, and raising the right a little from the ground, and drawing it as far back as possible, and then bringing the foot forward quickly to the front, the spar is thrown forward in the air, from off the foot, with great force. And he who "overends the tree" the greatest number of times in the air, before it reaches the ground, is considered the most expert, and the strongest man. A great many of these gipsies had a saucy military gesture in their walk, and generally carried in their hands short, thick cudgels, about three feet in length. While they travelled they generally unbuttoned the knees of their breeches, and rolled down the heads of their stockings, so as to leave the joints of their knees bare, and unincumbered by their clothes.
Many practised music; and the violin and bagpipes were the instruments they commonly used. This musical talent of the gipsies delighted the country-people; it operated like a charm upon their feelings, and contributed much to procure the wanderers a night's quarters. Many of
the families of the farmers looked forward to the expected visits of the merry Gipsies with pleasure, and regretted their departure.
To these extracts, it is as well to add the following from *Blackwood's Magazine* (of April, 1817)—to which casual reference has more than once been made. In the above passages, Mr. Simson has not dwelt upon the savage conflicts between rival tribes—although he does so in other pages of the history. The *Magazine* article, in referring to such combats, goes on to say—
Such skirmishes among the gypsies are still common, and were formerly still more so. There was a story current in Teviotdale,—but we cannot give place and date,—that a gang of them came to a solitary farmhouse, and, as is usual, took possession of some waste out-house. The family went to church on Sunday, and expecting no harm from their visitors, left only one female to look after the house. She was presently alarmed by the noise of shouts, oaths, blows, and all the tumult of a gypsy battle. It seems another clan had arrived, and the earlier settlers instantly gave them battle. The poor woman shut the door, and remained in the house in great apprehension, until the door being suddenly forced open, one of the combatants rushed into the apartment, and she perceived with horror that his left hand had been struck off. Without speaking to or looking at her, he thrust the bloody stump, with desperate resolution, against the glowing bars of the grate; and having staunched the blood by actual cautery, seized a knife, used for killing sheep, which lay on the shelf, and rushed out again to join the combat. —All was over before the family returned from church, and both gangs had decamped, carrying probably their dead and wounded along with them; for the place where they fought was absolutely soaked with blood, and exhibited, among other relics of the fray, the amputated hand of the wretch whose desperate conduct the maid-servant had witnessed.
The village of Denholm upon Teviot was, in former times, partly occupied by gypsies. The late Dr. John Leyden, who was a native of that parish, used to mention a skirmish which he had witnessed there between two clans, where the more desperate champions fought with clubs, having harrow teeth driven transversely through the end of them.
* * * * * *
The crimes that were committed among this hapless race were often atrocious. Incest and murder were frequent among them. In our recollection, an individual was tried for a theft of considerable magnitude, and acquitted, owing to the absence of one witness, a girl belonging to the gang, who had spoken freely out at the precognition. This young woman was afterwards found in a well near Cornhill, with her head downwards, and there was little doubt that she had been murdered by her companions.
We extract the following anecdotes from an interesting communication
on this subject, with which we have been favoured by Mr. Hogg, author of the "The Queen's Wake":—"It was in the month of May [this event is placed about the year 1717] that a gang of gypsies came up Ettrick;—one party of them lodged at a farm-house called Scob-Cleugh, and the rest went forward to Cossarhill, another farm about a mile farther on. Among the latter was one who played on the pipes and violin, delighting all that heard him; and the gang, principally on his account, were very civilly treated. Next day the two parties again joined, and proceeded westward in a body. There were about thirty souls in all, and they had fine horses. On a sloping grassy spot, which I know very well, on the farm of Brockhoprig, they halted to rest. Here the hapless musician quarrelled with another of the tribe about a girl, who, I think, was sister to the latter. Weapons were instantly drawn, and the piper losing courage, or knowing that he was not a match for his antagonist, fled—the other pursuing close at his heels. For a full mile and a half they continued to strain most violently,—the one running for life, and the other thirsting for blood,—until they came again to Cossarhill, the place they had left. The family were all gone out, either to the sheep or the peats, save one servant girl, who was baking bread at the kitchen table, when the piper rushed breathless into the house. She screamed, and asked what was the matter? He answered "Nae skaith to you—nae skaith to you—for God in heaven's sake hide me!"—With that he essayed to hide himself behind a salt barrel that stood in a corner—but his ruthless pursuer instantly entering, his panting betrayed him. The ruffian pulled him out by the hair, dragged him into the middle of the floor, and ran him through the body with his dirk. The piper never asked for mercy, but cursed the other as long as he had breath. The girl was struck motionless with horror, but the murderer told her never to heed or regard it, for no ill should happen to her. . . . By the time the breath was well out of the unfortunate musician, some more of the gang arrived, bringing with them a horse, on which they carried back the body, and buried it on the spot where they first quarrelled. His grave is marked by one stone at the head, and another at the foot, which the gypsies themselves placed; and it is still looked upon by the rustics as a dangerous place for a walking ghost to this day. There was no cognizance taken of the affair, that any of the old people ever heard of—but God forbid that every amorous minstrel should be so sharply taken to task in these days!
It is needless to quote more. Everything that is said by these chronicles brings out more and more clearly that of the two castes inhabiting the Borders last century—the warlike, haughty, domineering moss-troopers, and the peace-loving, industrious shepherds and farmers—the former were those who were, beyond any doubt, identified with all the oldest Border customs. And their surnames bear out the identity. When it is stated that "above seven of these large bands,"
numbering not less than forty and sometimes a hundred people, frequented the district of Tweed-dale last century, and quartered themselves upon the submissive husbandmen whenever they chose, it is at the same time stated that forty, fifty, or a hundred of the clan Ruthven—of the clan Kennedy—of the clans Douglas, Rutherford, Tait, or Gordon (as the case may be) were roaming at large in that territory. For these, and many others, were the surnames of the Border "gypsies." And these are the surnames immemorially associated with the Borders. Clan-life in that district—clan-life in any district—had not utterly faded away so long as those "tory" bands maintained something of their ancient system. There has been much said about "clans" (which, by some unaccountable process, are popularly regarded as peculiar to the Scotch Highlands,—though it is known they existed all over the British Islands); and much has been written about them; but they are nowhere visible except as gypsies. These people, and only these, are distinctly recognizable as living the tribal life; having laws, customs, and chiefs of their own; and obeying these, to the ignoring of all other laws, customs, and chiefs,—so long as they could. And the clans particularly described in the pages immediately preceding were those of the Border moss-troopers.
And the elder Simson, faithfully delineating the ways and manners of those moss-troopers—just as they were fading from sight,—was doing far greater service to history than Sir Walter Scott, with all his genius. Simson pictured them as they were: Scott as he fancied they were. What Simson and his contemporaries, writing of the Border "gypsies," have preserved for posterity, is the actual daily life of those Borderers in all its varying aspects: with its endless feuds, its sickening scenes of bloody combat, its revelry, its sports and pastimes, its minstrelsy, its heathen religion and observances. These Border "gypsies" were distinctly the people of whose ancestors Scott has said:—"Their only treasures were, a fleet and active horse, with the ornaments which their rapine had procured for the females of their family, of whose gay appearance the borderers were vain." They are the people who, in recent times, could—while galloping along a river-bank—transfix the salmon in the river with a thrust of
the long lance they still carried; and who, in earlier and bloodier days, would use this lance, after the same fashion, to torture a helpless prisoner, lying bound upon the earth. These are the tribes whose customs and ideas have justly been compared to those of "Arabians and Tartarians;" the tribes whose midnight forays, and stealthy retreats through the intricacies of their vast "mosses," have been pictured to us: and who, when scouring the territory of their own clan, in order to gather the warriors for the pursuit of a retreating war-party of invaders, "used to carry a burning wisp of straw at spear head, and to raise a cry, similar to the Indian warwhoop." They are the people who, as Borderers, were prohibited from entering the Lothians and certain other parts of Scotland, without a permit: against whom the most stringent laws were enacted again and again, for their crimes of robbery, murder, sorning, fire-raising, incest, sorcery, fortune-telling, buffoonery, and for a whole system whose nature we do not yet thoroughly apprehend; but which was utterly opposed to the ideas now paramount among Western races, and existing—if not always paramount—in portions of the British Islands, during a period that stretches back into the dimness of antiquity. And these Borderers were punished, expelled, and executed, for "being Egyptians."
Note.—On reflection, it seems unfair to give Mr. Simson full credit for his pictures of ancient Border society, and to debar Scott from any share in these descriptions. Because, on the one hand, the former did not recognize the importance of the people he wrote of; and, as regards the latter, he himself contributed much of the Blackwood information that has been cited. The chief thing to be said in favour of the former writer is, that he contented himself with the description of facts: the latter did not. Or rather, he did not place his facts in the proper light. He knew, and he has told us, that two or three hundred years before his birth, the people known as "Borderers" were fierce savages; who, eventually, were "either reclaimed or exterminated; though nearly a century elapsed ere their manners were altogether assimilated to those of their countrymen." It never occurred to him that if any were not reclaimed—even in his own day—their names, their manners, their ideas, would correspond exactly with those of the "marauders" whom, as Sheriff, he must often have passed judgment upon. From him, and from others, we can form some idea of the morale of those early Borderers. But, either because these early Borderers were, in some sense, his own ancestors; or, because they were at that time people of importance; or for both reasons; his pictures of them half-extenuate their vices, which he speaks
of in courtly phrases. When he regards their unchanged descendants in his own day, it is as a stranger. They "commit many crimes"—"murders of singular atrocity"—and are "great plagues to the country:" expressions which are identical, in sentiment, with those used by men of his own mental stamp, at an earlier date, with reference to those same "early-Borderers," who were their contemporaries.
CHAPTER IX.
WHEN, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, "black-tribute" was "paid unto some inhabiting near the Borders, being men of name and power;" and when, at the same period, the Armstrongs who ruled over Liddesdale and the Debatable Country were declared by James of Scotland to be "no subjects of his;" it is clear that, on either side of the Cheviots there existed a territory that was neither England nor Scotland—(whether or not it be right to regard it as the wreck of Ancient-Northumbria). When, after Elizabeth's death, the Scotch king became the nominal ruler of all Britain; but had nevertheless to admit that much of North-Western Scotland was inhabited by "wild savages, void of his obedience;" there existed another portion of Great Britain that did not own allegiance to the British monarch. And when, in the district that stretched "from Wigtown to the town of Ayr—Portpatrick to the Cruives of Cree," no man could dwell in safety unless he acknowledged the supremacy of the Kings of Carrick, there was a third territory that was neither Scotland nor England.
It is impossible to fix the exact dates at which these kingdoms—and others like them—ceased to be. It was immaterial that a certain man, called George, should be styled "King of Great Britain;" so long as another man, named Henry, and styled "King of the Faws," was virtually the ruler of a portion of the same Great Britain; recognized as such by the nominal subjects of King George, and receiving—with great regularity—his royal dues from year to year. So long as Henry was not put down, George was not really King of Great Britain. When the provost of Linlithgow, and other traders of that town, did not attempt to travel through Linlithgowshire without an engraved token,
granted by the local "tory" chief,—then Linlithgowshire was not absolutely under British rule, but was still—in some degree—an independent province. When Will Marshall, and his own particular following of "tories," regarded the whole province of Galloway as bound to keep them in meat and drink, and to give them shelter when desired,—and succeeded in obtaining what they desired,—Galloway was not under the protection of Modern-British law.
There can be no doubt that the "tory" rulers of those various provinces were firmly persuaded of their right to rule: and, also, that they clearly understood the limits of each dominion. We are told of Billy Marshall that "he well knew the Braes of Glen-Nap, and the Water of Doon, to be his western precincts." As soon as he crossed that boundary—the River Doon—he was met by "a powerful body" of the "tories" who dwelt in the territory lying farther north: who, after a fierce battle, sent him back, beaten, into his own country. Indeed, it is a feature of "gypsydom" more than once pointed out by Mr. Simson, that the various tribes had each their separate "walk" or country, into which no other dared to venture, except at the peril of their lives. And he also adds that they inherit the belief that the whole of Scotland was once divided into separate provinces,—of which these were the remnants,—and we know from Mr. Skene's researches that the truth of their tradition is borne out by facts. Another unmistakable example of this feature, in addition to those just given, is that of the territory in Kinross-shire, which was at one time under the sway of Peter Robertson,—one of those "gypsies" who combined the characters of chief and druid (or medicine-man). "Peter was a tall, lean, dark man, and wore a large cocked hat, of the olden fashion, with a long staff in his hand. . . . He was frequently seen at the head of from twenty to forty gipsies, and often travelled in the midst of a crowd of women. Whenever a marriage was determined on, among the Lochgellie horde, or their immediate connexions, Peter was immediately sent for . . . . to join them in wedlock." Added to these attributes, he possessed great skill as a physician. But the point to be attended to here, in connection with him, is that he was the ruler of a certain
district in Kinross-shire; so much so, that when his children set up in life for themselves, he allotted particular divisions of that territory to each (like any Lear, real or imaginary), reserving only to himself the portion known as The Braes of Kinross.* It is not likely that any parchment recorded these gifts: and it is certain that the arable portions of the lands so given away were sub-divided into various modern "estates," which were held by parchment-rights,—the holders of which would be recognized to-day as the undoubted proprietors. But this "tory" chief, and all his kind, knew nothing of paper-rights. They really belonged to a period when there was no title to land except the strong arm. People who lived quietly, and regarded law as superior to force, were only so many eccentric and inoffensive fellow-beings, of totally different ideas and, perhaps, of totally different race; but whose existence was a matter of indifference to the "tory" tribes so long as they did not interfere with their old way of living—their fighting and drinking, their hunting and fishing, their wild minstrelsy and wilder dances, their heathen ceremonies of marriage and burial, and their once-unchallenged right to scour their own territory at will.
Such people, ignoring the changes that time had wrought and was still working around them, regarded North-Britain as though it was still what it once had been. They had their provinces, ruled over by chiefs who had the right to grant passes to travellers through their respective territories; and these chiefs were subject to a Supreme Chief, or King; who was all-powerful, and whose passes allowed a traveller to traverse the whole of Scotland,† unmolested. These passes, as we have seen, were called in, and new ones issued, at stated intervals, in order to avoid a mis-use of them; the engraved characters, at each issue, being presumably different from those on the previous tokens; and, in all cases, being only intelligible to those who understood the "tory" language, or languages. Mr. Simson does not, I think, specify any place as the annual rendezvous; but Martin mentions ‡ that, during
* Simson, pp. 264-6.
† It may be doubted whether the Baillie supremacy extended over the whole of Scotland, but Mr. Simson seems to indicate as much.
‡ See the "Advertisement to 'The Antiquary.'"
the seventeenth century, one of those meeting-places was the town of St. Andrews (and it is not unlikely that the "Faw-Kirk Tryst"—once a notable annual gathering—was originated for political and religious, as well as social purposes). And in Galloway, the Fair of Keltonhill seems to have been the recognized rendezvous for all the "Tories" of that territory. In England, a similar state of things existed. "The Rogues of the North used to meet, at night time, once every three years," at the celebrated cavern known as the Peak's Hole (near Castleton in the Peak of Derby): and another trysting-place, farther south, was "by Retbrook at Blackheath."* And, even in Mr. Borrow's day, they mustered "from all parts of England" at the annual fair held at Fairlop, in Epping Forest.
It may yet be possible to ascertain the various "tory" districts in these islands; and to guess at the story their boundaries tell. But it seems almost too late. "Gypsydom" has been so completely broken up by the movements of the past century. Even if the tribes still held something of their former power, how could they preserve the integrity of their frontiers with railways crossing their territory at every angle? If Will Marshall and his painted army could be supposed to exist to-day; and if they wished to make a raid into Ayrshire; they could reach the heart of the enemy's country, unopposed, in the course of an hour or two. But a hundred other causes have worked to the same end. The steady persecution of "rogues and vagrants"—the appropriation by individuals of territory that was once common to all (by which all travellers, of every kind, have been pushed off and off the land—until only the roads are left)—the increasing strictness of the Game Laws, which have deprived the "wild man" of one of his chief means of sustenance—all these causes, and many more, have brought about the complete downfall of genuine "gypsyism." Although, in newer and sparsely-peopled countries, the "gypsy" life may be lived for many years to come by the descendants of British "gypsies," yet the overthrow of the system is complete.
* Viles' and Furnivall's "The Rogues and Vagabonds of Shakspere's Youth," page xvii. of the Preface of the 1880 edition. Also Blackwood's Magazine for April, 1817.
And this means that Nationalism has triumphed over ex-Nationalism, or Provincialism. The game laws—the laws against local autocrats, known as sorcers, &c.—the laws by which (with doubtful wisdom) men have been given absolute possession of land which their predecessors merely governed, thus enabling them to confine all wayfarers to roads and "rights-of-way"—all these laws have been framed by the supreme Government, and endorsed by all the Nationalists in the country. In place of twenty kingdoms in these islands, we have now only one.
Note.—That archaically-disposed castes should continue to live as though those various small nationalities had not gradually been rolled into one; and instead of, with wider vision, seeing only one monarch and one monarchy, should continue to confine their gaze to the petty kingdoms of their forefathers;—this is not surprising, when one realizes that political divisions of vastly newer date than those early heptarchies (but, nevertheless, as obsolete as they are), do even yet present themselves as realities to many people—and these sometimes of the best education. For at least eighty years, the British Islands have been under one Government. For nearly a century longer, Great Britain has been one country: for two hundred and eighty years it has formally acknowledged only one supreme power: its principal divisions have been nothing more than provinces since the year 1707—and, rightly regarded, since the year 1603. And yet how constantly are those extinct nationalities spoken of as if they really existed! There is a book from which some facts, cited in these pages, have been taken—and it is a book of very considerable interest and value—which is named "The Scottish Nation." If it treated only of Scotchmen who were born before the accession of James to the British throne, the book would be correctly enough named. But it does not: it comes down to our own day. And, therefore, the title is inaccurate. There has certainly been no Scottish Nation for a hundred and seventy-six years: and, properly speaking, that nationality (ill-defined as we have seen it to be) came to an end in 1603. When James ascended the British throne, he became the first of Modern-Britons,—of "Englishmen" (to use the latest and more euphonious—if less accurate—designation). When others of his extraction flocked southward in his train, they were not alien adventurers—as the provincially-minded section of South-Britons esteemed them to be. They were merely British subjects, coming up to the capital from the provinces, like any of their fellow-countrymen in Yorkshire or in Devon. Had Scotland been the richer country, as it was the poorer,—and had James selected his ex-capital as the seat of British government,—the movement would have been reversed; but the South-Britons, trending naturally to the centre of wealth and power, would not have been "adventurers." Although red-tape and provincialism did not admit this new citizenship till 1707,—and then reluctantly,—
it was certainly represented by James the First and his government; which was neither "English" nor "Scotch,"—but British. After that period, to talk of Englishmen or Scotchmen, except in a geographical sense (or using the former term in its modern and extended acceptation), was to commit an anachronism. But the error is made every day: and most of us are guilty of making it. It may be a trivial inaccuracy to designate England Proper, Ireland, and Scotland as "countries," but it is an inaccuracy, nevertheless. For these are merely provinces of the United Kingdom—whether we call that kingdom the British Islands, Great Britain, Britain, or England. The title of the book just referred to shows that, in the estimation of many people, the inhabitants of Scotland constitute a "nation." And many other examples of the same usage might be cited, to denote that this is no solitary instance. In Scotland, and also in England Proper, there are religious societies which are very frequently spoken of as "national" churches. But the expression is incorrect. Although every inhabitant of either of these provinces held the religious tenets of those respective "national" churches, that would not render those churches national. There cannot be two national churches in one nation. No doubt, each of the divisions referred to represents (if only in a partial degree) certain religious organizations that were once formally recognized as national. But, as the nations which so recognized them have been provinces for, at least, a hundred and seventy-five years, the modern representatives of those ci-devant national churches must be now provincial. This altered attitude is perhaps most clearly seen by regarding the relative positions of the British Premier and the English Primate—of which the first is national and the second provincial. The position of the British Premier is like that of the Royal Academy, or the National Gallery: it is national. The members of the Royal Academy are from every part of the United Kingdom: those of the Academies of Ireland and of Scotland are almost solely local men. In the ex-capitals of Ireland and of Scotland, there are people who lament over the social "decay" of these two cities. But there has been no decay in either of these portions of the empire. The centre of government has been shifted to London: and the territory governed is vastly greater than before. There has been anything but decay. Carlyle, who (I think, invariably) employed the term "Englishman" in its widest sense, was equally an Englishman whether he lived at Edinburgh or at Chelsea. Sheridan may be called an Irishman or an Englishman with equal accuracy (the latter being, of course, accepted in its sense of "British"). Scott, who is somewhere stated to have protested against the modern application of "Englishmen" to all inhabitants of the British Islands, was as much a Modern Englishman as any native of Sussex or of Kent.
The fitness of the usage which has given to a new country the name which properly belongs to only one of its sections, may be questioned. It is, indeed, probable that from this loose nomenclature has arisen much of the confusion of ideas with regard to nationality, which is plainly so widespread. So widespread is this error that almost none of us are free
from it. Even the twelfth representative of British monarchy was trained as though her kingdom had been no larger than Elizabeth's. On the occasion of her first visit to the northern parts of her dominion, she remarked that "the Scotch coast" was "totally unlike our coast." And the same feeling is latent in such an incident as this: In one of our illustrated papers, not long ago, there had appeared some humorous sketches of the doings of the Provincialist party in Ireland, which had given offence to certain members of that party. To atone for this, a courteous and conciliatory paragraph was inserted in a subsequent number of the journal, in which the following sentence occurred—"As for the sketches of the National Convention, we made no more fun of its members than we have frequently made of our own House of Commons." This remark was addressed by one subject of Queen Victoria to others of his fellow-countrymen; but the words "our own" could never have been used had the author realized that they were his fellow-countrymen. The House of Commons is quite as much "our own" to a native of Tipperary as to a native of Middlesex. And, although quite unintentionally, this writer was placing himself in the same attitude as those who talk so foolishly about "English rule" (sometimes called "tyranny") in Ireland. The power that governs Ireland and Great Britain is quite as much Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, as it is English. Ireland really has "home rule": like any other part of the United Kingdom. The government of our country is "English" in the catholic sense of that word—and only in that sense. Its members are not composed solely of natives of the province of England. Indeed, far from this being the case, the House of Commons is so constituted that every member in it might be a man of Irish birth. Although some of the people of Ireland have not yet understood this, it is nevertheless the case: and those who have not understood it are still in the bonds of Provincialism. Such people do not see that they—as much as the natives of Great Britain, and those of Ireland who do see it—are members of a power that rules half the world; compared with which the defunct nationalities of Ireland or of England are contemptibly insignificant. And that to revive the extinct life of the individual provinces—East-Anglia or Connaught, Scotland or Wales—out of which this empire has grown, is a feat as difficult and undesirable as reviving a corpse, or transforming a grown man into a child.
But the point to be emphasized here is this—that, although our country is primarily the British Islands, and, in a less-defined sense, the whole British Empire, there are many well-educated British people now living who do not fully realize this fact; but still see, in imagination, the boundary-lines of countries that no longer exist. And, if modernized people have not succeeded in forgetting the nationalities of two or three centuries back, it is no wonder that those "tories" we are speaking of—who wilfully adhered to their hereditary ideas—should have represented the nationalities of a period—or periods—still more remote.
CHAPTER X.
It is hardly necessary to recapitulate what has been said regarding the higher castes of Scotch "tories:" that they rode horses of the finest breeds, were armed with swords and pistols, wore riding-boots, ruffles, fine coats of scarlet or green, watches, rings, silver buckles, and all the other adornments of the "nobility and gentry" of their time; that their women were similarly dressed; and that either sex, when so dressed, looked the character they assumed. Moreover, that they were accustomed to associate with, and be received into the houses of people holding positions that were recognized as important and honourable by the community at large: and that (though this was perhaps not specified before) they themselves—though living the nomadic life—enjoyed the same luxuries of diet as any of the more sedentary gentry. "The gipsies in Tweed-dale were never in want of the best of provisions, having always an abundance of fish, flesh, and fowl. At the stages at which they halted, in their progress through the country, it was observed that the principal families, at one time, ate as good victuals, and drank as good liquors, as any of the inhabitants of the country. A lady of respectability informed me [Mr. Simson] of her having seen, in her youth, a band dine on the green-sward, near Douglass-mill, in Lanarkshire, when, as I have already mentioned, the gipsies handed about their wine, after dinner, as if they had been as good a family as any in the land." Such people, we have been told, were intensely proud—claiming for themselves an ancient and illustrious lineage—and regarding themselves as quite superior to either the low-caste gangs of "gypsies," or the bourgeoisie and yeomanry with whom they came in contact.
From whatever races he may have been descended, Mr.
Simson plainly regards the gypsy castes from the burgess-and-yeoman point of view: what may be called the modern point of view. It was a most puzzling thing to him, that people who had no fixed place of abode, and whose ways were so totally at variance with those of his own kind, should yet be treated with something very like respect by people of staid and settled habits. "Instead of endeavouring to repress the unlawful proceedings of the daring Tinklers, numbers of the most respectable individuals in Linlithgowshire deigned to play at golf and other games with the principal members of the body." . . . The honourable magistrates, indeed, frequently admitted the presumptuous Tinklers to share a social bowl with them at their entertainments and dinner parties. Yet these friends and companions of the magistrates and gentlemen of Linlithgowshire were no other than the occasional tenants of kilns, or temporary occupiers of the ground floor of some ruinous, half-roofed houses, without furniture, saving a few blankets and some straw, to prevent their persons from resting upon the cold earth."
But his adjectives are wholly misplaced. If the "gypsies" he is here speaking of were—as they plainly were—those accomplished horsemen and swordsmen, finely attired, and of graceful bearing, whom he has shown to us in several places, and who could "discourse readily and fluently on almost any topic,"—on which side was the condescension? Which were "honourable" and which "presumptuous"—those cavaliers, or the burghers at whose houses they dined?
In the same page, he places the two castes in a light that shows their respective positions more clearly:—"The children of these gipsies attended the principal school at Linlithgow, and not an individual at the school dared to cast the slightest
* "The proficiency which the gipsies displayed on such occasions (continues Mr. Simson) was always a source of interest to the patrons and admirers of such games. At throwing the sledge-hammer, casting the putting-stone, and all other athletic exercises, not one was a match for these powerful Tinklers. They were also remarkably dexterous at handling the cudgel, at which they were constantly practising themselves." These statements serve farther to emphasize what is pointed out by Mr. Leland and others—that the races, or castes, known as "gypsies" are inseparably connected with all those exercises and pastimes which we regard as peculiarly "Old English:" and that the perfunctory interest taken in those sports by non-gypsies is "as moonlight unto sunlight" compared with the ardour evinced by the "tory" castes.
reflection on, or speak a disrespectful word of, either them or their parents, although their robberies were everywhere notorious, yet always conducted in so artful a manner that no direct evidence could ever be obtained of them. Such was the fear that the audacious conduct of these gipsies inspired, that the magistrates of the royal burgh of Linlithgow stood in awe of them, and were deterred from discharging their magisterial duties, when any matter relative to their conduct came before their honours." But "their honours" were merely brewers and bakers, while "these gypsies" were mediæval "gentlemen."
This is unmistakable. It is a fact that seems to have been somewhat lost sight of in recent times; but the previous pages have been written to little purpose, if they have not shown the existence of a caste of nomadic nobles (that word, like "gentlemen," being here used to denote a ruling class—without reference to its etymological fitness). Those people formed "the upper class" in certain neighbourhoods. When Sir John Sinclair referred to the village of Eaglesham (in his Statistical Account), he said that it was "oppressed with gangs of gypsies, commonly called Tinklers, or sturdy beggars." The enactments against them style them "masterful beggars" and "sörners." In the Eaglesham instance, they were the actual over-lords of that particular district. There was "no magistrate [except the gypsy chief] nearer than four miles" from that last-century village. And the villagers paid "black tribute" to their rulers: whom they feared and dared not offend. Although it is Mr. Simson who calls those gypsies "presumptuous" because they played golf with the tradesmen of Linlithgow, it is himself who tells us that those tradesmen did not venture to travel throughout the country without one of the orthodox "tokens" granted by those predatory nobles. It is he himself who tells us that certain castes of such people possessed all the manners of gentlemen, with the bearing and style of dressing suited to that character. He, and others, tell us that they were not penniless outcasts; but men and women who not only wore fine apparel and ornaments of gold and silver, and jewelry, but who also carried well-filled purses with them—the contents of which they often lavished on the poor.
Even so recent a specimen as David Blythe of Yetholm could afford to flourish a bag of sovereigns in the face of the court that condemned his son for what they called "poaching," but what he and his ancestors regarded as legitimate sport. It was not poverty that made him refuse to pay the fine, but a dislike and contempt for modern laws and legislators. The last-century "King of the Beggars," named Andrew Gemmell, could afford to play for high stakes at his favourite games of draughts, dice, and cards: and the minister of Galashiels informed Sir Walter Scott "that many decent persons in those times would, like him, have thought there was nothing extraordinary in passing an hour, either in card-playing or conversation," with this particular gypsy chieftain. Sir Walter Scott was so utterly different from those early Borderers about whom he wrote, that he could not understand how such a man as this Gemmell could ever be regarded as an equal—not to say a superior—by men who slept under roofs and followed prosaic callings. He expects you to regard with amused surprise Gemmell's statement that "begging was in modern times scarcely the profession of a gentleman." He had so little sympathy with those old Border marauders that he did not see how Gemmell's "begging" and their "sorning" were, radically, one and the same thing: and that, if they were "gentlemen," Gemmell was a "gentleman" also, as he (and all such gypsies) emphatically asserted themselves to be. Their purses were replenished by robbery, and by "begging" that was "demanding" rather than "entreating." But this was the immemorial fashion of that particular type. As a contemporary of Scott has said, "these borderers seemed to have considered all this as honourable, or, at least, not disgraceful." Scott thought, as Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington thought, and as most of "us" think at the present day, that the custom of taking by force what was not one's own was "Common Theft." But neither those early "sorners," nor their modern representatives, regarded that as dishonourable or criminal, whatever name they gave it. Those ideas form a portion of the "peculiar morale" that Mr. Leland states is the characteristic of "gypsies."
Thus these high-caste gypsies of Mr. Simson's clearly constituted a nomadic aristocracy. And although (to judge from his book) the yeomanry did not always regard them with respect, it is evident that they were inspired with a wholesome dread of the "gypsies." Let them come by fifty, or by a hundred, the farmer's chimney smoked for their dinner, and the farmer's larder supplied their chief families for four-and-twenty hours. It is true they lightened the evening with their dances, and the music of their violins and bagpipes; and that, after the first twenty-four hours, they seemed to hold themselves bound to cater for themselves. But, unless the yeomanry of the eighteenth century differed greatly from their successors to-day, it cannot have been a matter of indifference to them that a whole clan should squat upon their premises, uninvited, and that the farmers and their servants should toil to feed this crew of hungry hunters and fishers. It is indeed quite apparent—from the same book—that had this forced hospitality not been granted, the peaceful farm would have seen the "brandished swords" and "furious looks" with which such gypsies were accustomed to resent an affront, or enforce a demand.
In short, those people were the remnants of an earlier nobility. It is told us, again and again, that they looked down with the utmost contempt upon the agricultural classes, and that they were permeated through and through with the pride of high descent. Their way of living was assuredly not that of serfs and labourers. If idleness be regarded as an essential of "aristocracy" (as, in the eyes of vulgar people, it still is), then those were surely aristocrats. Their only attempt at real work was that involved in the commission of some robbery. When they came strolling in to a Border homestead, on a summer evening, it was with fishing-rods and fowling-pieces, "and large dogs at their heels:" and they varied the monotony of sport by minstrelsy, "cudgel-playing, throwing the hammer, casting the putting-stone, playing at golf, quoits, and other games." Whether the "tamed birds" that formed a part of their large impedimenta were falcons, is not stated by Mr. Simson. But it is likely they were. In fine, these wandering bands were composed of idle and haughty "nobles," of a quite old-fashioned type: whose ideas with regard to almost everything,—and whose racial qualities
(it may be) also—rendered them the very antipodes of the people who have described them.
These "gypsies" have been pictured to us from the outside. Thus pictured, we have seen them to be nomads; but, nevertheless (in the higher instances), nomads who were finely apparelled, who were warriors rather than workers, who possessed horses of the finest breeds, who exacted tribute from all the sedentary castes within their territories, and who bore themselves toward those castes du haut en bas. Farther, "at the stages at which they halted, in their progress through the country," they were accustomed to "eat as good victuals, and drink as good liquors" as any in the neighbourhood; it being particularized, in one picture of such a "gypsy" banquet, that they "handed about their wine, after dinner, as if they had been as good a family as any in the land."
But such people must have had their own view of things. And as they, too, were Britons; and Britons occupying positions that were distinctly notable; they must, also, have left us some record. They had their castes of minstrels and bards (who, indeed, seem to have been the minstrels of the country), and it was pointed out that two of these were very probably the dark-skinned fifteenth-century minstrels, Kennedy and Dunbar. It is not proposed to cite their evidence here (if they have left any), but that of their contemporary, Barclay.
None of the published descriptions of the manners of Scotch "gypsies" seem to go farther back than two centuries. Therefore, when we look as far back as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, we must expect to find them occupying positions that were more distinctly exalted. Because they—the superior castes of the eighteenth century—"always boasted of their own high birth, and the antiquity of their family;" looking down with contempt upon "the rabble of town and country." And, consequently, if that haughty attitude was warranted by facts (as we may say, with some confidence, it was in the instance of the black Douglases), then we must look for the forefathers' of the eighteenth-century "tories" among the castes that were supreme two or three centuries earlier; and whose position was much more clearly defined than that of their later descendants.
Now, Barclay (sometimes styled a native of Scotland,
sometimes of England), in giving a sketch of the every-day life of a "courtier" of his own time, describes a state of things that corresponds very closely with the picture given by Mr. Simson of the high-caste "tories." In recounting their experiences "at the stages at which they halted in their progress through the country," Barclay says, of these courtiers—
They oftentime sleepe full wretchedly in payne,
And lye all the night forth in colde, winde, and rayne;
Sometimes in bare strawe, on bordes, ground, or stones,
Till both their sides ake, and all their bones.
When it is their fortune to
lye within some towne,
In bed of fethers, or els of easy downe,
their condition is hardly improved, since they are surrounded with the most noisome companions, human and otherwise. After entering into all the disagreeable details which give those courtiers, under such conditions, "worse easement than if they lay on ground,"—Barclay, in the person of his representative "courtier," continues:—
but heare more misery,
Which in their lodging have courtiers commonly;
Men must win the marshall or els herbegere,
With price or with prayer, els must thou stand arere;
And rewarde their knaves must thou if thou be able,
For to assigne the a lodging tollerable,
And though they promise, yet shall they nought fulfill,
But poynt the place nothing after thy will:
the lodging assigned being often—as with their descendants—in a stable or out-house.
This courtier goes on to say that, while one may put up with the indifference of the marshall or the "herbegere;" to whom, indeed (being men of rank in this travelling court), it was a courtier's duty to be polite; there remained a necessity that was almost intolerable—the showing of politeness to people of a wholly different order,
But yet for certayne it were thing tollerable
To becke and bowe to persons honorable,
As to the marshall, or yet the herbegere,
Or gentle persons which unto them be nere;
But this is a worke, a trouble and great payne,
Sometime must thou stoupe unto a rude vilayne.
Calling him master, and oft clawe his hande,
Although thou would see him waver in a bande.*
For if thou live in court, thou must rewarde this rable,
Cookes and scoliens, and farmers of the stable,
Butlers and butchers, provenders and bakers,
Porters and poulers, and specially false takers:
On these and all like spare must thou none expence,
But mekely with mede bye their benevolence.
But namely of all it is a grievous payne
To abide the porter, if he be a vilayne;
Howe often times shall he the gates close
Against thy stomake, thy forehead, or thy nose;
Howe often times when thy one fote is in,
Shall he by malice thrust thee out by the chin.
Sometime his staffe, sometime his clubbish feete
Shal drive thee backward, and twine thee to the streete,
Without thou standest in rayne and tempest sore,
And in the meane time a rascalde or vilayne
Shall enter while thou art bathed in the rayne.
Of all this description, that given by the gypsyologists is merely an echo: and, like all echoes, it comes from the opposite side. In these sixteenth-century rhymes, we have the picture of a ruling and nomadic caste: of sorners who were still sorohen, or nobles, going a-coshering throughout the territory which their king ruled over; and demanding harbourage from all and sundry. Regarding themselves as "gentle persons," they—or, at least, the humbler among them—are often obliged to show an outward respect to men whom they utterly scorn, and would fain see "hanged in a halter;" who are "rude villains"—butchers and bakers. As often as not, they are made to sleep in filthy out-houses, and sometimes are refused entrance altogether (at the gates of the inn or house at which they apply),—being thrust and kicked into the street. And while such a "courtier" is ignominiously shivering in the rainy street, the porter who turned him away admits, without hesitation, a fellow—"villain." All this is but a copy of the same strange picture—a tribe of
* "Hang in a halter."
wandering nobles; counting themselves as nobles, and despising the dwellers in towns and farms; exacting "black-mail" in one shape or another from such people; feared and disliked by these people, who ill-use them as much as they dare; and who regard as "robbery" that which the sorners take from them with or without their leave.
The villain here is pretty clearly a town's-man: and our modern "tories" still call their chief aversion a town's-man (gav-moosh).* And, as clearly, the "courtier" is not a town's-man. This representative courtier says so, distinctly, himself—
And of these cities talke we a word or twayne,
In which no man can live avoyde of payne,
For whither soever the court remove or flit
All the vexations remove alway with it.
If thou for solace into the towne resorte,
There shalt thou mete of men as bad a sorte,
Which at thy clothing and thee shall have disdayne,
If thou be busy† the club shall do thee payne;
There be newe customes and actes in like wise,
None mayst thou scorne, nor none of them despise,
Then must thou ech day begin to live anewe.
As for in cities I will no more remayne,
But turne my talking nowe to the court agayne,
After of this may we have communication
Of cities and of their vexation.
These lines breathe most emphatically the spirit of the "tory" (to use that word in its unchanging signification): and also the spirit of the provinces. These people, clinging most tenaciously to the ideas and manners of their forefathers, abhor the "new customs and acts" of the dwellers in cities—who never halt in the onward march, never rest on their oars for a moment, or say "this will suffice;" but who have learned something more by each successive sunset, and "each day begin to live anew." And these same wandering "courtiers"—"gentle persons" though they be—discover, when they come into the towns, that the "rude villains" and such despised "rabble" look down upon them in turn, "disdaining" both them and their archaic dress.
* Mr. Leland makes use of this term several times; but it appears that gavengro is better Romanes. Either form, however, signifies "town's man."
† ? Choring.
It is Linlithgow over again: the "honourable magistrates" are only "honourable" in the eyes of the burghers: they are merely "rabble" to the marauding "tory" lords. And vice versa.
In every essential, this unresting "court" that Barclay pictures, is the prototype of those portrayed by Simson. Ever "removing or flitting," and carrying its "vexations" along with it, one of the chief duties of its courtiers is to follow the banner of their leader. In other words, these "courtiers" are not only nomads and sorners, but marauders too.
Nowe would I speake of paynes of the warre,
But that me thinketh is best for to defarre;
For if thy lorde in battayle have delite,
To sue [pursue] the warre be paynes infinite.
For while he warreth thou mayst not bide at home,
* * * * *
To sue an army then hast thou wretched Payne
Of colde or of heate, of thirst, hunger and rayne,
And mo other paynes than I will specify,
For nought is in warfar save care and misery,
Murder and mischiefe, rapines and cowardise,
Or els crueltie; there reigneth nought but vice.
These fierce "tory" courtiers of the provinces, then, were much given to fighting: their chiefs, in many cases, "having delight in battle." And the people against whom they fought—the "armies" that they "sued"—were presumably of the same kind as themselves, and not the "rude villains" of the towns. And all this—these attacks and reprisals—these "murders and mischiefs, rapines and cowardice, or else cruelty"—took place in various districts of Great Britain. Just like the clan-battles that the gypsyologists describe—the only battles (excluding the Jacobite struggles) that have been fought in Britain, during times that are comparatively recent. And these eighteenth-century gypsy battles give peaceable people some idea of what that warfare of an early day really was—"murders and mischiefs, rapines and cowardice, or else cruelty;" men hacking each other's limbs off—stabbing a hunted enemy to the death—breaking-in one another's skulls with heavy clubs, transfixed with harrow-spikes (the "maces" and "morning-stars" of history).
There are fine words that can be used to describe such combats, so that the truth is almost hidden from our eyes; but it was bloody work at the best, as all warfare is.
The extracts just made* have indicated, as plainly as any more modern statements, that the "rude villains," or burghers, and the "gentle," nomadic "courtiers" of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were people of quite opposite characteristics. And their differences are precisely the differences that distinguished the high-caste eighteenth-century "gypsy" from the rest of his fellow-countrymen.
There is one other feature of those wandering "courts" of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which it is necessary to refer to. The term "gypsy" has been seen to be so comprehensive that it has included every variety of the marauding "tory"; many of these varieties suggesting quite separate racial origins. And one result of this is that some statements made by the "gypsy" writers appear to flatly contradict others. For example, in the particular about to be noticed—the relation of the sexes. On one page "gypsies" are said to be monogamists: on another polygamists of the most pronounced kind. The probable explanation being, that quite different tribes were described. But many of the Scotch "gypsy" chiefs are portrayed by their historian as invariably accompanied by a seraglio. (And it was conjectured that, for this reason, most of the words that are equivalent to "a female gypsy," or a "gypsy queen," whether in "gypsy" or in "cant," have come to be applied to women of a degraded kind.) Now, the kings,—or kinglets,—whose vagrant habits have just been glanced at, were distinguished by the same practice. The "courtier," who is the spokesman for all his caste, tells us that the "marshal" was, like himself, a "gentle person,"—and one possessed of much authority. The etymology of "marshal," it has been observed, is mare chal, or "horse man:" which, when the position was one of importance, may better be rendered by "Master of the Horse." But the same word also denoted the holder of an office that is now obsolete in this country, but was quite common in the fifteenth and
* Which are taken from Mr. Fairholt's outline of Barclay's "Cytezen and Uplondyshman": printed for the Percy Society, July, 1847.
sixteenth centuries; that of *marescallus de meretricibus.* The position seems to have latterly been occupied by *gouvernantes*; but the females under the charge of this "marshal" are always described as "suivant la cour du roy"—"suivant ordinairement la cour." And those female "courtiers" are remembered as *courtezans*. So that, in this respect—as in others—the "gypsy" kinglets of the eighteenth century are identical with the nomadic kinglets of the fifteenth.
The eighteenth-century "gypsies"—or some of them—alleged that their lineage had always been exalted, and that they and their ancestors were kings, or dukes, or lords. Mary Yorkstoun, the wife of one of those "tory" nobles, was styled "my lady" and "the duchess," even by the non-gypsies of her territory. To what extent such people were rulers of the district they terrorised is, of course, a matter of opinion. Viewed in the light of some centuries ago, they really were "nobles." They formed a caste of whom "the common people" stood in awe; they lived upon these "common people," exacting by force whatever they desired—clothing, or food, or money. When the peasantry and yeomanry of southern Scotland refused to harbour those *sorners*, they were made to feel that they had offended a superior power. As when Hogg's acquaintance—the Ettrickdale farmer—threw off the yoke of the Kennedys. "A warfare of five years' duration ensued between Will and the gypsies. They nearly ruined him; and at the end of that period he was glad to make up matters with his old friends [or quasi-friends], and shelter them as formerly." When that fiercest of *faws*, the swarthy chief of the Winter gang, came into some little Northumbrian village, his appear-
* See an article "On the Nature of the Office of Mareschal," which was communicated to *Blackwood's Magazine* of May, 1817.
It may be pointed out that this phase of a *mare chal's* office does not at all interfere with the meaning of the word, if Mr. Borrow is correct in saying that *mare*, at one time, denoted either "a horse" or "a woman," "all women being considered mares by old English law, and, indeed, still called mares in certain counties where genuine old English is still preserved." And, as "mares," led to the cattle-market (chattel-market) with a halter round the neck, and sold. (Borrow's "Romany Rye," Vol. II. Chap. XL.) The word "jade," it may be observed, has also borne this two-fold meaning.
ance "was a signal for the inhabitants to close their doors; while he, as if proud of the terror which he inspired, would keep walking back and forward, with his arms a-kimbo, on the green." The submissive people paid rent to him, and such as he: he was their over-lord, governing them by force and cruelty—a "black oppressor." And if the celebrated Chief of Galloway was more amiable, in many respects, than this gloomy savage; and if he lived on friendly terms—generally—with the people on whom he sorned; he was none the less dreaded throughout the whole of Galloway. In districts where the rule of violence had not been overthrown, such men were assuredly the lords of the neighbourhood. When, at last, the central power became much too strong for them, and their exactions required to be "conducted in so artful a manner that no direct evidence could ever be obtained of them," then their position was more equivocal.
But they claimed an "illustrious" (and not exotic) lineage. And when we look back, as they invite us to do, we see that, in those earlier times, their ideas and manners prevailed in certain districts—if not throughout the country. Consequently, the people holding such ideas occupied the most prominent places in this country; and were its nobles, dukes, and "kings;" or "kinglets" as we should nowadays term the rulers of what were comparatively small territories—so small that those battles in which one army of "courtiers" pursued another, of a different nation, were for the most part conducted in an island that is little more than one-third the size of Madagascar. And this little island contained two separate "kingdoms" not very long ago; and many separate kingdoms in remoter periods. The warfare that Barclay's nomadic gentry found to be so full of "murder and mischief, rapine and cowardice" was only enacted in the southern (though larger) portion of the island: and yet it was between two confederacies so equally matched that it went on for thirty years. And the combatants, as described by Barclay, possessed the ideas, moral and social, of "gypsies:" and were treated by the town's-folk of their time very much as the Scotch burghers treated the same castes during last century—with a curious mixture of respect and aversion.
When the tory tribes of recent times are written about,
their leaders are referred to as "so-called" "kings," and their claims to distinction are dismissed, off-hand, as "pretensions." But just let us try to realise the magnitude of the position held by the wandering, polygamous, marauding "courtiers" of Barclay's youth. They are much better known to history than the townspeople who were their contemporaries: for the same reason that makes Captain William Baillie, and William Marshall of Galloway, stand out above the nameless tradesmen and farmers whom they lived upon—because they were constantly doing some deed—good or bad—that gave them prominence; while the quiescent classes lived and died unknown to any but their immediate friends. Those fifteenth-century bands of marauders, then, traversed the provinces of England, each led by a "noble" or "king"—who, like the similarly-disposed Scotch chiefs of last century, carried along with him a completely organized harem. Such nomadic "nobles," during a whole generation, towards the end of the fifteenth century, were employed in killing each other—their forces being massed into two confederated armies. And a supposititious follower of theirs is made, by a contemporary writer, to define their warfare as nothing but murder, mischief, rapine, cowardice, cruelty, vice, misery, and care. After Southern Britain had been sickened with slaughter—at the end of thirty years—this huge vendetta came to an end with the triumph of one side and the overthrow of the other. It was then found that a large number of those sorners had been killed off: no fewer than "eighty princes of the blood, and the larger proportion of the ancient nobility of the country." The number of "nobles" is not given in this estimate; but if eighty "princes" were killed, the number of "nobles" could not well be less than eight hundred. That is, somewhere about a thousand nomadic, marauding "princes," "dukes," and "earls" killed each other between the years 1455 and 1485, in the southern and central districts of Great Britain. Supposing that one-half of the original number came out of this long feud alive,—we have about two thousand as the number of wandering "dukes" engaged in the conflict. And all this took place in a territory not a quarter the size of Madagascar. If an island of that extent
were discovered to-day, containing (by inference,) not less than a hundred "princes of the blood," and about two thousand "nobles," we should be inclined to smile at the exalted rank claimed by such very petty "princes." And, all the time that this was going on in England Proper, Ireland and Scotland had each a similar story to tell.
"The larger proportion of the ancient nobility" of the southern and central parts of Great Britain, were slaughtered in the latter part of the fifteenth century: the period in which the swarthy Douglases, and the Gordons of southern Scotland, ceased to be formally recognized as landowners and nobles. If, in any of these cases, the vanquished survivors of this "ancient nobility" continued (in spite of defeat) to live after the fashion of their forefathers, then they continued to live as wandering, polygamous "dukes;" and, at least in southern Scotland, their "common dwellings" were the tents and turf-covered wigwams of the "gypsies." As long as possible, they would support themselves in the ancient fashion—by the sword, and by hunting and fishing. The last thing they would think of doing would be to hire themselves out as the servants of "rude villains," or as labourers on the gradually-increasing areas of cultivated ground. Remembering their ancestral power, and even trying to regain it, they would still maintain a haughty attitude toward "the rabble of town and country." They would not come down to the level of selling the manufactures, and working at the handicrafts, that were peculiar to certain early British tribes (much in the same way as the vanquished "dukes"* of North America have done), until they and their followers were wholly restrained from appropriating the goods of others, and from killing a deer, or hooking a salmon, whenever they felt inclined to do so. They would still remain "dwellers on the heath"—heathen. They would still be averse to the ever-renewing fashions of the towns; and the townspeople, careless—or ignorant—of ancestral fashions, would stare with surprise at their appearance, "disdaining
* The fact is, perhaps, scarcely worth noticing; but the aristocracy of the earlier inhabitants of North America (described as "Indians" and "Moors" by the settlers) are designated "emperors," "kings," and "dukes" by the writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
both themselves and their clothing." They would, in short, become "English gypsies."
And, whatever may turn out to be the proper definition of this loosely-applied term, this at least can be said: that, while the "gypsy" tribes of Scotland are known by names that are famous in Scottish history—the Douglases, the Gordons, the Ruthvens—those of England are distinguished by surnames that are equally illustrious. For there are no more typical "gypsies" in England than the clans of Stanley, and Lovel, and Lee.
Such surnames as these just given are, no doubt, more closely associated with the days of the Cavaliers than with the earlier era of the Wars of the Roses. But the notables of the first-named period were in many cases descended from the notables of the latter. And the days of "gypsy" supremacy were not nearly over in the times of the Cavaliers. Indeed, Mr. Simson's picture of the life of the Baillie caste of the eighteenth century is the picture of a supremacy that was alike "gypsy" and "cavalier." For such people were pre-eminently "cavaliers." That name must have been first used seriously; and it signifies "horsemen" or "riders." And this is precisely what we have seen the "gypsies" were: or, at least, certain tribes of such people. Whether we look at Tawno Chickno and his swarthy comrades at Borrow's horse-fair, or regard Simson's equestrian highwaymen in Scotland, we see those "gypsies" to be the most perfect horsemen. And, in appearance, they correspond more closely than any of their contemporaries with the traditional "Cavalier." They have the same long tresses, the same haughty, "magnificent" manner, the same dashing style of dress. When Jasper Petulengro attired himself in a "smartly-cut sporting-coat, the buttons of which were half-crowns—and a waistcoat, scarlet and black, the buttons of which were spaded half-guineas," he presented a figure that was certainly unusual in nineteenth-century Britain. But one, or two, or three hundred years earlier such a way of dressing would never have attracted attention on the score of magnificence. Certainly not among the chiefs of the Ayrshire Kennedies of the sixteenth century; one of whom is
pictured* as wearing, like Jasper, gold buttons on his coat,—and at least as many "valuable rings and jewels" as Mrs. Petulengro herself.
Mr. Simson's unlimited application of the word "gypsy" ("unlimited" in an ethnological sense) renders it impossible to arrive at any distinct ethnological conclusion, in this respect, without further information. While Mr. Leland embraces within the term "gypsy" only our dark-skinned "tory" compatriots, who themselves (he tells us) are plainly descended from two "entirely different original stocks,"—the Scotch writer goes much farther, and includes many clans of "fair whites" in this designation. In the meantime, therefore, "gypsy" cannot well be held to denote much more than "tory" or "heathen."
But in spite of the fair-whites of the one gypsiologist, and the curly-haired melanochroi of the other, there does seem evidence that Mr. Leland's straight-haired "Romany" occupied the highest positions in Britain not very long ago. Scott tells us that the famous Earl of Leicester was spoken of as "the gypsy," by his rival, Sussex "on account of his [Leicester's] dark complexion." The dark-grey skin that distinguished more than one of the later Stewart kings is characterized as "of sable hue," by Marvell—in his description of Charles II. It would be easy enough to adduce other instances of men of rank, within comparatively recent times, who were distinguished by the epithet "black";† easier to do this than to show the exact meaning that that expression conveyed at the time. When, more than a century ago, Forbes of Culloden made use of these words—"If any one Scotsman has absolute power we are in the same slavery as
* In the Preface to "Auchindrane: or, The Ayrshire Tragedy."
† Such as Thomas Rutherfurd, "the black laird of Edgerston;" "black Ormeston, an outlaw of Scotland;" "Black Mr. John Spens;" "Black Arthur," brother to the Master of Forbes, killed in a tribal fight between the Forbeses and the Gordons at Tillyangus, Aberdeenshire; Hugh Rose of Kilravock, "the black baron;" all sixteenth-century men: and another Hugh Rose of Kilravock, also "the black baron," in the seventeenth century. And other similar examples, of various dates, some of which have been already given, e.g., that fifteenth-century Border clan "who, from the darkness of their complexion, were called the 'Black band of the Blackadders,'" "the black knights of Lorne," and the Dubh divisions of the important clans of Mercer, of Cumming, and of Douglas.
ever, whether that person be a fair man or a black man," he perhaps did not mean more than we should now do if we used the word "dark." But, at an earlier period than Forbes's, we seem to find visible proof of the exalted position of this "Romany" element. It is the opinion of a modern student of men* that the "English [type] has changed much within a few generations. 'The features of men painted by and about the time of Holbein have usually high cheek-bones, long upper lips, thin eyebrows and lank, dark hair';" a cast of countenance that is found among many Red Indians and Gypsies. And these gypsy-like people were of course, the notables of their day—the first half of the sixteenth century. We are told that "eighty-seven sketches of persons belonging to the court of Henry VIII. by Holbein are still extant;" and the physical attributes of these courtiers have just been described. The moral attributes, and the mode of living of the courtiers of that very period—or say a generation earlier—have been pictured to us in Barclay's Eclogues. And from these we have seen that their ways were the ways of gypsies: polygamous, unresting, scorning, and marauding gypsies, with innumerable "princes of the blood," and all the show and glitter that is now called "flash." If, therefore, Barclay's and Holbein's courtiers were at all related to each other—even though they were not identical—it is plain that the porter who refused admittance to a nomadic "courtier," while welcoming a brother "villain," was partly actuated by racial feelings. He was putting out a man who, to some extent or another, was of "gypsy" blood.
The question that most requires to be settled is this—"Of what composition were the townsmen of our chief cities at this period?" "Villains," we know, were once serfs. Were these "Villains" the descendants of early Britons of peaceful mould; or were they incoming traders of almost recent centuries; or were they a blending of both? The question is of great importance; because these "villains" are the people whose ideas are much more prevalent in this country to-day than the ideas of the ex-nobility. Whatever
* The quotation that follows is taken from an article on "Heredity," contributed to the Atlantic Monthly of October, 1883, by Mr. H. W. Holland: the opinion is Mr. Francis Galton's.
the exact ingredients of the blood we have inherited, all of us who are supposed to be "civilized" are in the position of the burgher rather than in that of the marauding lord. We do not nowadays acquire landed estates by force, but by purchase,—that is, by peaceful barter. The man who tries to acquire property by force is called "a burglar;" and he is punished by the laws of a peace-loving nation. When the "courtier" tries to thrust his way into a house, uninvited, he is "twined to the street" as a "vagrant" and a "beggar." If a "gypsy" shoots a hare on the hunting-grounds of his forefathers, he is imprisoned as a "poacher." And all these laws are on the side of the people who, in earlier times, were citizens; or, if countrymen, then tillers of the ground, not "dwellers on the heath," or "moss-troopers." They are the same kind of laws as those enacted in favour of "the free burghs of this realm," and against the "wild savages" of the Hebrides. Those "free burghs" have spread out and out into the uncultivated country; converting moors and fens into farms, and restricting the limits of the "heathen" more and more, until there is scarcely any camping-ground remaining for them. Or, where there is, laws have been passed forbidding these waste places to be occupied as formerly. So that, whereas you might once have seen a dozen tents of the wandering people in an afternoon's stroll across Hampstead Heath, you are now confronted only by the placards announcing the law that prohibits them. There is no longer a visible community of Norwood Gypsies, though we have not yet heard the last of the Norwood Roughs.
Let it be granted that our tendencies, during the past few generations, have been in the direction of peace,—and it will easily be seen that any caste or castes with "gypsy" proclivities must either have dwindled away during that period, or else gone over to the side of the peace-lovers and workers. "A man who is violent and pugnacious will, as a general rule, be more often imprisoned or slain in the prime of life than his more pacific neighbours, and will therefore leave fewer children to inherit his fighting spirit. Thus the constant process of elimination of combative men will continue, without any compensating advantage in the struggle for existence arising as heretofore from success as a warrior. The man of
the future, therefore, will . . . be particularly averse to engaging in personal conflict—a lover of peace at any price." So says Mr. Kay Robinson, looking forward from to-day. But the truth of the principle he lays down has been illustrated in these islands already. When, in the twelfth century, North-Eastern Scotland was colonised by "peaceful people," and the turbulent "Morrow-men" expelled or killed, "the man of the future" was the peaceful colonist, and not the savage. Or, let us take for example the period of the Wars of the Roses. No doubt the many kinglets, and their followers, who took part in these clan-fights, were possessed of various qualities that counterbalanced the fiercer side of their nature. But they were "combative men." During their celebrated thirty-years' struggle, they succeeded in exterminating "the larger proportion of the ancient nobility of the country." These, certainly, were not "the men of the future." But, all during this thirty-years of warfare, the unwarlike traders of the towns were pursuing their ordinary avocations—and multiplying.
Whether there is more "honour" in killing one's fellow-men than in trading with them, is a matter of no importance here. But what is important is—that the trader, or the yeoman,—the peace-lover, let us say—is immeasurably the most important person in the genealogy of nations. The "combative men" have left their mark in history: but their ideas have now fallen into disrepute, and the number of their pure-blooded descendants is necessarily small. The non-combatants, dying quietly in their beds, have in each generation more than doubled their numbers. The result of which is that, from whatever date peaceably-inclined people were enabled to follow out their peaceable inclinations, from that date they became the chief progenitors of "the man of the future,"—that is of the present. While, on the other hand, the fighters—killing each other, dying in early life, and (laterly) persecuted for their combativeness by the now-preponderating body of "peace-lovers"—have decreased* in an inverse ratio to the increase of the opposite class.
* Such men as Marshall of Galloway must undoubtedly have left numerous descendants. But polygamy, while it greatly increases the number of the children of one particular man, must obviously tend to diminish the increase of the tribe.
If we ought to set aside the white-skinned "gypsies" altogether, and accept "gypsy" in its popular sense of a dark-skinned, black-haired, black-eyed man; then we might obtain something tangible from a consideration of the statements just made. Although our population is said to be composed very largely of dark-whites, it is quite clear that we are vastly more white than black: that while an immense number of us are pure blondes, there is not one Modern-Briton who is as black as a negro: that, although certain black divisions of our ancestry have affected the white stock to a tremendous extent, we are a nation of whites and darkened whites. If, then, gypsy supremacy meant a "black oppression," of which the latest important phase was faintly visible in Holbein's pictures, the final overthrow of that supremacy meant a victory of white people. The ideas now paramount are, in a great measure, opposed to those of the "common thieves" who once ruled the provinces, and who were "gypsies;" and the non-gypsies were burghers. Therefore the burghers were white people.
Whatever else the town-populations of Britain comprised (during the past five or six centuries), it is plain that the Dutch immigrants formed an important portion. These immigrants, Professor Skeat* has told us, have been greatly overlooked by historians; perhaps because their entrance was quiet and bloodless. "We may recall the alliance between Edward III. and the free towns of Flanders; and the importation by Edward of Flemish weavers." And again—"After Antwerp had been captured by the Duke of Parma, 'a third of the merchants and manufacturers of the ruined city,' says Mr. Green, 'are said to have found a refuge on the banks of the Thames.'" And Early Scotland—which afterwards spread out into Later Scotland; and which was, in the twelfth century, merely a small area on the north-eastern side of North Britain,—this germ of Later Scotland was in a great measure a Dutch colony. If such people were allowed to live in their own way for five or six hundred years—ploughing, and weaving, and trading, but not fighting (except in self-defence)—their posterity at the present day must be very numerous. So numerous that all the blondes, and (on one side)
* In the introductory remarks to his "Etymological Dictionary."
all the dark-whites of the British Islands might be the descendants of those "peaceful people;" while the "gypsy" races that preceded them—spending their hot lives in un-ending feuds—might have so thinned out their own numbers as to have left comparatively few representatives of their type.
No doubt, many instances could be found of the overthrow in particular districts, of "black princes." The case of the fifteenth-century Black-Douglasses is a case in point. So also is that of the eighteenth-century Winters of Northumberland. Their chief, William Winter, has already been spoken of. "This man belonged to a family which was one of the worst of a bad gang of faws, itinerant tinkers, who formerly infested this part of Northumberland [Elsdon] in considerable numbers, robbing and threatening the small farmers, who would not allow them to lodge in their out-houses, and who did not, either in provisions or money, pay them a kind of black mail." Winter is described, by the country people who remember him, as a tall, powerful man, of dark complexion, wearing his long black hair hanging about his shoulders, and of a most savage countenance. The appearance of this ruffian in a small village was a signal for the inhabitants to close their doors; while he, as if proud of the terror which he inspired, would keep walking back and forward, with his arms a-kimbo, on the green."* This man was at last brought to justice, and executed at Newcastle in the year 1792: and of his family, Sir Walter Scott says, "I have little doubt they are all hanged."
Winter, of course, lived at a time when the supremacy of such as he was almost quite over. Cavaliers had become known as thieves, rogues, and roughs;† and Winter only
* Oliver's "Rambles in Northumberland," p. 113.
† As "Satchells" points out, the definition—"a freebooter's a cavalier that ventures life for gain" did not hold good upon the Borders after "King James the Sixth to England went." "He that hath transgress'd since then (he says) is no Freebooter [or Cavalier], but a Thief." And, whatever may have been his ethnological position,—and although his own son and grandson had all the attributes of Cavaliers,—it was assuredly during the reign of James the Sixth of Scotland that some of the most severe enactments were passed against sorners, or "cavaliers"—"commonly called Egyptians."
With regard to the word "rogue"—an equivalent of "sorner"—it has been stated that one of its primary meanings is "haughty" or "cavalier." It is probable that rough, which is still pronounced roch (ch guttural) in Scotland, is virtually the same word.
represented the sediment of that caste. But he and his family stand out as specimens of a race of dark-skinned tyrants, who were at last exterminated, root and branch. And yet, had he lived two or three centuries earlier he would be remembered in history by some such title as "Lord of Elsdon;" which he virtually was.
Another example of "gypsy" oppression is seen in the pages of "Lorna Doone." Mr. Blackmore's novel is only in part true: but in it he tells us of a clan of high-born tyrants, who, dispossessed of their lands in the North of England, settled among the fastnesses of Exmoor, about the middle of the seventeenth century. Like any of Mr. Simson's high-caste "gypsies," they looked down with the most lofty contempt upon the country-people around them. Like these "gypsies," the Doones regularly attended the local fairs with a view to plunder: like them they were cruel and vindictive. One incident in the novel reveals to us their savage nature as clearly as if every page had described such a scene; and the incident is vouched for as "strictly true." A gang of these Doones making one of their usual raids upon a lonely farm-house, and obtaining little booty except the hapless farmer's wife, amused themselves before leaving by taking her infant child out of its cradle, flinging it up to the kitchen ceiling, and then—without a grain of pity—letting it come down on the stone floor smashed and lifeless, before the very eyes of its mother. After which, they addressed the tiny corpse in a jeering couplet, still remembered by the local peasantry. Such raids were made at night-time, according to the custom of the "mossers" of that Border country from which these Doones came; and we are told in the novel, that they "had a pleasant custom, when they visited farm-houses, of lighting themselves towards picking up anything they wanted, or stabbing the inhabitants, by first creating a blaze in the rickyard." [On one such occasion, however, they got worsted; for the farmer-widow, who lived there alone, had trained a heavy shot-gun for their reception, and, just as "five or six fine young Doones came dancing a reel (as their manner was) betwixt her and the flaming rick," they got the full contents of the shot-gun hurtling among them.] Not only were those "Doones of
Badgeworthy" notorious murderers, thieves and ravishers; but they had the further "gypsy" characteristics of gambling and polygamy. One of their chiefs, *The Carver*, is said to have had "ten or a dozen wives." They had also a priest, or medicine-man, remembered as *The Counsellor*, a miracle of craft and jugglery.* And the district in which they lived—the wilds of Exmoor—is still famous for a breed of small horses akin to the "Galloways" and "hobbies" of other districts associated with similar people: from which fact it is natural to infer that, if the Doones were the first "mossers" who inhabited that locality, they had ridden southward from the Borders on the ancestors of the present "Exmoor ponies."
The fate of this heathen aristocracy was similar to that of the Winter clan of the Faws of Northumberland. As the Reedsdale yeomanry rose up against the oppression of that "marked and atrocious family," so the yeomanry of Devonshire rebelled at last against the unendurable insolence of the Doones. With the triumphant result so powerfully described by the author of "Lorna Doone."
That book, however, does not profess to be history; and we can only lean upon it here so far as it states uncontradictable facts. The Doones are nowhere in it styled "gypsies;" though it is certain that the Scotch writer would have so designated them, had he lived in that particular time and place. Beyond giving them black hair and black eyes, Mr. Blackmore does not make these marauders appear to us as conventional "gypsies." Indeed, he speaks somewhere of the white skin of one of their leaders. But it is probable that he did not obtain that particular from any local tradition, and even if white-skinned, that did not make them different from the Baillies, the Blythes, and many other North British "gypsies." Certainly according to the loosest usage of that word; and perhaps, also in its strictest, conventional
* "The Counsellor" is a very good specimen of the *rogue*, in the more modern sense of that word. The pronunciation *rough* conveys to us one of the impressions that *rogue* conveyed to the civilized classes of a few generations ago. But *rogue*, as we now understand it, hits off a peculiarity of those "mossers" who could *talk* their captors into freeing them, by sheer force of "blarney"; a peculiarity still possessed by the "Romany" fortune-tellers and gypsified cheap-Jacks, &c., of the present day.
acceptation; those "Doones of Badgery" were "gypsy" lords.
They, furthermore, have many of the characteristics of the early Black Danes, from whom they were, no doubt, partly descended. Assuming, like those historical tyrants, an attitude of the most brutal haughtiness toward the classes beneath them, they also—like those early dubh galls—were intensely ferocious, grotesquely savage in nature. The men who—heathens in morals and in religion—could dance a reel by the light of the burning haystacks of the people whom they were about to pillage and murder, and who could regard as a practical joke the slaughter of a helpless child,—would have been (as probably they were) most fit descendants of those swarthy satyrs whose attacks upon civilized Britain, a thousand years ago, are dimly remembered in tradition, oral and written; who thought that a humorous ending to a heavy debauch was to pelt each other with the bones remaining from the feast,—and who, dancing "round the great fires of pine-trees," are said to have "danced with such fury holding each other by the hands, that, if the grasp of any failed, he was pitched into the fire with the velocity of a sling."* And of whom it has been said that "a common practice among these barbarous pagans" was "to tear the infants of the English from the breasts of their mothers, toss them up into the air, and catch them on the point of their spears as they were falling down." Nor does the comparison end here. The worst form of the oppression of the Doones, as well as of the Danes, was not robbery, nor even murder, but the irretrievable insults to the honour of the country people.
But we need not "hark back" to the period of the early Black-Danish supremacy. During the passing of many centuries a hundred causes must have tended to make the least-altered descendant of a tenth-century Black-Dane a very different being from his remote ancestor: such causes as mixture of races, and of ideas—and the never-ceasing elimination of the more savage clans.
What we have been most considering, in this chapter, is the period—rather undefinable—at which the "tory" clans, of the superior kind, were still actually rulers; the period which
* See note 4 C, in the Appendix to "Marmion."
justifies their latest representatives in asserting that they are descended from "dukes" and "kings." And we have seen that this period is not very remote: that the fighting-men of the fifteenth century—and even later—who are remembered in history by various titles, were much more allied to the castes that we call "gypsy," than to the generality of Modern Britons. If Mr. Simson's catholic use of the term be understood, the difference between those fifteenth-century notables and us (or between them and the contemporary burghers and yeomen; or between modern "gypsies" and "us") was not a difference of blood, but simply of ideas, religious and social. If on the other hand a "gypsy" be considered as—of necessity—a dark-skinned man, then the difference was one of race: and the triumph of bourgeoisie and yeomanry meant a "white conquest." The fact that the notables of Henry the Eighth's time were, generally, possessed of physical attributes that distinguish no particular Modern-British caste, except that caste whose habits—even yet—faintly suggest the habits of the "nobles" of earlier days,—this fact not only leads us to believe that those nomadic classes are perfectly warranted in boasting of their high descent, but it also explains why the nominal aristocracy of the present day is not distinguished by the "high cheek-bones, long upper lips, thin eyebrows, and lank, dark hair" of King Henry's courtiers. Had these "courtiers" not been attached so firmly to the morals and ideas of their ancestors, they and their descendants would not have sunk in the social system as they have done—from the possession of power to the questioned possession of power—from that to the position of men whose power was wholly repudiated by the nation—and from that to the level of mere outcasts and criminals (for it is now regarded as "criminal" to acquire property by force, or to follow polygamous practices*). That they did so sink we have seen from several
* Of the modern exponents of "gypsyism," Messrs. Groome and Leland are (I think, altogether) silent as to the practice of polygamy. And the former of these, with Mr. Borrow, supplies evidence which reveals that none of her sex throughout the world are more virtuous than the gypsy woman—of a certain caste. But Mr. Borrow, though saying little or nothing of polygamy, represents one of his genuine gypsies as the husband of two wives. This man, Ryley Bosvil, "was a thorough Gypsy, versed in all the arts of the old race, had two wives, never went to church, and considered that when a man died he was cast
particular examples, from the fact that their features are best represented by our still-existing nomads, and from the fact that these features do not particularly belong to our modern people of title. And this is as it should be. Because modern people of title are not, as a rule, the descendants of the "courtiers" of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In some cases, they are the posterity of people who were quite unknown to history at these periods: in others, of people who, if notables, did not possess the racial characteristics that prevailed at and before the time when Holbein painted: and, in other cases, if descended from one or more of the "notables" of the Holbein order, they are also the posterity of other people who, at that date, did not belong to that order. It is plain that, if a certain physical type belonged to those sixteenth-century courtiers, and if they and their offspring refused to intermarry with other castes, the existing posterity of such people, in whatever rank of life they may now be, must have preserved the ancestral characteristics intact. But this could not happen with people who desired to identify themselves with the growing life of the nation. It could happen with those who reverenced their own caste above into the earth, and there was an end of him." Mr. Simson's remarks, and those of other Scotch writers, tell us plainly that polygamy was quite common among many of the northern tribes. And Grose says as much of his "gypsies."
It must, however, be remembered that one of these writers—the one who has probably the best right to pronounce upon the subject—refuses to recognize as "gypsies" any but the comparatively few families of unmixed blood; in whose eyes Grose's "gypsies" are merely mongrels, with as much of the gaujo in them as the gypsy.
But all the gyspiologists show us that "gypsies," both pure and mixed, are at heart the enemies of modern law. It is impossible not to perceive this in reading any of the books relating to them. Even those pleasant people whom one encounters in the pages of "In Gipsy Tents" have very archaic notions on the subject of stealing; and one of the characters in that book states that most of his pure-blooded kinsmen are in America. That many of these went there against their will may be assumed for many reasons. And Mr. Leland, who has studied the class on both sides of the water, indicates very clearly that their "peculiar morals" means antagonism to modern laws; and that horse-stealing is not even a peccadillo in their eyes, while "killing a policeman" is within the bounds of possibility. "In Gipsy Tents" has been of great value in showing us the lovable side of gyspyism; and it might be shown that a certain set of graces and virtues have been more at home among gypsies than among gaujos. But the belief in the rule of force—once so common throughout the country—is still, if in a modified form, a characteristic of gyspydom.
every other, and who regarded with aversion the introduction of any new element into "the blood:" and the British people in whom this feeling is most distinctly shown are those wandering "cavalier" castes described by Mr. Borrow. In the ever-changing society that is somewhat vaguely known as "the aristocracy" there is no such exclusiveness. There is, indeed, a semblance of such a spirit, but it will not bear investigation. Present wealth, and almost that alone, is what constitutes modern "aristocracy." A man may have a really genuine pedigree of "notables"—stretching back, in every line, for many centuries,—but if he should happen to become quite destitute of means, "aristocracy" knows him no more, and yesterday's butcher takes his place. Such a body, though insisting upon certain qualifications of manner, of education, and—as far as possible—of birth, is not radically a caste; for caste implies a connection of race as well as custom. It is only in such a community as that pictured by Borrow—in which the mother would drive her daughter out of her tent for ever on account of an intrigue with a gaujo (not because of the intrigue, but because the lover was a white man)—it is only in such a community that this pride of blood is eminent. Therefore, we need not expect to find, nor shall we find, in the "notables" of our own time, the racial stamp of those of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Individual instances of that type there may be—as of others; but, if it occurs, it does not occur in sufficient strength to characterize the whole body. And the ruling classes of Britain must have become less and less identified with particular castes, in proportion as modern ideas became more and more powerful. The increasing sway of wealth, as opposed to the decreasing sway of force, must soon have put an end to government by dynasties: and the intrusion of wealthy traders into the highest ranks must have been common for many generations. It would not require a Sir Mungo Malagrowther to cite illustrations of this, if the ungracious task were necessary. But if the name of the occupation of each ancestor had descended as certainly as the title that adhered to one particular line of descent, it would be seen that many bearers of ancient titles are quite as much bourgeois as gentil-lâtre. Indeed, it could only be by intermarriage with rich
traders, or with yeomen, or (an unlikely event) by the adoption of habits of peaceful industry, that members of an order founded on force, averse to daily labour, and contemptuous of everything but fighting and sorning, could prolong their existence as aristocrats into the newer era of industry and peace.
It was always "an unlikely event" that people of "cavalier" tendencies should attempt to support life by peaceful industry, when they were thrown upon their own resources. Cromwell, when not appreciated by his country, devoted himself to farming and the reclamation of the Fens. The alternative that presented itself to Prince Rupert, when finally defeated by the Parliamentary party, was to go and follow, for several years, the idle and lawless life of a West-Indian buccaneer. Had he not been so famous a man, it is not improbable that, in place of going into exile in this way, he would have supported himself in a similar manner in England. That is, he and his followers would have lived by the sword, exactly after the fashion of his contemporary, the celebrated Scotch cavalier—Captain William Baillie.* And, of these two, Prince Rupert would have been much more like the orthodox "gypsy." William Baillie is described as belonging to the class of fair-complexioned "gypsies" (although the heavy, black tresses of his cultivated kinsman, "The Scottish Sidney," do not help to bear out this description). Prince Rupert, on the other hand, though not so dark-skinned as his cousin—the "sable" monarch, Charles II.—was yet of sallow complexion; and his swarthy hair, hanging in great masses on either shoulder (according to the
* This, it will be remembered, was the most famous member of the "tory" section of the Baillies. It may be convenient to repeat Mr. Sinison's sketch of him here: "The extraordinary man Baillie, who is here so often mentioned, was well known in Tweed-dale and Clydesdale; and my great-grandfather, who knew him well, used to say that he was the handsomest, the best dressed, the best looking, and the best bred man he ever saw. As I have already mentioned, he generally rode one of the best horses the kingdom could produce; himself attired in the finest scarlet, with his greyhounds following him, as if he had been a man of the first rank. [“The right to possess greyhounds was a proof of gentility.” “Chambers's Encyclopædia.”] . . . He was considered, in his time, the best swordsman in all Scotland. With this weapon in his hand, and his back at a wall, he set almost everything, saving fire-arms, at defiance. His sword is still preserved by his descendants [one of whom was the late Mrs. Carlyle], as a relic of their powerful ancestor." ("History," p. 202.)
custom of his race)—with one tress kept together by the usual brightly-coloured ribbon—must have given him an appearance that (using the term in its strictest application) would stamp him as a "gypsy" prince. Except that Prince Rupert was possessed of many qualities that made him a really distinguished man, he did not differ one whit—in his buccaneering days—from the notorious Northumbrian gypsy of last century; who "is described, by the country people who remember him, as a tall, powerful man, of dark complexion, wearing his long black hair hanging about his shoulders, and of a most savage countenance."* In their ideas, in their way of living, in their physical attributes, and in their dress,+ the two were alike. And, of all nineteenth-century Englishmen, none more closely resembled such "cavaliers," in outward appearance, than the Durham chief, whom Mr. Simson the elder encountered at St. Boswell's.
"At St. Boswell's Fair I once inspected a horde of English gipsies, encamped at the side of a hedge, on the Jedburgh road as it enters St. Boswell's green. Their name was Blewett, from the neighbourhood of Darlington. The chief possessed two tents, two large carts laden with earthenware, four horses and mules, and five large dogs. He was attended by two old females and ten young children. . . . This chief and the two females were the most swarthy and barbarous looking people I ever saw. . . . [He] was a thick-set, stout man, above the middle size. He was dressed in an old dark-blue frock coat, with a profusion of black, greasy hair, which covered the upper part of his broad shoulders. He wore a high-crowned, narrow-brimmed, old hat, with a lock of his black hair hanging down before each ear. . . . He also wore a pair of old full-topped boots, pressed half way down his legs, and wrinkled about his ankles, like buskins. His visage was remarkably dark and gloomy. He walked up and down the market alone, without speaking to any one, with a peculiar air of independence about him, as he twirled in his hand, in the gipsy manner by way of amusement, a strong bludgeon, about three feet
* Oliver's "Rambles in Northumberland," p. 113.
+ Assuming Winter to have been dressed like Mr. Simson's "superior" gypsies.
long, which he held by the centre." Whether "Blewett" is a surname that has any history in that neighbourhood, or whether this man inherited his "tory" blood from other ancestors than the one whose patronymic distinguished him, he is clearly a nineteenth-century representative of the Northumbrian Faw, who is sketched above; and also of the ordinary Cavalier of the century preceding Winter's. The fashion of his dress and hair, his complexion, his isolated attitude, and his lofty bearing, all attest his descent from earlier cavaliers. And, if his occupation was out of keeping with the popular conception of such people, it is to be remembered that the laws of his country had long branded as a "thief" "a cavalier that ventures life for gain;" that to exist by no other ostensible means than the levying of "black mail" was to be "a robber," and therefore a criminal, liable to be executed any day; and that, in his day, the surviving remnant of that "Border-banditti," from whom were descended "some rich and noble families on the borders," were reduced to "travel the country in the character of tinkers, horners or spoonmakers, and occasionally steal sheep and plunder houses."
That this "cavalier," Blewett, regarded the ordinary people whom he encountered at St. Boswell's as his inferiors, was evinced by his manner. And Borrow recognized distinct reasons for such a feeling, among the gaily-dressed cavaliers with whom he connected himself. His statements cannot possibly apply to the whole class that is vaguely included under one title, because these—it is evident—are possessed of the most varied characteristics. But this is what he says of them:—"Their complexion is dark, but not disagreeably so; their faces are oval, their features regular, their foreheads rather low, and their hands and feet small. The men are taller than the English peasantry, and far more active, they all speak the English language with fluency, and in their gait and demeanour are easy and graceful; in both respects standing in striking contrast with the peasantry, who in speech, are slow and uncouth, and in manner dogged and brutal." Such people,—who are known by surnames such as Lovel, Bosville, Stanley and Leigh; and who
* In the words of the writer of the article "Banditti," in Pyne's "Microcosm."
(even so lately as this century) were attired in the gold-buttoned scarlet or green riding-coats of an earlier gentry—are surely the least-altered descendants of those who sat to Holbein: such a peasantry has surely inherited the blood of those stolid Dutchmen who "sprad all England over."
Indeed, the little sketch that Mr. Simson gives* of the "tories" of Cambridgeshire seems to realize, more than anything else, the appearance of a royalist party before Edgehill; or one of those wandering "courts" described by Barclay. The description is embodied in the following anecdote:
A man, whom I knew, happened to lose his way, one dark night, in Cambridgeshire. After wandering up and down for some time, he observed a light, at a considerable distance from him, within the skirts of a wood, and, being overjoyed at the discovery, he directed his course toward it; but, before reaching the fire, he was surprised at hearing a man, a little way in advance, call out to him, in a loud voice, "Peace or not peace?" The benighted traveller, glad at hearing the sound of a human voice, immediately answered, "Peace; I am a poor Scotchman, and have lost my way in the dark." "You can come forward then," rejoined the sentinel. When the Scotchman advanced, he found a family of gipsies, with only one tent; but on being conducted further into the wood, he was introduced to a great company of gipsies. They were busily employed in roasting several whole sheep—turning their carcases before large fires, on long wooden poles, instead of iron spits. The racks on which the spits turned were also made of wood, driven into the ground, cross-ways, like the letter X. The gipsies were exceedingly kind to the stranger, causing him to partake of the victuals which they had prepared for their feast. He remained with them the whole night, eating and drinking, and dancing with his merry entertainers, as if he had been one of themselves. When day dawned, the Scotchman counted twelve tents within a short distance of each other. On examining his position, he found himself a long way out of his road; but a party of the gipsies voluntarily offered their services, and went with him for several miles, and, with great kindness, conducted him to the road from which he had wandered.
It would thus appear that the likeliest way to arrive at something like a true conclusion as to the habits and everyday appearance of the "cavaliers" of the seventeenth and previous centuries, is by studying the habits and appearance of the only "cavalier" caste that was visible in the eighteenth
* In his chapter on "English Gipsies," out of which the foregoing extracts have been taken.
century—and even later. People there were, no doubt, at these later periods, who kept horses and knew how to ride them; but the only distinct caste of "cavaliers" was that described by Mr. Borrow as "gypsies," and pictured by him as "jockeys"—one of the commonest names given to them in the northern parts of Great Britain. The examination of them, in this aspect, must necessarily destroy many pre-conceived ideas; but it cannot contradict established facts—although these facts may require to be re-constructed.
Whether the use of war-paint, and the practice of tattooing, prevailed among the fighting-classes of Britain, so lately as the seventeenth century, is not likely. But we know that the former custom existed in Galloway at that time, and that the latter practice was at least a usual thing among seamen. Prince Rupert's piratical crew, in his West-Indian days, must unquestionably have been blueskins; and it is not unlikely that some of his land-forces were so, too. In short, the "Red-Indian" features of the Galloway chief and his tawny, painted army, must have been quite visible in certain sections of the English population, a century earlier. Even in the earlier part of this century, those most inveterate "tories," discarding all modern ways of communicating with each other—though this was before the days of the penny post—actually discovered the whereabouts of their friends, by following their "trail" across the country—like any other "Indians."* And it must have been in this way, also, that a gang of the "courtiers" of Barclay's era was enabled to follow in pursuit of a retreating tribe; or to ascertain the direction taken by members of their own clan, if defeated, or "on the war-path" in front of them.
One is strongly tempted to believe that the struggles of
* In Chapter XI., Book I., of "The Romany Rye," reference is made to the "patteran"—"the gypsy trail, the handful of grass which the gypsies strew in the roads as they travel, to give information to any of their companions who may be behind, as to the route they have taken." It is explained that "patteran" signifies "a leaf"; and that "the gypsies of old were in the habit of making the marks with the leaves and branches of trees, placed in a certain manner." And one of Mr. Borrow's friends is stated to have tracked her husband half the length of England by means of this "patteran." (This custom has been already referred to—in Chapter III. of Book II. It does not appear to have wholly fallen into desuetude even yet; though modern gypsies communicate by letter, like other people.)
the seventeenth century were, in a great degree, of a racial nature. The regiment commanded by the notorious Colonel Kirke, at the time of Monmouth's rebellion, was distinctly composed of "gypsies" of the popular type—if we are to rely on the description given of them by the eminent novelist who has been already quoted in this chapter. The hero of "Lorna Doone," encountering a party of "Kirke's Lambs" after the fight at Sedgemoor, says of them—"I disliked those men sincerely, and was fain to teach them a lesson; they were so unchristian in appearance, having faces of a coffee colour, and dirty beards half over them... Moreover their dress was outrageous, and their address still worse... These savage-looking fellows laughed at the idea of my having any chance against some twenty of them." Now, these "coffee-coloured," "savage-looking fellows" are not spoken of as foreigners, either by the novelist, or when ordinarily mentioned by other writers; and, in this fictitious encounter, they converse in English, and bear such names as "Dick the wrestler," "Bob," &c. Kirke and his followers had been engaged for a long time in Tangiers, "fighting the infidels;" and the leader's ferocious disposition is explained by his having become "savage by the neighbourhood of the Moors there." But these statements are surely quite insufficient to explain the "coffee-coloured" complexion, the "unchristian" appearance and "outrageous" dress of "these savage-looking fellows." The nick-name of "Kirke's Lambs" is said to have been given to them by the people of Somersetshire, and perhaps the tradition as to their complexion was received from the same source. If so, and if those Somerset people formed one of the many comparatively-modern Dutch colonies in England, it is easily understood that (supposing this tawny gang to have come from another district of England, and to be composed of the descendants of earlier Britons than those Dutch immigrants) the difference in complexion, dress, and manners, between these two sets of men might be extremely great: bearing in mind there were then no railways, and very few roads, to bring together and blend into one the motley nationalities that co-existed in the same island.*
* A critical examination of the Somersetshire dialect would easily determine whether it approached more nearly to the Dutch of a certain period, or to some
And it seems a peculiar coincidence, also, that the Hebridean Macleods,—the descendants of "the black prince of Man," some of whose posterity, last century, were compared by Boswell to "wild Indians,"—should have been found fighting at Worcester under the banner of the "black prince," Charles; in which engagement they were nearly all killed. It would appear as though the examination of tribal histories, like the examination of that of the aggregate of tribes, would show—in very many cases—a division styled *dubh*, or black, and another styled *ruadh*, or tawny,—and a third by some adjective signifying "white-skinned."
It is, at least, a fact deserving of very special attention that we are told by writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that the provinces were then overrun by bands of people whom they called *gypsies, moon-men, blueskins, greenmen, jockeys, &c.*, who lived by plunder, who terrorised the farmers, who were polygamists and heathen, and who (as a quite modern Scotch writer tells us) were in absolute command of the country, as distinguished from the town; who were, in short, British people occupying a position that was most distinctly of importance. These large companies did not consist of so many *nameless* units. People who lived as they did, must have impressed their personality most strongly upon the memories of those on whom they sorned. And in any other variety of speech belonging more particularly to people then residing in Britain, *not* immigrants. That such forms as *Jan* and *Jankin* should be common on either side of the Bristol Channel, and that *z* should take the place of *s* in Somersetshire, would lead a casual observer to conclude that the people who first used these forms were comparatively-modern Dutch. The specimens that Longfellow gives, in his essay on "Dutch Language and Poetry," might easily pass for provincial English; and, possibly, of that district in particular. Such as—
| Wanneer de wijn is in den man, | Whene'er the wine is in the man, |
| Dan is de wijsheid in de kan: | Then is the wisdom in the can. |
And—
| Als April blaast op zijn hoorn, | When April blows on his horn, |
| Is't goed voor hooi en koorn: | It is good for hay and corn. |
Indeed, certain parts of Great Britain seem to have had a closer connection with the Continent—about this period—than with other parts of the island. When it was customary for young Scotchmen to attend the university of Leyden, and when one of them (Rutherford) was offered a professorship in that place, it is a question whether they had to contend with the difficulty of acquiring a foreign language.
feuds of that period they must have taken most important and even the most important parts. So far as can be perceived from the transient glances we have cast on these times, the party known in history as the Royalist or Cavalier party is closely akin to such predatory nobles, if it did not include them all within its pale. And, if those "cavaliers" were the seventeenth-century forerunners of existing "gypsies," so were the Parliamentarians, to a very great extent, the forerunners of "us." Of these two great divisions there can be no doubt as to which contained "the men of the future." Of the two great leaders who have just been compared with each other, Cromwell was distinctly the "modern Briton." Spending the years of his retirement, as he did, upon his estate in the country; and reclaiming the waste lands of that neighbourhood; he was what we should now call "a model country-gentleman." Whereas his distinguished opponent, employing his leisure in brigandage and murder, would, with the common consent of the British people, be summarily executed as a "criminal." Prince Rupert, like others of his time and caste, was the possessor of many high qualities that have long ago floated away from the body of which our modern "gypsies" and "roughs" are the sediment;* but in his ideas, his way of living, and his physical characteristics he was merely a magnified "gypsy" chief.
* The above sentence was written before a perusal of Mr. Groome's "In Gipsy Tents," and a casual acquaintanceship with one or two gypsy families, had convinced the present writer that it is still too soon to speak of all of our nomadic fellow-countrymen as constituting a "sediment." It is unquestionable that if there are any nomadic descendants of the Scotch William Baillie still in existence, they are as likely to be inferior to him as his cultivated descendant, the late Mrs. Carlyle, was his superior. And the same rule would probably apply to other such families throughout these islands. But, nevertheless, it is equally certain that some of our nomadic families do still retain various graces of mind and body that render them the superiors of large masses of their house-dwelling compatriots. And if this recognition be held to contradict any previous remarks on the subject of gypsy vices, it can only be said that the science of "gypsiology" is yet in its infancy; and that although two opposing statements might be made with regard to the people called "gypsies," neither of them need be untrue. Gypsydom is a country that has been very partially explored; and one of the most distinguished authorities on its language has admitted that "once only in his life had he spoken with living Gipsies." No man who wished to write a book upon the language of Fiji would content himself with secondhand information, or with one solitary interview with Fijians. But this is the attitude of many of the gypsioologists. One or two have really lived in the country, and associated as
What, perhaps, most of all, brings home this cavalier-gypsy identity to modern people is the fact that the principal clans (not mere individual families) among our English gypsies to-day bear surnames that are most intensely "cavalier." Some of these are Bosville, Stanley, Roland, Lee, and Lovel; while, formerly—if not now—others bore such names as Featherstone, Fenwick, Chilcott, Richmond, and Lancaster. Names like Lancelot Lovell and Sylvester Bosville—the names of two representative gypsies—have a peculiarly "cavalier" sound; nor would they be out of place in any page of English history—back to the Norman conquest.*
But a closer examination of the aspect of bye-gone gypsy life, in England and Wales, reveals these people to us in the same light as those of Scotland. Two things become chiefly apparent; the one, the decadence of "gypsyism" within comparatively recent times—the other, the wide difference between the various castes of "gypsies" (so-called). It may be remembered that the elder Mr. Simson, in speaking of the wandering castes of North Britain, has informed us "that the numbers in which the nomadic class are to be met with are greatly reduced, their condition greatly fallen, and the circumstances attending their reception, countenance and toleration, much modified, and in some instances totally changed." The suitability of these remarks, if applied to the nomadic system of England and Wales, is rendered still more evident after the perusal of one or two "gypsy" books, which had not been examined when the immediately preceding pages were written.
friends with the natives; other have occasionally visited its shores; and some have never been there at all. With such imperfect data, then, one may allowably make statements which would seem to contradict each other, but which would be reconciled by a fuller knowledge of the subject. In every country there are people in whom the higher national qualities predominate, and others in whom these qualities are almost absent. And yet the tie of nationality—which is partly of blood and partly of custom—unites them together. So is it with gypsies and gypsydom.
* Mr. Leland gives a list of the tory clans of England and Wales, in which the following names occur:—Ayres, Buckland, Dickens, Draper, Herne, Ingraham, Loveridge, Mace, North, Pinfold, Taylor, Wheeler, and Woods. (He, of course, also includes the Bosvilles, Rolands, Lees, Lovells, and Stanleys.)
The subjoined dialogue is between the author of *In Gipsy Tents*, and an elderly gypsy—Silvanus Lovell—who is thus described:—"A hale old man, he stands over six feet two; his merry nut-brown face is lighted up by dazzling teeth and a pair of glittering hazel eyes; his grizzling hair curls round the brim of a high-crowned ribbon-decked hat. A yellow silk neckerchief, brown velveteen coat with crown-piece buttons, red waistcoat with spade-guinea dittoes, cord breeches, and leathern leggings, make up his holiday attire; his left hand wields a silver-headed whalebone whip; and from a deep skirt-pocket peeps forth the unfailing violin." He and his visitor have been talking of the old days of his boyhood which he characterizes as "merry times." And, in answer to the query if they were "better than now?" he replies—
"Better! ay, sure enough. You might go where you liked, and stop where you liked: none of these blue-coat gentlemen about. First time, I mind, as ever we seen a policeman, was at Brompton Bryan June fair. There was a lot of us going, twenty belike or more, my grandfather and all the rest on 'em. And that was a curious thing, too, his own sons would never call him 'daddy,' but always nothing but plain 'Henry.' Forty pounds he brought with him to spend on horses, and we had come up all the way from Limer's Lane; but soon as ever he sees this mounted policeman (they all were mounted at first starting), he turned back, wouldn't go anighst the fair. We'd heard some talk of 'em before, but never put much hearkenings in it. Why, you'd see the lanes then crowded with Romané—Lovells and Boswells and Stanleys and Hernes and Chilcotts. Something like Gipsies they were, with their riding horses, real hunters, to ride to the fairs and wakes on; and the women with their red cloaks and high old-fashioned beaver hats; and the men in beautiful silk velvet coats and white and yellow satin waistcoats, and all on 'em booted and spurred. Why, I mind hearing tell of my grandfather's oldest sister, aunt Marbelenni, and that must have been a hundred years and more. She was married to a very rich farmer in Gloucestershire, so she was very well off; and one day some of her brothers, Henry including, went to call on her, and when she seen 'em, she wouldn't allow them into her house, for she said, 'Now that I am married, I shall expect you all to come booted and silver-spurred.'* Gipsies! there aren't no Gipsies now."
* This incident seems to hint that the gypsies of England—like those of Scotland—reserved their fine dresses for high-days and holidays; wearing very plain clothes on ordinary occasions. This is stated by Mr. Simson to have been a custom with Scotch gypsies; though other passages of his show that other sections were invariably dressed in the bravest style.
"What do you call yourself, then?"
"What do I call myself? why a crab in a coal pit. But what I mean, it's different from how it used to be. All the old families are broken up, over in 'Mericay, or gone in houses, or stopping round the nasty poverty towns. My father wouldn't ha' stopped by Wolverhampton, not if you'd gone on your bended knees to him, and offered him a pound a day to do it. He'd have runned miles if you'd just shown him the places where some of these new-fashioned travellers has their tents."
"Yes, I have often thought what a poor exchange brickyard or building-plot must be for lane or common. I remember one patch of ground near the Addison Road Station, close to London, that only five years back was covered with tents and waggons, but now is all built over. There were some of the Norths stayed there; and one of them, a very old old woman, told me a story about those Boswells you were speaking of. How, when she was a little child, she fell over a stile in Wales one day, and made her nose bleed; and how two beautiful ladies, dressed all in silks and satins, picked her up. Their grandeur awed her, though they spoke to her in Romanes, for they were two of the great Boswell tribe; and still she spoke of them with deep respect, as I might speak of some high-born stately countess. Yet gorgios fancy all gipsies are the same—Lovells and Taylors, Stanleys and Turners, Boswells and Norths."
Those English Lovells and Chilcotts and Stanleys, then, were of precisely the same description as the finely-attired cavalier families in Scotland—such as the Baillies, Ruthvens, and Kennedies. Not necessarily of the same description, ethnologically (in the case of the fair-skinned Baillies certainly not), but in all other characteristics the same. And in either case, the existence of a variety of castes is most evident.
The style of dressing that Silvanus Lovell remembered, and which he exemplified in a slight degree in his own fashions, is referred to by Borrow several times. The appearance of his Jasper Petulengro has already been spoken of, and how Mrs. Petulengro glittered over with jewels and rings, which had been "family jewels" since her grandmother's time, and likely for much longer. Mr. Borrow, again, in speaking of a certain horse-dealer who had married a Herne (though not himself a gipsy) says—"it is a pleasure to see his wife, at Hampton Court races, dressed in gipsy fashion, decked with real gems and jewels and rich gold chains, and waited upon by her dark brothers dressed like dandy pages." His Ryley Bosville is another kindred specimen. "Ryley Bosvil was a native of Yorkshire, a country where, as the gypsies say, 'there's a deadly sight of Bosvils.' [And both
his parents were of that clan.] He was above the middle height, exceedingly strong and active, and one of the best riders in Yorkshire, which is saying a great deal. . . . His great ambition was to be a great man among his people, a gypsy king. To this end he furnished himself with clothes made after the costliest gypsy fashion; the two hinder buttons of the coat, which was of thick blue cloth, were broad gold pieces of Spain, generally called ounces; the fore buttons were English 'spaded guineas'; the buttons of the waistcoat were half-guineas, and those of the collar and the wrists of his shirt were seven-shilling gold pieces. In this coat he would frequently make his appearance on a magnificent horse, whose hoofs like those of the steed of a Turkish sultan, were cased in shoes of silver. . . . He was very fond of hunting, and would frequently join the field in regular hunting costume, save and except that, instead of the leather hunting-cap, he wore one of fur, with a gold band around it, to denote that though he mixed with Gorgios he was still a Romany-chal."*
Another picture of English gypsy fashions is that given by Mr. Simson, junior (in a note to the "History," p. 510): "There are two gipsies, of the name of B——, farmers upon the estate of Lord Lister, near Massingham, in the county of Norfolk. They are described as good-sized, handsome men, and swarthy, with long black hair, combed over their shoulders. They dress in the old gipsy stylish fashion, with a green cut-away, or Newmarket, coat, yellow leather breeches, buttoned to the knee, and top boots, with a gipsy hat, ruffled breast, and turned down collar. . . They are proud of being gipsies."
The conventional stage "gypsy" dress was found by Mr. Crofton, some years ago, to be as follows:—"A broad-brimmed wide-awake, from which drooped a dissipated peacock's feather; a yellow doublet, a frowsy red cloak to be thrown over the shoulders; loose maroon knee-breeches and coarse sacking gaiters to be crossed with red-and-yellow garters far from new."† It may be added that the great-grandfather of one of Mr. Groome's gypsies, who—when in
* "Lave-lil," pp. 282, 291, 294, and 295.
† See "The Academy" of 15th April, 1876 (p. 356).
full dress—used to wear "a high hat," and brown gloves, "always wore breeches and leggings." Mr. Leland corroborates Mr. Simson as to the gypsy love for green coats: "Till within a few years in great Britain... their fondness for green coats amounted to a passion." The same writer states that all true gypsy men "delight in a bright yellow neckerchief, and a red waistcoat." He also says that they are equally fond of velveteen coats: and when wearing himself "a broad, soft felt hat," he encountered one of the Lees at Aberystwith, that gypsy patriarch said to him... "When I was still young, a few of the oldest Romany chals still wore hats such as you have; and when I first looked at you, I thought of them."
These descriptions vary a little; and they probably portray the fashions of many grades of gypsydom. The battered Roger Wildrake who figures as the gypsy of the stage, differs considerably from those "booted and silver-spurred" cavaliers who, mounted on high-bred horses, and wearing cloaks of scarlet or green, and dressed in all the bravery of the seventeenth century, thronged our English lanes on the day of some great gathering. And those two Romanes-speaking Bosville ladies of last century, "dressed all in silks and satins," must also have belonged to the very highest caste.
Their manner of dressing is quite a sufficient proof that those tory cavaliers carried full purses. A man who—like the grandfather of Silvanus Lovell—rode to the race-course with forty pounds in his pocket (equivalent to a much larger sum now), to be lost or doubled in betting, must have been a man of some substance. People who buttoned their garments with gold coins must have carried a good many of such coins loose in their purses. And Mr. Leland gives direct evidence of considerable wealth when he records what one of his gypsy friends told him. They were speaking of a custom which it seems that some of those "tories" have not even yet given up—a custom that is one of the oldest in our islands—that of burying the valuables of the dead along with them. (Our antiquaries speak of them as "grave-goods," and they are disinterred, at intervals, from our ancient places of sepulture.) "Dighton told me the other day," says this gypsy, "that three thousand pounds were
hidden [buried] with one of the Chilcotts. And I have heard of some Stanleys who were buried with gold rings on their fingers." The latter sentence, though not quite irrelevant, does not speak to the possession of great wealth; but a Chilcott who had three thousand pounds was plainly a man who could afford to dress in the finest cavalier style (assuming, of course, that the idea of merely using the interest of his money had never entered into his calculations). The "gypsy" Ingrams and Woods who settled in Wales in the beginning of last century were assuredly rich people; "... near Aberystwith some of them bought little estates... They were supposed to be in possession of abundance of gold, when taking these places; they were thought gentlefolks of in those days." One of the Lees, who died at Beaulieu, Hampshire, in 1844, at the age of eighty-six, "and who some years before had given his grandchild Charity one hundred spade-guineas and much silver plate for dower," must certainly have been possessed of a good deal of wealth in his lifetime, whether or not any of it was buried with him.* And when a modern writer, speaking of the custom of destroying the goods of the dead, immediately after the funeral, states that everything is destroyed with the exception of coin or jewels, he indirectly testifies that coins and jewels are not even yet dissociated from gypsydom. We have seen how far back this association reaches in North Britain; since John [the faw], Earl of Little Egypt, was possessed—in the year 1540—of "divers sums of money, jewels, clothes and other goods, to the quantity of a great sum of money." A century before him, again, we recognized a veritable gypsy king in the chief of the black Douglases; who was not only the most powerful man (at one time) north of the Borders, possessed of an army and a court of his own—but who minted "Douglas coins" for the use of himself and those of his nationality.
However, we are at present considering the gypsies of Central and Southern Britain; during recent times; times as recent as the early part of this century, when—on the occasion of some great gathering—the lanes were "crowded
* For notices of these facts, see Mr. Leland's "English Gipsies," page 59; and pages 126 and 198 of Mr. Groome's "In Gipsy Tents."
with Romané—Lovells and Boswells and Stanleys and Hernes and Chilcotts." And the costly nature of their dress, with its gay appearance, is recorded by one of them still living; now an old man. That this magnificent style of dressing should have been reserved for special occasions seems evident. It was characteristic of many of Mr. Simson's high-caste Scotch gypsies of last century that they dressed plainly—even meanly—on ordinary occasions; carrying their fine clothes in a "pad" strapped to the back, and exchanging these for their commoner garments when they thought fit to do so. An example of this practice is afforded by a southern Scotchwoman of the seventeenth century, whom Mr. Simson, senior, would most likely have denominated a "gypsy," had he been born a century earlier. This was a Lady Margaret Jardine, who is thus described by a descendant of her sister*:
"She generally wore rags; but carried, when visiting, articles of finery in a napkin, which she would slip on before she entered the house."
That this was akin to the usage of the families spoken of above (although "rags" is not likely a term that would have described their every-day dress)—is most likely, for two reasons. The one is that those features of their dress which so emphatically indicate their pedigree would not have permitted their pedigree to be lost sight of, if they had been accustomed to wear such attire every day of their lives. The other is that the gypsy writers—by several passages—show that it was by no means the custom of these people to "dress up" unless when about to pay a visit or attend some great festival—whether a fair, a race meeting, or a wake; and that their descendants seem still to act upon this principle. The representative gypsy who is introduced upon the first page of *In Gipsy Tents* did not wear his "yellow silk neckerchief, brown velveteen coat with crown-piece buttons," and "red waistcoat with spade guinea dittos" except as "holiday attire;" although his every-day dress perhaps included one or other of these articles. And those gypsies (mentioned in the *Encyclopædia*) who turned out to do honour to the Queen when she visited
* See Mark Napier's "Memorials &c. of John Graham of Claverhouse," Vol. I. p. 253. The "descendant" referred to was Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe.
Dunbar some years ago—the men in scarlet coats, the women in silk and velvet—assumed these dresses for that exceptional occasion; returning them to their wardrobes thereafter, as being too good for daily wear.
Had the attire that old Lovell speaks of been the *daily* dress of his near ancestors, their pedigree could never have been lost sight of. There is only one caste in English history that distinctly claims them as its members—and them in preference to any other division of modern Englishmen—the "Cavaliers" of the seventeenth century. That section of the nomadic classes which bears the name of "Romané"* is little else than a society of seventeenth-century Englishmen projected into this present age,—or, at any rate, into the dawn of this present century. Those Lovells, Boswells, Stanleys, Hernes, and Chilcotts, who—booted and spurred, and with gay-coloured cloaks and doublets of velvet and satin, and with feathers waving in their high-crowned sombreros, beneath which streamed the long tresses of their race,—clattered along our English lanes to attend those old-fashioned race-meetings with which they are even yet identified, were living embodiments of the men who followed the Charleses and Prince Rupert, at Edgehill or at Worcester. And if the ideas of the Second Charles and his kinsmen were paramount in this present year, then the "gentle Romané" would still be "thought gentlefolks of," as some of them were in Wales last century. That the ideas of Charles II. were the ideas of the people whom we call "gypsies," and who were called "tories" by an earlier generation, is quite evident. The Parliamentarians, whose ideas have mainly triumphed in the long run, enacted laws against all those things with which "gypsies" are most identified:—cock-fighting, bull-fighting, bear-baiting, dicing, itinerant acting, and minstrelsy. All these things were the delight of the Cavaliers; and with the Restoration the laws against them were rescinded or ignored. One who writes of this period states that "England, during the reigns of
* It is most necessary to discriminate in speaking of "gypsies." And the people called Romané or Romani, although forming the very essence of gypsydom, must not be confounded with the thousands of unmodernized hybrids who only possess a slight trace of that blood.
James I. and his immediate successors, presented two different forms of national life, character, and customs, as if they had belonged to two entirely different and even hostile races."* And this statement strikes deeper than its author knew.
It cannot be assumed or maintained that, at so recent a period as the seventeenth century, the British Islands formed the scene of a struggle between two "entirely different" races. But it does seem most likely that, on either side, there was a background which was totally dissimilar from that of the opposite side; and not only dissimilar in ideas, but in blood as well. Such a man as Rochester, although he is said to have publicly performed as a mountebank on a stage at Tower Hill, and to have gone "a-roaming" on several occasions along with his king, may not have been at all a "gypsy" by blood, and only partly one by habit. But if not one himself, his vassals were of "the black breed" (to use Grose's words); as the "Black Will" incident, in his episode with Dryden, clearly shows. If the pure Romani were not Cavaliers, in the highest acceptation, they were Freebooters;—at a time when a "freebooter" was "a cavalier who ventures life for gain." If the majority of the Cavalier leaders were "fair whites" (although Charles the Second and Prince Rupert were at least Melanochroi), the majority of their followers must have been genuine gypsies. It seems necessary to go back a hundred and fifty years from the era of the Civil Wars, to find a uniform tendency towards gypsyism in the features of the ruling class of England. That we do not see this likeness, in an intensified form, at an earlier period, is only the effect of the shortness of our vision. If Holbein had lived a century earlier, and had left us the portraits of the aristocrats of Galloway who would have been his contemporaries, we should then have the actual canvas representation of a gypsy aristocracy. But, if the whole Cavalier section was not composed exclusively—or only partially composed—of genuine gypsies, at least its ways and sympathies were entirely gypsy. Had the country never adopted any other ideas than those which Charles the Second favoured, old Lovell would have had no cause to
* "The Comprehensive History of England;" Vol. II. p. 620.
lament the advent of the policeman, and the social laws which he carries out.
That those Chilcotts, Lovells, and others are the least-altered descendants of the Cavaliers—and, through them, of that "ancient nobility of the country" which filled the fifteenth century with bloodshed and rapine—is evident from all their ways. And the gypsy writers who have so placed them before our eyes give us a representation of archaic life that is infinitely more lifelike and picturesque than those which we have hitherto possessed. For those gypsy cavaliers are real men; compared with whom the fictitious "cavaliers" of Kenilworth, Woodstock, and the stage, are so many bloodless marionettes. In regarding the high-caste gypsies, we must dismiss all the lower orders from our minds, for the moment. And those pure-blooded Romanys are distinctly a handsome race. "Their complexion is dark, but not disagreeably so; their faces are oval, their features regular, their foreheads rather low, and their hands and feet small. The men are taller than the English peasantry, and far more active, they all speak the English language with fluency, and in their gait and demeanour are easy and graceful; in both respects standing in striking contrast with the peasantry, who in speech, are slow and uncouth, and in manner dogged and brutal." This is how they appeared to Borrow, whatever they may be like at the present day. And it is evident that, like their horses, they were thorough-bred. If there is one thing more apparent than another, it is the racial pride of the genuine gypsy. A man like Grose, speaking as one of the successful party—the white section—might talk of them as "the black breed;" but it is this very "black blood" that the true Romani are so proud of. So invincible is this pride that it has survived generations of defeat and persecution; so that, even in this century, such a gypsy could be found as Ryley Bosville who "used to say that if any of his people became Gorgios he would kill them." If Grose himself had ever heard his special division of Englishmen spoken of as plainly by their opponents as these were characterized by him, he would have learned with surprise that the blood which he possessed was regarded as the inferior strain. And certainly, to an unbiased onlooker, Grose—who was the
personification of the "slow and uncouth" Englishman—was a vastly poorer specimen of the human animal than those "easy and graceful" cavaliers described by Borrow.
These, then, were the kind of men that the belated Scotchman encountered in the woods of Cambridgeshire. And if that night-scene was not a realization of a Cavalier camp in the seventeenth century, it is difficult to conceive another nearer the truth. In all England there was no more thoroughly English scene than that. The men themselves, their names, their dresses, their songs, their dances,—all were as completely "old English" as they could possibly have been. And most genuinely "cavalier." Whether throughout that night of revelry, or as they appeared at other times—backing a prize-fight or a race—or acting the chief parts in either—these were typical Cavaliers.
Borrow's sketch at the horse-fair makes one feel how it is that those men were remembered as "Riders;" men who sat their horses "like gulls upon the waves." This knowledge—and all the knowledge we possess regarding these people—fills this "Cavalier" picture with life and colour. A lithe and graceful race, full of the wildest impulses—fierce and vindictive, yet generous and brave,—passionate and proud, but often melting into laughter and music—altogether the strangest compound of good and bad that ever any human society presented. But—good or bad—they are real, warm-blooded men, and not lay-figures, as with waving feathers and silken vests, brilliant garments and costly jewels, black eyes flashing from dusky faces, and long tresses floating out behind, they go jangling along, with much racket and laughter, through the green lanes of England.
What has been said with regard to the Douglases, Ruthvens, and others of Scotland, is equally applicable to the Cavalier surnames of England. It is not until we look at the black Douglases of modern Yetholm, or those of many centuries back, that we see the name of "Douglas" indicating an actual national, or family type. And the distinct inference is that such people are the purest specimens of their race; their modernized and hybrid namesakes being representative of no special British type. So also with their more southern
kindred. "A Lovell," "a Stanley," "a Leigh,"* conveys no ethnological meaning whatever, unless one regards the tory sections of these clans. It may be necessary, in individual cases, to go back three, five, or ten centuries, to find the date at which a particular Leigh, Stanley, or Lovell lost caste among his kinsfolk by intermarrying with the despised white race, and adopting their ways. The people who regard the "cavalier" tribes as "pariahs," and interlopers of a few centuries back, have assumed that they borrowed their famous names from the people whom they used to detest (and are scarcely reconciled to even yet). The idea is manifestly absurd. That a Ryley Bosville, or a "black Lovel," permeated through and through with the pride of race and the memory of bye-gone power, should adopt the surname of the inferior caste, was the unlikeliest thing in the world. But the facts already stated prove that their claims to such surnames are trebly stronger than those of any mixed-blood bearing the same name. It may, or may not be that the settled and modernized families who bear such names are accustomed to regard themselves as of "Cavalier" origin. If they do, the two or three centuries suggested will bring them to an ancestor who was a typical representative of his name. Dickens says that the farther back a pedigree goes, the more do its members show themselves addicted to "violence and vagabondism." In some families it may be necessary to go back the whole ten centuries suggested, to find this resemblance. But all history bears out the truth of Dickens' statement; and even in the seventeenth-century "violence and vagabondism" were among the characteristics of one division of British aristocracy.
Although many of the most prominent features of extinct aristocracies are more clearly seen in the physique and the habits of our nomadic, and even criminal classes, than in any more respectable section of the community, it must be re-
* This spelling seems to be the more correct. It has been pointed out by one or other of the gypsy writers that the equivalent of "Lee" in Romanes signifies a "leek." And that, consequently, this suggests that the translation dates from the time when "Leigh" was pronounced with a guttural termination (still surviving, in a modified form, as "Leake"). "Lee," indeed, appears to be generally regarded as a modern spelling of "Leigh," or "Legh."
membered that these nomads and others represent little more than the frame-work of former systems. "Gypsydom" is like a half-dried river-bed, out of which the main stream has long been turned,—to flow with increasing strength along a newer channel: it is a heap of skeleton-leaves, strewn upon the ground, retaining the original structure, but without the original life,—while overhead the growing tree is throwing out a fuller foliage every spring. So that these people remind us both of what we have been and of what we are. For, if the term is to include the Xanthochroic type, as well as one or more of darker hue, then even the presumably-white citizens, scholars, and farmers of a previous time were only early-civilized "gypsies." And, again, if that word ought to signify the dark-skinned types alone, then our modern "gypsies" still show us what we have been. For we are mostly Melanochroi. And the many varieties of the dark-skinned stocks are seen, not only under tents and in caravans, but among all the ranks of civilized people. Even the least picturesque variety of all—that of the prize-fighter, the "old-fashioned gypsy 'bruiser'"—may be seen, again and again, refined and civilized as highly as any other type, among the heterogeneous masses of educated Britons.
And our whole atmosphere is impregnated with gypsyism. The scarlet cloaks that even Washington Irving regarded as peculiar to a limited few had been common in English country districts so lately as 1782, and are still, I believe, worn by the peasantry of some parts of Ireland. That colour is still the distinctive colour of the British army: the scarlet coats of the "gypsies" may be seen any day in the hunting-field and on the golf-links—as if to remind one that these people were the passionate lovers of these as of all other "Old English" sports. "Lincoln green" and "Kendal green"—supposed also to be "gypsy"—is the uniform colour of many of our oldest societies—"Scottish Archers," "Ancient Orders of Foresters," and others. Plain as our style of dressing now is, we yet retain a lingering love of showy dress—even in men—which we reserve for occasions of high ceremonial. We still keep up a slight distinction between City and Court, and the latter is still so far nomadic that wherever the monarch goes there is the Court. We hold it a crime to take by
force the goods and lands of individuals; but to "annex" the territory of other nations, by right of superior strength, is quite justifiable. "Prince Rupert's Land" is strong enough evidence that we have inherited some of Prince Rupert's ideas. We do not go to war with each other in armies of a few hundreds, or a few thousands; but we occasionally fight other nations with armies of tenfold magnitude. We are as ready to resent the infringement of a frontier as ever any eighteenth-century Pict of Galloway. Only our frontier is immensely wider. We have, in short, expanded: in power, in knowledge, in ideas. But many of our qualities—though modified—are those of earlier Faws and Cavaliers. In a thousand peculiarities of feature and of custom, we prove ourselves to be only modernized "gypsies."
CHAPTER XI.
The effects that heathen domination has had upon the early Christianity of Europe are too numerous and of too intricate a nature to be entered into here, or to be enlarged upon by any but one who has studied the matter. Since, however, the supremacy—within recent times—of "gypsy" castes must have signified also a supremacy of this kind in the world of religion, it becomes necessary to refer, however slightly, to this point.
We learn, accordingly, that this very "gypsy" domination in religion was one of the causes that strongly influenced the Reformer Knox, in his movement of revolt. We are told that, in sixteenth-century Scotland, "inferior benefices were openly put to sale, or bestowed on the illiterate and unworthy minions of courtiers; on dice-players, strolling bards, and the bastards of bishops." Now, three, at least, of these designations—courtiers, dice-players, and strolling bards—indicate the very gypsies of whom we have been speaking. More than this, the short description of the quasi-religious world of that time and place, as given in the book just quoted from (McCrie's Life of John Knox), would lead an ordinary observer to suspect that the Scotch expression, "black prelacy," was something more than a mere phrase. Indeed, in a letter which was written to Henry the Eighth by a Caithness "clerk," named John Elder,—the main theme of which is a proposal to drive out, or exterminate, the Scotch bishops and their adherents; and to add Scotland to King Henry's dominions—in this letter the writer speaks of those "bishops, monks, Rome-rykers, and priests" as though they were of quite a different stock from himself, a large section of his compatriots, and the English king to whom he was writing. And he points out the lineage of those bishops and others in these words: they "derive Scotland [the word] and themselves from a certain lady, named Scota, which (as they allege) came out of Egypt." That is to say, he plainly classifies a certain ruling caste (chiefly, though not wholly, composed of priests) as Scots Proper or Egyptians. This letter, which was written to the Tudor king, "knowing what true faithful hearts the most part of the commons of Scotland (if they durst speak), beyond the water of Forth, have to your highness," is included in the Collectanea de Rebus Albanicis (pp. 23-32): and it is interesting in many ways; of which not the least interesting is this indication of community of feeling, if not of blood, between two widely separated sections of British people, at a period that ante-dated the elevation of James of Scotland by fully sixty years. And equally important is the recognition of Scotland south of the Forth as a country not in sympathy with Scotland Proper: while the formal admission that the priestly hierarchy was composed of men descended from quite another race than the writer,—and that race "Egyptian,"—is a statement of the greatest significance. Here it is distinctly asserted that the sixteenth-century priesthood of Scotland (not that priesthood of which Elder himself was a member, but an over-ruling order, whose ranks were recruited from gypsy-minstrels)—derived its descent, by right of blood, from the Scots of Early Scotia (now Ireland), who drew their descent from "Scota, the daughter of a Pharaoh."
It is unnecessary to repeat what has formerly been said as to the links that unite the Early Scots with the Egyptians. But, in regarding more especially the religious side of the question, the following remarks made by Mr. Moncure D. Conway are not out of place. In an article on The Saint Patrick Myth, and referring to the tradition that "Gadelas, grandson of the Pharaoh who pursued Israel," had conquered Ireland, and established therein his posterity (thenceforward known as the Gaidheal, or Gaels)—in referring to this and other relative legends, Mr. Conway says: "It appears incredible that this vast mass of traditions, many of which are not Biblical, but nearly all pointing to Egyptian and Jewish regions, could have been invented since the introduction of the Bible into Ireland. It seems tolerably certain that, anterior to the Christianization of Ireland, there were in Ireland
eastern myths closely resembling those of the papyri, and that the stories of the Bible found there a congenial soil." * This opinion is quite in accordance with the statements made in a former chapter with regard to the existence in Early Scotia (Ireland) of emblems, rites, and words whose origin must be looked for in the East. This, however, is a question which can only be alluded to in these pages.
But what Elder leads one to infer is, that the Scotch bishops of the year 1542 were not of his own or Henry Tudor's (Theodore's) race: and that they themselves derived their descent from "Scota, an Egyptian lady,"—the traditional ancestress of those Scots Proper, who, along with the Painted-Moors ("black herds of Picts and Scots"), are seen "committing depredations" in various parts of Great Britain during the earlier centuries of the Christian era. If the majority of those prelates of three hundred years ago were really descended from the invading hosts of Early-Scots, it is probable that they were also the posterity of other British races, of various dates; and that their resemblance to the conventional "Egyptian" did not extend much farther than the high cheek bones, long upper lip, and lank, black hair, that characterized the South-British "courtiers" of the same period. And that each of these classes, priests and courtiers, were only connected "on one side of the house" with the gypsy-minstrels and irreclaimable "Egyptians" of their time.
As if to bear out this view, it is affirmed by other writers that Mendicant Friars and Abraham-men—both of which orders are included under the title gypsy—are not visible as a source of public annoyance until the dissolution of the Monasteries by Henry the Eighth had thrown them upon the country for support.† Grose's patricoes or patter-coves,
* "The Saint Patrick Myth:" North American Review, October, 1883.
It may be remarked here that to admit the identity of the Gaidheal with the Ancient Egyptians is to admit the correctness of Dr. Skene's statement that the Early Scots and the Early Gaels were one and the same people: which was called in question on an earlier page.
† At first sight, this insinuated kinship between Henry the Eighth and a class or community that was antagonistic to those self-styled "Egyptian" bishops, may appear to conflict with the statement that the aristocracy of England, during Henry the Eighth's reign and prior to it, bore a certain resemblance to the orthodox "gypsy" type: with which type their way of living connects them, if
who are classed by him as part of "the canting-crew," and whose ceremonial is that assigned by Simson to gypsy-priests, are Mendicant Priests. It is true that their rites do not appear to be connected in any way with Christianity. But are we to say that Carleton's Irish gypsy-priest was "a Christian" because he used to ensure the safety of his followers, here and hereafter, by the simple expedient of tattooing a cross into their skin: that emblem being now-a-days regarded as peculiarly Christian? Whatever may have been the original belief and practice of the early Roman mendicant-priests, it is at least certain that the latest visible members of such a nomadic order were the Romany mendicant-priests: who, like those beneficed clergymen against whom Knox protested, were also "dice-players and strolling bards."
Indeed, the distinction between Christianity and Heathenism seems to have been rather ill-defined at the period of the Reformation, and previously. We have been told that, in thirteenth-century Norfolk, the nominally-Christian priests of that district used to regard as one of their most sacred duties that of keeping alive "the eternal flame" in a small lamp which hung above the altar, and which was never suffered to go out. That such priests, though avowedly celibates, made no more pretensions to sustain that character than any of Mr. Simson's Scottish gypsy-priests may be accounted to be a fact of comparatively little moment. But this duty of sustaining a sacred flame, night and day, while it connects this priesthood with those of Persia and Peru, has really no connection whatever with Christianity. And the people of the district in which those thirteenth-century priests officiated are described as living precisely after the fashion of gypsy tribes.*
It does not prove them to have been of genuine "gypsy" stock. But Henry the Eighth did not belong to the same breed as his courtiers, if the popular portrait of him is anything like the original. Besides, he is stated to have been a near descendant of a brewer in Beaumaris, Anglesey (of the name of Owen Theodore): and his family only rose into importance in the fifteenth century—the era in which the Black-Douglasses and Gordons of Scotland became landless "gypsies," and "the larger proportion of the ancient nobility" of England were killed or overthrown.
* "Village Life in Norfolk Six Hundred Years Ago:" Rev. Dr. Jessopp; Nineteenth Century, February, 1883.
Even in the seventeenth century the professed teachers of Christianity do not seem to have freed themselves altogether from pagan notions; if one is to accept as a faithful likeness the sketch of a Jesuit priest which is given in a recent study of that period—John Inglesant. In that book it is stated that Father St. Clare (a fictitious character, but intended to represent the Jesuit order of his day) was a master of the science of astrology, in which he instructed his pupil. Now, no modern clergyman of that order, although he might take up the study of astronomy, would ever think of teaching the art of divination by the stars. Neither did an early British apostle of Christianity, such as Columba, preach any such belief: although it formed an important feature of druidism, the creed of the Pictish Magi. Again, in one of the folk-tales of the south of Scotland, it is mentioned that the mode by which the pastor of a parish—in one instance—defended himself and one of his flock from the Powers of Evil was by drawing a circle around them, praying as he did so; much as any "gypsy" Magus might have done. And, though the precise date of this traditional story may not be known, there would be nothing extraordinary in a Scotch clergyman of the sixteenth century, although nominally Christian, following this or any other "gypsy" ceremonial, if he happened to be one of those "dice-players and strolling bards," whose appointment as teachers of the Christian religion was so strongly objected to by the Scotch Reformers.
The fact seems to be that at no time in their history have these islands been exclusively Christian (even using that term in its least exact acceptation). To what extent British Druidism has affected British Christianity may be left an open question. But Druidism, pure and simple, has maintained its hold upon the British people with the most wonderful tenacity. It is more than thirteen hundred years since Columba began his campaign against the paganism of the "Moorish" Magi (or Druids); and yet that paganism is not extinct yet, but asserts itself every now and then—though in an attenuated form—among the more ignorant classes. When Patrick and Columba attempted to gain over to Christianity the heathen kings of Ireland and of Scotland, these chiefs sought counsel of their "Magi" and enchanters and
soothsayers and doctors," who—"with many incantations" sought to overcome the teachers of the newer faith. Some of the beliefs of these "enchanters and soothsayers" are alluded to in the poem attributed to Columba, in which he says—
"I adore not the voice of birds,
Nor the sreod, nor a destiny on the earthly world,
Nor a son, nor chance, nor woman;
My Drui is Christ the son of God."
And yet these very things,—omens, such as the flight of birds and the sreod (sneezing), and "luck,"*—are still believed in by many people; and in every newspaper one reads of servant-girls who have been entangled in the meshes of the dusky "soothsayers" that still foretell events by the aid of "the host of heaven." We have seen† that, in the first century of the Christian era, the swarthy, curly-haired, and painted Silurians were described as a people who "worshipped the gods, and both men and women professed a knowledge of the future;" and that the Druidesses of the Isle of Sena, off the French coast, "had power over the winds, which they were in the practice of selling to credulous mariners." And although "these unfortunate damsels fell at last victims to the sanguinary system of persecution to which the votaries of bardism were everywhere subjected" (after Christianity, so-called, had become paramount), yet the crusade against "witchcraft" did not begin or end with them. Scott has told us how—only last century—a Druidess in the Orkneys earned a livelihood by exactly the same means as those earlier
* One obtains several glimpses of those heathen "Magi" in the second volume of "Celtic Scotland" (Chapter III.); out of which these brief extracts are taken. In that chapter, the identity of Druid with Magus (i.e. wizard) is clearly shown: an identity already indicated in these pages. Such omens as the flight of birds, and sneezing, are still believed in, to some extent, by the uneducated portions of the community: the latter, notably, in Ireland; and the former in Scotland, where the signification of "the flight of birds" (more especially, of crows) is expressed in a popular rhyme—
One's joy:
Two's grief:
Three's a marriage:
Four's death.
† Book I., Chapter III., ante.
sisters of hers in the Isle of Sena. And James the First (of Great Britain)—in whose reign a "cavalier" * became equivalent to a "thief"—waged a most bitter war against "sorcerers," whom he classed with these same cavaliers or sorners, and bards and Egyptians.
Between the Druidess of the first century, who prognosticated by the aid of the planets (on the understanding that she was to receive payment for her divination), and the Druidess of the present day, who foretells by the same aids and on a like basis, there is a great distance of time. But a racial connection is quite visible between them. The former were of the swarthy, curly-haired, and painted race that is known as Silurian. The latter belong to a swarthy, ci-devant painted people—one division of which is described as "curly-haired." And, although the space that intervenes between these is very great, it can no doubt be filled up. The Druids of the North-British kinglets, who figured in the Columban episodes, belong to the sixth century. Those Druidesses of the Isle of Sena are said to have been burned at the stake by "Conan, Duke of Bretagne;" whose era was, apparently, mediæval. And Mr. Borrow tells us that a celebrated Welsh bard, Dafydd ab Gwilym, was married by a Druid priest of, probably, his own race; the time being the fourteenth century. We are informed that the poet was married "beneath the greenwood tree by one Madawg Benfras, a bard and a great friend of Ab Gwilym. The joining of people's hands by bards (continues Mr. Borrow), which was probably a relic of Druidism, had long been practised in Wales, and marriages of this kind were generally considered valid, and seldom set aside."†
This incident brings into view one of the surest tests of the longevity of Druidism. The marriage ceremonial is one of those things that bring out the innate conservatism of one's nature, where that is found in any appreciable degree. People, as a rule, prefer to be married after the same fashion as their forefathers. Now, the above paragraph has told us that "the joining of people's hands by bards" "had long been practised in Wales" at the date of Ab Gwilym's marriage.
* Or rather, the "cavalier who ventured life for gain."
† "Wild Wales," Vol. III. Chapter XVIII.
—some time in the fourteenth century. And the bards of Wales (not to speak of the bardic caste in general) are the "gypsies" of Wales.* That the authority of such gypsy-priests has survived into this century may be seen in the references already made to the priest of Coldstream, "Patie Moodie," who performed the ceremony of marriage in the case of the late David Blythe, and perhaps also in his sister's; as well as in many other instances,† among the neighbouring peasantry. The preference shown by the southern Scotch and Borderers for such a mode of marrying, is further seen in the reference made by the Galloway writer to a caste of priests known in that district (and about the same period as Patie Moodie), as "auld boggies." "People are said to be married in an owre boggie manner, or to have an owre boggie wedding when they do not go through the regular forms prescribed by the national kirk. . . . Those who plot in secret are called auld boggie sowk; and displaced priests, who used to bind people contrary to the canon laws, . . . were designated auld boggies."‡ And, again, we are told that—"In the upper part of Eskdale, at the confluence of the White and Black Esk, was held an annual fair, where multitudes of each sex repaired. The unmarried looked out for mates, made their engagements by joining hands, or by hand-fisting, went off in pairs, cohabited till the next annual return of the fair, appeared there again, and then were at liberty to declare their approbation or dislike of each other. If each party continued constant the hand-fisting was renewed for life; but if either party dissented, the engagement
* "The Eisteddfods of Wales have witnessed the triumphs of gipsy harpists; and hundreds have been charmed by the concerts of the Roberts family, not knowing they were hearing a gipsy band." (Encyc. Brit. 9th edition, art. "Gipsies.")
† "A report, however, had only that afternoon reached the ringleaders, to the effect that Jock Telfer, a young tailor, had on the previous evening made a runaway marriage at Coldstream Bridge—a refuge for lovers which was only less famous than Gretna Green." (Eastern's E'en in Scotland Forty Years Ago; a sketch of local manners in the Merse [once the marsh-lands] of Berwickshire, in the early part of the present century.)
‡ Scottish Gallovidian Encyclopedia, p. 369. Mactaggart adds (somewhat provocingly)—"There was an ancient song, I believe, of the name of the Owre Boggie burned at Edinburgh in the turbulent times; this song is lost, so think the antiquaries."
was void, and both were at full liberty to make a new choice."
Such priests as Mactaggart's "auld boggies" were likely akin to the patricoes or patter-coves of Grose: who are described by him as "strolling priests that marry people under a hedge without gospel or common prayer book." And Grose's priests belong to "the canting crew," or gypsydom. The more sedentary "Patie Moodie," of Coldstream Bridge, might have been accounted less distinctly a "gypsy," had it not been for the fact that he officiated at the wedding of the late Faw chief, David Blythe; whose sister, Esther, was also "tied" at the same place, whether by the same "Druid" or not. This man Moodie seems to resemble closely such a priest as the fourteenth-century Madawg Benfras of Wales, who is remembered as having "tied" the celebrated minstrel Ab Gwilym to his spouse. The patricoes, again, may have gone through a ceremony more like that detailed by Mr. Simson, in his History. While the hand-fasting (or hand-fisting) custom, referred to above, appears to have been independent of any priesthood; and to be very much like the marriage ceremony of Mr. Borrow's favourite tribes, the Smiths and their connections. When Ursula is married to Lancelot Lovel, the pair simply "take each other's words" (which is really the kernel of all marriage ceremonies).
These marriages, it must be remembered, were quite serious compacts; and people so united were united almost indissolubly. Ursula, in "The Romany Rye," regards the usual Christian form as something not to be spoken of in the same breath with that act of "taking each other's words" which she and her tribe regarded as constituting the most sacred union. And Mr. Simson tells us of a Fifeshire gypsy, Thomas Ogilvie, who viewed such ceremonies in much the same light. "On one occasion, when a couple of respectable individuals were married, in the usual Scottish Presbyterian manner, at Elie in Fife, Ogilvie, gipsy-like, laughed at such a wedding ceremony, as being, in his estimation, no way binding on the parties. He at the same time observed that, if they would come to him, he would marry them in the Tinkler manner,
* Jenkinson's "Guide to Carlisle, &c." The statement is quoted from "Hutchinson."
which would make it a difficult matter to separate them again."
"The joining of people's hands by bards . . . . had long been practised in Wales [prior to the fourteenth century], and marriages of this kind were generally considered valid, and seldom set aside." And although the example cited, Ab Gwilym's, happened to be one of those exceptions to the rule, it is probable that the officiating bard, and others of that race never admitted the validity of the divorce. It is important to notice that such marriages were evidently regarded as valid by all fourteenth-century Welshmen; not only by those of earlier stock, but by the later Norman and Dutch colonists who, presumably, observed different rites. And this recognition of the validity of "gypsy" marriages, even by non-gypsies, has continued down to the present time—if the Border marriages should be found to be based upon gypsyism. It appears that people are even yet married at Gretna, and that there were—in 1875—"half-a-dozen people who had acted the part of priests" in that particular locality; of whom one "seems to have married more than all the rest put together." This man's father and grandfather had occupied the same position; which would lead one to inquire into their ancestry. It would also be interesting to know what kind of people availed themselves of this ancient custom, so recently as 1875.*
Not only have ceremonies of this nature "been long practised in Wales," and on the Borders, and in Galloway, but they have also been common in other parts of Great Britain, and are probably still existent. Grose tells us of those
* The statements regarding Gretna are made in Mr. Jenkinson's "Guide to Carlisle."
There can be no doubt that Gretna, like Coldstream and Lamberton Toll, was often used by run-away lovers from the south, merely because it was north of the Borders, and because such marriages were recognized by Scotch—though not by English law. But this does not explain why the peasantry of The Merse, which is not in England, travelled to Coldstream Bridge, in order to get "tied" by Patie Moodie—in place of their parish minister; or why the Faws of Yetholm did the same thing. The real explanation seems to lie in the fact that these places were all situated on the Border line; and that, therefore, they represent the last vestiges of the religion of that Border Kingdom, regarding whose inhabitants it was said:—"They are called moss-troopers, because dwelling in the mosses, and riding in troops together. They dwell in the bounds, or meeting, of the two kingdoms, but obey the laws of neither."
"strolling priests that marry people under a hedge [or "beneath the greenwood tree," as Borrow more poetically puts it] without gospel or common prayer book"; but he also tells us that, in the army—or, in certain regiments of the army—a marriage ritual of a like nature was in vogue. Now, the army has its archaeology, like any other society of old standing; and those of its regiments that have anything of a pedigree are the lineal representatives of certain races;* some of whose customs probably still cling to the regiments or class of regiments that have succeeded them. So that when Grose informs us that in the army (or a portion of it) a ceremony, of which the chief feature was "leaping over the sword,"† was held to constitute an irrefragable marriage between the two chief parties, he points to what in all likelihood was a tribal rite. It is most probably the same ceremony that in less war-like portions of the community, took the form of "jumping over a broom-stick," or a pair of tongs‡; and in all these cases it was beyond doubt a ceremony of real and lasting importance, although the meaning of this now-eccentric performance has very likely been lost.
These are some of the many obsolete, or almost obsolete, marriage ceremonies that belonged to various British tribes. Scott tells us of another when he states that "the troth-plighting of the lower classes" in Orkney was observed by "joining hands through a circular hole in a sacrificial stone, which lies in the Orcadian Stonehenge, called the Circle of Stennis;" and as this ceremony was "considered as peculiarly binding," it was probably never followed by another, homologating it. Indeed, Norna of Fitful-head is made to
* This is more particularly pointed out in the Note appended to this chapter.
† There is a reference to this ceremony in a Scotch ballad of the eighteenth century—or earlier. The heroine of the ballad sketches the wedding scene in these words (the bridegroom being "a gentleman dragoon"):
"He led me to his quarter house,
Where we exchanged a word, laddie,
We had no use for black gowns there,
We married o'er the sword, laddie."
This ballad—known as "No Dominies for me, Laddie"—is given by Mr. W. H. Logan, in his "Pedlar's Pack of Ballads and Songs" (Edin. 1869).
‡ This employment of the tongs (and perhaps also of the sword and the broomstick) is popularly identified with "Tinkler" marriages in Scotland.
assert that this form (exemplified in her own case) constituted a wedding. And the original of Norna having been the Druidess who lived only a few miles from "the Orcadian Stonehenge," and from whom Scott gained the story of "The Pirate," she may have informed her illustrious visitor that her own wedding ceremony had been conducted in such a way. This ancient Druidess, who "sold winds" to sailors, like her mediæval prototypes in the Isle of Sena, or like her contemporaries, the "witches" of Lapland, is thus pictured by Sir Walter Scott:—"She herself was, as she told us, nearly one hundred years old, withered and dried up like a mummy. A clay-coloured kerchief, folded round her head, corresponded in colour to her corpse-like complexion. Two light-blue eyes that gleamed with a lustre like that of insanity, an utterance of astonishing rapidity, a nose and chin that almost met together, and a ghastly expression of cunning, gave her the effect of Hecate."* If the colour of this woman's eyes was not the opaque black of the Romany "witch," she was at least as much a "gypsy," in this particular, as the late Esther Blythe; whose skin was also no darker than that of this "clay-coloured" Druidess, and whose features, moreover, bore less resemblance to the "Meg Merrilies" type than those of this Northern sibyl.
Perhaps the marriage tie was never looser than among those tribes who had one name for "woman" and "mare," and who led their wives—with a halter round their necks—to Smithfield, where they sold them like cattle. The memory of this period is still preserved in every-day English by the twofold meaning of the word "jade"; and that this nomenclature also survives among the tory classes is illustrated by two of Mr. Groome's gypsies ("In Gipsy Tents;" pp. 175 and 180). The place that is most celebrated as a wife-market, Smithfield, is one of those districts which were the special abode of "Tinkers, called also Prigs," in the sixteenth-century (and before and after);† and it is likely among such people that this custom is still kept up. For it
* See Note G. appended to "The Pirate."
† The Smithfield of two or three centuries ago is spoken of as "Smithfield, with its world of cut-purses, drrolls, and 'motions';" which may be rendered "its world of 'prigs,' mountebanks, and merry-go-round men;" and, these, we have seen, are all, to some extent, of "gypsy" blood.
is not quite obsolete. Not that the halter, or a particular locality, seems now necessary; but the custom of selling wives is still occasionally recorded in our newspapers. And it is likely that there are many other cases which are not so recorded. The newspapers do not, perhaps, specify that the wife-buyers and wife-sellers are "gypsies;" but it is probable they are so. The practice of wife-beating is one that "Ursula," in "The Romany Rye," holds up as a "gypsy" custom; and she maintains that a man has—according to the ideas of her people—a perfect right to maltreat his wife, and that it is her duty to submit humbly to such maltreatment. From which one may infer that, in those districts where wife-beating is a common practice, and recognized as a marital right, the natives are, in a great measure, of gypsy blood. And it is not unlikely that the men who buy and sell their wives are also of the same lineage. It is often by chance that the newspapers record the "gypsy" blood of the perpetrator of actions of this kind. A recent incident that came under the notice of the present writer—the arrest of a young Aberdeenshire gypsy for bigamy (which was no crime to one of his ideas)—was only chronicled in some of the journals that took notice of it as the arrest of a "gypsy." And the omission of this particular made a vast difference in the character of the act. Had the bigamist been a man professing Christianity, and acknowledging unreservedly the laws of the United Kingdom, he would have been a "criminal." But if he belonged to such a clan as Marshall's, of Galloway; and since his attitude towards the laws of Modern-Britain was the attitude of the "tory"; then his act was perfectly justifiable in the eyes of those of his own caste.
Those several marriage customs* are so diverse in character that it is evident their origins are various. Between those
* It is probable there were many others. One of which, it has been already suggested, is still visible in the make-believe marriage that Scotch children are familiar with; referred to in Dr. Jamieson's Dictionary under the name "Merry-metanzie," and also referred to in these pages as "Jing-ga-ring"; both of which words, or combinations of words, occur in the chanted rhyme that accompanies the dance.
(The description given by Dr. Jamieson of this dance is very incomplete; and he confuses it with others of a like nature.)
of Borrow's "Romany," and the "Tinklers" of Simson, the difference is great. Those Lovels and Smiths (Petulengres) "take each other's words," without any priestly interposition; and the union is thenceforth regarded by each as inviolable. Moreover, such "gypsies" are monogamists; and, according to Borrow, the women certainly—and the men almost as certainly—evince the purest fidelity to their vows. With such "gypsies" as Marshall of Galloway, or some of the Fife-shire tribes, or those whom Grose describes, the case is different; and among these polygamy, or an intercourse vaguer still, is the rule. And in these latter instances the presence of a priest seems necessary, both in marriage and in divorce; although the husband himself could sometimes fill that office—when he happened to be of a particular caste.* Again, while some have been satisfied with "the greenwood tree" as a temple, others have required a sacred circle, such as the stones of Stennis. Ursula Lovel regards "a church" with contempt; but the moss-troopers of the Borders thought differently. "It is, or rather was, the custom of the tribes on the Borders of England and Scotland to attribute success to those journeys which are commenced by passing through the parish church; and they usually try to obtain permission from the beadle to do so when the church is empty, for the performance of divine service is not considered as essential to the omen." From which latter feature, Sir Walter Scott (who makes the foregoing statement in a note to "Quentin Durward") infers that these "tory" Borderers are "totally devoid of any effectual sense of religion;" although there are better grounds for arriving at the opposite conclusion, since such a form would never be gone through by people who did not regard a church with reverence. That they should prefer to make this procession when the building was not occupied by people of a different religion from their own was most natural and consistent.
* The Scotch word "dominie"—applied to teachers of religion as well as of secular knowledge, and signifying (radically) "a lord"—seems a survival of the rule of a Druidical or Brahminical caste. And the most recent Scottish examples of such a caste are found among Mr. Simson's eighteenth-century gypsy chiefs and chieftainesses. For many of these were not only priests and teachers—as the civilized "Dominies" were—but they were also secular rulers and hereditary nobles.
Of course, it may be doubted whether such a church as that through which the "tories" of Sir Walter Scott's youth were accustomed to pass, before starting upon an expedition, was such a "church" as that in which their own forefathers worshipped. This may be doubted: though the lineage assigned by Elder to the Scotch bishops of three hundred and forty years ago—the lineage of the "strolling bards" whom they enrolled into their priesthood—does not tend to dispel such doubts. Whether such churches were Christian or Heathen is a question that may be waived at present. But the earliest temples through which a "gypsy" tribe would pass, on the eve of battle or foray, was pretty surely of the same kind as that in which the Druidess, Norna, was supposed to have plighted her troth; namely, a sacred circle. The very word *circle* is assumed by some to be the progenitor of the word *church* (thus, *church*, *chirch*, *circ* or *kirk*, *cirque*): and a similar origin was assigned to the word *llan* or *lawn*, on a previous page. Such a church the "faw kirk" of the "painted blackamoors" of the Forth marshes most probably was. And such a "church" was that in the marshes of Cavan, in Ireland, in the centre of which, surrounded by his twelve subordinate idols, stood the golden figure of the *Crom Cruach*, who "was the God of all the people which possessed Erin till the coming of Padric." It was a church of this kind that those Highlanders had in view when they asked each other, of a Sunday, "Are you going to *the stones*?" Or rather, it was such a church that was intended *when the phrase originated*. For, if the origin assigned to the word *chirch*, or *kirk*, be correct, then those Highlanders who said, in Gaelic, "are you going to *the stones*?"—within recent times—are as little to be identified with the earliest worshippers among such "stones" as are those people who say "Are you going to *church*?" Since the two words (granting the correctness of the etymology) originally represented the same thing. And, as those stone circles were most probably used for that worship of the heavenly host, of which there are many evidences; and as one day was specially set apart for the worship of the sun; it would appear that the mere act of "going to church on Sunday" is a practice which is not distinctive of Christianity.
Vol. II.
Indeed, the earlier apostles of Christianity in Western Europe avowedly adopted many of the pre-existing heathen customs; and other such customs, introduced at later dates by later pagan invaders, have not yet lost hold of the British people. It has just been noticed that various marriage ceremonies, that are quite unconnected with Christianity, have been adhered to—in preference to others—by a large number of almost-modern Britons. And, even yet, it has never been satisfactorily explained why certain seasons are "lucky" or "unlucky" for the celebration of this rite. The month of May is still studiously avoided, and the eve of the New Year as carefully selected, in many districts of the country. Two hundred years ago Mr. Andrew Symson, the minister of the parish of Kirkinner, in Wigtownshire, noticed this preference for particular days and seasons among the peasantry of that district. "Their marriages (he says*) are commonly celebrated only on Tuesday or Thursdays. I myself have married neer 450 of the inhabitants of this country; all of which, except seaven, were married upon a Tuesday or Thursday. And it is look'd upon as a strange thing to see a marriage upon any other days; yea, and for the most part also, their marriages are all celebrated crescente luna." That these observances were founded upon lunar-worship, and the worship of Tyr and Thor, is most obvious. Similarly, the appearance at certain seasons of such things as the once-sacred plants of mistletoe and holly, and of emblems such as "Easter eggs" and "hot cross buns," argue a like origin. And the spring moon regulates the movable feasts of large sections of the Christian community.
The wandering patricoes, or hedge-priests, described by Grose are included by him as part of "the canting crew,"† or gypsydom. If gypsies of the orthodox complexion, those men were not only "mendicant friars" but they were also "black friars." If the dice-players and strolling minstrels who received "inferior benefices" from those Scotch bishops who drew their own descent from the Early-Scots, or Egyp-
* In his "Description of Galloway."
† Grose plainly regards "the canting crew" and "gypsies" as one. And the author of "The Yetholm History of the Gypsies" states (at p. 141) that "the Gypsies at Yetholm do not use the word Romany as the name of their language, but they call it simply The Cant." In Gaelic, cainnt means "speech"; and this form of speech is dubh-chainnt, "black speech."
tians,—if those strollers belonged to the "idle people calling themselves Egyptians" (as the statutes enacted against them prove pretty clearly), then those Scotch monks of the sixteenth century were "black friars," by complexion. And the higher prelates who—for no visible reason, unless that of kinship,—befriended them so materially (claiming themselves a far-back descent from "Egyptians"); those higher prelates were most likely more allied to them by the ties of blood than to Henry the Eighth or "the most part of the commons of Scotland" north of "the water of Forth" (who if Elder's letter speaks truth, were quite in sympathy with the English king, and violently antagonistic to this priestly caste). Thus, if this were the case, the term "black prelacy" conveyed a certain racial meaning; although it is not to be supposed that the whole of this order consisted—at that period—of one unvaried type. How far the name of "black friar" applied to the complexions, rather than the dress, of the divisions so designated, may be questioned. Yet it is worthy of note that the community which received, as a kind of friendly prisoner, the captured chief of the outlawed Black Douglases, in the latter part of the fifteenth century,*—this community, the brotherhood of Lindores, in Fife, was a community of "black monks." (Knox, writing seventy-one years after the death of the captive gypsy noble, refers to his asylum as "the abbey of Lindores, a place of black monkes.")
The dark-skinned, curly-haired Silurians who "worshipped the gods," who "professed a knowledge of the future," who wore "black cloaks" and "tunics reaching to the feet," and who "walked with staves," "leading for the most part a
* After the Black Douglases had been dispossessed of their lands, and had become outlaws and "gypsies," the last of their earls (formally recognized as such by the Stewart party)—who had not been present at the crowning defeat of Langholm—continued to haunt the fastnesses of the Border country for thirty years. In 1484, with a following of five hundred moss-troopers, he (who used to traverse the country with two thousand followers, holding a "court" of his own, and creating nobles of his own) advanced as far as Lochmaben; but the king's-men of the neighbourhood having assembled to bar his progress, he was defeated by them at Birrenswark, in Dumfriesshire. "The King (James the Third) contented himself with confining him to monastic seclusion in the abbey of Lindores in Fife, while the earl muttered 'He who may no better be, must be a monk.'" (Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. II., pp. 44-45.)
wandering life," were very distinctly "black monks" (as well as "mendicant friars") both by dress and by complexion. And the witches of Anglesey, who encouraged their kinsmen to resist the attack of Suetonius and his soldiers, were not only "arrayed in black garments," but they were also most probably of the same dusky hue. It is quite conceivable that such orders as these might have been prolonged, century after century, receiving into their ranks men and women of a wholly different complexion, until such a title as that of "black friar" became applicable chiefly, or solely, to the garment. This is conceivable. And at the present day the black garments of the druidical orders are worn quite irrespective of lineage, by the modern representatives of those orders, of whom, however, a very large proportion are—on Professor Huxley's hypothesis—the descendants of brown-skinned people.* But it does not appear, on the one hand, that those friars of the sixteenth and earlier centuries, who were known as "black friars," were the only priests who wore a black dress; and, on the other hand, there seems much reason for believing that certain quasi-religious bodies, at these periods, were composed chiefly, or altogether, of dark-skinned men. The latest "mendicant friars" visible to us moderns are those people known as patricoes, or gypsy-priests. Whether they wore a certain distinguishing dress is not stated by those who write about them; but it is known that they "led for the most part a wandering life," like their early forerunners in these islands;—and that (like them) they "walked with staves" is shewn by the statement that "all the gypsies, male as well as female, who performed ceremonies for their tribe, carried long staffs."† And these people were mainly, or altogether, of the dark-skinned races. And whether as unrecognized patricoes, or as the holders of "inferior benefices" in sixteenth-century Scotland, they were at once "mendicant friars" and "black friars," by custom
* There is no reason—except that of inherited custom—why black should be regarded as peculiarly appropriate to clergymen, doctors, lawyers, and other representatives of the druidical system: a system which included "doctors" (teachers) of many branches of knowledge. The first of these just named is the division that, in modern days, adheres most strictly to this colour; although the others do so in a slight degree.
† Simson's History, p. 272 (note.)
and blood. And with such Egyptians the Scotch bishops of that period identified themselves, both by bestowing favours upon them, and by asserting for themselves a like lineage.
While it is probable that those prelates—of so late a day—were of hybrid ancestry; and, therefore, only partially related to their wards, the "strolling-minstrels and dice-players" (whose habits, be it remembered, were much the same as their own *); yet it is evident that, outwardly, they did not differ from the earlier heathen priesthoods that each, in a measure, represented. If those Scotch bishops and abbesses were attired in black garments, so were the Druids and Druidesses of Anglesey and Brittany. If they wore white surplices, they did not differ, in that respect, from the "Magi" who opposed St. Patrick in his Irish mission.† Or, if the rochet formed any part of their attire, it only served to connect them with those Egyptian Druidesses who visited Paris in 1427. If these various articles constituted their apparel, they did not serve to dissociate them from heathenism. If they shaved their heads, or practised certain ceremonies referred to in a previous chapter, these forms did not of themselves help to identify them with Christianity; since they were also the property of non-Christian religions. And, as their own lives were recklessly non-Christian, they seem to have possessed few claims to be regarded as the teachers of Christianity.
That the influence of such gypsy-priests was visibly stamped upon at least one British church, seems to be proved by a fact recently pointed out by Mr. Joseph Lucas,‡ in these words:
It is probable that Walter Simson's remarks upon divorce ceremonies
* The references made in the first chapter of McCrie's "Life of John Knox" disclose the fact that those orders against whom men like Knox were violently opposed were largely composed of men whose tastes and ideas were almost entirely those of "gypsies." One might think that the rancorous spirit of partizanship might have induced the writer of that book to magnify the failings of those bishops into vices of the first magnitude. But his statements are all well founded. And although these do not hint at nomadism among the higher ecclesiastics, they show that their lives were openly at variance with all that is supposed, in the present day, to characterize the ideal teacher of the Christian religion: and that many of their habits and ideas were shared by "gypsies."
† Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. II. p. 112.
‡ "Yetholm History of the Gypsies," p. 138.
(Hist. of Gypsies, pp. 273-5) explain the following mysterious discovery recorded in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1777, p. 416, in a letter signed "T.M.": "A workman employed in repairing and whitewashing the church of Frecknam, in the county of Suffolk, in the spring of 1776, struck down with his hammer a piece of alabaster—it was fixed in the inside of the church, in the wall near the north door of the nave. It appeared then a plain stone about fifteen inches long and twelve broad; but, on its falling down, the other side was discovered to be carved in relievo and painted. The carving represents a bishop or some mitred personage, in pontificalibus, holding in his left hand the whole leg and haunch of a horse recently torn off, and striking the hoof with a hammer which he holds in his right hand. Near him is the horse in a rack, standing on three legs, having the shoulder whence the other was torn off bloody. He is held by a person with a round cap on, not unlike a Scotch bonnet. The legs of this person appear under the horse having on long picked shoes. In the background there is a furnace, and round it in various parts horse shoes and other implements belonging to a smith." . . . "The carving is now in the possession of the rector of Frecknam. It seems worthy the attention of our antiquary readers." Opposite p. 416 is a plate illustrating the carving.
The whole account of the ceremony in Simson is too long to quote, but one or two sentences will suffice:—"When the parties can no longer live together as husband and wife, . . . a horse without blemish, and in no manner of way lame, is led forth to the spot for performing the ceremony of divorce . . . . The gypsies present cast lots for the individual who is to sacrifice the animal, and whom they call the priest for the time. . . . The individuals who catch the horse bring it before the priest, . . . . the priest takes a large knife and thrusts it into the heart of the horse, and its blood is allowed to flow upon the ground till life is extinct."
Although the sculptured ceremony does not coincide with that observed in Mr. Walter Simson's days, there can be little doubt that the two are cognate. And there can be no doubt that the tearing off of a horse's leg forms no part of the duty of a teacher of Christianity; although it, or a kindred custom, was of great significance in the eyes of gypsies. Thus this "mitred personage," clad "in full pontificals," was plainly an Egyptian priest, whether or not he claimed for himself the same lineage as those Scotch bishops of the sixteenth century who "derived themselves from a certain lady, named Scota, which (as they alleged) came out of Egypt." And if this was the kind of man who undertook "the cure of souls" in a Norfolk parish "six hundred years ago," it is no wonder that he regarded the keeping alight of the sacred fire above the altar as a most important and serious duty.
Mr. Leland, in his "English Gipsies" (pp. 129-130), makes the following statements:—"The gipsy eats every and anything except horse-flesh. Among themselves, while talking Romany, they will boast of having eaten mullo baulors, or pigs that have died a natural death, and hotchewitchi, or hedgehog, as did the belle of a gipsy party to me at Walton-on-Thames in the summer of 1872. They can give no reason whatever for this inconsistent abstinence. But Mr. Simson in his 'History of the Gipsies' has adduced a mass of curious facts, indicating a special superstitious regard for the horse among the Romany in Scotland, and identifying it with certain customs in India. It would be a curious matter of research could we learn whether the missionaries of the Middle Ages, who made abstinence from horse-flesh a point of salvation (when preaching in Germany and in Scandinavia) derived their superstition, in common with the gypsies, from India."
There may be many different opinions, at the present day, with regard to the precise meaning and teachings of Christianity; but it must be universally acknowledged that those "missionaries of the Middle Ages, who made abstinence from horse-flesh a point of salvation," were not apostles of Christianity. Or if so, then only in a partial degree. It is quite likely that, although their nineteenth-century representatives "can give no reason whatever" for this observance, those mediaeval missionaries were actuated by some now-forgotten belief in preaching this peculiar abstinence: but that belief has no place among the doctrines of Christianity. Whatever else they may have taught the people of Germany and Scandinavia, those "missionaries of the Middle Ages"—viewed in this particular aspect—were distinctly the prototypes of Mr. Simson's eighteenth-century gypsy-priests, and also of Mr. Leland's "English gypsies" of the present day. That they were the prototypes of those "dice-players and strolling bards" who were beneficed clergymen in sixteenth-century Scotland is almost certain: that they were also the prototypes of the higher orders of that Scottish hierarchy—whose members "derived themselves" from Scota, the daughter of a Pharaoh, and who were the avowed guardians of strolling Egyptian dice-players—is also, in some degree, probable. And it is also probable that all of these castes—Scandinavian priest, sixteenth-century stroller or "beneficed clergyman," Pharaoh-descended bishop, strolling-priest of eighteenth-century Scotland, and "English gypsy" of the nineteenth-century—are all connected by a kindred belief, and perhaps by kindred blood, with the "mitred personage, in pontificalibus," sculptured on the walls of the church at Frecknam, Suffolk.
It was not only in pre-Reformation Scotland that the professed teachers of Christianity exhibited a strong if not prevailing tint of heathenism (which in the diction of the Netherlands, is "gypsyism"). We have noticed that in sixteenth-century Scotland, "inferior benefices were . . . . bestowed on the illiterate and unworthy minions of courtiers [who were then semi-nomades], on dice-players, strolling bards, and the bastards of bishops." Of these, one division, clearly,* and the others less clearly, were the people known in Scotland as Sorners, Cairds, Jockeys, Tinklers, or Gypsies. And on the Continent a similar state of things is indicated to us. "In the rural districts [of Germany], says Wimpheiling, the persons selected for preachers were miserable creatures, who had been previously raised from beggary, cast-off cooks, musicians, huntsmen, grooms, and still worse." "A profane spirit had invaded religion, and the most sacred seasons of the Church . . . . were dishonoured by buffoonery and mere heathen blasphemies. The 'Easter Drolleries' held an important place in the acts of the Church. As the festival of the resurrection required to be celebrated with joy, everything that could excite the laughter of the hearers was sought out, and thrust into sermons. One preacher imitated the note of a cuckoo, while another hissed like a goose. One dragged forward to the altar a layman in a cassock; a second told the most indecent stories; a third related the adventures of the Apostle Peter, among others, how, in a tavern, he cheated the host by not paying his score. . . . . The Churches were thus turned into stages, and the priests into mountebanks." "The rural districts became the theatre of numerous excesses. The places where priests resided were often the abodes of dissoluteness. Corneille Adrian at Bruges, and Abbot Trinkler at Cappel, imitated
* Dr. Jamieson's definition of "a bard" would of itself prove this.
the manners of the East, and had their harems. Priests associating with low company frequented taverns and played at dice, crowning their orgies with quarrels and blasphemy. . . . In several places, each priest was liable to the bishop in a certain tax for the female he kept, and for every child she bore him. One day, a German bishop, who was attending a great festival, openly declared that, in a single year, the number of priests who had been brought before him for this purpose amounted to eleven thousand. This account is given by Erasmus.*
These extracts most assuredly do not describe a society of Christian apostles: and it is easy to understand how one of those priests, "Thomas Linacer, a learned and celebrated ecclesiastic," who "had never read the New Testament" until the last year of his life, should have affirmed, on that occasion, "Either this is not the gospel, or we are not Christians." There seems to have been little or nothing in the doctrine they taught, and certainly nothing in their own way of living, to connect them with the earliest teachers of Christianity. But they showed, in many ways, their connection with strolling minstrels, mountebanks, and "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians."
Monumental tablets in various Continental churches—erected "at Steinbach in 1445, 'to the high-born lord, Lord Panuel, Duke in Little Egypt, and Lord of Hirschhorn in the same land'; at Bautma in 1453, 'to the noble Earl Peter of Kleinschild,' [and 'of Lesser Egypt']; and at Pforzheim in 1498 'to the high-born Lord Johann, Earl of Little Egypt'"†—all attest to the authoritative position of "Egyptians" in the religious as well as the social world of fifteenth-century Europe; and a tombstone in the churchyard of Weissenborn, Saxony, in memory of "Dame Maria Sybilla Rosenberg, Gipsy, and wife of the honourable and valiant Wolfgang Rosenberg, Cornet in the Electoral and Brandenburg army," shows that this gypsy supremacy survived in Middle Europe even in the seventeenth century. Of a similar nature was
* D'Aubigné's History of the Reformation (Beveridge's Translation), Chapter III. of Book I. Vol. I.
† It seems quite clear that these "Little Egypts"—like those of Scotland—were European; although the names preserved the memory of an ancient connection with Egypt Proper.
the interment of a gypsy noble in the abbey of Malmesbury, in the year 1657; and there are various other records of the same kind in British history, of which Mr. Groome gives many specimens, (in the fifth chapter of "In Gipsy Tents").
It is true that some of these inscriptions—German and British—point to the probable Christianity of the gypsies they commemorate. And, when Wolfgang Rosenberg gave a silver flagon to Weissenborn church; or, in the tradition that "a gypsy king" had "aided in repair of East Winch church," Norfolk; in such cases one would, at first, assume the Christianity of those "heathens" (as the Dutch call them). But then—what is Christianity, and what Heathenism? Under which heading are we to place those "missionaries of the Middle Ages who made abstinence from horse-flesh a point of salvation?" And was the "mitred personage" on the walls of Frecknam Church a Christian? And "Corneille Adrian at Bruges, and Abbot Trinkler at Cappel," were these Christians, like Paul and Peter, or heathens like those polygamous gypsy-priests described by Simson? When churches were the scene of "Easter Drolleries" and general buffoonery; when the officiating priests were drawn from the gypsy castes; when such men proved their origin by their way of living and of preaching; were such churches and churchmen Christian or Pagan? A gypsy noble might well repair one of these temples, or give a silver flagon to another, without laying himself open to the charge of being called a Christian.
It may be that many pre-Reformation ideas are even yet existent among the gypsy castes. Mr. C. G. Leland states that "they are all familiar with" one, at any rate, of those monkish legends—that which has made the owlet become known among them as "the baker's daughter."* That one or more monkish legends, of which the general British population knows nothing, should be preserved by the caste that is the most closely connected with those mediaeval priests, is a most striking fact.
One other resemblance between these two sets of men may be pointed out. Grose talks of gypsies as "the canting crew;" the Yetholm tribes are said to style their language
* "English Gipsies," p. 16.
The Cant; and a mongrel dialect often confounded with Romanes, is denominated "cant." Of course, this word signifies "speech": it does so, at any rate, in Gaelic, and it did so in Latin. But it seems to have been associated with a particular kind of speaking. The Latin cantare is said to mean—"to speak often of a thing; to praise; to rhyme; to chaunt; to celebrate by song; to sing of; to repeat an incantation; to call up or raise by spells or charms; to enchant; to bewitch." Now, this is the kind of speaking with which those "gypsies" of former days were invariably associated. "To bard" and "to flatter" were synonymous terms in Scotland: those Bards, or Gypsies, used to "celebrate by song" the deeds of their leaders in the most flattering terms. The connection between the jongleur and the juggler—or their absolute identity—has already been pointed out. And "witchcraft" and "gypsyism" go hand-in-hand. The same union is seen in the various meanings of the word cantare. "The canting crew" were always celebrated for their "spells or charms"; that portion of them specially known as "Borderers" were, at one time, never without a "book of spells," relating to "the black art of their forefathers." But, while cantare signifies "to speak," it more especially signifies a particular way of speaking. A way of speaking that is so closely allied to singing that cantare is often translated "to sing." This special form of singing or speaking is best known to us by our other form (in modern English) of cantare,—that is, the word chaunt.
No instance has come under my notice in which gypsies—known by that designation—have made use of this peculiar recitative utterance. But Mr. J. F. Campbell records that one of his Highland tale-tellers distinctly intoned the legend he was relating. And it may be asserted as a probability that is most likely to develop into a certainty, that this rhythmical measure was characteristic of the bardic, druidical, or "gypsy" castes. It seems to have, beyond a doubt, characterized those castes in Ireland. An eighteenth-century bard of Ireland, who is spoken of as "the last of that Order of Minstrels called Tale-Tellers," and who combined in his person more than of the one special qualities of his class—since he was Bard, Historian, and Genealogist—is spoken of in these words:—
"Poetry was the muse of whom he was most enamoured. This made him listen eagerly to the Irish songs and metrical tales which he heard sung and recited around the 'crackling faggots' of his father and his neighbours. These, by frequent recitation, became strongly impressed on his memory. His mind being thus stored, and having no other avocation, he commenced a Man of Talk or a Tale-Teller. . . . He was now employed in relating legendary tales, and reciting genealogies at rural wakes, or in the hospitable halls of country-squires. . . . Endowed with a sweet voice and a good ear, his narrations were generally graced with the charms of melody. . . . He did not, like the Tale-teller mentioned by Sir William Temple, chant his tales in an uninterrupted even-tone; the monotony of his modulation was frequently broken by cadences introduced with taste at the close of each stanza. 'In rehearsing any of Ossian's poems, or any composition in verse (says Mr. Ousley) he chants them pretty much in the manner of our Cathedral-service.'"
This man is represented as one of the last of that order of Irish Bards of whom it was said that their language differed so much from "the true Irish" that "scarce one in five hundred could either read, write, or understand it." In the reign of Queen Elizabeth those people were described as "idle men of lewd demeanour, called Rymors, Bards, and dice players, called Carroghs, who under pretence of their travail do bring privy intelligence between the malefactors inhabiting in these several shires [Cork, Limerick and Kerry];" and this same monarch, who enacted laws for their suppression in Ireland, also put down their fellow-minstrels in England and in Wales. That those itinerant minstrels were so suppressed because they belonged to "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians," has virtually been asserted already, and this assertion will be repeated more distinctly in another chapter. But, since this individual member of that class, who was regarded as a true representative of that bardic caste in the eighteenth century, was accustomed to chant his legendary stories "pretty much in the manner of our Cathedral-service," it is to be presumed that this was the common custom of his forerunners in office. That they formed, liter-
* Walker's Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards, &c., Appendix, pp. 56-7.
ally, a "canting crew." Which is equivalent to saying "a gang of gypsies;" according to Grose. And, indeed the term "canting crew," as applied to gypsies, seems singularly inappropriate—without this explanation.
A consideration, then, of the statements made in the present chapter renders it apparent that the boundary-line between what is called "Christianity" and what is called "Gypsyism" is very ill-defined: so badly defined, indeed, that it is very difficult to say where the one begins and the other ends. And if European gypsyism be assumed to denote European Heathenism (and the word "gypsy" has plainly been applied in a most general and inexact fashion), then the position of matters, stated roughly, seems to be this. Leaving out the comparatively small* number of "Christians" who ignore—or almost ignore—anything of a ceremonial or ritualistic nature, we find in the religious societies called "Christian" an immense number of practices and beliefs (the latter perhaps obsolete now) that are also claimed by "Heathens." Under this term "Heathen" may be included not only the non-Christian element in the byegone history of Europe, but also one or more non-Christian religions still existing. For example, it was noticed in a previous chapter, that much of the outward ceremonial of Buddhism resembles very closely, or is identical with, the ritual of the Christian churches. (Incense, chanting, and tonsured monks being among those things that Colonel Forbes Leslie indicates as common to Buddhism and Christianity.) But we are more concerned with European—and particularly British—Heathenism, as that has existed in the past. And it is among the people called "gypsies" that we find most resemblance to the "Christian" priests of pre-Reformation times. The only orders of mendicant priests
* By far the most important, numerically, of all the divisions of Christendom is that division known as the Roman Catholic; which, in the tabular view before me (that given in Chambers' Encyclopaedia, in the article "Religion"), is stated as numbering nearly twice as many as the division called Protestant. The first of these divisions is pre-eminently ritualistic; and the bulk of the second is ritualistic also, in the same direction, though in varying degrees. The Greek Church, whose followers number something like three-fourths of the Protestant, is also eminently ritualistic; its ritual, however, differing in many ways from that of the rest of Christendom.
distinctly visible to our modern eyes are those whom Mr. Simson describes under the name of "gypsies." Those men carry "pastoral staves;" they possess secular as well as religious power; like the Abbot Trinklers of the Continent, they openly practise polygamy; like the Father St. Clares of even post-Reformation date, they study the pseudo-science of divination by the stars; like the Scotch prelates of Henry the Eighth's day, they "allege" their descent from Egyptians; like the mitred pontiff in the Suffolk church, or like the mediaeval missionaries of Scandinavia, they regard the horse with peculiar reverence, sacrificing it in their most impressive ceremonies, and abstaining from the use of it as an article of food (and this from no gastronomical fastidiousness, as the gypsyologists very clearly show); like the nominally-Christian actors in the "Easter Drolleries," those gypsies were "canting" minstrels and mountebanks; and either caste, for some mysterious reason, held it necessary to shave the head* after a peculiar fashion: in short, the resemblance between certain sections of the Christian priesthood, prior to the Reformation, and the gypsy-druids of later times, is so strong that one can apprehend, in some measure, why the writers of last century should have asserted that gypsyism in England began with the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry the Eighth. After which date the only visible "mendicant friars" were the "black friars" belonging to "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians;" with which Egyptians the Scotch prelates had also declared themselves to be identified. And it is the "Egyptians" of the present day who "are all familiar with" one, at least, of those monkish legends which we—the hybrid and modern British population—are only aware of through the medium of books.
Only some of the resemblances between British Heathenism and British Christianity have been enumerated above: but there are many others. It is enough, for the present purpose, to point out that such a resemblance, or identity, exists. And this must mean one of two things. Either those
* It has been seen that the prize-fighters of last century, and the mountebanks of that, or an earlier date, were accustomed to shave the head; while an act of Henry the Eighth's shows that it was, in his reign, a very common custom in Ireland. And prize-fighters and mountebanks belonged to the castes we style "gypsy;" while Ireland was originally the special home of the Egyptian-Scots.
observances were originally Christian, and have been adopted by non-Christian races—European and Asiatic—without the accompanying acceptance of the fundamental beliefs of Christianity; or else—they have originated in a far older system of religion than that which is called Christian, although the teachers of Christianity have—whether voluntarily or not—accepted them as the outward habiliments of their faith. That the latter of these two assumptions is the more feasible seems to be asserted alike by history and by reason. In the book which is the mainstay of Christianity—that which relates the history and teachings of Christ—there is little or nothing laid down as to ceremonial. On the other hand, a good deal is known of the ceremonies of Pagan Europe and Pagan Asia: and many of these are now the property of Christianity. The apostles of Christianity in Early Britain may have practised all the ceremonies that are still observed by "ritualistic" Christians: but, at any rate, those same ceremonies were practised by the British "Magi," whom they came to convert. With this important difference. That, whereas those rites have, in many cases, no apparent connection with the Christian religion, they were of the most vital importance to the followers of an earlier paganism. To people who worshipped the sun, "orientation," whether in burial or in worship—was the natural attitude of reverence: to fire-worshippers, it was imperative that the sacred flame which burned above their altars should never be suffered to go out: priests who—like those of early Britain and modern Wisconsin—regarded various evergreens as "sacred," would make use of these plants on occasions of high solemnity: and a race that, for some forgotten reason, attached great importance to the shaving of the head, might be expected to illustrate that peculiarity in the persons of its teachers. But the religion that was taught by Christ does not appear to demand the observance of any of these forms. That many such ceremonies are observed by the great majority of modern Christians is certain; but such usages seem to be rooted in inherited custom, and not to embody any special Christian ideas. Nor do they appear to be regarded as of much importance by those who present themselves to the outside observer as the most characteristic specimens of their faith.
When one regards the modern Christian apostle, either as he appears in the slums of London or as an exile among the most degraded races, the most salient features of his character are not those which connect him (if he be a "ritualist") with the non-Christian religions of the East; they are those which make him indistinguishable from the least ritualistic of all his fellow believers. When men sacrifice talents and fortune (each, in many cases, of the highest magnitude), health, worldly comfort and pleasure, and everything that one naturally likes, in a continuous endeavour to make others emulate the self-denial and purity of which they themselves are no bad examples,—then the special "religious denomination" of each individual retires into the background, or is even lost to sight. Such men prove their "apostolical succession" by their lives; whichever of the Christian sects—from Jesuit to Methodist—they may nominally be identified with. The various sectarian differences that may be said to constitute the "red-tape" of ecclesiasticism are of no importance whatever when compared with the noble uniformity that marks the lives of those nominally-different "Christians." If Christianity means anything, such men are its truest representatives. The mere ceremonies which many—which the majority—of them practice, do nothing to establish the individuality of their religion. Because these ceremonies are almost identical with those of other faiths.
Imperfectly as we know it, we do know that when Christianity invaded these islands it found there a religion similar to that of Persia and of Egypt; and there are many reasons for believing that its devotees were of the same section of humanity as the priesthoods of those countries of the East.* To what extent the British Islands became Christianized during the first few centuries of our era is uncertain. But we know that, after this period, the country was again in-
* In this connection, it may be remarked that one of the peculiar offences of the "vagabonds," &c., of Scotland—in past centuries—was, that the closest consanguinity was no bar to marriage. Now, this also characterized the "Magi" of ancient Persia and Egypt; who married their very nearest female relations, with the express purpose of retaining the priestly authority in the hands of one special Levite caste. What would be the effects of this, continued generation after generation, is a question of a physiological nature. But it can scarcely have failed to cause a marked physical and mental deterioration in the race.
vaded, and conquered by non-Christian and Oriental races. Thus, Christianity had not only to contend with the probable reflex action of the earlier religions of Britain, but it was subsequently smothered by later heathen domination. Of the later pagan immigrations, only that composed of the *nigrae gentes*, or "black Danars," has been emphasized; (though much may be said with regard to others of earlier periods). But it is enough to remember that British Christianity had to encounter, first, the natural reaction of early British Heathenism, and then the later paganism of a race of conquerors. Now, a race cannot well conquer another without imposing its religion upon the natives, in some degree or another. (The religious condition of Hindustan in 1784, as compared with 1884, is evidence enough of the correctness of this self-evident proposition.) As long, therefore, as those heathen conquerors formed any part of the aristocracy of this country, so long would their inherited ideas continue to modify the social and religious life of the nations they governed. It is a fact that ought to have been enlarged upon prior to this chapter, that—with, perhaps, the exception of the Northmen and the Latins—*all* the races that have invaded these islands have been Orientals. And those Oriental races have, in varying degrees of time and locality, all occupied the position of ruling castes. That such heathen conquerors should, as soon as they became "Britons," have discarded their ancestral ideas and taken up, unreservedly, those of their Christian serfs—whom they treated with the loftiest contempt—is most unlikely. The probability rather is that, so long as the Oriental races remained visibly on the surface, so long would Oriental ideas also predominate. And, even so recently as the fifteenth century, a struggle between the East (as represented by the "Saracen" Douglases) and the West (personified by the Normans) seemed to divide North Britain; resulting in the triumph of the Western faction. While, in England of the same period, there are many indications of a similar movement. In the following century, in Elder's letter to the Tudor king, there is a distinct ring of *insular* feeling; an expressed desire for united action among certain British communities, with the purpose of throwing off the shackles of a foreign priesthood; that priesthood
identifying itself with the "gypsies" of the country—and itself virtually regarded as Egyptian by this same North British writer.*
But it is not necessary to go farther back than the Reformation, in order to see this "gypsy" ascendancy in the religion of Europe. The facts that have been referred to in this chapter,—added to many other similar facts in the quasi-religious life of that period,—make it evident that the movement, so well known by that name, was a genuine Reformation. And that those who facetiously talk of it as a de-formation have not the faintest conception of the previous condition of things. Not only was there a re-formation, but it seems quite an inaccuracy to speak of the modern Roman Catholic Church as though it were not one of those that were thus Reformed. Abstinence from horse-flesh a point of salvation—the teaching of astrology—"Easter Drollery"—and such like, form no portion of the belief or practice of any modern Christian church. The great religious movement of the sixteenth century was assuredly a reformation; and one that reformed the whole of Christendom.
What concerns us here, however, is the apparent fact that it was a revolt against gypsyism. Just as the glimpses we have obtained of the Stanleys, Bosvilles, Lees, Lovels, Ruthvens, Baillies, and other Cavalier clans, of the eighteenth and preceding centuries, have shown us a caste of gypsy aristocrats, possessed of many bodily and mental attributes that (apart from the material wealth which they also possessed) constituted them a distinct section of British nobility; so the fragmentary instances pointed out in this chapter have disclosed a contemporaneous rule of gypsyism in British religion.
Note.—Since a reference has been made in this chapter to the archaeology of the army, the following remarks do not constitute a very wide digression.
Where a regiment is of very old standing, and has inherited certain peculiarities of dress or custom, which render it quite distinct from other
* It is worth noticing that, in the reign of Elizabeth Tudor, "on the 17th of April, 1571, an Act was drafted, but was not passed, that 'preists and other popisly affected' lurking 'in serving mens or mariners apparaile or otherwyse dysguised' were to be 'demed judged and punished as vachabounds wandering in this realme called or calling theym selves Egiptians.'" (Crofton's "English Gipsies under the Tudors," pp. 10-11.)
regiments, or many other portions of the community, it may be reasonably assumed that that regiment—though now composed of men of all varieties—was once a particular tribe. That one or many dragoon regiments should regard a certain marriage ceremony ("leaping over the sword") as inviolable; and that the same form should be observed by tribes of "lancers"—such as those Borderers who could spear a salmon as they galloped by the river-bank—is more than a coincidence. Palpably, the inference is that the regiment following that particular custom was originally composed of men taken from the tribe or nationality to whom that special ceremony was a genuine solemnity. And the tribe or tribes who practised such a ceremony are known to us as "gypsies" [certainly Scotch gypsies, and probably those of England also]. Marriage by "leaping over the sword" is not, it may be assumed, a custom of any modern British regiment. But it was seriously practised last century, and earlier; as Grose and the ballad tell us. At so recent a date as the eighteenth century it is probable that the members of such a regiment were of no special British race, and only followed the custom because it had come down to them from the men who first composed the regiment. And that, therefore, if "a gentleman dragoon"—like him of the ballad—did not marry until after he had left the army, he would never dream of going through a ceremony such as that which his brothersoldiers still regarded as valid: but would follow the conventional custom. Even at the present day we see this distinction between the soldier and the man. When an officer has retired into private life, his funeral is that of a private gentleman; and although he may possess twenty horses, not one of them—nor any of his possessions—follow him to the grave. But if he dies as a soldier, his horse, servant, and accoutrements do follow him to the grave; the reason of which—as archaeologists very rationally explain—being that the traditions of British warriors (or, perhaps, of a section only) go back to the time when the horse, slave, and other possessions of a chief were buried with him. Which shows how much more conservative a special society is (whether we call it Army, Navy, Church, or Bar) than that concretion of individual (and ephemeral) families that make up society in general. And this funeral custom—like the marriage one just referred to—brings us again to our "tory" castes. (For these are castes; inheriting a special blood as well as special ideas.) Among them, we find that ancestral custom, which our army gives a hint of, still in full force. When the Yorkshire chief, Ryley Bosville,—a man of this present century—died, his horse was killed, and all his possessions destroyed, by his surviving relatives. So also, in 1773, "the clothes of the late Diana Boswell, Queen of the Gipsies, value £50, were burnt in the middle of the Mint, Southwark, by her principal courtiers, according to ancient custom." In fine, it is stated as still applicable to the "tories" of this century that, "when a gypsy dies, everything belonging to him (with the exception of coin or jewels) is destroyed."
Hussars, generally, are deduced from the Chazar tribes (the ch in this name being, of course, guttural). The earliest French hussars (the
"hussars of the Marshal de Luxembourg") are thus described:—They "were habited and equipped in the Turkish fashion. [And Mr. Howorth has pointed out that the Black Chazars, or Ugres, or Hungarians, used to be known as 'Turks.'] An enormous moustache drooped over the chest; but, with the exception of a long tuft on the crown, their heads were closely shaven [like Chinamen, or American Indians, or various British races]. On their heads they wore a fur cap, surmounted by a cock's-tail plume. Their uniform consisted of a scanty tight-fitting tunic, with breeches that were very large at the top, and tight below the knee, where their boots were drawn over them. This was their complete costume, and it was worn without any kind of under-garment whatever. For protection against the inclemency of the weather they were provided with tiger (or panther) skins, which they wore suspended about their necks (prototypes of more recent hussar pelisses with their fur lining); and these they adjusted in such a manner as would best oppose them to that quarter from which the wind might be blowing upon them. They were but inferior shots; but with the curved sabre they exhibited a dexterity that was truly wonderful." (Quoted at pages 181-182 of Mr. C. Boutell's "Arms and Armour.") That these particular "Hussars" slew the horse of a dead chief above his grave we may well believe: because they were Huns, and that was the fashion of Attila's burial. And, since the same kind of people, known not only as Saracens and Moors, but also as "Huns," have invaded the British Islands, it is not difficult to understand why such customs should still survive among our official "Chazars," and the most "Saracen"-like division of our fellow-countrymen.
One special British regiment—"The Black Watch"—has already been spoken of. When there was "paid in blackmaill or watch-money openly and privately, £5,000" to the "cateran" tribes of the Scotch Highlands, every year; when the chief of such "caterans" styled himself "the Captain of the Watch," "his banditti" being known as a "watch"; it is evident that, if those "caterans" were at all like the "getr'ns" against whom certain Tweeddale gypsies fought, in the seventeenth century, then they were so many "black watches." And if any of these were formed into a regular regiment—as many were—it would be appropriately designated a "Black Watch." That this was the origin of the distinguished regiment now bearing that name can scarcely be questioned. The "dress" theory,—in the face of such facts,—would be by far the least probable of the two, even if there were such a thing as a black tartan. But there is no black tartan; and the "Black Watch" wore red coats so far back as the War of Independence in America, at which period the regiment was only forty or fifty years old. There does not appear to be any regiment of "Borderers" bearing a similar title to this; though there must have been such in the days when "the old tune, 'Black Bandsmen, up and march!'" was a familiar Border air: and we have Scott's statement that the Border gypsies were gathered into regiments and sent to fight in the "Low Country" wars. One or more of such regiments might easily have continued to bear the
title of "Black Bandsmen" long after ceasing to be composed exclusively of "Egyptians"; and even down to the present day, when the only "Egyptian" element visible would be the Melanochroic section, represented by all grades. Whether or not the "Black Brunswickers" were originally one with the Schwarz-reiters of Germany, it seems evident that the latter title was given not only because those cavaliers rode black horses and wore black clothes, but also because their faces were black. This certainly does not seem to have been the natural colour of their skins, and Fynes Morrison says, "I have heard Germans say, that they do thus make themselves black to seem more terrible to their enemies." But many brown-skinned races have blackened their faces artificially,—e.g., certain Fijians of the present day, and the "Moors" of North America in the days of William Penn; and the "Black Act" of George the First's reign was directed against the "Waltham Blacks," a league of freebooters who mustered strong in Epping Forest at that date. These "Waltham Blacks" were so called because they were accustomed to blacken their faces: and, although not popularly remembered as gypsies, it seems very likely that they were so. Mr. Borrow says of the English gypsies, "there is not such a place for them in the whole world as the Forest: . . it is their trysting-place . . and there they muster from all parts of England." And if the forefathers of Mr. Borrow's "tory" fellow-countrymen did not assemble in Epping Forest, in George the First's time, it is difficult to find a reason for their descendants doing so in the present century, and on very short notice, since the "Black Act" was only repealed in 1827. Thus, the probability that the "Waltham Blacks" were Epping Forest Gypsies is very strong. And, while they followed a custom that is still practised by the Romanes-speaking minstrels of our fairs and watering-places, and that has been practised by Morris-dancers, minstrels, and mountebanks for many centuries, they—like all of these people—were connected by blood with races of brown complexion, though in differing degrees. Thus, those German Schwarz-reiters may have been "Black Hussars" by custom, and "Brown Hussars" by complexion.
Generally, it may be assumed that all regimental peculiarities that are known to be of very old standing were once the peculiarities of certain races. The tiger and other skins of the earlier Hussars are still represented in hussar uniforms; but, though now nothing else than a picturesque and useless detail, their genuine ancestors were the skins of actual wild animals, killed by their wearers, and worn by them for the most simple reasons. So also with the "facings" of regiments (when not of modern creation). The very word "facings" is significant. The ruddled clans of Galloway wore red "facings:" certain Cambridgeshire tribes, even in this century, wore blue "facings"—unalterably punctured in. And these colours, red and blue, are still the commonest "facings" in the British Army.
CHAPTER XII.
IT is now evident that, in viewing the "gypsydom" of these islands, we are confronting not one but many obsolete systems;—not one variety of "Briton" only, but several. Such people, for example, as those who constituted the Scotch "cavalier" clan of Baillie, Bailyou, or Baliol, might be more appropriately styled "tory"-Normans than anything else—if one could feel justified in using a race-name of the eleventh century to describe a family of the seventeenth, in a country wherein so many different nations have intermingled in every possible combination. These and other "white gypsies" might, perhaps, be fairly enough classified under such a heading, in the meantime. Others, of darker hue, have been assumed to be the descendants of such races as the Black Danes, the Egyptian-Scots, and the painted Mauri or "blackamoors." So far as the modern students of such people have been relied upon, there would seem to be only three or four existing divisions in this country: the white-skinned (which might be sub-divided into the blue-eyed, flaxen-haired variety, and those having the rough skins and wiry, reddish hair ascribed to some of the Lothian tribes)—the dark-skinned, black-eyed, curly-haired "Romany" of Mr. Leland—and those to whom he gives the same complexion, but who have the lank, black hair of the English "notables" of three hundred years ago, and the American "Indians" of to-day.
If the difference between these two latter divisions arises "not . . . . from white admixture," but because such "gypsies" are descended from "entirely different original stocks," it is clear that the name of "Romany" cannot be fitly applied to both; if that name has a facial meaning. Borrow uses this term indiscriminately with "Egyptian," in speaking of his tawny comrades of the camp, the race-course,
and the ring; while his American successor appears, generally, to discard the latter form, in its unabbreviated shape. And with him, as with many members of the race itself, the ability to speak the language of the Romany constitutes "a gypsy." Or very nearly so. It was formerly noticed that one of the most genuine of English "gypsies" pronounced the present dwellers at Yetholm to be nothing else than "muggers," because they could not answer him in his own language. As for the author of *The Gypsies*, it is probable that he, too, had made this distinction, until he discovered the "Shelta Thari;" which is the "Tinkers' Language," and which he describes as "purely Celtic,"—but which he now classes "with the gypsy, because all who speak it are also acquainted with Romany." This, he believes, was the language chiefly spoken to Mr. Simson; and although that author assuredly assigns the Romany Jib to the people of Yetholm, it is notable that his Scottish gypsies are not known to each other as "Romany," but as "Nawkens" and "Tinklers."
Whether it be true or not that all those who speak the *Shelta Thari* are also acquainted with the Romany tongue; and whether or not these two are the only "gypsy" languages spoken in the British Islands;* it seems to be quite clear that the orthodox, conventional "gypsy" of England Proper (and, of course, of Australia and the United States), regards this "Romany Tschib" as his mother-tongue. There seems to be an agreement among those who have studied the matter that *Rom* is the earlier form; though
* It must be remembered that while one gyspiologist regards the Romany Jib as a form of speech that is common to all "gypsies," another states that the variety spoken in Wales is "nearly unintelligible" to the Romany of England. It may be that what is called "Welsh" is much mingled, in some places, with what is called "Romanes;" just as the latter tongue intrudes into the partly-Celtic *Shelta Thari*. It seems certain that "Romanes" and "Welsh" have each got an element that is also *Persian*. Mr. Leland points out the connection of that language with Romanes, in several places; and a statement made not long ago shows that a similar tie links Persian with Welsh. Mr. G. A. Sala (in the *Illustrated London News* of 21 April, 1883) states that, at a luncheon given in Wales a few years ago, the then Persian Ambassador "enumerated no less than seventy Welsh words, which were also Persian words expressing the same signification as their Cymric congeners." That is, there are a great many words in Persia, in Wales, and in the tents of the Romany, that are identical in meaning and in sound: whatever name may be given to them.
there is less unanimity as to its origin. But most will agree with one writer* that "the general name for a gypsy [of the 'conventional' type] is Rom;" from which, some say, has come the verb to roam (and certainly, to go a-gypsying is to go a-roaming). The writer last quoted states, on the authority of Sir Gardner Wilkinson, that Romi signified "a man" among the ancient Egyptians: which gives a pretty early date for the Egyptian-Romany connection, and which offers the simplest solution of the apparent contradiction. Rom or Rum (continues this writer) "still means 'noble and good' among our gypsies. 'Rum Roy' [Romany Rye] is a gentleman, but every gentleman is not by any means a Rum Roy among the gypsies." It is only among the Romany themselves that this word retains its sense of "noble and good;" for, like many of their words, and like themselves, it has lost caste, entirely, with the general public. This has been so for the last two or three generations. Pierce Egan, in his Preface to the third edition of Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, states (what any one acquainted with "slang" is well aware of) that "the word rum, which, in Ben Jonson's time, and even so late as Grose, meant fine and good, is now generally used for the very opposite qualities." Thus, even in Grose's day, a rome, or rum, mort was "a great lady;" and then, or earlier, rum bouse was "good drink"—a rum chant was "a fine song"—a rum cove was "a dexterous or clever rogue" ("rogue," itself, having anything but a contemptuous meaning). And, as the country districts were quite under the sway of such "cavalier" clans, "the highway" was known as the Rum pad, or Romany path; while Rum padders were "highwaymen well mounted and armed." And it is significant of the totally different attitudes of the "cavaliers" and the non-"cavaliers," that while a Rum Duke must have been an expression of great respect among the Romany (being an equivalent of Rum or Romany Riah), it is rendered "a grotesque figure" by a representative of those classes that despised the odd dresses of the "courtiers" of three centuries ago.† The fate of such words corresponds
* Mr. Joseph Lucas, author of The Yetholm History of the Gypsies.
† Wright and Halliwell both refer to "Rum Duke," in their dictionaries, and in similar terms. That it means a "Romany Duke" is, of course, evident from
most precisely with the decline of the power and social value of the class of people (race, let us say) with whom they are identified. If such a representative of that class as the one recently selected—Prince Rupert—was ever spoken of as a Rum Duke by his contemporaries (which was very probable), the expression conveyed, as Pierce Egan tells us, the highest possible respect. That is, if it was used by men of his own stamp. If used by their opponents, the term bore an inimical rendering, which in a later day, and after the social triumph gained by these opponents, degenerated into the contemptuous and scornful. Nowadays, it is hardly necessary to observe, the adjective rum is not regarded as classical English; and those dictionaries that deign to notice it make the qualifying observation that it is "a cant term." (That its meaning should be defined as "old-fashioned," is only another testimony to the fact that the Romany are tories.) Rum, therefore, as an adjective, has had its day. And its enlarged form of "Romany" does not take high rank in modern society. Mr. C. G. Leland lays down as an axiom that "whenever one hears an Englishman, not a scholar, speak of gypsies as 'Romany,' he may be sure that man is rather more on the loose than becomes a steady citizen, and that he walks in ways which, if not of darkness, are at least in a shady demi-jour, with a gentle downgrade." He adds—"I do not think
the identity of Rum, or Rom, with Romany. (The same verbal identity is seen in the word Romanie, which is the Scotch-Gypsy name for whisky, when compared with the kindred term, Rum.)
That a "Rum Duke" should ever mean anything else than "a grotesque figure" is rather difficult for us to realize. Because our attitude is, in the main, that of Parliamentarians; and the ideas they fought against have mostly fallen into disrepute—as well as the people who adhere the most tenaciously to those ideas. But it must be remembered that the "Rum Duke" had—and has—his own view of things: and perhaps he does not think so highly of "us" as we do. The two sides of the question can best be seen by comparing the "courtier's" description, in Barclay's Eclogues, with that given by the "rude villains," as embodied in the well-known lines—
Hark! hark! the dogs bark,
The beggars are coming to town;
Some in rags and some in tags,
And some in silken gowns.
For that is exactly how those "courtiers" (as described by Mr. Simson, pp. 214-5) appeared to the plebeian classes upon whom they scorned; in the days when a "beggar" was a "gypsy," and a "gypsy" a "lord."
there was anybody on the race-ground who was not familiar with the older word;” the race-ground being Molesy Hurst, “famous as the great place for prize-fighting in the olden time,” and the race in question being “one at which a mere welsher is a comparatively respectable character, and every man in a good coat a swell.”
And although the most out-and-out “Romanys” did not probably form anything more than a fraction of the assemblage, there is every reason to believe that at such a gathering as the one just spoken of the Xanthochroic element was represented in a far less degree than at any ordinary meeting of British people. Moreover, that with the excess of the Melanochroic element, there was also a prevailing tone of the “Old English,” “Tory,” or “Cavalier” description. For, if this kind of thing is Cavalierdom run to seed, it is Cavalierdom nevertheless. Mr. Leland says you can tell the Romany men by the “rake” or “slouch” with which they wear their hats. To wear one’s hat with a slouch is not a mark of “respectability” at the present day. Neither did the Parliamentarians of the seventeenth century regard this fashion with favour; though it distinguished their enemies the Cavaliers. According to Mr. Leland, it denotes the “gypsy”: it also denotes the “jockey,” or “horsey” man, and the “rough.” All of which terms are synonyms for “cavalier.” But enough has already been said with regard to the Cavalier-Romany identity. It is necessary to continue the consideration of the word “Rom” or “Romany”; and also its derivative “Romanes.”
Grose says that “a Romany” is “a gypsey;” and that “to patter romany, is to talk the gypsey flash.” This, we have seen, is vague; both as regards the people and the language. But, whether “Romanes” is spoken with greater purity in Wales or in England, there can be no doubt that there is such a tongue; although it, and the race of the Romany, may have become as “dreadfully mixed” as Mr. Simson’s “gypsies” averred themselves to be. If the language spoken by Roberts, the Welsh harper, is really the best kind of Romanes, then a study of the old Welsh bards would throw most light upon the subject. The tongue of the old Welsh bards appears to be in a great measure a foreign language to those who speak
what is called "Welsh;" and it is probable that the mother-tongue of the minstrel Roberts is as little understood by such people. "The works of Taliesin, Llywarch Hên, Aneurin Gwawdrydd, Myrddin Wyllt, Avan Verdigg... are hardly understood by the best critics and antiquarians in Wales."*
But, if the testimony of this gypsy-minstrel has any significance at all, it cannot be doubted that such critics and antiquaries have only to add to their knowledge of "Welsh" the mastery of the language still spoken by the bards of Wales, namely Romanes, in order to understand every poem composed by those earlier minstrels. Indeed, Mr. Borrow himself says as much. These are his remarks while studying "Welsh:"—"And here I cannot help observing cursorily that I every now and then, whilst studying this Welsh, generally supposed to be the original tongue of Britain, encountered words which, according to the lexicographers, were venerable words, highly expressive, showing the wonderful power and originality of the Welsh, in which, however, they were no longer used in common discourse, but were relics, precious relics, of the first speech of Britain, perhaps of the world; with which words, however, I was already well acquainted, and which I had picked up, not in learned books, classic books and in tongues of old renown, but whilst listening to Mr. Petulengro and Tawno Chikno talking over their every-day affairs in the language of the tents."†
Whatever may be the language of the wandering minstrels of Scotland,‡ it is not understood either by those who speak what is called "English," or by those who speak "Gaelic." And the same thing could be said of the Irish bardic tongue, at one time, if not now. The "gypsies" of Ireland have not received one tithe of the attention that has been paid to those of the larger island; and, therefore, one cannot say
* See the Preface to *Specimens of Ancient Welsh Poetry*, by the Rev. Evan Evans. "Reprinted from Dodsley's Edition of 1764:" Published by John Pryse, Llanidloes, Montgomery.
† *Lavengro*, Chapter XIX.
‡ The existence of gypsy bagpipers and fiddlers in modern Scotland has been indicated in Mrs. Craik's little story of *Two Little Tinkers*; which refers more particularly to the Highlands of Scotland. That "gypsies" were the Minstrels of the Scottish Border—and of all the other parts of Scotland—in former times, has already been made tolerably clear.
much about them, for lack of information. But we have already noticed that the ancient bards and seanachas of Ireland (who combined the various offices of bard, genealogist, and rhapsodist) did not speak the "Gaelic" language. Of this caste, or castes, it has been said—"The tongue is sharp and sententious, and offereth great occasion to quick apophthegms and proper allusions. Wherefore their common jesters and rhymers, whom they term Bards, are said to delight passingly these that conceive the grace and property of the tongue. But the true Irish indeed differeth so much from that they commonly speak, that scarce one in five hundred can either read, write, or understand it." The author who introduces this statement into his description* of this ancient system—a system which included many orders of "doctors" or "medicine-men" [there is no appropriate modern word to describe these archaic teachers]—says of one division of this collegiate order—"The OLLAMHAIN RE DAN ['doctors of poetry and song'] . . . . . were Panegyrists or Rhapsodists, in whom the characters of the Troubadour and Jongleur of Provence seem to have been united."
The professional characteristics of these people are everywhere the same—in the British Islands, or on the Continent of Europe. Genealogists and historians (of a kind), who were accustomed to "bard and flatter,"—bards and rhymers who were also jesters and mountebanks,—whose name of jongleur or jougleur has now (like other of their titles and qualities) little enough respect among us. That, wherever they were found in Western Europe, they were connected by the ties of a common language, if not by kindred blood, seems most patent. And, in the one glimpse we get of their physical appearance—a single lightning-flash dividing the darkness of accumulated centuries—in the traditional story quoted by Sir Walter Scott, we see that those jongleur-jugglers were a black-skinned race.
And what was the language of those dusky "Troubadours and Jongleurs of Provence," and elsewhere? Was it Romance? Or, was it Romanes? Or, is there any difference between the two?
So far as concerns the pronunciation of the name, there is
* "Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards;" Joseph C. Walker, Lond. 1786.
no real difference. To us who have thrown back the accent in Roman'-us, making it Ro'-man, the natural pronunciation of Roman'-es (Romance) is Ro'-manes. All that can be said about the accentuation seems to be, that while the one form, Romance, has apparently preserved the emphasis in its proper place—or nearly so—the other form, Romanes, has preserved the proper number of syllables; since the word is apparently trisyllabic—the original pronunciation having been, presumably, Ro-man'-es. There is as little real difference, also, between the "gypsy" adverb, Romaneskas, and the form, Romanque. Indeed, it would seem that, in this case, the traditional accent of the people has proved more faithful to the original than the voiceless symbol of literature: and that Romanesque, or Romanesques, was—and is—a word of four syllables. There is, therefore, no reason for supposing that the word which the Romany call "Romanes"* is anything different from the word that has come to be spelled "Romance" in books.
But it is clear that the language popularly known as "Romance" is not "Romanes;" or, if so, only in a partial degree. The former word, however, has had a very wide application. We are told† that "the name of Romance was indiscriminately given to the Italian, to the Spanish, even, in one remarkable instance at least, to the English language." And then it is added:—"But it was especially applied to the compound language of France." And, if there is really any particular form of speech that is "popularly known" by this name, it is this "compound language of France"—as that existed in mediaeval times.
One sometimes hears such languages as Spanish and French classified as belonging to the Latin or Romance division. Now Latin and Romance were two wholly different tongues; or, at any rate, so far different that a man who spoke Latin was unintelligible to a man who spoke Romance. "At a period so early as 1150 it plainly appears that the Romance language was distinguished from the Latin, and
* The names of the people and of the language have been confounded with each other for a long time; and Grose talks of speaking Romany. But this is clearly an error, although often perpetrated by the Romany themselves.
† In the Eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (article "Romance") from which all of these statements, in this particular, are taken.
that translations were made from the one into the other; for an ancient romance on the subject of Alexander, quoted by Fauchet, says it was written by a learned clerk,
'Qui de Latin la trest, et en Roman la mit.'
Thus, whatever shape that language, or one of its offshoots, may have taken in France, at a later date, it is clear that the Romance of 1150 was quite distinct from Latin. And as it is with the former speech that we are at present concerned, we need not regard the latter as at all connected with the question.
With regard to the "one remarkable instance at least," in which "the English language" is termed Romance, it is stated:—"This curious passage was detected by the industry of Ritson in Giraldus Cambrensis, 'Ab aquâ illa optima, quæ Scottice vocata est FROTH; Brittanice, WEIRD; Romane vero Scotte-Wattre.' Here the various names assigned to the Frith of Forth are given in the Gaelic or Earse, the British or Welsh; and the phrase Roman is applied to the ordinary language of England. But it would be difficult (adds this authority) to shew another instance of the English language being termed Roman or Romance."
The significance of this single instance, however, is very little affected by its isolated character. At the present day the continent of Australia is still occasionally spoken of as "New Holland;" but one may safely predict that that name will soon be quite obsolete. But if five hundred years hence, an antiquary should discover one solitary instance of this name being seriously applied to Australia, he would be quite justified in assuming that, although only one example of the usage had come down to him, it had at one time been quite common. And we know his conclusion would be correct. Therefore, although no other instance should ever turn up to parallel that which Ritson has recorded, we must accept it as a fact that one of the languages spoken in Great Britain during the twelfth century was known as "Roman or Romance." The statement was made in the most natural manner by a Pembrokeshire man,—the son of a Norman (De Barry) and a South-Welsh "Theodore;" and when he applied the term "Roman" to "the English language," it is to
be supposed that neither he nor any of his contemporaries saw any inconsistency in the expression.*
In the twelfth century, then, Latin and Roman, or Romanes, were two distinct languages. And the latter was the tongue of the "Troubadours and Jongleurs of Provence," and elsewhere. This conclusion, indeed, has been almost reached by a recent writer on "gypsies;" who makes such remarks as these:—
"De Bezers, a Languedoc poet in his 'Breviari d' Amor,' dated 1288, in a passage cited by Tyrwhitt (Notes to Cant. Tales, v. 11, 453), says 'that the Juglar sings and dances, plays instruments, or enchants people or does other joglayria.'
"Gilfillan relates that 'in 1328, during the siestas at the coronation of Alonzo IV of Aragon, "el Juglar Ramaset" sang a villanesca (comic song) composed by the Infanta (Don Pedro), and another Juglar called "Novellet" recited,' etc. In the Chron. d'Aragon the Juglar 'Ramaset' is called 'Romanset Juglar.' Romanset smacks strongly of the Romany, while Ramaset comes very near the Scotch name of Ramsay. . . . .
"About the middle of the 13th century a great change of meaning takes place in the word. Dr. Burney (Hist. of Music) says, 'William de Girmont, Provost of Paris, 1331, prohibited the Jungleurs and Jungleur-esses from going to those who required their performances in greater numbers than had been stipulated. In 1395 their libertinism again incurred the censure of the Government.'
*S. R. (Samuel Rid), writing in 1612, says, 'The true art of Juglers consisteth in legerdemain—that is, the nimble conveyance and right dexterity of the hand, the which is performed divers wayes, especially three—(1) Hiding and conveying of balls, (2) alteration of money, (3) shuffling of cardes.'"
The identity of such people with those against whom the Scotch enactment of 1579 was directed hardly needs to be pointed out. In order "that it may be known what manner of persons are meant to be strong and idle beggars, and vagabonds, and worthy of the punishment before specified, it is declared" that such consist of "all idle persons going about
* The words selected, viz. Scotte-Wattre, do not, certainly, assert themselves as Romanes. But, then, are the other examples any happier? Is Froth the Gaelic, and Weird the Welsh for Forth! The examples do not appear to illustrate anything: but the existence of the use of "Roman or Romance," as applied to one of the twelfth-century languages of Britain is most apparent from the passage.
† Mr. Joseph Lucas, "Yetholm History of the Gypsies," pp. 86–88.
in any country of this realm, using subtle crafty and unlawful plays, as jugglery, fast and loose, and such others; the idle people calling themselves Egyptians, or any others that feign themselves to have knowledge of prophecy, charming, or other abused sciences, whereby they persuade the people that they can tell their weards, deaths, and fortunes, and such other fantastical imaginations . . . . and all minstrels, songsters and tale-tellers, not avowed in special service by some of the lords of Parliament, or great barons, or by the head burghs and cities, for their common minstrels." Everybody knows that "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians" are, and have been, wholly identified with the various callings and attributes enumerated above;* and the game of "fast and loose" is as much their property as thimble-rigging. It is thus described: "Fast and loose, formerly called pricking at the Belt or Girdle, a cheating game still in vogue amongst trampers and impostors at fairs. A leather strap is coiled up tightly, and placed standing on a table, the folds being so artfully arranged that one of them is made to resemble the central roll of the strap. The player pricks in that particular fold with a stick, believing that he has thus made fast the strap; but the strap being in reality loose, the trickster detaches it at once. There are numerous allusions to this game (continues this writer†) in the dramatic writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries." And, as an example of these, Mark Antony's words are quoted:
This foul Egyptian hath betrayed me:
* * * * * *
O this false soul of Egypt! this grave charm—
* * * * * *
Like a right gypsy, hath, at fast and loose,
Beguiled me to the very heart of loss.
That all these people were of the same kind as those Juglars, or Jongleurs, mentioned in Mr. Lucas' extracts (just
* This statute is quoted in the April number of Blackwood's Magazine for 1817; in the "gypsy" article frequently referred to.
† Robert Bell, in a note to Hudibras (Part III. Canto II.). "Fast and Loose" is also referred to by Mr. Lucas, at page 145 of his "Yetholm History of the Gypsies." He calls it "a well-known Gypsy trick," and states that it was practised, during the thirteenth century, by the nomadic class in France.
quoted,—whose "true art" consisted in thimble-rigging, card-sharping, and "alteration of money"—is unmistakeable. In London, as we saw in an earlier chapter, they found a home in Southwark; "Smithfield, with its world of cut-purses, drolls [mountebanks], and 'motions' [Punch-and-Judy-shows—or else, merry-go-rounds and swings]; Moorfields, where ballad-mongers and cudgel-players abounded, and the rookeries of the Bermudas, reeking with ale and tobacco."* Corresponding, thus, with those earlier Jouglers or Jongleurs, their language (if they possessed one that was peculiarly their own) must have been that of those Jongleurs. That is to say, it must have been Romance (to adopt, for a moment, the conventional spelling of the speech of the Troubadours). But these people exist in our own time; though in a greatly decayed condition. And one who has studied them very closely has told us "that among all these show-men and show-women, acrobats, exhibitors of giants, purse-droppers, ginger-bread-wheel gamblers, shilling knife-throwers, pitch-in-his-mouths, Punches, Cheap-Jacks, thimble-rigs, and patterers of every kind there is always a leaven and a suspicion of gypsiness." And the language that, in the estimation of this observer, appertains peculiarly to such people, is called—Romanes. It is impossible to avoid seeing that pure Romance (not "the compound language of France," but pure Romance) must be exactly the same thing as pure Romanes. And it may be regarded as a matter of almost absolute certainty, that when one of the black-skinned Jongleurs of the time of John-of-Rampayne encountered a brother-troubadour he greeted him, like any of the modern Romany, with the words "Ne rakesa tu Romanes, miro prala?" ("Don't you speak Romanes, brother?")
Of the truth or error of which deduction there is tangible proof lying to hand, in the compositions of the early bards of Wales; which are only imperfectly understood,—or not at all—by those who only speak what is called "Welsh;" but which must be almost wholly intelligible—perhaps altogether intelligible—to those who speak Welsh and Romanes. This Romanes is the language of the best minstrels in Wales at
* Extracted from the Memoir prefixed by Bell to his edition of Ben Jonson's poems.
VOL. II.
the present day: "the Eisteddfods of Wales have witnessed the triumphs of Gipsy harpists; and hundreds have been charmed by the concerts of the Roberts family, not knowing they were hearing a Gipsy band."* And this language, like the people whom we call "gypsies," is pre-eminently associated with the minstrelsy of Europe.
If once the language of the bards of Wales, as far back as it can be traced, is indubitably proved to be Welsh-Romanes, then it may legitimately be assumed that the language spoken by the minstrels of the other portions of the British Islands has been closely allied with it, from a very early period. That the "Romany" and "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians" were one and the same people, seems beyond doubt. And we find it on record that the Egyptians of Scotland "danced before the king in Holyrood-house," on at least one occasion during the year 1530: and that, in the books of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland this entry was duly made—"Apr. 22, 1505. Item, to the Egyptianis, be the kingis command, vij lib." Also, "that, in 1501, one of the [Scotch] king's minstrels was 'Peter the Moryen,' or Moor." Also, that "in 1504, two blackamoor girls arrived, and were educated at court [the Scotch court], where they waited on the queen. They were baptized Elen and Margaret. In June 1507, a tournament was held in honour of the queen's black lady, Elen More,† which was conducted with great splendour." And, at this particular period,—the very beginning of the sixteenth century, the minstrel Dunbar (himself styled a "Saracen" by his equally
* It is the misfortune of a roughly-sketched outline such as this, that—to a merely superficial reader—an apparent identity is established between some of the finest castes of Modern Britons and some of the most degraded. This arises from the fact that the races chiefly dealt with in these pages have a most ancient lineage; that the civilization—or civilizations—they represent have long ago decayed; that castes originally compact have split up into divisions of the most various character—the distance between each growing wider and wider with every century; and that, consequently, it is possible to see a race-connection, very remote in its point of union, between people of the most refined nature and others of a greatly different description.
† This Ellen More offers an unmistakeable example of this surname (More) having been given because the person distinguished by it was a Moor, Morrow, or Murray. "Peter the Moryen" is a kindred specimen: and it is probable that he became ultimately "Peter Morgan" (for this is apparently only another form of that word).
Edinburgh in the 15th and 16th Centuries.
swarthy rival, Kennedy), in describing the amusements of the upper classes in the Edinburgh of that day, says:
"Some sings, some dances, some tell stories;
Some late at even brings in the Moreis."
which last word is usually construed "Morris-men;" and that is equivalent to saying "Moors."
Of the existence of this minstrel-mountebank, jongleur-juggler class, in the Scotland of the above period, there is abundance of evidence. "In 1489, the year after he [James IV. of Scotland] ascended the throne, a band of English pipers [bagpipers*] came to Edinburgh, and they played at the Castle gate, where his majesty heard them, and rewarded them with twelve demyes ["twelve shillings Scots"]. In 1491, three English pipers were heard by the king at Linlithgow, and paid seven unicorns.... Among the 'musicians, menstralis, and mirrie singaris', mentioned by Dunbar, the Treasurer shews that there was one Nicholas Gray, who played 'on the dron'—the drone bagpipe. In 1505, besides 'Jamie Wederspune,' the fiddler, there was 'Jamie that playes on the drone'.... The Treasurer's accounts shew that harpers of various nations attended the court; and that something like competitions occasionally took place between the English, Irish, Highland and Lowland harpers. Frequent gratuities are entered as having been given to the performers. Of the 'oratouris,' and 'Frensche flingaris,' of whom Dunbar speaks, many proofs could be adduced from the Treasurer's accounts. By orators the poet, no doubt, means storytellers. Richard Wallace, a courier, or bearer of letters, was at times a teller of tales or 'geists' to the king. There was also 'Widderspune the foulare, that told tales and brocht foulls to the king,' together with 'Watchod the tale tellare,' all of whom occur between 1496 and 1497. 'Hog the jestour,' and 'Thomas the jestour' are frequently mentioned. 'March 5, 1507-8. To the Frenche menstrallis, that maid ane danss in the Abbay, be the kingis command, 12 French crowns, £8 8s.'" "The same king, on the 1st January, 1505-6, granted to Ronald
* It has already been shown that bagpipes and bagpipers were not peculiar to any one part of the British Islands; though now popularly identified with the Scotch Highlands.
Makbretun, clarischawner [harper], six marks worth of land of Knockan, in Wigton-shire, for his fee [as one of the king’s musicians] during his life. . . . On passing through Wigton [in 1502], the king gave 14s/. to the pipers of that town, who usually had such gratuities for their music; . . . [and while at Whithern, in Wigtonshire, in 1505–6], he gave an unicorn [18sh.] to two tale tellers.” And, among the figures cut in bass relief upon “an antique bedstead or buistie of the Black Earl, who was assassinated in the Castle of Stirling” (the brother of that black Douglas who was overthrown in the year 1455), “the piper is a conspicuous person,” while “a variety of sword and morrice dancers” are “represented in all the zany and buffoon attitudes of such performers.”
These Jongleurs and Jugglers belong to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; but “Reid the mountebank and his blackamoors” show us the same people in the latter part of the seventeenth century, and in the same district (southern Scotland). And their existence, in that district, and at those periods, is attested by Scott. “About spring time, and after harvest, it was the custom of these musicians to make a progress through a particular district* of the country. The music and the tale repaid their lodging, and they were usually gratified with a donation of seed corn.” This last reference bears more particularly upon the minstrels attached to certain burghs. “These town pipers, an institution of great antiquity upon the borders, were certainly the last remains of the minstrel race. Robin Hastie, town piper of Jedburgh, perhaps the last of the order, died nine or ten years ago [1802]; his family was supposed to have held the office for about three centuries. . . . The town-pipers received a livery and salary from the community to which they belonged; and, in some burghs, they had a small allotment of land, called the Piper’s Croft.”
The above extracts† refer mostly to those divisions of this class who were recognized and authorized by law,—down to
* This “particular district” is quite in keeping with Mr. Simson’s statement that each gypsy clan had a certain territory, into which others dared not venture.
† Which are taken from Mr. James Paterson’s edition of Dunbar’s Poems (Edinburgh, 1860), pp. 108–111 and 275; as well as from Mackenzie’s “History of Galloway” (Vol. I. pp. 417–8, and Vol. II. pp. 68–9), and also from Scott’s Introduction to “The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.”
quite recent times. But, while those "minstrels, songsters, and taletellers," who were "avowed in special service by some of the lords of parliament, or great barons, or by the head burghs and cities, for their common minstrels,"—while these are specially exempted from the penalties laid down in the Scotch Act of Parliament of 1579 (enacted during the minority of James the Sixth), that statute strikes most forcibly at those "strong and idle beggars," who were not so attached; and who are characterized as "idle persons," "using subtle, crafty and unlawful plays, as jugglery, fast and loose, and such others—the idle people calling themselves Egyptians"—and "any others that feign themselves to have knowledge of prophecy, charming, or other abused sciences, whereby they persuade the people that they can tell their weards, deaths, and fortunes,"—and "all minstrels, songsters and taletellers" who (as just remarked) were not attached to certain barons and lords, or to burghs and cities.
And it is with the nomadic divisions of these castes that we are most concerned. It is probable that those individuals who settled down in the towns (as the Jedburgh Hasties) gradually lost their race characteristics, and mixed their blood with that of other citizens. Indeed, when Dunbar wrote his poem "to the merchants of Edinburgh" (the date of which is placed at "about the year 1500"), he referred contemptuously to the "common minstrels" or "mowars" (jesters) of the city, as being such very poor specimens of this class. "Cunninger men (he says) maun serve Sanct Clown." But the nomadic divisions are those that longest retained their individuality. And this in spite of the most bitter persecution: relentless and almost* continuous, and ending nearly in their extermination. But "Reid the mountebank" and "his blackamoors" show us that, in the seventeenth century, the jongleurs still continued to be identified with the black-skinned races; while Mr. Simson's sketches, which relate chiefly to the eighteenth century, prove that, at that period, "Egyptian" and "Jongleur" were interchangeable terms. "The violin and bag-pipes were the instruments they commonly used. This musical
* Not wholly continuous: for the laws against them were only enacted and enforced when their opponents were in power.
talent of the gipsies delighted the country-people... and contributed much to procure the wanderers a night's quarters. Many of the families of the farmers looked forward to the expected visits of the merry gipsies with pleasure, and regretted their departure." At "penny-weddings" and other rustic feasts, these "gypsies" continued to be the "minstrels of the Scottish Border" down to the present century; and it is likely enough they are so at the present day—if railways and newspapers and telegraphs have not utterly killed out all local life.
It was not only in Scotland that these things were. The scattered instances quoted above could certainly be capped by many others, not only in Scotland but throughout the British Islands. At the Scotch "Eisteddfods" of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the minstrels were "English, Irish, Highland and Lowland"—and this must assuredly have included Wales as well. The English statute-books, as well as the Scotch, contain enactments against those nomadic minstrels. "In the thirty-ninth year of Elizabeth, a statute was passed by which 'minstrels, wandering abroad,' were included among 'rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars,'—'tramps' is now the word (remarks the writer* I am quoting from),—and were punishable as such. Cromwell (1656) renewed the ordinance... including 'fiddlers' in the musical category." And the historian of the Irish bards of the same, or an earlier period, has told us that in them "the characters of the Troubadour and Jongleur of Provence seem to have been united."
All these people are most visibly of the same nature. And it seems equally certain that they were mainly—or wholly—of the same dusky complexion. The John-of-Rampayne anecdote is perhaps the only vivid glance that we get of these "troubadours and jongleurs;" but the other references made to them in later times are almost as convincing. The books of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, which tell us that "harpers of various nations attended the court of James the Fourth," and that—in the year 1505—one of his minstrels was "Jamie Wotherspoon the fiddler," or (for the same man
* Mr. J. S. Dwight; "Our Dark Age in Music," Atlantic Monthly, December, 1882.
is probably meant by either designation) "Jamie that plays on the drone," or bagpipe; these same Accounts also state that, in that very year there was paid "to the Egyptians be the kingis command, vij lib." And the poet who describes the Edinburgh life of that same period states that to "bring in the Moors" was an ordinary finish to an evening's gaiety. So that, although "Peter the Moor" is perhaps the only one of the royal minstrels whose complexion is plainly visible to us, yet we may quite reasonably conclude that "Jamie Wotherspoon," "Hog the jester," "Thomas the jester," "Watchod the tale teller," and also (in Wigtonshire) "Ronald Makbretun, harper," and the two unnamed "tale tellers," who received the royal "tip" of nine shillings apiece, that all these were as much "Moors" and "Egyptians" as any of their contemporary jongleurs, or Reid's "blackamoor" mountebanks of a later day. There is not the least dubiety as to the minstrels and "flingers" who danced before King James the Fifth, at Holyroodhouse, in the year 1530; for these are styled "Egyptians." And when a sixteenth-century Englishman, Marlowe, says that
Every Moorish fool can teach
That which men think the height of human reach;
or, when Barclay—in the same century—wrote these lines:—
No faute with Moryans is blacke dyfformyte,
Because all the sorte lyke of theyr favour be;
in either of these instances it may be regarded as certain that the "Moorish fools" and "Moryans" whom the writers had in view were of the same kind as "Peter the Moryan" and the other "Moors" who entertained the citizens of Edinburgh with their music, dancing, tale-telling, jugglery, and buffoonery, three or four hundred years ago.
And thus, since those "mowars," or jesters, who "served Sanct Clown" in the Edinburgh of circa 1500, and those "profest pleisants" and "fancied fools" who were "suffered to vaig and wander throughout the whole country," were really of the race of "Egyptians" or "Moors," it does not become necessary to look back to an astonishing distance in order to see that the Picti of the circus and the pantomime
were also Mauri. If such "Moorish fools" resembled, in feature, the thick-lipped "Moors" of heraldry or the "blubber-lipped" ciuthachs of the Hebrides, or those Lothian colliers described by Hugh Miller (who were probably, Mr. Simson indicates, "of gipsy extraction"), or the ugly "giants" caricatured in Welsh tradition; or if—to put it ethnologically—this section of the ancestry of the British Melanochroi possessed the "remarkably coarse and flexible" lips that Mr. Huxley assigns to the Australioid division of humanity (to which the ancient Egyptians belonged); then the "fancied fool" of that period did not require to paint a huge, grinning mouth around the margin of his own. For it was as wide and thick-lipped as heart could wish. And he did not require to wear a skin-tight cowl, showing an apparently bald or partially-shaven head. Because to shave the head "like a fool," or "after the fashion of a roguish fool," has been a proverbial expression in the Highlands, as well as the Lowlands, of Scotland from time immemorial.* Nor was the white paint upon his face a superfluity (as it now is); for his complexion was that of the swarthy Egyptian-Moors.
This Picto-Moorish identity has become less and less visible during the lapse of time. "Reid the mountebank and his blackamoors" show us that, two centuries ago, the
* This has already been referred to (Vol. I. p. 76). From the remarks made by Mr. J. F. Campbell ("West Highland Tales," Vol. II. p. 474, and Vol. III. p. 205), it is clear that the custom was once quite common in the Scotch Highlands and Isles. Scott, in "The Doom of Devorgoil" (Act II. Scene I.) refers to the same practice when he speaks of "clipping the hair after the fashion of a roguish fool." Douce states that the heads of fools were "frequently shaved," and that the practice "can be traced to the twelfth century;" and he produces an example of this in the person of "the Duke of Suffolk's fool in the time of Henry VIII." (See Douce's Illustrations of Shakspeare, Vol. II. pp. 323 and 331.) When the strolling-harper, Tristram of Lyonesse, wandered among the Cornish woods in a crazy condition, and "fell into the fellowship of herdmen and shepherds," it is said that "they clipped him with shears and made him like a fool." (Malory's "Morte Darthur," Book IX. Chap. XVIII.) And, during the late disturbances in Ireland, it was seen that to "make a fool of" a man by clipping his hair, is not even yet an obsolete custom in that part of the country.
(This portrait of the Duke of Suffolk's fool shows a considerable resemblance, in outline, to that of the juggler whose portrait is given on page 342 of Mr. Morley's Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair. The head of the latter is not shaved; the hair being drawn up into a tuft at the top; but either head shows the same curious conical shape.)
painted clown of Southern Scotland was a "Moor;" and the brown-skinned, painted *Mignon* of Goethe suggests that the strolling tumblers and jugglers of Germany were dark-skinned gypsies, in the eighteenth century. That the strolling *players* of Germany, at the same period, were also gypsies has been assumed from another passage in *Wilhelm Meister*; and that those of seventeenth-century Scotland were "Egyptians," we know from the statement that these people acted plays yearly, during May and June, at "the stanks of Roslin." One would, at first, think that the social revolutions of the past few generations must have utterly destroyed all traces of the connection that has once existed between certain occupations and a certain race. And yet, a student of gypsy life has plainly told us that there is a distinct leaven of "gypsiness" among our nomadic actors, mountebanks, and musicians. The last of these, in many instances, are accustomed to blacken their faces artificially, "that they might the better pass for Moors;" while those who act as clowns presumably paint their faces "of various colours." And the language called "Romanes" is more or less familiar to all of these. Whether the same connection is at all visible in our more sedentary circuses and theatres can hardly be settled at present Mr. Leland, certainly, has told us that "there are several stage words of manifest gipsy origin;" but the traditions and language of the modern circus do not seem to have been studied.
But these are side issues. The features of the early "clown" have long disappeared from British faces: chiefly no doubt, because the race, or races, to whom those "clowns" belonged, have been subjected to almost ceaseless persecution, and have been hunted down and killed like animals. In other words, because the process of evolution has never ceased to operate; and men of high attributes (physical and otherwise), intolerant of those beneath them, have stamped them out. And, as the real features of those clowns have disappeared, so have their worst moral characteristics. A "buffoon" is not nowadays "bold;" nor is he distinguished for his "jests obscene;" as was once the case. Nor, again, is the mere clown (the mock-clown of modern days) united to the *actor*, as he seems to have once been. To separate
such people, in these days, is a simple matter. But they were more closely connected in past times,—when a single word (Jongleur, Jougeleur, Juglar, Juggler) was used to denote minstrel and buffoon. To show the dividing line between the archaic strolling bard and strolling priest; strolling mountebank and strolling player; is no easy feat—though the gap between each of these professions is wide enough now.
Still, it is curious to notice that, even in modern times, various walks in life—those most removed from the prosaic, dull, and unimaginative—are not utterly dissociated from "gypsydom." It is only a generation ago that artists, actors, poets, were represented as wearing long, flowing hair,—dressing in an individual fashion,—and living a free-and-easy kind of life. Why should such people have been called "Bohemians:" and why should certain "gypsy" characteristics have attached to them? One doesn't naturally figure a ploughman or a brewer as a man with long black curls, flashing black eyes, and a jaunty manner; yet those things seem quite appropriate to the artist (of whatever kind) as he used to be portrayed. And the castes known as "gypsies" are castes of artists. A writer upon gypsies, in the aggregate, writes to this effect:—"Many famous artists . . . . have issued from their ranks; and their own melodies sounding over the wide Hungarian pushtas, the steppes of Russia, or through the streets of Jassy, are not easily forgotten. Some of them have indeed become the much-valued property of other nations, or are embodied in some of our favourite operas. No less wonderful is the grace and charm of their wild dances. Altogether, the gypsies are one of the most gifted races, the lost geniuses, so to say, of humanity."* But if from such people have come all the poetry, the grace, the romance of Europe, they are "the geniuses," and not "the lost geniuses," of European humanity.
A word in the last sentence recalls us to the particular class of "gypsies" we are considering in this chapter. For it must be remembered that under this title of "gypsy" is comprised so many different types, that it looks as though we ought to regard it as meaning nothing more than "wild
* "Chambers's Encyclopædia;" art. "Gypsies."
man," or "tory." Between the graceful, handsome cavaliers described by Borrow, and the "Moorish fools" whose hideous features have just been glanced at, there is such a wide difference that a similar complexion seems the only connecting tie. And those "clowns" may safely be set aside, at present, as belonging to those "inferior gangs" with whom the Scotch "gypsies" of last century—and previously—acknowledged no kinship whatever. What we have to continue to regard is that class of "gypsies" whose ideas, and traditions, and language, are those of Romance. And the class with which these ideas, traditions, and language, are most identified, is the class thus described by Mr. Borrow:—"Their complexion is dark, but not disagreeably so; their faces are oval, their features regular, their foreheads rather low, and their hands and feet small. The men are taller than the English peasantry, and far more active. They all speak the English language with fluency, and in their gait and demeanour are easy and graceful; in both respects standing in striking contrast with the peasantry, who, in speech, are slow and uncouth, and, in manner, dogged and brutal." These people, who (according to Mr. Simson, and Mr. Borrow), are imbued with that feeling of "contempt for agriculturists so striking in the poems of the trouvères,"* are the people who are even yet identified with minstrelsy, and whose speech is that of the trouvères of the Middle Ages—the language known as Romanes or Romance.
The identity of Romanes with Romance is almost asserted by Mr. Lucas in his "Yetholm History." He therein tells us that "Gypsies call their language not only Romani, but much more frequently Romanis, and sometimes (as Mrs. Eliz. Lee) Romanish, which come to the well-known form Romance (languages), about which no doubt exists."
Speaking of this word "Romance," Mr Skeat says:—"This peculiar form is believed to have arisen from the late Latin adverb romanice, so that romanice loqui was translated into
* It is perhaps incumbent upon one who has not made himself acquainted with "the poems of the trouvères," to acknowledge that the above statement is made in a Note appended by Mr. Fairholt to Barclay's "Cytezen and Uplondyshman;" and that that gentleman refers to "some curious instances [of this gypsy-pride] . . . given by Mr. Wright in his paper on the Political Condition of the English Peasantry during the middle ages."
Old French by *parler romans*." All these are clearly so many different spellings (and accentuations) of the same word.
Although British Romanes, as spoken at the present day, differs greatly from "the compound language of France," yet it approaches it more closely (at some points) than any other form of speech that belongs to the British Islands. An entire ignorance of mediæval French, or of French Romanes, prevents me from comparing British Romanes with the form known under that name in French. But the kinship just referred to will be seen clearly enough from a comparison between certain words in modern British Romanes, and the corresponding words in Modern French as given below.
| Modern French | British Romanes |
|------------------------|-----------------------|
| Londres | Lundra. |
| Angleterre | Anglaterra. |
| Couronne | Coraunna. |
| Tasse | Tass. |
| Roi | Roy. |
| Royal, adj. | Ryally, adv. |
| Tu | Tu. |
| Ne | Ne. |
| Boutique | Boutika. |
| Mendier | Maund. |
| Demander | Mong. Mang. |
| Mille (Thousand) | Mille. |
| Mille (Mile.) | Meéa. |
| Poche | Poachy. |
| Lâche (Cowardly.) | Laj. (Shame.) |
| Lire (To read) | Lil. (A book.) |
| Dent | Dan. |
In the British-Romanes word for "to beg," we have plainly a modern phonetic rendering of the nasal *n*; or rather that caricature of the nasal *n* which asserts itself in the French of those modern Britons who are not regarded as masters of the French language. Borrow and his successors quite ignore the *d* in their spelling of *maund*; and, from this, one may
assume that the \( d \) sound has really disappeared from the British-Romanesque pronunciation of this word, during the present century. For the modern writers always seem to spell it either mong or mang. But in the older Cant* vocabularies it is maund; and the song of "The Canters' Holiday," "sung on the electing of a new Dimber Damber, or King of the Gypsies," begins with the words:
Cast your nabs and cares away,
This is Maunders' Holiday;
and, indeed, the verb "to maunder" is still found in English dictionaries, with the definition "to beg." A parallel example of this twofold orthographical expression may be seen in the word mandi or mendi (signifying "me"), which is alternately spelt manghi, menghi, or monghi. The spelling of mea, "a mile," is nothing else than the French mille expressed phonetically. Thus, we see that the jongleurs of the British Islands, identical with those of Provence in many ways, were not (and are not) wholly different from them in speech.
But the connection between the "Troubadours and Jongleurs" of this country and of France is of very old date, and such resemblances as those given above are very probably few in number. Perhaps the first recorded instance of the arrival of French gypsy-minstrels in England,
* It must be remembered that "cant," though apparently a mere jargon, yet contains many words that are common to Romanes. Moreover, the last-century writers—such as Grose—seem to have been satisfied with characterizing as "cant" and "gibberish," all the forms of speech which belonged to the nomadic class; and of course they included pure Romanes under this term.
As the words quoted above have all been taken from the works of modern writers, it may be as well to refer to Borrow's *Lavvo-Lil* (particularly, pages 6, 65, and 132), Mr. Leland's *English Gipsies*, p. 50, and the works of Mr. Groome and Messrs. Crofton and Smart. It may also be necessary to refer to one of the words, specially. This is roy, which is almost invariably written rye, rei, rai, riah, rayah, &c. But Mr. Lucas records that the Yetholm form is roy; and Mr. Borrow states that Yetholm Romanes, though meagre, is purer—in some respects—than that of any other part of this country. Roy, of course, is only rye, pronounced with a broader vowel sound. The transition from rah-ee to raw-ee is not very great after all. The roy spelling has been chosen in the above list merely to show the French connection more clearly. Ryally (or royall,) is spelt reiali by Messrs. Crofton and Smart; but there is no reason why the one spelling should be preferred above the other.
is that of the juggler* Taillefer (or Tulliver, as we now pronounce it); who rode before the Norman army at Hastings, singing the Song of Roland as he rode, and throwing up his sword into the air, and catching it again, after the dextrous fashion of his caste.
Apart, however, from all questions of a philological kind, it is enough to insist that "gypsyism" and "romance" are synonymous terms. It may reasonably be doubted whether the past was actually more "romantic" than the present. Some people regard our present civilization—with its machinery, factory-chimneys, plodding, regular habits, and general "philistinism"—as the essence of all that is prosaic. While the past, in their eyes, is dominated by poetry. The accurateness of this view may be questioned, with success. It is a mere truism to say that there have been deeds done, in this "prosaic" century, by very matter-of-fact people—grimy engine-drivers and "pointsmen," miners, life-boat-men, and other products of modernism—which, for bravery and high self-sacrifice, have never been surpassed by any action of the "romantic" age. And the things that can be done by means of steam and electricity are supremely poetical. Whereas, on the other hand, the brutality, the swagger and self-laudation, the utter disregard for the sanctity of human life, that characterized the heroes of "romance;" and the probability that their daily life contained at least as much that was harsh and monotonous as can be found in any phase of modern existence; all this has been softened down by time, or overlooked in the natural tendency to seek for poetry anywhere but in the present scene. But, while this is true, our conventional notions of romance do not cluster round chimney-stacks or railway-stations. Modern romance is either too near us, or of too new a kind, to be generally recognized as such. What we conventionally know as romance is the irregular, unfettered life of gypsydom—with its colour and motion, its minstrelsy
* "That jugglers, sleight of hand performers, dancers, tumblers, and such like subordinate artists, . . . were also comprehended under the general term of minstrel" has been proved "very successfully" (it appears from the article on Romance, in the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica) by Mr. Ritson. This identity has already been sufficiently dwelt upon in these pages.
and its bloodshed. It is human nature in its wild state. "The gypsy is one of many links which connect the simple feeling of nature with romance," says one writer,* in a chapter which illustrates the sentiment I am referring to. And this statement (true enough) might be very much amplified; for gypsyism is the link which connects us with the romance (so-called) of this and past ages.
The popular notions with regard to mediæval romance are all based upon works of fiction; written long ago, and reflected in the pages of modern novelists and poets. That the "tales of chivalry" have some real foundation cannot be doubted. But if the "Idylls of the King," and the books out of which these incidents are taken, truly describe a real system of society, then Cervantes did not know what he was about, and Don Quixote ought never to have been written:
It is not likely that many people really do accept those romances as genuine history, whether they read them in the older collections, or in the exquisite version by which they are chiefly known in this century. Perhaps, however, the chief—if not the only—fault of those old romances is the halo of false sentiment that surrounds them. Let us accept their facts as true, and what is it that they describe? There cannot be a better interpreter of those old tales than Cervantes himself, and his whole book is meant to show how "knight-errantry" really appeared to modern men. Whatever a "knight" may once have been, a "knight-errant" was simply a "nomadic horseman," who lived by plunder. "'I have heard your worship say,' quoth Panza, 'that it is usual for knights-errant to sleep on heaths and deserts the greater part of the year.' . . . 'What then, is this an inn?' replied Don Quixote [on a certain memorable occasion] . . . since it is so, that it is no castle, but an inn, all that can now be done is, that you excuse the payment; for I cannot act contrary to the law of knights-errant, of whom I certainly know, having hitherto read nothing to the contrary, that they never paid for lodging, or anything else, in any inn where they have lain.'" These are precisely the manners of those sorners, "masterful oppressers," who were "suffered to
* Mr. Leland, in the Introduction to his book on "Gypsies."
vaig and wander throughout the whole country," until their power became less and less as the successive statutes of post-mediaeval times (enacted by sedentary and civilized communities) were enforced against them. Prior to these statutes, their power was unbounded; and the timid townsfolk and yeomen permitted them to levy blackmail and to live upon the goods of others whenever and wherever they pleased. Even in the eighteenth-century Scotland, there were "knights-errant" who were so much dreaded that when (as in the cases of Will Marshall and the Baillie chiefs) they were known to be guilty of numerous murders, no one was bold enough to bring them to justice; or, when it did happen that they were judicially tried and sentenced to death or banishment, the sentence was afterwards repealed. "Where have you seen or read (asks Don Quixote) of a knight-errant being brought before a court of justice, let him have committed ever so many homicides?" But, although the knight-errant of the Middle Ages, and—in rare instances—of the eighteenth century, was permitted to kill his fellow-men with impunity, things are somewhat different now. He is called by the prosaic name of "criminal," and his fate is either capital punishment or penal servitude.
It is most apparent that the "gypsy" of last century and the "knight-errant" of earlier days, were imbued with the same ideas and actuated by the same motives; and it is extremely probable that they were closely connected both by language and by blood. In either case, we have mounted men, scouring the country in search of adventures and of plunder, "sleeping on heaths and deserts the greater part of the year," exacting house-room and food without any offer of recompense; and fighting—always fighting. It cannot be a mere accident that has made "pugilist" one of the synonyms for "gypsy." And not only were those mediaeval "knights-errant" the most inveterate fighters, but they must also have belonged, physically, to the "bruiser" or "bulldog" type. It may be incorrect to regard the conventional "bruiser" as a full-blooded gypsy, for he appears to be a hybrid. But it has been already shown that, while many pure gypsies have been thoroughgoing "bruisers," the conventional prize-fighter has the side-locks, the language (to
some extent) and the complexion (also in a partial degree) of the conventional gypsy. Now, if there is anything in heredity, it is obvious that a distinctly pugnacious nineteenth-century caste is more likely to be descended from a pugnacious caste of the Middle Ages than from any peace-loving race of that period. And those wandering fighters of the earlier period are thus the most probable ancestors of a similar race in modern days. Or, again, if it be a truth that a man's facial expression, and (in course of time) his physique, can be greatly modified by his own manner of living, not to speak of his father's and grandparents'; it is plain that a race of men who devoted themselves to a life of combativeness must have developed the aggressive physical features of the professional fighter. Thus, viewed in either light, the "knights-errant" of the Middle Ages—or earlier—were, by hypothesis, either full-blooded gypsies, or else cross-bred "half-and-halfs" or "mumpers."
If we try to realize their daily existence, we must perceive this likeness more and more. Those early romances have been so beautifully rendered in the present century, by one writer before all others; and by all modern writers they have been made the groundwork of so much that is high and noble; that it seems essentially barbarous to tear aside these films of poetry which obscure our view. But what kind of men were those "knights-errant" in reality? They were men who would not be endured now-a-days. If they lived in the present day, they would be found in such places as Dartmoor and Millbank. They were eternally fighting. And not only were they prize-fighters, but they were prize-fighters whose battles ended fatally, as often as not. It is probably a considerable time since a British prize-fight has resulted in the death of one of the combatants, though it is on record that this happened at Brighton about a century ago; George IV., then Prince of Wales, being one of the spectators. But, whatever the result of the individual contest, or the nature of the weapons, those combats of the "romantic" period were nothing else than prize-fights. The combatants fought with two objects in view—the defeat of a rival, with the consequent increase of the victor's fame—and the receipt of some more tangible
prize, such as the diamonds referred to in the story of Elaine, or some other "badge" that entitled the victor to be called a "champion"—until he got beaten by somebody else. And the conqueror in such a fight, like all other "champion" prize-fighters, went swaggering about the country, defying all and sundry. There is no substantial difference between the two sets of men. If we seek for a caste in this century corresponding to those pugnacious nomads of early times, we find them among our modern prize-fighters. In either case, the object is self-glorification and the defeat of an opponent; the "champions" are assisted by "squires;" the scene is a "ring," against whose "barriers" it is a humiliation to be driven; and the peculiar language of the combatants and their friends is that form of speech which is known as Romanes. The arena of such combats was not always the diminished "ring" of this generation. One of the celebrated fighters of last century had a regular "amphitheatre" (situated in Oxford Road), which was the scene of many an encounter; "and a larger one was erected in the same locality in 1742 for one Broughton, the funds being subscribed by some eighty noblemen and gentlemen." It is also curious to notice that the language used by one of these fighters—the celebrated Sutton—in speaking of his rival (Figg), is of the same grandiose character as that employed by the earlier heroes of "romance." He taunts his foe with having "by 'sleeveless pretence' shirked a combat with him, 'which I take [he says] to be occasioned through fear of his having that glory eclipsed by me, wherewith the eyes of all spectators have been so much dazzled.' He further assures the said Figg, that if he can muster courage enough to fight with him, he (Figg) 'will have the advantage of being overcome by a hero indeed!'" Moreover, the names by which such warriors are known among their friends are all of the Cœur-de-Lion and Front-de-Bœuf order; the descriptive or semi-poetical kind of nomenclature. And the whole terminology of the "amphitheatre" teems with expressions of an imaginative and periphrastic nature.*
* The kinship between the "bruiser" and the burglar has already been spoken of. A recent event in the annals of Paris house-breaking seems to show that the French burglars employ nick-names of this same order; by which
The kind of language just spoken of is, of course, more "English" than anything else; although it has been shown that "Romanes," pure and simple, is the mother-tongue of many famous British prize-fighters—who, indeed, seem to be the representatives of their order. But the "imaginative" terms referred to are nearly all to be found in modern English dictionaries; and are, therefore, independent of Romanes. Still, it is impossible to wholly separate "English" from "Romanes," or either of these from "Cant." More than one example of "Romanes" and "Cant" that is identical with "English" might easily be cited; but one is enough for the present purpose. And, though the word to be taken is not included in the vocabularies of Romanes, it is at least Cant, and is identified with the classes at present referred to. This is the word Kid, or Kiddy; with regard to which Grose says, that it is "particularly applied to a boy who commences thief at an early age; and when, by his dexterity, he has become famous, he is called, by his acquaintance, the kid so and so, mentioning his surname." But this word Kid or Kiddy is just another spelling (and accent) of Child or Childe; the causes which have given rise to this twofold spelling and accent being the same as those which have made the word circ become kirk in one district and chirch or church in another. And the "tory" pronunciation has this advantage over the other that it has preserved the dissyllabic sound; which its more reputable twin-brother has lost. Accordingly, when a young thief has become a hero in the eyes of his friends, and has established a right to be styled "the kid so and so;" and when he is of Romani stock (as many thieves are), he is, in reality, The Child Lovel, Roland, Leigh, Bosville, or whatever else his patronymic may be. Of course, a distinguished thief is not a "hero" in the eyes of educated modern people; but it must be remembered that great districts of Northern England and Southern Scotland were dominated by "Common Thieves," only two or three centuries ago,—at which time the definition of "a thief" was "a they are known to themselves and the police. Two of this interesting caste at present in Paris bear the respective titles of Cour-Vaillant and Couche tout-nu (and, although the latter of these is not poetical, it belongs to the same class of names as the former).
cavalier who ventures life for gain." We, who are, in one degree or another, "educated people," do not hold a leader of thieves in high esteem; but one division of our ancestors certainly did so; and, indeed, this division was nothing else than a conglomerate of robber-tribes. And it is of importance to notice that while "we" know nothing of "Childe So and So," except from books; the gypsified classes make use of the term, by inheritance. From which the plain inference is that they are purer representatives of those castes than "we" are; an inference which has now been drawn for a considerable number of reasons.
Thus, the "knight-errant" is distinctly the progenitor of the "knight of the road," with whom he is connected by the ties of custom, of ideas, of language, and (inferentially) of blood. One cannot applaud the one without applauding the other. Sympathy with "Lancelot of the Lake" (not the Lancelot of Malory and Tennyson, but the real man behind him) cannot be separated from sympathy with Dick Turpin and Joseph Blake. If the earlier nomad-robber was a "hero," so were those of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. And an examination of all of their peculiarities shows that they belonged to the "gypsy" castes: Tristram of Lyonesse was a vagabond-minstrel and a sorner; and "Sir Gawain" was "Sir Tinker," not only when regarded etymologically, but in many other ways. One thing is evident, that men who were accustomed to ride about the country in quest of plunder and strife—like the knight-errant, the "banditti" described in Pyne's Microcosm, the "moss-troopers" of Scott, the "knights of the road," and the modern "gypsies"—and who (like all of these, except the two last) are represented as wearing defensive armour made of metal,—it is evident that such men must have thoroughly understood how to solder and "tinker;" or otherwise, they must have been, over and over again, at the mercy of the nearest foe.
The identification of one division of the gypsy castes with the knights-errant of Romance, however, implies a good deal that requires fuller consideration. For example, it may be erroneous to regard the Norman invasion as an inroad of Xanthochroi. The Northmen are remembered as "white strangers" and "gentiles of pure colour;" but it may be
more correct to regard the Normans as a comparatively dark race—"dark, but not disagreeably so," as Borrow says of the Lovels, Bosvilles, Rolands, and others. It may be that the Normans were a cross between the white-skinned Northmen and the Moors of Picardy—or some other dark-skinned race. But it is enough for the present to point out that the mediaeval knights-errant were the prototypes of our modern gypsies—or of one division of these—without going further into the subject.
One of the modern names for the knight-errant, then, is "prize-fighter." Of course, his fighting was usually of the deadliest kind; he was both soldier and prize-fighter. Indeed, the word for "prize-fighter" in Romanes is also the word for "soldier." The modern prize-fighter has to be content with merely disfiguring his opponent (and himself); and were he to attempt to go to extremes—as his predecessors did—he would be executed as a "criminal." At least, it is regarded as a crime to kill one's fellow-countrymen; although, in certain circumstances, it is quite a proper thing to kill people of another nation. We have clearly advanced a stage since the days when our islands were ruled by the Romanesque castes.
But the "amphitheatre" of the pugilist was unmistakably the latest representative of the mediaeval "lists." And the spectators were, quite recently, men of high rank. The decline of pugilism has been so rapid and so recent that young men in the present day cannot easily realise how "respectable" it was not very many years ago. It has been lately remarked that if the fight between Sayers and Heenan (or between similar "champions") were to take place to-day, the lookers-on would scarcely be of the same social value as those of 1860, and the fight itself would be described in less respectful terms. And the farther back one looks, the higher is the position accorded to prize-fighting. In 1817, the Czar of Russia witnessed an English prize-fight, and shook hands with the victor. In 1814, Lord Lowther treated the Allied Sovereigns and their generals to "a series of boxing-matches in his drawing-room, which were so highly relished that they were repeated a few days afterwards." George IV., when Prince of Wales, attended a fight at Brighton, in which one
of the combatants was killed. Broughton's amphitheatre in the Oxford Road was erected at the expense of "some eighty noblemen and gentlemen." And, in a much earlier day, Richard the Third—and, earlier still, Alfred the Great—are spoken of as "patrons" of pugilism (though they were probably something more than patrons). Tournaments, so conducted, only differ from those that the poets write of in one particular—they were fought on foot. But they often ended fatally. And the combatants seem chiefly to have belonged to a race of "cavaliers;" whose speech was the language called Romanes or Romance.
The account from which the above facts are taken* does not make special mention of Charles the Second and his times. But his Restoration witnessed the restoration of all such things. That period is interesting, because it might well be taken as the date at which the Romanesque word, *kooromengro*, began to have the twofold meaning of "soldier" and "prize-fighter." Those seventeenth-century cavaliers—like their prototypes, the knights-errant—were certainly something more than mere prize-fighters. Although "prize-fighter" is one of the modern names of the knight-errant, one must think of him as a "soldier" also. The "champion prize-fighter" undoubtedly embodies many of the characteristics of the Lancelots of mediaeval times; and either of these went about the world challenging every fighter to prove himself a better "champion." But then, the modern prize-fighter is not allowed to kill; and he is not acknowledged as a leader of warriors. The mediaeval "champion" is represented in this century by the "champion" soldier, as well as the "champion" prize-fighter; and it is, of course, the first of these who embodies his highest attributes.
The Restoration, however, seems about the period when this divergence fairly began. That the Cavaliers were soldiers everybody knows. But they were also prize-fighters and jugglers. All the kind of thing that we now regard as the property of "gypsies" and "jockeys" and "welshers," all that kind of thing was the amusement of the seventeenth-century "cavalier." Pugilism is not a "drawing-room recreation" at this date, whatever it was in the beginning of this
* An article on "Boxing, or Pugilism," in Chambers's Encyclopedia.
century. But pugilism, cock-fighting, bear-baiting, gambling, and so on—these were the amusements of those Cavaliers. The Restoration is spoken of as an age "when jugglers and conjurers came into extraordinary request." "Sleight-of-hand tricks . . . . by which a single piece of money was multiplied ad infinitum, were much encouraged by the nobility, who frequently hired show-men and professors of magic to entertain their guests." And these things were the accomplishments of the dusky jongleurs of the Middle Ages, as well as of our gypsified castes to-day. And the distinguishing language of either is Romanes.
If a mediaeval knight-errant, or a seventeenth-century cavalier, were to come to life at the present day, these are the things that he would seek out, if he wanted amusement. And he would find what he sought among our gypsy and semi-gypsy classes. It was just the other day that the British "champion" made a progress through the country; giving entertainments, at which he exhibited his various trophies, besides showing off his pugilistic powers. In an account of one of those meetings it is stated:—"The champion of the P. R. was supported by a company of artists, consisting of vocalists, violinists, jugglers, and negro buffoons, who did their best to amuse and fill up the first part of the programme." When the champion visited London his meetings were, of course, held in the East End (because the West is not mediaeval). And this is the place and the company that this hypothetical knight-errant, or cavalier, would feel most at home in; if he came suddenly into nineteenth-century life. If the former culture and vivacity were gone, he would still see the unchanged form. At such a meeting as this he would find the people paying homage to a man who was a "hero" in his eyes; and whose only fault was that he did not kill the enemy he fought against. He would find that the other actors in the scene were those "jugglers, sleight-of-hand performers, dancers, tumblers, and such like subordinate artists" who were "comprehended under the general term of minstrel," in his own day; and some of these would have their faces blackened, "that they might the better pass for Moors." It is not uncharitable to suppose that many of the ladies present would—like that "miracle of women," referred
to in "The Princess," or like Mr. Simson's Border queans—be accustomed to do their own fighting, when required. And I venture to think that this supposititious hero of "Romance" would be thoroughly conversant with the language which he would hear occasionally spoken around him; and also, that he would find there a larger proportion of his kindred than in any ordinary assembly of the same size in London.
CHAPTER XIII.
WHEN one attempts to show that British Romanes, at the present day, is the sediment of British Romance—in the "Middle" and "Dark" Ages—it is plain that one cannot stop there. Because the Romanesque languages are derived from something that is akin to Latin; and, consequently, to connect the language of the modern Romani with the Romanesque tongues of the days of "chivalry" is to do everything but state that the modern Romani have received their language, if not their blood, from their famous historical namesakes.
It is, of course, an accepted belief at present that the Romanesque languages (as the expression is generally understood) are all derived from the historical Romans, and have nothing to do with the Romani tribes at all. Now, one of the first things that must strike any one who takes up this subject with an unbiassed judgment, is the curious fact that while a historical race of Romani has affected the condition of Europe to an immense degree, and although an existing race of Romani—possessed of many distinct individual traits—is yet found all over Europe, no attempt to connect the two has ever been made. Gypsyologists, instead of looking to Italy for the origin of this name, go further afield even than that—to Roumania, to Egypt, and to Hindostan. That the Rom of India and of Europe have come from one common source need not be disputed. But why should we look to such a distance—in time and space—to find the origin of our Romani, when we know that their namesakes have made themselves famous at a period, and in a territory, that (comparatively speaking) is near our own—nearer, at least, than Ancient Egypt or India? It is wrong to say that all gypsyologists have ignored this resemblance. Borrow, for instance, speaks of his gypsies as "Romans;" and tells us that they
call themselves so. They do things "Romanly" and "in the Roman fashion:" and he soliloquizes over their names—Ursula, Lucretia, Lydia, Lavinia, Clementina, and so on. Those women, he says, "appeared to be as faithful to their husbands as the ancient Roman matrons were to theirs. Roman matrons! and, after all, might not these be in reality Roman matrons? . . . . Might not they be of the same blood as Lucretia? . . . . It is true their language was not that of old Rome; it was not, however, altogether different from it. After all, the ancient Romans might be a tribe of these people, who settled down and founded a village with the tilts of carts, which by degrees and the influx of other people, became the grand city of the world. . . . Why, after all, should not the Romans of history be a branch of these Romans?" And again, he remarks, "Rome, it is said, was built by some vagabonds; who knows but that some tribe of the kind settled down thereabouts, and called the town which they built after their name?"
To prevent confusion, it is well to remember—before going further—that the language called *Romanes*, and the people called *Romani*, only belong to one division of the "gypsies" of Britain. Setting aside Xanthochroic gypsies altogether (though this is what Mr. Simson refuses to do), there are still two distinct *kinds* of dark-skinned gypsies,—though Mr. Leland, while recognizing this "entirely different" origin, gives them the one common name of *Romani*. The handsome cavaliers described by Mr. Borrow have, at least, no *near* relationship with those "lean, black, and hideous Egyptians," referred to in Continental annals. The followers of "John the Faw," in the ballad, were "black, but very bonny": while, on the other hand, Mactaggart and Simson give hints of a thick-set, squat race of "gypsies." Accordingly, any conclusions we may arrive at with regard to the origin of the Romany Proper need not be held to contradict, in any degree, the statements already made in these pages on the subject of British "gypsies."
Mr. Borrow, then, thought it not unlikely that his English gypsies were descended from, and received their name from
* See his soliloquy in "Mumpers' Dingle," in *The Romany Rye*: also *Lavengro*, Chapter XVII.
the historical Romani. (The spellings of Komany and Romani, it may be remarked, constitute a distinction that is not a difference; and such gypsyologists as Groome, Smart, and Crofton give the preference to the Romani form. This latter form, therefore, we may adhere to henceforth.) Following Borrow, Mr. Lucas—in his "Yetholm History of the Gypsies" (pp. 68-76)—upholds the belief that a portion of the earlier population of Italy was made up of what we now call "gypsy" tribes; and that the city of Rome derived its name from them. Whatever may have been the ethnic position of the Latin-Roman invaders of Britain, it seems likely that our British Romani of to-day would never have been known by such a name, had the historical Romani never entered our islands. Dr. Skene, in considering the Southern-Scottish people, states that "we must turn in the first instance to the Cymric legends," to obtain any facts, or traditions, with regard to them. These legends, he says, "tell us that this [South-Scottish] population may be referred to three races, the Brython, the Romani, and the Gwyddyl. Thus in a poem contained in the Book of Taliessin we find them thus alluded to:
Three races cruel from true disposition,
Gwyddyl and Brython and Romani,
Create discord and confusion.
... Of the last two races, the Brython and the Romani, we have an account in an old document. 'The Descent of the Men of the North.' ... After noticing the three tribes under which the supposed descendants of Coel were ranged, The Descent of the Men of the North proceeds to give the pedigrees of those said to be of Roman descent .... These were obviously the Romani of the poem, and can be mainly traced in connection with the central districts of Annandale, Clydesdale, and Tweeddale."*
And these districts—Annandale, Clydesdale, and Tweeddale—were, says Mr. Simson the elder, virtually governed, up till the eighteenth century, by "races cruel from true disposition," who spoke the language known as Romanes. At the present stage of our information it is impossible to
* Celtic Scotland, Vol. III. pp. 100-103.
speak with decision upon the matter. But it is a much more rational and less credulous thing to believe that those eighteenth-century "gypsies" of Clydesdale, Tweeddale, and Annandale, spoke the language of the Romani on account of the invasion of these dales by the historical Romani, ten or fifteen hundred years before; than to believe that the historical Romani, having been there, vanished altogether from sight, and were succeeded, at a distance of a thousand years, and in precisely the same localities, by tribes possessing very similar characteristics, speaking a language known as Romanes, calling themselves Romani, but of quite another race and origin from their earlier namesakes. The modern theories that would derive those South-Scotch Romani from straggling bands of immigrants of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are not only quite at variance with those ancient traditions, but they make far larger demands upon one's credulity than the conjectures hazarded by Mr. Borrow and supported by the various statements made in the present chapter.
It must, again, be borne in mind, that what is here said with regard to the Romani of any particular part of the United Kingdom does not apply to the whole of British gypsydom, but only to a portion of it. And that, although we may temporarily ignore the Picto-Moorish origin assigned to certain tribes of British gypsies—while pursuing the Romani division of such people—the conclusions drawn with regard to the latter need not affect (unless indirectly) the lineage and history of the former. Though in this chapter the British Romani are specially glanced at, that does not cancel the fact that in one particular district of our country (as probably in others) there were once "three races cruel from true disposition," and that the Romani were only one of these three. In the comparatively small territory to which these Welsh legends refer, the Romani were rivalled in fierceness by the "Gwyddyl and Brython." Indeed, it is most likely that it was owing to a racial difference such as this that those "gypsy" clans of Annandale, Clydesdale, and Tweeddale, described by Simson and others, were forever engaged in mutual struggles and vendettas. The bloody encounters between eighteenth-century Kennedys
and Taits and Shaws were probably nothing else than the outcome of remoter feuds—in the same district—among those "three races cruel from true disposition, Gwyddyl and Brython and Romani."
It may further be premised, incidentally, that what has been said in relation to the accentuation of the word Romance or Romanes, bears also upon the pronunciation of Romani. We who have made Ro'man of Roman'us are the very people who would transform Roman'i into Ro'mani. There is no verbal difference whatever between the British "Romani" of one century and of another.
Thus, although the South-Scottish clans of Kennedys, and Marshalls, and Black-Douglasses and others, may have been originally descended from invaders of Scot-Egyptian stock, or from other races of dubh galls not belonging to the Romani family, it may easily have come about that clans belonging to this last division impressed their language—and perhaps their physical attributes—very strongly upon many of those whose lineage was vastly different from theirs. For example, the Black-Douglasses, whom we noticed as still retaining, in a faint degree, their ancestral nationality or clanship—so recently as the year 1835—those Black-Douglasses were ranged under the leadership of the Yetholm Faws, and their language was, presumably, the Romanesque "cant" of Yetholm. It is evident, to the most ordinary observer, that the "cant" of Yetholm is Romanes,* and, although the nineteenth-century Black-Douglasses of Yetholm may have inherited certain peculiarities of speech that distinguished them from other Yetholm families (just as their dark skins distinguished them from the fair-complexioned "gypsy" Blythes), yet it is likely that they—and all the modern Yetholm families—made use of the Romanesque "Cant" of Yetholm, with few deviations, or none at all. Whether the Galloway clans, and those of other parts of the country, understood Romanes, or spoke languages quite different from it, may be left an open question. But Romanes was,
* This is clearly shown by various gypsologists, and it proves that Mr. C. G. Leland is in error in assuming that what Mr. Simson learned was the Shelta Thari. He may have acquired that too,—but when he conversed with the Yetholm gypsies, he must have spoken Romanes.
and is, spoken in the South of Scotland: and it is probable that such surnames as Romanes and Romanno,* connected with that district, have come down from the Romani invaders. (In other parts of the country one finds names which suggest a similar origin,—such as Romsey, Romney, and Romford,—and the "cant" name for London, "Romeville.")
Those people who, at the present day, call themselves Romanys, and their speech Romanes, belong distinctly to one of the darkest-skinned sections of our population. Now, if the early Romani invaders who became the progenitors of certain British-Romani clans were men of white skins, we should account for the dark colour of our modern Romani by assuming that they represent a hybrid race, and that their non-Roman ancestors were among those ante-Cæsarian British races which were "as black as Ethiopians" (in Pliny's words), or "blackamoors" (in those of Claudian). And that the darkest of all our modern Romani are quite light in complexion as compared with their "Moorish" ancestors. But then, to confute this hypothesis, there is the fact that such people call their language both the Romani Jib and the Kaulo Jib (that is, black speech, or dubh chainnt); and "the blood" which it is their pride to possess is the Kaulo Rat (or black blood). Thus it would seem that the purer the "Roman" the darker his skin†: and that, therefore, those early Romani invaders were not white men.
The composition of the mixed nation whom we may distinguish as Historical Romans is a matter that cannot be dealt with in a single paragraph, or by one who has only paid a transitory attention to the modern British people bearing that name. But it is important to notice that, in the twelfth century, Latin and Roman were two separate languages; it being necessary to translate from the one into the other. It is also important to remember that the Latins were not the Romans Proper; between which races there
* This name is perhaps extinct, as a surname, though it once belonged to a family known as the Romannos of Romanno, in Tweeddale.
† One of Mr. Borrow's most ultra-Romanesque acquaintances was a certain Mrs. Heron; and she is remembered by her relatives as having been of a most swarthy complexion—"almost black," to use their own words.
may have been an immense ethnological difference. It has been remarked that more than one scholar is agreed as to "the presence of a large Turanian admixture among the ancient Romans." What "Turanian" implies is perhaps not easily defined; but at least it is an expression that does not denote the Xanthochroic type. If applied to a Red-Indian or "Gypsy" stock, it would not be regarded as wholly unsuitable. Now, it may be remembered that, at the outset, we took notice of the opinion held by Signor Gennarelli, an Italian archaeologist, to the effect that among the earlier inhabitants of the Italian peninsula there were certain tribes, spoken of as Aborigines, Siculi, Liguri, Umbri, and others, who—in his estimation—were very probably European Red-Indians. His various reasons for this belief were briefly indicated when his theory was referred to:* and he ascribed to this hypothetical red-skinned race many attributes common to the Ancient Egyptians and the Mexicans. Gennarelli is not the only writer who has assigned to the Liguri of Italy the physical attributes of the Red-Indian. For the author of "The Yetholm History of the Gypsies" (at p. 73 of that book) expresses the opinion that at least one Ligurian tribe, the Salassi, was composed of a distinctly "gypsy" race: and the statements which he makes, in that connection, indicate very clearly the presence of a dusky, fortune-telling, "Indian" people, among the inhabitants of ancient Italy. He quotes Juvenal to show that, in ancient Italy—as in ancient and modern England—there were soothsayers who told fortunes, on consideration of receiving a sum of money; and that those Italian soothsayers (like their congeners of ancient England and of Persia) interpreted by such means as the lines of the hand, and the entrails of animals (and, presumably, by the stars and by dreams). And the complexion of such people is indicated by Juvenal when he states that "the hired Phrygian, or Indian Augur, will give an answer to the rich;" and that "the rich Roman requires at his table the Indian of duskier hue than the Moor."†
* See ante, Book I., Chap. I. p. 13.
† This is quoted from Mr. Lucas' "Yetholm History," p. 72. The word "Roman"—in the phrase "the rich Roman"—must here be accepted in its comprehensive sense, and be held to have no more racial significance than the word "Briton" at the present day.
population of ancient Italy is, of course, quite uncertain; but it seems evident that, to find a period at which castes of swarthy Magi, Druids, and Soothsayers (akin to those of ancient Assyria, Persia, and Egypt) did not inhabit the West of Europe, inclusive of the British Islands, we must look far beyond the period of Cæsar's conquests.
The consideration of "Roman" in what appears to be its earliest recognizable sense gives us the clue to the identity of "Egyptians" or "Gypsies" with "Romani." Because the word Rom or Romi signifies "a man," both in Coptic and in Romanes. That is to say, among Ancient Egyptians as among later Italians and British, there were people to whom a Rom or Roman was "one of ourselves,"—one of our "men." In other words, certain Ancient Egyptians were Romi or Romani. The writer from whom the foregoing facts are chiefly taken (Mr. Lucas) distinctly draws the founders of Rome from Ancient Egypt: in doing which he goes a step farther back than Mr. Borrow. The name of "Egyptian," it is quite clear, could never have been persistently given to a certain race, or to certain races, without any reason for this designation. But if it is once admitted that a red-skinned Coptic people called themselves Romi or Romani, then it is easy to see how—if they emigrated from Egypt—they would be Egyptians (afterwards shortened into 'Gypsies) to other people. That the British Romani do—or did—call themselves "Egyptians" is stated by Mr. Borrow. He also says (in Chapter XVII. of Lavengro) that Jasper Petulengro is the "Pharaoh" of the English Gypsies: there are other kings, "but the true Pharaoh is Petulengro:" a usage which implies the most correct knowledge of the proper application of the word "Pharaoh." Mr. Simson again states that his Scotch gypsies—or some of them—style themselves "Pharaoh's people;" and when he says that they also call themselves "Ethiopians" there is not, of necessity, any contradiction in the use of these two terms by the same people—if the same people used them. The name of "Ethiopian" must, of course, have been quite inapplicable to the white-skinned tories of Scotland; and perhaps not applicable, either, to one or more of the dark-skinned divisions. But it is plain that certain Scotch-gypsy clans called themselves—and were called—"Ethiopians." Mr. Simson says of some of them, "they
persisted in their own tradition, that they were a tribe of *Ethiopians*;” and John the Faw, “in a pardon dated Feb. 15, 1615,” is formally styled “Joannis Fall, *Ethiopis*, lie [in law] *Egiptian*.” “I think it must be conceded [remarks Mr. Lucas,—from whose “Yetholm History” (p. 31) the foregoing clauses are extracted] that some, at least, of the Scottish gypsies did come, as they aver, through Ethiopia and Egypt, having made a long enough stay in Nubia or Ethiopia to have forgotten India.” Of course, the writer just quoted is one of those who have not contemplated the possibility of such Nubians and Ethiopians having arrived in Britain prior to the Christian era. But, as both Pliny and Claudian have told us that there were tribes of Ethiopians and Moors in these islands at the time of Cæsar’s invasion, it is possible to agree with Mr. Lucas in this supposition of his, in every portion of it except that which relates to the date of such a migration, or migrations. And, to corroborate Pliny, not only have we one (or many*) British tribes of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries “persisting in their own tradition that they were a tribe of *Ethiopians*;” and such people were “in law, *Egyptians*;” but we have the same tradition asserted at a far earlier period by those British clans who derived their descent from Gadelas, an Egyptian chief, and from “Scota, the daughter of a Pharaoh:” from which names those tribes were then known as Gaels and Scots.† The island which was the earliest British home of those (alleged) descendants of a Pharaoh was Ireland; and that island was once full of a race that possessed many Egyptian qualities, even in recent times.
* Mr. Simson says that “all the Scottish Gipsies” believe themselves to be of Ethiopian descent. In saying this, he manifestly contradicts his own statement that many Scotch gypsies are “fair whites.” But it is to be assumed that, at least, several clans of gypsies assured him of their Ethiopian (traditional) descent.
† It seems necessary to believe that the early Gaels and Scots were the same people: and consequently, not Xanthochroi. And that “the language of the white men,” spoken to Captain Burt last century, though called “Gaelic,” was very different from that spoken by the “Gaidheal” of fifteen centuries before. And, as an authority on the subject (Dr. McLauchlan of Edinburgh) has said that, even three or four centuries ago, the language called “Gaelic” was very different from that spoken now; it may be assumed that a thousand years earlier the difference was greater still, and that the introduction of other races and other languages have so altered one division of Gaelic that it is now little more than “Gaelic” in name.
When we regard the Scots of Ancient Scotia (Ireland) as "Egyptians," we do not necessarily assume that they were in Egypt at the same time as the Italian Romani, or that they were akin to them. But, on the other hand, they may have inhabited Egypt at exactly the same period as the Romani of Italy; who may have been of precisely the same stock as themselves. In the fourth century the Scots of Ancient Scotia swarmed across St. George's Channel into Wales; and that territory is still celebrated for the coracles and the harps which such people used. And it is further celebrated as being that part of the British Islands in which the purest Romanes is spoken at the present day; while the compound language known as "Welsh" also contains, we have been told, a large number of words that are pure Romanes and pure Persian.* The name of "Wales" (like those of "Galloway" and "Inchegall") means nothing more than "The Foreigners' Country." Its natives, like those of the rest of our country, are descended from the most various stocks; and it is not easy to say which of them caused it to be called "The Foreigners' Country." But it is among those "Welshmen" who speak the language of the Romani, that we find the ancient traditions of Merlin and of Trinali—of great wizards and witches, Magi and Druids,—and these legends not read out of printed books, but even yet handed down from father to son, as portions of a genuine unwritten history. And, since the custodiers of the oldest traditions of Wales are those hereditary bards whom we call gypsies, and who call themselves Romani, they are the people whom we ought to regard as among the very earliest known races of Wales. If they are the descendants of the fourth-century Scots who overran the district known as Wales, then those Scots—being the alleged posterity of "the daughter of a Pharaoh," and of another royal Egyptian, and (of course) of many others of the same race—must have called themselves Egyptians, and perhaps Romani. And the reason why the Romanes of Wales is so much purer than that spoken in any other part of the United Kingdom may be because the hereditary bards of Wales—the gypsies of Wales—have pre-
* See ante, pp. 311 and 315.
served an isolated attitude longer than the other sections of their British kindred.
It is not unlikely that the Early Scots have fewer living representatives in their first British home (Ireland) than in Great Britain itself. The first accounts of them reveal them as invaders of Great Britain from Ireland—"shameless Irish robbers"—and they must have settled in considerable numbers in that portion of Scotland which became known as "Scotia."* What with these emigrations, and the intrusions of other races, Ireland may have gradually lost the greater part of its Scot-Egyptian population. But, still, it seems clear that Romanes belongs even yet to Ireland. A closer examination of this question shows that Mr. Leland's impression as to the Shelta Thari being the language spoken by Mr. Simson's Scotch gypsies is not endorsed by facts. The latter-mentioned writer gives more than one list of Scotch-Gypsy words which plainly prove that those gypsies spoke Romanes. And when Mr. Borrow conversed with Esther Blythe at Yetholm, he found that (although her vocabulary was very limited) she spoke the language of the Romani: and, more than that, that she possessed several Romani words that he had never heard used in England, although his wide-spread acquaintance with that variety of speech told him that those Scotch-Gypsy words were genuine Romanes.† Thus, although the Scotch historian may have known something of the Shelta Thari (regarding which name, however, he says nothing), there can be no doubt that when he spoke to gypsies he—and they—employed a variety of Romanes. Moreover, Mr. Simson shows us that the gypsies of Ireland (of his period) also spoke Romanes. (See
* The movement that made the North-British Scotia spread out into Scotland was (it has been pointed out) originated by later immigrants than the Early Scots.
† Mr. Borrow also accuses her of calling several words "Romanes" that (he says) do not belong to that form of speech. "She called a donkey 'asal,' and a stone 'cloch,' which words are neither cant nor Gypsy, but Irish or Gaelic." To which (had she known) she might have retaliated with the tu quoque that the "cromes or bends" in the framework of the tents which his "Wandsworth Gypsies" made, were also "Irish or Gaelic" in name. As for "asal," he might, with equal justice, have styled it "German and Latin" (esel and asella). But no word can be accurately ticketed with any race-name, except the name of the race who first used the word; when that is known.
pp. 328-9 of his History.) And this fact is also proved by Mr. Leland. The Irish tinker who gave him so many examples of the Shelta Thari was also able to "rakker Romanes." Nor was he an exceptional case. In speaking of this language (Shelta), which is apparently a blending of "Gaelic" with "Romanes," Mr. Leland says—"I class it with the gypsy, because all who speak it are also acquainted with Romany." Thus Ireland, which was the early home of the Scot-Egyptians, still retains, in some measure, the speech of the Egyptian-Romani. And Scotland, into which, "as early as the beginning of the sixth century" (says Dr. Skene), those Scot-Egyptians passed; the memory of which migrations their descendants have not forgotten, since, (as Mr. Simson tells us) "almost all the Scottish Gypsies assert that their ancestors came by way of Ireland into Scotland," Scotland, also, has retained the language of the Romani. Thus, those Irish gypsies, who are even yet in possession of Romanes, must be regarded as the modern representatives (and probable descendants) of those eleventh-century "common jesters and rhymers," in connection with whose speech it has been said that "the true Irish" was so different from it that "scarce one in five hundred" could "either read, write, or understand it." And the wandering gypsy-minstrels of the Scotch Highlands, whose language, whatever its exact form, is not "Gaelic," must also be regarded as the modern Scotch representatives of the same order.
Although the word "Gaelic" has just been used to designate a particular form of British speech, it is not necessary to regard that title as the correct one. Probably "Gaelic," is as much—or as little—the language of the early Gaels as "English" is the language of the early Angles. Modern "Gaelic" is, to a great extent, the speech of Northmen. And, if the early Gaels were really descended from a Gadelas and a Scota of Egypt; and if those tribes left Egypt at a time when Rom meant "a man," and tem "a country" (as in ancient Egyptian and in modern Romanes); then the language of the early Gaels is more likely to be nearer that used by the remnants of the Highland nomadic tribes than the speech of the settled classes, in much of Ireland and in north-western Scotland.
But the assumption that the early Egyptian-Scots were really a branch of the Romani takes us quite outside of the traditions and history of the British Islands; and points to a period far too remote to be considered in these pages. Let us return to Romanes at a time when it is more within our reach.
"At a period as early as 1150 it plainly appears that the Romance language was distinguished from the Latin, and that translations were made from the one into the other; for an ancient romance on the subject of Alexander, quoted by Fauchet, says it was written by a learned clerk,
'Qui de Latin la trest, et en Roman la mit.'"
Mr. Skeat, also, informs us that "by the 'Roman' language was meant the vulgar tongue [what the Scotch-Highland gentry of a particular period called dubh-chainnt, or "black speech"] used by the people in everyday life, as distinguished from the 'Latin' of books." Thus, when the translator of the tale just spoken of "drew it out of Latin and put it into Romanes," he was transmuting Latin into Thieves' Latin.
"The Roman language," although distinguished from "the 'Latin' of books" in many ways, is not (says Mr. Borrow) "altogether different from it." This may be seen from the Romanesque words cited in the previous chapter—Anglaterra, Mille, Tu, &c. It may be seen also in the tendency of the modern British "Roman" to add the affix "'us" to his nouns; and also from the fact that he forms many of his plurals by adding ia to the singular.*
* Some of these words are subjoined. It is necessary to premise that the spellings are not those usually given; and for this reason. It is well known that certain sounds do not impress every listener in the same way; and two people, hearing a word distinctly uttered by the same speaker, may easily write it down differently. An examination of two or three "gypsy" books shows several instances of this, particularly in the use of the letter "r." This letter conveys various degrees of force to various sections of English-speaking people; and this is noticeable both in the United States and throughout the British Empire. The difference is perhaps most marked when the letter "r" occurs after a vowel and at the end of a word. (There are some instructive remarks on this point in a monograph "On the letter r," by Mr. R. F. Weymouth; which may be seen in the Transactions of the Philological Society, 1862–3, Part II.) An American, of "Northern" breeding, will express the accent of a Southerner, in the words "before the war," "never," &c., as "befoah the wah," "nevah," &c. And the same kind of American finds fault with the Southern-Englishman's accent, for
regarded as being "Romanes" (and it is to be remembered that the Yetholm Romani called their speech "The Cant"), then we get such semi-Latin words as Romeville (London), pannam (bread), grannam (grain), togeman (a gown or cloak; that is a "toga"—whence "togs"), and the verb to fake, which "signifies to do any act, or make anything": "to fake a screeve is to write any letter or other paper."
There is one word which shows the identity between modern Romanes and early "Roman" as plainly as one could desire. This is the word caapa (variously spelt capa, gappa, kappa, koppa, kopper, and coppur). This word is used by our modern Romani to denote "a blanket," or "the covering of a tent;" and, with other complements, to denote various kinds of "coverings." Pott makes the distinction that kappa is "a woman's cloak," and coppa "a bed-cover." The radical meaning of the word is clearly "a cover." Now, this is what we call modern Romanes. But Mr. Skeat informs us that this word belongs to "Low Latin"—"the Roman language"—"the vulgar tongue used by the people in everyday life, as distinguished from the 'Latin' of books." He tells us that the words cap, cape, and cope, which we find in our Modern-
the same reason. On the other hand, those who think that the final r ought to be hinted, rather than pronounced, or even altogether ignored,—such people, wishing to express in print the accent of an American Northerner, or an Irishman, or a Scotchman (when these are of distinctly provincial breeding) will write rr in place of r. To what extent the letter r ought to be sounded, in certain circumstances, is thus clearly a matter of taste, or of association. But this difference exists. And where one gypsyologist writes gorgio, corlo, plarshta, parne, baryor, ranyor, yackor,—another will write ganjo, kaulo, plashta, pawnee, baria, ranya, yacka. What seems to the one the sound of r after a vowel is to the other not r at all. Consequently, since the plural of ran (a rod) is distinctly ranya or rania, according to the hearing of many English-speaking people, it may be assumed that ranyor is a less correct spelling of this plural. Assuming, then, that the final yor, ior, or and ar of various Romanesque plurals, ought to be written as ia and a, we get such plurals as these:—baria, busnia, cania, dania, durilia, gavia, juvia, kaunia, lavia, millia, mahlia, mutzia, naia, pappia, pattina, puvia, poria, palia, pala, rania, sainia, scunia, shockia, scraunia, spinia, truppia and yacka. These are all plural nouns, and although (except in such a case as putius, "land") the singular is generally a monosyllable, it is to be remembered that some of the Romani have still the habit of adding us to the singular noun, even when that is a modern word. So that these singulars had, likely enough, the us termination at one time; or, perhaps, ius, ium, or um.
* Some of these words will be found in Grose's Dictionary; others in Logan's Pedlar's Pack of Ballads, &c.
English dictionaries, "were all the same originally." And that the original word (so far as it may be traced) was the Low-Latin *capa* or *cappa*; whose various meanings, at one time or another, are "cap; cape; cope; cover; hooded cloak." Among other things, we are told that "this Low-Latin *cappa*, a cape, hooded cloak, occurs in a document of the year 660 (Diez); and is spelt *capa* by Isidore of Seville, 19. 31. 3." Thus the "frauennmantel" of Dr. Pott, which is *Romanes* of the nineteenth-century, is identical with the *Roman* "hooded cloak" of the year 660.
Probably many other words could be adduced by those who are proficient in Romanes and the various "Cant" dialects, which would prove that they are "not altogether different from" Latin. Indeed, one or other of these dialects is known as *Latin*; sometimes as *Thieves' Latin*.
It is of great importance to keep in view that the early Latins were not the early Romans. The early Latins appear to have been Northmen (not necessarily of the same breed as those who are so known in history, but still "Northmen" in the eyes of the early Romans). That they eventually became known themselves as "Romans" is no stranger than that the conquerors of Australians and Americans should become known by these names. To consider the race-history of Italy in pre-Christian times, or to speculate upon the probable proportions of *white*, *black*, and *brown* in the armies of Cæsar and Agricola,—these are questions of a very extensive nature. But it is beyond doubt that the pure Latins and the pure Romans belonged to different races; that the Latin language, even in the twelfth century A.D., differed very considerably from the Roman; and that the Latin-speaking classes of the time of Agricola—though calling themselves Romans—amused themselves after dinner by "bringing in the Moors," much in the fashion of the Edinburgh citizens of three or four centuries ago. These same dusky, fortune-telling, juggling "Moors" of the time of Juvenal and Agricola being quite likely of the more aboriginal "Romani" races—such as the gypsy-like Salassi, and other Ligurians, as well as the Siculi, Umbri, &c.; being, in effect, the "Turanians" of some writers, and the "Ancient-Egyptians" of Signor Gennarelli.
That Egyptians should have colonized Italy, Iberia, the Islands of the Oestrymnides, and the British Islands, long ages before the days of Julius Cæsar; and that all of these should have originally called themselves *Rom, Romi*, or *Romani* (from the Coptic word for “a man”); this is a theory which is supported by a considerable number of facts. It seems unquestionable that castes of *Magi*, of precisely the same *kind*, can be seen in Ancient Persia, Ancient Egypt, Italy, and Britain, as far back as our present vision reaches. And that British “druidism” was no novelty to Cæsar’s soldiers. Whether the customs of tattooing and painting were unknown to—or, at least, not practised by—any of Cæsar’s army, may be questioned. The fact that Cæsar spoke of certain British natives as “Blueskins” and “Green-Men” does not prove, of necessity, that some of his followers had not earned the same titles. Our own sailors—though in a very modified way—were given to the practice of tattooing, when they took our troops out to New Zealand; but officers, or authors, writing of the Maori customs, did not probably reflect that the practice of tattooing, though much more observable among the New Zealanders, was not a custom that wholly separated them from our own countrymen. One thing is clear—that whether the name of “Romani” was used by the Scot-Egyptians or the ante-Cæsarian Magi of Britain, or whether these people had other names (“the sons of Gadelas,” “the sons of Scota,” &c.)—an important line of the Romani ancestry in Britain was brought in with Cæsar, or by his successors. The Romani that Dr. Skene tells us were dominant in Annandale, Clydesdale, and Tweeddale, are all made to derive themselves from Romani of post-Cæsarian date.
It is thus imperative that we should regard one division of British Gypsydom—and, perhaps, even one section of the British Romani—as of Cæsarian and post-Cæsarian date. It may be that Romanes is the most important speech (though not by any means the only speech) of British Gypsydom, on account of the conquests of Cæsar and his successors. Whether or not prize-fighting, the amphitheatre, and the Romanesque languages existed in pre-Cæsarian Britain, they certainly existed in the Italy of Cæsar; and they have,
presumably, never ceased to characterize the Britain of post-Cæsarian days. Horse-racing, practised almost precisely as at Epsom, with the accompaniments of stud-books and the distinguishing colours of the various jockeys, was one of the features of Roman life. And there seems much reason for believing that Yorkshire has been a "horsey" district ever since Cæsar's invasion. It is stated by one writer (Dr. Burton of York, in his *Anecdotes of Horse-Racing*) that "in Aurelian's time or before," York or its neighbourhood was famous for horse-races; and it does not appear that this chain of custom was ever broken. Yorkshire is still famous for its jockeys; and in this county, "where, as the gypsies say, 'there's a deadly sight of Bosvils,'" Romanes is not only spoken by those who call themselves gypsies, but such people admit that there is also a widespread (if very fragmentary) knowledge of Romanes among the mixed and sedentary classes of the same shire.
Whatever may have been the ethnic composition of the Roman armies of about two thousand years ago, it is evident that, when the Roman Empire fell to pieces, a portion, or portions, of its nationality must have remained in Britain. Of these, Dr. Skene's Tweeddale and Clydesdale Romani form a distinct section; and there must have been many others. What right—outside of England—could a thirteenth-century Cornish chief have to be styled "King of the Romans"? That this Richard, who is called "earl of Cornwall," was the king of the British Romani, or of the South-British Romani, is no doubt true enough. But he was not "King of the Romans" in the sense that Cæsar was; for Cæsar's empire was nowhere in the thirteenth century. That this Richard of Cornwall was the head-chief of a confederation of British Romani is quite likely. Indeed, it is worth noticing that among the many people who assert a descent from this Romani king there is a Cheshire family—a sedentary and modernized family—that is still distinguished by the surname of a well-known Romani clan. It is also notable that this Richard is remembered, among other things, as the founder of an abbey of black priests—the abbey of Burnham (of "beech" celebrity). When a "King of Romans" founded a religious establishment, in an age when various
rival nationalities co-existed in our islands, the probability is that the men whom he placed in charge of it were of his own race; and that, in addition to being "black monks," they were also "Romani." So that, when such establishments were broken up by Henry the Eighth, about three hundred years after the time of this "King of the Romans," the disbanded priests of his monastery formed one addition to the crowds of gypsy-priests that thronged the highways. There are many reasons for believing that the statement which places the beginning of English "gypsyism" at the date of the break-up of "black prelacy," is a statement founded upon fact.
Difficult though it is to understand the intricacies of this connection, there has evidently been a certain Romanesque influence felt throughout Europe for the last two or three thousand years. Much of this influence, and all of this blood, has been absorbed by various modern systems and nationalities; but there is still a Romanesque language that is common to various castes throughout Europe (though none but a scholar could overcome the barriers of differing dialects). In the Dark Ages the same castes possessed the same language; though, at that period, the language and the people occupied a most important position; and, before the beginning of our era, a race, bearing the same name, speaking (or some of them speaking) the same language, and possessed of many of the same characteristics, were identified with the power that exacted homage from the greater part of Europe.
CHAPTER XIV.
It has been stated that the United Kingdom, "during the reigns of James I. and his immediate successors, presented two different forms of national life, character, and customs, as if they had belonged to two entirely different and even hostile races." The parties who represented these two "entirely different" societies were the Cavaliers and the Parliamentarians. And their chief social differences were these. The first section was that of a caste of horsemen; the others, inferentially, were not. The "Riders" were prodigal in their habits, splendid in their attire—which was of costly nature, and of brilliant colour;—they wore the hair long, with one tress fastened by a bright-coloured ribbon; feathers waved in their wide sombreros, which they wore in a "rakish" fashion; their conversation was much garnished with oaths, and their manner was so overbearing that "cavalier" became an adjective that is almost synonymous with "rough" (the two terms being still more alike, when regarded etymologically). Their opponents wore the hair short; they were plainly dressed, in "quiet" colours; they wore little jewellery, and their garments were not—like those of the other section—of velvet, and satin, and silk. Their hats were set straight on the head, as is now the fashion among the "respectable" classes; and not with a "slouch," after the manner of modern "gypsies," and "jockeys," and "roughs." This Parliamentarian caste was not given to swearing; and they have the reputation of being vastly more sober and moderate than their rivals. The recreations of the "Horsemen" were—horse-racing, betting, cock-fighting, bear-baiting, prize-fighting, sleight-of-hand, jugglery, minstrelsy, buffoonery, and general "vagabondism." When their opponents were in power all these things were frowned at. When one of the chief leaders of the first caste was,
temporarily, in the shade, he lived as a highwayman of the seas. When the leader of the other side lost credit for a time, he lived as a modern country-squire. The two societies were totally dissimilar; and there is much reason for believing that this difference was, to a great extent, a matter of race.
An examination of the statutes of various periods must necessarily suggest a good deal that is ethnological. Why should Cromwell legislate against itinerant fiddlers, if it was not that then (as now—in a much less degree) they consisted of Romanes-speaking and Romani-blooded people? And why should "strolling players" have come under the ban of the Parliamentarians, if not for the same reason? The dislike of the Puritans to Actors and Minstrels is often ascribed to a feeling of a quasi-religious nature. But it is inconceivable that dramatic taste and a love of music were qualities that the Parliamentarians did not possess. The party that was influenced, to a great extent, by John Milton, cannot have been a society that lacked either of these attributes; although bitterly opposed to certain castes of players and musicians.
One writer tells us that "the Bards and Minstrels of Scotland, as well as those of Wales and Ireland, incurred the reprehension of Government at certain periods." But then, at what periods? And of what kind of men were such "governments" mainly formed? In the fifteenth century a struggle was going on in Scotland between two rival confederacies, one of which was that headed by the "Moorish" Douglases. And it may be remembered that, in a wood-carving belonging to those Douglas princes, a most prominent place was given to "fancied fools," minstrels, "and such like runners about." Of these two confederacies, that which favoured the Minstrels, &c., was overcome; and its armies dwindled down into bands of marauding "Moors or Saracens." And the conqueror in this struggle, James the Second of Scotland, forthwith enacted laws for the "away putting of sorners (forcible obtruders), fancied fools, vagabonds, out-liers, masterful beggars, bairds (strolling rhymers), and such like runners about." The people who passed these laws and tried to enforce them; and those who continued to
defy them; were, in reality, continuing the war that had apparently come to an end in 1455.
During this period, and in this locality,—fifteenth-century Scotland—the game of "tables," which seems to have included chess, draughts, and backgammon, is said to have been "popular." And we have seen that more than one traditional story connects this game, or games, with dark-skinned people. As pointed out in another place,* there are other reasons besides the evidence of tradition to make us believe that these games, and others, were peculiar to one or more nationalities; of which nationalities our modern "gypsydom" is the shadow. Now, while such games were "popular" in Scotland at a period when that territory was as much a dominion of dubh-glasses as of their ultimately successful foes, they were legislated against and pronounced "unlawful" in the succeeding century; when this "Moorish" confederacy had become more and more sub-divided into bands of marauders and rebels. There can be no rational explanation of a statute that declared such games as cards, dice, tables, golf, &c., to be "unlawful" in Aberdeenshire, in the year 1565,† except the reason that such games were played chiefly by people of a certain race; and that to allow them to congregate for purposes ostensibly innocent was to countenance meetings among people who were antagonistic to the ruling powers. It is true that such people were wholly abandoned to the passion of gambling, and that cards and dice are even yet intimately associated with this vice; but it can hardly be supposed that those law-makers of 1565 were swayed by a pious horror of gambling when they enacted this law. If so, they were a great deal more "proper" than we are. So very "proper" that they would not permit even the innocent recreations of golf and chess. But it is absurd to suppose this. Mr. Simson's descriptions of Scotch "gypsies" have shown that they were masters of the game of golf, which their abundant leisure allowed them to play to
* Ante, Vol. I. pp. 328-331.
† This statute is quoted by Dr. Jamieson, in his Dictionary, under the word "Biles." This word "bile" is, he says, the same as the French bille, a billiard-ball; and he defines "biles" as "a sort of billiards,"—being played by four persons. The games decreed to be "unlawful," by this statute, are "specially cards, dice, tables, golf, kyles (?), biles, and such other plays."
their heart's content; and the other games referred to were also peculiarly theirs. The sixteenth-century enactment that made such games "unlawful" was only a variety of the statutes against "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians."
When a certain game was almost, or wholly, identified with a certain race, it is evident that meetings connected with such a game were virtually tribal gatherings; whether the players assembled purely for the sake of amusement, or with ulterior motives. Scott points this out, when speaking of the gypsy clans of the Scotch Borders. "Their warlike convocations were, also, frequently disguised, under pretence of meetings for the purpose of sport. The game of foot-ball in particular, which was anciently, and still continues to be, a favourite border sport, was the means of collecting together large bodies of moss-troopers, previous to any military exploit. When Sir Robert Carey was warden of the east marches the knowledge that there was a great match of football at Kelso, to be frequented by the principal Scottish riders, was sufficient to excite his vigilance and his apprehension. Previous also to the murder of Sir John Carmichael, it appeared at the trial of the perpetrators that they assisted at a grand foot-ball meeting, where the crime was concerted."*
Queen Elizabeth, who (in spite of her attachment to "the gypsy" Leicester) passed enactments for the suppression of English gypsydom, was also the enemy of the same castes in Ireland. One of her acts runs thus:—"Forasmuch as no small enormities do grow within those Shires (i.e. the counties of Cork, Limerick, and Kerry), by the continual recourse of certain Idle men of lewd demeanour, called Rhymers, Bards, and dice-players, called Carroghs, who under pretence of their travail do bring privy intelligence between the malefactors inhabiting in these several Shires, to the great destruction of true subjects, [it is hereby ordained] that orders be taken with the said Lords and Gentlemen [followers of the Earl of Desmond], that none of those sects, nor other like evil persons, be suffered to travail within these Rules, as the Statutes of Ireland do appoint, and that Pro-
* See the Introduction to "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border."
clamation, &c., &c.” We have already seen how those Car-
roghs, or Carrows, were described; “wild Irishmen” (or
“Black Irishmen,” in the language that is most intimately
associated with Ireland), whose only garment was the
“mantle,” which they wrapped round the left arm as a shield
when fighting, and which they would often gamble away,
“and then truss themselves in straw or in leaves.” “They
wander up and down,” says Spenser, “living upon cards and
dice; the which, though they have little or nothing of their
own, yet they will play for much money, which, if they win,
they waste most lightly, and if they lose they pay as
slenderly.” (Whence it may be seen that “welsher” is one
of the modern equivalents for “carrow.”) When, therefore,
Elizabeth framed a law against those people, she was warring
against a certain race.
In the case of the Irish Bards and Dice-players, and also
in the case of the Border football-players, it is distinctly seen
that movements of a political nature were carried on under
the veil of ordinary amusements and avocations; and it has
been surmised that the Aberdeenshire enactments against
golf and dice were also blows struck at a similar political
system. MacTaggart points to a parallel substratum of
nationality in Galloway, when he says that “displaced priests,
who use to bind people contrary to the canon laws . . . .
were designated auld boggies;” and that “those who plot
in secret are called auld boggie fowk.” “Plotters in secret”
—that is what all those people were; the dice-players and
minstrels of Ireland, the football-players of the Borders, and
the strolling-priests of Galloway. And, in each case, they
must have “plotted” with some object in view; a “Restora-
tion” of one kind or another.
Though attached to a gypsy noble, Queen Elizabeth was
one of those monarchs who legislated against gypsies, both
in England and in Ireland; and Dr. Walker tells us that
“the Welsh Bards likewise gave offence to Elizabeth.” Now,
as Elizabeth herself belonged to a Welsh* dynasty that rose
* It is almost unnecessary to remark, at this stage, that the terms Welsh,
English, Irish, and Scotch, are used throughout in their geographical sense; ex-
cept in the rare cases when English and Englishman have been used as equiva-
lents for British and Briton. The last-named words are, of course, also used in
the same “geographical” fashion. Indeed, they can be used in no other fashion.
into power over the heads of the "ancient nobility" of England, during the fifteenth century, it is pretty likely that the Welsh bards whom she persecuted were not the same kind of Welshmen as those from whom she was partly descended. Her father before her was also the enemy of the minstrels of Ireland, against whom he passed prohibitory laws. In the twenty-eighth year of his reign, also, "an act was made respecting the habits and dress in general of the Irish [? of some sections of the people of Ireland], whereby all persons were restrained from being shorn or shaven above the ears, and from wearing Glibbes or Coulins (long locks) on their heads, or hair on the upper lip called a Crommeal" * which custom of shaving the head was practised in England so recently as last century, by Sutton and Figg, the prize-fighters,—who most probably belonged to the class of people called "gypsies."
All these references relate to laws made against gypsies. Before the fifteenth century, in Scotland, there were apparently no laws made against them; and the reason of this seems obvious. Because, in the fifteenth century and earlier, large portions of North Britain were under the sway of "gypsies"; who were themselves rulers and law-givers. And the whole system which (in its decayed state, and enforced against people who were either aliens or moderns, or both) rendered them so obnoxious to communities actuated by different social ideas,—this system of sorrning, or, more correctly, coshering, may be fully examined in Mr. O'Donovan's "Book of Rights," as it existed in its prime.
While, therefore, there were periods when laws were enacted for the suppression of gypsy characteristics, there were also periods when these characteristics gave the tone to large communities of British people—which were virtually nationalities, of various sizes, and degrees of importance. Moreover, although James II. of Scotland did overcome the black Douglases and enacted severe laws against people of their description, that monarch (James) died in early man-
The swarthy Silurians of Wales, or the Black Danes who exacted tribute from white-skinned "Welshmen," all these became "Welshmen" by residence. And mixtures of the same description, though possibly in varying proportions, have rendered the names of the other divisions equally valueless to ethnology.
* Walker's "Irish Bards," p. 134.
hood; and it does not appear that any of his immediate successors maintained the position which he had gained. On the contrary, it seems that, for more than a hundred years after his death, North Britain was mainly ruled by chiefs whose names and proclivities suggest that the factions opposed to James the Second recovered a good deal of their former power, after his death. And Mr. Simson states that during the following century (the sixteenth), and for "a period of about seventy-three years," the gypsies of Scotland were quite unchecked by any ordinance against them (with one brief exception). The probable reason being that such government as existed in North Britain at that period (a very tempestuous one) was largely controlled by their own nobles.
But with the Sixth James of Scotland began a series of enactments against gypsyism. These are quoted by Simson and others; and they have been sufficiently referred to in these pages. It is enough to repeat that they were not only directed against "Egyptians," under that name, but they banned all the national usages of gypsydom. Sorners, strolling-minstrels, mountebanks, jugglers, players at fast-and-loose, fortune-tellers, and nomads of every calling,—all these were struck at by James VI. of Scotland. Though the name of "Egyptian" may not have appeared in every one of these statutes, it amounted to the same thing if the habits and practices of "Egyptians" were the things legislated against. And these laws were very severe; such laws as a conqueror imposes upon a conquered race. What these statutes demanded was nothing less than this—that large North-British populations should become converted to the ideas represented by James the Sixth, under pain of death or transportation. The nomads were to "be compelled to settle at some certain dwelling, or be expelled forth of the country:" if sorners could not show that they had "goods of their own to live on," they were not to be allowed to take those of others;—and the choice before them was to follow some honest occupation, or to be sent out of Scotland for life, or to be summarily executed.
Not only did this James wage a muffled warfare against Egyptians under the various designations just enumerated, but he also fought them for their religious opinions, and also
(it is to be feared) for their superior scientific attainments, which—under such names as "sorcery and witchcraft"—he denounced unceasingly. It may be affirmed with some confidence that, at this period, for every "witch" and "magician" that was hanged, burned, or drowned, a "gypsy" was put to death. The peculiarities of the "witch" were largely of a physical or racial nature; and a recent writer speaks of the "peaked eye" of one class of gypsies as the eye of the "witch." In one account* on this subject, reference is made to the stigma impressed upon proselytes to "sorcery;" and we are told that "this mark is given them it is alleged, by a nip in any part of the body, and it is blue." The effects of such "nips" were once visible all over the bodies of certain British people; and they are not wholly out of fashion yet. Incidents such as these examples of "bewitching" are only repetitions of the old Gaelic tale of the girl who was brought up by (educated by) the "Magi," "who coloured her skin as green as grass." The fortune-telling that James suppressed was one of the characteristics of a nation versed in astrology, which is the half-brother of astronomy. Scott tells of a gypsy who "cast his glamour" over some people at Haddington; and the well-known ballad says that the Earl of Little Egypt influenced the Countess of Cassilis after the same fashion. If these things were chronicled in our newspapers to-day, they would be spoken of as the effects of mesmerism, or "electro-biology." The "books of spells" that the "felons, commonly known or called by the name of moss-troopers"—the "common thieves, commonly called Egyptians"—used to carry about with them, these books are witnesses to a civilization of a perfectly different kind from that which James of Scotland owned. When the Egyptians of Scotland "used not to write with common letters used among other peoples, but with ciphers, and figures of beasts made in manner of letters; such as their epitaphs and superscriptions above their sepultures [in Scotland] show:" and when "this crafty manner of writing... perished" by reason of the relentless persecution of the people whose national character it was;—then a race that, in some respects, was highly civilized, had
* "A History of the Witches of Renfrewshire:" Paisley, 1877, p. 17.
been wholly subjugated by a comparatively-ignorant people. The reasons that must make most modern people sympathize with the conquerors rather than with the conquered are these—that with the possession of much real knowledge and scientific development, this Egyptian nature contained much that was also savage and base. The social and religious ideas of their somewhat stupid conquerors were vastly more in unison with those now prevalent, than were those of the subjugated race. Whatever graces may have once clustered round this particular Egyptian religion, there seems to have been none remaining at the period spoken of. Their meetings—"Witches' Sabbaths," and suchlike—were wild orgies of the most degrading kind; and every archaeologist knows the meaning of monoliths, and May-poles, and hot-cross buns. It was imperative that the manners of a race swayed by such ideas should be "assimilated to those of their countrymen." But, at the same time, the hints that one receives from an examination of the question seem to say that the conquered races of Britain have been, in many ways, the instructors of their conquerors.
This, however, is too vast a question for discussion here. It is enough to notice that James the Sixth of Scotland waged war against the Egyptians of Scotland, not only by enacting laws against them *as Egyptians*; but also by severely repressing, and almost stamping out, all the characteristics that distinguished them from himself and his followers.
This sixteenth century seems unmistakably to mark a revolt against gypsyism all through the British Islands. It was then that Henry the Eighth and Elizabeth endeavoured to suppress strolling minstrels (who used "to nobbet about the tem, bosherin'," as their modern representatives say); and it was then that Henry the Eighth received a letter from a North-Briton, stating that large populations in that part of the main island were sympathizers of the Tudor king, and entreating him to rid the country of priestly castes who "derived themselves from a certain lady, named Scotia," who, "as they alleged, came out of Egypt." It is certain that, at this period and from whatever cause, Henry the Eighth did break up a religious system that was called
"Roman," and that thenceforward the country swarmed with "black monks" and Romani "patricoes." This Henry Tudor is also remembered as having cancelled "an inferior foreign coin," then current in his dominions, and popularly styled a "gally-halfpenny;" though there seems no account of its origin or the reason for its prohibition.* And in this sixteenth century, laws were passed in various parts of the British Islands against Egyptians and Romani (under their former name), and against everything that particularly distinguished them. It was at this era of gypsy persecution that one of their favourite instruments—the bagpipe—is said to have "retired to the hills;" which seems to be the same thing as saying that the gypsy castes were driven to the mountains at this period.
James VI. of Scotland, whatever the amount of his self-conceit, and stupidity, and whatever else his faults and failings may have been, was apparently the consistent opponent of gypsyism all his life. And he was a really important personage. Because, when, with the death of Elizabeth, the kingdoms of England and Scotland also died natural deaths, this ex-king of Scotland was the man appointed to be the first representative of the monarchy which we now acknowledge. Its outlines were not then so clearly defined as now; but still it was, substantially, the Modern-British monarchy. There were still other kingdoms in the British Islands, but these were of no importance whatever compared with his; and they speedily became undistinguishable. But we have already noticed that parts of north-western Scotland were not actually under his rule; and that, between England and Scotland there lay a considerable stretch of territory whose people were "no subjects of his,"—and which territory, along with the districts that lay near but outside of it, owned the sovereignty of a line of Faw Kings, even down to the eighteenth century. In addition to these independent provinces, there must have been at that time (particularly in Ireland) many other districts that did not acknowledge the sovereignty of James; and a closer examination of the question would no doubt reveal their extent and nature.
* See note appended to this chapter.
But, in the sixteenth-century Debatable Land, there were no laws against gypsies; though many such edicts were framed every year in England and Scotland. Because the rulers of the Debatable Land were themselves gypsies. And this party—the gypsies and the philo-gypsies—must have gradually come to the front again after the death of James the First. For, paradoxical though it may sound to say that Cromwell was more fully the representative of James I., than his own grandson Charles II. was, this is nevertheless true in several respects. It was Cromwell, and not Charles, who emulated Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I., in his enactments against gypsyism. When Charles II. and his followers were in power, gypsyism was in fashion. During the Commonwealth it was under a cloud; but with the Restoration it re-asserted itself. And, as has been already remarked, if the ideas that were dominant at the time of the Restoration were still in vogue to-day, the policeman would never have existed to be the aversion of the "tory" castes, whom he, and the laws that back him up, have almost completely annihilated—or converted to modernism.
To follow the successive "see-saw" movements of these two "entirely different and even hostile races," and to say which was up and which was down, in this or that locality at such-and-such a period, would be a task beset with many difficulties. Only a few things, here and there, have been chronicled by "history:" what has been preserved is a mere fraction of what has been lost. Nevertheless, it may be said that the educated portions of the modern British people are much more in sympathy with the Parliamentarians of the seventeenth century than with their opponents, although by no means wholly swayed by the ideas of the former, or wholly antagonistic to the ideas of the latter. The question is not one of romantic sentiment. Whatever people may fancy their feelings to be, in this respect, it seems quite evident that the ordinary Modern-Briton, if he could be transported into the seventeenth-century, would find himself much more at home among the men of the Commonwealth than among their opponents (though differing from each party in many ways). That is to say, those Modern-Britons—peers, squires, bankers, tradesmen, and labourers—who
believe in bank-accounts, orderly streets, and the rule of the policeman. If any Modern-Britons would hail with delight a second "Restoration" (could that happen), it would be the kind that throng the race-course at Molesey Hurst.
It has gradually become apparent to the writer that to dwell upon the savage and objectionable features of gypsies (particularly of Egyptians and Romani), to the exclusion of their better qualities, is to fall into a great error. From their once-high position--Magi, "black monks," "black princes," and so on—it is quite clear that, though falling to ruin as successive nationalities and religious systems, all their best blood and most of their learning, have done a vast deal to build up the present British Empire. Without considering, at present, the problem of white-skinned "gypsies," it seems plain that the dark-skinned British have contributed much to the sum of British knowledge. This is partly apparent from various facts referred to in the foregoing pages; and the writer is still more convinced of the truth of the proposition by various facts subsequently learned, but that cannot be further enlarged upon here.
And yet civilizations of one kind or another have co-existed with much that is savage. People who were masters in the working of metals; who possessed hieroglyphic writing, science and semi-science; who made chessmen and chess-boards of costly material, and played at many games akin to chess; these people were highly civilized, in some respects. But they were naked (as often as not); they used war-paint, and followed many savage customs,—cannibalism included; their religion seems to have led to a vast amount of what is now called immorality; and human life was of little value in their eyes; consequently they were savages.
But a detailed examination of various periods; and not a general survey of this sort; is the only way by which anything like justice can be done to the races chiefly spoken of. Besides, even fierceness of disposition requires to be looked at impartially. If it is an enemy who has chronicled the fierceness, his testimony is that of a partisan. One can see that easily enough. The modern British soldier, when at home among his friends, is a peaceable fellow-citizen, and, in
all his private relations, as amiable as the rest of his fellow-countrymen. But the same man, in the enemy's trenches, with a naked sword or a bayonet, doing his best to mutilate and kill,—what does he look like to his foe? If he is not then what we understand by "a savage," he might as well be one,—for all the difference it makes to the man whose heart's blood is streaming down his weapon. It is not likely that he and his comrades will be remembered thenceforward by their foes as being of a "highly-civilized" race, and the models of amiability that they are to their wives and children. They will go down in the chronicles of their enemy (supposing that enemy to be some small unknown nation, ignorant of the other side of British nature) as ferocious warriors; and such chronicles will have nothing to say of British literature, religion, or art. A very good illustration of the effect of prejudice and ignorance may be seen in the picture sketched by Mr. Hepworth Dixon of a Cherokee chief; which was quoted in an early chapter of this book, and which—since the picture was palpably one-sided—ought to be rectified now. This "Billy Ross," whom Mr. Dixon took as an example of the intractable "savage," is spoken of by another writer* as "William P. Ross, a cultivated and accomplished gentleman." As Hepworth Dixon had himself visited the Indian Territory, the glaring inaccuracy of his portrait seems indefensible, and one can only express regret that his remarks should have led to the error of taking one of the many specimens of the educated Indian as an example of the ferocious savage. Still, if this Cherokee chief ever did go on the war-path (although the Cherokees are nearly all civilized hybrids), he and his followers may be assumed to have followed the old fashions of painting and scalping. And yet, at home, the leader was "a cultivated and accomplished gentleman!"
These remarks are rendered necessary by the fact that much of our information regarding Egyptians Proper seems to have been originally recorded by the people who knew least about them—their enemies—and that these enemies were almost quite ignorant of the internal polity of the "gypsies"; whose hieroglyphics they called "barbarous"
* Mr. Edward King; in his "Southern States of North America," p. 208.
characters," whose science was "magic," and whose religion was "sorcery and witchcraft."
Note.—Reference has already been made to Pictish coins, Douglas Groats, and the Gally-halfpenny, conjectured to be the "baubee." With regard to "Moorish" coins, generally, it may be stated that in a "hoard" found at Skaill, in Orkney, several years ago, a large number had been minted at Samarcand, bearing dates of (I believe) the eighth and ninth centuries. (They are referred to by Dr. Joseph Anderson, in his "Rhind Lectures.") The presence of Asiatic coins, in considerable numbers, would naturally suggest the presence of Asiatic people; the date leading one to infer that they had been brought by the latest Oriental invaders—the Black Danes. In speaking of certain English "Egyptians" of the year 1542, one writer states that "there money is brasse and golde." (Referred to at p. 14 of Mr. Crofton's "English Gipsies under the Tudors.") As for the "Douglas groats" of Galloway ("Moorish groats"), they are likely enough the same as the "tinkler's-tippence" ("gypsy's twopence") which Mactaggart defines as "useless cash, money full of harm." Since Mr. Halliwell rates the baubee as of lower value than a halfpenny, a twopenny-bit of the same nationality would be less than the value of twopence; although it would not become "useless cash" until the overthrow of the Douglas power had rendered "Douglas groats," and all other money of Douglas minting, quite valueless. That the money belonging to "John Faw, Lord and Earl of Little Egypt," in 1540, was of brass and gold, like that of the Egyptians mentioned by Andrew Borde in 1542, is most probable. And that one or other of their brass coins was "the inferior foreign coin" prohibited by Henry VIII., and known as a "gally-halfpenny" (and perhaps as a "baubee") is also very probable.
Grose makes a curious suggestion, in this respect. He states that there is—or was—"a small Indian coin, mentioned in the Gentoo code of laws," which is called a dam. And he hints that a slang expression, supposed to be of a profane nature, is connected with this coin; that, in short, "not worth a dam" means "not worth a farthing." What gives an air of soundness to this suggestion is the fact that this piece of "slang" sometimes assumes the enlarged form of "not worth a tinker's dam." If the word referred to a malediction, the phrase—especially in its latter shape—would be of little meaning. But after the enactment of Henry VIII., the "gally-halfpenny" was not worth anything. And if it was one of the brass coins of which Borde speaks, it was a "tinker's halfpenny." Consequently, a phrase might easily arise at that date which would compare anything that was worthless to "a brass farthing" or "a tinker's halfpenny"—a thing of no value whatever after the passing of the prohibitory law.
CHAPTER XV.
Just as there are many varieties of British "gypsies"—and two divisions, at least, of the black-haired, black-eyed, dark-skinned kind—so there are many varieties of "gypsy" speech.
There is Romanes Proper. There is the Minklers' Thari, Shelta Thari, or Tinkers' Language, which Mr. Leland "classes with the gypsy, because all who speak it are also acquainted with Romany;" and which seems to be a jumble of Romanes, Cant, and Gaelic. The Romanes of England (England Proper) is sub-divided by Mr. Sylvester Boswell into six varieties; "1st, that spoken by the New Forest Gypsies, having Hampshire for its headquarters; 2nd, the South-Eastern, including Kent and the neighbourhood; 3rd, the Metropolitan, that of London and its environs; 4th, the East Anglian, extending over Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambs, Lincolnshire, Northampton, and Leicestershire; 5th, that spoken in the 'Korlo-tem,' or Black Country, having Birmingham for its capital; 6th, the Northern." The writers* who quote this classification (which they do not wholly endorse) mention in addition the Romanes of Wales, and that of Yetholm. As Ireland and Scotland seem to have been scarcely examined at all by students of the nomadic or "tory" classes, and their speech, these districts are most likely capable of being partitioned off as England has been.
The above paragraph refers chiefly to Romanes and Shelta. Other dialects, which seem to belong mainly to the "Cant" family, are mentioned by Mr. Lucas.† "There is the Parvie's Cant, spoken in the north by hawkers and chap-
* Messrs. Smart and Crofton. See the Introduction to their "Dialect of the English Gypsies."
† "Yetholm History of the Gypsies;" Chapter XIII.
men [which may be the Pedlars' French of an earlier day]* . . . . ; the Buskan Cant, spoken by the Buskers, or travelling musicians,"† also in the north; the Manchester Thieves' Cant [probably the very language spoken by the "Rogues of the North," referred to by Harman],‡ which is quite distinct from the Patter of the London thieves, 'Thieves' patter'; Latin, the name of a cant; The Fly Language, Fly, or Flash; . . . . the Welshers' Cant, spoken by horse-dealers, who have a cant of their own;" and "the 'Backslang,' spoken by Irish costermongers, in which words are written or spoken backwards." The Fly, or Flash Language is regarded by Mr. Lucas as similar to, or identical with, Vlach, Wallach, or Welsh,—the last word being used in its meaning of Roth-Welsch.
It is likely that the various gypsy writers would each have several words to say for or against the various classifications here quoted. But that many unstudied dialects—if not languages—are still in use by certain sections of Modern Britons, is what none of these writers would dispute. The fact that some of these dialects can be limited to particular stretches of territory seems significant.
A most superficial and random examination of the "tory" languages, styled Romanes and Cant, shows that many such words are only separated from what we call "English" by their "tory" pronunciation. Pronunciation is a point that seems to be very often overlooked. People who have divided
* The fact has been overlooked in the foregoing pages, but it will likely become apparent that "nomadic-tradesman" cannot be separated from "nomad." Autolycus was first-cousin to Christopher Sly, if not brother. Indeed, since "gypsydom" is the ghost of nomadic nationality, it must contain fragments of all the component parts of a nation:—trade, manufacture, knowledge, and religion. And that the trader and the robber-noble can be one and the same person (odd though it seems), has been shown by the late Mr. John Richard Green, in his last book.
† The writer has somewhere seen a notice of the "Chapmen of the Lothians;" an existing brotherhood, which seems to hold an annual—or periodical—social meeting, at Edinburgh: at which meeting they address one or more of their members by the title of "lord" So-and-so.
‡ In Harman's case, "the north" signifies nothing more northern than the Borders; and probably the modern writer quoted above uses the term with the same limitation.
the British nation into two large sections of Saxon and Celt (quite oblivious of the fact that, if these two terms had ever a racial signification, that must have disappeared ages ago)—such people are more or less under the impression that "English" is one language and "Gaelic" another. The Gaelic vocabulary abounds with words that look different from English; but, when pronounced, they are simply "English." Sometimes they are identical in accent with what we call "English"—sometimes they differ slightly. And these are not modern English words to which a Gaelic twist has been given (of which kind of words there are several). Indeed, the farther one looks back upon "English," the more does it resemble "Gaelic." What is called the "Irish brogue" is to a considerable extent, the "English accent" of Spenser and Shakespeare. To read Shakespeare with our modern accent is not to read "Shakespeare" as its author pronounced the words; and that Shakespeare's accent was largely what we now call "Irish" is strongly maintained by an eminent Shakespearian scholar; who, to give one illustration, asserts that Shakespeare and his London contemporaries must have pronounced "dream" as "dhrame." We can all read the English writers of one or more centuries past, but it does not follow that we pronounce the words as they did. Even a man who can recall the early years of this century must remember many words whose pronunciation has altered, although the spelling remains the same. And, in several aspects, the older pronunciation tends to what we call a "Gaelic" or "Irish" accent. When a man of this day pronounces "tea" as "tay," and "sea" as "say," he is popularly regarded as speaking with an Irish accent (though this enunciation of the ea is not confined to Ireland). But, for how long a time has "tea" been pronounced as "tee"? Certainly it was not so pronounced in the London of Queen Anne:
"Thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey,
Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes—tay."
And this "Irish" accent in "English" becomes more and more frequent as one recedes from the days of Queen Anne. "That the speech of educated Irish gentlemen represents
the pronunciation of the English language at its best,—in the Elizabethan period, the period of Shakespeare and Bacon, and of our translation of the Bible,"—is the emphatic belief of (at least) two students of the English Language, Professor Newman and Mr. Richard Grant White.* The phrase "educated Irish gentlemen" is perhaps a trifle misleading; because it is quite likely that Irishmen coming under that description would disclaim (with reason) the possession of an accent so marked as that ascribed to the Elizabethans. Still, there are—throughout the English-speaking world—peculiarities of accent which distinguish one community from another; and there are many places in the British Islands, and elsewhere, where one can detect a local accent in the speech of men who are thoroughly "educated" and as thoroughly "gentlemen"—slight though that accent may be. Without discussing the probable educational and social grade of the supposititious Irishmen referred to, it is enough to say that an accent, belonging more to Ireland than to any other place, at the present day, is stated by these writers to have been the accent of Shakespeare and Bacon. And that, when they—or Spenser, or Raleigh, or Elizabeth herself—uttered the words dream, sea, seat, conceit, either, neither, suit, soul, distraction, and others of like kind, they pronounced them as if (according to our modern orthoepic ideas) they had been written dhrame, say, sate, consate, ayther, nayther, shoot, sowl, and deesthraction. In effect, the modern pronunciation of these words is an innovation—or a series of innovations; and the reason why the older accentuation is more connected with Ireland than elsewhere is identical with the reason which makes Dublin people talk of "jarveys," after that name has been forgotten in London. But the "Irish accent" belongs also to other parts of the United Kingdom: the Galloway "tory" who has been spoken of in these pages pronounce deal as dale, and one of Mr. Groome's English gipsies says rale for real; while old and gold, may be heard as ould, owd, gowd, &c., in many districts of the larger island. The ea sound is, indeed, plainly in a state of transition just now. It is counted a provincialism to pronounce sea and seat in the way that Bacon and Shakespeare did; but
* See Mr. Grant White's "Every-Day English," London, 1880, pp. 82-4.
it is quite correct to give that very accent to yea, break, great, steak, &c. And the old-fashioned pronunciation is still given to such proper names as Reay, Keay, Threave, Sleat, O'Shea, and McLean.* Now, all these old-fashioned pronunciations tend in the direction of "Gaelicism." And, when the best English accent was that which gave "born instead of bawn, car instead of cah, arms for alms, order for awduh, and lord for lawd;" and when the "l" was pronounced in such words as calm, talk, walk, &c.; then the enunciative tendency was also in the direction of "Gaelic."
Although one writer asserts that our "slang" words are nearly all Romanes, while another—with equal emphasis—ascribes their origin to Gaelic; and although Mr. Borrow found that the oldest Welsh words were every-day Romanes; and although the early Gaels, like the modern Romani, are stated to have come from the same country, namely Egypt; yet the above remarks are not intended to show a connection between Romanes and Gaelic (so-called). These remarks merely serve to illustrate what has been said with regard to pronunciation; that modern "English" is (as many people know) something that never existed before, and that almost certainly will be represented next century by a slightly different form of speech. And that the earlier pronunciations of many "English" words are to be found in "Gaelic" dictionaries. It is true that the words supplied by the author of "Every-Day English" were not intended to be examples of this class (although two or three of them are). But the tendency of their earlier pronunciation is in accordance with the phonetic principles of modern "Gaelic": which seems to indicate that the resemblance would increase more and more if one could learn the pronunciations given to "English" in the various centuries that preceded the Elizabethan era. Spelling is a matter of little moment, until one knows the
* One often hears the name of O'Shea pronounced O'Shee; and this is, of course, wrong. When a man refuses to speak with the accent that most of his educated fellow-countrymen acknowledge as the accent of their time, he is a provincialist. But every man is entitled to have his own surname pronounced in the ancestral fashion (whatever may be the newer accents of the day). And to pronounce O'Shea as anything else than O'Shay, is to be guilty of the same kind of blunder as the mis-pronunciation of such names as Cholmondeley, Colquhoun, and Grosvenor.
phonetic principle upon which that spelling is based. The (so-called) Gaelic words *beithir, claidheamh, crabhat, dragh, drabh, dre, geola, glaodh, lagh,* plangaid, rainnsaiche, siucar, stiubhard, and *tasg*, are represented in "English" dictionaries by the words *bear, glaive, cravat, drag* and *draw, draff, dray, yawl, glue, lag* and *law, blanket, ransack, sugar, steward, and task*. These "English" words give the meaning of the "Gaelic" ones; and very nearly give their exact pronunciation. At any rate, the resemblance is close enough to let one see that the former list reveals to us the earlier accent of certain "English" words; whose etymology they help to ascertain. Thus the chief difference between these two lists is that of phonetic principle.
The great difference between modern "English" and its earlier forms would be seen more visibly if the latter were written according to modern orthoepic rules. For example, any modern Englishman bearing such a name as "Yahd-weena" would be suspected to be of "foreign" extraction; whereas, if he were styled "Edwin," he would be regarded as the bearer of "a good old English name." But (if we are to believe those who know most about them†) the Anglo-Saxons would have stared at any one who addressed one of their number by such a name as "Edwin"; although one of their favourite names was "Eadwine," or "Yahd-weena" (as we should now write it, if we heard it for the first time). When we write the name of some Red-Indian chief, we spell it according to our ideas of spelling; but the names of early Britons we spell according to their ideas; which is somewhat confusing. And when our novelists describe the life of our peasantry in various parts of Ireland, they write down their speech phonetically. While if they attempt the impossible feat of placing before our eyes the every-day life of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, they make them speak with the accent of the educated nineteenth-century Londoner; instead of showing us, orthoepically, that their speech was
* The "lag" pronunciation is what is called Cant or Thieves' Slang. But this word *lagh* seems to show that the *x* in *lex* was a guttural; which would make the gradual transition to *law* more easily accounted for. There is, at least, one distinct example of the guttural accentuation of the Latin *x*—in the word *salax*, which is pronounced "salach" in the (so-called) Gaelic of the Scotch Highlands.
† See Mr. Grant Allen's "Anglo-Saxon Britain."
akin to that of the modern Irish provincialist, and akin also to that of the existing provincialist in the district delineated—whether Warwickshire or Middlesex.
The bearing of this upon the present subject will be seen if we examine a few English "gypsy" words. Mr. C. G. Leland has a chapter (in his "English Gipsies") upon "Gipsy words which have passed into English slang." Had these words been described as "English words which have lost caste, or whose pronunciation has altered," they would have been perhaps more accurately named. But it will be of more use to add to Mr. Leland's list of English words that are "gypsy," than simply to repeat that list here. The following are taken from vocabularies of "Romanes" and "Cant"; those words which are Romanes being indicated by the letter R.
Boutika. (R.). A Shop. Booth. A house. One list gives "the booth being raised" as a cant expression for "the house being alarmed." But booth, although generally used in modern English to denote something that is more of "a shop" than "a house," was used in what is called "Middle English" in the latter signification. It was also then spelt bothe, the pronunciation of which was probably bothy. In those parts of the British Islands which are furthest removed from the centre of modern British civilization, booth and bothy are still every-day words for "a house." (In these latter cases, modern nomenclature styles the words "Gaelic" and "Welsh.")
Bor. (R.) Mate, friend. (As pointed out in Messrs. Smart and Crofton's vocabulary, this word is as much "English" as "Romanes.")
Cappa or Caapa. (R.) A covering. Cap, Cape, Cope.
Caulo or Kaulo. (R.) Black. Collied, in the sense of "blackened," is used by Shakespeare; in the line (Mid. Night's Dream)—
"Brief as the lightning in the collied night."
"Collied" is derived by Professor Skeat from the same root as A.S. col, "a coal;" and "coals" are occasionally spoken of as "caulos" (lit. "blacks") in Romanes. Another form given by Mr. Skeat is cholo (ch. guttural); which is pretty nearly the same as caulo. Thus, when we talk of "coals" and the Romani of "caulos" we use what is really the same word, to denote the same thing.
Chor or chore. (R.) To steal. It has previously been pointed out that "the great distinguishing feature" of gypsyism (formerly, if not now) was to appropriate the goods of others. This was their work; and char, chares, and chores are "English" words relating to work.
Cumbo. A hill. (R.—Bryant.) Common all over England in such names as Edgcumbe, Wycombe, Morecambe.
Chéuri. A knife. (R.) Chive also given by Leland as Romanes. Chive is also included in a collection* of Cant words; with the definition "a knife." And Shive is still an English pronunciation; signifying "a slice," i.e. "something cut off." While shave is evidently a variant of shive. The Anglo-Saxon shivere, "a slice," seems to connect all of these words.
Chal. (R.) Fellow: e.g. Romani-chal=Romani-man. So also, in "English," marshal=mare man or horse-fellow.
Chavo or chavo. (R.) Boy. ? Chap and Chappie. Professor Skeat derives chap from the same source as chapman, namely cheap. On the other hand, Mr. Leland suggests that "shavers, as a quaint nick-name for children" is from the Romani chavies. It seems likely enough that both shavers and chaps have come from chavies and chabos. If this be so, then a Lowland-Scotchman, when he speaks of "a little boy" as "a bit chappie" (which is a common Scotch expression), is "talking gypsy." Because bit or bittie means "little" both in "Scotch" and in Romanes.* Its real meaning is, of course, "a bit of," "a piece of;" from which it has come to mean something little,—being used in such ways as "Wait a bittie" (Wait a little), "a bit bairn" (a "bit" of a child, a little child), "a bit callant,"† or, as above, "a bit chappie." This last phrase is taken in preference to the others, because it shows an every-day,* Scotch expression which, both in the adjective and the noun, is also every-day "Romanes" or "Gypsy."
Fams, or Fambles. Hands. The same words as palms and fumble. Falm is the Anglo-Saxon spelling of palms; and fumble is one of its derivatives.
Ful, Full, Fool. (R.) Excrement. This word is seen in Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, Lowland Scotch (obsolete, probably) and in our modern dictionaries—under the spelling ful or full, fulyic or foulyie, and foul. In some cases, it is used adjectively, and with slightly-different shades of meaning. The "gypsy" pronunciation is identical with the "Anglo-Saxon" and "Icelandic;" but the precise meaning is not identical in these cases. To find the same meaning as that attached to the "gypsy ful, one must look to the forms given in Jamieson's Scotch dictionary—fulyic and foulyic.
* That appended to Logan's "Pedlar's Pack of Ballads;" from which, and from Grose's Dictionary, these various Cant words are taken.
† "A bit callant" is said to signify "a very young girl," in the district of Galloway; but it seems to have a masculine application throughout the greater part of the Scotch Lowlands. In Ireland, as cailin (modernized into colleen), it is feminine; and in the Scotch Highlands and Western Isles it is used in the same way—caillinn, a girl; caillanta, girlish. But in the districts last named it is solely masculine when used as a proper name, viz., Cailean (Colin). This double usage is again seen in the word caillanta, which not only means "girlish" but also "fond of girls": whence it would seem that caileanta is the word that is spelt "gailant" in "English" dictionaries.
‡ It is, at least, a Scotch expression. Perhaps one or other of the kindred phrases given above might be found to be more "common" and "every-day" than this one.
Foki. (R.) Folk.
Hotchiwitchi. (R.) Hedgehog. An examination of the earlier forms of hedge and hog renders it at least a possibility that this is only a phonetic spelling of an archaic pronunciation of hedgehog.
Kid, Kiddy. Child. Anglo-Saxon cild.
Laund. Field. Like the preceding this word is not claimed as Romanes; but is included among "Cant" terms. It is evidently the Anglo-Norman launde, "a lawn"; and virtually the same as the modern lawn, llan and land (the last of these being a farmer's word, applied to the unploughed divisions of a field.)
Matto or Matti. Drunk. (R.) This is the same word as Mad. Mr. Skeat states that mad is "not connected with Sanskrit matta, mad (pp. of mad, to be drunk)." But while our dictionaries usually define mad as synonymous with insane or crazy, the word is used in Gloucestershire (see Halliwell) to signify "intoxication," and in the tents of the "tories" it has the same meaning. In the United States (more than in this country) mad has still the meaning of angry. Thus, although a scholar has stated that mad is "not connected with Sanskrit matta," it seems most apparent that it is. And that it has been, and is applied to various kinds of insanity.
Mang, Mong, Monger. (R.) Maund, Maunder. (Cant.) To beg: a beggar. Still found, as maunder, in modern English dictionaries; and, in French dictionaries as mendier and demander.
Mindj, minish. (R.) Used by Mr. Groome's Hungarians ("In Gipsy Tents," p. 40) in the sense of "woman;" that is minx. Assuming that the Hungarian mindj, the modern minx, and the "tory" mindj, are virtually one word; this would give to minx an origin similar to that ascribed by Borrow to rom, "a husband or man."
Mongeri, Mengro, &c. (R.) This word has several forms, and it is not easily rendered into modern English. This may be seen by glancing at a few of the many words into which it enters. From the words nasher, to run—kester, to ride—matcho, a fish—bosho, a fiddle—and kalsi, a pair of scissors,—are made the compound words, nashermengro, kestermengro, matchomengro, boshomengro and kalsimengro; which signify "a runner, a rider, a fisher, a fiddler, and a scissors-grinder." The word has many shapes, and many applications, being used in relation to inanimate objects as well as to men. But one of its equivalents is clearly monger, as used in such a word as iron-monger or iron-master. (Another word would perhaps show more clearly that monger and master can be used as synonyms.) Now, the word which we pronounce monger was once written mangere and mangari. And the "tory" pronunciation is thus much nearer those forms which we call "Anglo-Saxon" and "Icelandic." The modern monger seems to be merely an evolution from the "tory" mengro, mengery, mengere, mongeri, &c.
Naam, nav. (R.) Name. Simson (p. 300) gives the first form; the second is more common. This is simply name; which, in Anglo-Saxon was nama, in Dutch naam, and in Danish navn.
Pand. (R.) To bind. ? Band and bind.
Pad. Path. Padder. A highwayman. Rum-pad. The highway (lit. Romani-path, or Roman-road). This word seems to be regarded as "Cant." It appears in modern English in the compound word "foot-pad," (which is itself a curious instance of divergence in meaning, from the one word, since foot, path, and pad are radically one). Thus pad, in the sense of "road," is only a "tory" pronunciation of path.
Siv. Sow. (R.) To sew. A needle. This is Sanskrit su, siv, "to sew"; in Anglo-Saxon, siwian. Thus the "gypsy" siwomengro, "a tailor," is really "sew-monger." There is no modern English word to denote "a man who sews clothes;" because a tailor is radically a cutter. In Somersetshire, there is a word sewster, which means a "sempstress;" but there is apparently no masculine form extant,—except that in use among the "tory" castes. If siwian-mangare was good Anglo-Saxon for a "dealer, or worker, in sewing," then siwomengro is nearer the Anglo-Saxon pronunciation than sew-monger (which is the shape which it would take if used by modernized people).
Thus it appears that the earlier English pronunciation of sew, and also a derivative from that word (not found in modern dictionaries), may yet be heard "in gypsy tents."
It will therefore be seen that some—if not all—of the words given in the above list "are only separated from what we call 'English' by their 'tory' pronunciation." And it is this "tory" or old-fashioned accent that distinguishes, generally, the speech of "gypsies" from that of modern people of education; when the language employed is what we call "English." When one looks at certain peculiarities of utterance ascribed to "gypsies," one sees that the peculiarity is solely of the "tory," or "extremely-conservative," or "very old-fashioned" description. For example, one reads that "English Gypsies . . . hardly ever employ any other [definite-article] than the English word the, which they, like other foreigners, often pronounce de." And a specimen of this is afforded by another of the gyspiologists: "Dere now, boy, goand meet your sister. Dere's de bull a roaring after her. She will fall down in a faint in de middle ob de ribber. . . . Dey do say dat dat is a very bad bull after women." But "English Gypsies" are not the only existing English people who speak in this way. Here is a specimen of the ordinary Sussex dialect, as submitted to the Philological Society,* by one of its members; the passage supposed to be spoken being (as every one knows) from the Song of Solomon:—"I
* See the Society's "Transactions" for 1862-3 (Part II. p. 263.)
be de roaz of Sharon, and de lily of de valleys": "O my dove, dat's in de clifts of de rock, in de secret plauces of de stairs." This is the ordinary dialect of Sussex. And Kent possesses the same characteristic. "Dat dere pikey is a reglar black-tan," is a sentence that Mr. Halliwell* put into the mouths of the Kentish peasantry. This same feature is also noticed by many of those who render the "English" of the Irish peasantry phonetically; such words as with, without, &c., being written wid, widout, &c.: (and perhaps the, that, there, &c., are similarly spelt by such writers). Shetland, also, still retains this archaic sound. In the seventeenth-century "Description of Galloway," it is stated that "some of the country people, especially those of the elder sort, do very often omit the letter h after t, as ting for thing; tree for three; tatch for thatch; wit for with; fait for faith; mout for mouth." This t sound is somewhat sharper than that just spoken of, but it is another form of the same kind of enunciation. And, at the present day, the t sound (in place of th) is probably much more common throughout the British Islands than the deeper d. In the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, in Cumberland, Westmoreland, Yorkshire, and in Lancashire, this substitution of t for th is prevalent.
What all this really means is that th being a comparatively new sound in the British Islands, all British people have not yet learnt its use; some being at the t stage; and others, farther behind, at d. It is true that "gypsies" are "like other foreigners" when they say de instead of the; but the "foreigners" with whom they are most connected are their (and our) forefathers, who entered these islands a thousand years ago—and at other periods still farther back. Those early "East-men" and others were, in this as in other respects, vastly more like "gypsies" than like "us": like Mr. Groome's Lovell family, they had "hardly a th among them,"—in some cases, none at all. When path was pronounced pad there was no th; although d became gradually aspirated afterwards into p and t.
Similarly, the accent which gives "ob de ribber," instead of
* In his "Dictionary;" under the word "Black-tan."
"of the river,"* is merely old-fashioned. B is simply an older form of v and f. In Spanish, b is actually v; as may be learnt from the pronunciation of Caballero, Sabado, and Habana (in each of which words b has the sound of our v). In Gaelic, v is unknown—as v; but it is heard again and again as b aspirated (and also as m aspirated, but with a more nasal sound). Such words as oval, carve, grave (the verb), and livre (French) are expressed in what is called "Gaelic" by the spellings—ubhal, cearb and corbh, grabh, and leabhar; the pronunciation of the consonants in the latter list being identical with that of the former. The Gaelic sgriobh is nothing else than scrive or scribe, which is still pronounced screeve in "Cant;" and from which came the word scrivener. The word Gawain, Gawn, Gavin, or Govan is written Gobhainn in Gaelic; and its other form Gow is written Gobha. But, although written "bh," the modern Gaelic accent is always v or w. Nevertheless, as its presence indicates, and as an able archaeologist has already stated, "the b was pronounced in old time." So that, to say "ob de ribber" is to speak with an Old-Gaelic accent. And that (according to the Gadelas-and-Scota tradition) is to speak with an Egyptian accent.
The "gypsy" vocabularies show yet another evidence of "toryism." This is furnished by the interchangeable nature of the letters v and w. I believe, this is popularly regarded as a cockneyism; probably because it characterizes such men as the "Wellers" of Dickens. That it forms a striking feature of Romanes, has just been observed: it is also an accent of Norfolk—and of many other parts of the country. The "Description of Galloway" (in the seventeenth-century) has already been referred to, in this connection; and, speaking of those "country people, especially those of the elder sort," who "do very often omit the letter h after t," this writer goes on to say:—"So also, quite contrary to some north country people, (who pronounce v for w, as voe for woe; volves for wolves,) they oftentimes pronounce w for v, as serwant for servant; wery for very; and so they call the months of February, March, and April, the ware quarter, w
* Mr. Borrow also gives an instance of this in "Wild Wales" (Vol. III. p. 346), where he has "Dibbel" for "Duvel."
for \( v \), from \( ver \).* This writer draws a distinction between those who use \( v \) for \( w \), and those who use \( w \) for \( v \). Whether he is right in doing so or not, it is clear that the letter \( v \) has no place in "Gaelic" and "Anglo-Saxon" vocabularies; and it seems that in Latin (as in the well-known \( veni \), \( vidi \), \( vici \)) its pronunciation is that of \( w \). (And if this was its invariable sound in Latin, then—if the paradox may be allowed—the Latin \( v \) was not a \( v \) at all, but a \( w \).) In such books as Barbour's Bruce (written in "the Inglis toung") and the Wallace of Henry the Minstrel, one looks in vain for \( v \); waley, wencusyt, weng, wer, werray, weryté, wyser, wictailyt, woce and woyd being the spellings of valley, vanquished, 'venge, ver, very, verity, visor, victualled, voice and void. But it is unnecessary to take particular instances. One has only to go back a few centuries to find the "Weller" accent prevailing through English literature. The Galloway parson of two centuries ago expressed that particular accent in the same fashion as Dickens did,—namely, by substituting \( w \) for \( v \), and writing "serwant for servant," and "wery for very." This also is the plan adopted in Barbour's Bruce. How general that orthographical fashion may have been, and in what districts, is unknown to the present writer. But if the \( w \) was not always used where we now require \( v \), the letter \( u \) was employed instead; which gives the same result. When it was not "serwant" and "wery," it was "servuant" and "uery." And as \( u \) was really \( oo \) (and not \( yew \)) it did not affect the sound of "serwant," in the least, though spelt "servant." Thus, this "gypsy" indifference to the modern distinction between \( v \) and \( w \) is simply another "tory" feature. In this, as in so many other things, it is they (and not we) who are "so English."
Indeed, their old-fashioned accent crops up every here and there. It was a "gypsy" who said "priestés," as Chaucer did, not "priests," as we do. Modernized Englishmen speak of "aloes" as "ayloz"; but "tory" Englishmen talk of
* This transposition is still represented by the common Scotch spelling of the surname Vere, namely Weir. Although really the one name, the \( w \) pronunciation (as well as spelling) is generally that preferred by Scotch families bearing that name. However, one instance has come under the notice of the present writer, in which a Scotch family—one in very humble circumstances—has preserved the pronunciation Vere while adhering to the spelling Weir.
"aloways." Norfolk people who live in houses may say "Low'stoft"; but those who still live as the people in Norfolk did "six hundred years ago" give full effect to the original meaning of the word and pronounce it "Low'es-toft."
But it is unnecessary to enlarge upon these toryisms of speech. There are people who believe that "English Gypsies" are "foreigners" who landed in England three or four centuries ago; but who, although known as formidable marauders quite recently, had entered the country so quietly that history has no word of their arrival. These people talk of them as "Orientals" and "Asiatics;" and we are informed that "any one desirous of viewing an Asiatic encampment, in Scotland, should visit St. Boswell's Green, a day or two after the fair." And it is shown to us that their language is closely connected with Sanskrit; and that many of their customs are of "Eastern" origin. But the scholars of the past century have been preaching to us that we are "Asiatics" (whichever "wave" may have borne our individual ancestors hither); that our language is also closely connected with Sanskrit; and that our ideas and customs are largely of "Oriental" origin. If Scotland has ever, in all its history, contained people who did not come from "the East," such people must have "viewed an Asiatic encampment in Scotland" when that portion of Great Britain was invaded by the Black Danes, or East-Men, and also when it was invaded earlier by the races known by the title of "Saxons." And although the Egyptian-Scots were not precisely "Asiatics," they were assuredly of "Eastern" extraction. It seems to have been assumed that all the motley colonists of the British Islands have advanced in civilization at almost precisely the same rate. The probability that pride of race—political differences—and the natural aversion to a code that is based upon peace and industry,—the probability that such causes might retard the development of one or many of these warring castes seems hardly to have been considered. Had any section or sections of those early "Eastern" immigrants adhered more tenaciously than others to the warlike, nomadic ideas, the earlier forms of speech, and the various non-Christian and non-European customs of our
Asiatic forefathers, they would resemble no other British people so closely as the various "tory" castes, who are "commonly called Egyptians." That this name "Egyptian" eventually came to mean little more than "Tory" has already been noticed; and the several British nations who were originally "Orientals" will be briefly glanced at in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XVI.
The statement made by one writer, that, eventually, "the name of Egyptians was wholly lost in that of Rapparees or Tories," may be true of one particular period; but the converse seems to hold with regard to the era of which the two Simsons wrote. For in their book it is quite clear that all Rapparees (or Robbers, as we now pronounce the word) and Tories were included under the name of "gypsy." Although the Messrs. Simson remind us that John Faw, Earl of Little Egypt, was an Ethiopian, and "in law" an Egyptian; and although they tell us that many of the Scotch tribes asserted their descent from Ethiopians and Egyptians; yet they nevertheless regard large clans of nomadic Xanthochroi,—fair-skinned, blue eyed, yellow-haired—as out-and-out gypsies. And at the place to which we are directed if we wish to see an Asiatic encampment in Scotland, at St. Boswell's Green, the preponderating element among the modern campers is distinctly that of the "fair white." Moreover, such Xanthochroic nomads used (we are told) to speak the language, or languages, and follow the social and religious customs of gypsies. And thus, according to this mode of reasoning, all of those tribes—white, brown, and black—were gypsies.
Instead of using "gypsy" in this vague fashion, it is evidently much better to employ the word "Tory"; accepting it in its early sense of Sorner and Ultra-Conservative (from which second meaning has, of course, come the nickname applied to the more Conservative division of modern politicians). That certain clans are, or were, distinctly Moorish or Ethiopian in complexion, and probably Egyptian by origin, is unmistakable; and these dark-skinned clans are said by a modern writer to be divisible into two sections
"of entirely different original stock." The same writer applies one name—that of Romani—to this compound people; though it is obvious that the name can only properly belong to one of these types. But, whatever their title to this name, these dark-skinned people are the inheritors of "Moorish" blood; and it may be that both stocks have an ancestral right to the name of "Egyptian." These, then, are Gypsies Proper: and it is likely they represent, if only in a partial degree, two primitive Egyptian types. In addition to these Gypsies Proper, who (in the British Islands) are said to number "only a few hundreds," at the present day, there are the nomadic mixed-bloods, of whom there are "many thousands." This calculation, however, takes in both the half-breeds and those "who have only a very slight trace of the dark blood;" and the latter kind are supposed to form the great majority of this nomadic mixed-blood population. Although some writers talk of the members of this large class as "gypsies," the Gypsies Proper (and those gypsiologists who know most about their subject) do not recognize them as anything but "half-and-halfs" and "mongrels" of various degree. And, since the half-bloods among them are distinctly in the minority, it is plain that this large roaming population of "many thousands" belongs more to the Xanthochroic section than to any other; though containing a strong dash of the blood of Gypsies Proper. The tribes of purely Xanthochroic "gypsies," spoken of by the Scotch writers, would (if not already included in the above list) add still more to the white element in this division.
Besides the "few hundreds" of Gypsies Proper, and the "many thousands" of nomads who share the genuine Gypsy blood in one degree or another, there are also many millions of sedentary British people, whose physical attributes attest a like descent. Some of these are (ethnologically) Gypsies Proper, more of them are "half-breeds," and the rest of them (probably the majority) only show by their black hair, or by black or hazel eyes, or by a pale skin, that one or more of their forefathers owned a different pedigree from that of the typical red-and-white skinned, blue-eyed or grey-eyed, and yellow-haired "fair white." Of this same
sedentary population, the other portion (said by one writer to be the lesser) has no hint whatever of this "gypsy" blood. This sedentary population—in other words, almost the whole Modern-British people—is so intermingled that although the separate types are quite visible they do not separate family from family; since all the varieties may be found in one family-connection. And any lines of demarcation that are visible in this population are the effect of money and good-breeding (or the want of these attributes): there is no division of caste. A Melanochroic lady does not refuse to marry a man because he has blue eyes and yellow hair: one man does not "cut" another on the ground of differing complexion. There is no racial antipathy whatever in this body—the British people, minus its nomads. To be the darkest of the Melanochroi, or the fairest of the Xanthochroi, neither tells for or against a man's social position. It is only when one gets among the "tories" that this ancient grudge of race is felt. The more of the "dark blood" that the gypsy has, the prouder he is: he despises the gaujos, or white men, and asserts that "the breed of 'em is bad." On the other hand, the tory gaujo taunts his swarthy rival with "the black devil in his face." The Faws (who seem to have been once distinctly black) are always fighting the Baillies, whom the recorder of this fact proclaims to have been white.
It seems quite plain, then, that those people whom many speak of as "gypsies" can only be called "tories;" although one or two divisions of the "tories" may be accurately denominated "gypsies." Thus, the white blood that is the predominating element among British nomads, represents the least-modernized portions of the white-skinned races of Britain: and the dark blood of the genuine gypsy is that of the "tory" division of the dark races.
To say that the white blood preponderates among our modern nomads is not to contradict the statement that nearly all these nomads (at least, in England Proper) have "a suspicion of gypsiness" in their blood and in their speech. It only serves to show that the genuine gypsy was of a ruling race; a race that impressed itself most strongly upon the whites. So strongly, that although the really black gypsy of two centuries ago seems to have quite vanished (by intermarriage, exile, and execution), yet this modern floating population of "many thousands" takes its tone from the minority of a "few hundreds"—this minority, itself, being far from pure-blooded. That the white blood preponderates throughout the British population—settled or not—is quite evident. The dark-whites are said to be in the majority; but they themselves are mixed-bloods; and, consequently, the dark blood only forms a proportion of about one-fourth to three-fourths of white.
It has been occasionally suggested in these pages that the tory tribes and confederacies were the remains of various conquering robber races, whose fierce natures had, in course of time, placed them among the "criminal classes," in a population whose main desire is to live quietly and safely; and that this latter population was made up chiefly of people who had once been enslaved by those savage invaders, but had gradually—century after century—asserted themselves more and more; until, at length, by actual fighting, and subsequently by enactments which embodied their own ideas, they had succeeded in conquering their conquerors, many of whom they had absorbed into their own society. The "irreconcilable" or "tory" sections of these conquering races had, it was supposed, thus become our modern "gypsies."
But, to support this theory properly, it is necessary to assume that the British Islands contained a population, at a very remote period, that was not of "Oriental" or "Asiatic" extraction. And that everything that characterized them except their physique, had been quite destroyed and submerged by the successful and successive invasions of various Eastern nations, who had impressed upon them their languages, their ideas, their religion, their amusements, and, in short, everything that can distinguish one people from another. And if the conventional idea that the white skin marks the European, as distinguished from the Asiatic or the African, if this idea be founded upon facts of a very old date, it would be necessary to believe that Frank, Frangi, or Feringhee, is a name that has been bestowed upon West-Europeans for a period almost illimitable. That it is the name given to West-Europeans by Asiatics at the
present day is well known; and, for that reason, it seems likely that the first occasion on which a West-European people received the name of "Franks" was when it was given to them by a race of invading Asiatics.*
It is popularly believed that our white blood is all of Asiatic origin; and that the first "Feringhees" were Orientals. There can be no doubt that there are, and have been, plenty of white Asiatics; and the belief referred to, although resting to a considerable degree upon the treacherous support of language and laws, has many reasons in its favour. But a good deal might be said in support of a theory of white invasions from the North and West. At one important period of their history the British Islands were simultaneously overrun by two nations; the one known to the then "British" as North Men, and the other as East Men. And the North Men were called "gentiles of pure colour," while the East Men were "black foreigners." It is true that those North Men are believed to have been themselves of Asiatic descent; and this may be incontrovertible. But, at any rate, it is certain that a colony of those North Men, starting from Iceland, settled in Greenland during the tenth century; and that, when some of these Icelanders explored a portion of the North American continent (in the year 1000 and subsequently), they found not only a population of an Eskimo and Samoyed character, in the territory now known as New England, but they also discovered a country adjoining this district, which they named The Land of the White Men. This Land of the White Men is assumed by some to mean the whole extent of territory that stretches between Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Whatever its exact situation, it received its name from the complexion of its inhabitants. Its alternative title (among the North Men) was "Great Ireland;" and it is stated that the language of the people "resembled Irish." Moreover, these same records speak of an intercourse at this period—the tenth century—between "Great" Ireland and our own island of the same name. It is, of course, impossible to say what kind of language was called "Irish," eight or nine centuries
* The name of Frangifani is at least twelve hundred years old in Italy; and the words Frangi Pani signify "The Frankish Sea."
ago. In the century preceding this discovery of a trans-Atlantic "White Man's Land" the kings who ruled at Dublin were Northmen; the first of this line being Olave the White, who conquered Dublin in 852, "and founded the most powerful and permanent of the Norse kingdoms in Ireland." And it is said that, five hundred years before this, the "supreme King of Ireland" was a man bearing the Icelandic name of Neil, Nial, or Njal (remembered as "Nial of the nine hostages"). Of course, during these very periods, Ireland contained populations other than Norse: for example, the Scot-Egyptians, from whom it received its name of "Scotia." Thus, when the band of Icelanders, who penetrated to the trans-Atlantic "Land of the White Men," stated that the language of these white men "resembled Irish," it is difficult to know what form of "Irish" speech they had in view. But these Norse records plainly speak of a White-Irish population on either side of the Atlantic, in the tenth century and previously. Not the least important point is, that the trans-Atlantic Ireland was the one named "Great:" which fact is quite opposed to the idea that its people were merely colonists from Little Ireland. It may be that those who have identified Great Ireland with the greater part of the Eastern and Southern States have been in error in assuming that the configuration of the Atlantic sea-board was the same at that period as now. In eight or nine centuries many changes in the earth's surface may take place. And the "White Men's Land" of the tenth century may be now wholly covered by the Atlantic Ocean. However, without speculating as to its probable connection with "the lost Atlantis," it is enough to emphasize the fact that Great Ireland lay on the western side of the Atlantic in the tenth century; and that, therefore, the white races of Ireland were more likely colonists from "Great Ireland" than the founders of a western empire vastly greater than Ireland.*
It is well to remember, also, that from the sixth century onward, the Scots of Ireland were leaving that island and settling in the northern parts of Britain (and in some of its other portions also): which might mean that they were ex-
* These particulars regarding the Norse discoveries in America are taken from the standard work on the subject,—Antiquitates Americana; published in 1837.
pelled by immigrants from the White Man's Land that lay somewhere to the west of Ireland. That the Atlantic should have been much narrower then than now is quite possible. The fact that illiterate peasants all along the western shores of Europe and the British Islands have traditions of submerged territories lying to the west, is very significant. Geology can say nothing for or against the truth of the tradition; since geologists know nothing of the sub-Atlantic stratifications. But it is inconceivable that such a belief could have been preserved among unlettered people, and yet be without any foundation in reality.
Therefore, a theory which would identify the British "Franghees" of pre-historic times with white nations living in the countries bordering the Atlantic, rather than with the Asiatic robber-tribes that established various temporary sovereignties in these islands; such a theory might be found to have a good deal to say for itself. But it would be necessary to believe that such a hypothetical "Feringhee" nation had been so long conquered that everything that characterized it (except racial qualities) had been wholly lost. Because it seems that all our "Old English" customs, languages, &c., are traceable to the East. Or, otherwise, it would have to be assumed that such early "Feringhees" had no civilization or learning of their own at all: for these, also, seem to have come to us from the East.
But it scarcely seems worth while to differ from the accepted theory of an Eastern origin of all British people. In reviewing the points of difference between British gypsies (so-called) and other British people, what seems most apparent is that the essence of that difference has chiefly been custom, disposition, and ideas,—rather than race. That, in short, the word "tory" is the best explanation of gypsyism. And that the people who, at all periods, have regarded the nomadic castes as different from themselves, have simply been people who (and whose immediate ancestors) have forgotten their ancestral customs, religion, and forms of speech; and who have gradually developed those independent characteristics which we call "Western" or "European." The never-ceasing flux and re-flux of races in Western Europe, during the past two thousand years, have made it
possible for one section of men—become rapidly civilized in one locality, and then migrating to another—to regard the natives of their new home as aliens, for no better reason than that these natives had adhered to the ancient manners that the immigrants had given up two, three, or four centuries earlier. Of course, there have also been racial differences of the most marked character, but these are quickly disappearing by intermixture. Even yet there is a most visible contrast between a fair-skinned, blue-eyed, yellow-haired Briton, and the darkest of all living British people (probably a "Roman"). But though the difference between these two is very great, yet the whole British population is connected by blood with both.
It must be remembered that this is a nation of hybrids. It has not one origin and one history; but many origins and many histories. Actual British history—the history of the British Islands as one country—is very brief. The Modern-British have scarcely had time to acquire a history and traditions. Of their early origins, the educated British people have no tradition whatever; because these origins are separate. Last century, when Cowper wrote "Boadicea," he and his readers believed themselves to be descended from the British of ante-Caesarian days. This century, when Kingsley wrote his "Ode to the North-east Wind," the same kind of people believed that their forefathers were the invaders who conquered those earlier races. As a matter of fact, the Modern British people know nothing certain about their remote ancestors. The majority of them know nothing at all about their ancestors, near or remote; and as for the few who have tolerably good grounds for believing that this or that man was an "ancestor" five, ten, or fifteen hundred years ago, none of them can actually prove the connection. Before a man can succeed to land or honours, at the present day, he is required to give incontrovertible proofs that he really is the man he professes to be. And it is quite as necessary that his proofs should be equally clear and incontrovertible before he can be accepted as one of the descendants of a remote ancestor. Unless the chain that appears to join him to the man of a thousand years ago is one unbroken series of links, the reputed pedigree is no pedigree at
all. Moreover, even though such a pedigree should be clearly established, it is almost of no use to ethnology. Randolph of Roanoke was the legitimate descendant of a Red-Indian (and the distance was only a tithe of a thousand years), but that did not make him a Red-Indian. Thus, the people who really have some shadowy right to be regarded as the posterity of one or other of the figures in early history, cannot, by reason of their own physical attributes, furnish us with a genuine clue to the outward appearance of that ancestor. Because it is likely that no instance exists of such indisputable kind of pedigree (of a thousand years or more); and because, if such case does exist, it only relates to one ancestor, and the hypothetical modern may have no outward resemblance whatever to this particular progenitor.
There can be no doubt that the difference between "gypsies" (so-called) and other people has been, to a great extent, the difference between the "tory" and the modern. So that the darkest of the educated Melanochroi, outwardly a Gypsy Proper, or, at least, a half-breed, might visit such a scene as Mr. Simson's "Asiatic encampment" at St. Boswell's, and see many families of Xanthochroi, who were living the lives of "gypsies"—while he and his whole kindred for many generations had been always in the van of British civilization. Using "gypsy" in this loose fashion "gypsy" signifies no distinction of race.
But it is also beyond a doubt that the dividing lines between the various sections of British people are more and more distinctly marked as one recedes from the present. And that certain attributes, of body and mind, have been closely associated with certain nations of dark-skinned magic-workers, this connection being discernible even yet.
The historical names for these people (so far as concerns the British Islands) have been assumed to be these:—the painted "Moors" of ante-Caesarian Britain, known by such names as Silurians, and spoken of as Druids or Magicians, whose customs caused the nickname of "Blueskin" or "Green-Man" to be applied to them by Caesar; also the Scots of Ancient Scotia, or Ireland, who seem to have left that island for Great Britain at various periods, beginning so early as the fourth century; also a section of the Italian
"Romani," who—though forming part of the Latin nationality—seem still to have preserved much of their individual blood, customs, and speech (the latter being styled Low-Latin by the Latins Proper); and, lastly, the Cimbri, or Dani, or East Men, of the ninth century, who are remembered by various British provincialists as "black heathen" and "black Danars," or "Danes," and whose tribute, in one particular instance, was called "the tribute of the black army."
That all of these were black-skinned, or brown-skinned races there are many reasons for believing; and there are also many reasons for believing that some (at least) of them were the darked-skinned progenitors of the modern British Melanochroi,—inclusive of those families still retaining many ancient characteristics, and known as Gypsies Proper. It may be that all of these swarthy races have branched out from one parent stem, in Egypt or Assyria; and, though passing through the most varied experiences, in various countries, have still retained some of the features by which their kinship to one another can be recognized. It is certain that the surest proof of kinship is that of physical features: and that language, though a most important witness, cannot be wholly relied upon, in trying to ascertain "the pedigree of nations" (whatever may have been the opinion of Dr. Samuel Johnson). In this special instance no clearer proof of the fallacy of trusting exclusively to language can be found, than in the fact that very many British "gypsies," past and present, have been proficients in the language of the "Romani," though themselves belonging to a wholly opposite ethnical type; while a nation such as the "Black Mountaineers," or Montenegrins, whom an authority on this subject regards as a nation of Gypsies Proper,—these people are perfectly ignorant of the Romani speech.
Let us then glance hastily at the several historical invasions that may be regarded as invasions of Gypsies Proper. And the natural thing to do is to look back from where we now stand.
Captain Burt's allusion to the "German refugee women" and the "Moors" in London, one of whose fashions he compared to that in use among certain classes in the north
of Scotland; and the fact that the Gypsies Proper of Germany were then suffering persecution and banishment; also the existence of some words in Romanes and Cant that seem to be of modern German connection (esel, von, &c.); these things render it almost certain that some families of Gypsies proper arrived in this country only last century.
It is likely that occasional arrivals of the same unimportant description took place during the period stretching from the eighteenth century back to the Norman Conquest. Although the Flemings have been taken in these pages as exclusively Xanthochroic, it may be necessary to modify this belief considerably. We are told that "the fourteenth century was remarkable for the numbers and excellence of the Flemish Sprinkers, Zeggers, and Vinders, or wandering poets;" and a class of this kind is very suggestive of those "strolling bards" who, in our own islands, were identified with "the idle people calling themselves Egyptians." Moreover, pedlars cannot be well dissociated from gypsies; and it may appear that many traders of gypsy blood entered the British Islands as "Flemings." As for the Norman Conquest, it is clear that that signified the introduction of much that was genuinely "gypsy." The foremost "Norman" in the charge at Hastings was Tulliver the juggler: and it may be that such clans as the Rolands and the Bosvilles have not been British for more than eight hundred years. An element in British-Romanes that is more suggestive of French than of any other form of speech has already been noticed. And the connection between the Normans and the Jugglers or Jongleurs has also been referred to. Although John of Rampayne was of such a complexion that he required to "stain his hair and his whole body entirely as black as jet" in order to sustain his assumed character, he was, nevertheless, "an excellent juggler and minstrel" himself. Though not one of the Romani by birth, he was a good specimen of the aficionado. Another kindred example is that of James V. of Scotland (1512-1542); who was a most pronounced Bohemian, in nature, although described as yellow-haired, and blue-eyed, with an aquiline nose and oval face, and as being a typical representative of his family—the Stewarts—who "came in with the Conqueror." This
James spent much of his brief existence in the society of North-British Egyptians: one of their nobles being styled by him "our loved John Faw, Lord and Earl of Little Egypt," and James himself being presumably well acquainted with "the beggar's tongue," although it does not appear that the love of language was his primary reason for going a-gypsying.* Indeed, there is a singular consistency in Mr. Simson's statements, that "old Charles Stewart, a gypsy chief, at one period of no small consequence among these [Fife, Stirling, and Linlithgow] hordes," was a man of fair complexion, and that "he affirmed, wherever he went, that he was a descendant of the royal Stewarts of Scotland."
Again, although "The Song of Roland," relates to the achievements of one who fought against
\[
\text{the cursèd heathen folk,} \\
\text{As black as ink—all black except their teeth,}
\]
yet we find a notice, in the year 1549, of "John Roland, oon of that sorte of people callinge themselfes Egiptians;" and "Roland" is still the surname of a (so-called) "half-blood" clan, said to live "chiefly about London." Altogether, it seems likely that a great fusion of races was going on during the centuries that are called "mediaeval." The mail-clad Norman Bruce was momentarily seen defending himself against a swarm of naked "Moors:" the Teutonic League (which is equivalent to saying "the Frankish League," since Frankish = Tudesque) was formed to repel the attacks of the "Saracenic" invaders of West Europe: the legendary knights fought against "felon" knights and Paynim knights, or "Heathen" (in token of which the "Moor's head" became a frequent heraldic bearing): "to tilt at the Saracen" was the preliminary exercise for the young Western warrior, before he had learned to face the veritable Paynim in the flesh; "to fight like a Turk"; "to catch a Tartar;"
* Mr. Simson points out that this same James latterly passed a very severe law against those Gypsies who lived within that part of North Britain which was then "Scotland"; but he keeps in view that (whatever may have given rise to this enactment) he was otherwise a strong friend to North-British Egyptians.
It may be as well to mention that the reference to "the beggars' tongue" is made by James himself, in the ballad of "The Gaberlunzie Man" (of which he is admitted to be the author).
be subjected to the depredations of "thieving Tartarians;" all these were the experiences of certain sections of British people. But, in spite of this, the two opposite confederations seem to have greatly affected each other,—in blood and manners. The "knight-errant" seems plainly to be the child of the "Saracen" as well as of the "Frank"; and to have passed from "knight-errant," or "cavalier-who-ventures-life-for-gain," into the position of "thieving Tartarian," or "common thief," "commonly called Egyptian."
Whatever may have been the various race-combinations in Britain, at and after the Norman Conquest, the arrival of the Black Danes seems to mark the first important inroad of Asiatics (if we look backward from the nineteenth century).
These people are remembered in Gaelic records as Black-Lochlinners (Black Scandinavians), Dubh Galls, or Dubh Gennti (black foreigners, or people), and also as "black Danars." Another account speaks of them as "Dani or Cimbri," and they are called latrones, pirates, or robbers, "in the Gallic tongue." They are remembered as Ost-men, or East-men. "They make their first appearance [in the British Islands] in the year 793 in an attack upon the island of Lindisfarne;" and they are said to have overrun the Hebrides in the same year. "Simeon of Durham tells us that in 875 the host of the Danes who had ravaged the east coast of Britain divided itself into two bands, one of which under Halfdan marching into the region of the Northumbrians laid it waste, and wintering near the river Tyne brought the whole country [Northumbria, presumably] under their dominion, and destroyed the Picts and the people of Strathclyde." One division of them was defeated at Luncarty, Perthshire, in the year 970. In 986-7, it is recorded that "Godisric the son of Harald, with the black nations, laid waste Menevia (St. David's, in Wales); and did so much hurt in the country besides, that to be rid of them, Meredyth was faine to agree with them, and to give them a penie for everie man within his land, which was called, 'The tribute of the blacke armie';" a like tribute, in other districts, being known as "Dane-gelt" (the popular names for such a tax being the Gaelic dubh-chis, and the English black-mail). About the same period, the supreme king of Ireland, Brian Boromhe,
incessantly opposed himself to their inroads; and it is stated that "he defeated the Danes in upwards of twenty pitched battles, restricting their influence to the four cities of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and Limerick alone,"—and that he "gained a signal victory" over them at Clontarf, in 1014, in which battle he himself was killed. In 1014, also, the Danes are said to have made a treaty with Malcolm of Scotland; and even to have nominally retired from his territories. But the dates of the various Danish onslaughts are well known to historians; and also the territories over which they ruled. Even after the victories of Alfred they retained a large slice of the larger island; "the whole eastern country from the Tweed to the Thames, where it washes a part of Essex," being under their dominion. And this over and above their other British possessions.*
"The cruelty of the Danes is painted in the strongest colours by our most ancient historians, who lived near this time. 'The cruel Guthrum,' says one of these historians, 'arrived in England, A.D. 878, at the head of an army of pagan Danes, as cruel as himself, who, like inhuman savages, destroyed all before them with fire and sword, involving cities, towns and villages, with their inhabitants, in devouring flame, and cutting those in pieces with their battle-axes who attempted to escape from their burning houses. . . . All the towns through which they passed exhibited the most deplorable scenes of misery and desolation, . . . old men lying with their throats cut, . . . the streets covered with the bodies of young men and children, without heads and arms, and of matrons and virgins, who had first been publicly dishonoured, and then put to death. It is said to have been the common practice among these barbarous pagans to tear the infants of the English from the breasts of their mothers, toss them up into the air, and catch them on the point of their spears as they were falling down:' . . . The horrid operation of scalping, peculiar [?] to the North American savages, was occasionally performed by these nations on their enemies. . . . 'Earl Godwin,' says an ancient
* These dates, &c., are taken from Dr. Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 302 and 325 6; and from other accounts which, if less notable, seem quite reliable.
historian, 'intercepted Prince Alfred, the brother of Edward the Confessor, at Guildford, in his way to London, seized his person, and defeated his guards, some of which he imprisoned, some he sold for slaves, some he blinded by putting out their eyes, some he maimed by cutting off their hands and feet, some he tortured by cutting off the skin of their heads, and, by various torments, put about 600 men to death.' Of their ravages and cruelties, history has many records; and monasteries and churches shared the fate of towns and villages. It is stated by one writer that the Abbess of Coldinghame actually cut off her nose and upper lip, in order to render herself repellant to the "black heathen" victors; who had no respect for any attribute except superior strength. They were so notoriously treacherous that they became known to the English as "the truce-breakers."
Not the least important features in the above description, are those which link the Black Danes with "Tartarian" races. Their manner of levying a money-tax upon the vanquished was precisely that of the Black Huns in Italy, many centuries before: and it is unnecessary to emphasize the fact that they scalped their enemies like any modern "Red Indians." The Tartar features of these Black Danes are visible again and again; (the word "Tartar" being here used much as it was done when "as black as Tartars" was a proverbial expression). For example, when the Danish Tartars of the year 1237, "headed by their Khan Batto, or Battus, after ravaging great part of Poland and Silesia, broke suddenly into Russia, where they committed the greatest cruelties. Most of the Russian princes [this account* continues] . . . were made prisoners, and racked to death; and, in short, none found mercy but such as acknowledged themselves the subjects of the Tartars. The imperious conqueror imposed upon the Russians everything that is most mortifying in slavery; insisting that they should have no other princes than such as he approved of; that they should pay him yearly a tribute, to be brought by the sovereigns themselves on foot, who were to present it humbly to the Tartarian Ambassador on horseback. They were also
* The article "Russia" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Third Edition).
to prostrate themselves before the haughty Tartar; to offer him milk* to drink; and, if any drops of it fell down, to lick them up." These are the ways of a thirteenth-century horde of Tartars, emerging from the Danish or "Cimbric" peninsula. Let them be compared with the manners of the Black Danes of the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, as exhibited toward the people of the British Islands. "The martial spirit of the Danes was attended with the most ferocious insolence. . . . So abject was the submission of the English to Danish insolence, that when an Englishman met a Dane on a bridge, or in a narrow path, where he could not avoid him, he was obliged to stand still, bareheaded, and in a bowing posture, as soon as the Dane appeared, and to remain in that posture till he was out of sight. . . , If an Englishman presumed to drink in the presence of a Dane, nothing but instant death could expiate the offence." Truly, a race of "Black Oppressors"—"Black Knights," "holding the people in vassalage, and using them with great severity."
That those Tartars of the Baltic, whose insolent bearing towards the conquered Russians has just been pictured, were descended from those Black Danes whose yoke had been partly thrown off by the British Islanders, some centuries before, can hardly be doubted. Whether they were connected with the "Saracens" against whom the Frankish king, Charles Martel, fought during the eighth century, may be questioned; but it seems likely they were of the same stock as those "Pagans of Saxony" that the same king and his grandson, Charlemagne, were continually engaged in combating. (And that, had it not been for the victories of Charlemagne, the Black Danes might not have been so persistently the invaders of the British Islands.) When, in the fourteenth century the Teutonic Order (Tudesque, or Frank-
* One does not, perhaps, naturally associate a milk-diet with a savage nature; but this was one of the characteristics of Lemprière's Sarmatians. He calls them "a savage, uncivilized nation, . . . naturally warlike, and famous for painting their bodies to appear more terrible in the field of battle. They were well known for their lewdness. . . They lived upon plunder, and fed upon milk mixed with the blood of horses." The Concani, of the "Basque Provinces," also "lived chiefly upon milk mixed with horses' blood;" and of the people of the Deucaledonian Islands (Hebrides), during the first century of our era, "it was reported that they . . . lived upon fish and milk."
ish* Order) overcame the "Pagans of Prussia," and cleared large districts of their presence, it is probable that these "Pagans of Prussia" were the same as those "fiends" whom Sir Walter Scott tells us are pictured on a fifteenth-century map; "dressed in caftans and armed with scimitars," and contesting the possession of that portion of Europe with the "Frankish" nations. And it is equally probable that the "band of 300 wanderers, 'black as Tartars and calling themselves Secani [Zigani],'" who arrived at Lüneburg in 1417, formed a small division of these "fiendish" warriors. In short, when it is stated that "the Scandinavian and Low-German [word] Tatare identifies Gipsies with the Mongolian hordes, the terror of Europe in the thirteenth century," two words are employed, which, though very comprehensive, are still precise enough to denote the ethnological and political position of these races. These words are "Tartar" and "Gypsy"; and these terms seem to be applicable with equal fitness to the sections known as Cimbri, or Black Danes.
There is some temptation to parody the title of Mr. Crofton's instructive pamphlet, and to speak of those fourteenth-century "Pagans of Prussia," when overcome by the Teutonic or Tudesque League, as "Continental Gypsies under the Tudors." But there are two objections to this: the one being the manifest error of using "Teutonic" or "Tudesque" in an exclusively racial sense, at so late a period; the other being the fact that the "Continental Gypsies" were by no means under the Tudesque Order at the date referred to. When these Continental Gypsies, "under Udislaus Ingello," besieged Dantzic, in the year 1389, they and their opponents were pretty equally matched. It is true that the besieged "Tudors" eventually "made a furious sally, cut the besiegers to pieces, and cleared the district"† of them; but the affair might have terminated in a
* "The court language of the Franks was the Franctheuch, called also the Thélique, or Tudesque." (Longfellow.) This seems to indicate that Frank (Feringhee) = Teuton.
† The account from which this is taken (Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. II. p. 43) gives us a proof that the "Teutonic Order" of the fourteenth century was by no means composed exclusively of Xanthochroi; whatever "Teuton" or "Frank" may have signified at one time. For one of the heroes of the successful sortie from Dantzic was himself a "Black Douglas." The proSaracenic victory. And, long after this event, they remained a terror to Middle Europe. Only last century, it is said of them—in this locality—"they often marched as strong as fifty or a hundred armed men; bade defiance to the ordinary police, and plundered the villages in open day; wounded and slew the peasants, who endeavoured to protect their property; and skirmished, in some instances successfully, with parties of soldiers and militia, dispatched against them." One reads that some of them who, in 1724, had been captured "near Hirzenhayn, in the territory of Stolberg," "escaped to a large band which lay in an adjacent forest;" and that, even yet, such forests (the Black Forest, for example) contain the same kind of people, though in a decayed condition. In Hungary they long maintained their right to the ownership of the soil; and, either in that territory, on in those districts out of which, as "Pagans of Prussia" they were at last driven, they styled themselves "the band of Upper Saxony, of Brandenburg, and so forth," resenting "any attempt on the part of other Gipsies to intrude on their province." These Inter-Tartarian battles seem to have been frequent and bloody; and, so recently as last autumn, one of these encounters took place in the Hungarian Commitat of Weissenburg, resulting in a considerable amount of bloodshed, and several deaths. In Modern Denmark, as throughout Europe—after the re-assertion of Frankish power—those Tartarians have been legislated against for many centuries; being characterized as "The Tartar Gipsies, who wander about everywhere, doing great damage to the people, by their lies, thefts, and witchcraft."
But our aim is rather to show how the Black Danes of a thousand years ago were Tartar-Danes, or Danish-Tartarians, than to follow the fortunes of their "Irreconcilable" or "Tory" fragments, in later centuries.
The "Tartarian" origin of the Black Danes is nowhere more clearly seen than in the fact that the Baltic seaboads have yielded up immense numbers of Eastern coins, struck
bability is that if—like his grandfather, "the good Sir James"—this particular Douglas was also "of a black and swart complexion," he was also, like his grandsire, a Christianized West-European by training and in all his ideas; although actually a "Moor or Saracen" by descent.
in Asiatic mints at various dates during the Black-Danish supremacy. "Hoards of Eastern coins and ornaments are almost annually discovered in Norway and Sweden, and occasionally in Orkney and the North of Scotland. The museum of Stockholm possesses a collection of more than 20,000 Cufic coins found in Sweden, dating from the close of the 8th to the end of the 10th century, and vast quantities of those silver ornaments of peculiar forms and style of workmanship, which are also believed to have been brought from the East." In the month of March, 1858, a "hoard" of silver ornaments and coins was "unearthed in the Links at Skaill, in the parish of Sandwick, Orkney." "One of the coins was a St. Peter's penny of the tenth century, struck at York; another was a penny of King Athelstane, A.D. 925, struck at Leicester. But these were the only European coins in the hoard. All the others, ten in number, were Asiatic, and ranged in date from A.D. 887 to A.D. 945. The places of mintage were Bagdad and Samarcand."
Now, the finding of 20,000 Kufic coins, in the Baltic countries, in modern days, signifies a great deal. When twenty thousand can be found, eight or nine centuries after the latest of them was coined, it may be assumed that a hundred thousand (at the very lowest computation) were in circulation, in these districts, between the eighth and tenth centuries. That some of that obsolete currency has been lost, and that most of it exists to-day in the form of modern European coins and ornaments, is a conjecture that scarcely requires to be supported by argument. What meaning can these discoveries have? If some Africander antiquary of the twenty-eighth century should discover a "hoard" of Victorian sovereigns and half-crowns in a cellar at Cape Town; and if 20,000 kindred coins were found in the southern portions of Africa, at the same time, what would be the natural conclusion of this hypothetical archaeologist? Of nineteenth-century British conquest and colonization he would probably have some dim knowledge; and perhaps he would be disposed to regard himself as, in some degree, a
* These statements have been made by Dr. Joseph Anderson, in his *Orkneyinga Saga* (p. 127, note), and also in his "Rhind Lecture," delivered at Edinburgh on 17th October, 1881.
descendant of that nation of colonists. And his first conclusion would be that the presence, in his fatherland, of these 20,000 coins bearing the London mintage, was a proof that the nineteenth-century power which had its centre in London extended its sovereignty over Southern Africa as well. This would be his first conclusion; and it would probably be his last. If he ever thought it necessary to hold a contrary opinion, we know he would be completely wrong. But it is not likely his original conviction would alter. Because it would be the most natural and reasonable conclusion he could arrive at. South Africa may become an independent country; with one or many systems of coinage, and many South-African mints; and the Africander of the twenty-eighth century may be a man with little or no British blood in his veins; but all that would not alter the fact that Cape Colony is at present a part of the British Empire; and any Victorian coins found at Cape Town nine centuries hence would be silent witnesses to the fact. The prevalence of a certain national coinage, in certain districts, means the presence of the race to whom these coins meant money. Therefore, when the countries bordering on the Baltic, and those portions of North Britain which were overrun by the "black heathens," are found even yet to contain an immense number of coins bearing Kufic inscriptions; and when some of these coins bear the stamps of Bagdad and Samarcand; and when the era of these coins corresponds exactly with the era of "black heathen" supremacy in these very territories, the unavoidable deduction is, that the sources from which the "East Men" drew their wealth, and the centres of the allegiance they owned, were situated as far East as Bagdad and Samarcand. That the prevailing character of these inscriptions was Kufic would indicate that Bagdad was the principal centre. But they are of many varieties; "presenting more than a thousand different dies, and coined in about seventy towns in the eastern and northern districts of the dominions of the Caliphs. Five-sixths of them (continues this writer*) were coined by Samanidic Caliphs." Thus, although Charles Martel had checked the Arabian or "Saracenic" invaders at Tours, in the year 732; and,
* Mr. Worsaae, in his "Danes and Norwegians;" London, 1852; p. 104.
although the Califate of "Aaron the Just," as distinctly defined, did not extend so far north-west as the Baltic Sea; yet it seems clear that, when the *nigrae gentes* made their appearance at Lindisfarne in 793, and overran the Hebrides in the same year, Asia had virtually extended itself to the very western limits of Europe.
Though the Black Cimbri were not actually subjects of the celebrated Calif just spoken of (and better known to most of us as "Haroun al Raschid"), yet it is probable they were among those nations living near his north-western border (Chazars, Huns, &c.), against whom he was often fighting, and whom he reduced to the position of tributaries. We are told that when the King of the Franks, Charlemagne, was engaged in repelling the attacks of these very Black Danes and their allies, he was at peace with the great Sultan of the East, who owned the same tribes as enemies; the friendly understanding between these two great monarchs being indicated in the mention of the fact by a modern writer,* that an elephant "had been sent [at this period] to Charlemagne by Aaron, the King of the Saracens, i.e., by Harun ar Rashid." Probably the countries of what is now Middle and Eastern Europe were in a condition that alternated between peace and war all through this particular period. That much trading was then carried on, all over Modern Europe and the East, is evident from the statements of authorities; but, difficult to comprehend though it be, the trader and the robber-chief were often one. So that, when Mr. Worsaae states (as he does at page 103 of his "Danes and Norwegians") that there are "still existing Arabian accounts of merchants who in those days visited the coasts of the Baltic for the sake of trade, where considerable trading places, such as Sleswick and many others, are mentioned," it does not follow that these are the accounts of peaceful expeditions. The silken garments, gold-studded spears, and golden helmets, that various British traditions assign to the "black heathen" pirates, may have been gained by them after the most peaceful fashion; or they may not. But, at any rate, the connection between the masters of the Cimbric Peninsula and of large parts of the
* Mr. H. H. Howorth; "Early Intercourse of the Danes and Franks," p. 30.
British Islands, with the great and powerful Empire of the Califs, is distinct: whether the former ought to be regarded as tributaries or not. And after the Black-Danish conquests of 793, at Lindisfarne and elsewhere, it must have been a matter of ordinary conversation in the bazaars of Bagdad and Samarcand, that such-and-such a race (Black Chazars or what not) had succeeded in making conquests and settlements throughout the most western of the islands of Frangistan. And this connection is quite sufficient to account for the fact, frequently commented upon, that unlettered British peasants—in many districts—possess many tales that are akin to, or identical with, those of the "Arabian Nights." Whether such tales are oftenest found among the swarthier sections can hardly be known; but one of those collectors who has given us many stories of dusky warriors, with Eastern characteristics, has more than once passed a remark upon the tawny complexions of the people from whom he got those "Popular Tales:" such people forming part of the population of the "Isles of the Foreigners," and often claiming a descent from the dubh galls referred to.
Of these inroads, and settlements, and conquests, there are numberless traditions in these "Islands of Frangistan." The nigrae gentes, or dubh galls, or "black Danars," are remembered by many other names in British speech; as "thieving Tartarians," as "marauding companies of Moors or Saracens," and, very likely, as "Turks." When the word Turk occurs in Gaeic it is translated "a boar;" and the sculptured figures in the Baltic island show the fashion of wearing armour shaped to resemble such an animal (examples of which are occasionally found in these islands also). Whether or not the word has signified "boar" longer than "Turk," it seems to have often been used to denote the man who resembled the animal; and not the animal itself. There is a "Bridge of Turk" in Wales, and another in Scotland; and there are several mountains and glens in Ireland and Scotland whose names are translated into "the mountain (or glen) of the black boar (or pig)." But it seems quite as legitimate to translate the word "Turk" as to translate it "Boar" (or sometimes the feminine name). Because Tuirc signifies equally "of or belonging to a Turk," and "of or
belonging to a Boar." In the Story of Conall Gulban, Conall and his comrades are warring against Turcaich, properly translated "Turks" by Mr. J. F. Campbell. But it would be as reasonable to use the word "Boar" in this story, as to use it in the song of Allan Mac Ruari (Roderick, or Roderigo, or Rory, or Ruy). He is spoken of as "the black-skinned boar;" but we should probably understand his position better as "the black-skinned Turk." That, therefore, the "Moors or Saracens" who are remembered in British tradition as "making depredations" in various quarters, were also known as "Turks," is very probable. Indeed, a meaning which this word, Torc, bears in Ireland, shows that it has been used to designate a race of rulers. Because, in Ireland, Torc not only means "a boar," but it also means "a sovereign; a lord."* Now, Ireland could never have been governed by four-footed boars; though much of it felt the power of the Black Tartarians of the Baltic. And these must have been the kind of "black boars" whose rule is still remembered in British topography.
In Galloway, also, which is a district celebrated for the inroads of "Moors or Saracens," from whom have come many clans distinguished by the Saracenic emblem of the crescent moon, there were people who, so recently as the year 1666, were armed with "crooked swords, like Turks."† And the curved blade known as a "gully" was probably of the same origin. Indeed, one particular "gully,"‡ is assumed to have been "some blacksmith's work in Fife;" having probably issued from the "gypsy" foundry, called "Little Carron." We are told that this kind of sword was "a common weapon with the [Black] Danes;" to whom it was known as an ategar; being "the same scythe-shaped weapon as . . . the Turkish 'yataghan.'" Indeed, the descriptions given of Black-Danish arms and armour are consistently Oriental; scale-armour, damascened battle-axes, gilded helmets and hilts, and "the same scythe-shaped weapon as the Turkish 'yataghan: '" (this special descrip-
* This definition is given in McAlpine's Gaelic Dictionary.
† "History of Galloway," Vol. II. p. 164
‡ In Skinner's poem of "The Christmas Ba'ing."
tion being taken from "The Comprehensive History of England," p. 116).
Another memory of this period is the word *Mahoun* or *Mahound*. It is stated to have been a form of Mahomet; and to have been latterly "transferred to the devil:" "all over the western world (says Lord Hailes) *Mahoun* came to be an appellation of the devil."* According to Mr. Halliwell, Mahound, or Mahomet, was also "a character in old mysteries;" though in later days it became synonymous with "a bugbear"—as in the kindred cases of "the black Douglas," and "the black Tinkler." In short, *Mahoun* was only an equivalent of "Saracen:" and it was used in this sense by the poet Dunbar when he called his rival, Kennedy, a "loun-like Mahoun;" (which was an instance of "the pot calling the kettle black," as both of these minstrels seem to have been of swarthy hue). When Kennedy threw back the epithets—"Lucifer's lad, foul fiend's face infernal," "Saracen," "juggler," and "jow," he was employing various synonyms for that word which "came to be an appellation of the devil," "all over the western world." And, just as *Mahoun* signified "Turk," so did another name for the same kind of people gradually come to signify a female Turk. Unlike *Mahoun*, this word survives at the present day; being no other than "termagant." When Scott speaks of "the turban'd race of Termagaunt," he means the "Saracens." Thus, it would seem that the masculine bearing of that term has gradually been discarded; until "termagant" has become used in the same way as "randy" is in Scotland; and it may be added that Mr. Simson's opinion of the latter word is that it is only a variant of "ranee," or "gypsy queen." It may be that this rendering does an injustice to many "gypsy queens," past and present; but from what Scott has told us of such gypsy queens as Black Agnes of Dunbar, and the Borderesses of about her era; and also from what Mr. Simson has told us of the Borderesses of the eighteenth century, it is evident that the expression "termagant," if applied to them, would not be wholly inappropriate.
In addition to these particular titles, however, there are
* See Jamieson's Scottish Dictionary.
numerous traditions, all over the British Islands, of "black men" of fierce disposition; and certain British sea-boards still retain legends of "devils" who attack coasting vessels, and either kill the mariners, or rob them of all they possess. There is no doubt that a large detachment of such "Saracens" hailed from the port of Algiers; and that they had a remote political and ethnical connection with the northern "Saracens;" but many of these traditions clearly relate to the latter division of those people.
One phase of this question cannot be passed over. It seems quite evident that "Saracens," "Moors," and "Egyptians" were utterly obnoxious to several Western races (whom it may be convenient to speak of as "Franks"), on the ground of their religious practices and their scientific knowledge; which, in the eyes of their opponents, was a compound of "sorcery," "witchcraft," and gross evil. These "Franks" may have appeared equally obnoxious to their enemies, for their "infidelity," and for other practices that appeared to them objectionable. But the superior knowledge of those Eastern nations becomes most apparent, when one examines their characteristics; though it seems equally clear that, with many "civilized" attributes, those Oriental races were otherwise most savage and cruel. And this invasion of Black-Cimbrians, or Danes, places both of these sets of qualities before us. That they were fierce, intolerant, and over-bearing; that they burnt, plundered, killed and ravished without mercy; and that they practiced such barbarities as scalping, impaling babies upon their spear points, and every form of torture that could be devised; all this cannot be questioned. But they also possessed much material civilization; silks, jewels, gold and silver, the games of chess, cards, dice, &c., the use of money—in short, many, if not all, of the attributes of the great Eastern Empire whose coinage was theirs, and whose supremacy they may have occasionally acknowledged. But, most of all, they practised Magic; that is to say, they were acquainted, in some degree, with the immemorial system of the Magi. And that means the possession of knowledge. The very sentence that introduces those "black heathens" to modern Britons—the sentence which describes their first appearance
off the coast of England—suggests that they were masters of a certain branch of knowledge which (though without good reason) is popularly believed to have been unstudied by any European races at that date.
"Simeon of Durham tells us* that their approach was heralded by 'fearful prodigies which terrified the wretched nation of the Angles; inasmuch as horrible lightnings and dragons in the air and flashes of fire were often seen glancing and flying to and fro';" and, in the description† of a naval engagement between two fleets of such corsairs, off the British coast, about three centuries later, the advance of the one party is referred to in these words—
"Nearer went the daring Eastmen
To the unexampled fire-rain."
Now, although all this was mystery and "magic" to "the wretched nation of the Angles," it would not be so to any civilized modern people. "Horrible lightnings and dragons in the air and flashes of fire... glancing and flying to and fro," accompanied with "fire-rain," that is by no means "unexampled,"—these are the ordinary adjuncts of modern warfare.
"Whatever obscurity may hang over the early history of gunpowder (says a recent authority‡), it seems most probable that its employment as a propelling agent originated among the Moors or Saracens,—whose civilization for several centuries contrasted forcibly with the intellectual darkness of Christendom." "The researches of all authorities seem to point to the Far East as the birthplace of an explosive mixture of the nature of gunpowder." "The most ancient reference of all is in the Gentoo code of laws (Halhed's translation), supposed by some authorities to be coeval with Moses. It runs thus: 'The magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with cannon and guns, or any kind of firearms.' The translator remarks that this passage may 'serve to renew the suspicion, long
* Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 302-303.
† Dr. Joseph Anderson's "Orkneyinga Saga," p. 45.
‡ The author of the article "Gunpowder" in the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th edition); whence the above information is taken.
since deemed absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons of that kind in India, as a passage from Quintus Curtius seems to ascertain.’” “The Saracens used it [Greek fire] against the Crusaders. Maimbourg, in his History of the Crusades, describes its effects; and Joinville, who was an eye-witness, says ‘it was thrown from a petrary, and came forward as large as a barrel of verjuice, with a tail of fire as big as a great sword, making a noise like thunder, and seeming like a dragon flying in the air.”
It will be seen that Simeon of Durham’s description, and that given by De Joinville, are much alike; and the latter assuredly pictures a discharge of artillery, very much akin to the modern bomb-shell and mortar. Both of these writers, also, compare this fiery missile to a “dragon.” Now, the word “dragon” has had many meanings attached to it; and there is a Gaelic word (beithir) which not only denotes “a prodigiously large serpent,” but also “a thunder-bolt.” And the ideas that attached to a “thunder-bolt,” two centuries ago, may be seen from this definition of fulmen in a Latin-English dictionary of 1693: “Fulmen... A Flash of Lightning, which when it is hurtful is called a Thunderbolt: a shot or arrow. ’Tis commonly thought to be some stone or solid body, but that is justly questioned... The Poets ascribe Fulmen to the Boar, because of its cruel tusks and his blasting breath.” It may be only a coincidence that Boars (which, in Gaelic, are Turks) are associated with these “shots or arrows,” accompanied by “flashes of lightning.” But it is evident that no mere animal has a “blasting breath.” This peculiarity ascribed by “the poets” to boars, brings us back again to the word “dragon.” Because our traditions are full of stories of “fiery dragons;” who vomited forth fire and smoke; who protected treasures; who were covered with steel scales; and who carried off maidens. Now, if those “dragons” were any species of saurian (as some suppose), it is impossible to understand what interest they could have in the protection of treasure, or in the abduction of virgins. But, if they were no other than the scale-armoured Black Danes, who fashioned their armour to resemble bulls and boars and other animals; whose advent in these islands
was heralded by "horrible lightnings and dragons in the air and flashes of fire... glancing and flying to and fro;" who both possessed treasure of their own, and took that of others; who were justly dreaded by the maidens of Britain (some of whom remembered the "shelly-coated cow" as a cause of terror, even in Allan Ramsay's day); if these were the "fiery dragons" of our legends, then it is easy to understand the allusions to virgins and treasures. There is, indeed, a distorted record of the attacks of such "dragons;" in the chronicles of the Abbey of Croyland, in the Isle of Ely,—wherein there is mention of tribes of black-skinned and "blubber-lipped" "devils," with "scaly faces" and "fiery mouths" who infested the Ely marshes, and made desultory raids upon the monastery there: the period in question being at or prior to the Norman Conquest.
Besides, it is difficult to believe that gunpowder could have been in use among Asiatic peoples for several thousands of years, and yet be quite unknown in Europe until a few centuries ago. All the more difficult to believe, if Europe has been largely, or wholly, peopled by migrations from Asia;—the most of which are placed at periods subsequent to the era of Moses and the Gentoo law forbidding the use of "cannon and guns, or any kind of firearms." It is to what we regard as the oldest group of British dialects that we must look, to find the etymology of the word gun itself. And this assumes a knowledge of firearms, in British territory, long anterior to the Black-Danish inroads. This, indeed, is asserted by one of the writers on the subject of the "Magic" of Early Britain; more commonly known in connection with that period and place under its name of Druidism (Gaelic, druidh, "a wizard;" German, drud, "an enchanter, a wizard, a sorcerer, a witch, a magician).* Of course, this takes us back to a far earlier epoch than the one just under consideration: but the resemblances between the British Magians of two thousand years ago, and those of the East, have already been referred to. And the immemorial acquaintanceship with gunpowder, among Asiatic nations, leaves us free to
* Smith, in his "History of the Druids" (p. 73), says that "there are many presumptive, if not positive, proofs for placing the art of gunpowder" "among the arcana of nature which our Druids were acquainted with."
assume the possibility of one or other of the races of Europe being also acquainted with it at various remote periods. We have seen the definition of a "thunder-bolt." And, although it is true that Jupiter and his "thunder-bolts" represent, in one aspect, an all-powerful Deity and the artillery of heaven, yet many of the legends connected with Jupiter are "of the earth earthy." These, it may well be believed, are the memories of real events among men; however jumbled together afterwards. It is significant to observe that when Vulcan started his foundry in the Isle of Lemnos, he and his Cyclops were chiefly engaged in forging "thunder-bolts" for his father. Does real lightning require to be forged in an iron-work?—or is it only earthly artillery?
Thus, the knowledge of this—and of many arts and sciences—may have been a property of the Europeans of various ages and various stocks; and political revolutions, and the entrance of other races, may have caused these arts and sciences to be quite smothered for a time; or nearly so;—to be revived, again and again, by races of new-comers, or by a few descendants of the older illuminati.
However, we are dealing with the Tartarian Danes of the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. If these were the same people as the Tuatha De, or Tuatha De Danann, of "Gaelic" tradition, then their "magic" comes again to the front. Because the descendants of these people, in comparatively modern times, are described as "adepts in all Druidical and magical arts;" and a legend announcing their landing in Ireland says that "the Tuatha De arrived, concealed in their dark clouds;"* which again suggests the smoke of gunpowder. But if the Black Danes are to be regarded as the only race remembered as "devils," then there are the popular stories also to fall back upon. Because the "devils" of folklore are much given to disappearing with a flash of fire, a report, a cloud of smoke, and the odour of sulphur. And if such "devils" were of the race of Mahound, or Mahomet, who latterly became known as a "devil" "all over the western world;" or if they were of the same breed as the fifteenth-century "fiends" of Courland, wielding scimitars and wearing caftans; or, if they were as real as Robert, the "devil,"
* "Celtic Scotland;" Vol. I. p. 178; Vol. III. p. 93.
of Normandy, or the "devil" who begot Merlin the Mage, or that other one whom Geoffrey Plantagenet married; or as real as those "devils" who are remembered in British topography as the builders of bridges, "dykes," mills, and (in one instance) of a cross; or as real as the "devil" who is said to have been the architect of Cologne Cathedral; then it is likely that their demoniacal qualities were simply those bodily and intellectual attributes that appertained to "the turban'd race of Termagaunt." And all "magic," "witchcraft," and "dealings with the devil," were really various forms of scientific knowledge; of which the races who so denominated them were utterly ignorant. So that the traditions regarding "devils," and "fiery dragons" which guarded the castles of black "magicians," may be modernized into "Saracens," "fire-arms,"* and the strongholds of the Black Danes; who either were themselves the possessors of much scientific knowledge, or who included in their ranks large numbers of the "Magi" of the Eastern cities where the coins which they used were minted.
That the civilization of "the Moors or Saracens" "contrasted forcibly with the intellectual darkness of Christendom" has long been recognized by moderns. And the mere fact that so many of our scientific words are Arabian—such words as algebra, alchemy, alembic, elixir, alkali, alcohol, and almanac†—this fact is most significant of the presence and influence of the Arabians in Europe. But they were
* "Dragons" may have been either the actual fire-arms or the men who used them; or they may have signified the ships ("dragons") that spouted forth their "unexampled fire-rain." The word "dragon," in fact, was once very comprehensive in its application. Armstrong, in his Gaelic Dictionary, gives duine borb as one of the equivalents of "dragon"; and duine borb means "a fierce, tyrannical man." Again, we are told by the author of "Northern Antiquities," in explanation of the dragons of romance, that "as the walls of the castles ran winding round them, they often called them by a name which signified serpents or dragons." And, further, a (so-called) Gaelic word for a dragon, namely, beithir, which according to "English" orthoepy is spelt bear, this word is defined by Armstrong as "any wild beast" (which shows that bear was even more comprehensive than deer and cattle). This same word bear or beithir is also rendered "a dragon" and "a thunderbolt." "Dragon," therefore, seems to have denoted anything terrible: and fiery dragons may have been the men, or their weapons, or the missiles propelled therefrom, or the dragon-ships themselves.
† To these may be added the less "scientific" words—albatross, alcove, and alligator. It ought to be stated that Professor Skeat does not admit the claims of almanac to be regarded as Arabian.
"sorcerers," "wizards," and "magicians" to the ignorant nations whom they partly conquered and greatly influenced.
It is apparent that the wisdom of the Magi was not known to every kind of "Oriental," though it seems to have emanated from "the East." Even a tenth-century Persian, the poet Firdousi, while describing "what were doubtless the effects of rockets and wildfire discharged upon the enemy," "ascribes the whole to magic." Of course the word "magic" may have borne a meaning to him very much akin to our "science;" because Magi were known to be Wise Men. Therefore, the Persian poet was very likely in the same position as that of a modern poet, when referring to some effect of chemistry or other branch of science, of which he avows himself to know little or nothing. But the Magian wisdom was "magic;" and one form of "magic" was the knowledge of the uses of gunpowder. So that, when one hears of "an extract from the Georgian 'Life of Giorgi Mtharsmindel' (eleventh century), which describes how at Constantinople certain descendants of the race of Simon Magus, Atsinkan by name, sorcerers and famous rogues, slew wild beasts by their magic arts in the presence of Bagrat IV.," then one may reasonably assume that those wild beasts were shot after the usual fashion of our own times.
There can be no doubt that the long-continued persecution of "magicians" has signified the suppression (perhaps the extinction) of a great deal of real knowledge. The difficulty is to understand the cause of this persecution. It is not merely a question of ignorant races trying to stamp out all the knowledge that rendered their "magic-working" foes so formidable to them. No doubt, those enactments made by the successful faction in Scotland—against such things as "witchcraft" and "sorcery"—were intended to render their half-vanquished enemies altogether powerless. But other reasons than those of race and nationality seem to enter into the question. At a period that ante-dated those Scotch enactments by fifteen centuries, we see this same opposition to "magic;" and in this instance the foe of "sorcery" was neither a half-ignorant monarch, nor the avowed enemy of any nation of men. We are told that one of the effects of
the preaching of the Christian apostle, Paul,—when at Ephesus—was this, that "not a few of them that practised magical arts brought their books together, and burned them in the sight of all" (the value of these books being then estimated at "fifty thousand pieces of silver"). Now, if this had been the act of a victorious enemy of those "magicians," one could only lament over a temporary triumph of brute force over intellect. At the best it seems to have been a barbarous deed—though the sacrifice was voluntary. What language and character was impressed upon those volumes?—what "arts" did they treat of?—why were they destroyed? No definite answer can ever be returned to these unavailing questions; but, in the cause of the holocaust seems to lie the explanation of the whole continuous warfare against the learning of the Magi. St. Paul was not a conquering savage or an ignorant fanatic; and it is inconceivable that he, of all men, should have believed that his religion demanded the ignorance as well as the innocence of children. Moreover, the act was done willingly by those ex-Magi; after the apostle had turned them to his own views. Therefore, the inference is that, although they possessed much genuine knowledge, their learning was greatly mis-applied; and the sacrificed volumes were contaminated with an element that was utterly repugnant to Christianity. It is well known that a high civilization and much knowledge have co-existed with qualities that would not commend themselves to any civilized modern people: and various ancient systems are often particularly cited in illustration of this. The mere fact that the Magi of Persia and of Egypt (as well as those of the British Islands) confined their knowledge within the narrowest possible limits, by systematically ignoring the restrictions of consanguinity in the marriage relation, this alone makes one understand why people who were imbued with the feelings of Christianity should abhor a religion which was represented by such a priesthood: and, no doubt, other "magian" creeds and practices seemed equally obnoxious to those of the newer faith. The whole question of "gypsyism," in fact, resolves itself into a struggle between Christianity and Heathenism. Though the "Teutonic Order" was a league against "Pagans," yet it contained many Christianized "Saracens" within its own ranks; and the Scotch statutes did
not affect those "gypsies" whose manners had become "assimilated to those of their countrymen." Racial antipathies did a great deal, no doubt, to cause and to prolong such struggles: but the chief point of difference seems to have been the possession of antagonistic codes, resulting in wholly antagonistic ways of life. Thus, the most offensive features of "magic" appear to have been those which encouraged and inculcated practices that were essentially opposed to Christianity: and this must be the justification of so much that was otherwise unjust and inexplicable in the persecutions of "witchcraft."
There can be no doubt that the "wizards" and "magicians" of tradition have always been (as their names imply) "wise men;" whatever may have been the nature of their moral attributes. We are told by one writer (Mr. Wirt Sikes) that the people of South Wales long regarded North Wales as the home of enchantment; and North Wales was certainly the home of Druidism for a very long time. "The chief philosopher of that enchanted region was a giant who sat on a mountain peak and watched the stars." Mr. Blackmore, again, speaks of an Exmoor "magician" who possessed a "magic book," of which the distinctive property was, that, when he pointed it at any man who may have been crossing the moor (no matter how far from the magician's tower), that man was obliged to come to the wizard, whether he wished or not. We, too, have "wizards" who watch the stars, and who can bring distant objects quite close to us (apparently), simply by levelling a certain "magic" instrument at such objects. But, in our phraseology, such men are "astronomers," and their magic instruments "telescopes."
It has been remarked that Pliny regarded the early Magianism of the British "Druids" as almost identical with that of Ancient Persia. These "Magi" of Wales and of Exmoor may have belonged to any period anterior to our own; and the existence of the traditions regarding them does not necessarily prove these traditions to be of very old date. But the following remarks of Dr. Armstrong's, in his Gaelic Dictionary, help to endorse the belief of Pliny:
"The word gloine [glass] seems to be glaoth-theine, glued by fire."
From the composition of this vocable, Dr. Smith infers, with much reason, that the Druids [Early Magi of Britain] were no strangers to the making of glass; the knowledge of which art, he observes, they might have obtained from the first inventors, the Phoenicians [who were, perhaps, themselves]. Dr. Smith presumes further, that the Druids were so perfect in the art, and so well acquainted with the properties of glass, as to apply it, with the most eminent success, to the purposes of astronomy. Mr. Huddleston, the very ingenious editor of 'Toland's History of the Druids,' touching this opinion, is somewhat sarcastic on Smith. He remarks that the telescopic hypothesis rests on a mistaken meaning of a quotation from Hecateus, who says, that the Boreadae bring the moon very near them; and that the Boreadae, even granting they were Druids, only asserted a prerogative which was common to all magicians, namely, 'to bring down the moon'; and, consequently, that the allusion is made to incantation, and not to telescopes. All this does not in the least repel the opinion of Dr. S., which derives additional strength from Diodorus Siculus, who makes mention of an Hyperborean island, from which the moon was to be seen, apparently at a small distance from the earth, and exhibiting several inequalities and eminences on its surface. This is not the language of incantation, but a just description of the moon as seen through glasses of very considerable power."
Now, when Huddleston objected to the "telescope" theory, on the ground that "to bring down the moon" was "a prerogative which was common to all magicians," he was really doing a great deal to strengthen the argument which he despised. He was saying that this prerogative was common to all "wise men;" or, rather, to all "men of science" (for the terms are not quite synonymous). He has not recorded his own definition of "magician" and "magic;" but it may be assumed that he, like many of his contemporaries, had not wholly shaken off the ideas of the more ignorant sections of our ancestry. It is probable that he believed himself to be a disbeliever in the possession, by any of his fellow-men, of supernatural power; but "magic" must have been a word that possessed a certain meaning to him—although he may never have tried to analyze his impression. If he did not believe that anything but superior knowledge could enable one man to do what others could not do, then (without realising it) he must have understood "magic" as "knowledge." If he thought otherwise, then he was—like the more ignorant sections of his ancestry—a believer in the possession of supernatural power by ordinary mortals. But, whatever he believed, he was virtually stating
that the power "to bring down the moon" was "a prerogative which was common to all men of science." And this "prerogative" has always belonged to astronomers and astrologers; besides being shared by many other people.
Sir John Maundevile, in describing his visit to the court of the Great Khan of Tartary, speaks in similar terms of similar "Druids." "And than," he says, "comen Jogoulours and Enchauntoures, that don many marvaylles: for thei maken to come in the Ayr, the Sonne and the Mone, be semynge, to every mannes sight." The phrases employed by men of the non-scientific castes, when speaking of such things, are always the same: they are the result of "the black art," "magic" (the science of the Magi),* and "enchantment" or "incantation."
The periods just glanced at are, of course, widely separated by time; and the localities referred to are also widely separated by space. But the people under consideration possess the characteristics "common to all magicians;" and, therefore, the more modern "magicians" may fairly be held as representing the same system as those of older date—if they ought not also to be regarded as racially descended from the same stock. The Magi of early Britain were regarded by Pliny as stewards of the same mysteries as those known to the Magi of Persia: and it is to be remembered that Pliny styled some (at least) of those early Britons
* "Magic" must, of course, have included much more than the few departments of knowledge referred to in these pages. For example, when Scott delineates the famous scholar, Michael Scott, as
"A wizard, of such dreaded fame,
That when, in Salamanca's cave,
Him listed his magic wand to wave,
The bells would ring in Notre Dame;"
when citing this evidence of Michael's power, he is hinting at something very like telegraphy. Sir Walter was, of course, aware that Magic included Science, if he did not regard the terms as synonymous. And he himself remarks, in this connection:—"Spain, from the relics, doubtless, of Arabian learning and superstition, was accounted a favourite residence of magicians. Pope Sylvester, who actually imported from Spain the use of the Arabian numerals, was supposed to have learned there the magic, for which he was stigmatized by the ignorance of his age. There were public schools where magic, or rather the sciences supposed to involve its mysteries, were regularly taught, at Toledo, Seville, and Salamanca." (Appendix to the "Lay," Note 2 D.)
"Ethiopians"—although it does not appear that he applied that term directly to the British Magi. When Patrick was preaching Christianity in Ancient Scotia we are told that, on one occasion, "the Gentiles were about celebrating an idolatrous solemnity, accompanied with many incantations and some magical inventions and other idolatrous superstitions; their kings being collected, also their satraps with their chief leaders, and the principal among the people, and Magi and enchanters and soothsayers and doctors, inventors of all arts and gifts." And again we are told that St. Patrick 'came to Muada; and behold the Magi of the sons of Amolngid heard that the Saint came into the country, a very great crowd of Magi assembled, with the chief Magus named Recrad, who wished to slay Patrick; and he came to them with nine Magi clad in white garments, with a magical host.'"* Thus, although the early British "magicians" may have become nearly extinct (or converted to newer ideas, religious and social, as well as altered in physique by miscegenation) at the period when the "black heathens" of the Baltic ("black Lochlinners," or black Scandinavians) invaded the British Islands, yet this eighth-century inroad of Eastern "pagans" and "magic-workers" may have been, in many respects, little more than a variation of the Scot-Egyptian migrations, or those of still earlier date.
All these people, then, were masters of "magic," or the science of the Magi; otherwise spoken of as "the black art," "enchantment" and "incantation." And the literal meaning of these last two words enables us to understand why the "irreconcilable" remnant of those "Magi and enchanters and soothsayers" should have been known last century as "the canting crew."
And "the canting crew" were "gypsies:" "incantation," or "enchantment," or "sorcery," is inseparable from "the wisdom of the Egyptians." That the fourteenth-century "Jugglers and Enchanters," who "brought down the moon" at the court of the Great Khan of Tartary, belonged to the same stock as those eleventh-century "descendants of the race of Simon Magus," who "slew wild beasts by their magic arts in the presence of Bagrat IV.,"—this we have every
* Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. II. pp. 111-112.
reason to believe. And the latter of these were called *Atsinkan*; and are identified with the *Zingani*, or Gypsies Proper. The "Tartar gypsies" of modern Denmark were persecuted by the sedentary and Christianized castes for their "witchcraft:" the "black Danars," or *nigrae gentes* of Denmark, of a thousand years ago, were distinguished by the same characteristic when they overran the British Islands. And, long after the supreme power had slipped out of their hands, the moss-trooping "Tartarians" and "Egyptians" of these islands continued to practise "the black art of their forefathers."
It does not appear that the existing "tories" of these ancient systems have preserved many fragments of their ancestral knowledge. They do profess a kind of astrology, and arrogate to themselves an innate prophetic power: and they may still possess a peculiar knowledge of the art of healing. And Borrow tells us that "some few" of their words are Arabic.* But the Arabic words that belong to real science have long ago passed into the composite "English" speech; and with them must have come a distinct addition to British learning, and a contemporaneous accession to the ranks of the *Melanochroi* of Britain. Nevertheless, although British "gypsies" (considered as such) may only possess the merest scraps of the "magic" of their (and our) ancestors, yet it is not a great while since the connection between certain arts and this special race could be dimly seen. The likelihood of such a connection has presented itself to (at least) one living authority on the subject of "gypsies:" and this quite apart from the considerations dwelt upon in these pages. The chief argument advanced by M. Bataillard in proof of an ancient European-Gypsy connection is the familiarity of Gypsies Proper with the metallurgical arts, and the fact that these arts have been practised in Europe from immemorial times. The authority just referred to is not, however, the French scholar, but an
* One of these words is "tass or dass, by which some of the very old Gypsies occasionally call a cup." Mr. Borrow cites this as a French word. It is, of course, French (*tasse*); but it is also Spanish (*taza*) and Lowland-Scotch (*tass* and *tassie*). Probably, it has been "Arabic" and "Romanes" for a longer period than it has been "French," "Spanish," and "Lowland-Scotch."
English writer;* to whom this remote European-Gypsy connection, and also the immemorial connection between Science and Gypsydom, present themselves in the light of probabilities; if insufficient evidence prevents them from, as yet, becoming settled convictions. Mr. Groome has noted that there are various indications that, both on the Continent and in the British Islands, Gypsies and Artillery have, in some way, been identified with each other. It is worthy of remark that one tradition connects "Mons Meg" (the antique cannon that forms a distinct feature in the Castle of Edinburgh) with the "Saracenic" district of Galloway. The accuracy of this legend has been called in question; but whether or not that is the particular cannon referred to, there is certainly a tradition that, when James the Second (of Scotland) was besieging the Black-Douglas stronghold of Thrave, in the year 1455, he was materially assisted in his operations by the use of a huge cannon which his vassal, Maclellan, presented to him; and which had just been forged by a family of local smiths (the head of the family being remembered as "Brawny McKim"). Moreover, those Maclellans of Bombie bore "a mortar-piece, or bomb, with the motto Superbo Frango," in their coat-of-arms; at an early date—though it seems uncertain whether this was before the time when the Black-Douglas overthrow enabled Maclellan to wear the "Moor's head," with the motto Think on. The tradition is, as all traditions are, vague; but it is important to notice that there were "smiths" in Galloway, in the year 1455, who were able to cast cannon. This is quite in keeping with the statements made by Dr. Johnson's critic (Mc Nicol) as to the antiquity of iron-working in Scotland; and it also accords well with Mr. J. F. Campbell's and Mr. Cosmo Innes' testimony to the existence of numerous floating legends (in Scotland) with regard to smiths who possessed "magical" powers. Of course, it is necessary to assume that the McKim family had become renegades to the Black-Douglasses, when they forged cannon in aid of the Stewart
* Mr. F. H. Groome; whose views in this matter are quite independent of those expressed in these pages. While Mr. Groome may not be disposed to endorse the theories here advanced, it is of much importance that his own opinions have been formed independently of such theories.
forces. 'But the story shows, at any rate, that, in the territory which was lorded over by "Moors or Saracens," there, existed also the ability to manufacture and to use artillery.
Mr. Groome further calls attention to the "gypsy" foundry of "Little Carron" in Fife; and to the fact that while the church-bells of Edzell, Forfarshire, were cast by "a band of Tinkers" in the year 1726, the bells of Kirkwall Cathedral had been cast at Edinburgh by the master-gunner to James V., in the year 1528. It might thus be inferred that since church-bells were forged by an artillery-maker in 1528, the people who forged church-bells in 1726 were probably adepts in the art of making cannons also. If this were so, then the master-gunner of James the Fifth appears as a member of the same brotherhood as the Forfarshire "band of tinkers" of the year 1726: the founders of either century being consequently "gypsies." It is certainly worthy of remark that this master-gunner, though living in North Britain, and presumably of North-British lineage, thought it necessary to style himself a "Scot." That title was not used as a surname; because the man's name was Robert Borthwick. But he inscribed upon all the cannon which he cast, that they were fabricated by "Robert Borthwick, Scot."* Now, as those pieces of ordnance were cast in Edinburgh Castle, and were not intended to be captured by any enemy, it seems clear that the designation "Scot" was chiefly meant to meet the eye of North-British people. Inferentially, then, all North-British people were not "Scots" at that date (1500-28). We know from Elder's letter of the same period that there existed at that time a North-British priesthood, deriving itself from "Scota, the daughter of a Pharaoh" (the alleged ancestress of the Early Scots of Ireland). And we know, from an allusion in an Edinburgh chronicle, that, more than a hundred years later, the moss-trooping "Scots" were distinguished from contemporary "Scotchmen." We have also seen that, soon after the Norman Conquest, the Bruces and their comrades did not regard themselves as "Scots"—though they did much to form a North-British nationality which became known as "Scottish." Thus, there is a strong presumption that this "master gunner" knew
* See Anderson's "Scottish Nation," Vol. I. p. 340.
himself to be descended from the ante-Norman race of Scots—whose traditions were drawn from Egypt. And that, consequently, the inscription on his cannon was meant to denote that he was "Robert Borthwick, Egyptian."
This is, to a certain extent, conjectural. But (though it relates to a different art) there is no dubiety in the statement that the gypsies of the south of Scotland "practised copper-plate engraving" so recently as the eighteenth century. There is also a record of a "Mr. William Sympsoune" of the year 1586, who, "when about eight years of age, was taken away by ane Egyptian into Egypt... where he remained ten years and then came home." This Sympsoune is described as a great scholar, a doctor of medicine, and (which is notable) as the King's smith. It is further noticed that, in the year 1592, a Simson was hanged at Durham "for being an Egyptian." The recurrence of this name, at this place and time, and in this character, is a little suggestive. Of course, the man who, after ten years of Egyptian training, had developed into an accomplished scholar, and an artificer as well, may have only been "an Egyptian" by education.*
* It appears evident that, at no very distant date, many British people of fair complexion were accustomed to blacken their faces artificially, "that they might the better pass for Moors." And this custom is probably the explanation of the term "counterfeit Egyptians," which occurs in the Scotch Acts. In a "Process against the Egyptians, at Banff—1700—" (Miscellany of the Spalding Club, Vol. III.) it is argued for the defence that the people "comonlie called Egyptians, . . . are onlie interpret to be idle beggars, blaking their faces, fortune-tellers, cheating of the people by waine superstitiones," &c. The attempt to exonerate the accused (the famous minstrel, McPherson, and a man named Gordon) proved of no avail; and the prisoners were declared to be "habit and reput wagabonds, soroners, and Egiptians," and—as such—were hanged at the Cross of Banff, 16th November, 1700. But the reference incidentally made shows that the "Waltham Blacks," if not pure-blooded Gypsies, were at least what the Scotch Acts called "counterfeit Egyptians;" not only because they were "habit and reput wagabonds and soroners," but also because of their custom of simulating the dusky complexion of the Egyptians Proper. This practice alone, then, would connect the "counterfeit Egyptians" of Scotland, the Waltham Blacks of Epping Forest, and the modern Morris-men of our race-courses and fairs, who (Mr. C. G. Leland tells us) speak a broken Romanes. And the need of artificially blackening the face suggests a mixed race of people—Egyptians, in some degree, but not swarthy enough by nature to pass for genuine Egyptians.
An example of the adopted Egyptian, then, is seen in the Sympsoune of 1586; whether or not he ever found it desirable to imitate the hue of his preceptors. Although not a "counterfeit Egyptian" in the popular sense,—that term was nevertheless quite applicable to him.
was educated, it may be observed, need not have been situated outside of Great Britain, and the "Egyptian" who trained him may have been a North-Briton as well as himself,—though not necessarily living in "Scotland."
Indeed, many such men of science may easily have been of this stock, even although the fact is not recorded. When, in the year 1501-2, James IV. of Scotland sent "iiiij hary nobles . . . to the Leich to Multiply," the said coins being of the total value of £9, it would seem that this doctor of medicine of 1501-2 was fooling this simple monarch with the famous "great trick" of the Egyptians (past and present), who pretend "as how they can make money breed money, all along of a charm they've got." Deceived by which pretence, many confiding people have entrusted their money to an Egyptian wizard; with the result that neither the sum so lent, nor its mythical progeny, ever find their way into the repositories of the expectant lender. Whether or not "Mr. William Sympsoune" of the year 1586 ever attempted this well-known piece of Jugglery, it is certain that he must have known how to go about it—after his ten years' education among Gypsies. That men of real scholarship should ever have utilised their talents in such a way shows that a code of honour then existed that was quite at variance with that which is now obeyed; and it also reminds one that such words as crafty, artful, knowing, and cunning have a twofold meaning, which does not at all combat the theory that the men who practised the "great trick" of the Egyptians were also famous as teachers of many arts and sciences. And the important point of this incident of 1501-2 is that the "code of honour" which characterized this "Physician in Ordinary" of James IV. of Scotland was precisely that which our modern gypsies frankly confess they obey (as one may see, for example, at pages 371-381 of "In Gipsy Tents").
The considerations just touched upon make it evident that no race or class of men (whether discredited, as now, or respected, as in the year 1501) who avowedly repudiated the doctrine laid down in the law "Thou shalt not steal,"—such men, it is clear, cannot be regarded as attempting to put into practice the precepts of Christianity. The law referred to is,
* I am indebted for all these particulars to Mr. F. H. Groome.
of course, vastly older than Christianity, but that religion accepts it as one of its most important rules. And this fact—that the "magic-working" castes had no respect whatever for this law—makes it more apparent that "the wisdom of the Magi" embodied principles that were radically opposed to Christianity. And that—as already suggested—this is why "Magic" has always been persecuted. This antagonism to the law "Thou shalt not steal" is inseparable from gypsydom. We have been told that "the great distinguishing feature in the character of the gipsies is an incurable propensity for theft and robbery." And that they were far from denying the truth of the statement. Stealing was (and, to some extent, still is) a virtue with them: "thou shalt not steal" was a law which had no meaning to them. This fact alone helps one to understand why severe laws were passed against "Egyptians," by people who believed that stealing was a crime; and an impediment in the way of civilization. And it tends to show how the laws against "gypsyism" were laws against "heathenism," made in the interests of what is either "Christianity" or something akin to it. Moreover, the consideration of this fact shows that it offers a strong argument in favour of a national code (in morals and society). "A state religion" is a phrase that has different meanings to different people; but it is obvious that no nation can keep together without some kind of national "code." If all British people were at liberty to act as they thought right, then it would be utterly unjust to prosecute for such things as theft, poaching, bigamy, murder, or (as a recent occurrence suggests) burning the bodies of the dead; for all of these things have been, and some still are, regarded by certain people as quite justifiable. Whence it appears that the laws made against "Egyptians" denoted a battle between antagonistic principles even more than a struggle between rival races. And that "gypsydom" was virtually the "Heathenesse" of tradition.
While, therefore, recognizing an ancient connection between the "Magus" and the "Egyptian Proper," it is nevertheless clear that "gypsy" has usurped the place of "tory" to a great degree. In the first place, the really black-skinned
gypsy has quite disappeared; thereby showing that the darkest modern gypsy is a semi-white hybrid. Such phrases as "as black as Tartars" (applied to the self-styled Secani [Zigani] on one occasion), or "as black as gypsies" (a comparison made by early New-Englanders, in speaking of the "dark Americans"),—such phrases do not tell us how black the people referred to were. The "Gaelic" words that signify black Dances, black Scandinavians, black Irishmen, and black heathen; and such terms as "the black army," or nigræ gentes, are more exact, if the word "black" was used in its proper sense. In the Song of Roland and in the traditional John-of-Rampayne story, the phrase "as black as ink" leaves no room for doubt; neither does the Welsh story of the girl whose skin was "blacker than the blackest iron covered with pitch." And, although the Maurus of Claudian denotes, according to some writers, a dark-brown rather than a black complexion, Pliny's adjective, which signifies "black as an Ethiopian," may be held to denote the darkest of all dark skins. No modern gypsy, therefore, can be regarded as the pure-blooded descendant of any Black-European race. It is true that the Ancient Egyptian of Professor Huxley is not "black as an Ethiopian," but this is a distinction which may be waived at present.
Not only does the darkest modern gypsy appear to be of lighter complexion than the Ancient Egyptian, but many of the customs which render him "peculiar" among modern people are the customs of races that have been assumed to be white.
One of these races is that called "Saxon." The people to whom this name was first applied are popularly believed to have been "fair whites." The name is said by some to be an abbreviation of "Saka-suni;" and if they were "the sons of the Sakas" of ancient Tartary, they were certainly descended from Xanthochroi. Professor Max Müller refers to the Sakas in these words: "They are best known by the name of Yuch-chi, this being the name by which they are called in Chinese chronicles. These Chinese chronicles form the principal source from which we derive our knowledge of these tribes, both before and after their invasion of India. [They "took possession of India, or, at least, of the government of India, from about the first century B.C. to the third century A.D."]. . . They are described as of pink and white complexion, and as shooting from horseback; and as there was some similarity between their Chinese name Yueh-chi and the Gothi or Goths, they were identified by Remusat with those German tribes, and by others with the Getæ, the neighbours of the Goths." "Between the years 139-126 B.C.," the Yueh-chi inhabited a territory situated "7,000 li north of India. . . They were herdsmen and nomads, and resembled the Hiung-nu [the "Huns" of De Guignes and Gibbon] in manners and customs. Driven out of their seats by the Hiung-nu, they fell on the Tochâri from the West, and defeated them."* Thus, the Sakas, or early Saxons, appear as the otherwise-styled "White Huns;" and if any scrap of early-Saxon nationality is still surviving, it will probably be represented by some such people as the "pink and white" Tekke-Turcomans, who, as "herdsmen and nomads," still occupy a territory not far removed from that of the Sakas, and whose physiognomy is that of the "Tartar."
The recognition of the fact that a Xanthochroic race resembled a swarthy people such as the Black Huns "in manners and customs;" and many other reasons which could be adduced; renders it necessary to admit the error of assuming that kindred practices—such as painting or tattooing—must necessarily denote kindred blood. Nothing in these pages has proved that such practices have belonged exclusively to dark-skinned people; and it is probably as well to abandon any such half-formed proposition. As, however, the question of complexion does not seem to have been solved, it may not be right to assume that difference of colour means difference of stock. Swarthy Samoyeds and fair-skinned Eskimos seem to be structurally alike; and there may have been little or no difference in the physique of the White Hun and the Black. Thus, kindred customs may have denoted kindred blood, even though the complexions varied.
The Sakas are also remembered as the rulers of northern Afghanistan and Southern Turkestan, at about the same period as their government of India—the second century B.C. But the name "Saka" (which is also rendered
* Max Müller's "India," pp. 85-6 and 275.
"Scythian") is applicable to so many periods, and probably to so many races, that—like "Asiatic"—it may have been used to denote men with white, and brown, and yellow complexions. However, as it is undoubted that one, or many, divisions of "Sakas" found their way to these islands, their history and characteristics are "British." The date of their arrival seems uncertain. It is, at least, known that they, along with the Scots, Attacotts, and Picts, were the terror of the civilized Britons in the fourth century; and that "the invading tribes penetrated so far into the interior, and the extent and character of their ravages so greatly threatened the very existence of the Roman Government, that... the most eminent commander of the day, Theodosius the elder, was despatched to the assistance of the Britons." "The Picts (says Claudian) he drove into their own region, to which he (Claudian) gave the poetical name applied to Caledonia of Thule. The Scots he pursued across the sea to the country from whence they proceeded—the Island of Ierne; and the Saxons he indicates had formed their headquarters in the Islands of Orkney."* Thus, while we see the Sakas ("before Christ") associated with the swarthy, tattooed Huns, we see them again—in the fourth century of the Christian era—as the invaders of the Christianized parts of Britain, contemporaneously with the Egyptian Scots, and the "nimble blackamoors, not wrongly named 'The Painted Folk.'"
That the Saxons (to give them the usual name) were really some kind of Huns may be seen, for one reason, from their use of the term "Hun" as signifying something equivalent to "a bold warrior." Mr. Karl Blind, who points out this usage, is not disposed to regard it as proving a Hun descent, his reason being that they pronounced the word "Hune" and not "Hunn." But this objection tells the contrary way. Because the sound of "Hune" was probably the same as Chuni (ch guttural) or Ounnoi,—that is "Hun." Moreover, just as we have come to speak of the "Huni" of history as "Huns," so have the names of places which record their residence in Britain also become pronounced "Hun." "In England there are a vast number of place-
* Skene's "Celtic Scotland," Vol. I. pp. 99-101.
names, from Kent and Suffolk up to Shetland, all pointing to settlements of those German Hunes; such as Hunton, Hundon, Hunworth, Hunstanton, Huncote, Hungate, Huncoat, Hunslet, Hunmanby, Hunwick, the Head of Hunna, and Isle of Hunie [as also Hun-gill, in Nithsdale]. Old English personal names, too, like Ethelhun (Noble Hune), have the same origin.*
This last name—Ethel-hun—confirms the belief in the Hun kinship of the "Saka-suni." Ethel-hun may easily have meant "noble warrior" to the race over whom this particular man was chief. But to their enemies it signified "Attila the Hun." The word "Attila" has been identified with the (so-called) Hungarian word "Aethele," noble; and, indeed, the celebrated "Attila the Hun" is spoken of in the Nibelungen Lied as "Etzel, king of Hunland." Attila, Aethele, Etzel, Ethel—all these are recognizable as so many different forms of the one word. Of course, the "Ethelhun" who appeared in England need not have been the most famous "Attila" of all the Huns. "A Hune" would mean "a bold warrior" to one race; just as "a Rom" meant "a man" to another, without any individuality being denoted by the name. (To their foes they would be, respectively, Huns or Hun-men, and Roms or Rom-men, in the same general sense.) So that the Ethel-huns referred to by Mr. Karl Blind may have been any chiefs of the Huns; and the term "Ethel-hun" or "Etzel-Hun" may have been used by their enemies in a similarly loose way (much as the parallel term Cean-aedh [Kenneth or Kennedy] seems to have been employed).
It may be noted, at the same time, that while the celebrated fifth-century Ethel-Hun, or Attila the Hun, had a brother bearing the name of Bleda, so was Bleda the name of one of the fifth-century Saka-suni who invaded Britain†—having been one of those who besieged the Christianized Britons at Mount Badon, near Bath. And as the Black
* Mr. Karl Blind; in the Gentleman's Magazine of May, 1883.
† A brother of this Bleda is called "Kenric"; which seems to be only ceann-righ, "a head chief," and does as little to tell to us the name by which he was known to his friends as the title of Cin-aedh, Kennedy, or Kenneth denotes the names of the men so known in history. The father of this Kenric and Bleda is known as Cerdic.
Huns "scarificed their faces," so did the Saka-suni, or Saxons. Indeed, the Saka-suni appear to have resembled the Black Huns "in manners and customs," during the earlier centuries of our era, much as the Sakas of Tartary had resembled the Hiong-nou many centuries before.
A modern writer, making use of the modern* title of "Anglo-Saxon," and the somewhat vague designation "Aryan" (which, if it really signifies "ploughman," can scarcely apply to a race of "herdsman and nomads"), informs us that "our Aryan ancestor in person, as Mr. McLennan and Mr. Lang have shown, was a most undoubted totemist; and even our far later Anglo-Saxon progenitor, when he first landed in Britain, was a very fair specimen of an untamed barbarian indeed. He tattooed his face, like the æsthetic New Zealander; he captured his wife by main force, like the unsophisticated Australian; and he lighted the need-fire with a wooden drill, like the primitive Hindu. It was only at a later date, when missionaries from civilized Rome and civilized Ireland had introduced a little southern and Celtic culture, that the gentler Christian Anglo-Saxon took to buying his wife with so many head of cattle, like the commercial Zulu, instead of stunning her with a club, like the simple-minded Australian; and to painting his face in stripes, like the intelligent Redskin, instead of pricking it with a needle, like the amiable Polynesian: and therefore there is nothing out of keeping with Anglo-Saxon culture (or want of it) in the fact that many clan-names were derived from obvious totems."
While accepting the facts introduced in the above paragraph† it is not necessary to assume that they are viewed in the truest light. "Civilization" and "barbarism" are difficult to define. When of two races, otherwise alike, the
* The late Mr. J. R. Green remarks (at page 193 of "The Conquest of England"): "It may be well to note that the word 'Angul-Saxon' is of purely political coinage, and that no man is ever known, save in our own day, to have called himself 'an Anglo-Saxon.'"
† Which occurs in an article on "Old English Clans," contributed by Mr. Grant Allen to the "Cornhill Magazine" of September 1881.
one practises tattooing and the other does not, it may reasonably be argued that the former is in the least primitive condition: since tattooing not only shows a taste for artistic decoration but also gives expression to many distinctions of social, of family, or of religious nature. But "civilization" is altogether relative. Customs that one society regards as "barbarous" are held by others to be indispensable adjuncts of "civilization." The mere custom of tattooing does not really prove a want of "culture" among those early Saxons.
But the existence of those customs is what we have to consider. And the practices of painting and tattooing show us that those Saxon invaders were quite as much "Picts" as were the "nimble blackamoors" who were their confederates. While the fact that they, too, "scarified their faces" shows that the self-styled "Hunes" of Britain followed at least one fashion of the contemporary "Hunes" of the Continent. And we have seen that each of these customs was practised by British "tories" down to our own times.
This last is the most important point. When the "gypsies" of Galloway—last century—painted their faces with ruddle, they were following a custom that a Christianized Goth (Jornandes, Bishop of Ravenna) ascribes to the Gothic peoples. And in describing those "Galloways" as "Picts," it is no contradiction to assume that they were also "Goths" and "Saxons." The Saxons were Picts; and since their era in Britain is the same, and their natures apparently identical, it is likely enough that they were not very different from each other—if at all. Such names as Scot, Attacott, Saxon, and Pict do not necessarily imply four different stocks. They may have been used to denote tribes that were very closely allied to each other—if they were not all so many different names for the one set of people.
At any rate, the habits of those "Saxons" spoken of above were the habits of our "gypsies." It is said of one of the Border Faws that the hardest fight he ever had was when capturing his bride from her relations. The antiquity of this custom in North Britain is referred to by Scott, when his fictitious "Richie Moniplies" states that he gained his wife in "the auld Scottish fashion"—namely, by "his
bow and his spear." (And probably it yet survives, in a modified form, in the rough treatment that is occasionally given to bridegrooms, by people who are otherwise educated.) If such a chief as Marshall of Galloway captured one of his numerous wives by main force (as the neighbouring Faws were recently accustomed to do), then that and his custom of using war paint helped to connect him with those early Saxons. Indeed, his district was largely overrun by Saxons; and, if there was any important difference between an early "Saxon" and an early "Pict" (which is doubtful), this Marshall may have been as much the descendant of the one race as of the other.
It must be remembered that, to the early authors, the "Saxons" were known as "Saracens."* If those early Saxons were white Huns, then of course they were white Saracens. Still, it is curious to notice that although the traditional "Saracen" is sometimes represented as a white man, yet the word is much more frequently used as a synonym for "Moor." And it is certain that the early Saxons were associated with the dark races—whatever their own complexion may have been. We have seen that Theodosius fought them at the same time as he fought the "nimble blackamoors," and in like circumstances. Moreover, during the attacks upon Menevia, in Wales,+ during the tenth and eleventh centuries, it does not seem that the "Saxons" differed politically from the "black gentiles;" in whose company they made their forays. It is also worth noting that such a title as *The Fair-haired* could not well have been given (as a distinctive epithet) to a leader of fair-haired people. When "Godisric filius Harald cum nigris gentibus vastavit Meneviam," the leader—if white-skinned—was apparently the only white "Saracen" in the pirate fleet.
But whether white or black, those Saracens whom history knows as "Saxons" were, in manners, much like any other
* In a note to "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border" (p. 447 of the reprint of 1869, A. Murray & Son, London), this statement is made:—"In the metrical romance of 'Arthur' and 'Merlin,' we have also an account of Wandlesbury being occupied by the Saracens, i.e., the Saxons; for all pagans were Saracens with the romancers. I presume the place to have been Wodnesbury, in Wiltshire. . . ."
+ As chronicled in the *Annales Menevenses*.
of the Oriental invaders of the British Islands. And their latest distinct representatives have been rather our "gypsies" than the amalgamated mass of "Modern Britons;" who represent no race, era, or civilization so much as their own. The customs of stealing wives; beating them; buying and selling them; burning the dead; tattooing and painting the skin; "the great distinguishing feature" of robbery and oppression;—all these are customs common to British "tories" and to the various pagan invaders of our islands; who were, perhaps, the ancestors of all "Modern Britons."
Thus it seems that, although "gypsy" had once a special signification (which, even yet, it retains—in a measure), yet the word has more often been used as a synonym for "tory." And that the chief distinction between "gypsies" and British people, as understood by such writers as the Scotch gypsiologists, is that the former have adhered as much as possible to ancestral fashions and ideas, while the latter have gone over to the side of modernism and what at present we call "civilization."
The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science:
1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation.
3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases.
5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form to protect it from unauthorized access.
6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values.
7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other.
8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions.
9. Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for communication between different systems or devices.
10. Query: A request for information or data from a database.
11. Security: The measures taken to protect data and systems from unauthorized access, theft, or damage.
12. Software: A collection of instructions and data that can be executed by a computer to perform specific tasks.
13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to achieve a common goal.
14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback.
15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another operating system.
These terms are fundamental to understanding the concepts and practices in computer science, and they are widely used in various fields such as software development, database management, security, and networking.
APPENDIX.
The likeness between Ancient Egypt and America has often been pointed out, and it is of too marked a nature to be the result of accident. Some of the resemblances which have been emphasized by Signor Gennarelli are of comparatively little weight; and indeed have not been everywhere admitted as deserving consideration. But the important points of resemblance can never be explained except by a belief in the common origin of the pyramid-builders of Central and Southern America and those of Ancient Egypt. Gennarelli does not only emphasize the pyramids; but he also draws attention to the fact that the title "Children of the Sun" was "borne both by the Incas and the Pharaohs"—that hieroglyphic languages are common to Egypt and America—that Ancient Egyptians and one or other of the American nations practised the embalming of the dead—and that the early races of America were connected in various other ways with the early races of Egypt. Not the least notable of these (although Signor Gennarelli does not seem to refer to it) is this—that the bricks employed by the older races of America are of precisely the same nature as those used by the Ancient Egyptians; being made of clay which has been rendered more compact by straw and hay intermingled with it—the blocks being afterwards dried in the sun. The very word by which these bricks are known in America (namely, *adobe* or 'dobia') is the Egyptian word *adaub*; and it is pretty certain that on that memorable occasion on which the Egyptian overseers forced their Israelitish slaves to seek out the necessary straw and stubble for themselves—and when these slaves cried out against this extra labour—the word then employed, by taskmaster and servant, was the familiar American *adobe*. Of course, the word "adobe" may not have been used by the American nations prior to the Spanish Conquest;* but what is of much more importance is that the thing itself seems to be immemorially associated with the ante-Spanish races.
That mummies should (like pyramids) be common to America and to Egypt is a circumstance that would of itself suggest a remote kinship
---
* It is stated that the word *adaub* or *adobe* was brought into Spain from Egypt by the "Saracens," and then introduced into America at the Conquest. Still, if the Egyptian brick was manufactured in America many ages before the Spanish invasion, it is not unlikely that the Egyptian word was also used to denote it.
between the inhabitants of the countries in which they are found. In one instance, the resemblance between the American and the Egyptian mummy is singularly minute. A specimen of the Peruvian mummy, recently found in the vicinity of Iquique (and now preserved in the Museum at Arbroath) is thus described: "The features of the mummy... are strongly marked Indian, and the cheeks had apparently been painted a reddish colour." It has been pointed out that this reddish colour is given by the Ancient Egyptians to their own features, in their pictured representations; and we have seen that it characterized the "Egyptians" of Galloway less than a century ago.* To refer to the modern "Egyptians" of this country is to lose sight, for a moment, of Ancient Egypt; but it must be remembered that the Italian archaeologist sees this Ancient-Egyptian identity in the peninsulas of Southern Europe as well as in Egypt and in Central America.
That some, at any rate, of the American "Red-Indian" nations may have entered America during the Christian era is by no means unlikely. It is notable that the tenth-century Northmen do not record the existence of any Red Indians in North America, at the period of their settlements. They found an Eskimo-Samoyed population in the New-England districts; whom they styled Skraelings or Dwarfs; and who are described as "black and ill-favoured, with large eyes and broad cheeks, and with coarse hair on their heads," while another version speaks of them as "sallow-coloured and ill-looking," with "ugly heads of hair, large eyes and broad cheeks." People of this kind are no doubt akin to certain modern American-Indian tribes; but they are unquestionably far removed from the type that (with some reason) is held to stand for the American-Indian. The existing Eskimo races without doubt represent those tenth-century Skraelings more than any other variety of American humanity.
Inhabiting a large territory to the south of this Skraeling Land, at the time of the Norse explorations, there were people whom they styled "white men," and whose country they named "Great Ireland," and "The White Men's Land." These are pictured as "people who wore white dresses, and had poles borne before them on which were fastened lappets, and who shouted with a loud voice." It does not seem that their complexion is distinctly stated to have been white, but it is not likely that their white garments alone would have caused their country to be known as "The White Men's Land." There are other tokens of the early residence of white races in America. Mr. Désiré Charnay states that "Veytia describes the Toltec as a man of tall stature, white, and bearded;" and he also remarks—"I have in my possession a bas-relief, found at Tula, coinciding very well with this description; the man is full face, and has a large hooked nose, his beard being wide and fan-shaped."
* It ought to be observed that this particular Peruvian mummy is said to have been "mummified by the composition of the soil—nitrate of soda." If this means that the corpse had been accidentally preserved, this, of course, is not an illustration of the practice of embalming in America; though interesting as showing the use of ruddle, or "keel," in painting the face. But the fact of the existence of mummies in America does not require an extra proof.
Again, in a "General Account of the Characters, Dispositions, and Numbers of the Indians in North America"—written last century—there is mention of "the white Panis," estimated at 2,000, and living "south of the Missouri," and also "the Blancs, Barbus, or white Indians with beards," said to number 1,500, but their residence not defined. (Besides the white Pawnees there are also 2,000 "freckled or pricked Panis," inhabiting the same or a contiguous district; from which one may infer that their white confederates were not tattooed, and that the "pricked Panis" were not white.) In the present century, we are told:—"The eastern nations of Chili have but a slight tinge of the brown colour, and the Boroanees are still whiter. On the north-west coast, from latitude 43° to 60°, there are tribes who, though embrowned with soot and mud, were found, when their skins were washed, to have the brilliant white and red which is the characteristic of the Caucasian race:... within the tropics, the Malapoques in Brazil, the Guaranis in Paraguay, the Guiacas of Guiana, the Scheries of La Plata, have tolerably fair complexions, sometimes united with blue eyes and auburn hair; and in the hot country washed by the Orinoco, Humboldt found tribes of a dark, and others of a light hue, living almost in juxtaposition." In addition to these, the Guatosos of Costa Rica are believed to be fair-skinned, fair-haired, and blue-eyed; but nothing definite seems to be known regarding them.*
All these people are described as living the life of "Indians," and as being "Indians" in every respect—except that their physical characteristics place them among the Xanthochroi. There have, no doubt, been many renegade Europeans who, at various periods, have joined Indian tribes, but the white tribes just referred to are regarded, as a matter of course, as "Indians." The 2,000 "white Pawnees," who inhabited a territory "south of the Missouri," sometime last century, are not only called "Indians" by the traveller who includes them in his "General Account;" but more than one European of the same period has left on record† the existence of a nation of white-skinned Indians, whose country is sometimes described as "west of the Mississippi," and again as "seven hundred miles up the Red River" (both of these localizations pointing to a territory "South of the Missouri"). Such eighteenth-century "Indians" as these may reasonably be assumed as the progenitors of those who, in the present century, are said "to have the brilliant white
* The early Norse records may be consulted in "the ponderous volume called Antiquitates Americanae;" which forms the basis of a more cheerful essay, contributed (by Mr. Thomas Wentworth Higginson) to "Harper's Magazine," September 1882. The information regarding the Toltecs is taken from Mr. Désiré Charnay's article on "The Ruins of Central America" (North American Review, October 1881); and the last-century "General Account" is quoted in the "New Annual Register" for the year 1784 (p. 87). The Costa Rican Guatosos are frequently referred to by Mr. Frederick Boyle, in his "Ride Across a Continent;" at the date of which "ride" little or nothing was known as to the precise characteristics of those "Indians."
† See Vol. I. (pp. 66-75) of the "Popular History of the United States:" Sampson Low & Co., 1876.
and red" complexion which distinguishes the Xanthochroic type, although their proper hue is concealed by a covering of "soot and mud."
Of what lineage were those white Americans? Some of them—the Costa Rican Guatosos, for example—are supposed, by one set of theorists, to be the descendants of Drake's buccaneers, or of other European invaders of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But it is by no means certain that those Europeans were mostly men of fair skins, with blue eyes and auburn hair. And there is evidence of white American races long before the sixteenth century. We have noticed that the tenth-century Norsemen called a large tract of North America "the White Men's Land;" and a skilled student of Central-American archaeology has pronounced the Toltecs to have been white men—and they were "Americans" so far back as the seventh century. Those Toltecs are spoken of "as being wonderfully gifted, and as a typical race, cultivating land, erecting houses, working in stone and metal, weaving stuffs, using hieroglyphic characters, devising an ingenious astronomical instrument, and inventing a method of reckoning time." The Toltec builder "knew what a pier was, and not unfrequently introduced it into his edifices; he constructed columns, both free and attached, and even indulged in caryatides." He also understood the use of the arch, and "if we believe Veytia," he "had long known of the corbel vault." Add to this that the Toltec worshipped the sun and moon, besides other deities, built temples and pyramids, and amused himself by playing "a primitive kind of tennis," and it will be seen that those seventh-century Americans showed themselves to be connected in many ways with what is called the "Old World."
The assumption that the builders of the Yucatan pyramids were white-skinned men seems rather to conflict with Signor Gennarelli's "Redskin" theory. But then, if the Egyptian pyramids, though designed by an "Australioid" aristocracy, were actually reared by the hands of white-skinned slaves, then the latter were themselves pyramid-builders, in a sense. And the theory which assumes "that the lost Tribes of Israel wandered through Asia to the north-west coast [of America] and were the progenitors of the ancient Mexicans" is not all at variance with the statement that the Toltecs migrated into Mexico from California, and are held to be represented by a sculpture of a man (presumably white) with "a large hooked nose, his beard being wide and fan-shaped."
The necessity for considering those early races of white Americans is, that they seemed to have formed one of the most important of American races. The general name for them among ethnologists is that of "Nahua." "The name would appear to have been given to all the tribes, of the same race and tongue, who, during succeeding centuries from the seventh to the fourteenth, made their way into the high plateaus of Mexico, over Mexico itself, and into certain parts of Central America; their point of departure being generally regarded as lying anywhere between Aztlan (Lake Chapala), the country of Aztecs, who were the last to arrive, and Huchuetlapalan, in California, the country of the
Toltecs, the first comers."* Now, at the period of their migrations between the seventh and fourteenth centuries of the Christian era, we have European testimony to the effect that a large country, supposed to be situated in North America, was known to the Northmen as "The White Men's Land." And it is believed that this "White Men's Land" is identical with the country reached by a European vessel in the eleventh century. "Gudleif Gudlaugson, brother of Thorfinn, . . . had made a trading voyage to Dublin; but when he left that place again, with the intention of sailing round Ireland and returning to Iceland, he met with long continuing north-easterly winds, which drove him far to the south-west in the ocean, and at an advanced period of the summer he and his company arrived at last at an extensive country, but they knew not what country it was. On their landing, a crowd of the natives, several hundreds in number, came against them, and laid hands on them, and bound them."† And, among these, they found a brother-Northman, Biörn Asbrandson, who had left Iceland in the year 999, and had not been heard of since. Him they left there, and (being set free by his means) they "set sail again, and found their way back to Dublin."
The scene of this adventure, then, is believed to have been the "White Men's Land" of the Northern chroniclers. And the important consideration in all this is, that no mention whatever is made of a race of people who may have been the ancestors of the "Red Indians." Canada and New England were inhabited by Samoyeds and Esquimaux; and south of these were the "White Men." But of "Red Indians" there is not a word.
Europe, however, has contained races that one may describe as "Red Indians"—although the characteristics which show this likeness have now, for the most part, faded away (partly through intermarriage and partly on account of altered fashions). That the early Scots formed one division of these races seems pretty certain. And it is curious to reflect that the two slaves, who, being "very swift of foot," were sent into the interior of Massachusetts on a scouting expedition, by the Norsemen of the year 1007—that these slaves, who were Scots, appear to have been the first Red Indians that history has recorded as inhabiting New England. And that they—being man and woman—may have been the "Adam and Eve" of one or many New-England "Indian" tribes. Another member of the expedition of 1007 was one "Thorhall," "a large man, and strong, black and like a giant, silent, and foul-mouthed in his speech," and characterized as "a bad Christian." Now, if this black man was one of the pagan Danes (which is probable), he was not unacquainted with the art of scalping; and he, again, forms a suitable ancestor of the later "American Indians." These, of course, are only three individuals. But there is much reason for believing that the few instances on record of early intercourse between Europe and America do
* See Mr. Désiré Charnay's article on "The Ruins of Central America," in the North American Review, of October 1881.
† Antiquitates Americanae.
not constitute the only links between the two "worlds"—of pre-Columbian date. Indeed, the idea that a West-Atlantic country was unknown to Europeans before the days of Columbus is profoundly heretical. Of such a country there are many traditions among British people (in addition to the incontrovertible statements of the Northmen). These traditions give various names to such a territory. But one of the best known designations of what we now call "North America" was "Antilla," or "the Antillæ." "Before the discovery of America by Columbus, a tradition existed that far to the west of the Azores there lay a land called Antilla, whose position was vaguely indicated in the maps of the early cosmographers. Only eight months after Columbus's return, we find one Peter Martyr writing that the islands which the great navigator had touched upon must be the Antillæ."* And a reference made by a seventeenth-century author† leads one to believe that "the Antilles" signified the outlying parts of North America—as far north as Davis Straits—at no very remote date. It may be that the country, or archipelago, that originally formed "the Antilles," or "Antilla," has been submerged for many centuries; and that "the banks of Newfoundland" represent one of its latest fragments. "There is no doubt that marked changes have taken place within the last few centuries along the outer coast of Cape Cod; that an island called Nawsset, and a cape called Point Gilbert . . . were known to Captain John Smith and Bartholomew Gosnold early in the seventeenth century,"‡ and have since disappeared. If similar disappearances had been taking place during the five, ten, or fifteen centuries that preceded the seventeenth, one can easily imagine an important archipelago, known as "the Antilles," where now there is nothing but the waves of the Atlantic.
Thus the voyages of the Norsemen, and those of the twelfth-century Madawg of Wales, may not have been so extended as our modern maps would lead us to believe. It is notable that, in either of these instances, a continuous intercourse is hinted at; although only one special voyage may be chronicled. The Northmen of 999 must have had some reason for calling the trans-Atlantic country (or a part of it) "Great Ireland." And it is noteworthy that the speech of its people is said by them to have "resembled Irish." A parallel instance—though of far later date—is that of an Indian clan (the Doegs), who spoke "the British tongue," in the year 1660.§ The expressions "Irish" and "British" are, of course, very vague: and both may have applied to the speech of the Ancient Scots,—that is, to an "Egyptian" language.
The consideration of such statements as these, then, renders it by no means improbable that an important element in the North-American-Indian population was of European origin; though the intercourse
* Chambers's Encyclopædia, article "Antilles."
† Wallace, in a reference to "the natural and moral History of the Antilles," which he makes in his "Description of Orkney" (1693; reprinted at Edinburgh, 1883).
‡ Popular History of the United States; London, 1876; vol. I. p. 41.
§ Ibid. p. 70.
between the countries of the East Atlantic and those of the West was probably checked for several centuries prior to the time of Columbus. Indeed, it would seem that the manners of certain North-American tribes represent very closely the real life of certain British tribes in early times. When Mr. Schoolcraft tells us* of Indians "who hold the relative rank of gamblers in Indian society," who are so fascinated by one particular game, that "they stake at it their ornaments, weapons, clothing, canoes, horses, everything in fact they possess," he is describing a caste that is almost identical with Spenser's Irish carrows; and when he further states that this class included "wanderers about the country, braggadocios, or fops," who were also mountebanks and tale-tellers, he suggests the "bards, tale-tellers, and fancied fools or professed pleasants," whose idle, vagabond ways were suppressed in the British Islands. Moreover, on either side of the Atlantic, men of this caste used to paint their skins and shave their heads. And, in either case, the mistletoe was regarded as the most sacred of plants by the Magi, or Druids, or Medicine-men. And, just as (even in the present century) the horse of the British "tory" chief was killed at his funeral, or immediately after it, so is the same ceremonial still followed by the "tory" of North America.† The "Indians" of either country are alike in many ways; and not the least important resemblance consists in this—that each has a tradition of being preceded by earlier races, of like description, and actually known by a name that is almost, or quite, the same in "Indian" as in "English."
Resemblances such as these might be greatly enlarged upon, but this would be out of place here; and would require a thorough knowledge of the subject. But such likenesses can only be explained by a belief in the kinship—or, at least, the political union—of these long-separated communities. It is impossible to understand American archaeology unless it is studied along with that of the "Old World."
* In one of the notes to "Hiawatha," these statements are quoted as from page 72 of Mr. Schoolcraft's History, &c., of the Indian Tribes, Part II.
† Mr. Edward King (Southern States, p. 194) refers to this as a custom of the "Kaws" of Kansas.
WOODFALL AND KINDER, PRINTERS, MILFORD LANE, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.
| 1950 | 1951 | 1952 |
|------|------|------|
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 4 | 5 | 6 |
| 7 | 8 | 9 |
| 10 | 11 | 12 |
| 13 | 14 | 15 |
| 16 | 17 | 18 |
| 19 | 20 | 21 |
| 22 | 23 | 24 |
| 25 | 26 | 27 |
| 28 | 29 | 30 |
| 31 | | |
*Note: The calendar is for the year 1952.*
| Date | Event Description |
|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1980-06-25 | The first meeting of the International Committee on the History of Mathematics was held in Paris, France. |
| 1980-07-01 | The International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) was held in Warsaw, Poland. |
| 1980-07-03 | The International Mathematical Union (IMU) was founded in Warsaw, Poland. |
| 1980-07-04 | The first meeting of the IMU Executive Committee was held in Warsaw, Poland. |
| 1980-07-05 | The first meeting of the IMU Council was held in Warsaw, Poland. |
| 1980-07-06 | The first meeting of the IMU Commission for the History of Mathematics was held in Warsaw, Poland. |
THE
LITERARY MAGAZINE
OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
VOL. II.
PHILADELPHIA:
PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.,
1837. | f827e12a-47b7-48d3-a983-570ecfc5a7e6 | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.moorishmack.org/uploads/1/2/4/9/124977120/ancient_and_modern_britons_vol._2_a_retrospect.pdf | 2021-12-02T11:50:39+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362219.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20211202114856-20211202144856-00273.warc.gz | 946,692,094 | 245,570 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.988201 | eng_Latn | 0.998268 | [
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"ind_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
... | true | rolmOCR | [
52,
114,
135,
246,
275,
394,
418,
1705,
3397,
5418,
6118,
6139,
7527,
10365,
13659,
16148,
19054,
21794,
24068,
26448,
28769,
31135,
33535,
36101,
38663,
41499,
43858,
46298,
49036,
51357,
54199,
56697,
59130,
62465,
64820,
67219,
69759,
7207... | [
0.98046875,
2.15625
] | 1 | 0 |
How can contaminants in the fish be removed?
Mercury cannot be removed through cooking or cleaning.
However, by removing fat and organs when you clean and cook fish, you can help to reduce other contaminants like PCBs that concentrate here.
REMEMBER!
- Cut off and discard skin, head, fat and guts
- Bake or broil the fish (without skin) on a rack so the fats can drain off
Three Safety Tips
1. Do not eat:
- Shark
- Bluefish
- Swordfish
- Striped Bass
- King Mackerel
- Crabs from Newark Bay
- Tilefish
- Green gland of lobster & crab
- Eel
- Raw fish
2. Eat a variety (up to 12 oz. on average = 2 meals a week) of fish lower in mercury:
- Shrimp
- Fluke/Flounder
- Canned-light Tuna
- Pollack
- Salmon
- Cod
- Cooked (not raw)
- Tilapia
- Shellfish
- Farm raised Catfish
3. Eat a variety of fish and choose your fish wisely. Prepare and clean all fish correctly. Cook clams and oysters thoroughly.
For more information please use contacts below:
New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services
call 609-588-3123
www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/foodweb
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection
call 609-984-6070
www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/njmainfish.htm
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
call 1-888-SAFEFOOD
www.cfsan.fda.gov
Special Advice for women who might become pregnant, women who are pregnant, nursing, and mothers of young children
Fish is a Healthy Food!
Fish and shellfish are an important part of a healthy diet. Fish and shellfish contain high quality protein and other essential nutrients, are low in saturated fat and contain omega-3 fatty acids. A well balanced diet includes a variety of fish and shellfish which can contribute to heart health and proper growth and development of your child.
Some fish contain high levels of environmental contaminants such as mercury and/or PCBs that can harm an unborn baby or young child’s developing nervous system.
Small amounts of mercury may lead to:
- Damaging your baby’s developing nervous system
- Learning and behavioral problems
Levels of exposure to PCBs can:
- Lead to a lower birth weight
- Reduce the ability to learn/delay physical development
- Exposure to PCBs may also cause cancer
Remember!
PCBs build up in the fat of fish
Remember the following advice when eating fish:
1. Eat smaller and younger fish.
2. Eat a variety of cooked fish and seafood.
3. Trim skin and fat, especially belly fat.
See picture on cleaning and cooking properly. (fatty fish, bluefish, salmon)
4. Follow the guidelines in this brochure to select safer types of fish to eat.
How To Choose Your Fish Wisely
Fish You Buy
| Fish | Mercury Level |
|-----------------------|---------------|
| Atlantic Salmon | Low |
| Flatfish & Flounder | Low |
| Canned “Light” Tuna | Low |
| Tuna | Low |
| Swordfish | Low |
| Hake, Haddock, Pollack, Cod | Low |
| Canned “White” Tuna | Low |
| Halibut | Low |
| Shark | Low |
Fish You Catch
| Fish | Do Not Eat | Do Not Eat From Pinelands; *Check Local Advisories for Other Water Bodies | Do Not Eat | Do Not Eat From Pinelands; *Check Local Advisories for Other Water Bodies | Do Not Eat | Do Not Eat |
|-----------------------|------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------|------------|
| Striped bass | | | | | | |
| Bluefish | | | | | | |
| Large & Smallmouth Bass| | | | | | |
| American Eel | | | | | | |
| Blue Crab | | | | | | |
*NJ Department of Health and Senior Services: www.state.nj.us/health/eoeh/foodweb
*NJ Department of Environmental Protection: www.state.nj.us/dep/gbs/signaturefish.htm
Do Not Eat Newark Bay Complex Crab, Do Not Eat Mustard, Green Gland | bbc76679-c7e0-4f9d-b3ee-c3167052fc5e | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.nj.gov/health/ceohs/documents/food-drug-safety/babybrochure.pdf | 2022-12-10T02:01:40+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711637.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20221210005738-20221210035738-00216.warc.gz | 948,541,648 | 978 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.981538 | eng_Latn | 0.983546 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1419,
4971
] | [
3.46875
] | 2 | 0 |
LAUREL HIGHLANDS HIGH SCHOOL
Career Planning Guide
Course Catalog
“The classes I schedule today, will help me build skills for tomorrow.”
2018-2019
LAUREL HIGHLANDS HIGH SCHOOL
300 BAILEY AVENUE
UNIONTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA
15401
PHONE: (724) 437-4741
FAX: (724) 437-5653
www.lhsd.org
ADMINISTRATION
MR. JOHN DIAMOND PRINCIPAL
MR. MATT KALICH ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL
MRS. BRANDI MANCINI ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL
GUIDANCE COUNSELORS/ASSIGNMENTS
MRS. ANDREA BARCHETTI (R-Z)
MRS. CATHY KANIA (M-Q)
MR. ANDREW LOY (G-L)
MS. MELISSA MICHAEL (A-F)
CHIEF OF SECURITY
ATTENDANCE OFFICER
TRANSPORTATION DIRECTOR
MR. RICHARD BARRON
SECRETARIES
MRS. LISA BROWN
MRS. SERINA LIVINGSTON
MRS. KATHY MIHALKO
PRINCIPAL’S MESSAGE
Each student’s selection of a program of study is very personal and this important process requires careful planning. It is difficult to choose subjects that have instant meaning and that are useful now and in the future. Course selection is a serious responsibility to be shared with parents, teachers, guidance counselors, and others whose opinions are respected.
The Career Planning Guide has been written to assist you in making informed decisions while selecting your courses. Read the descriptions of courses to determine which courses are appropriate for you. Evaluate the Laurel Highlands’ graduation requirements along with your career goals, academic achievements, abilities, and interest.
Check the course listings in the Career Planning Guide for descriptions and prerequisites. These courses will be offered if there is sufficient student registration and available faculty.
Plan a full program that will demand your best. Goals should be ambitious and attainable. Make your aspirations compatible with your ability. Students who are willing to pursue challenging courses for personal employment and cultural enrichment will have rewarding experiences. Do your best in all subjects, regardless of your plans after graduation. Get the most from the educational opportunities that are available to you!
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................... 1-6
GUIDANCE SERVICES ............................................................................................................. 6
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE ...................................................................................... 6
MENTORING PROGRAMS ....................................................................................................... 6
NATIONAL ACADEMY FOUNDATION .................................................................................. 6, 15
TRANSCRIPTS - PARCHMENT ACCOUNT SETUP ................................................................. 6
COLLEGE ADMISSION ............................................................................................................ 7
ARTICULATION AGREEMENTS/DUAL ENROLLMENTS ......................................................... 7
ADVANCED PLACEMENT/HONORS COURSES ..................................................................... 8
GRADING INFORMATION/POLICY ....................................................................................... 9
MEDICAL EXCUSE (ME) ....................................................................................................... 9
WEIGHTING OF COURSES .................................................................................................... 9
INCOMPLETE (I) .................................................................................................................... 9
OPPORTUNITIES FOR POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION .................................................... 10
FINANCIAL AID/SCHOLARSHIPS ....................................................................................... 10
INSTANT DECISION DAYS .................................................................................................. 10
GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................ 10
CREDIT GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................. 10
KEYSTONE GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................ 11
VALEDICTORIAN/SALUTATORIAN ....................................................................................... 11
GRADUATION PARTICIPATION ............................................................................................ 11
COURSE SELECTION INFORMATION .................................................................................... 12
GENERAL GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................ 12
SCHEDULE CHANGES ........................................................................................................... 12
COURSE WITHDRAWAL PROCEDURES ................................................................................ 12
CLASS RANKING/STUDENT RECOGNITION ........................................................................ 11
PROMOTION/RETENTION .................................................................................................... 13
HONOR ROLL ........................................................................................................................ 12
CREDIT RECOVERY/MANDATORY TUTORING PROGRAM .................................................. 13
PROMOTION REQUIREMENTS (MIDDLE SCHOOL TO HIGH SCHOOL) ......................... 13
EARLY RELEASE ................................................................................................................... 14
LATE ARRIVAL ...................................................................................................................... 14
ACADEMIES .......................................................................................................................... 14
PROGRAM MODELS ............................................................................................................. 15-23
CURRICULUM OFFERINGS .................................................................................................. 24-34
LANGUAGE ARTS (COURSE SELECTION FLOW CHART – PAGE 34) .................................. 24
SOCIAL STUDIES (COURSE SELECTION FLOW CHART – PAGE 38) ............................... 24
MATHEMATICS (COURSE SELECTION FLOW CHART – PAGES 40) .................................. 25
SCIENCE (COURSE SELECTION FLOW CHART – PAGE 43) ............................................... 25
P.E./HEALTH ........................................................................................................................ 26
WORLD LANGUAGE .............................................................................................................. 26
BUSINESS ............................................................................................................................. 26
AIR FOTCE JUNIOR ROTC (AFJROTC) .............................................................................. 27
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION ................................................................................................ 27
FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCE .................................................................................... 27
MUSIC ................................................................................................................................. 28
ART ..................................................................................................................................... 28
DRIVERS EDUCATION .......................................................................................................... 28
EARLY RELEASE/LATE ARRIVAL ........................................................................................ 28
LEARNING SUPPORT ........................................................................................................... 29
FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) ...................................... 21, 22, 30-33
COURSE DESCRIPTIONS ....................................................................................................... 34-59
NOTICE OF EQUAL RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITIES POLICY
The Laurel Highlands School District is an equal opportunity education institution and will not discriminate on the basis of race, color national origin, sex or sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, ancestry, union membership, or any other legally protected classification in its educational programs, activities or employment practices, as required by Title VI, Title IX, Sections 503 and 504, the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
For information regarding civil rights or grievances procedures, contact Mr. Randy Miller, Title IX and Sections 503 and 504 Coordinator at Laurel Highlands School District, 304 Bailey Avenue, Uniontown, PA 15401, 724-437-2821, or the Director of the Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
Equal access to the full range of programs available to individuals who are non-handicapped or non-disadvantaged will be provided to individuals who are handicapped or disadvantaged. Eligibility and admissions criteria to school programs are nondiscriminatory.
LAUREL HIGHLANDS SCHOOL DISTRICT
IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER
This Career Planning Guide has been created to supply useful information to students and their families to assist in the course selection process as well as to inform them of various procedures in place at Laurel Highlands High School. Every attempt is made to ensure accuracy at the time of printing but all information is subject to change based upon available staffing, resources, PDE requirements, and local policy and program adoption by the Laurel Highlands School District. Your understanding in this matter is appreciated.
GENERAL INFORMATION
GUIDANCE SERVICES
The high school guidance department serves each student in a variety of ways. Major functions are to provide individual and group counseling services so that each student can be helped with education, vocational and personal problems; to guide students in course selection; to assist students in vocational and college placement; and to coordinate and maintain a complete record of student progress from the time of each student’s admission into school. Guidance services are available when students are reevaluating their programs and educational plans. Counselors invite parental requests for conferences and arrange interviews at a mutually convenient time.
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)
Students whose primary home language is other than English, as identified during enrollment/registration on the home language survey, are required to be tested to determine their English language proficiency.
Students demonstrating English proficiency may enroll in general education classes; however, their progress is to be monitored for two years. If the student meets with difficulty in the general curriculum during these two years, the student will be required to participate in limited English proficiency support program. Students who are not proficient in English will be referred to the Intermediate Unit for more in depth prescriptive testing. Students are then required to work with the Intermediate Unit teacher of English as a second language in lieu of general English classes.
The building-level administration/counseling team, along with the ESL teacher will monitor student progress and determine when the student can exit the LEP program and enroll in English classes. If a student with limited English proficiency continues to have difficulties with academic success, the school-level monitoring team may refer the student for testing to determine if the student has a disability, and is in need of specially designed instruction. Participation in the ESL/LEP program is required by federal law and is subject to review by the PA Department of Education.
MENTORING PROGRAMS
The Laurel Highlands High School has developed Peer and Adult Mentoring Programs. The Peer Monitoring Program is being operated in conjunction with Junior Achievement of Fayette County. Our eleventh grade students go to the Middle School to work with eighth grade students. The objective of the Peer Monitoring is to help our eighth grade student transition to grade 9 at the high school. Seniors also will travel to the elementary schools to work with the elementary students as well. In addition, the district is very proud of its Mini Mighty Mustangs Program that provides literacy materials to all Pre-K residents of the district.
The Adult Mentoring will entail all students at the high school being assigned to a faculty member. The adult mentor will work with the students during their high school years to explore their plans, guide students to overcome barriers, and help to ensure each student has a clear pathway to success. Mentors will assist students in making well-informed academic and career choices.
NATIONAL ACADEMY FOUNDATION (NAF)
Laurel Highlands offers sophomores the opportunity to join the National Academy Foundation (NAF) program. Laurel Highlands will offer students Academies in two career themes: Finance and Hospitality and Tourism. To qualify to enter the Academy program, the student must have true sophomore standing. The Academy is a three-year program to supplement and enrich the traditional curriculum. Academy courses are scheduled as electives and do not interfere with students who wish to take Honors or Advanced Placement classes.
TRANSCRIPTS (AVAILABLE ON PARCHMENT ACCOUNT)
Transcripts are final, end-of-year grades including Cumulative GPA and Class Rank, for academic grades 9, 10, 11 and 12. 9th graders do not have Transcripts until end-of-year grades are finalized for their freshmen year courses. Transcripts do NOT change mid-year; only after grades are finalized.
(continued next page…)
As of April 1, 2014, Laurel Highlands High School is under contract with Parchment, an online service which provides OFFICIAL high school transcripts. All transcripts and graduation verifications are processed electronically. Parchment sends Official transcripts securely, accurately and confidentially to any college or university, employer, background check or agency and also to scholarship locations. You can request transcripts anytime from anywhere. All you need is an internet connection and to visit Parchment.com. The link is also found on www.LHSD.org website. Unofficial Transcripts are posted on the LHHS Portal for easy access.
One of the required documents you will need when applying to colleges, or for jobs in the future, is an official high school transcript. Whether it is in the near future, or 20 years from now, someone is going to need your transcript. Please note that parents can make these requests until students turn 18. Once students turn 18, no one can request student records, except the student.
Sophomores are provided with Registration Codes to create their Parchment accounts. Students should create an account as soon as they receive this code. By using the Registration Code provided, the student information will be auto-filled from the LHHS Student Information System. Without this code, you can still create the account but will have to enter all your own information.
COLLEGE ADMISSIONS
In selecting students for admission, most colleges and universities consider the following data:
Scholastic Record
A student’s scholastic record is carefully evaluated by college admission counselors. These records are maintained and updated yearly by the guidance department. Copies of these records may be obtained by creating a Parchment Account and submitting a request through the account.
Admissions Tests
PSAT/NMSQT—The Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test, or the PSAT/NMSQT, consists of two fifty-minute test sections. The PSAT, which is taken primarily by high school juniors, is given by the College Entrance Examination Board and the National Merit Scholarship Corporation in October. **Fee charged
PSAT/NMSQT—All sophomores will participate in the PSAT Test at no cost to the student.
SAT—The Scholastic Aptitude Test, or SAT, taken by both juniors and seniors, consists of six one-half hour sections. The thirty-minute test of Standard Written English is administered with the SAT. SAT is administered at Laurel Highlands High School four times a year in October, November, April, and June. Test covers Critical Reading, Math, and Writing. **Fee Charged.
SAT Prep Classes are offered before each SAT Test at the High School. A $25 course fee is required upon registration in the Guidance office. This fee will be refunded if the student attends at least 6 of the 8 sessions. The classes are made available through the L.H. Academic Foundation.
SAT Subject Test—Achievement tests that are given by the College Board and may be required by some colleges. Achievement tests differ from aptitude tests in that they test knowledge. **Fee charged. Test areas – Non-Refundable Fee
AP—The Advanced Placement Examinations are given to students in selected courses during the month of May. **Fee Charged – Non-Refundable Fee once test is ordered).
ACT—American College Test, or ACT, consists of four subject areas: English Usage, Mathematics Usage, Writing, Social Studies Reading, and Natural Sciences Reading. ACT is administered several times throughout the year. See your counselor for more information. It is offered at Laurel Highlands three times each year. **Fee Charged – Non-Refundable Fee
Keystone Assessments- The Keystone Exams are one component of Pennsylvania’s new system of high school graduation. Keystone Exams will help school districts guide students toward meeting state standards. These standards are aligned with expectations for success in college and the workplace. Assessments are currently required in Algebra I, Biology, and Literature. Beginning with the Class of 2019, students must pass all three Keystone Assessments in order to be eligible to graduate. Students not passing the Keystone Exam(s) will be placed in a Keystone Remediation Course for the appropriate subject area. This may cause a schedule change.
Other—Colleges and universities are also interested in the type and quality of the courses the student elects each year, examples of community involvement, and in the student’s participation in extracurricular activities. Some are available on-line.
Articulation Agreements
An Articulation Agreement is an agreement between a high school and a post-secondary institution for the post-secondary institution to automatically accept a student into their school and/or gives the student some advanced standing because of courses completed at the high school. Each year, these agreements are revised. Please see your counselor to discuss options for the upcoming school year.
Dual Enrollment/College in High School
The Laurel Highlands High School participates in a Dual Enrollment Program in which students are able to earn college credit while in high school. There are three types of dual enrollment opportunities available:
1) Advanced Placement Courses (AP) taught by our teachers and our classes, but college approved,
2) On-site courses where students attend the college/university (on campus, online, or afterschool at the high school), or
3) College in High School, where several of our teachers are approved and certified to teach college courses at the high school during the day and students can choose to earn college credits.
The opportunities available are updated on a continuous basis. Please visit the Guidance Link on our school’s homepage at www.lhsd.org.
Currently, the district is reimbursing a small amount of the cost for students as long as they earn a “C” or higher in the course. The district negotiated a lower tuition price and is offering the reimbursement as a way for students to have advanced standing in college before they leave high school and for parents to save money. For additional information, please speak to your child’s guidance counselor. (Unfortunately, Tuition, Fees, and Reimbursements are subject to change.)
ADVANCED PLACEMENT COURSES
Courses leading to candidacy for advanced placement examinations are available for the academically talented students. Pupils are recommended to enroll in the advanced placement program based upon past academic performances, standardized test scores, teacher recommendations and the approval of the department chairperson.
Advanced placement and standing in colleges may be awarded by the college based on the scores attained by the student on the AP test. NOTE: College Board’s AP Test is recommended for all courses completed.
Advanced Placement Courses offered are as follows:
- AP Language and Composition III
- AP Composition and Literature IV
- AP American History
- AP US Government/Politics
- AP Human Geography
- AP Psychology
- AP Calculus “12”
- AP Statistics
- AP Biology
- AP Chemistry
- AP Physics
- AP French
- AP Spanish V
- AP Music Theory
HONORS LEVEL COURSES
Honors level courses are designed to challenge the academically talented and intellectually motivated students. These courses are also weighted in determining the quality point average, which is also determined by class work.
The following are classified as Honors level courses:
- Honors English I
- Honors English II
- Honors English III
- Honors English IV
- Honors Geometry “9”
- Honors Advanced Algebra “10”
- Honors Function/Trig/Pre-Calculus “11”
- Honors Biology
- Honors Chemistry
- Honors Organic Chemistry
- Honors Physics
- Honors Civics
- Honors World History
- Honors French IV
- Honors Spanish IV
- Honors Chamber Choir
- Honors Jazz Ensemble
GRADING POLICY/ GRADING INFORMATION:
The following grade scale will be used:
| GRADE | PERCENTAGE | QUALITY POINTS |
|-------|------------|----------------|
| A | 95-100 | 4.0000 |
| A- | 90-94 | 3.6667 |
| B+ | 87-89 | 3.3333 |
| B | 83-86 | 3.0000 |
| B- | 80-82 | 2.6667 |
| C+ | 77-79 | 2.3333 |
| C | 73-76 | 2.0000 |
| C- | 70-72 | 1.6667 |
| D | 60-69 | 1.0000 |
| F | 0-59 | 0.0000 |
| ME | N/A | 0.0000 |
WEIGHTING OF COURSES
In granting quality points, Honors Courses will be weighted using a 1.125 factor and Advanced Placement Courses will be weighted using a 1.25 factor:
| GRADE | REGULAR QUALITY POINTS | FACTOR | WEIGHTED QUALITY POINTS | FACTOR | WEIGHTED QUALITY POINTS |
|-------|------------------------|--------|-------------------------|--------|-------------------------|
| | | HONORS | HONORS | AP | AP |
| A | 4.0000 | 1.125 | 4.5000 | 1.25 | 5.0000 |
| A- | 3.6667 | 1.125 | 4.1250 | 1.25 | 4.5834 |
| B+ | 3.3333 | 1.125 | 3.7500 | 1.25 | 4.1666 |
| B | 3.0000 | 1.125 | 3.3750 | 1.25 | 3.7500 |
| B- | 2.6667 | 1.125 | 3.0000 | 1.25 | 3.3334 |
| C+ | 2.3333 | 1.125 | 2.6250 | 1.25 | 2.9166 |
| C | 2.0000 | 1.125 | 2.2500 | 1.25 | 2.5000 |
| C- | 1.6667 | 1.125 | 1.8750 | 1.25 | 2.0834 |
| D | 1.0000 | 1.125 | 1.1250 | 1.25 | 1.2500 |
| F | 0.0000 | 1.125 | 0.0000 | 1.25 | 0.0000 |
| ME | 0.0000 | 1.125 | 0.0000 | 1.25 | 0.0000 |
MEDICAL EXCUSE (ME)
If a student has a medical problem that affects his/her ability to participate in a physical education class, the course will be waived during the time period that the medical condition exists. The medical problem must be documented in writing by a physician and the documentation must be made available to the guidance office to become part of the student’s permanent record. If the student has a Medical Excuse for over 50% of the total classes for the year, the student will receive a Medical Excuse (ME) for the year with no credit assigned. The course requirement will be waived for that school year. If the Medical Excuse (ME) is for less than 50% of the total classes for the year, the student will receive the grade he/she earned and credit for the class. For long-term conditions, a new medical excuse must be provided for each school year.
INCOMPLETE (I) GRADE
Although the high school administration does not recommend the assignment of Incomplete (I) grades, teachers may do so in extenuating circumstances. Incomplete (I) grades, however, must be resolved within ten (10) school days following the end of the grading period or the Incomplete (I) grade will automatically be changed to a Failing Grade (F). Incomplete (I) grades may not be assigned for the Fourth Nine Weeks Grading Period or for the Final Grade.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION
Varied educational opportunities are available to high school graduates. Some of these include apprentice training, armed forces, business schools, career schools, universities, community and junior colleges, schools of nursing education, technical institutes, and trade schools. Guidance counselors provide the students with information about the various types of post-secondary education programs and the institutions that offer them.
Academic preparation necessary for entrance into college will vary depending upon the career goals and aspirations of the student. Because of the number of electives available in many of the curriculum areas, it is strongly recommended that students meet with their counselor to develop a program of studies appropriate to their goal aspirations.
For students not planning to attend college, the Guidance Department has information about job skills, interviews, resumes, and job descriptions. The counselor will assist with the planning of student-developed goals.
FINANCIAL AID
Financial aid is the term given to scholarships, grants, loans, and part-time jobs that may make it possible to attend college. Students who are interested in financial aid information should study the catalogues of a number of colleges and universities of their choice and secure the necessary application forms. State and federal aid information is available in the guidance office. High school guidance counselors will discuss financial aid sources with students upon request. Students are encouraged to contact their post-secondary institution’s financial aid offices for further assistance.
SCHOLARSHIPS
Scholarships are offered to students based on several different criteria. Students interested in applying for various scholarships should listen closely to morning announcements for scholarship information and deadlines. The information is posted on-line at www.lhsd.org under the Student Life tab.
INSTANT DECISION DAYS
Throughout the school year, recruiters from several colleges and universities as well as other post-secondary institutions will visit Laurel Highlands to interview students and offer college admittance at the end of the interview. A list of participating schools is available on-line but check back frequently as the schedule is constantly being updated.
GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS
HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION
To graduate from Laurel Highlands High School, a student must successfully complete the graduation requirements adopted by the Laurel Highlands Board of Directors for the year of expected graduation.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
To become eligible for graduation from Laurel Highlands High School, students must earn at least twenty-five and one-half (25.5) credits, which must include the following:
| Subject | Credits | Courses |
|----------------------------------|---------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| English | Four (4.0) | Academic English I, II, III, IV |
| Social Studies | Four (4.0) | Civics, World History, American History, Political Science/Recent US History or Geography/Economics |
| Mathematics | Four (4.0) | Minimum of Algebra A, Algebra B, Concepts of Geometry, and Consumer Math |
| Science | Four (4.0) | Bio 9, Bio 10 and two(2) Science Electives |
| Health, Physical Education/Aquatics | 2½ (2.5) | Physical Education in grades 9, 10, 11, and 12; Health 10 (Minimum of one Aquatics course) |
| Arts or Humanities | Two (2.0) | Foreign Language, Art, Music, Technology, or Family/Consumer Science |
| Other Electives | 4½ (4.5) | Choose from any of the curriculum departments and/or CTI course offerings |
| Freshman Seminar or AFJROTC | One-half(0.5) | Required elective – Grade 9 |
KEYSTONE GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS
Students will take end of year assessments in Biology, Algebra, and Literature. All students must take the Keystone Exams and pass them as required by PDE. Students who do not receive a passing score will be assigned to a remediation program and must receive a passing grade on a state issued reassessment exam or on the project based assessment to be eligible to graduate. If scheduled during the school day, the remediation class may be substituted for another elective. Family Travel will not be approved during the State Assessment Window.
NOTE: In accordance with the Pennsylvania School Code and the Laurel Highlands Board of School Directors policy, the principal will determine a student’s eligibility for a high school diploma from Laurel Highlands High School and certify that the student has met all course and credit requirements and has satisfied all obligations before a diploma may be awarded.
SELECTION OF VALEDICTORIAN/SALUTATORIAN** (Class of 2019 and Class of 2020)
The Board acknowledges the usefulness of a class rank system for secondary school graduates to inform students, parents and others of their relative academic placement among their peers under relatively similar circumstances. The Board authorizes a system of class ranking by total quality points accumulated for students in grades nine through twelve. Students are ranked from the highest to the lowest with ties being resolved by assigning the same number to all those tied with the same number of quality points. The high school Valedictorian and Salutatorian will be determined from this ranking based on the total quality points earned. The graduating senior with the highest number of quality points will be named the Valedictorian while the graduating senior with the second highest number of quality points will be named Salutatorian. This ranking procedure began with the graduating class of 2006. The Superintendent shall see that procedures and guidelines are developed for the computation of quality point totals for the assignment of class rank, for the computation of quality points used in the determination of the high school Valedictorian and Salutatorian, and for the implementation of this policy.
Quality points take into account the number of credits earned by the student in his/her first four years in high school, the weight of credits earned and the grades earned for each grading period. If you have any questions regarding this system of class rank, please see your guidance counselor.
STIPULATIONS:
Students who have medical excuses for Physical Education will only receive Quality Points equal to credit given for Physical Education for the course used to replace the Physical Education Class.
Class rank will be determined by calculating the Total Quality Points earned during a student’s first four years in HS.
Students graduating earlier than their original graduating class will not be eligible for recognition as Valedictorian or Salutatorian.
**(This is the current class rank procedure through the Class of 2020. Beginning with the Class of 2021 and moving forward, the LHSD has eliminated the class ranking of students and has implemented the recognition of students by using a “Latin Ranking System.”)**
CLASS RANKING SYSTEM:
Beginning with the Class of 2021, a Valedictorian and Salutatorian will not be recognized. Students will be recognized by using a “Latin System”. Weighted GPA Grading Scale will still exist but students will be recognized at graduation according to the following scale:
Career GPA of 4.40 and higher = Summa Cum Laude
Career GPA of 4.2 to 4.39 = Magna Cum Laude
Career GPA of 3.8 to 4.19 = Cum Laude
GRADUATION PARTICIPATION
Participation in the graduation ceremony is a privilege extended to those students who have met all requirements necessary for graduation. Any student failing to meet the minimum credit requirement, demonstrate proficiency on the Keystone Exams, or to satisfy all obligations (i.e., library fees, cafeteria charges, athletic equipment, fines, returned books, fundraising monies, outstanding disciplinary actions, restitutions, etc.) will not be permitted to participate in the graduation ceremony.
In addition, students must attend scheduled graduation practices. If a student is not in attendance at practice, it will be deemed that he/she is not interested in participating and his/her seat will be removed from the stage. Exceptions to this guideline must be presented to the principal in writing two weeks prior to graduation to be approved.
Students must dress in at least business casual attire and have a cap and gown for the ceremony.
GENERAL GUIDELINES
Student must elect courses required for graduation as described in this publication. Courses described in this publication may be selected if prerequisite course and grade level requirements are met and the student has parental, guidance counselor, and teacher approval. Students must elect a sufficient number of courses necessary to meet a weekly minimum requirement of thirty-five (35) instructional class periods (7 courses and lunch).
Unless noted, a student may earn credit only once for a course in pursuit of high school graduation requirements. All advanced placement and honors courses are weighted in regard to degree of difficulty. This weighting factor, grade earned, and units of credit are used when computing a student’s rank-in-class.
Every effort will be made to schedule the student for those courses requested. In the event of insufficient registration and/or staffing or facilities limitations, the administration reserves the right to cancel any course or limit enrollment.
SCHEDULE CHANGES
All student-initiated schedule changes will be handled in August. If possible, specific dates for handling schedule changes will be published prior to August of any given year.
Valid reasons for schedule changes are as follows:
- Conflicts appearing on computer schedule.
- Changes needed to satisfy graduation requirements on time.
- Failure of a prerequisite course.
- Changes required for the health of student. (Doctor’s recommendation only.)
- Successful completion of the course in summer school.
- Teacher’s request due to inappropriate placement.
After the August change period, no student-initiated changes will be made. Administrative changes to balance classes or to correct student misplacement will be made as soon as possible.
Schedule changes must be made with the written approval of counselors, teachers, and principals. After the first nine weeks, students cannot withdraw from a course unless they have written permission from the principal.
Parents may appeal a denial for schedule change to the high school administration. The decision of the high school administration will be final.
COURSE WITHDRAWAL PROCEDURE
Students who wish to drop a course after the first day of school must follow this procedure:
Step One: A withdrawal request from the student’s parents to the designated counselor must be written.
Step Two: The counselor will discuss the request with the student to determine its validity and consequence with regard to graduation requirements.
Step Three: The counselor will discuss the request with the teacher; the teacher may agree or disagree with the parent request.
Step Four: If there is a disagreement with the request, the teacher, student, counselor, principal, and parent will meet to discuss the request. The final decision may result in denying the request of approving the schedule change. The decision of the principal is final.
*NOTE – A student will not be withdrawn from a class and placed in a study hall due to a failing grade in the class in question.
GRADING:
Course dropped following the above guidelines will carry a “W” grade on the permanent record.
An “F” grade may be assigned if the student does not follow the withdrawal procedures. If a student has earned a grade and it is then deemed necessary to adjust the level of a course, the weighted or unweighted value of the grade will be moved into the receiving teacher’s grading record for the new course. The student’s attendance record is also transferred to the receiving teacher.
HONOR ROLL
*Average by grade point for Honor Roll recognition:
- Highest Honors 3.9 – Plus
- High Honors 3.5 – 3.89
- Honors 3.0 – 3.49
*Students receiving a “D,” “F,” or “I” in any course will not be eligible for the Honor Roll.
PROMOTION/RETENTION
TO BE PROMOTED ON A YEARLY BASIS THE REQUIREMENTS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
9th Grade to 10th Grade 6.0 Credits earned
10th Grade to 11th Grade 12.0 Credits earned
11th Grade to 12th Grade 18.5 Credits earned
TUTORING/CREDIT RECOVERY
Ninth and Tenth grade students who are failing Math, English, Science, or Social Studies after each grading period must attend mandatory tutoring/credit recovery classes. Parents of students required to attend will be notified by mail. These classes will be scheduled after school, but transportation will be provided. If students leave school without attending tutoring, they must have a doctor’s excuse to justify the missed tutoring class. Failure to provide a doctor’s excuse will result in an ISS being assigned. Students participating in after-school activities may participate after the tutoring session ends for the day. Habitual absences could result in further discipline action and the student being placed on social probation.
The goal of these classes is to have the students make-up work they have failed and to keep up with work in these classes. The tutoring program is designed and mandated to help prevent students from failing their classes and as a result, being retained.
PROMOTION REQUIREMENTS/SUMMER SCHOOL
LAUREL HIGHLANDS MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
The following guidelines apply for the Laurel Highlands Middle School:
If a 6th or 7th grade student fails one or two major subjects (Math, English, Social Studies, Science or Reading), students must make up classes in an approved credit granting summer school in order to be promoted. Students are encouraged to take LHSD summer school classes in lieu of outsourced curricula.
If a 7th grade student fails only one major class (Math, Reading, English, Social Studies, or Science) they are still required to make up the class in an approved credit granting summer school in order to be promoted. Students are encouraged to take LHSD summer school classes in lieu of outsourced curricula.
If a student fails more than two major subjects, he/she must repeat the grade level. (If factors, such as age, are considered for placement at the high school, an Academic Review must be held to determine appropriate programs and/or proper placement for the student. Such students must attend summer school to be considered for promotion.)
When an 8th grade fails one class due to contributing factors, such as excessive absences, serious discipline problems, and/or academic difficulty, the student must attend the Ninth Grade Summer Bridge Program in order to move on to Grade 9.
If an 8th grade student earns a “D” grade in Math, Reading, or English, it is highly recommended that they attend the 9th Grade Summer Bridge Program.
EARLY RELEASE - Course 994A, 994B, and 994C
This opportunity is designed for Seniors who have met their graduation requirements - no credit is awarded for this elective choice. The intent of this program is to allow students that are participating in dual enrollment, working part-time, helping with a family business, or completing an internship the opportunity to leave school early to begin their work earlier each day. Students may leave at the beginning of period 6. Students participating in athletics are also eligible to leave early if they have met their graduation requirements and are still satisfying the eligibility requirements for the WPIAL. The goal of the district is to provide students involved in activities beyond the school day the opportunity to go home early to complete schoolwork prior to starting their “after-school” activity. If the school day is altered for any reason, students must still make themselves available for their scheduled classes. To accommodate scheduling, this course must be scheduled by July 1st of the summer preceding a student’s senior year. The course will not be added to a student’s schedule after the deadline. Parents must sign a permission slip and students must provide their own transportation.
Scheduling Early Release does not guarantee or entitle any student to a parking pass. Parking passes will be distributed in accordance with the parking pass distribution procedure.
*Student may choose either Late Arrival or Early Release – Not a combination of both options
LATE ARRIVAL – Course 995A and 995B - A lunch period will be scheduled
This opportunity is designed for Seniors who have met their graduation requirements - no credit is awarded for this elective choice. The intent of this program is to allow students that are participating in dual enrollment, working part-time, helping with a family business, or completing an internship the opportunity to arrive to school late each day. Students participating in athletics are also eligible to arrive late if they have met their graduation requirements and are still satisfying the eligibility requirements for the WPIAL. The goal of the district is to provide students involved in activities beyond the school day the opportunity to arrive late to complete schoolwork prior to starting their school day. If the school day is altered for any reason, students must still make themselves available for their scheduled classes. To accommodate scheduling, this course must be scheduled by July 1st of the summer preceding a student’s senior year. Required courses and core content classes will be given first scheduling priority over the scheduling of Late Arrival. The course will not be added to a student’s schedule after the deadline. Parents must sign a permission slip and students must provide their own transportation. Scheduling Late Arrival does not guarantee or entitle any student to a parking pass. Parking passes will be distributed in accordance with the parking pass distribution procedure.
*Student may choose either Late Arrival or Early Release – Not a combination of both options
CAREER ACADEMIES AVAILABLE TO CURRENT NINTH GRADE STUDENTS
SCHEDULING FOR TENTH GRADE
Beginning in the 2005-2006 school year, all 9th grade students participated in the Ninth Grade Academy, which had a Freshman Orientation Class and increased academic requirements. The Freshmen Orientation Class covered the following topics: orientation to high school, career planning, educational planning, human relations, and technology. With the background students develop in education and career planning, they will be asked to make a decision beginning in Grade 10 as to the Academic/Career Pathway they choose. All students must select from the following career pathways:
Academy of Finance – National Academy Foundation
Academy of Hospitality and Tourism – National Academy Foundation
Academy of Information Technology
Fine Arts Career Academy
Pre-Engineering Career Academy
Manufacturing Career Academy
Education, Health and Human Services Career Academy
Advanced Placement Career Academy
FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI)
Career and Community Academy
Air Force JROTC
If necessary, students can change academies prior to the beginning of the next school year.
Mission
NAF solves some of the biggest challenges facing education and the economy by bringing education, business, and community leaders together to transform the high school experience.
Vision
NAF envisions a world in which all young people have equal opportunity for successful futures.
Core Values
Teamwork, Learning, Integrity, Respect, Trust, and Innovation
Welcome to the Academy of Finance!
★ Students who will enroll in the Academy of Finance will have the full support of the NAF network.
★ NAF is a national network of education, business, and community leaders who work together to ensure high school students are college, career, and future ready.
★ NAF has grown from one NAF Academy of Finance in New York City to hundreds of academies across the country focusing on growing industries including: finance, hospitality & tourism, information technology, engineering, and health sciences.
★ During the 2016-17 school year nearly 100,000 students attended 675 NAF academies across 36 states, including DC and the US Virgin Islands.
★ In 2016, NAF academies reported 96% of seniors graduated with 92% of graduates planning to go to college.
★ Students will have access to the most current, cutting-edge, business curriculum as well as opportunities to enhance their 21st Century skills through the use of NAF’s project based learning initiative.
★ In addition to the curriculum, Academy of Finance (AOF) students will also have the opportunity to work side-by-side with the Fayette County School Employee’s Credit Union student branch during lunch periods.
✓ The credit union opened their first student branch in our high school in 2015. They have been a great partner and have given AOF students hands on experience in the world of banking.
★ Students will also have the opportunity to compete in the annual Fayette County Business Pitch Competition, similar to Shark Tank.
★ All AOF students will have the opportunity to complete a paid internship through one of the many local business partners we have in the area.
★ Finally, students will receive 3 college credits for taking Accounting II through Westmoreland County Community College. The credits earned are easily transferable to most universities and colleges in Pennsylvania.
Special Graduation Recognition
★ AOF students are eligible for completer’s status upon graduation if they enroll in and pass three AOF courses, take one dual enrollment/AP course, and complete an internship.
★ All AOF completer’s will receive a green honors cord to wear at graduation along with a completer’s certificate from NAF, which is an industry recognized certificate which
may open doors to all of NAF network partners to include: Verizon Wireless, Hewitt Packard Enterprises, JP Morgan Chase & Co., Capital One Bank, Johnson & Johnson, Marriott Hotel Resorts & Suites, MasterCard, Moody’s, and Apple Inc.
### Suggested Course Sequence
**Grade 9**
- ★ Introduction to Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
**Grade 10**
- ★ Introduction to Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Accounting I – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Banking/Credit/Personal Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
**Grade 11**
- ★ Introduction to Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Accounting I – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Accounting II (College Credit/Dual Enrollment) – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Banking/Credit/Personal Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Securities and Insurance – Instructor Mr. Costello
- ★ Internship – Summer between 11th and 12th grade
**Grade 12**
- ★ Introduction to Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Accounting I – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Accounting II (College Credit/Dual Enrollment) – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- (May be substituted for senior Math credit senior by members of NAF Finance Academy)
- ★ Banking/Credit/Personal Finance – Instructor Mr. Bryson
- ★ Securities and Insurance – Instructor Mr. Costello
### INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACADEMY
**GRADE 9 –**
Introduction to Information Technology /Computer Hardware Technology or Digital Communications I
**GRADE 10 –**
Digital Communications I or II
Video Production I
**GRADE 11 –**
Digital Communications I or II
Video Productions I or II
*SUMMER BETWEEN GRADE 11 AND 12 – PAID INTERNSHIP*
**GRADE 12 –**
Digital Communications II or Video Production I or Video Production II
Dual Enrollment, college/high school class.
Articulation agreements are revised each year for this program. Please see your guidance counselor to discuss the options for next year.
The Academy of Hospitality and Tourism offers an exciting career and destination-exploring curriculum for students interested in the world beyond a desk and four walls. H&T students, with their classmates, have visited exciting destinations such as New York City, Chicago, Niagara Falls, Canada, and Washington, D.C., to enhance their educational experience. Introduction to all aspects of the industry, highly sought-after Soft Skills, and courses geared toward both operational and theoretical management round out the curriculum choices.
**SUGGESTED COURSE SEQUENCE**
GRADE 10 Business Concepts for Hospitality and Tourism/Strategies for Success (Soft Skills)
GRADE 11 Sports, Events, and Entertainment Management
Possible paid Internship during the summer between Junior and Senior years with a local business partner.
GRADE 12 Resorts Management and Operations and either
Geography and Economics for Hospitality and Tourism or
an Advanced Placement Course or
Dual Enrollment for college credit
Possible articulation with post-secondary institutions
AOH&T students who complete and pass all required courses and complete an internship, **will earn an orange honor cord and a pineapple (symbol of H&T) honor pin** to be worn with their gown at graduation. In addition, students will receive a Certificate of Completion from the National Academy Foundation, recognized by members of the National Academy Network of hospitality businesses.
Information on articulation agreements with post-secondary institutions is available in the Guidance Office and the Office of the Curriculum Coordinator.
**MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY ACADEMY**
GRADE 10 –
Industrial Materials I
GRADE 11 –
Industrial Materials II
Introduction to Manufacturing Systems (IMS)
*SUMMER BETWEEN GRADE 11 AND 12 – PAID INTERNSHIP*
GRADE 12 –
Engineering Design
Advanced Manufacturing Enterprise (AME)
**PRE-ENGINEERING CAREER ACADEMY**
Listing of Courses –
Grades 9-12 717 Introduction to Engineering
Grades 10-12 704 Principles of Engineering or 706 Civil Engineering and Architecture
Grade 12 705 Engineering Design
The fine arts encompass a visual and aural phenomenon that satisfies the human need to respond to life experiences through singing, listening, playing an instrument, painting, and creating works of art. The goal of fine arts education is to provide students with skills and experiences to continue and succeed in the arts in our schools and beyond. In our classrooms students will learn the life skills that will contribute to their personal growth as a human being by providing opportunities which develop critical thinking skills, communication skills, leadership skills, cultural and historical knowledge, and most importantly a means of creative expression through artist performance and creation.
The Academy of Fine Arts is a dynamic and integral part of the total school experience, offering education in art, music, and theatre. Graduates have gone on to be successful musicians, artists, and actors. In addition, a majority of students do not intend to study the fine arts as a major in college but choose to study art, music or theatre as electives. Laurel Highlands High School promotes a life long love of the arts by offering a comprehensive arts education. From designing and drawing, acting on stage or performing in concert, a variety of performing and visual arts options are open to all students.
ALL STUDENTS, REGARDLESS OF THEIR INTENTION TO MAJOR IN ART, MUSIC OR THEATRE, ARE OPEN TO ANY OF THE COURSES LISTED BELOW. ENROLLING IN A FINE ARTS COURSE WILL FULFILL YOUR ARTS/HUMANITIES GRADUATION REQUIREMENT AND OTHER ELECTIVES REQUIREMENT. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES LOOK FAVORABLY ON STUDENTS WHO ARE ENROLLED IN ARTS COURSES.
IF YOU ARE INTERESTED IN MAJORING IN ONE OF THE FINE ARTS, PLEASE SEE THE ACADEMY CAREER PATHWAYS TRACK. Students who are accepted and complete the requirements for the arts career tracks will be awarded with a certificate of program completion and a honor cord to be worn at commencement. Students seeking a major in art, music, or theatre must meet with an advisor in their particular interest of study by the beginning of their sophomore year.
| ART MAJOR | Mr. DeFazio | email@example.com |
|-----------|-------------|----------------------|
| MUSIC MAJOR (Choral) | Mrs. Stewart | firstname.lastname@example.org |
| MUSIC MAJOR (Instrumental) | Mr. Santore | email@example.com |
| THEATRE MAJOR | Mrs. Stewart | firstname.lastname@example.org |
FINE ARTS COURSES:
**PERFORMING ARTS**
**GRADE 9:**
- THE814 Theatre
- MUS810 Chorale Choir
- MUS821 Symphonic Band
- MUS822 Percussion Ensemble
- MUS811 Music Theory & Technology
- MUS825 Intro to Guitar & Music Technology
- MUS829 Marching Band
**GRADES 10 - 12:**
- THE814 Theatre
- THE816 Advanced Theatre*
- MUS810 Chorale Choir
- MUS812 Honors Chamber Choir*
- MUS821 Symphonic Band
- MUS822 Percussion Ensemble
- MUS824 Honors Jazz Ensemble*
- MUS811 Music Theory & Technology
- MUS827 AP Music Theory
- MUS825 Intro to Guitar & Music Technology
- MUS829 Marching Band
- MUS826 Applied Music See Mr. Santore
**VISUAL ARTS**
- ART830 Art I
- ART833 Advanced Mixed Media
- ART836 Advanced Sculpture & Ceramics
- ART834 Advanced Painting
* = Grades 10 - 12 enrollment is by audition only
**ATTENTION STUDENTS INTERESTED IN MAJORING IN MUSIC IN COLLEGE:** You must schedule a major ensemble that focuses on your principal instrument or voice. i.e. If you are an instrumentalist you must schedule MUS821 Symphonic Band or MUS824 Jazz Ensemble*. Remember Jazz Ensemble is by audition only and has select instrumentation. Vocalists should schedule MUS810 Chorale Choir their freshmen year and audition for MUS812 Chamber Choir* in your sophomore, junior and senior years. In addition, MUS825 Intro to Guitar is strongly recommended for students wishing to major in music education. By your senior year students wishing to major in music in college should be prepared to give a senior recital on their principal instrument or voice. See Mr. Santore or Mrs. Stewart for more information.
MUS829 MARCHING BAND: Marching Band is a co-curricular activity. It is strongly recommended students wanting to major in music have four years of marching band experience.
PRIVATE LESSONS: Private lessons are encouraged for all students in music courses at Laurel Highlands. Through private lessons student truly begin to develop their skills on their voice or instrument. Please contact Mr. Santore or Mrs. Stewart for a list of recommended private teachers in our area.
ATTENTION PERCUSSION STUDENTS: You must schedule MUS822 Percussion Ensemble. MUS821 Symphonic Band is for wind players only. Students whose principal instrument is not percussion may enroll in Percussion Ensemble in addition to Symphonic Band if they have an open elective in their schedule.
Career Pathways
Acceptance into to the academy career path must meet the following criteria first and maintain these criteria to remain in the program.
- 2.75 Cumulative G.P.A
- 90% Attendance Rating
- No major discipline infractions on your permanent record.
Students who are accepted and complete the requirements for the arts career tracks will be awarded with a certificate of program completion and a honor cord to be worn at commencement. Upon acceptance you can choose from the following career emphasis. Summer gym is strongly recommended as it will allow you to add another 0.5 or 1 credit elective to your schedule.
ART
1 credit - Art I
1 credit - Advanced Mixed Media
1 credit - Advanced Painting
1 credit - Advanced Sculpture & Ceramics
* Student must complete a minimum of 3 art courses.
* Student must complete an approved academy project that focuses in art such as an exhibit of art work or portfolio project.
FINE ARTS - GENERAL
1 credit - Art I
1 credit - Music
1 credit - Theatre
1 year - Art Exhibit, Marching Band, Musical
* Student must complete an approved academy project that focuses in art, music or theatre.
MUSIC - INSTRUMENTAL
4 credits - Major Ensembles on your primary instrument
1 credit - AP Music Theory or Music Theory
1 credit - Applied Music
3 years - Marching Band (co-curricular course)
* Student must enrolled in private lessons with an approved instructor and complete at least two recitals and juries. Music Education Majors will be required to have observation hours of classroom teaching.
MUSIC - VOCAL
4 credits - Major Ensembles on voice
1 credit - AP Music Theory or Music Theory
1 credit - Applied Music
1 year - Musical (co-curricular course)
* Student must enrolled in private lessons with an approved instructor and complete at least two recitals and juries. Music Education Majors will be required to have observation hours of classroom teaching.
THEATRE
1 credit - Intro to Theatre
1 credit - Advanced Theatre
3 years - Musical or Fall Production (co-curricular course)
* Student must complete a theatre performance portfolio showcasing all of their work.
MUSICAL THEATRE
4 credits - Major Ensembles on voice
1 credit - Intro to Theatre
1 credit - Advanced Theatre
1 credit - Music Theory or AP Music Theory
3 years - Musical or Fall Production (co-curricular course)
* Student must complete a theatre performance portfolio showcasing all of their work and perform on at least one recital.
EDUCATION, HEALTH, AND HUMAN SERVICES CAREER ACADEMY
Grade 10
Human Development and Family Studies
Nutrition
Intro to Health Careers
Grade 11
Psychology or Advanced Placement Psychology
Human Development and Family Studies
Nutrition
Intro to Health Careers
Grade 12
Psychology or Advanced Placement Psychology
Human Development and Family Studies
Nutrition
Intro to Health Careers
Anatomy or other advanced science elective
ADVANCED PLACEMENT ACADEMY
Students participating in the Advanced Placement Academy should be taking Honors Level classes where they are offered and must take at least six (6) of the Advanced Placement Classes offered at the High School. Among the six (6) courses, the following four (4) courses are required:
Advanced Placement Language and Composition III or Advanced Placement Literature and Composition IV
One Advanced Placement Science Class
One Advanced Placement Math Class
One Advanced Placement Social Studies Class
Currently, there are fourteen (14) Advanced Placement Offerings at the High School:
Advanced Placement Statistics
Advanced Placement Chemistry
Advanced Placement Biology
Advanced Placement American History
Advanced Placement Language and Composition III
Advanced Placement Literature and Composition IV
Advanced Placement Calculus
Advanced Placement Physics
Advanced Placement US Gov/Politics
Advanced Placement Human Geography
Advanced Placement Spanish
Advanced Placement Psychology
Advanced Placement Music Theory
Advanced Placement French
Students in the Advanced Placement Academy will be encouraged to do a Job Shadowing and/or Internships in the careers of their interest. Dual Enrollment, college/high school opportunities are particularly abundant for students in this program. Potentially, students could leave high school with several college credits.
The FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) program is offered to interested students. It is designed to meet the needs of students who plan to enter the world of work. Course offered to both boys and girls will prepare students to enter jobs in the technical, skilled, or semi-skilled occupations. During their 9th Grade year, all students will tour the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) to become familiar with the educational opportunities that the vocational technical school offers. Staff from the CTI will address all ninth grade students in regards to the programs offered there. The selection of students is a cooperative effort of the home, school, and the CTI administrative staff. Students may apply in 9th grade and admittance will be based upon academic effort, attendance discipline record and intent.
The following programs are available at the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI):
Auto Body
Auto Mechanics
Diesel Mechanics
Electrical Construction
Machine Production Technology
Information Technology
Agriculture
Cosmetology
Culinary Arts
Commercial Art and Design (Graphic Arts)
Health Occupations
Building Construction Trades
Masonry
Welding
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Advanced Manufacturing Academy
Students attending the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) must report to the high school for half of their instructional day each day. Seniors will report to the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) in the afternoon, while sophomores and juniors will attend the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI) in the morning. The courses offered are based on demand for certain courses and limited student enrollment per course.
FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI)
GRADE 10
| Course | CR. |
|-------------------------|-----|
| 005 Academic English II | 1.0 |
| 102 World History | 1.0 |
| 201 Algebra B/higher | 1.0 |
| 303 Biology 10 | 1.0 |
| CTI Shop | 3.5 |
GRADE 11
| Course | CR. |
|---------------------------------|-----|
| 008 Academic English III | 1.0 |
| 104 American History | 1.0 |
| 203 Concepts of Geometry/higher | 1.0 |
| 307 Human Bio or 306 Env Science| 1.0 |
| CTI Shop | 3.5 |
GRADE 12
| Course | CR. |
|---------------------------------|-----|
| 011 Academic Eng IV | 1.0 |
| 106 Political Sci/Rec US History| 1.0 |
| Math or Science Elective | 1.0 |
| PE, Aquatics & 410 Health (5 days/week) | 0.5, 0.5 |
| CTI Shop | 3.5 |
Continued next page...
AFJROTC and FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI)
GRADE 10
| Course | CR. |
|---------------------------------|-----|
| 005 Academic English II | 1.0 |
| AFJROTC | 1.0 |
| 201 Algebra B/higher | 1.0 |
| 303 Biology 10 | 1.0 |
| CTI Shop | 3.5 |
GRADE 11
| Course | CR. |
|---------------------------------|-----|
| 008 Academic English III | 1.0 |
| 104 American History | 1.0 |
| 203 Concepts of Geometry/higher | 1.0 |
| AFJROTC | 1.0 |
| CTI Shop | 3.5 |
GRADE 12
| Course | CR. |
|---------------------------------|-----|
| 011 Academic Eng IV | 1.0 |
| 106 Political Sci/Rec US History| 1.0 |
| AFJROTC | 1.0 |
| PE, Aquatics. & 410 Health (5 days/week) | 0.5, 0.5 |
| CTI Shop | *3.5 |
Program description available pages 30-33.
AIR FORCE JROTC
AFJROTC is a 3- or 4-year program offered in grades 9-12. Students (cadets) receive elective credit toward high school graduation by successfully completing Air Force Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFJROTC) classes. Cadets are introduced to the Air Force organizational structure; uniform wear; military customs and courtesies; flag etiquette; citizenship in the United States; basic drill and ceremonies; and effective communications. They also learn to listen and think critically, assume leadership roles in the cadet corps, and prepare for future leadership roles. There is no military obligation for taking AFJROTC.
The syllabus for each class includes a blend of 40% Aerospace Science (AS), 40% Leadership Education (LE) and 20% Wellness Instruction.
- Aerospace Science includes subjects such as history of aviation, science of flight, space exploration, and survival.
- Leadership Education offers cadets opportunities to shape their character. Cadets learn about character development and elements of good citizenship.
- Wellness instruction includes physical training and fitness instruction; first aid; health and wellness; individual self-control, and how to build personal awareness.
AFJROTC also offers extracurricular activity such as opportunities to be members of a Drill Team, Color Guard, Rifle Marksmanship Team, Junior Air Commando Physical Fitness Team, etc. Through the course of serving on these teams and in learning to march in military formations in the drill instruction portion of the LE series, cadets get to demonstrate their skill and pride at public events such as the presentation of the US flag at school sporting events, marching in parades in their communities, performing at formal military events, demonstrating proper etiquette at formal dining socials, etc. The cumulative impact of exposure to this curriculum and training is seen in feedback AFJROTC consistently receives from parents, teachers, and principals—that their students benefit tremendously from the program. Statistics show that AFJROTC students stay in school longer, have a higher graduation rate, are better behaved and contribute more to the community.
Students may start AFJROTC at any grade level. All Cadets will be enrolled in the same course during an academic year. Courses will rotate each school year to ensure cadets do not repeat curriculum.
The goal of this program is to begin at the student's ability level and to provide instruction and job-related experiences that will help the student find and maintain gainful employment upon graduation. Placement is made only after psychological testing, a multidisciplinary meeting, and an appropriate Individualized Education Program has been written for the student. Inclusion has been implemented in the Laurel Highlands School District for students with disabilities. Students may be mainstreamed into regular education classes with appropriate teacher support, recommendations and follow-up. Course selection may include Career Prep (Grades 10-11) or Work Experience (Grade 12).
| GRADE 9 | CR. |
|--------------------------|-------|
| 911 Mathematics | 1.0 |
| 301 Biology 9 | 1.0 |
| 919 Basic Civics I | 1.0 |
| 923 Language Arts | 1.0 |
| 907 Freshman Seminar or AFJROTC | 0.5(1.0) |
| Physical Education or Aquatics | 0.5 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Lunch | 0.0 |
| GRADE 10 | CR. |
|--------------------------|-------|
| 911 Mathematics | 1.0 |
| 303 Biology 10 | 1.0 |
| 920 Basic World History II | 1.0 |
| 923 Language Arts | 1.0 |
| Physical Education or Aquatics | 0.5 |
| 410 Health B/G | 0.5 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Lunch | 0.0 |
| GRADE 11 | CR. |
|--------------------------|-------|
| 911 Mathematics | 1.0 |
| 917 Earth Science | 1.0 |
| 921 Basic American History III | 1.0 |
| 923 Language Arts | 1.0 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Physical Education or Aquatics | 0.5 |
| Lunch | 0.0 |
| GRADE 12 | CR. |
|--------------------------|-------|
| 911 Mathematics | 1.0 |
| 918 Environmental Education | 1.0 |
| 922 Basic Pol Sci/Rec US Hist IV | 1.0 |
| 923 Language Arts | 1.0 |
| Physical Education or Aquatics | 0.5 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Elective | 1.0 |
| Lunch | 0.0 |
## LANGUAGE ARTS COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | Course Title | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Cred/Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|--------------------|
| 002 | Academic English I | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 003 | *Honors English I | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 005 | Academic English II | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 006 | *Honors English II | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 007 | Keystone ELA | 11-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 008 | Academic English III | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 010 | *Honors English III | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 009 | *AP Language/Composition III | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 011 | Academic English IV | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 013 | *Honors English IV | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 012 | *A.P. Composition/Lit. IV | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 014 | Public Speaking and Debate | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 015 | Creative Writing | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 016 | Journalism | 10-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 017 | Mock Trial | 11-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
*Weighted course Course descriptions may be found on Pages 34-36.
## SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Cred/Year |
|---------------|---------------------------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|--------------------|
| 100 | Civics | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 101 | *Honors Civics | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 102 | World History | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 103 | *Honors World History | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 104 | American History | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 105 | *AP American History | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 106 | Political Science/Recent U.S. History | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 111 | *AP US Government/Politics | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 113 | *AP Human Geography | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 126 | Psychology | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 130 | *AP Psychology | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 132 | Contemporary Domestic Issues | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 665 | Geog. and Econ. for Finance/Travel/Tourism | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
*Weighted Course Course descriptions may be found on Pages 36-39.
## MATHEMATICS COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Cred/Yr |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|------------------|
| 200 | Algebra A | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 201 | Algebra B | 9/10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 203 | Concepts of Geometry | 11/12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 204 | Keystone Algebra | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 206 | Algebra I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 207 | Algebra II | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 208 | *Honors Advanced Algebra “10” | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 209 | Geometry | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 210 | *Honors Geometry “9” | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 211 | *Hon. Functions/Trig./Pre-Calc. “11”| 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 212 | Trigonometry/Pre-Calculus I | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 213 | Pre-CalculusII/Statistics | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 214 | *AP Calculus “12” | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 215 | Calculus | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 216 | Consumer Mathematics | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 219 | *AP Statistics | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 220 | Coding/Computer Science | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
*Weighted Course Course descriptions may be found on Pages 39-42.
## SCIENCE COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | Course Title | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 300 | Biology 9 | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 302 | *Honors Biology | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 303 | Biology 10 | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 304 | Keystone Biology | 11-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 306 | Environmental Science | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 307 | Human Biology | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 308 | Chemistry | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 309 | *Honors Physics | 11-12 | 2 | 8 | 1.0 |
| 310 | *AP Chemistry II/ Lab | 12 | 2 | 8 | 1.5 |
| 311 | *AP Physics | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 312 | Anatomy/Physiology | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 313 | *AP Biology/Lab | 11-12 | 2 | 8 | 1.5 |
| 314 | Conceptual Physics | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 316 | *Honors Chemistry | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 318 | *Honors Organic Chemistry | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
*Weighted Course Course descriptions may be found on Pages 42-45
## PHYSICAL EDUCATION/HEALTH COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-----------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 405 | P.E. B/G | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 406 | AQ B/G | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 408 | Personal Fitness | 11-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 410 | Health B/G | 10-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 415 | Kinesiology | 11-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 416 | CPR/First Aid | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 423 | Adaptive P.E. | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
Course descriptions may be found on Pages 45-46.
## WORLD LANGUAGE COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem/Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-----------------------|-------------------------|--------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 501 | French I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 502 | French II | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 503 | French III | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 504 | *Honors French IV | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 505 | *AP French V | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 506 | Spanish I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 507 | Spanish II | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 508 | Spanish III | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 509 | *Honors Spanish IV | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 510 | *AP Spanish V | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 513 | Destinations | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
**All Language courses satisfy Humanities requirement. Course descriptions may be found on Page 46-48.**
*Weighted Course
## BUSINESS COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Semesters Per Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 609 | Software Applications | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 612 | Accounting I | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 613 | Accounting II | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 616 | Desktop Publishing/Newspaper Production | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 617 | Publications/Yearbook | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 618 | Digital Photography | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 619 | Keyboarding | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 621 | Life After High School (Formerly called College and Careers) | 10-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 650 | Introduction to Finance | 9-10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 651 | Banking, Credit, and Financial Planning | 10-11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 652 | Securities/Insurance | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 660 | Business Concepts for Hospitality and Tourism | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 662 | Sports, Events, and Entertainment Management | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 663 | Resorts: Management and Operation | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 907 | Freshman Seminar | 9 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
Course descriptions may be found on Pages 48-50.
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | No. of Semesters Per Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 681 | Leadership II/Science of Flight | SY 2021-22 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 680 | Leadership I/Aviation History | SY 2018-19 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 683 | Leadership IV/Survival | SY 2019-20 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 682 | Leadership III/Exploration of Space | SY 2020-21 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 687 | AFJROTC Summer Leadership I | 10-12 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 688 | AFJROTC Summer Leadership II | 10-12 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 689 | Advanced Drill | All Grades | 2 | 3 | 0 |
Course descriptions may be found on Pages 50-51.
**TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION COURSE OFFERINGS**
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Semesters Per Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 670 | Intro. to Info Tech/Comp Hardware Tech | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 701 | Digital Communications I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 702 | Video Productions | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 703 | Video Productions II | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| (2)704 | Principles of Engineering (POE) | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| (4)705 | Engineering Design & Develop't (EDD) | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| (3)706 | Civil Engineering and Architecture (CEA) | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 708 | Digital Communications II | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 709 | Industrial Materials I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 710 | Industrial Materials II | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 713 | Adv. Manufacturing Enterprise | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| (1)717 | Intro to Engineering/CAD (IED) | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
*Weighted Course – Course descriptions may be found on Pages 52-53.*
**FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCE OFFERINGS**
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | No. of Sem. Per Yr. | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 801 | Family/Consumer Sciences | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 802 | Nutrition | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 805 | Human Develop/Family Studies | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 807 | Introduction to Health Careers | 10-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
*All Family and Consumer Science courses satisfy Arts requirement. Course descriptions (Pages 53-54).*
### MUSIC COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem. Per Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 810 | Chorale Choir | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 810A | Chorale Choir (0.5 cr) | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 811 | Music Theory/Technology | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 812 | *Honors Chamber Choir | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 814 | Theatre | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 816 | Advanced Theatre | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 817 | Musical Theatre | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 821 | Symphonic Band | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 821A | Symphonic Band (0.5 cr) | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 823 | Percussion Ensemble | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 823A | Percussion Ensemble (0.5 cr) | 9-12 | 2 | 3 | 0.5 |
| 824 | *Honors Jazz Ensemble | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 825 | Intro. to Guitar | 9-12 | 1 | 5 | 0.5 |
| 826 | Applied Music | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 827 | *AP Music Theory | 11-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 829 | Marching Band | 9-12 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
*All Music courses satisfy Arts requirement. Course descriptions may be found on Pages 54-56.
### ART COURSE OFFERINGS
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem./Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit/Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------|------------------|----------------------|
| 830 | Art I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 833 | Advanced Mixed Media | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 834 | Adv. Painting and Printmaking | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 836 | Adv. Sculptures/Ceramics | 10-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
*All Art courses satisfy Arts requirement. Course descriptions may be found on Page 54.
### DRIVERS EDUCATION/EARLY RELEASE/LATE ARRIVAL
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Sem./Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|-------------------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 909 | Driver's Ed: Theory | 10-12 | After school activity | 5 | 0.3 |
| 910 | Driver's Ed: Behind the Wheel | 10-12 | After school activity | 5 | 0.0 |
| 994A | Early Release I | 12 | 2 | 5 | 0.0 |
| 994B | Early Release II | 12 | 2 | 10 | 0.0 |
| 994C | Early Release III | 12 | 2 | 15 | 0.0 |
| OR | | | | | |
| 995A | Late Arrival I | 12 | 2 | 5 | 0.0 |
| 995B | Late Arrival II | 12 | 2 | 10 | 0.0 |
Course descriptions may be found on Pages 56 and 59.
| Course Number | COURSE TITLE | Recommended Grade Level | Number of Semesters Per Year | Periods Per Week | Units of Credit Per Year |
|---------------|---------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------|
| 911 | Math | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 912 | General Math | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 913I | Algebra A | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 914I | Algebra B | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 915 | Basic Science | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 946I | Algebra I | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 949I | Concepts of Geometry 11 | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 950I | Consumer Math 12 | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 915I | Biology 9 | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 929I | Biology 10 | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 916I | Environmental Science | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 917 | Earth Science | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 917I | Human Biology | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 918 | Environmental Studies | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 918I | Anatomy | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 919 | Basic Civics I (2021-22) | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 919I | Civics I | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 920 | Basic World History II (2018-19) | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 920I | World History II | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 921 | Basic American History III (2019-20) | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 921I | American History III | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 922 | Basic Pol. Sci./US Hist IV (2020-21) | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 922I | PolSci/Rec US History | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 923 | Basic Language Arts | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 925I | English I | 9 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 926I | English II | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 927I | English III | 11 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 928I | English IV | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 930 | Reading | 9-12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
| 934 | Senior Research | 12 | 2 | 5 | 1.0 |
Course descriptions may be found on Pages 56-59.
Students must meet entry requirements before acceptance into any of the FCCTI programs!
**GUIDELINES:**
During their 9th grade year, students may apply to the FAYETTE COUNTY CAREER & TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (FCCTI). Admittance will be based on academic performance, discipline record, interest in shops, and availability.
*All courses are open to male and female students.*
A student will not be permitted to attend the FCCTI if he/she has failed more than one class at the home school the semester before attending the FCCTI.
A student that fails his/her program at the FCCCTI is not permitted to attend the FCCTI for two semesters and must select another program should he/she choose to return to the FCCTI.
If a student is currently attending alternative placement (other than his/her home school), he/she must go through the administrative review process prior to being admitted to any program at the FCCTI. The review process will include FCCTI administration, FCCTI instructor, learning support instructor, guidance counselor and appropriate representation from his/her home school.
| COURSE CODE | SHOP | TEACHER | AM | PM |
|-------------|-----------------------------|------------------|----------|----------|
| 849 | Advanced Manufacturing Academy | Mr. Cobert | Grade 11 | Grade 12 |
| 851 | Auto Body | Mr. Forsythe | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 852 | Agriculture | Ms. Shepherd | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 853 | Auto Mechanics | Mr. Humphreys | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 854 | Building Construction Occupations | Mr. Howser | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 857 | Cosmetology | Mrs. Olson/Mrs. Scaife | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 858 | Diesel Mechanics | Mr. Dancer | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 859 | Information Technology | Mrs. Dean | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 861 | Electrical Construction | Mr. Rossi | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 863 | Culinary Arts | Mrs. Shaw | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 864 | Commercial Art and Design | Mr. Bowers | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 865 | Health Occupations | Mrs. Lowry/Mrs. Martin | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 866 | Masonry | Mr. Motchar | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 867 | Machine Production Technology | Mr. Johnson | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 868 | Welding | Mr. Oravets/Mr. White | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
| 869 | Heating/AC and Ventilation | Mr. Hawk | Grades 10/11 | Grade 12 |
Review the Fayette County CTI program descriptions for entry-level requirements before requesting any particular program. All students must demonstrate appropriate behavior in working well with others and alone to accomplish tasks, without being a danger to themselves or other students. Possessing and maintaining a record of good attendance is also necessary. There is no guarantee of program assignment and the instructor is subject to change.
**TRANSPORTATION**
**851 AUTO BODY**
(3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Accidents happen, especially car accidents. At the Fayette County CTI you can prepare for a rewarding and profitable career in automotive collision repair. Our program instructs students in the latest techniques and practices in the industry. You will study all phases of auto collision repair and restoration. Your skills will be put to the test as you complete work on demonstration and actual customer vehicles. Students also learn to estimate costs, prepare work orders, and how to manage an auto body shop. Prospective students should possess manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, physical strength and stamina, the ability to pay attention to detail and complete projects with accuracy.
Certification: I-CAR
853 AUTO MECHANICS (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
With the continual advancements in automotive technology, the demand for skilled automotive technicians remains high. In the Automotive Mechanics Program, you will receive both classroom and hands-on instruction in the repair and maintenance of today's cars and light trucks. Students utilize repair manuals, textbooks, and computerized equipment to diagnose, troubleshoot and repair malfunctions within a car's many operating systems. Upon completion of the course, students may also become licensed as state safety and emissions inspection mechanics. Prospective students should possess mechanical aptitude, manual dexterity, physical stamina, and the ability to solve problems.
Certification: ASE and NATEF (2012)
858 DIESEL MECHANICS (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
This program prepares individuals to apply technical knowledge and skills to the specialized maintenance and repair of trucks, buses, and other commercial and industrial vehicles. The program includes instruction in diesel engine mechanics, suspension and steering, brake systems, electrical and electronic systems, preventive maintenance inspections, drive trains, HVAC systems, and auxiliary installation and repair.
Certification: ASE and NATEF (2012)
TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMS
861 ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
If a supercharged career is what you are looking for, then Electrical Construction might spark your interest. From layout and assembly to installation, testing and maintenance of power systems, this program takes a broad-based training approach to preparing students for employment in the electrical industry. Through hands-on training and classroom instruction, students learn the electrical trade practices used in residential, commercial and industrial fields in accordance with the National Electrical Code. Specialty areas including the installation of high voltage lines and electrical distribution systems are also covered. Prospective students should possess the ability to read and interpret technical data, manual dexterity, and the ability to work with a great deal of accuracy and precision.
Certification: NCCER
867 MACHINE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Skilled machinists are in great demand. The training you will receive in the Machine Tool Technology program can put you on the road to a successful career in this high growth industry. In a state-of-the-art facility, students use manual and computerized machining equipment to cut, mill, grind, or shape metal and non-metal materials. Whether utilizing traditional methods or more advanced techniques such as CNC, students are trained to produce machine parts with a high degree of accuracy. Prospective students should possess strong math skills, manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, and the ability to solve problems.
Certification: NIMS
859 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
This program is designed for students wishing to pursue a career in this ever-changing and challenging field. Information Technology is an innovative program designed to introduce students to the computer systems and software most commonly used by business. Instruction and hands-on training is provided in all aspects of computers including building, repair and maintenance. Students are also trained in most current Microsoft Office version available, a highly popular software package that includes Word, Access, Excel, and PowerPoint. Students experience programming by maintaining the School’s website using HTML and other popular web page editing software. Students are exposed to basic networking and interactive, simulation software is used to prepare students for the A+ Certification test. Students also sit for their IC certification test.
Certification: IC / A Plus
SERVICE PROGRAMS
852 AGRICULTURE (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Students in this program have the opportunity to go directly to work. Students learn the anatomy, physiology and well-being of farm animals and companion animals-breeds. This course will incorporate plants, greenhouse, soil science and Ag mechanization as well as plant cultivation and soil conservation. Instruction may also include Aquaculture and Hydroponics. Prospective students should possess a strong desire to work outdoors, physical strength, stamina, and the ability to work with limited supervision.
Certification: Pesticide Application License
857 COSMETOLOGY (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
If you possess creativity, artistic ability, and enjoy working with people, you may want to consider a career in Cosmetology. Our comprehensive program provides you with the tools to become a licensed professional. This specialized curriculum consists of 1,250 hours of instructions required by the Pennsylvania State Board of Cosmetology. Students learn the latest techniques in the care and treatment of hair, skin, and nails. They practice and perfect their skills on mannequins, then advance to performing hair and skin care services on actual customers. The program also offers instruction in salon operation. Prospective students should possess creativity, artistic ability, manual dexterity, physical stamina and good communication skills.
Certification: Cosmetology License
863 CULINARY ARTS (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
There are many career opportunities waiting for you in the ever-growing food service industry. Through classroom theory and hands-on experiences in our fully equipped commercial kitchen and dining room, you’ll gain the skills and knowledge needed to be successful in this fast-paced, highly
demanding field. Students learn the basics of food preparation used in most restaurants, banquet facilities, caterers and institutions. Advanced instruction covers specialty and gourmet cooking, menu planning, purchasing, and management. Potential students should possess the ability to work under pressure, physical stamina, and strong organizational and math skills.
Certification: Servsafe
864 COMMERCIAL ART AND DESIGN (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Commercial Art and Design is the most common way in which the world communicates. This course is designed to prepare students for a career in this high demand field by pairing their creative and artistic talents with different types of media. From creation to production, students learn all aspects of the graphic design world. Students will be introduced to and develop “hands-on skills” in job planning, introduction to computers, graphic design fundamentals, layout and design, typography, airbrushing, screen printing, cad-cut and heat press transfers, vinyl design graphics, and bindery. Students will also receive basic math and humanities. Desktop publishing and computer graphics have become an essential part of graphic communications. Students will use software applications such as (Adobe Creative Suite CS5) Adobe Photoshop, Indesign, Illustrator, Freehand, and Flexi-sign Pro. Prospective students should possess creativity, good English and spelling skills, good organizational skills, and the ability to pay attention to detail.
Certification: PrintED
865 HEALTH OCCUPATIONS (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
This course is designed to introduce students to a wide paraprofessional career in health occupations. Students are provided technical information and will engage in activities designed to develop practical skills needed in health occupations. Upon completion of this course, students can enter directly into an entry-level position in medical assisting or nurse assisting (with certification as a certified nurse assistant). Students interested in respiratory therapist, physical therapist, and sports medicine will be given the opportunity to participate in a job shadowing experience which entails a structured theory in classroom, and a clinical experience with that particular professional during several workdays. Students interested in continuing their education can choose from a wide variety of health related curriculum at colleges, universities, or medical facilities. If you like helping others or have any interest in health care, this program can help you decide on the most appropriate health occupation for your future.
Certification: Certified Nurse Assistant and CPR
CONSTRUCTION/MANUFACTURING
849 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING ACADEMY (3.0 CREDITS/YEAR)
Prerequisite – Keystone Algebra 1 Exam successfully completed TECHNICAL MATH (0.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Interested in Robotics? 3D Printing? Training supported from companies such as Advanced Acoustic Concepts, Boeing, Gerome Manufacturing, Chevron and many more? We have it all. Advanced manufacturers are the people who make and use technology that advances the world we live in. FCCTI’s Advanced Manufacturing Academy will appeal to students who want to work with cutting-edge materials and use their knowledge of mathematics and multidisciplinary sciences to create products emerging from new technologies. This program, intended for Juniors and Seniors, is a springboard into many careers or engineering and technical college majors. If you are looking for a way to jumpstart your career, it starts here.
854 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION OCCUPATIONS (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Building Construction Occupations is a competency based program open to all students in grades 10-12. Skilled building trades mechanics must have a general knowledge of many construction skill areas. Students are given the fundamentals of related math and blueprint reading, which is the basis for all construction trades. Students are also given adequate training time on a variety of construction tools and machinery. A thorough knowledge of hand and power tools is necessary. Personal safety and overall job safety are stressed continually throughout the program. Prospective students should like to work with their hands and have a desire to work in many of the construction areas.
Certification: NCCER
869 HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR-CONDITIONING (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Skilled HVAC Technicians are in great demand in today's busy building world. Students receiving training at the Fayette County Career & Technical Institute will have a solid entry level base for beginning a career in the HVAC industry. Emphasis on installation, service of residential, commercial, and industrial HVAC equipment will be attained. Also in today's energy efficient buildings it is necessary to maintain a high level of indoor air quality. These techniques will also be learned and practiced.
Certification: NCCER & EPA 608
866 MASONRY (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Students in the Masonry Program receive instruction in four different areas of the trade. Brick/block laying, stonework, cement finishing, and tilesetting make up the curriculum. Students learn from the ground up, both commercial and residential construction techniques and methods. Many aspects of masonry are covered including: Layout work, pouring footings, and various types of concrete finishes. Students learn the methodology of many types of masonry walls including, but not limited to brick, concrete block, stone and architectural tile in residential and commercial applications. Tile setting includes layout, materials, and mortars for walls and floors.
Certification: NCCER
868 WELDING (3.5 CREDITS/YEAR)
Skilled welders are in great demand. The Welding Program is designed to educate students to their highest level of competency in the welding field. Any student who works well with their hands, enjoys creating objects and taking pride in accomplishing tasks using their own talents should enjoy welding and working with metals. Upon completion of the three year program, the student will be able to enter the job market with a completers welding certificate, listing all phases of welding they have accomplished. They have an opportunity to enter welding contests sponsored by the American Welding Society and SkillsUSA, and earn a welder’s certification. Students who are motivated, have good eye-hand coordination and good vision, with basic math skills should succeed in this program (NOCTI Certification)
COOPERATIVE EDUCATION
Cooperative Education combines classroom study with planned and supervised paid vocational experience and selected employment assignments. It involves students pursuing their career objective while attending school through half-day sessions. Cooperative Education is a program established by the Pennsylvania Department of Education.
The Cooperative Education program is designed to help the students understand and cope with the world of work while providing an educational experience through on-the-job training so the student “learns while he/she earns.” Cooperative Education also provides the employers in the community with responsible citizens who can be trained and skilled to meet the companies’ desires and interests.
This program promotes a close relationship with the community and the school in developing skills for a better place to live and work. This provides a pool of potential full-time employees who are trained to meet the companies’ requirements and that are proven through part-time work. Their productivity results in better selection of entry-level personnel.
SOFT SKILLS/CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
The Fayette County CTI Soft Skills Program has been developed to partner with the shop programs to assist our students in gaining the skills necessary to showcase themselves so they can secure employment in today’s highly competitive market. Our students receive superior training in their program of study so they excel in their trade areas, but in today’s job market, applicants need to stand out above the rest. We cover areas such as Resume Preparation, Career Link Account Set-Up, Cover Letters, and Mock Interviews. Additionally we also have discussions on topics such as Developing a Strong Work Ethic, Tattoos and Body Piercings in the Workplace, Business Etiquette, and What It Takes To Get The Job.
GUIDANCE SERVICES
The Fayette County CTI Guidance Department serves all students at the school in areas such as career interest and preparation, post-secondary planning and exploration, and connections with the home school district. The Guidance Department also assists with students’ personal and social development. Students are introduced to post-secondary technical schools, programs of study, colleges, and the workforce with collaboration from the Co-Operative education program. Each student contributes to an individualized plan for their academic, career, and personal success. Guidance helps make the link between being a high school student and a professional, whether in the world of work or as a continuing student.
STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS
Student Council
NTHS (National Technical Honors Society)
SADD (Students Against Destructive Decisions)
Bots IQ (Battle-Bots)
SkillsUSA (formerly V.I.C.A.)
HOSA (Health Occupations Students of America)
FFA (Future Farmers of America)
SkillsUSA is a national organization designed exclusively for trade, technical, industrial and health students. It offers each student the opportunity to learn the leadership skills, trade skills, and social skills that can be used throughout life. Each student can excel through local, state, and national contests and awards programs. SkillsUSA prepares youth for life and instills spirit and a desire to learn, to grow, and to become a productive member of society.
Other areas of student participation include community service projects, professional training and social activities including skating parties, dances, a trip to Kennywood, etc.
002 ACADEMIC ENGLISH I (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Students will review the fundamentals of grammar, punctuation and usage, and be introduced to a more intensive study of the same. An introduction to literature will encompass reading and criticizing selected prose and poetry. A structured vocabulary study is also an integral part of this course, as is paragraph and theme writing. **Note:** One novel will be **required** to be read during the summer preceding this course and will be assessed at the beginning of the course as a course test grade.
---
**LAUREL HIGHLANDS SCHOOL DISTRICT**
**ENGLISH/LANGUAGE ARTS FLOW CHART**
| Grade 6 | Grade 7 | Grade 8 | Grade 9 | Grade 10 | Grade 11 | Grade 12 |
|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------|----------|----------|
| Honors English 7 | Honors English 8 | Honors English I | Honors English II | Honors English III | Honors English IV | AP Lang & Comp III | AP Lit & Comp IV |
| English 6 | Reading Comp. and Study Skills 7 | English 7 | English 8 | Acad. English I | Acad. English II | Acad. English III | Acad. English IV |
**AND**
Reading 6
**OR**
Creative Writing/Lit. 7
---
**Also offered at the Middle School:**
*Creative Writing/Literature (6th, 7th, 8th)* Are elective courses and prerequisites exist.
*Reading Enrichment in 6th, 7th, and 8th* Are elective courses, but in grade 7 & 8 is included as a rotation opposite gym rotation
*Journalism/Broadcasting (8th)* Available as an English elective 5 credit
---
**Also offered at the High School:**
*Public Speaking and Debate (Jrs. and Srs.)* Available as an English elective at the HS and does not satisfy an ELA graduation requirement.
*Creative Writing (So, Jr., and Sr.)* Available as an English elective at the HS and does not satisfy an ELA graduation requirement.
*Journalism (So, Jr., and Sr.)* Available as an English elective at the HS and does not satisfy an ELA graduation requirement.
003 HONORS ENGLISH I (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Grade 8 Honors English with B average, Grade 8 English with A average
This course is designed for the student who has exhibited superior skills in English grammar and composition. Grammar, usage, mechanics, and punctuation are reviewed, and paragraph and theme development are stressed. A study of literature along with college-bound vocabulary studies complement this course.
Note: Two novels will be required to be read during the summer preceding this course. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year. Summer reading assessments will count as the first test grades of the course.
005 ACADEMIC ENGLISH II (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
This course includes the basic fundamentals of English grammar, usage, and mechanics. Writing includes paragraphs, essays and exposition. Research techniques will be developed. Literature includes the reading of short stories, plays, poetry and novels in order to understand and to appreciate the content. Note: One novel will be required to be read during the summer preceding this course and will be assessed at the beginning of the course as a course test grade.
006 HONORS ENGLISH II (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: An “A” Average in Academic English I or A/B Average in Honors English I
This challenging course is designed for college bound sophomores. Students will focus primarily on writing skills and proper usage in an advanced format. Liberal amounts of literature, analysis, outside readings, and college-bound vocabulary studies will complement this course. The completion of the 10th grade career paper is required
Note: Two novels will be required to be read during the summer preceding this course. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
007 KEYSTONE ELA (Juniors and Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Students completing this course will earn 0.5 elective credit but will not receive an English credit for this course.
This course is designed to provide students who have passed English 10 but scored at the basic or below basic level on the Keystone Literature Exam with remediation as preparation for the Keystone Exam retakes. This course will emphasize review and remediation of basic reading and comprehension strategies, the analysis and interpretation of fiction and non-fiction text, Keystone glossary terms, open-ended writing strategies, and test taking strategies.
008 ACADEMIC ENGLISH III (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course will survey some of America’s classic writers of short stories, poems, plays and non-fiction. Other areas include the mechanics of writing, discussions and debate, reading and listening skills, and language development. Note: One novel will be required to be read during the summer preceding this course and will be assessed at the beginning of the course as a course test grade.
010 HONORS ENGLISH III (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite- A average in Academic English II or A/B average in Honors English II
This challenging junior course is designed for college bound juniors. The course will focus on enhancing literary analysis through a survey of classic American writing including short stories, poems, plays and non-fiction. Literature is highlighted by critical reviews and analyses that demand outside reading. The course will require multi-paragraph essay in modes including narration, and persuasion. MLA style will be reinforced throughout this course including the completion of a research paper. A focus of this course will include college level vocabulary normally used in the SAT exam. Summer reading of two novels is also required and will be assessed at the beginning of the course. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
009 ADVANCED PLACEMENT LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION III (Juniors- A or B average in Honors II)
(1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to help students hone the writing, reading, and vocabulary skills necessary for college. The course will emphasize the connection between reading and writing and will engage the students in exploration and construction of a variety of composition styles. Students will analyze a variety of non-fiction pieces for rhetorical devices and effectiveness. Students will offer thoughtful and analytical comments on these readings and experiment with writing techniques in their own works. Students must be willing to devote extra time and energy to the rigorous structure of this class.
Note: Two assigned novels will be required summer reading. A summer assignment (related to the summer readings) is required for 4 weeks throughout the month of July. Failure to pass the summer assignments will result in the student being automatically reassigned to the Honors English III course.
011 ACADEMIC ENGLISH IV (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course contains critical analysis of British Literature, advanced written communication, vocabulary taken from the literature, and research techniques. Note: One novel will be required to be read during the summer preceding this course and will be assessed at the beginning of the course as a course test grade. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
013 HONORS ENGLISH IV (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite- A average in Academic English III, A/B average in Honors English III, or successful completion of AP Language and Composition III
This challenging course is designed for students interested in fortifying their English language skills in preparation college level work. This course will focus on a survey of British literature by period. Periods will be analyzed in relation to their culture. Analysis and outside readings will be required. Student writing will build sequentially upon literature-based compositions. Public speaking and college level vocabulary development will round out this course. **Summer reading of two novels is also STRONGLY suggested and will be assessed at the beginning of the course. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.**
012 ADVANCED PLACEMENT COMPOSITION AND LITERATURE IV (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Students must have a “B” or better average in AP Language and Composition III and be recommended by their previous English teacher. This course emphasizes the development of skills in critical reading of literature and in writing about literature and related ideas. Readings will be representative of a variety of genres written from the sixteenth to the twenty-first century and are based on the list of authors recommended by the *AP English Literature and Composition* Description. The course is designed to mirror a college entry literature survey course and a college entry composition course. It is for students capable of doing college-level work in English while they are in secondary school, who are willing to devote the energy necessary to complete a course more rigorous and demanding than other high school English courses designed for the college bound student.
**Note:** Two assigned novels must be read during the summer, and students are expected to complete a project on the two novels upon their return. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
014 PUBLIC SPEAKING AND DEBATE (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: “B” or better in previous year’s English class
This course is intended for Academic Arts and Honors students who wish to develop and refine their speaking and presentation-making skills. Offered through the University of Pittsburgh’s College in High School program, students can earn three college credits for successful completion of the course along with a “C” average or above. The cost is approx. $245. The course will focus on organization skills, logic, manuscript preparation and criticism. Students will perform dramatic interpretations, engage in in-class debates, compete in mock trial cases, practice role-playing activities as well as the opportunity to debate in a civic forum. This course may not be repeated.
015 CREATIVE WRITING (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Students must have passed their previous year’s English class with a satisfactory performance or they must submit a written sample of creative writing for evaluation.
Creative Writing is a one credit elective course open to all students in their sophomore, junior, and senior year who have an interest in creative expression and bodies of work. The Creative Writing course will be guided by day to day instruction followed by workshop writing. Students will also participate in the creation and publication of *Adoxography*, the literary magazine. Creative Writing is an open-forum class, where a community of writers and readers gather to write, share, and improve their creative work. Preference will be given to upperclassmen.
016 JOURNALISM (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: “B” or better in previous year’s English class
Be a part of the *Mustang Round-up* and enter the exciting world of journalism. Students will develop interviewing, reporting, broadcasting, editing and publishing skills to cover national, local and especially high school news. Working in conjunction with video production students and utilizing the new One-Touch studio, students will create a variety of project-based activities. Writing, public speaking and presentation making are all vital components to the course as well. Students will publish work through our class YouTube channel, *Mustang Express*.
017 MOCK TRIAL (Sophomores, Juniors, and seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: “B” or better in previous year’s English class
Future lawyers, judges, cops, politicians, actors and actresses are all encouraged to explore the justice system and participate in this unique class. This class is structured to teach students law and government before participating in a mock trial. Students will develop presentation-making and role-playing skills and will learn essential argumentation, refutation and persuasive techniques designed to advance claims and appease audiences. Some after-school participation may be required if the class enters the state-wide competition.
SOCIAL STUDIES
100 CIVICS (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Students will examine the role Pennsylvania played in the development of the colonial economy, the role Pennsylvania played in the concepts of freedom of religion, speech and the press, as well as the geography of Pennsylvania. Explore the early traditions of our democracy, the foundations of our system of government, and the structure of the Articles of Confederation. In addition, students will study the current Constitution of the United States, its form and structures, the duties of the President, congressmen and the Supreme Court. Students will explore the amendments, and the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, as well as what it means to be a good citizen. Students will also learn about our economic system.
101 HONORS CIVICS (Academic Freshmen) (Teacher Recommendation)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: An “A” average in 8th Grade History and Teacher Recommendation
Honors Civics prepares the students to become well-informed citizens who make good decisions for themselves and for the public good. This class will take a detailed look at the American system of government, beginning with our English heritage. Major documents will be examined including
the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution of the United States. Students will be able to interpret the main parts of the Constitution, including the amendments and how these rights and freedoms affect the student's everyday life. Students will also learn about the structure of the United States Congress, the responsibilities of the Presidency, and the role of the Supreme Court. This course focuses upon developing critical-thinking skills. Students will be required to write essays as directed by the instructor and to participate in class discussions. Group and individual projects and activities are conducted on a regular basis. Students should have a good work ethic and good organizational skills to be successful in this class.
102 WORLD HISTORY (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to show the student social, political, economic, and religious characteristics of the different cultural regions of the world.
103 HONORS WORLD HISTORY (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre requisite: Honors Civics - B average/teacher recommendation
The Honors World History course will go beyond the academic World History course to a more in-depth analysis of World History. This will be achieved by holding the students to higher standards which includes outlining outside reading assignments other than the textbook, research, essay testing, completion tests, and a course that moves at a faster pace than academic.
104 AMERICAN HISTORY (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course studies important historical, cultural, and political events occurring from 1877 to 1953. The course includes the study of the following topics: the Progressive Movement, political machines, the Spanish-American War, World War I, the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, World War II, the start of the Cold War, and the Korean War.
105 ADVANCED PLACEMENT AMERICAN HISTORY (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Academic Program of Studies, 87% average, and Teacher Recommendation
The advanced placement course in American History makes demands on students that are equivalent to those of an introductory college course. It gives students a thorough grounding in facts, their context, and their causes and results. Students learn how to read historical material analytically and critically, to weigh historical evidence and interpretations, and to arrive at conclusions on the basis of facts rather than prejudices. **This course will require summer assignments to be completed prior to the beginning of next school year. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.**
106 POLITICAL SCIENCE/RECENT U.S. HISTORY (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
The first semester will be a study of American government and the institutions that make up our system of government. The topics covered will be: The Constitution, Federalism, Civil Liberties, Civil Rights, Political Parties, Congress, The Presidency, The Supreme Court, Bureaucracies, and Foreign Policy. The second semester will be a study of the Political Science/History of the United States since 1941. Topics covered will be: World War II, The Cold War, Bay of Pigs, The Space Race, The Vietnam War, Watergate, The Civil Rights Movement, Ayatollah Khomeini and the United States Hostages in Iran and The Reagan Years.
111 AP US GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Academic Program of Studies, "87%" average and teacher rec. of previous Social Studies teacher.
This course includes the study of general concepts to interpret US politics and the politics of other selected nations. It requires familiarity with the various institutions, groups, beliefs, and the ideas that constitute political culture. Students will study the U.S. Constitution, elections, U.S. Congress, government institutions, and civil rights. The course aims to illustrate the rich diversity of political life, to show institutional alternatives, to explain the differences in processes and policy outcomes, and to communicate to students the importance of domestic and global politics. **This course will require summer assignments to be completed prior to the beginning of next school year. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.**
113 AP HUMAN GEOGRAPHY (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Academic Program of Studies, "A" average and teacher rec. of previous Social Studies teacher.
This is a year long course that introduces students to the systematic study of patterns and processes that have shaped human understanding, use, and alteration of the Earth’s surface. Students employ spatial concepts and landscape analysis to examine socioeconomic organization and its environmental consequences. They also learn about methods and tools geographers use in research and applications. The curriculum reflects the goals of the National Geography Standards. *(This course does satisfy the Grade 12 Social Studies graduation requirement)*
**This course will require summer assignments to be completed prior to the beginning of next school year. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.**
Please Note: * Psychology and AP Psychology (11th/12th) May satisfy “1” of the “4” Social Studies graduation credit requirement.
*Geography and Economics for Finance/Travel and Tourism (Seniors) Is also available as a Social Studies elective and does satisfy a graduation requirement.
*Contemporary Domestic Issues is available as a Social Studies elective and does not satisfy a graduation requirement.
126 PSYCHOLOGY (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
(This course does satisfy the Senior Social Studies graduation requirement – prior to Senior year, this course will count as an elective.)
The purpose of a course in Psychology is to introduce the student to the systematic and scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of human beings and other animals. Students will be exposed to the psychological facts, principles, and phenomena associated with each of the major sub-fields within psychology. They will also learn about methods psychologists use in their science and practice, study the mind, personal growth, gender differences, personality and the social cultural influences that shape their lives.
130 ADVANCED PLACEMENT PSYCHOLOGY (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Honors World History or AP American History (87% or better/teacher recommendation)
(This course does satisfy the Senior Social Studies graduation requirement– prior to Senior year, this course will count as an elective.)
AP Psychology is designed to introduce students to the systematic and scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of human beings and other animals. Students are exposed to the psychological facts, principles, and phenomena associated with the major subfields within psychology. The course stresses critical thinking, reading, writing, essay testing, and outlining with the context of scientific methodology and questioning. This course makes demands of the students that are equivalent to that of an introductory college course. The course is designed to help the student successfully complete the AP Psychology Exam. This course will require summer assignments to be completed prior to the beginning of next school year. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year. Due to the enrollment in Psychology I, students will not be permitted to drop from AP Psychology to Psychology I at any time during the school year.
132 CONTEMPORARY DOMESTIC ISSUES (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
(This is an elective course that does not satisfy a Social Studies graduation requirement)
Prerequisite: A genuine interest in wanting to know what is going on around you. Learn what is going on in the world today. This class will be a discussion of current issues in the News, Politics, economics, health, environment, global, and controversial topics. Headlines will be debated and discussed daily.
665 GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMICS FOR FINANCE/TRAVEL AND TOURISM (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Year long course geared at having students develop broad geographic skills. In addition students learn how economics, culture, history and political issues all affect the study of geography and how geography affects these other disciplines. Consistent attendance is mandatory. (This course does satisfy the Grade 12 Social Studies graduation requirement)
MATHEMATICS
200 ALGEBRA A (Freshmen and Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
The first course of beginning Algebra skills includes expressions, equations, integers, powers and exponents, polynomials, factoring, ratios, proportions, percents, inequalities, and an introduction to the coordinate plane. Also, PA State Standards in Algebra and Keystone applications are stressed.
201 ALGEBRA B (Sophomores and Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
The course is a continuation of algebra skills that emphasizes more advanced concepts such as linear functions and polynomials. This course consists of topics, such as relations and functions, graphing functions, scatter plots and trend lines, arithmetic sequences, finding intercepts, rate of change and slope, slope-intercept form, point-slope form, slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines, exponents, polynomials, and factoring.
203 CONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY (Formerly Geometry 11/12) (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Course includes basic Geometry skills with an emphasis on properties of figures and shapes. The right triangle will be developed. All formulas for area, perimeter, surface area, and volume will be used. Students who have already taken and passed Geometry or a higher math course will not receive credit for this class.
204 KEYSTONE ALGEBRA (Freshmen, Sophomore, Juniors, and Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Students completing this course will earn 0.5 elective credit but will not receive a math credit for this course.
Course includes a review of the algebra skills necessary to be successful on the Algebra Keystone Exam. Students not passing the Algebra Keystone will be assigned to this course in the following year.
206 ALGEBRA I (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course includes basic mathematic skills needed for higher mathematics and science courses, including expressions, equations, polynomials, factoring, ratio and proportion, linear functions, systems of equations and inequalities. **Students who have passed Geometry or Algebra II will not receive a credit towards graduation for this class.
207 ALGEBRA II (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Algebra I
This course continues the student’s understanding of Algebra. The study enables the student to understand the concepts and skills essential in mathematics. The pupil is guided in discovering mathematical principles and is strengthened in his understanding of such principles and their usefulness. It is strongly recommended that the student enrolled in this course would have completed Algebra I with a C or above average.
208 HONORS ADVANCED ALGEBRA (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: “B” or better in Honors Geometry
This course emphasizes facility with Algebraic expressions and forms, especially linear and quadratic forms, powers and roots and functions based on these concepts. Students study logarithmic, trigonometric, polynomial and special functions both for their abstract properties and as a tool for modeling real-world situations.
209 GEOMETRY (Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Pass Algebra II with a C or higher
This course is designed so that the student “discovers” the relationships of geometry using inductive reasoning. All geometric figures will eventually lead to right triangles and on to other figures. Students are exposed to the concept of proofs for these relationships. It is strongly recommended that the students enrolled in this course would have completed Algebra II with a “C” or better average.
210 HONORS GEOMETRY (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: “C” or better in Honors Algebra I
Algebra is integrated with Geometry and coordinates and transformations are used throughout in both two and three dimensions. Measurement, area, and volume are presented early. Proof is developed slowly and carefully. History, famous problems, and real-life situations justify important concepts while motivating students. At no time throughout the year is a student permitted to transfer from this course to traditional Geometry.
211 HONORS FUNCTIONS / TRIGONOMETRY / PRE-CALCULUS (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisites: “B” or better in Honors Advanced Algebra “10”
This course integrates algebraic concepts and previews calculus in work with functions and intuitive notions of limits. Advanced work with trigonometric and circular functions is included. Graphing calculators will be available for student use in plotting functions, and analyzing data.
212 TRIGONOMETRY/PRE-CALCULUS I (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisites: Algebra I, II and Geometry
Trigonometry will address the study of triangles and the relationships of their components, including scientific applications. Pre-Calculus will provide advanced study in Algebra and Analytic Geometry in preparation for Calculus. This course is recommended for the science, math or engineering student who is planning to take Calculus. It is strongly recommended that the student enrolled in this course would have completed Algebra I, Geometry, and Algebra II with a C or above average.
213 PRE-CALCULUS II/STATISTICS (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisites: Algebra I, II, Geometry, Trigonometry/Pre-Calculus I
This course is to prepare college-bound students for a first course in Calculus. Covered topics include analytic geometry, graphing techniques, second-degree relations, limits of functions, and rates of change (derivatives). Statistics is an introductory course in the use and interpretation of statistical methods for analyzing and drawing conclusions from data.
214 ADVANCED PLACEMENT CALCULUS “12” (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite: “B+” or better in Honors Functions/Trigonometry /Pre-Calculus and “A” in Honors Adv. Algebra 10, or “A” or better in Algebra II, Geometry and Trigonometry/Pre-Calculus I
The student will study the derivative, differentials and the integral with appropriate applications. This course is an excellent choice for the science, engineering or advanced math student. A graphing calculator will be used extensively to analyze the derivatives and integrals of functions. The student may take the Advanced Placement Exam and upon qualification, receive advanced placement or credit for a Calculus course when they enter college. The student will be given the option to earn three transferable college level credits from University of Pittsburgh for a fee of $245, through the College in High School Program.
215 CALCULUS (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite: “B+” or better in Honors Functions/Trigonometry /Pre-Calculus and “B” in Honors Adv. Algebra 10, or 90%+ in Algebra II, Geometry and Trigonometry/Pre-Calculus I
The student will begin the course with a basic review of Pre-Calculus and Trigonometry and lead into the basic concepts of Calculus. Derivatives, differentiation, and integration with appropriate application will be studied throughout the course. Graphing calculators will be used to aid in the analysis of derivatives and integrals. This course is an excellent choice for the college bound student who is preparing for a career in math or engineering.
216 CONSUMER MATHEMATICS (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite: (Must have taken Algebra A, Algebra B, and Concepts of Geometry)
This course is a three-part program that takes students from basic math concepts to sophisticated financial strategies. The material will be presented in a personal, practical style students will instantly recognize as relevant to their lives. In addition to mathematics, the course teaches workplace essentials such as reading and language arts, as well as foundation skills such as critical thinking and problem solving. The lessons, workshops, and activities in Consumer Math compromise a well-rounded program that will help prepare all students for success in work and in life. A TI-30XIS calculator will be essential for success in the course.
219 AP STATISTICS (Juniors, Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Recommended to be taken following, but may be taken in addition to 211 Honors Trigonometry/Functions/Pre-Calculus “11” and “A” in Honors Adv. Algebra 10.
This course is an in-depth study of Statistics for the highly motivated student. Its purpose will be to introduce the students to the major concepts and tools for collecting, analyzing, and drawing conclusions from data. In addition, students will participate in statistical projects based on data collected within the school and surrounding area. This course is recommended for students who plan to major in college in the areas of engineering, psychology, sociology, health, science, and business. The student may take the Advanced Placement exam and, upon qualification, receive advanced placement or credit for a Statistics course when they enter college. The student will be given a second option to earn four transferable college level credits from the University of Pittsburgh for a fee of $245 through the College in High School Program of the University.
220 CODING/INTRO TO COMPUTER SCIENCE (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course provides an introduction to object-oriented computer programming and computer operations for students that have no previous experience. Students will be introduced to the basics of understanding, designing, implementing, and testing computer programs to perform various tasks. Students will learn primarily using the Alice programming language developed by Carnegie Mellon University. Later in the year, the students will adapt what they have learned to begin programming in the popular Java language.
SCIENCE
300 BIOLOGY 9 (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Biology 9 is an introductory course to the basic biological principles such as the scientific method and evolutionary processes. It emphasizes cellular structure, function, environmental, ecological principles, and basic bioenergetics. This course will include hands-on lab activities to enhance the course concepts.
303 BIOLOGY 10 (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Biology 9
Biology 10 expands the scope of the biological principles covered in Biology 9. Biology 10 emphasizes the cell cycles, basic genetics concepts, homeostasis processes, cellular transport, and advanced bioenergetics concepts. This course will include hands-on lab activities to enhance the course concepts. The Biology Keystone Exam will be taken at the end of this course.
302 HONORS BIOLOGY (Freshmen)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: B+ or higher in 8th grade Science and teacher recommendation
Honors Biology is a course for students with an interest in science. This course investigates the intricate world of living organisms. Students taking this course will explore the methods of science, ecology, cell structures, functions, and processes, basic chemistry, and genetics. They will be held to high expectations regarding their quality of work and personal behavior. A variety of instructional methods will be used, including computer-based instruction, projects, discussions, and laboratory investigations. Students will be expected to complete a science laboratory research project and lab report. The Biology Keystone Exam will be taken at the end of this course.
304 KEYSTONE BIOLOGY (Juniors/Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Students completing this course will earn 0.5 elective credit but will not receive a Science credit for this course.
All students graduating from Laurel Highlands High School must display proficiency in the Keystone Biology Assessment administered during their sophomore year. Students failing to score at the Proficient or Advanced Level will be scheduled for this class and must participate in the Keystone retest in January. Students failing to score at the Proficient Level on the retest must remain in the class and earn a passing grade to meet the graduation requirement. This course reviews the basic biology concepts using problems similar to those included on the Keystone test. Specific instructions, assessments, and diagnostics for each standard are addressed.
306 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course looks at how a healthy environment is a balanced system of interacting parts and presents biological and chemical concepts that affect the environment. Focus will be on human interaction with the environment and how we have impacted the world around us. Topics covered will include ecology, natural resources, populations, energy, waste, and waste management. It emphasizes problem solving, decision making, and the scientific method of inquiry using laboratory procedures.
307 HUMAN BIOLOGY (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
(Name change only, formerly Applied Biology and Chemistry II)
Human Biology will present biological and chemical concepts that affect human biological processes. Topics covered will include the physiology of the senses, basic metabolic processes, removal of metabolic wastes, genetic traits, and basic population genetics, infectious diseases, and the physiological effects of drugs on the body. It emphasizes problem solving, decision-making, and the scientific method of inquiry using laboratory procedures. Career opportunities in science are also explored.
| Grade 6 | Grade 7 | Grade 8 | Grade 9 | Grade 10 | Grade 11 | Grade 12 |
|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------|----------|----------|
| Science 6 | Science 7 | Science 8 | Biology 9 | Biology 10 | Environmental Science | Environmental Science |
| Honors Biology | Human Biology | Environmental Science | AP Biology/Lab | AP Chemistry II/ Lab | Chemistry | Chemistry |
| Honors Chemistry | Honors Chemistry | AP Chemistry II/ Lab | AP Chemistry II/ Lab | Physics | Physics |
| Honors Physics | Honors Physics | Honors Physics | Honors Physics | Anatomy/ Physiology | Honors Organic Chemistry | AP Physics |
Please Note: Students will be required to adhere to the prerequisites listed in the high school curriculum guide for several courses.
4/17/2018
308 CHEMISTRY (Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors)
(1.0 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Algebra I or teacher recommendation
This course is designed to familiarize the student with the scientific method of inquiry, laboratory procedures and apparatus, the metric system, the importance of accuracy in measurement and calculations, development and growth of vocabulary and the basic nature of matter. Topics included are sections dealing with chemical formulas, equations and reactions, gas laws, the history of atomic theory, the periodic table and an introduction to organic chemistry. Key experiments are performed which are devised to develop an understanding and appreciation of the transformation of matter.
309 HONORS PHYSICS (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisites: Algebra I, II, and Geometry. Note: Students should schedule Physics and Trigonometry in the same year.
Students enrolled in the academic curriculum and considering going to college or a technical school should take this course as a junior or senior.
Honors Physics covers several areas describing the world in which we live. Force and motion, inertia and momentum, work, energy, and power, waves and sound, light and optics, electricity and magnetism, atomic and nuclear theory are all covered during the year. The course content is supported with classroom demonstrations, multimedia presentations, student labs, and practice in problem solving. This course is intended to provide students with the solid high school background in Physics that most colleges expect of their incoming freshmen. (Students who have completed course number 314 Physics may schedule course number 309 Honors Physics for science credit the following year. Course prerequisites must be met in order to schedule course number 309.)
310 AP CHEMISTRY II/LAB (Juniors and Seniors) (Lab—three days a cycle)
(1.5 CREDITS)
Prerequisite: A- or better in Honors Chemistry or teacher recommendation and currently enrolled in Honors Trigonometry / Pre-Calculus. A summer review packet will be assigned in May to perspective students. Failure to complete the summer assignment is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
This course is designed for the student who plans a career in a science related field such as medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, or engineering. AP Chemistry is essentially a first-year college chemistry course which is required by many majors. Topics include Reactions, Stoichiometry, Thermodynamics (including Entropy), Bonding, Liquids & Solids, Colligative Properties, Kinetics, and Electrochemistry. A large focus is also applied to Gaseous, Acid/Base, and Precipitation Equilibria. Basic principles of Organic Chemistry are introduced at the end of the course. Students may take the AP Chemistry Exam in the spring for possible college credit. This course is also part of Dual Enrollment programs with St. Francis University and Mount Aloysius College. Students will have the option to earn four college credits at a reduced cost through either institution.
311 AP PHYSICS (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisites: The student enrolling in this course should have previously taken Honors Physics and should also be taking Calculus during the senior year. Teacher Recommendation
The concepts covered in this Advanced Placement course are similar to those in Honors Physics, but a college textbook is used to cover the material at a much greater depth and with the use of calculus as a mathematical tool. This course is designed primarily for the student who expects to be majoring in a Science, Engineering, or Medical related area in college. Students taking this course should be prepared for a fast-paced study of Physics with frequent reading assignments and problem solving work throughout each week of the course.
Students taking AP Physics may also receive 4 college credits through the University of Pittsburgh “College in High School” program. The teacher will explain the associated minimal fees (approx.. $245) at the beginning of the course.
312 ANATOMY/PHYSIOLOGY (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms. In this course, we will approach the living organism from both an anatomical and physiological point of view, studying both structure and function. Study will begin with the typical animal cell and continue through to the most complex organism—the human. The course provides an excellent background for students planning to enter the fields of nursing, dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, and the biological sciences of any related field.
313 AP BIOLOGY/LAB (Juniors and Seniors) (Lab—three days a cycle)
(1.5 CREDITS)
Prerequisite: A "B" average in Honors Biology and Honors Chemistry and Teacher Recommendation.
The Advanced Placement Biology course is designed to be the equivalent of a college introductory biology course. This course will differ significantly from the usual high school biology course with respect to the textbook used, the range and depth of topics covered, the kinds of laboratory work done and the time and effort required of students. The course will cover three general areas: molecules and cells, genetics and evolution, organisms and populations. The three lab days will be used to provide the kinds of labs experienced by college students. Following completion of the course, students can take the A.P. exam. If successful on this exam, they may receive college credit for their studies.
A summer review packet will be assigned in May to prospective students. Failure to complete the summer assignment is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
314 CONCEPTUAL PHYSICS (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Algebra I or Algebra A and Algebra B, "C" or better
Students enrolled in the academic curriculum and considering going on to post-secondary education should take this course as an introductory-level Physics course. The course is designed to develop a conceptual understanding of Physics concepts that range from classical to contemporary, is taught through lecture, demonstrations, videos, activities and projects, and is designed to allow students to observe and predict interactions in the world around them while developing critical thinking and analytical skills. (This course was created to act as a non-required but suggested precursor
for 309 Honors Physics which can be taken for science credit the following year. Students taking 314 Conceptual Physics as their only Physics course should be aware that this level of Physics is below the recommended level of preparation for any major that requires a Physics course at the collegiate level.)
316 HONORS CHEMISTRY (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: B or better in Honors Biology Algebra II or Honors Geometry – and teacher recommendation. A summer review packet on mathematical skills inherent to the class will be assigned in May to perspective students. Failure to complete summer assignments is not an acceptable reason to drop a course in the following school year.
This course is for the student who excels in science and mathematics and is interested in pursuing a career in chemistry, medicine, or a related field. Topics to be covered are measurement, atomic theory, formulas, nomenclature, reactions, solutions, stoichiometry, and gas laws. Basic laboratory practices will also be demonstrated.
318 HONORS ORGANIC CHEMISTRY (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Honors Chemistry and AP Chemistry or AP Biology
This course is designed to provide a fundamental overview of organic chemistry to students interested in pursuing a career in the sciences. Upon successful completion of this class, students will understand the chemistry of carbon-containing compounds. Topics will include structure, nomenclature, reactions, and properties of the major classes of organic compounds. An important aspect of any chemistry class is laboratory experience. Students will participate in labs in which they will safely perform a variety of experiments and utilize technology to write formal lab reports in preparation for higher education science courses.
*This course serves as an advanced science elective. Success in this course relies heavily upon knowledge acquired in previous Chemistry courses. This knowledge will be assumed, and the course will be conducted as a college-level experience.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
NOTE: All students are required to pass a minimum of one Aquatics course.
MEDICAL EXCUSE (ME)
If a student has a medical problem that affects his/her ability to participate in a physical education class, the course will be waived during the time period that the medical condition exists. The medical problem must be documented in writing by a physician and the documentation must be made available to the guidance office to become part of the student’s permanent record. If the student has a Medical Excuse for over 50% of the total classes for the year, the student will receive a Medical Excuse (ME) for the year with no credit assigned. The course requirement will be waived for that school year. If the Medical Excuse (ME) is for less than 50% of the total classes for the year, the student will receive the grade he/she earned and credit for the class. For long-term conditions, a new medical excuse must be provided for each school year.
405 P.E. B/G (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (3 days/cycle)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Laurel Highlands High School has redesigned the nature of the courses in the Physical Education Department to reach the developmental needs of the students with carry-over values. The purpose is to develop good attitudes toward physical activity now and for a lifetime. Each grading period, students enrolled in P.E. will chose from one of the activities listed below:
Co-ed P.E. --- Lifetime/Team Sports: This course was designed to equip the learner with the knowledge and skills necessary for participation in team sports and to stress the importance of lifetime sports. Skill explanation and demonstration will be reinforced along with the sport’s history and basic rules. Adherence to the rules for each sport, good sportsmanship and practical competition will be highly encouraged. Lifetime/Team sports covered during this course may include, but are not limited to baseball/softball, basketball, football, handball, hockey, soccer, speedball, volleyball, golf, tennis, bowling, archery, badminton, ping-pong and pickle ball.
Co-ed P.E. ---Physical Fitness: This course was designed to educate, evaluate and improve upon the learner’s overall physical fitness. Each of the five components of physical fitness (cardiovascular fitness, body composition, flexibility, muscular strength and muscular endurance) will be covered. The instructor will explain the significance in maintaining a healthy level of physical fitness as it relates to a persons’ overall well being. Training performed during this course may include, but is not limited to aerobics, cardio equipment, plyometrics, weight training, walking/jogging and yoga.
406 AQUATICS B/G (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (3 days/cycle)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Lower level skills will focus on the 5 basic strokes: crawl stroke, elementary back stroke, breaststroke, sidestroke, and backstroke. Upper level students must have passed intermediate test or screening by instructor. Upper level skills will consist of stroke perfection, treading water for 3 minutes and proper use of diving board. Recreational time will include the following activities: water polo, water volleyball, water football, aqua-aerobics, jogging in aqua belts and lap swim for fitness.
NOTE: All students are required to take and pass a minimum of one Aquatics Course.
408 PERSONAL FITNESS (Juniors and Seniors) (3 days/cycle)
(0.5 CREDIT)
Pre-requisite: Course 405 P.E. B/G and INSTRUCTOR APPROVAL
(This course counts as a PE credit towards graduation requirements)
This course is designed to educate students on lifetime personal fitness principles and practices with an emphasis on the health-related components of physical fitness. Although this course is considered an activity course, some classroom work on specific fitness concepts will be carried out as well. The
ratio of physical activity to classroom work will be approximately 80:20. Some key concepts covered in this course may include, but are not limited to: identifying and applying the health-related components of fitness, how to assess and track your personal fitness levels, understanding lifestyle changes that may be necessary in an effort to achieve optimal wellness, developing and implementing a personal fitness program to address each of the 5 health-related fitness components, learning proper training principles in each component area, differentiating between different training strategies, as well as other underlying wellness principles such as proper dieting and training recovery.
410 HEALTH B/G (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (3 days/cycle) (0.5 CREDIT)
The main objective of this course is to present material useful to the student in making choices critical to good health and mental well being. Emphasis is placed on the functioning to the biological body, emotional wellness, coping skills, first aid and fitness. Drug and alcohol prevention education is incorporated to build self-esteem and help the students understand the psychology of addiction and the impact of alcohol and other drugs on families and society. The known effects of drug and alcohol are presented as well as identifying self needs, coping skills and responsibility for behaviors.
415 KINESIOLOGY B/G (Juniors and Seniors) (3 days/cycle) (0.5 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Health Education --- Anatomy/Physiology is recommended
This course will combine in-class studies with "hands-on" lab work in the gymnasium and other training facilities. Course concepts include, but are not limited to: muscle and skeletal mapping, evaluating joint dynamics/articulations, muscle involvement, biomechanical deficiencies, proper and safe exercise techniques and other human mechanics (levers, angle of pull, proper alignments, etc…). Learners in this course will also have an understanding of mechanical principles, such as muscle insertion points, reflexes, and prime movers used in selected sport skills and general movements.
This course is designed to educate and prepare students who have future interest in sports medicine and other like careers such as: exercise science, health/physical education, physical therapy, athletic training, personal training, coaching, chiropractor, massage therapist, rehabilitation, etc.
Kinesiology does not satisfy a PE requirement.
416 FIRST AID/CPR/AED (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (3 days/cycle) (0.5 CREDIT)
Designed to prepare students to provide first aid, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and automated external defibrillator (AED) use in a safe, timely, and effective manner. The course goals include cognitive and psychomotor objectives. Topics covered in the course may include, but are not limited to:
CPR/AED Topics - 1 or 2 Rescuer CPR, Mouth to Mask, Bag Valve Mask, Mouth to Mouth, Hands Only CPR, Automatic External Defibrillator (AED for adult, child and infant), Rescue Breathing, Advanced Airway Breathing and Choking (adult, child, and infant)
First Aid Topics - Basic Life Support, Acting in an Emergency, Check the Victim, Recovery Position, Shock, Bleeding and Wound Care, Snake Bites, Spider Bites, Burns, Serious Injuries, Bone, Joint, and Muscle Injuries, Sudden Illness, Poisoning, Cold and Heat Emergencies, Rescuing and Moving Victims, Hand Washing, Glove Removal, and Asthma. Students may choose to pay for AHA certification at the end of the year.
FIRST AID/CPR/AED does not satisfy a PE requirement.
423 ADAPTIVE P.E. B/G (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (3 days/cycle) (0.5 CREDIT)
Open to all students with permanent medical excuses. The medical problem must be documented in writing by a physician and the documentation must be made available to the guidance office to become part of the student’s permanent record. The physical education program will be set up to meet each student's individual needs and in accordance with medical recommendations.
NOTE: All students are required to pass a minimum of one Aquatics course.
WORLD LANGUAGE
501 FRENCH I (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
The four major objectives in learning any foreign language are listening, speaking, reading and writing. The French I course is devoted to listening, speaking, learning French pronunciation, and structuring sentences through dialogues based on everyday experiences. Grammar is gradually introduced so that by the end of the year, students should be able to read and write basic French.
502 FRENCH II (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: C or better in FRENCH I and teacher recommendation
Besides the increased proficiency in conversational skills it affords, the French II course implements the command of the French language by introduction of the different verb tenses and grammatical structures that have made French the international language. The course also offers information about the culture and the people of France and other Francophone regions.
503 FRENCH III (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: C or better in FRENCH II and teacher recommendation
Students in the French III course expand their vocabulary and knowledge of French speaking countries from cultural readings and excerpts from classic French Literature. There is a continuous review of previous grammatical structures which are built upon to increase fluency and sophistication. There is increased emphasis on speaking and reading French while building cultural and geographical awareness.
504 HONORS FRENCH IV (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: B or better in FRENCH III
Students in Honors French IV continue to expand their cultural awareness and reading skills by reading excerpts from various sources including classic French literature. Writing skills are also emphasized as increasingly sophisticated grammatical structures are introduced and reviewed. Speaking and listening skills are also enhanced in Honors French IV through various exercises intended to increase language proficiency. This course provides an in-depth introduction to literature, culture and art, and provides a smooth transition to the Level V Advanced Placement Course. Dual Enrollment opportunity is available for this course. Please see the Dual Enrollment Link on the district’s website.
505 AP FRENCH V (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite - B or better in FRENCH IV and instructor’s recommendation
In Advanced Placement French V, students will continue to practice speaking, reading, writing, and listening skills in French. In order to prepare students for the AP French Language and Culture Exam, the course will include the six AP themes (Global Challenges, Science and Technology, Contemporary Life, Personal and Public Identities, Families and Communities, Beauty and Aesthetics), as well as the three modes of communication (Interpersonal, Interpretive, Presentational). Students will continue to build on previous knowledge of French and add to their mastery of the language. Students will complete exercises to analyze complex grammar points, answer open-ended questions, complete presentations, and analyze literature through famous French pieces of literature. Students who successfully complete the May examination can earn up to twelve college credits in French depending on the college of their choice. A summer assignment may be required of the students. Bienvenue et venez nombreux! Dual Enrollment opportunity is available for this course. Please see the Dual Enrollment Link on the district’s website.
506 SPANISH I (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
In Spanish I, the student is introduced to the language through listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. An adequate vocabulary and a command of the present tense will be achieved. Through cultural readings and media, the student will learn about the Hispanic culture and why it is important to study Spanish. Students will be assessed on active class participation, presentations, homework, class work, quizzes and exams.
507 SPANISH II (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: ‘C’ or better in SPANISH I and teacher recommendation
Spanish II is an exciting continuation of material learned in Spanish I. Since the Spanish language is more and more common in the United States, there will be much emphasis on grammar, reading, listening and of course…speaking. The course will consist of learning many different tenses including preterit, imperfect, future, conditional, and much more. There will also be cultural readings and discussions to allow students to see what life is like in different Spanish-speaking regions. The students will use the material learned to begin advancing in conversational to utilize their knowledge. In addition, the students will be able to take part in Spanish learning games and to watch movies in Spanish.
508 SPANISH III (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Spanish I & II
Spanish III uses an integrated approach to language learning, starting with the introduction of new material, through reinforcement, evaluation and review. The communicative presentations, exercise, and activities are designed to employ all four language skills. Students use these new skills while developing a realistic up-to-date awareness of Culture from many Spanish-speaking countries. Some of the featured benefits of this program include: Student-centered instruction, Balanced presentation of all four language skills, Contextualized vocabulary, Contextual presentation of grammar, Integrated approach to culture.
This course intensely reviews the grammar from levels I-II. It provides an introduction to literature, and it surveys culture and art, and music. Students who have completed this course have been successful in gaining university CLEP credits.
509 HONORS SPANISH IV (Juniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Spanish I, II & III
Spanish IV uses an integrated approach to language learning, starting with the introduction of new material, through reinforcement, evaluation and review. The communicative presentations, exercise, and activities are designed to employ all four language skills. Students use these new skills while developing a realistic up-to-date awareness of Spanish Culture. This course intensely reviews grammar. It provides an in-depth introduction to literature, culture and art, and provides a smooth transition to the Level V Advanced Placement Course. A summer assignment may be required of the students. Dual Enrollment opportunity is available for this course. Please see the Dual Enrollment Link on the district’s website.
510 A.P. SPANISH V (Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Spanish IV
This class will refine skills in Spanish and prepare for the A.P. college-level examination in May. Students will review grammar, write and edit their own compositions, review vocabulary, listen to tapes for comprehension practice, read magazine articles and take practice A.P. exams. For relaxation, we occasionally play Scrabble and Trivial Pursuit (in Spanish, of course!). Class will be conducted mostly in Spanish. Dual Enrollment opportunity is available for this course. Please see the Dual Enrollment Link on the district’s website.
513 DESTINATIONS (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
This class will be taught in English. Students will generate a list of topics of destinations they would like to explore. Students may recommend specific destinations or activities. Day 1 we will research the topic or destination. Day 2 we will discuss the most interesting points. Day 3 will be the unit assessment. Assessments may include mini-presentations, quizzes, games, projects or other activities. Student input will greatly drive the topics covered in this class.
BUSINESS
609 SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Keyboarding Skills
In this course, students will develop a strong base in the following software programs: Microsoft Word (word processing), Microsoft Excel (spreadsheet), Microsoft Access (database), PowerPoint (presentation), and Adobe InDesign (desktop publishing). As each program is learned, students will be given integrated assignments applicable to real-world and post-secondary education. Students will also be provided with a review of keyboarding skills.
612 ACCOUNTING I (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Accounting is the study of how to plan, record, analyze, and interpret financial information. This first-year accounting course will give you a thorough background in the basic accounting procedures used to operate a proprietorship and corporation. This includes analyzing transactions, journalizing, posting, cash control, worksheets and financial statements, purchases and sales transactions, and payroll accounting including checking accounts and taxes. This class is not only a NAF requirement but also is an excellent elective for those who plan to attend college. The course also includes a “real-life” accounting business simulation. Incorporate the use of technology to include: Mimio Studio Technology, Voicethread, PowerPoint, Prezi, and the student response clickers.
613 ACCOUNTING II (Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Final grade of a “C” in Accounting I
(May be substituted for senior Math credit senior by members of NAF Finance Academy)
(Dual Enrollment/College Credit Option)
The advanced course in accounting expands on topics learned in the first-year accounting course to include the accounting for a corporation. Topics include accounting for uncollectible accounts, plant assets and depreciation, inventory, notes and interest, and end-of-fiscal period work for corporations. Accounting II also includes partnership accounting. A simulation will be used to gain practical accounting experience as well. Incorporate the use of technology to include: Mimio Studio Technology, Voicethread, PowerPoint, Prezi, and the student response clickers.
616 DESKTOP PUBLISHING/NEWSPAPER PRODUCTION (Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
PREREQUISITES: Keyboarding skills, an ‘A-B’ average in English, a review of past attendance record AND INSTRUCTOR’S APPROVAL PRIOR TO SCHEDULING.
Students will become skilled in the use of Desktop publishing software and will apply what they learn to publish the Laurel Highlites (school newspaper) and the Laurel Highlighter (district newsletter). Students will be involved in all aspects of newspaper production including writing, editing, and proofreading articles, page layout and design, selling advertising space, record keeping, billing, and distribution. Included in the course will be instruction on working with equipment such as a scanner, digital camera, and the Internet. Grades will be based on the ability to meet deadlines, cooperate with other staff members, and work as a team to complete each newspaper and newsletter. After school work to meet deadlines is possible. Consistent attendance is mandatory.
617 PUBLICATIONS/YEARBOOK (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Publications incorporates the mechanics of producing the school yearbook, *The Highlander*.
Working on the Yearbook is a super activity and an invaluable learning experience. Using Adobe Photoshop CS software and software provided by the yearbook publisher, the yearbook staff is responsible for sales, marketing, advertising, theme planning, page layout, photography, copy deadlines, and many other work-related skills. The overall success of the yearbook depends on total cooperation of the staff and the ability to work together toward a common goal. Students must have excellent school attendance along with good grades, especially in English.
618 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (0.5 CREDIT)
Digital Photography is an introduction to the concepts, design principles, materials and techniques of photography. Students will learn how to take better pictures through the basics of camera operation and photographic composition. A variety of photographic subjects will be explored. The emphasis of the course will be creating and manipulating photographic images using software such as Adobe Photoshop. **Students must have their own Digital Camera to use for the class.**
619 KEYBOARDING (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1.0 CREDIT)
Students will review the alphabetic keys and learn the number and symbol keys. Also, students will review rules of punctuation, capitalization, formatting, spelling, and other principles that will enable them to produce “mailable” documents. Additional lessons will provide students with word processing, spreadsheet and database concepts and applications needed to develop a strong base toward computer literacy.
621 LIFE AFTER HIGH SCHOOL (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(0.5 CREDIT)
(Fomerly called College and Careers)
Welcome to Life After High School! This course was designed to successfully transition students from high school to post-secondary school. Students enrolled in this course will be given strategies for effective time management, study skills, goal setting, organizational techniques, communication skills, financial planning and technological skills that will aid them on their path to post-secondary education. Additionally, Life After High School students will embark on a self-discovery mission to uncover personal values, goals, and attributes that will shape decisions when choosing a program of study for post-secondary schooling. Furthermore, each student will conduct career and college research to facilitate their career plan. Students will fill out applications, create resumes, participate in interviews, and attend a career fair to allow them to anticipate the requirements and necessities for their success in their desired field.
650 INTRODUCTION TO FINANCE (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Open to all students, this year-long course introduces the student to finance concepts needed to succeed in various financial careers. The course is taught using a 'hands-on' approach. Concepts are presented using activities and group exploration. Financial services such as banking, budgets, the world of business, types of businesses, credit, accounting, entrepreneurship, insurance, and economics will be covered. Classroom presentations from academy business partners and projects will enhance the topics covered. Students will also receive Strategies for Success topics to prepare them for college and the job market. Students may be required to attend social gatherings sponsored by academy business partners after school. Relevant field trips will provide an opportunity to experience their acquired knowledge. Incorporate the use of technology to include: Mimio Studio Technology, Voicethread, PowerPoint, Prezi, student response clickers, and internet research. Consistent attendance is mandatory.
651 BANKING, CREDIT, AND FINANCIAL PLANNING (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course is for students enrolled in the National Academy of Finance or those interested in the class as an elective. Topics will include the importance and features of banks, history of U.S. banking, types of banks, including commercial and thrift banks, the impact of technology I banking, the Federal Reserve System and monetary policy, retail daily banking operations, and careers in the banking field. The Financial Planning segment of the course will cover life stages and financial goals, creating budgets, saving and borrowing for college, choosing the right credit card, consumer credit rights, insurance (life, auto, property, health, and disability), investment choices such as bonds, stocks, mutual funds, renting versus owning a home, and retirement and estate planning. Speakers and field trips will supplement the content material. Upon completion of this class, students with the required grade average will be eligible for a paid summer internship with a local Academy business partner. Incorporate the use of technology to include: Mimio Studio Technology, Voicethread, PowerPoint, Prezi, student response clickers, and internet research. Consistent attendance is mandatory.
652 SECURITIES/INSURANCE (Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course consists of two semester classes that will introduce students to the basics of Securities and Insurance. It will also cover many topics that would be included in an Intro to Business class on a college level. The first semester will deal with Securities Overview, Sales, Research, Operations and math behind the market. Students will follow key stocks throughout the year and play the stock market game. The second semester will cover Insurance Sales and Marketing, Insurance in the Business World, Insurance Lines and Products, and Careers in Insurance. There will be guest speakers to share information about both industries.
660 BUSINESS CONCEPTS FOR HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM (Sophomores)
(1 CREDIT)
PREREQUISITES: 2.0 GPA and true Sophomore standing
Course Description: This course will acquaint the students with various business aspects associated with the hospitality and tourism industry. The topics will include the business of tourism, the economics and the impact of tourism, the business market, and career explorations. Students will also receive ‘Strategies for Success’ to prepare them for post-secondary education and/or the job market, to develop their interpersonal skills, and to guide them in their career development. Numerous opportunities will be provided for students to experience a hands-on learning approach as well as opportunities to apply their acquired business skills. Consistent attendance is mandatory. *This course is a prerequisite for 662 Sports, Events, and Entertainment Management.*
662 SPORTS, EVENTS, AND ENTERTAINMENT MANAGEMENT
(1 CREDIT)
PREREQUISITE: Juniors in the Academy of Hospitality and Tourism only and a 75% final average in 660 Business Concepts for Hospitality and Tourism
Course Description: Management skills applicable to real-world situations will be presented with an emphasis on sports, events, and entertainment planning. Students will be introduced to event planning and facility and event management through a virtual simulation program. ‘Strategies for Success’ concepts will include resume writing, interview skills, and soft skills. Enrichment will be provided through relevant field trips and guest speakers. Concepts taught in this course parallel management concepts taught in many first-year college courses. Consistent attendance is mandatory as many lessons cannot be repeated or retaught. *This course is a prerequisite for 663 Resorts Management and Operation.*
663 RESORTS MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION
(1 CREDIT)
PREREQUISITE: Seniors in the Academy of Hospitality and Tourism only and a 75% final average in 662 SPORTS, EVENTS, AND ENTERTAINMENT MANAGEMENT
Course Description: Unit 1 will provide an overview of the infrastructure of the hospitality industry including an in-depth study of departments and related careers with in the lodging industry. Unit 2 will explore resort management and operation based on three areas: (1) The relationship between the natural resource base and the recreational facilities developed from that base; (2) The features unique to a resort as compared to a
traditional hotel; and (3) Guest activity programming. Students will be required to write essays based on research and information in the text, to work in groups, and to complete individual and group projects throughout the year. Enrichment will be provided through relevant field trips and guest speakers. Consistent attendance is mandatory as many lessons cannot be repeated or retaught.
907 FRESHMAN SEMINAR (Freshmen) (0.5 CREDIT)
Freshman Seminar is a required course for all ninth grade students unless enrolled in AFJROTC. It is designed to assist students in making the academic and social adjustment to high school. In-depth lessons use a variety of both innovative and traditional techniques: mid and long-range projects, cooperative learning activities, journal writing and computer applications. Students also practice note-taking, time management, study skills, banking, personal finance, social and human relations skills needed for their academic future.
AIR FORCE JROTC
AFJROTC is a 3- or 4-year program offered in grades 9-12. Students (cadets) receive elective credit toward high school graduation by successfully completing Air Force Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFJROTC) classes. Cadets are introduced to the Air Force organizational structure; uniform wear; military customs and courtesies; flag etiquette; citizenship in the United States; basic drill and ceremonies; and effective communications. They also learn to listen and think critically, assume leadership roles in the cadet corps, and prepare for future leadership roles. There is no military obligation for taking AFJROTC.
The syllabus for each class includes a blend of 40% Aerospace Science (AS), 40% Leadership Education (LE) and 20% Wellness Instruction.
Aerospace Science includes subjects such as history of aviation, science of flight, space exploration, and survival.
- Leadership Education offers cadets opportunities to shape their character. Cadets learn about character development and elements of good citizenship.
- Wellness instruction includes physical training and fitness instruction; first aid; health and wellness; individual self-control, and how to build personal awareness.
AFJROTC also offers extracurricular activity such as opportunities to be members of a Drill Team, Color Guard, Rifle Marksmanship Team, Junior Air Commando Physical Fitness Team, etc. Through the course of serving on these teams and in learning to march in military formations in the drill instruction portion of the LE series, cadets get to demonstrate their skill and pride at public events such as the presentation of the US flag at school sporting events, marching in parades in their communities, performing at formal military events, demonstrating proper etiquette at formal dining socials, etc. The cumulative impact of exposure to this curriculum and training is seen in feedback AFJROTC consistently receives from parents, teachers, and principals—that their students benefit tremendously from the program. Statistics show that AFJROTC students stay in school longer, have a higher graduation rate, are better behaved and contribute more to the community.
Students may start AFJROTC at any grade level. Courses will not be repeated in a cadets’ high school career with the exception of Summer Leadership.
681 AFJROTC: LEADERSHIP EDUCATION II / SCIENCE OF FLIGHT / WELLNESS
(Offered during School Year 2021-2022) (1 CREDIT)
Leadership Education II stresses communications skills and cadet corps activities. Much information is provided on communicating effectively, understanding groups and teams, preparing for leadership, solving conflicts and problems, and personal development. Written reports and speeches compliment the academic materials. Cadet corps activities include holding positions of greater responsibility in the planning and execution of corps projects. LEII is blended with an Aviation Science course, *The Science of Flight*, designed to acquaint the cadet with the aerospace environment, the human requirements of flight, principles of aircraft flight, and principles of navigation. The course begins with a discussion of the atmosphere and weather. After developing an understanding of the environment, how that environment affects flight is introduced. Discussions include the forces of lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Cadets also learn basic navigation including map reading, course plotting, and the effects of wind. The portion on the Human Requirements of Flight is a survey course on human physiology. Discussed here are the human circulatory system, the effects of acceleration and deceleration, and protective equipment. Also blended into this course is a Wellness component. Wellness is an official part of the Air Force Junior ROTC program. It is an exercise program focused upon individual baseline improvements with the goal of achieving a national standard as calculated with age and gender. The Presidential Physical Fitness Program is also used. Wellness is instrumental in developing citizens of character dedicated to serving our nation and communities. The program is provided as a tool to help develop individualized training programs for the cadets.
680 AFJROTC: LEADERSHIP EDUCATION I / AVIATION HISTORY / WELLNESS
(Offered during School Year 2018-2019) (1 CREDIT)
This course provides cadets a basis for the AFJROTC program while instilling elements of good citizenship. It contains sections on cadet and Air Force organizational structure; uniform wear; customs, courtesies, and other military traditions; health and wellness; fitness; individual self-control; and citizenship. It also contains sections on aviation history that focuses on the development of flight throughout the centuries. It starts with ancient civilizations and progresses through time to modern day. The emphasis is on civilian and military contributions to aviation; the development,
modernization, and transformation of the Air Force; and a brief astronomical and space exploration history. It is interspersed with concise overviews of the principles of flight including basic aeronautics, aircraft motion and control, flight power, and rockets. There are readings, videos, hands-on activities, and in-text and student workbook exercises to reinforce course objectives. Also blended into this course is a Wellness component. Wellness is an official part of the Air Force Junior ROTC program. It is an exercise program focused upon individual base line improvements with the goal of achieving a national standard as calculated with age and gender. The Presidential Physical Fitness Program is also used. Wellness is instrumental in developing citizens of character dedicated to serving our nation and communities. The program is provided as a tool to help develop individualized training programs for the cadets.
683 AFJROTC: LEADERSHIP EDUCATION IV / SURVIVAL / WELLNESS
(Offered during School Year 2019-2020) (1 CREDIT)
This course provides exposure to the fundamentals of management. The course contains many leadership topics that will benefit students as well as provide them with some of the necessary skills needed to put into practice what they have learned during their time in AFJROTC. This final course, coupled with what cadets have already learned during their time in AFJROTC, will equip them with the qualities needed to serve in leadership positions within the corps. Throughout the course are many ethical dilemmas, case studies, and role play activities built into the lessons. These activities are based on real life experiences and will allow students the opportunity to practice what they learn by getting involved in discussions and expressing their opinions. The Survival portion of this course is a synthesis of the basic survival information found in Air Force Regulation 64-4 Survival Training. The survival instruction will provide training in skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary to successfully perform fundamental tasks needed for survival. Survival also presents “good to know” information that would be useful in any situation. The information is just as useful to an individual lost hunting or stranded in a snowstorm. Course objectives include knowing the elements of surviving, knowing how medicine procedures, clothing, and shelter can provide personal protection for a survivor in a survival situation, knowing the necessities for maintaining life in a survival situation and knowing how to travel and prepare for recovery in a survival situation.
682 AFJROTC: LEADERSHIP EDUCATION III / EXPLORING SPACE / WELLNESS
(Offered during School Year 2020-2021) (1 CREDIT)
Leadership Education III will be helpful to students deciding which path to take after high school. Available also is information about financial planning and how to save, invest, and spend money wisely, as well as how not to get caught in the credit trap. Students are informed about real life issues such as understanding contracts, leases, wills, warranties, legal notices, and personal bills. Citizen responsibilities such as registering to vote, jury duty, and draft registration will be helpful to. If there are students who are interested in a career in the military, with the federal government, or an aerospace career, information is also provided for them. LE III is blended with an Aviation Science course, Exploring Space, The High Frontier. This is a science course that includes the latest information available in space science and space exploration. The course begins with the study of the space environment form the earliest days of interest in astronomy and early ideas of the heavens, through the Renaissance, and on into modern astronomy it discusses issues critical to travel in the upper atmosphere such as orbits and trajectories unmanned satellites, and space probes. It investigates the importance of entering space and discusses manned and unmanned space flights. The section on manned spaceflight focuses on the Space Shuttle, space stations and beyond. Also blended into this course is a Wellness component. Wellness is an official part of the Air Force Junior ROTC program. It is an exercise program focused upon individual base line improvements with the goal of achieving a national standard as calculated with age and gender. The Presidential Physical Fitness Program is also used. Wellness is instrumental in developing citizens of character dedicated to serving our nation and communities. The program is provided as a tool to help develop individualized training programs for the cadets.
687 AFJROTC SUMMER LEADERSHIP I: Staff Training. (Grades 10-12). (0 Credit)
This week-long, optional course is designed to orient and teach the incoming cadet corps commanders and staff (second through fourth year cadets) their upcoming responsibilities. It will start approximately 3 weeks before the first day of school and meet at the High School. Transportation to and from the school is the responsibility of the cadet. The focus of instruction will be on the applicable level of leadership education, drill, and physical training as determined by the number of years the cadet has been in AFJROTC. Upper-class cadets will be introduced to the responsibilities of their command or staff positions and fine tune their leadership skills by aiding in the instruction of the first year cadets. They will also improve their basic military skills and build confidence while participating in and leading teamwork building events and physical training.
688 AFJROTC SUMMER LEADERSHIP II: Summer Leadership School (Open to Grades 9-12) (0 Credit)
Summer Leadership School (SLS) is a week long, optional program that enhances citizenship and leadership principles for AFJROTC cadets in a structured and safe environment. It will be conducted as a multi-overnight, chaperoned, off-campus trip. Transportation will be provided and student fees may be required. The SLS mission is to prepare cadets for leadership roles in their units, schools, and local communities. SLS activities typically emphasize leadership, team building, citizenship, character, respect, academic achievement, physical fitness, and service to others. SLS locations vary by year but normally include, private summer camps, Camp Outdoor Odyssey, military installations or college campuses will be utilized. Activities will run approximately 15 hours per day and certified camp counselors or other JROTC instructors may be utilized. The course will be on the tenets of Wellness, Fitness, CPR and First Aid, Leadership and Character Development, Respect and Military Tradition, Community Service and Civic Involvement.
689 AFJROTC ADVANCED DRILL: (Open to Grades 9-12) (0 Credit)
This course is designed for members of the AFJROTC Drill Team and Color Guard. The competition begins with an Advanced Drill Camp typically held two weeks before school starts. During the school year, rehearsals and practices are normally held from 2:30 pm to 4:00 pm after school meet twice a week. Frequency may increase just prior to a competition. The Drill Team and Color Guard competes at various events throughout the school year. The Color Guard also performs at each home football game, other select athletic events, and school board meeting.
670 INTRO TO INFORMATION TECH/ COMPUTER HARDWARE TECH (Fresh., Soph., Jr., and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: none
In the Intro to Information Technology/ Computer Hardware Technology course, students are presented with the basic concepts of Information Technology, including various career paths as well as the impact of Information Technology on the world, people and industry. The Computer Hardware and Technology segment of the class prepares students for entry-level PC repair and support. The students will also acquire the necessary knowledge needed to complete the A+ certification exam. Covered in this course topics that detail how computers work and advanced computer concepts. Class lessons will be accomplished by theoretical exploration and hands-on lab activities. Topics to be covered are: operating systems, PC hardware, troubleshooting, Microsoft Windows, system boards, input/output devices, video displays, printers, data communications, multimedia systems, and preventive maintenance. Finally, the students will learn basic computer programming through the use of ALICE programming software. Consistent attendance is mandatory.
701 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: none
The Digital Communications course is designed to give students experience in communicating through graphical and electronic means. Society is bombarded and impacted daily by graphical images through television, magazines, newspapers, billboards, advertisements, etc. Today, more people communicate electronically than any other medium using electronic graphics in the form of video and stills. We will explore several methods of creating quality digital communications in this class which include photographs, printed materials such as informational flyers, advertisements, posters, packaging, etc, and electronic presentations such as PowerPoint and digital video. We will learn to use electronic equipment such as digital cameras, image scanners and printers. We will also learn to use electronic graphical software’s such as PowerPoint, InDesign, Publisher, and Photoshop.
702 VIDEO PRODUCTION (Sophomores, Juniors and Senior) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS I
The Introduction to Basic Video Production course introduces students to multi-camera digital video production. Students will learn basic camera operation and principles of studio-based live-switched productions. Basic lighting procedures and fundamental editing, scripting and storyboarding will be presented. The students will also learn basic video editing using Adobe Premier or similar video editing software. The history and advancements of television and video cameras will also be covered to give the student an in-depth knowledge of the advancement of the video production profession. Media students with an interest in live television, news, and sports will find this course useful.
703 VIDEO PRODUCTION II (Junior and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: VIDEO PRODUCTION I & DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS I
The Video Production II course further advances students ability to use multi-camera digital video productions. Students will continue to develop camera operation and principles of studio-based live-switched productions. Lighting procedures and fundamental editing, scripting and storyboarding will be utilized. The students will also advance their ability to edit video using Adobe Premier Pro Production Suite software or similar video editing software. The students will be required to attend a predetermined percentage of school function to record the event and return to the class room and edit the video to a final production to be burned to a DVD for school archives and personal portfolio. Media students with an interest in live television, news, and sports will find this course useful.
704 PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING (POE) (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Intro to Engineering
This survey course of engineering exposes students to major concepts they’ll encounter in a postsecondary engineering course of study. Students employ engineering and scientific concepts in the solution of engineering design problems. They develop problem-solving skills and apply their knowledge of research and design to create solutions to various challenges, documenting their work and communicating solutions to peers and members of the professional community.
705 ENGINEERING DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT (EDD) (Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Principles of Engineering
This is an engineering research course in which students will work in teams to research, design, test and construct a solution to an open-ended engineering problem. The product development life cycle and a design process are used to guide and help the team to reach a solution to the problem. The team presents and defends their solution to a panel of outside reviewers at the conclusion of the course. The EDD course allows students to apply all the skills and knowledge learned in previous courses. The use of 3D design software helps students design solutions to the problem their team has chosen. This course also engages students in time management and teamwork skills, a valuable set for students in the future. This course is designed for 12th grade students.
706 CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE (CEA) (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Intro to Engineering
Students apply what they learn about various aspects of civil engineering and architecture to the design and development of a property. Working in teams, students explore hands-on activities and projects to learn the characteristics of civil engineering and architecture. In addition, students use 3D design software to help them design solutions to solve major course projects. Students learn about documenting their project, solving problems and
communicating their solutions to their peers and members of the professional community of civil engineering and architecture. This course is designed for 11th or 12th grade students.
708 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS II (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS I
The Digital Communications II course is designed to give students an advanced experience in communicating through graphical and electronic means. This class will advance the students’ skills in Adobe Photoshop. Today, more people communicate electronically than any other medium using electronic graphics so the students will have an extended concentration in Web Design using Adobe Dreamweaver. *Web Design* is a hands-on introduction to designing, building, and launching websites. The students will also learn industry standard layout designs through the use of Adobe InDesign software.
709 INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS I (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: none
This is an introductory course with emphasis on the use of basic hand tools in relation to exploring wood, metal, and plastic as used in industry.
710 INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS II (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS I
Industrial Materials II will be a course exploring wood, metal, plastic, and any other material used in industry. The program will begin with a review of basic hand tools, project design, materials that can be used in the program, and shop safety. Students will be encouraged to work in all areas of the shop to develop an interest and gain knowledge in the many areas available.
712 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS IMS (Soph., Jr. and Sr.) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS I
Students enrolled in Introduction to Manufacturing Systems (I.M.S.) will gain first-hand knowledge of manufacturing fundamentals. This course will focus on the basic processes that are used to build many of today’s products. Students will also be exposed to real-world manufacturing scenarios when they actually form their own company and build a product for sale.
713 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE (Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS IMS
Students enrolled in the Advanced Manufacturing Enterprise course will explore the exciting world of manufacturing. Each student will design, develop, and build prototype products to be mass produced and marketed. Students will explore all aspects of product manufacturing on a class-designed and operated assembly line. Each student will gain valuable knowledge of many career opportunities related to a manufacturing enterprise.
717 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING/CAD (IED) (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: none
Designed for 9th or 10th grade students, the major focus of the IED course is to expose students to the design process, research and analysis, teamwork, communication methods, global and human impacts, engineering standards, and technical documentation. Students use 3D solid modeling design software to help them design solutions to solve proposed problems and learn how to document their work and communicate solutions to peers and members of the professional community.
FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES
801 FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES (Freshman, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to help students meet the challenges of daily life with confidence. This class will help students recognize their goals concerning careers, relationships, and have a better understanding of banking, credit, loans, and money management. Providing knowledge in the area of family relationships, responsibilities, and communication is also incorporated into this course. Nominal costs may be incurred by the student for in-class projects.
802 NUTRITION (Freshman, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Nutrition includes the study of nutrition, food management, and preparation with the emphasis on food safety and sanitation. The course stresses the importance of making healthful life choices to achieve overall wellness. Career opportunities in food and nutrition and current developments in food technology are included in the course of study. Students will work with partners to experience food labs while learning various food preparation techniques.
805 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND FAMILY STUDIES (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
This course focuses on child development theories, principles, and practices, including prenatal development, preparation for birth, and the birth process. One semester of the course addresses the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors essential to promoting the healthy physical, mental, and social-emotional development of infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and school-age children. Students will be made aware of the immense responsibilities involved in parenting including socialization, nurturance, guidance, and discipline. To reinforce learning, simulator dolls will be used. To successfully pass this course, students must participate in and pass the “Baby Think It Over” Project. The student will be responsible for and a fee will be assessed for any damage that occurs as a result of abusive handling or the loss of the manikin. The current replacement cost for the simulator doll is $305.
807 INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH CAREERS (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (0.5 CREDIT)
This course introduces the student to health career exploration, key terminology, history of health care, qualities for success in healthcare, and health career preparation. Students receive an overview of a variety of health care careers as well as job responsibilities, educational requirements, job opportunities, and the employment outlook for their chosen career field.
ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS
DIVISION OF ART – Mr. DeFazio
ART 830 ART I (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
DRAWING, DRAWING AND MORE DRAWING! ART I is an entry level course which focuses on basic rendering skills. We will draw still lives, portraits and landscapes. A sketchbook will be required. Most of the drawing will be from life - meaning that we will be drawing things, which we are looking at. One, two and three-point perspective will be covered as well as abstract art and art history. Other media that will be explored include painting and printmaking. This course is a prerequisite for ALL advanced art classes.
ART 833 ADVANCED MIXED MEDIA (Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: High school level ART I (not-Middle School Art Class)
Basic drawing skills are essential and ART I is a required prerequisite. Advanced mixed media is an advanced art course which will incorporate a wide variety of media. Flexibility is required! We will create drawings, pastels, paintings, block prints, etchings, mosaics and low-relief sculptures. Art history will be incorporated into the lessons. Students will help steer the direction of this course as we move from media to media. Opportunities for independent study will exist within parameters determined by the instructor. All students will be required to keep a personal sketchbook.
**This class may be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
ART 834 ADVANCED PAINTING (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: High school level ART I (not-Middle School Art Class)
A whole year of painting! Basic drawing skills are essential and ART I is a required prerequisite. Students will keep a sketchbook and prepare drawings for completed paintings. We will explore acrylic, watercolor, gouache and oil painting. Subject matter will include still lives, landscapes, portraits, self-portraits, figures and abstract images. Students will paint on paper, canvas, and wooden panels of various sizes. Art history will be incorporated into the lessons.
**This class may be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
ART 836 ADVANCED SCULPTURE AND CERAMICS (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: High school level ART I (not-Middle School Art Class)
Basic drawing skills are essential and ART I is a required prerequisite. We will prepare drawings for both sculptural and ceramic pieces. Art forms covered will include low relief sculpture, 3D modeling, wire sculpture, basic casting and 3D design. Coil built and slab built pottery will be the primary ceramic art forms covered. Students will learn glazing techniques and experience loading and firing a kiln. Materials utilized will be plaster, clay, wire, wood, silicone and other assorted sculpture materials. **This class may be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
DIVISION OF MUSIC – Mr. Santore & Mrs. Stewart
MUS 810 CHORALE CHOIR (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
810A CHORALE CHOIR (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (3 days / week) (0.5 CREDIT)
Open to all students. Previous knowledge of choral participation is not necessary. Students will learn the basics of choral music and proper vocal production and concentrate on the development of the changing voice. Reading musical notation, increased accuracy with sight-reading, 3-4 part harmony, blending and balancing vocal tone, and other techniques will be developed in this class. Students will prepare music to perform at a Winter and Spring Concert. Music will include Christmas, Sacred, Popular, and Classical vocal music. Participation in rehearsals and concerts is mandatory and graded.
MUS 812 CHAMBER CHOIR (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) Pre-requisite: Audition *HONORS LEVEL COURSE* (1 CREDIT)
This choir is based on a selection of sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses for a balanced choral sound. It is preferred that the member has had choir so that the musical education process can be continued with advanced choral literature. Choral members should be able to read music, sight read, and blend with the others in the choir. The purpose of this choir is to perform more difficult music literature. The group will sing a variety of styles in a variety of languages. Students will prepare music to perform at a Winter and Spring Concert and/or Music In Our Schools Concert. Participation in rehearsals and concerts is mandatory and graded.
MUS 821 SYMPHONIC BAND (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
821A SYMPHONIC BAND (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (3 days / week) (0.5 CREDIT)
Student will be considered for Symphonic Band with instructor and principal approval, based upon participation and attendance in middle school band, marching band and other performing groups at Laurel Highlands. This course is for wind instruments only. Percussion students need to schedule PERCUSSION ENSEMBLE. Students will be required to auditions for chair placements once the school year begins and after winter break. Students enrolled in Symphonic Band will perform high school level wind band music. Students will be exposed to a variety of genres and styles, where the musical difficulty will range from medium to difficult. The Symphonic Band will usually have at least one dress rehearsal before each concert and at least two evening concerts during the school year. ALL rehearsals and performances count as graded assignments. **This class can be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
MUS 824 JAZZ ENSEMBLE (Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) **Pre-requisite: Audition *HONORS LEVEL COURSE** (1 CREDIT)
This class is open to students in Grades 10-12 who are interested in a more focused approach to the study of jazz, rock, blues and fusion. Students should have advanced abilities on their instrument and will be asked to audition to gain entrance into the class. Only students who play saxophone, trumpet, trombone, guitar, piano, bass or drum set will be admitted into this class. Students playing other band instruments are to take Symphonic Band. The band will study scales and chords for improvisation, in addition to the performance repertoire. The Jazz Ensemble performs at many school and community functions throughout the year. All rehearsals and performances are both mandatory and are graded. This course will also incorporate the use of technology through MacBooks using software titles such as Wikis, GarageBand, Sibelius, Musition, Auralia, and iMovie.
**This class can be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.** MacBooks using software titles such as Wikis, GarageBand, Sibelius, Musition, Auralia, MS Word, and iMovie. All rehearsals/classes and performances are graded using a proficiency rubric system.
MUS 823 PERCUSSION ENSEMBLE (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
823A PERCUSSION ENSEMBLE (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, Seniors) (3 days / week) (0.5 CREDIT)
This course is for percussionists 9-12 only. All wind instruments need to schedule SYMPHONIC BAND. Students will learn the wind band concert music the Symphonic Band is studying, percussion rudiments and techniques. In addition, students will learn a variety of percussion ensemble music that will be performed during the winter and spring concerts. ALL rehearsals and performances count as graded assignments. **This class can be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
MUS 811 MUSIC THEORY & TECHNOLOGY (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
This course studies the elements of music and how music is composed. Students will learn pitch, rhythm, chord and interval structure, major/minor keys, modes and meters. Students will learn how to read music notation in treble and bass clef, key signatures and how to build and analyze chords in root position and inversions. This course will also incorporate the use of technology through MacBooks using software titles such as Wikis, GarageBand, Sibelius, Musition, Auralia, MS Word, iWeb, and iMovie. The class concludes with a written final and arranging/composition project that is completed using music notation software as well as other forms of music technology.
MUS 827 AP MUSIC THEORY (Juniors and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
**Pre-requisite: MUS 811 MUSIC THEORY & TECHNOLOGY and/or INSTRUCTOR APPROVAL**
This course focuses on more advanced concepts in music theory carried over from Music Theory & Technology. Students will learn more advanced concepts about pitch, rhythm, chord and interval structure, major/minor keys, modes and meters. In addition students will learn about cadences, secondary dominants, augmented and diminished chords, roman numeral analysis and form. Students will also learn sight-singing techniques through the use of solfege and will learn to dictate simple rhythms and melodies. The class concludes with a written final and arranging/composition project that is completed using music notation software as well as other forms of music technology.
MUS 825 INTRO TO GUITAR & MUSIC TECHNOLOGY (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (0.5 CREDIT)
This course is designed for the student who has no prior guitar training and is interested in technology. **Students must provide their own acoustic guitar.** Students will learn the parts of the guitar, basic tuning, chords, plucking melodies, music notation and picking techniques. This course will also incorporate the use of technology through MacBooks using software titles such as Wikis, GarageBand, Sibelius, Musition, Auralia, MS Word, iWeb, and iMovie. All rehearsals/classes and performances are graded using a proficiency rubric system.
MUS 826 APPLIED MUSIC (Juniors & Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
**Pre-requisite: Audition / Interview with High School Music Faculty & Approved Private Lesson Instruction**
This course is designed for students seeking personal and professional growth on their principal instrument and wishing to pursue music as a career in college. Applied Music offers students private study, research, and practice on their principal instrument. The student will be assigned one (1) 45 minute practice period each day, take sixteen (16) thirty-minute private music lessons during each semester from an approved instructor, prepare two solo works appropriate to the student’s instrument and level of contrasting style, prepare a written paper on the selected solos, their style, or composer and perform both a jury of the high school music faculty and two (2) public recitals. **This class can be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.**
MUS 829 MARCHING BAND (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors and Seniors) (0 CREDIT)
Marching Band is the largest performing ensemble at the high school. The Marching Band consists of wind instruments, marching percussion, majorettes, color guard and band managers. Marching Band rehearsals are every Wednesday 6:00PM-8:30PM & Thursday 2:45PM – 5:00PM during football season. Marching Band also has rehearsals during the summer with the major camp at the end of July and the beginning of August. Band Camp is required for all members to join. This ensemble performs at all home and away football games, parades, festivals, Kennywood and a variety of other places. The Marching Band has a major trip every year in the spring.
**SPECIAL NOTICE TO MARCHING BAND MEMBERS**
Students who are instrumentalists in the marching band are **required** to take at least one band ensemble for the entire school year. You may choose from the symphonic band, percussion ensemble or jazz ensemble. Students not able to schedule band 5 days/week may be scheduled for 3 days only if schedule does not permit the full week class. Schedules will be reviewed before partial credit classes are assigned. Any questions please see Mr. Santore
DIVISION OF THEATRE – Mrs. Stewart
THE 814 THEATRE (Freshmen, Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
**With teacher recommendation and principal approval, this class can be repeated for credit.**
This course is open to all students who are interested in learning the basics of acting and exercising creative ideas. Using a variety of games and techniques, you will learn the foundational principles of blocking, staging, memory, use of props and sets, and getting over stage fright. Skills and techniques are exercised by performing regularly in class monologues, scenes, commercials, and music videos. Participation in rehearsals and performances is mandatory and graded.
THE 816 ADVANCED THEATRE (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
**This class can be repeated for credit with instructor and principal approval.** Prerequisite: Audition and Theatre I or Theatre Experience
This class will build upon the basic principles taught in Theatre I and focus on advanced techniques. Students will be responsible for having a working knowledge on all of the technical equipment in the theatre. Performances plus directing will be a part of the course work. Each student will participate in script writing, scene design, and direct/cast their own works plus assemble props and costumes. Participation in rehearsals and performances is mandatory and graded.
GRADUATION REQUIREMENT
907 FRESHMAN SEMINAR (Freshmen) (0.5 CREDIT)
Freshman Seminar is a required course for all ninth grade students not enrolled in AFJROTC. It is designed to assist students in making the academic and social adjustment to high school. In-depth lessons use a variety of both innovative and traditional techniques: mid and long-range projects, cooperative learning activities, journal writing and computer applications. Students also practice note-taking, time management, study skills, banking, personal finance, social and human relations skills needed for their academic future.
DRIVER’S EDUCATION
Currently, the Laurel Highlands High School offers two driver’s education courses three to four times a school year (depending on instructor availability and student need). Please Mr. Smith in Room 1007 for course schedule and to sign up.
909 DRIVER’S EDUCATION THEORY (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (0.3 CREDIT)
The course consists of 30 hours of classroom instruction and is a prerequisite of behind the wheel driving. The course will be offered after school and on weekends. Credit of 0.3 will be awarded upon successful completion of this class.
*The cost for the course is $50 and must be paid at the start of the class.
910 DRIVERS BEHIND THE WHEEL (Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors) (0 CREDIT)
Essentially 10 hours of in the car experience (at least 5 hours have to be driving and at least 5 hours can be observing). There is no credit issued for this course. *The cost of the course is $50 and must be paid at the start of the course.
If students register for both courses, the total cost will be $100. Checks should be made to Laurel Highlands School District. Any student wishing to enroll in either course should contact their assigned guidance counselor.
LEARNING SUPPORT
911 MATH (1 CREDIT)
The basic mathematical areas of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are presented in this course. Work with decimals and fractions is also completed according to ability level. Money usage, banking skills, and measurement are also emphasized. The student is provided with instruction applicable to his/her academic achievement.
912 GENERAL MATH (1 CREDIT)
This course covers math used in daily living. Topics will include employment, banking, housing, taxes, shopping and travel.
913I ALGEBRA A - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
The first course of beginning Algebra skills includes expressions, equations, integers, powers and exponents, polynomials, factoring, ratios, proportions, percents, inequalities, and an introduction to the coordinate plane. Also, PA State Standards in Algebra and Keystone applications are stressed.
914I ALGEBRA B - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
The course is a continuation of algebra skills that emphasizes more advanced concepts such as linear functions and polynomials. This course consists of topics, such as relations and functions, graphing functions, scatter plots and trend lines, arithmetic sequences, finding intercepts, rate of change and slope, slope-intercept form, point-slope form, slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines, exponents, polynomials, and factoring.
915 GENERAL SCIENCE
(1 CREDIT)
Includes basic concepts and principles of science—the scientific method, genetics and matter, among others, that will develop critical thinking skills of application, analysis, synthesis, and evolution.
915I BIOLOGY 9 - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
Biology 9 is an introductory course to the basic biological principles such as the scientific method and evolutionary processes. It emphasizes cellular structure, function, environmental, ecological principles, and basic bioenergetics. This course will include hands on lab activities to enhance the course concepts.
929I BIOLOGY 10 - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
Prerequisite: Biology 9
Biology 10 expands the scope of the biological principles covered in Biology 9. Biology 10 emphasizes the cell cycles, basic genetics concepts, homeostasis processes, cellular transport and advanced bioenergetics concepts. This course will include hands on lab activities to enhance the course concepts. The Biology Keystone Exam will be taken at the end of this course.
916I ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
This course looks at how a healthy environment is a balanced system of interacting parts and presents biological and chemical concepts that affect the environment. Focus will be on human interaction with the environment and how we have impacted the world around us. Topics covered will include ecology, natural resources, populations, energy, waste and waste management. It emphasizes problem solving, decision making, and scientific method of inquiry using laboratory procedures.
917 EARTH SCIENCE
(1 CREDIT)
Students will discover what the earth is composed of, what forms are present, and how the earth relates to other planets in the universe. Activities include vocabulary development, writing, and career study, which help the students apply the scientific principles to daily life.
917I HUMAN BIOLOGY - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
This course presents biology and chemistry in the context of work, home, society and the environment. It uses an applications-oriented approach to teach the concepts of biology and chemistry. It emphasizes problem solving, decision-making, and hands-on learning. Units covered include continuity of life, animal life processes, and disease and wellness.
918 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
(1 CREDIT)
Students study the importance of their environment and its relevance to every life system on earth. Areas include the ecosystem, environmental changes, populations, biomes, air and soil, wildlife and recycling. Lab activities include graphing, experiments, researching, and recording.
918I ANATOMY/PHYSIOLOGY - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms. In this course, we will approach the living organism from both an anatomical and physiological point of view, studying both structure and function. Study will begin with the typical animal cell and continue through to the most complex organism—the human. The course provides an excellent background for students planning to enter the fields of nursing, dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, and the biological sciences of any related field.
919 BASIC CIVICS I
(Offered 2021-22)
(1 CREDIT)
This history course provides information on our state. The early years to present day are completed. Map skills, important people, regions, cities, industries, and historical facts are taught. The second part of the course is devoted to map studies, graph and chart interpretation, and general information about the continents of the world.
919I CIVICS I - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
Students will examine the role Pennsylvania played in the development of the colonial economy, the role Pennsylvania played in the concepts of freedom of religion, speech and the press, as well as the geography of Pennsylvania. Explore the early traditions of our democracy, the foundations of our system of government, and the structure of the Articles of Confederation. In addition, students will study the current Constitution of the United States, its form and structures, the duties of the President, congressmen and the Supreme Court. Students will explore the amendments, and the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, as well as what it means to be a good citizen. Students will also learn about our economic system.
920 BASIC WORLD HISTORY II
(Offered 2018-19)
(1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to show the student the social, political, economic and religious characteristics of the different cultural regions of the world.
920I WORLD HISTORY II - INCLUSION
(1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to show the student social, political, economic, and religious characteristics of the different cultural regions of the world.
921 BASIC AMERICAN HISTORY III (Offered 2019-20) (1 CREDIT)
This history course offers practical instruction in the study of early American history through the 21st Century. Instructional areas will include a two-part course—Early American History through the Civil War and Reconstruction through present day.
921I AMERICAN HISTORY III - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
American History follows a sequential pattern from the period of Reconstruction to 1941. The pattern of topics includes examples from other cultures and subcultures and from current happenings, which provide a broad base of comparison from which pupils may get a deeper understanding of basic social science knowledge and abilities.
922 BASIC POLITICAL SCIENCE/RECENT US HISTORY IV (Offered 2020-21) (1 CREDIT)
This course provides a focus on the United States government that includes information on the American legal and other political systems. Maps, charts, and graphs are used to stimulate interest, as well as to give information about individuals who helped establish our system of government.
922I POLITICAL SCIENCE/RECENT US HISTORY IV - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
The first semester will be a study of American government and the institutions that make up our system of government. The topics covered will be: The Constitution, Federalism, Civil Liberties, Civil Rights, Political Parties, Congress, The Presidency, The Supreme Court, Bureaucracies, and Foreign Policy. The second semester will be a study of the Political Science/History of the United States since 1941. Topics covered will be: World War II, The Cold War, Bay of Pigs, The Space Race, The Vietnam War, Watergate, The Civil Rights Movement, Ayatollah Khomeini and the United States Hostages in Iran and The Reagan Years.
923 BASIC LANGUAGE ARTS (1 CREDIT)
This course is designed to improve basic reading and writing skills. Students will read fiction and nonfiction literature to improve comprehension and decoding skills. Vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure and paragraph development are stressed.
925I ACADEMIC ENGLISH I - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
Students will review the fundamentals of grammar, punctuation and usage, and be introduced to a more intensive study of the same. An introduction to literature will encompass reading and criticizing selected prose and poetry. A structured vocabulary study is also an integral part of this course, as is paragraph and theme writing.
926I ACADEMIC ENGLISH II - INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
This course includes the basic fundamentals of English grammar, usage, and mechanics. Writing includes paragraphs, essays and exposition. Research techniques will be developed. Literature includes the reading of short stories, plays, poetry and novels in order to understand and to appreciate the content.
927I ACADEMIC ENGLISH III- INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
This course will survey some of America's classic writers of short stories, poems, plays and non-fiction. Other areas include the mechanics of writing, discussions and debate, reading and listening skills, and language development.
928I ACADEMIC ENGLISH IV- INCLUSION (1 CREDIT)
This course contains critical analysis of British Literature, advanced written communication, vocabulary taken from the literature, and research techniques. One assigned novel must be read during the summer, and students will be given a writing prompt based on the novel.
930 READING (1 CREDIT)
This course is a direct instruction approach to decoding and comprehension designed for the struggling reader. It is based on cumulative skill development and involves daily practice in oral reading. Students learn to decode words automatically, increase rate and fluency, and improve comprehension skills. Cross-curricular content builds general knowledge and develop study skills. Students systematically increase vocabulary, develop higher-order reasoning skills, and improve creative writing and grammar skills.
934 SENIOR RESEARCH (Seniors) (1 CREDIT)
Students will be assisted in completing senior project graduation requirements. They will also read fiction and nonfiction literature to improve comprehension and decoding skills. Vocabulary, grammar, and composition skills are stressed.
946I ALGEBRA I (1 CREDIT)
This course includes basic mathematic skills needed for higher mathematics and science courses, including expressions, equations, polynomials, factoring, ratio and proportion, linear functions, systems of equations and inequalities. **Students who have passed Geometry or Algebra II will not receive a credit towards graduation for this class.
949I CONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY 12 (Junior and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
Course includes basic Geometry skills with an emphasis on properties of figures and shapes. The right triangle will be developed. All formulas for area, perimeter, surface area, and volume will be used. **Students who have already taken and passed Geometry or a higher math course will not receive credit for this class.**
950I CONSUMER MATH INCLUSION (Junior and Seniors)
(1 CREDIT)
This course is a three-part program that takes students from basic math concepts to sophisticated financial strategies. The material will be presented in a personal, practical style students will instantly recognize as relevant to their lives. In addition to mathematics, the course teaches workplace essentials such as reading and language arts, as well as foundation skills such as critical thinking and problem solving. The lessons, workshops, and activities in Consumer Math compromise a well-rounded program that will help prepare all students for success in work and in life. A TI-30XIIS calculator will be essential for success in the course.
EARLY RELEASE
994A EARLY RELEASE I – Period 8 Release (Seniors)
(0 CREDIT)
994B EARLY RELEASE II – Periods 7 and 8 Release (Seniors)
(0 CREDIT)
994C EARLY RELEASE III – Periods 6, 7 and 8 Release (Seniors)
(0 CREDIT)
**This opportunity is designed for Seniors who have met their graduation requirements - no credit is awarded for this elective choice.** The intent of this program is to allow students that are participating in dual enrollment, working part-time, helping with a family business, or completing an internship the opportunity to leave school early to begin their work earlier each day. Students participating in athletics are also eligible to leave early if they have met their graduation requirements and are still satisfying the eligibility requirements for the WPIAL. The goal of the district is to provide students involved in activities beyond the school day the opportunity to go home early to complete schoolwork prior to starting their “after-school” activity. If the school day is altered for any reason, students must still make themselves available for their scheduled classes. To accommodate scheduling, this course must be scheduled by July 1st of the summer preceding a student’s senior year. Required courses and core content classes will be given first scheduling priority over the scheduling of Early Release. The course will not be added to a student’s schedule after the deadline. **Parents must sign a permission slip and students must provide their own transportation. Scheduling Early Release does not guarantee or entitle any student to a parking pass. Parking passes will be distributed in accordance with the parking pass distribution procedure.**
*LStudent may choose either Late Arrival or Early Release – Not a combination of both options*
LATE ARRIVAL
995A LATE ARRIVAL I – ARRIVE FOR PERIOD 2 (Seniors)
- will include a period of lunch
(0 CREDIT)
995B LATE ARRIVAL II – ARRIVE FOR PERIOD 3 (Seniors)
- will include a period of lunch
(0 CREDIT)
**This opportunity is designed for Seniors who have met their graduation requirements - no credit is awarded for this elective choice.** The intent of this program is to allow students that are participating in dual enrollment, working part-time, helping with a family business, or completing an internship the opportunity to arrive to school late each day. Students participating in athletics are also eligible to arrive late if they have met their graduation requirements and are still satisfying the eligibility requirements for the WPIAL. The goal of the district is to provide students involved in activities beyond the school day the opportunity to arrive late to complete schoolwork prior to starting their school day. If the school day is altered for any reason, students must still make themselves available for their scheduled classes. To accommodate scheduling, this course must be scheduled by July 1st of the summer preceding a student’s senior year. Required courses and core content classes will be given first scheduling priority over the scheduling of Late Arrival. The course will not be added to a student’s schedule after the deadline. **Parents must sign a permission slip and students must provide their own transportation. Scheduling Late Arrival does not guarantee or entitle any student to a parking pass. Parking passes will be distributed in accordance with the parking pass distribution procedure.**
*LStudent may choose either Late Arrival or Early Release – Not a combination of both options* | 78440b4a-f2d0-480e-a880-52c8b3621123 | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.lhsd.org/_files/ugd/71f580_c669ec5aaa9245a2b3e60522889fc90a.pdf | 2024-05-21T17:10:37+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058504.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20240521153045-20240521183045-00197.warc.gz | 760,637,950 | 49,632 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.939914 | eng_Latn | 0.992294 | [
"eng_Latn",
"pol_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"por_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
150,
711,
2050,
8270,
9477,
14087,
19097,
21956,
25562,
29632,
34301,
38077,
40825,
45123,
47759,
49599,
51705,
55696,
58928,
60750,
63444,
66874,
69095,
73786,
79198,
85467,
90592,
96072,
101658,
105621,
111153,
116769,
121106,
123040,
128441,
1... | [
0.984375,
2.25
] | 1 | 0 |
Artist Statement
Samantha Beck
As an artist I grow older and wiser in my practices. I learn something new with every click I make with my computer while creating a graphically appealing design. When I was younger and someone asked me what I wanted to be when I grew up, I never thought I would say, “I want to be a graphic designer”. Now, it is something that is truly thrilling to me. My work that I have had the most fulfillments in creating is when I am able to take an existing story and interpret it as I see fit. The freedom to be able to take an idea and morph it into something new and exciting for the viewer is something that makes me proud of myself and proud of my work. To see an opportunity for a new creation is to see nothing but treasures yet to be found.
| Title | Media | Original Format |
|-----------------------|---------------------|------------------------------------------------------|
| Figure 1: Matilda the Musical | Digital Illustration | Photoshop Paint, 11”x17” |
| Figure 2: Dali Deli Logo | Digital Illustration | Illustrator 11”x17” |
| Figure 3: Dali Deli Menu | Digital Illustration | Illustrator, Photoshop 11”x17” |
| Figure 4: Dali Deli Stationery | Digital Illustration | Illustrator 11”x17” |
| Figure 5: Evolution of the Hashtag | Digital Illustration | Hand drawing, Illustrator, 11”x17” |
| Figure 6: Washington Loyals Logo | Digital Illustration | Illustrator, Photoshop, 11”x17” |
| Figure 7: Pumpkin Carving Kit Ad | Digital Illustration | Carved pumpkin, Paint, Photography, Photoshop, 11”x17” |
| Figure 8: Washington Loyals Poster | Digital Illustration | Illustrator, Photoshop, 11”x17” |
| Figure 9: Robot Car | Digital Illustration | Photoshop, 11”x17” |
| Figure 10: Living Smaller | Digital Illustration | Play-Doh, Photography, Illustrator, 11”x17” |
At school, Bruce Bogtrotter, a boy in Matilda’s class, has stolen a slice of Miss Trunchbull’s personal chocolate cake. Miss Trunchbull punishes Bruce by forcing him to eat the whole cake in front of the class. The entire
- **Characters**
- **Quotes**
- **Songs**
**ACT TWO**
- **Overview**
- **Characters**
- **Quotes**
- **Songs**
Telly
When I Grow Up
I’m Here
The Smartest Rebellion
Quizz
My House
Revolting Children
Figure 2: Dali Deli Logo
Figure 4: Dali Deli Stationery
THE # KEY ON THE TYPEWRITER
- Typewriters tended to use the # key on the numeric keypad for typing the number 9.
- Typewriters also used the # symbol for producing the single quote sign in the number 8.
THE # KEY ON THE TOUCH TONE PHONE
In the late 1980’s Bell Labs, in response of the increasing popularity of cell phones, appeared between strings of 12 numbers.
“When you are finished press the green key”
# ON TWITTER
The metadata tags have actually been around for quite some time. But being used in 1989 on a bulletin board as a form of “tagging” was not the same as what we know they are today, for grouping messages, images, contents, and videos into categories.
The purpose of tweets, is to users not simply search based on keywords, but to find content that is relevant with their interests.
Fast forward to October of 2007 when Steve Wilhite, a resident of San Diego, California started appearing ad hoc social media tags on his blog posts. He would use the words like “tagging” or “hash tag” in the area at the time.
Steve Boyd is believed to be the first person to use the term “hashtag” in a blog post in August, 2007. The term, which was coined by a user in San Francisco, was the only thing that showed up in search results when he searched for the word “hashtag”.
By July of 2009, Twitter hashtags were formally adopted by the company. And the acronym “hashtag” was added to the Oxford International Dictionary of English, joining the more than 350,000 other words in the dictionary.
Figure 5: Evolution of the Hashtag
Figure 6: Washington Loyals Logo
Heads is the call.
2014-2015 NFL Season
Proud sponsors of the NFL
Figure 7: Pumpkin Carving Kit Ad
Figure 8: Washington Loyals Poster
After attending the 1964 World’s Fair, the science-fiction author Isaac Asimov wrote an essay in *The New York Times* imagining a visit to the World’s Fair 50 years in the future, in 2014. Among his predictions: “Much effort will be put into the designing of vehicles with ‘robotic’ drivers that will be programmed for particular destinations and that will then proceed there without interference by the slow reflexes of a human driver.”
Asimov got some of the details wrong (he thought the cars would ride suspended on compressed air), but most of his prediction proved accurate: much effort is, indeed, now being put into designing such vehicles, thanks largely to Google. Earlier this year, the company revealed a prototype of a fully driverless car, an adorable machine without a steering wheel or pedals that toolled around its campus in Mountain View, California.
Google’s achievement draws on the ideas of computer scientists, roboticists, and automotive engineers who have been working on autonomous vehicles for decades. And the goal is not just to realize our science-fiction dreams: driverless cars might alleviate congestion, ease demand for parking, and reduce crashes, one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Early efforts were not really robot cars at all, but highway-automation systems. Back in 1956, for instance, GM introduced a Firebird II concept car that would be guided by a hypothetical electric highway of the future.
In the individualist 1980s, though, the cars took control. As autonomous vehicles like Stephen King’s Christine and Knight Rider’s KITT graced the big and small screens, researchers’ efforts began to bear fruit. A team at Bundeswehr University Munich transformed a Mercedes van into a self-driving vehicle called VaMoS, and the Carnegie Mellon Robotics Institute turned a Chevrolet panel van into the first in its line of Navlab robot cars (Wym vans). To store all the computing equipment necessary to operate the vehicles.)
In 2004, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency launched its Grand Challenge series, a multimillion-dollar competition for autonomous vehicles, giving roboticists scattered across American universities and companies a chance to compete. A rivalry developed between Stanford and Carnegie Mellon, which traded the top spots in the first two years a prize was awarded.
It is not really surprising that the grow home met with popular acceptance: the market and the economy have changed in ways that will make everyone compromise and be more flexible. The first of three seismic events that altered how Americans live -- and how they must think about buying houses in the future -- started as an undetected rumble in the early 1980s, just after the golden age of American housing. Almost three quarters of existing U.S. houses were built after 1940, many in the twenty years following the end of the Second World War. The overwhelming majority followed the same model: single houses for single families.
“little boxes made of ticky-tacky”
The best-known example, which became a symbol of homeownership throughout the 1950s, was devised by the developer Williams Levitt. The house was small and uncomplicated, but it had a fully equipped kitchen, the lot was big enough for a garden, and at $7,990 -- no down payment and $65 a month -- in 1949 it was a bargain. Homecoming GIs, impatient to get on with their lives, saw this little cottage as just what they needed.
If such homes were unfashionable or boxes made of “ticky-tacky,” in the words of the scornful media, it was not necessarily the result of a lack of imagination but, rather, a reflection of a remarkable homogeneity in size and composition of American households. In 1940 the typical number of occupants of a house was four: husband, wife, and two children. Their roles were predictable: Dad worked at the factory or office, and Mom stayed home, kept house, and took care of the kids, who played in the yard.
Households were not only smaller but different. Starting in the 1960s, for a variety of reasons, more women began to work, and by the 1970s they were entering the work force in unprecedented numbers; today in more than half of all families both parents work outside the home. At the same time, divorce rates have risen; it is now estimated that half of all marriages will end in divorce. Hence the increased number of single-parent families, most headed by women.
More people are living alone, and single-person households now account for almost a quarter of the total, up from 17 percent, twenty years ago; during the same period married-couple households went down from 71 percent to 55 percent. The typical family -- a married couple with young children -- in the Levittown cottage is not typical anymore. Indeed, it is now called the “traditional” family, and makes up less than a third of all households. | 25a192de-af71-4f2a-b731-e7f17996213c | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/176270/STUF_2016_Spring_Beck_Samantha.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | 2021-12-09T01:44:06+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363641.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20211209000407-20211209030407-00105.warc.gz | 467,044,880 | 2,041 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.974992 | eng_Latn | 0.998849 | [
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
775,
2102,
2539,
2565,
2597,
4144,
4178,
4280,
4316,
6679,
9196
] | [
2.09375
] | 1 | 0 |
How to create a Rain Garden in 6 easy steps
1. **design**
First and foremost, this is a garden for your yard. So pick attractive plants that you like.
Most of the plants listed like full sun to partial shade. Rain gardens can also work in shady areas, but more careful plant selection is required.
A rain garden is designed to dry out between storm events. It is not a wetland intended to permanently hold water. Plants that like average-to-moist conditions typically do well. If you choose plants that prefer wet-to-saturated conditions, you may need to water them during the summer.
Use rock walls, arbors, or other borders to help define the boundaries of the garden.
Start small, see what works, and expand your garden the next year.
2 location
Build rain gardens near downspouts, driveways, or other low points that collect water in your yard.
Pick a location where you can dig a shallow depression of the depth and shape you want. You may need to dig it out in the center, and build a small dam on the downhill side of the garden to help hold the water.
Consider where the water will enter the garden, and where it will drain out when it overflows. Try to make sure it does not drain in an unwanted direction, such as towards the neighbor’s favorite sitting spot.
Do not install the garden on top of septic tank leach fields or over utility lines. Call the local utility clearance service to identify buried utility lines before digging.
Try to put the rain garden 10 feet or more from your house to keep water away from your foundation.
3 soil & sizing
For home gardens, the size of the garden is not terribly important. If you have plenty of room, try to size the garden to hold an inch of rain from the area that drains to it. That might be something like an 8 foot by 10 foot garden to catch the rain from a downspout at the corner of a typical house. If you don’t have that much space, design the garden to fit your landscape.
Most rain gardens are about 4 inches to 8 inches deep. Try to pick a depth that will let the water soak into the soil within 24 hours. To do this, dig a hole in the garden area (8 inches wide and 8 inches deep), fill it with water, and measure how fast the water soaks into the soil. This may take a number of hours. For example, if the water level goes down 1 inch in 4 hours, the soil will percolate about 6 inches in 24 hours, so you would make your garden 6 inches deep.
If the garden only holds water for a day, mosquitoes can’t breed in it.
4 preparation
Outline the shape of the garden, remove the existing sod, and dig to create a garden the size and depth you want.
If you have clay or compacted soils, over-dig the garden about 12 inches, break up large clods and mix generous amounts of compost into the soil to create spaces for root penetration.
Grade the garden so that water will spread out over a large, flat area.
After the garden bed is prepared, fill it with water to make sure it will infiltrate the soil within 24 hours, and that it drains in the direction you want when it overflows.
If most of the plants you choose do not like very wet or saturated conditions, cut a “notch” in the downhill side of the garden berm so that water does not fill up the garden for the first year. This helps the plants get established. Mature plants can tolerate more water than seedlings. After the first growing season, you can fill in the notch and let the garden hold more water.
5 plants
Consider planting native wildflowers, grasses, and shrubs. Many have very deep roots that do a good job of breaking up clay soils and increasing infiltration each year.
If available, “plugs” are an economical plant selection. Plugs are young plants in containers about 2 inches in diameter by 5 inches deep. They establish faster than seeds, and are less expensive than large potted plants.
Pick 6 or 8 plant species to try first. Group the same plants together in clumps of at least 3 to create mounds of color. Plant grasses between the clumps of wildflowers. This helps prop up the flowers when they get tall.
Choose plant locations in the garden based on how much water they will tolerate. Place plants that like wetter conditions in the lowest part of the garden. Put plants that like drier conditions around the edges.
When picking plants, also consider how tall and wide the plants will get when they mature. Space them accordingly. Place taller plants in the center of the garden.
The plant list at right contains species that are common in many parts of the U.S. We like the native species because they thrive in our local conditions and have deep root systems, and many tolerate both spring rains and summer droughts. But you aren’t limited to this list. If you like cultivated varieties, choose plants that like average-to-moist conditions.
| Name | Sun | Water | Color | Height (in feet) | Bloom Month |
|--------------------|-----|-------|-----------|------------------|-------------|
| Tussock Sedge | ☀️ | M-W | Green | 2-3 | -- |
| Blue Flag Iris | ☀️ | M-W | Blue Violet | 2-3 | May-Jun |
| Swamp Milkweed | ☀️ | M-W | Pink White | 3-4 | Jun-Jul |
| Switchgrass | ☀️ | D-W | Yellow | 4-6 | Jul-Aug |
| Joe Pye Weed | ☀️ | M | Purple | 3-4 | Jul-Aug |
| Obedient Plant | ☀️ | M | Pink White | 3-4 | Jun-Sep |
| Purple Coneflower | ☀️ | D-M | Pink Purple | 2-3 | Jul-Aug |
| Little Blue Stem | ☀️ | D-M | Brown | 2-4 | -- |
| Nine Bark | ☀️ | D-M | Pink White | 5-8 | May-Jun |
| River Birch | ☀️ | M-W | Brown Green | 40-70 | -- |
Moisture: D - Dry, M - Medium, W - Wet
* For a full listing of native plants in your area contact your local nursery.
6 care
Water your plants regularly until they are established.
Mulch the garden with shredded hardwood mulch. Weed the garden regularly.
Where water enters the garden, arrange rocks in a decorative fashion to act as a “splash block,” help break up the water flow, and prevent big storms from washing out the garden inlet.
Each spring, prune dead vegetation, prune plants that get too large, weed the garden, and touch up the mulch. Then weed and care for the garden as you would any other garden.
If wash-off from a driveway or road begins to cover the plants where the water enters the garden, clean sand and sediment from the garden.
Watch the plants, and don’t be afraid to move them within the garden if they need more or less water. | b65a2026-9940-47c6-bd56-6080c2212765 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://northlebanontwppa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/create_rain_garden.pdf | 2022-12-08T02:00:57+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711232.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20221208014204-20221208044204-00772.warc.gz | 470,239,366 | 1,547 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998289 | eng_Latn | 0.9989 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
743,
2500,
5919,
6664
] | [
4.03125
] | 2 | 0 |
The “Lancaster as a Home Front” thematic curriculum supplement is meant to enhance United States history curriculum, aimed towards 9th -12th grade students.
This content, including 1 digitally-presented artifact, 3 digital photographs, and 4 digital archival documents, presents the experience of Lancastrians in the early twentieth century. This content presents topics including the role of women during the war, the noncombatant experience, and conservation of resources on the home front.
Online, you can download a PowerPoint presentation, instructor packet, student packet, readings packet, as well as a dyslexia-friendly packet in accordance with guidelines presented by the British Dyslexia Association. Dyslexia-friendly packets are in Microsoft Word format, to allow editing to meet any accessibility needs.
The instructor packet includes all materials, along with PowerPoint note sheets. Readings included in the instructor packet have been marked up to show important passages, while student packets do not include such markings.
Lancaster as a Home Front
The Impact of the World Wars
Contents
- World War I Posters
- The Noncombatant Experience
- Application for farm furlough (1918)
- Camp Dix medical card (1919)
- Welcome Home Parade (1919)
- Letters from Home (1943)
- From the Pvt. George L. Caley Collection
- Eleanor Flora at work (1943)
- Playground War Bond Stand (1944)
- Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler
Questions to Consider
- How did Lancaster County contribute to the war effort?
- How did Lancaster County experience the world wars?
- How did different religious groups experience this period?
- How might the Lancaster experience differ from that of other parts of the country?
Eat less and let us be thankful that we have enough to share with those who fight for freedom.
SEE HIM THROUGH
HELP US TO HELP THE BOYS
NATIONAL CATHOLIC WAR COUNCIL KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS
United War Work Campaign - Week of November 11-1918
Questions to Consider
What do these posters tell us about the war effort? What were the needs of the army at this time?
What were other goals of the people making these posters? What did they hope to accomplish?
Look at the organizations sponsoring these posters. Do any of them surprise you? Why or why not?
The Noncombatant Experience
Application for farm furlough (1918)
While many men left their jobs behind to fight overseas, some were needed to stay behind and operate various jobs, including farming. Many members of historic peace churches, who were religiously and morally opposed to fighting, used farm furloughs as a way out of the war effort, while others resisted to a greater degree, facing imprisonment.
a noteworthy side-note: *Pacifists in Chains* by Duane Stoltzfus is a great resource to learn more about this topic
Questions to Consider
How do you think most Americans felt about these pacifists refusing to fight?
Why would they have been imprisoned? How should the government have handled this?
Why would some comply with the process and apply for furloughs?
APPLICATION FOR FURLOUGH.
I.
I, ________________________________________, hereby make application for the furlough of the soldier named below from _________________________, 1918, to _________________________, 1918, to enable him to engage in agriculture.
__________________________________________
(Relation to registrant.)
II.
Statement of facts, to be made by the person making the application.
1. Name of soldier for whom application is made
2. Rank ________________ Organization ________________ Present Station ________________
3. Location of farm on which soldier is desired for work
4. Name of owner or tenant of farm
5. Kind of farm
6. Number of persons normally engaged on farm
7. Number of males above age fourteen now working on farm
8. Acreage of farm ________________ Acreage under cultivation ________________
9. Crops to be grown this year and approximate acreage of each
10. Number of horses on farm ________________ ; cattle ________________ ; hogs ________________ ; sheep ________________
11. Market value of (a) farm
(b) last year's production
(c) this year's anticipated production
(d) farm machinery
12. What is soldier's experience in farming?
13. What wages are paid farm labor in vicinity?
14. Is farm labor reasonably available in vicinity?
AFFIDAVIT.
(City.) (State.)
I swear (or affirm) that all answers to questions 1 to 14 in the foregoing statement of facts are true; that the soldier for whom furlough is requested is urgently needed for the time asked; that he cannot be replaced without substantial and material loss to the products of the farm; and that his furlough is desired for the sole purpose of enabling him to work on the farm.
(Applicant.)
Sworn to and subscribed before me this ____________ day of ____________________, 19____.
(Officer taking affidavit.)
Note.—Affidavit may be sworn to before notary public, clerk or member of a local or district board, Government appeal agent, Judge Advocate or postmaster.
III.
RECOMMENDATION AND FINDING OF LOCAL BOARD.
STAMP OF LOCAL BOARD.
The above-named local board finds that the services of the soldier herein named are urgently needed on the farm herein described; that the said farm produces substantially more agricultural produce than is consumed by those working on the place; that the soldier cannot without great difficulty be replaced thereon; that his continued absence is reasonably likely to decrease the production of the farm under that which it can reasonably be expected to produce if the soldier is returned; and that the registrant will be of value as a farm laborer.
Remarks: ________________________________________________________________
Note.—If the local board does not find or recommend in accordance with the above form, it will enter under the head of Remarks its reasons for adverse findings or recommendations.
It is therefore recommended that this furlough be [granted] [refused] from _________________________ to _________________________ Place: _________________________ Date: _________________________
(Member or clerk of Local Board.)
IV.
_________________________________________________________ (Place.)
_________________________________________________________ (Date.)
I [concur in] [dissent from] the above finding and recommendation.
_________________________________________________________ (County agent or Government appeal agent.)
V.
ENGAGEMENT OF SOLDIER.
I join in the above application, and if the furlough here asked for is granted I hereby engage to utilize the time of my absence solely and completely in farming, to work earnestly and well, and that if for any reason my services cease to be urgently needed before the expiration of my furlough, to report immediately for military duty at my proper post.
__________________________________________
(Signature.)
__________________________________________ _______________________________
(Rank.) (Organization.)
Place: _____________________________________ Date: _________________________
VI.
__________________________________________
(Military station.)
__________________________________________
(Date.)
The application for furlough contained herein is approved. disapproved.
(If disapproved, state reason) ________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
(Commanding.)
Thomas Kegel (1895-1958), James Kegel (1891-1927), Victor Kegel (1898-1923) were three brothers who served together in the 109th Machine Gun Battalion during World War I. Their parents were Charles and Mary Rogers Kegel, and they had eleven children. Their family home was on 59 Locust Street in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. They were all drafted in 1917, and were trained in Camp Hancock in Augusta, Georgia. After their extensive training, they were sent to fight in the trenches in France. On separate occasions, each brother was wounded during the war, but they all survived and came home to Lancaster after the war in 1919.
Questions to Consider
How do you think Kegel’s family felt when they heard he was at Camp Dix?
Consider the timeline of World War I. How do you think Kegel felt being transferred to Camp Dix at this time?
Welcome Home Parade (1919)
This photo was taken in Lancaster City during a “Welcome Home” parade in 1919.
Questions to Consider
What does this tell you about how Americans perceived the end of the war?
How did most Americans feel about the soldiers returning home?
Letter from Home (1943)
From the Pvt. George L. Caley Collection
“Did you know Pat Bard? He was on the Ice truck for some years. Well he is in the thick of the fighting (or was, the fighting is now over) in Sicily. What a time our boys are having over there. Those who like to talk (what a chance for you), will sure have something to talk of when they get home.”
Questions to Consider
What does this letter tell us about the Home Front experience?
How were the people of Lancaster impacted by the demands of war?
Dear George,
Guess what? The boys dormitory at M.S.C. is to be used to house 150 females who have no lodging place in Lane. They have been brought in to Lane to work in the munitions dept. at Armstrongs and are to be lodged in the boys dorm at your college. How is Dick going to like that, I wonder? The paper states that they are to have certain campus and gym facilities also. They said that there is plenty of room elsewhere in the buildings to lodge the few males who stay there. College opens Sept. 15.
KEEP SMILIN' KEEP SMILIN' KEEP SMILIN'
Joe and Ralph have gone to the movies to see Abbott & Costello in "Hit the Ice." That gives me a free evening to write letters. I've already done one to a boy in Texas and one to a boy in N. Africa somewhere. After yours, I have four more to do. Wonder if I'll hold out that long.
Did you know Pat Bard? He was on the Ice Truck for some years. Well he is in the thick of the fighting (or was, the fighting is now over) in Sicily. What a time our boys are having over there. Those who like to talk (what a chance for you), will sure have something to talk of when they get home.
Wonder if I'll know any of them well enough to have them tell me all about the places and people they see. I love to hear all about such things. Tony Bernardo, Blossom's brother-in-law, sent me some swell views from Texas. That boy Dick would not send us any cards from anywhere he was stationed. Via postcard views is our way of seeing the U.S.A. Blossom has one brother-in-law in Texas, one in S. Carolina, one in Fla., one in N. Africa and one who just went in last month, and I don't yet know where he is.
We had one awful chilly week, but it is warmer this evening. I believe it is getting ready for rain tomorrow. Dick is coming home from camp tomorrow, and I've got a big hunk of ham baked for him. Well I must stop or I won't get them nearly all done this evening.
Write when you can find time.
Sincerely - Biddy,
Mrs. J. Lockard.
"ONLY 59,625 TO GO FOR THE CAMP RECORD!"
Columbia, Pa
Aug 24, 1943
Lt. George L. Caley,
Casual Mess Detachment,
C.R.I.C.,
Ft. Riley,
Kansas.
From Mrs. J. Lockard
275 S. 8th St.
Columbia, Pa.
Dear George,
Guess what? The boys dormitory at MSTC is to be used to house 150 females who have no lodging place in Lanc. They have been brought in to Lanc. to work in the munitions dept. at Arms-strongs and are to be lodged in the boys dorm at your college. How is Dick going to like that, I wonder? The paper states that they are to have certain campus and gym facilities also. They said that there is plenty of room elsewhere in the buildings to lodge the few males who stay there. College opens Sept. 15.
Joe and Ralph have gone to the movies to see Abbott + Costello in “Hit the Ice.” That gives me a free evening to write letters. I’ve already done one to a boy in Texas and one to a boy in N. Africa somewhere. After yours, I have four more to do. Wonder if I’ll hold out that long.
Did you know Pat Bard? He was on the Ice truck for some years. Well he is in the thick of the fighting (or was, the fighting is now over) in Sicily. What a time our boys are having over there. Those who like to talk (what a chance for you), will sure have something to talk of when they get home.
Wonder if I’ll know any of them well enough to have them tell me all about the places and people they see. I love to hear all about such things. Tony Bernards, Blossom’s brother-in-law, sent me some swell views from Texas. That boy Dick would not send us any cards from anywhere he was stationed. Via postcard views is our way of seeing the U.S.A. Blossom has one brother-in-law in Texas, one in S. Carolina, one in Fla., one in n. Africa, and one who just went in last month, and I don’t yet know where he is.
We had one awful chilly week, but it is warmer this evening. I believe it is getting ready for rain tomorrow. Dick is coming home from camp tomorrow, and I’ve got a big hunk of ham baked for him. Well I must stop or I won’t get them nearly all done this evening.
Write when you can find time.
Sincerely –
Biddy.
Mrs. J. Lockard
[envelope front]
Pvt. George L. Cale
Casual Mess Detachment
C.R.T.C.
Ft. Riley,
Kansas.
[envelope back]
From – Mrs. J. Lockrad
275 S. 8th St.
Columbia, Pa.
Eleanor Flora at Work (1943)
“Rosie the Riveters” like Eleanor Flora helped in the war effort in Armstrong’s Floor Plant during World War II. Taken in 1943, when 19 years old, the photo was used as an employment advertisement for the company. Eleanor enlisted in the Navy as a W.A.V.E. – Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service.
Questions to Consider
How does Eleanor Flora’s story reflect the wartime experience for women?
How does this challenge preexisting gender roles?
How does this time set the stage for change to come?
Playground War Bonds Stand (1944)
This was taken on July 25, 1944 at Edward Hand playground in Lancaster City, and shows young children selling War Bonds and Stamps through a stand similar to a lemonade stand.
Questions to Consider
What does this tell you about how the war was perceived?
How much did the war and war effort become a part of daily life?
Could you imagine seeing something like this today? Why or why not?
Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler enlisted in the National Guard out of high school, fighting in the 1916 Mexican-birder conflict, and served in World War I. He became a captain at age 21. After attending Cornell University, he established a law practice in Lancaster. He won election to state legislature in the early 1930s and served as Lancaster’s police commissioner in 1932.
When the United States entered World War II, Gen. Strickler, then a colonel in the Army Reserve, went on active duty and accepted a reduction in rank. He fought with the 28th division through France and Belgium. He later fought in the Korean War and continued serving in Rome and Tokyo through the 1950s. He retired from the Army in 1957 as a three-star general.
Questions to Consider
How does Lt. Gen. Strickler’s story fit into the greater story of the 20th century?
How does he exemplify ideals of patriotism and service at this time?
Lancaster as a Home Front
The Impact of the World Wars
Contents
- WWI posters
- The Noncombatant Experience
- Application for farm furlough (1918)
- Camp Dix medical card
- Welcome Home Parade
- Letter from Home
- From the Pvt. George L. Caley Collection
- Eleanor Flora at work
- Playground War Bond Stand
- Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler
Questions to Consider
- How did Lancaster County contribute to the war effort?
- How did Lancaster County experience the world wars?
- How did different religious groups experience this period?
- How might the Lancaster experience differ from that of other parts of the country?
World War I posters
What do these posters tell us about the war effort? What were the needs of the army at this time?
What were other goals of the people making these posters? What did they hope to accomplish?
Look at the organizations sponsoring these posters. Do any of them surprise you? Why or why not?
The Noncombatant Experience
Application for farm furlough (1918)
How do you think most Americans felt about these pacifists refusing to fight?
Why would they have been imprisoned? How should the government have handled this?
Why would some comply with the process and apply for furloughs?
1. Rank ___________________________ Organization ___________________________ Present Station ___________________________
2. Location of farm on which soldier is desired for work ___________________________
Camp Dix Medical Card (1919)
Thomas Kegel (1895-1958), James Kegel (1891-1927), Victor Kegel (1898-1923) were three brothers who served together in the 109th Machine Gun Battalion during World War I. Their parents were Charles and Mary Rogers Kegel, who had eleven children. Their family home was 10 Locust Street in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. They were all drafted in 1917, and were trained in Camp Hancock in Augusta, Georgia. After their extensive training, they were sent to fight in the trenches in France. On separate occasions, each brother was wounded during the war, but they all survived and came home to Lancaster after the war in 1919.
Camp Dix Medical Card (1919)
Camp Dix Medical Card (1919)
How do you think his family felt when they heard he was at Camp Dix?
Consider the timeline of World War I. How do you think Kegel felt being transferred to Camp Dix at this time?
Welcome Home Parade (1919)
This photo was taken in Lancaster City during a “Welcome Home” parade in 1919.
What does this tell you about how Americans perceived the end of the war?
How did most Americans feel about the soldiers returning home?
Letter from Home
“Did you know Pat Bard? He was on the Ice truck for some years. Well he is in the thick of the fighting (or was, the fighting is now over) in Sicily. What a time our boys are having over there. Those who like to talk (what a chance for you), will sure have something to talk of when they get home.”
Eleanor Flora at Work (1943)
“Rosie the Riveters” like Eleanor Flora helped in the war effort in Armstrong’s Floor Plant during World War II. Taken in 1943, when 19 years old, the photo was used as an employment advertisement for the company. Flora enlisted in the Navy as a W.A.V.E. – Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service.
How does Eleanor Flora’s story reflect the wartime experience for women?
How does this challenge preexisting gender roles?
How does this time set the stage for change to come?
Playground War Bonds Stand
This was taken on July 25, 1944 at Edward Hand playground in Lancaster City, and shows young children selling War Bonds and Stamps through a stand similar to a lemonade stand.
What does this tell you about how the war was perceived? How much did the war and war effort become a part of daily life? Could you imagine seeing something like this today? Why or why not?
Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler
Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler enlisted in the National Guard out of high school, fighting in the 1916 Mexican border conflict, and served in World War I. He became a captain at age 21. After attending Cornell University, he established a law practice in Lancaster. He won election to state legislature in the early 1930s and served as Lancaster’s police commissioner in 1932.
When the United States entered World War II, Gen. Strickler, then a colonel in the Army Reserve, went on active duty and accepted a reduced pay rank. He fought with the 28th division through France and Belgium. He later fought in the Korean War and continued serving in Rome and Tokyo through the 1950s. He retired from the Army in 1957 as a three-star general.
Lt. Gen. Daniel B. Strickler
How does Lt. Gen. Strickler’s story fit into the greater story of the 20th century?
How does he exemplify ideals of patriotism and service at this time? | 206fe7b7-5eb2-4616-ac1a-22078d974edb | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://www.lancasterhistory.org/wp-content/uploads/LH-Lancaster-as-a-Home-Front-Instructor-Packet.pdf | 2024-05-21T13:25:27+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058484.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20240521122022-20240521152022-00440.warc.gz | 749,801,065 | 4,449 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.970879 | eng_Latn | 0.999421 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
1044,
1712,
1955,
2268,
3046,
4337,
6453,
7591,
8424,
8693,
9211,
9763,
11186,
11330,
11381,
13475,
14015,
14442,
15359,
15984,
16295,
17474,
17932,
18250,
18765,
19930,
20115
] | [
3.375,
2.46875
] | 2 | 0 |
Claude Lévi-Strauss
The Story of Asdiwal
Since 1963 Lévi-Strauss and his associates have published a variety of 'structural analyses' of myth, but prior to the appearance of Le Cru et le Cuit in the autumn of 1964 'La Geste d'Asdiwal' was, by general consent, the most successful of all these pieces. 'Asdiwal' has twice appeared in French, but this is the first English translation. The Editor is deeply indebted to Professor Lévi-Strauss for granting permission to publish the translation and to Mr Nicholas Mann for making it.
This study of a native myth from the Pacific coast of Canada has two aims. First, to isolate and compare the various levels on which the myth evolves: geographic, economic, sociological, and cosmological – each one of these levels, together with the symbolism proper to it, being seen as a transformation of an underlying logical structure common to all of them. And, second, to compare the different versions of the myth and to look for the meaning of the discrepancies between them, or between some of them; for, since they all come from the same people (but are recorded in different parts of their territory), these variations cannot be explained in terms of dissimilar beliefs, languages, or institutions.
The story of Asdiwal, which comes from the Tsimshian Indians, is known to us in four versions, collected some sixty years ago by Franz Boas (1895; 1902; 1912; 1916).
We shall begin by calling attention to certain facts which must be known if the myth is to be understood.
The Tsimshian Indians, with the Tlingit and the Haida, belong to the northern group of cultures on the Northwest Pacific coast. They live in British Columbia, immediately south of Alaska, in a region which embraces the basins of the Nass and Skeena Rivers, the coastal region stretching between their
estuaries, and, further inland, the land drained by the two rivers and their tributaries. The Nass in the North and the Skeena in the south both flow in a northeast-southwesterly direction, and are approximately parallel. The Nass, however, is slightly nearer North-South in orientation, a detail which, as we shall see, is not entirely devoid of importance.
This territory was divided between three local groups, distinguished by their different dialects: in the upper reaches of the Skeena, the Gitskan; in the lower reaches and the coastal region, the Tsimshian themselves; and in the valleys of the Nass and its tributaries, the Nisqa. Three of the versions of the myth of Asdiwal were recorded on the coast and in Tsimshian dialect (Boas, 1895, pp. 285-288; 1912, pp. 71-146; 1916, pp. 243-245 and the comparative analysis, pp. 792-824), the fourth at the mouth of the Nass, in Nisqa dialect (Boas, 1902, pp. 225-228).
It is this last which, when compared with the other three, reveals the most marked differences.
Like all the peoples on the Northwest Pacific Coast, the Tsimshian had no agriculture. During the summer, the women's work was to collect fruit, berries, plants, and wild roots, while the men hunted bears and goats in the mountains and seals and sea-lions on the coastal reefs. They also practised deep-sea fishery, catching mainly cod and halibut, but also herring nearer the shore. It was, however, the complex rhythm of river-fishing that made the deepest impression upon the life of the tribe. Whereas the Nisqa were relatively settled, the Tsimshian moved, according to the seasons, between their winter villages, which were situated in the coastal region, and their fishing-places, either on the Nass or the Skeena.
At the end of the winter, when stores of smoked fish, dried meat, fat, and preserved fruits were running low, or were even completely exhausted, the natives would undergo periods of severe famine, an echo of which is found in the myth. At such times they anxiously awaited the arrival of the candlefish which would go up the Nass (which was still frozen to start with) for a period of about six weeks in order to spawn (Goddard, 1934, p. 68). This would begin about 1 March, and the entire Skeena population would travel along the coast in boats as far as the Nass in order to take up position on the fishing-grounds, which were family properties. The period from 15 February to 15 March was called, not without reason, the 'Month when Candlefish is Eaten' and that which followed, from 15 March to 15 April, the 'Month when Candlefish is Cooked' (to extract its oil). This operation was strictly taboo to men, whereas the women were obliged to use their naked breasts to press the fish; the oil-cake residue had to be left to become rotten from maggots and putrefaction and, despite the pestilential stench, it had to be left in the immediate vicinity of the dwelling-houses until the work was finished (Boas, 1916, pp. 398-399 and 44-45).
Then everyone would return by the same route to the Skeena for the second major event, which was the arrival of the salmon fished in June and July (the 'Salmon Months'). Once the fish was smoked and stored away for the year, the families would go up to the mountains, where the men would hunt while the women laid up stocks of fruit and berries. With the coming of the frost in the ritual 'Month of the Spinning Tops' (which were spun on the ice), people settled down in permanent villages for the winter. During this period the men used sometimes to go off hunting again for a few days or a few weeks. Finally, towards 15 November, came the 'Taboo Month', which marked the inauguration of the great winter ceremonies, in preparation for which the men were subjected to various restrictions.
Let us remember, too, that the Tsimshian were divided into four non-localized matrilineal clans, which were strictly exogamous and divided into lineages, descent lines, and households: the Eagles, the Ravens, the Wolves, and the Bears, also, that the permanent villages were the seat of chiefdoms (generally called 'tribes' by native informants); and finally that Tsimshian society was divided into (three) hereditary castes with bilateral inheritance of caste status (each individual was supposed to marry according to his rank): the 'Real People' or reigning families, the 'Nobles', and the 'People', which last comprised all those who (failing a purchase of rank by generous potlatches) were unable to assert an equal degree of nobility in both lines of their descent (Boas 1916, pp. 478-514; Garfield, 1939, pp. 173-174 and 177-178; Garfield, Wingert & Barbeau, 1951, pp. 1-34).
Now follows a summary of the story of Asdiwal taken from Boas (1912) which will serve as a point of reference. This version was recorded on the coast at Port Simpson in Tsimshian dialect. Boas published the native text together with an English translation.
Famine reigns in the Skeena valley; the river is frozen and it is winter. A mother and her daughter, both of whose husbands have died of hunger, both remember independently the happy times when they lived together and there was no dearth of food. Released by the death of their husbands, they simultaneously decide to meet and set off at the same moment. Since the mother lives down-river and the daughter up-river, the former goes eastwards and the latter westwards. They both travel on the frozen bed of the Skeena and meet half-way.
Weeping with hunger and sorrow, the two women pitch camp on the bank at the foot of a tree, not far from which they find, poor pittance that it is, a rotten berry, which they sadly share.
During the night, a stranger visits the young widow. It is soon learned that his name is Hatsenas, a term which means, in Tsimshian, a bird of good omen. Thanks to him, the women start to find food regularly, and the younger of the two becomes the wife of their mysterious protector and soon gives birth to a son, Asdiwal (Asiwa, Boas, 1895; Asi-hwil, Boas, 1902). His father speeds up his growth by supernatural means and gives him various magic objects: a bow and arrows which never miss for hunting, a quiver, a lance, a basket, snow-shoes, a bark raincoat, and a hat, all of which will enable the hero to overcome all obstacles, make himself invisible, and procure an inexhaustible supply of food. Hatsenas then disappears and the elder of the two women dies.
Asdiwal and his mother pursue their course westwards and settle down in her native village, Gitsalasert, in the Skeena Canyon (Boas, 1912, p. 83). One day a white she-bear comes down the valley.
Hunted by Asdiwal, who almost catches it thanks to his magic objects, the bear starts to climb up a vertical ladder. Asdiwal follows it up to the heavens, which he sees as a vast prairie, covered with grass and all kinds of flowers. The bear lures him into the home of its father, the sun, and reveals itself to be a beautiful girl, Evening-Star. The marriage takes place, though not before the Sun has submitted Asdiwal to a series of trials, to which all previous suitors had succumbed (hunting wild goat in mountains which are rent by earthquakes; drawing water from a spring in a cave whose walls close in on each other; collecting wood from a tree which crushes those who try to cut it down; a period in a fiery furnace). But Asdiwal overcomes them all thanks to his magic objects and the timely intervention of his father. Won over by his son-in-law's talents, the Sun finally approves of him.
Asdiwal, however, pines for his mother. The Sun agrees to allow him to go down to earth again with his wife, and gives them, as provisions for the journey, four baskets filled with inexhaustible supplies of food, which earn the couple a grateful welcome from the villagers, who are in the midst of their winter famine.
In spite of repeated warnings from his wife, Asdiwal deceives her with a woman from his village. Evening-Star, offended, departs, followed by her tearful husband. Half-way up to heaven, Asdiwal is struck down by a look from his wife, who disappears. He dies, but is at once regretted and is brought back to life by his celestial father-in-law.
For a time, all goes well; then, once again, Asdiwal feels a twinge of nostalgia for earth. His wife agrees to accompany him as far as the earth, and there bids him a final farewell. Returning to his village, the hero learns of his mother's death. Nothing remains to hold him back, and he sets off again on his journey downstream.
When he reaches the Tsimshian village of Ginaxangioget, he seduces and marries the daughter of the local chief. To start with, the marriage is a happy one, and Asdiwal joins his four brothers-in-law on wild goat hunts, which, thanks to his magic objects, are crowned with success. When spring approaches, the whole family moves house, staying first at Metlakatla, and then setting off by boat for the river Nass,
going up along the coast. A head wind forces them to a halt and they camp for a while at Ksomaksén. There, things go wrong because of a dispute between Asdiwal and his brothers-in-law over the respective merits of mountain-hunters and sea-hunters. A competition takes place – Asdiwal returns from the mountains with four bears that he has killed, while the brothers-in-law return empty-handed from their sea expedition. Humiliated and enraged, they break camp, and, taking their sister with them, abandon Asdiwal.
He is picked up by strangers coming from Gitxatla, who are also on their way to the Nass for the candlefish season.
As in the previous case, they are a group of four brothers and a sister, whom Asdiwal wastes no time in marrying. They soon arrive together at the River Nass, where they sell large quantities of fresh meat and salmon to the Tsimshian, who have already settled there and are starving.
Since the catch that year is a good one, everyone goes home: the Tsimshian to their capital at Metlakatla and the Gitxatla to their town Laxalan, where Asdiwal, by this time rich and famous, has a son. One winter’s day, he boasts that he can hunt sea-lions better than his brothers-in-law. They set out to sea together. Thanks to his magic objects, Asdiwal has a miraculously successful hunt on a reef, but is left there without food or fire by his angry brothers-in-law. A storm gets up and waves sweep over the rock. With the help of his father, who appears in time to save him, Asdiwal, transformed into a bird, succeeds in keeping himself above the waves, using his magic objects as a perch.
After two days and two nights the storm is calmed, and Asdiwal falls asleep exhausted. A mouse wakes him and leads him to the subterranean home of the sea-lions whom he has wounded, but who imagine (since Asdiwal’s arrows are invisible to them) that they are victims of an epidemic. Asdiwal extracts the arrows and cures his hosts, whom he asks, in return, to guarantee his safe return. Unfortunately, the sea-lions’ boats, which are made of their stomachs, are out of use, pierced by the hunter’s arrows. The king of the sea-lions therefore lends Asdiwal his own stomach as a canoe and instructs him to send it back without delay. When he reaches land, the hero discovers his wife, and his son alike, inconsolable. Thanks to the help of this good wife, but bad sister (for she carries out the rites which are essential to the success of the operation), Asdiwal makes killer-whales out of carved wood and brings them to life. They break open the boats with their fins and bring about the shipwreck and death of the wicked brothers-in-law.
But once again Asdiwal feels an irrepressible desire to revisit the scenes of his childhood. He leaves his wife and returns to the Skeena valley. He settles in the town of Ginadaos, where he is joined by his son, to whom he gives his magic bow and arrows, and from whom he receives a dog in return.
When winter comes, Asdiwal goes off to the mountains to hunt, but forgets his snow-shoes. Lost, and unable to go either up or down without them, he is turned to stone with his lance and his dog, and they can still be seen in that form at the peak of the great mountain by the lake of Ginadaos (Boas, 1912, pp. 71-146).
III
Let us keep provisionally to this version alone in order to attempt to define the essential points of its structure. The narrative refers to facts of various orders. First, the physical and political geography of the Tsimshian country, since the places and towns mentioned really do exist. Second, the economic life of the natives which, as we have seen, governs the great seasonal migrations between the Skeena and Nass Valleys, and during the course of which Asdiwal’s adventures take place. Third, the social and family organization, for we witness several marriages, divorces, widowedness, and other connected events. Lastly, the cosmology, for, unlike the others, two of Asdiwal’s visits, one to heaven and the other below the earth, are of a mythological and not of an experiential order.
First of all, the geographical framework.
The story begins in the Skeena valley, when the two heroines leave their villages, one upstream, the other downstream, and meet half-way. In the version that Boas recorded at the Nass
estuary (1902) it is stated that the meeting-place, this time on the Nass, is called Hwil-lê-ne-hwada, 'Where-they-met-each-other' (Boas, 1902, p. 225).
After her mother's death, the young woman and her son settle in her native village (i.e. her father's, where her mother had lived from the time of her marriage until her husband's death): the downstream village. It is from there that the visit to heaven takes place. This village, called Gitsalasert, 'People of the (Skeena) Canyon', is situated not far from the modern town of Usk (Garfield, 1939, p. 175; Boas, 1912, pp. 71, 276). Although the Tsimshian dialect was spoken there, it was outside the 'nine towns' which strictly speaking formed the Tsimshian province (Boas, 1912, p. 225).
On his mother's death, Asdiwal continues his journey downstream, that is to say, westwards. He settles in the town of Ginaxangioget, where he marries. This is in proper Tsimshian country on the lower reaches of the Skeena. Ginaxangioget is in fact a term formed from the root of git = 'people' and gix.k = 'hemlock tree' from which comes Ginax-angi.k 'the people of the firs' (Garfield, 1939, p. 175). And Ginaxangioget was one of the nine principal towns of the Tsimshian (Boas, 1916, pp. 482-483; Swanton, 1952, p. 606, gives 'Kinagingeet, near Metlakatla').
When Asdiwal leaves with his in-laws for the Nass to fish candlefish there, they go first by the Skeena estuary, then take to the sea, and stop at the capital city of the Tsimshian, Metlakatla - a recent town of the same name, founded by natives converted to Christianity, is to be found on Annette Island in Alaska (Beynon, 1941; Garfield, Wingert & Barbeau, 1951, pp. 33-34).
Old Metlakatla is on the coast, north of Prince Rupert and half-way between the Skeena and Nass estuaries. Ksemaksén, where the first quarrel takes place, and where Asdiwal is first abandoned by his brothers-in-law, is also on the coast, a little further north.
The Tsimshian-speaking tribe called Gitxatlha, which is independent of those centres around Metlakatla, is a group of islanders living on Dolphin Island, south of the Skeena-Estuary. Their name comes from git 'people' and qxatlha 'channel' (Garfield, 1939, p. 175. Also Boas, 1916, 483. Swanton, 1952, p. 607, gives 'Kitkatla, on Porcher Island'). Having travelled from East to West, Asdiwal accompanies them to the Nass, that is to say in a South-North direction, then in the opposite
direction, to 'their town', off-shore from which (and probably to the West, since it was a deep-sea expedition) the visit to the sea-lions takes place.
From there, Asdiwal returns to the Skeena, that is to say this time from West to East. The story ends at Ginadáos, Ginadoiks perhaps, from git 'people', na 'of', doiks 'rapid current'; the name of a torrent which flows into the Skeena (Garfield, 1939, p. 176; cf. also Boas, 1912, p. 223: Ginadáiks, 'one of the nine towns of the Tsimshian').
Let us now consider the economic aspect. The activities of this order which are brought to notice by the myth are no less real than the geographical places and the populations evoked in the preceding paragraphs. Everything begins with a period of winter famine such as was well known to the natives in the period between mid-December and mid-January, before the moment at which, theoretically, the spring salmon arrived, which was just before the arrival of the candlefish; the period called 'the Interval' (Boas, 1916, pp. 398-399). After his visit to the heavens, Asdiwal takes part in the spring migrations to the Nass for the candlefish season; then we are told of the return of the families to the Skeena in the salmon season.
These seasonal variations - to use Marcel Mauss's expression - are on a par with other differences none the less real which are emphasized by the myth, notably that between the land-hunter (personified by Asdiwal, born on the river and upstream, that is to say inland) and the sea-hunter, personified first by the People of the Firs who live downstream on the estuary, and then, still more clearly, by the inhabitants of Dolphin Island.
When we move on to the sociological aspects, there is a much greater freedom of interpretation. It is not a question of an accurate documentary picture of the reality of native life, but a sort of counterpoint which seems sometimes to be in harmony with this reality, and sometimes to part from it in order to rejoin it again.
The initial sequence of events evokes clearly defined sociological conditions. The mother and daughter have been separated by the latter's marriage, and since that time each has lived with her own husband in his village. The elder woman's husband was also the father of the younger woman, who thus left her native village to follow her own husband upstream. We can recognize this as a society where, although there is a system of matrilineal filiation, residence is patrilocal, the wife going to live in her husband's village; and where the children, although they belong to their mother's clan, are brought up in their father's home and not in that of their maternal kin.
Such was the (real) situation among the Tsimshian. Boas emphasizes it several times: 'In olden times it was customary for a great chief to take a princess from each tribe to be his wife. Some had as many as sixteen or eighteen wives . . .' which would clearly be impossible if a man had to live in his wife's native village. More generally, says Boas: 'There is ample evidence showing that the young married people lived with the young man's parents', so that 'the children grew up in their father's home' (Boas, 1916, pp. 355, 529, 428; cf. also pp. 420, 427, 441, 490-500).
But, in the myth, this patrilocal type of residence is quickly undermined by famine, which frees the two women from their respective obligations and allows them, upon the death of their husbands, to meet (significantly enough) half-way. Their camping at the foot of the tree on the bank of the frozen river, equidistant from up-river and down-river, presents a picture of a matrilocal type of residence reduced to its simplest form, since the new household consists only of a mother and her daughter.
This reversal, which is barely hinted at, is all the more remarkable because all the subsequent marriages (in the myth) are going to be matrilocal, and thus contrary to the type found in reality.
First, Hatsenas's marriage with the younger woman. Fleeting though this union between a human being and a supernatural being may be, the husband still lives in his wife's home, and therefore in her mother's home. The matrilocal trend is even more apparent in the version recorded on the Nass. When his son Asi-lwil has grown up, Hatsenas (who here is called Hôux) says to his wife: 'Your brothers are coming to look for you. Therefore I must hide in the woods.' A short time after he had left, the brothers came, and left again the following morning,
laden with supplies of meat given to the women by their protector:
‘As soon as they left, Houx returned. The [women] told him that their brothers had asked them to return home. Then Houx said “Let us part. You may return to your home; I will return to mine.” On the following morning many people came to fetch the women and the boy. They took them to Gitxaden. The boy’s uncles gave a feast and his mother told them the boy’s name, Asi-hwil...’ (Boas, 1902, p. 227).
Not only does the husband seem an intruder, regarded with suspicion by his brothers-in-law, and afraid that they might attack him, but, contrary to what (really) happens among the Tsimshian and in other societies characterized by the association of matrilineal filiation and patrilocal residence (Boas, 1916, p. 423; Malinowski, 1932), the food gifts go from the sister’s husband to the wife’s brothers.
Matrilocal marriage, accompanied by antagonism between the husband and his in-laws, is further illustrated by Asdiwal’s marriage to Evening-Star; they live in her father’s home, and the father-in-law shows so much hostility towards his son-in-law that he sets him trials which are deemed to be fatal.
Matrilocal, too, is Asdiwal’s second marriage in the land of the People of the Firs, which is accompanied by hostility between the husband and his brothers-in-law because they abandon him and persuade their sister to follow them.
The same theme is expressed in the third marriage in the land of the People of the Channel, at any rate to start with. For after Asdiwal’s visit to the sea-lions the situation is reversed: Asdiwal recovers his wife, who had refused to follow her brothers, and was wandering in search of her husband. What is more, she collaborates with him to produce the ‘machination’ – in the literal and the figurative sense – by means of which he takes revenge on his brothers-in-law. Finally, patrilocality triumphs when Asdiwal abandons his wife (whereas, in the previous marriages, it had been his wife who had abandoned him) and returns to the Skeena where he was born, and where his son comes alone to join him. Thus having begun with the story of the reunion of a mother and her daughter, freed from their affines or paternal kin, the myth ends with the story of the reunion of a father and his son, freed from their affines or maternal kin.
But if the initial and final sequences in the myth constitute from a sociological point of view a pair of oppositions, the same is true, from a cosmological point of view, of the two supernatural voyages which interrupt the hero’s ‘real’ journey. The first voyage takes him to the heavens, and into the home of the Sun, who first tries to kill him and then agrees to bring him back to life. The second takes Asdiwal to the subterranean kingdom of the sea-lions, whom he has himself killed or wounded, but whom he agrees to look after and to cure. The first voyage results in a marriage which, as we have seen, is matrilocal, and which, moreover, bears witness to a maximal exogamous separation (between an earth-born man and a woman from heaven). But this marriage will be broken up by Asdiwal’s infidelity with a woman of his own village, which may be seen as a suggestion of a marriage which, if it really took place, would, so to speak, neutralize matrilocality (since husband and wife would come from the same place) and would be characterized by an endogamous proximity which would also be maximal (marriage within the village). It is true that the hero’s second supernatural voyage, to the subterranean kingdom of the sea-lions, does not lead to a marriage, but in any case, as has already been shown, this visit brings about a reversal in the matrilocal tendency of Asdiwal’s successive marriages, for it separates his third wife from her brothers, the hero himself from his wife, their son from his mother, and leaves only one relationship in existence: that between the father and his son.
In this analysis of the myth, we have distinguished four levels: the geographic, the techno-economic, the sociological, and the cosmological. The first two are exact transcriptions of reality; the fourth has nothing to do with it, and in the third, real and imaginary institutions are interwoven. Yet in spite of these differences, the levels cannot be separated out by the native
mind. It is rather that everything happens as if the levels were provided with different codes, each being used according to the needs of the moment, and according to its particular capacity, to transmit the same message. It is the nature of this message that we shall now consider.
Winter famines are a recurrent event in the economic life of the Tsimshian. But the famine which starts the story off is also a cosmological theme. All along the Northwest Pacific Coast, in fact, the present state of the universe is attributed to the havoc wrought in the original order by the demiurge Giant or Raven (Txamsen, in Tsimshian) during travels which he undertook in order to satisfy his irrepressible voracity. Thus Txamsen is perpetually in a state of famine, and famine, although a negative condition, is seen as the 'primum movens' of Creation. In this sense we can say that the hunger of the two women in our myth has a cosmic significance; these heroines are not so much legendary persons as incarnations of principles which are at the origin of place-names.
One may schematize the initial situation as follows:
- Mother (is opposed to) Daughter
- Elder (, , , , ) Younger
- Downstream (, , , , ) Upstream
- West (, , , , ) East
- South (, , , , ) North
The meeting takes place at the half-way point, a situation which, as we have seen, corresponds to a neutralization of patrilocal residence and to the fulfilment of the conditions for a matrilocal residence which is as yet only hinted at. But since the mother dies on the very spot where the meeting and the birth of Asdiwal took place, the essential movement, which her daughter begins by leaving the village of her marriage 'very far upstream' (Boas, 1912, p. 71), is in the direction East-West, as far as her native village in the Skeena Canyon, where she in her turn dies, leaving the field open for the hero.
Asdiwal's first adventure presents us with an opposition: heaven/earth which the hero is able to surmount by virtue of the intervention of his father, Hatesnas, the bird of good omen. The latter is a creature of the atmospheric or middle heaven and consequently well qualified to play the role of mediator between the earth-born Asdiwal and his father-in-law the Sun, ruler of the highest heaven. Even so, Asdiwal does not manage to overcome his earthly nature, to which he twice submits, first in yielding to the charms of a fellow-countrywoman and then in yielding to nostalgia for his home village. Thus there remains a series of unresolved oppositions:
| Low | High |
|-----|------|
| Earth | Heaven |
| Man | Woman |
| Endogamy | Exogamy |
Pursuing his course westwards, Asdiwal contracts a second matrilocal marriage which generates a new series of oppositions:
- Mountain-hunting
- Sea-hunting
- Land
- Water
These oppositions too are insurmountable, and Asdiwal's earthly nature carries him away a third time, with the result that he is abandoned by his wife and his brothers-in-law.
Asdiwal contracts his last marriage not with the river-dwellers, but with islanders, and the same conflict is repeated. The opposition continues to be insurmountable, although at each stage the terms more closer together. This time it is in fact a question of a quarrel between Asdiwal and his brothers-in-law on the occasion of a hunt on a reef when the seas are running high; that is to say, on land and water at the same time. In the previous incident, Asdiwal and his brothers-in-law had gone their separate ways, one inland and on foot, the others out to sea and in boats. This time they go together in boats, and it is only when they land that Asdiwal's superiority is made manifest by the use he makes of the magic objects intended for mountain-hunting:
'It was a very difficult hunt on account of the waves which swept past [the reef] in the direction of the open sea. While they were speaking about this, [Asdiwal] said: "My dear fellows I have only to put on my snowshoes and I'll run up the rocks you are talking about"'. He succeeds in this way, whilst his brothers-in-law, incapable of landing, stay shamefacedly in their boats (Boas, 1912, pp. 125-126).
Asdiwal, the earth-born master of the hunt, finds himself abandoned on a reef in high seas; he has come to the furthest point of his westward journey; so much for the geographic and economic aspects. But, from a logical point of view, his adventures can be seen in a different form — that of a series of impossible mediations between oppositions which are ordered in a descending scale: high and low, water and earth, sea-hunting and mountain-hunting, etc.
Consequently, on the spatial plane, the hero is completely led off his course, and his failure is expressed in this maximal separation from his starting-point. On the logical plane, he has also failed because of his immoderate attitude towards his brothers-in-law, and by his inability to play the role of a mediator, even though the last of the oppositions which had to be overcome — between the types of life led by the land- and sea-hunters — is reduced to a minimal separation. There would seem to be a dead end at this point; but from neutral the myth goes into reverse and its machinery starts up again.
The king of the mountains (in Nass dialect, Asdiwal is called Asi-hwil, which means 'Crosser of Mountains') is caught on a mockery of a mountain, and doubly so because, on the one hand, it is nothing more than a reef and, on the other, it is surrounded and almost submerged by the sea. The ruler of wild animals and killer of bears is to be saved by a she-mouse, a mockery of a wild animal. She makes him undertake a subterranean journey, just as the she-bear, the supreme wild animal, had imposed on Asdiwal a celestial journey. In fact, the only thing that is missing is for the mouse to change into a woman and to offer the hero a marriage which would be symmetrical to the other, but opposite to it, and although this element is not to be found in any of the versions, we know at least that the mouse is a fairy: Lady Mouse-woman, as she is called in the texts, where the word ksem, a term of respect addressed to a woman, is prefixed to the word denoting a rodent. Following through the inversion more systematically than had been possible under the preceding hypothesis, this fairy is an old woman incapable of procreation: an 'inverse wife'.
And that is not all. The man who had killed animals in their hundreds goes this time to heal them and win their love. The bringer of food (who repeatedly exercises the power he received from his father in this respect for the benefit of his family) becomes food, since he is transported in the sea-lion's stomach.
Finally, the visit to the subterranean world (which is also, in many respects, an 'upside-down world') sets the course of the hero's return, for from then onwards he travels from West to East, from the sea towards the mainland, from the salt water of the ocean to the fresh water of the Skeena.
This overall reversal does not affect the development of the plot, which unfolds up to the final catastrophe. When Asdiwal returns to his people and to the initial patrilocal situation, he takes up his favourite occupation again, helped by his magic objects. But he forgets one of them, and this mistake is fatal. After a successful hunt, he finds himself trapped half-way up the mountain-side: 'Where might he go now? He could not go up, he could not go down, he could not go to either side' (Boas, 1912, p. 145). And on the spot he is changed to stone, that is to say paralysed, reduced to his earth-born nature in the stony and unchangeable form in which he has been seen 'for generations'.
v
The above analysis leads us to draw a distinction between two aspects of the construction of a myth: the sequences and the schemata (schèmes). The sequences form the apparent content of the myth; the chronological order in which things happen: the meeting of the two women, the intervention of the supernatural protector, the birth of Asdiwal, his childhood, his visit to heaven, his successive marriages, his hunting and fishing expeditions, his quarrels with his brothers-in-law, etc.
But these sequences are organized, on planes at different levels (of abstraction), in accordance with schemata, which exist simultaneously, superimposed one upon another, just as a melody composed for several voices is held within bounds by constraints in two dimensions, first by its own melodic line which is horizontal, and second by the contrapuntal schemata (settings) which are vertical. Let us then draw up an inventory of such schemata for this present myth.
1. Geographic Schema. The hero goes from East to West, then
he returns from West to East. This return journey is modulated by another one, from the South to the North and then from the North to the South, which corresponds to the seasonal migrations of the Tsimshian (in which the hero takes part) to the River Nass for the caddiefish season in the spring, then to the Skeena for the salmon-fishing in the summer.
2. Cosmological Schema. Three supernatural visits establish a relationship between terms thought of respectively as 'below' and 'above': the visit to the young widow by Hatsenas, the bird of good omen associated with the atmospheric heavens; the visit by Asdiwal to the highest heavens in pursuit of Evening-Star; his visit to the subterranean kingdom of the sea-lions under the guidance of Lady Mouse-woman. The end of Asdiwal, trapped in the mountain, then appears as a neutralization of the intermediate mediation (between atmospheric heaven and earth) established at his birth but which even so does not enable him to bring off two further extreme mediations (the one between heaven and earth considered as the opposition low/high and the other between the sea and the land considered as the opposition East/West):
3. Integration. The above two schemata are integrated in a third consisting of several binary oppositions, none of which the hero can resolve, although the distance separating the opposed terms gradually dwindles. The initial and final oppositions: high/low and peak/valley are 'vertical' and thus belong to the cosmological schema. The two intermediate oppositions (water/land and sea-hunting/mountain-hunting) are 'horizontal' and belong to the geographic schema. But in fact the final opposition (peak/valley), which is also the narrowest contrast, brings into association the essential characteristics of the two preceding schemata: it is 'vertical' in form but 'geographical' in content. This double aspect, natural and supernatural, of the opposition between peak and valley is already specified in the myth, since the hero's perilous situation is the result of an earthquake brought about by the gods (see below, p. 22). Asdiwal's failure (in that, because he forgot his snow-shoes, he is trapped half-way up the mountain) thus takes on a threefold significance: geographical, cosmological, and logical:
- High
- Water
- Low
- Sea-hunting
- Land
- Mountain-hunting
- Peak
- Valley
When the three schemata are reduced to their bare essentials in this way, retaining only the order and amplitude of the oppositions, their complementarity becomes apparent.
Schema 1 is composed of a sequence of oscillations of constant amplitude: East – North – West – South – East.
Schema 2 starts at a zero point (the meeting half-way between upstream and downstream) and is followed by an oscillation of medium amplitude (atmospheric heavens – earth), then by oscillations of maximum amplitude (earth – heaven, heaven – earth, earth – subterranean world, subterranean world – earth) which die away at the zero point (half-way up, between peak and valley).
Schema 3 begins with an oscillation of maximum amplitude (high-low) which dies away in a series of oscillations of decreasing amplitude (water – land; sea-hunting – mountain-hunting; valley – peak).
4. Sociological Schema. To start with, patrilocal residence prevails. It gives way progressively to matrilocal residence (Hatsonas’s marriage), which becomes murderous (Asdiwal’s marriage in heaven), then merely hostile (the marriage in the land of the People of the Firs), before weakening and finally reversing (marriage among the People of the Channel) to allow a return to patrilocal residence.
The sociological schema has not, however, a closed structure like the geographic schema, since, at the beginning, it involves a mother and her daughter, in the middle, a husband, his wife, and his brothers-in-law, and, at the end, a father and his son.
(mother, daughter without husband)
Patrilocal residence
matrilocal residence (husband, wife, bros.-in law)
Patrilocal residence
(father, son without wife)
5. Techno-economic Schema. The myth begins by evoking a winter famine; it ends with a successful hunt. In between, the story follows the (real-life) economic cycle and the seasonal migrations of the native fishermen:
Fishing → Salmon → Successful Hunt
Famine → for → Fishing → Hunt
Candlefish
6. Global Integration. If the myth is finally reduced to its two extreme propositions, the initial state of affairs and the final, which together summarize its operational function, then we end up with a simplified diagram:
(Initial State) (Final State)
FEMALE MALE
EAST-WEST axis HIGH-LOW axis
FAMINE REPLETION
MOVEMENT IMMOBILITY
Having separated out the codes, we have analysed the structure of the message. It now remains to decipher the meaning.
VI
In Boas (1916) there is a version of the story of Asdiwal that is remarkable in several respects. First, it brings a new character into play: Waux, the son of Asdiwal’s second marriage, who seems to be a doublet of his father, although his adventures take place after those of Asdiwal. In chronological order, they form supplementary sequences of events. But these later sequences are organized in schemata which are at the same time homologous to those which have been described and more explicit than them. Everything seems to suggest that, as it draws to its close, the obvious narrative (the sequences) tends to approach the latent content of the myth (the schemata); a convergence which is not unlike that which the listener discovers in the final chords of a symphony.
When Asdiwal’s second wife (his first earth-born wife) bore him a son, he was called Waux. That means ‘very light’, for this son used to fly away like a spark.
The father and son loved each other very much and always
Claude Lévi-Strauss
hunted together. And thus it was a cause of great sorrow to Waux when his uncles forced him to follow them after they had left his father (Asdiwal) at Ksemaksén. The mother and son had even secretly tried to find Asdiwal and had only abandoned the attempt when they were convinced that he must have been devoured by some wild animal.
Waux, following in his father's footsteps, became a great hunter. Before his mother died, she made him marry a cousin, and the young couple lived happily. Waux continued to hunt on his father's hunting-grounds, sometimes in company with his wife, who gave birth to twins.
Soon Waux's children went hunting with him, as he had formerly done with his father. One day he went with them into an unexplored region. The children slipped on the mountain and were both killed. The following year Waux returned to the same place to hunt, armed with all the magic objects he had inherited from his father, except the lance, which he forgot. Taken unawares by an earthquake, he tried in vain to make his wife (whom he saw in the valley) understand that he needed her ritual help. He shouted to her to sacrifice fat to the supernatural powers in order to appease them. But the wife could not hear and misunderstood, repeating not what her husband had said, but what she wanted to do herself: 'You want me to eat fat?' Discouraged, Waux agreed, and his wife sated herself with fat and cold water. Satisfied, she lay down on an old log. Her body broke apart and was changed into a veined flint which is still found all over that place today.
Waux, because he had forgotten the lance which enabled him to split the rock and open a way through the mountain, and having lost his last chance of placating the elements because of the misunderstanding which had arisen between his wife and himself, was turned to stone, as were also his dog and all his magic objects. They are still there to this day (Boas, 1916, pp. 243-245).
Several significant permutations will be noticed if this is compared with the version which we have taken as a point of reference.
The Story of Asdiwal
Asdiwal had an only son (in fact, as we have seen, two only sons, born of consecutive marriages and confused into one single one in the story), whereas Waux has twins. We do not know much about these twins, but it is tempting to set up a parallel between them and the two magic dogs that Asi-hwi! was given by his father in the River Nass version: one red, the other spotted – that is, marked by a contrast which suggests (when compared with the symbolic colour systems so common among the North American Indians) divergent functions.
Moreover, the existence of twins already provides a pointer. In the American series of mediators, twins represent the weakest term, and come at the bottom of the list, after the Messiah (who unites opponents) and the trickster (in whom they are in juxtaposition). The pair of twins brings opposites into association but at the same time leaves them individually distinct (see Lévi-Strauss, 1963a, Ch. xi, 'The Structural Study of Myth').
The change from a single mediator to a pair of twins is thus a sign of a weakening in the function of the mediator, all the clearer because only shortly after their appearance on the mystical scene the twins die in unexplored territory without having played any part.
Like Asdiwal, Waux ends by being turned to stone as a result of forgetting a magic object; the identity of this object, however, changes from one version to another. In Asdiwal, it is the snow-shoes; in Waux the lance. These magic objects are the instruments of mediation given to the hero by his supernatural father. Here, again, there is a gradation; the snow-shoes make it possible to climb up and down the steepest slopes; the lance enables its owner to go straight through walls of rock. The lance is thus a more radical means than the snow-shoes, which come to terms with the obstacle rather than doing away with it. Waux's omission seems more serious than Asdiwal's. The weaker mediator loses the stronger instrument of mediation and his powers are doubly diminished as a result.
Thus the story of Waux follows a dialectic regression; but, in another sense, it reveals a progression, since it is with this variant that a structure which had remained open in certain respects is finally closed.
Waux's wife dies of repletion. That is the end of a story which
opened by showing Asdiwal's (or Asi-hwil's) mother a victim of starvation. It was this famine which set her in motion, just as, now, abuse of food brings Waux's wife to a halt. And before leaving this point let us note that in fact the two characters of the initial sequence were two women who were single, unfed, and on the move, whereas those of the final sequence were a couple composed of a husband and his wife, one a bringer of food (who is not understood) and the other overfed (because she does not understand), and both paralysed in spite of this opposition (but also perhaps because of the negative complementarity that it expresses).
The most important transformation is that represented by the marriage of Waux. It has been seen that Asdiwal contracted a series of marriages, all equally unsuccessful. He cannot choose between his supernatural bride and his fellow-countrywomen; he is abandoned (though against her will, it is true) by his Tsimshian spouse. His Gitxatla wife remains faithful to him and even goes so far as to betray her brothers; it is he who abandons her. He ends his days, having joined forces with his son again, in a celibate state.
Waux, on the other hand, marries only once, but this marriage proves fatal for him. Here, however, it is a case of a marriage arranged by Waux's mother (unlike Asdiwal's adventurous marriages) and a marriage with a cousin (whereas Asdiwal marries complete strangers), or more precisely, with his cross-cousin, his mother's brother's daughter (which explains the intermediary role played by his mother).11
As Boas explains in the text quoted in the footnote above, there was a preference for marriage with the mother's brother's daughter among the Tsimshian, especially in the noble classes from which our heroes are drawn. Garfield doubts whether the practice was strictly in accordance with mythical models (Garfield, 1939, pp. 232-233), but the point is of secondary importance, since we are studying schemata with a normative function. In a society like that of the Tsimshian, there is no difficulty in seeing why this type of marriage could be thought ideal. Boys grew up in their fathers' homes, but sooner or later they had to go over to their maternal uncle when they inherited his titles, prerogatives, and hunting-grounds (Boas, 1916, p. 411, where he contradicts p. 401. We shall return to this contradiction later.) Marriage with the matrilateral cousin provided a solution to this conflict.
Furthermore, as has often been found to be the case in other societies of the same type, such a marriage made it possible to overcome another conflict: that between the patrilineal and matrilineal tendencies of Tsimshian society, which, as we have seen above, is very deeply conscious of the two lines (p. 3. See also on this point E. Sapir, 1915, pp. 6 and 27, and Garfield, Wingert & Barbeau, 1951, pp. 17-25). By means of such a marriage, a man ensures the continued existence of his hereditary privileges and of such titles as he might have within the limits of a small family circle (Swanton, 1909; Wedgwood, 1928; Richards, 1914).
I have shown elsewhere that it is unlikely that this interpretation may be seen as the universal origin of cross-cousin marriage (Lévi-Strauss, 1949, pp. 158-159). But in the case of a society which has feudal tendencies, it certainly corresponds to real motives which contributed to the survival, or to the adoption, of the custom. The final explanation of this custom must, however, be sought in those characteristics which are common to all societies which practised it.
The Tsimshian myths provide, furthermore, a surprising commentary on the native theory of marriage with the matrilateral cross-cousin in the story of the princess who refuses to marry her cousin (her father's sister's son).
No less cruel than she was proud, the princess demands that her cousin prove his love by disfiguring himself. He slashes his face and then she rejects him because of his ugliness. Reduced to a state of despair, the young man seeks death and ventures into the land of Chief Pestilence, master of deformities. After the hero has undergone rigorous trials, the chief agrees to transform him into a Prince Charming.
Now his cousin is passionately attracted to him, and the young man, in his turn, demands that she sacrifice her beauty, but only in order to heap sarcasm upon her head. The now hideous princess tries to move Chief Pestilence to pity, and at once the maimed and deformed race of people who make
up his court set upon the unfortunate woman, break her bones and tear her apart.
Boas's informant sees in this tale the myth which lies at the origin of the rites and ceremonies celebrated at the marriages of cross-cousins.
'There was a custom among our people that the nephew of the chief had to marry the chief's daughter, because the tribe of the chief wanted the chief's nephew to be the heir of his uncle and to inherit his place after his death. This custom has gone on, generation after generation, all along until now, and the places of the head men have thus been inherited.'
But, the informant goes on, it is because of the disaster that struck the rebellious princess that it was decided that on such occasions 'no young woman should have any say about her marriage. . . . Even though the young woman does not want to marry the man, she has to consent when the agreement has been made on both sides to marry them' (that is to say after negotiations between the maternal descent groups of the young people).
'When the prince and princess have married, the tribe of the young man's uncle mobilize. Then the tribe of the young woman's uncle also mobilize and they have a fight. The two parties cast stones at each other, and the heads of many of those on each side are hit. The scars made by the stones on the heads of each chief's people are signs of the marriage pledge.'12
In his commentary Boas notes that this myth is not peculiar to the Tsimshian, but is found also among the Tlingit and the Haida, who are likewise matrilineal and likewise faithful to the same type of marriage. Thus it is clear that it portrays a fundamental aspect of the social organization of these peoples, which consists in a hostile equilibrium between the matrilineal lineages of the village chiefs. In a system of generalized exchange, such as results, in these feudal families, from the preferential marriage with the mother's brother's daughter, the families are, so to speak, ranged around a more or less stable circle, in such a way that each family occupies, at least temporarily, the position of 'wife-giver' with respect to some other family and of 'wife-taker' with respect to a third. Depending on the society, this lopsided structure (lopsided, because there is no guarantee that in giving one will receive) can achieve a certain equilibrium - more apparent, however, than real - in several ways: democratically, by following the principle that all marriage exchanges are equivalent; or, on the contrary, by stipulating that one of the positions (wife-giver, wife-taker) is, by definition, superior to the other. But given a different social and economic context, this amounts in theory, if not in practice, to the same thing, since each family must occupy both positions (Lévi-Strauss, 1949; 1963a, pp. 311-312). The societies of the Northwest Pacific Coast could not, or would not, choose one of these points of balance, and the respective superiority or inferiority of the groups involved was openly contested on the occasion of each marriage. Each marriage, along with the potlatches which accompanied and preceded it, and the transfers of titles and property occasioned by it, provided the means by which the groups concerned might gain an advantage over each other while at the same time putting an end to former disputes. It was necessary to make peace but only on the best possible terms. French medieval society offers, in terms of patrilineal institutions, a symmetrical picture of a situation which had much in common with the one just described.
In such circumstances, is there anything amazing about the horrid little story in which the natives see the origin of their marriage institutions? Is there anything surprising in the fact that the ceremony of marriage between first cousins takes the form of a bloody battle? When we believe that, in bringing to light these antagonisms which are inherent in the structure of Tsimshian society, we are 'reaching rock bottom' (in the words of Marcel Mauss), we express in this geological metaphor an approach that has many points of comparison with that made by the myths of Asdiwal and Waux. All the paradoxes conceived by the native mind, on the most diverse planes: geographic, economic, sociological, and even cosmological, are, when all is
said and done, assimilated to that less obvious yet so real paradox which marriage with the matrilateral cousin attempts but fails to resolve. But the failure is admitted in our myths, and there precisely lies their function.
Let us glance at them again in this light. The winter famine which kills the husbands of the two original heroines frees them from patrilocal residence and enables them first to meet and then to return to the daughter's native village, which will correspond, for her son, to a matrilocal type of residence. Thus a shortage of food is related to the sending out of young women, who return to their own descent groups when food is scarce. This is symbolic of an event which is illustrated in a more concrete fashion each year, even if there is no famine, by the departure of the candlefish from the Nass and then of the salmon from the Skeena. These fish come from the open sea, arrive from the South and the West, and go up the rivers in an easterly direction. Like the departing fish, Asdiwal's mother continues her journey westwards and towards the sea, where Asdiwal discovers the disastrous effects of matrilocal marriage.
The first of his marriages is with Evening-Star, who is a supernatural being. The correlation of female heaven and male earth which is implicit in this event is interesting from two points of view.
First, Asdiwal is in a way fished up by the She-Beau who draws him up to heaven, and the myths often describe grizzly bears as fishing for salmon. Like a salmon too, Asdiwal is fished up in a net by the compassionate Sun after he has crashed to earth. But when Asdiwal returns from his symmetrically opposite visit to the subterranean kingdom of the sea-lions, he travels in one of their stomachs, like a food; comparable to the candlefish which are scooped up from the bed of the River Nass, the 'Stomach River'. Furthermore, the hero now goes in the opposite direction, no longer from East to West like the food disappearing, but from West to East like the food returning.
Second, this reversal is accompanied by another: from matrilocal to patrilocal residence; and this reversal is in itself a variable of the replacement of a celestial journey by a subterranean one, which brings Asdiwal from the position of: earth, male, dominated, to that of: earth, male, dominant.
Patrilocal residence is no more successful for Asdiwal. He gets his son back but loses his wife and his affines. Isolated in this new relationship, and incapable of bringing together the two types of filiation and residence, he is stuck half-way at the moment when he has almost reached his goal; at the end of a successful hunt, he has reconquered food but lost his freedom of movement. Famine, which causes movement, has given way to abundance, but at the price of paralysis.
We can then now better understand how Waux's marriage with his matrilateral cousin, following that of his father, symbolizes the futile last attempts of Tsimshian thought and Tsimshian society to overcome their inherent contradictions. For this marriage fails as the result of a misunderstanding added to an omission: Waux had succeeded in staying with his maternal kin while at the same time retaining his father's hunting-grounds; he had managed to inherit in both the maternal and the paternal lines at the same time; but, although they are cousins, he and his wife remain alienated from one another, because cross-cousin marriage, in a feudal society, is a palliative and a decoy. In these societies, women are always objects of exchange, but property is also a cause of battle.
VII
The above analysis suggests an observation of a different kind: it is always rash to undertake, as Boas wanted to do in his monumental *Tsimshian Mythology*, 'a description of the life, social organization and religious ideas and practices of a people... as it appears from their mythology' (Boas, 1916, p. 32).
The myth is certainly related to given (empirical) facts, but not as a re-presentation of them. The relationship is of a dialectic kind, and the institutions described in the myths can be the very opposite of the real institutions. This will in fact always be the case when the myth is trying to express a negative truth. As has already been seen, the story of Asdiwal has landed the great American ethnologist in no little difficulty, for Waux
is there said to have inherited his father's hunting-grounds, while other texts, as well as eye-witness observation, reveal that a man's property, including his hunting-grounds, went to his sister's son, that is to say from man to man in the maternalline.\textsuperscript{15}
But Waux's paternal inheritance no more reflects real conditions than do his father's matrilocal marriages. In real life, the children grew up in the patrilocal home. Then they went to finish their education at their maternal uncle's home; after marrying, they returned to live with their parents, bringing their wives with them, and they settled in their uncle's village only when they were called upon to succeed him. Such, at any rate, was the case among the nobility, whose mythology formed a real 'court literature'. The comings and goings were one of the outward signs of the tensions between lineages connected by marriage. Mythical speculation about types of residence which are exclusively patrilocal or matrilocal do not therefore have anything to do with the reality of the structure of Tsimshian society, but rather with its inherent possibilities and its latent potentialities. Such speculations, in the last analysis, do not seek to depict what is real, but to justify the shortcomings of reality, since the extreme positions are only imagined in order to show that they are untenable. This step, which is fitting for mythical thought, implies an admission (but in the veiled language of the myth) that the social facts when thus examined are marred by an insurmountable contradiction. A contradiction which, like the hero of the myth, Tsimshian society cannot understand and prefers to forget.
This conception of the relation of the myth to reality no doubt limits the use of the former as a documentary source. But it opens the way for other possibilities; for in abandoning the search for a constantly accurate picture of ethnographic reality in the myth, we gain, on occasions, a means of reaching unconscious categories.
A moment ago it was recalled that Asdiwal's two journeys – from East to West and from West to East – were correlated with types of residence, respectively matrilocal and patrilocal. But in fact the Tsimshian have patrilocal residence, and from this we can (and indeed must) draw the conclusion that one of the orientations corresponds to the direction implicit in a real-life 'reading' of their institutions, the other to the opposite direction. The journey from West to East, the return journey, is accompanied by a return to patrilocality. Therefore the direction in which it is made is, for the native mind, the only real direction, the other being purely imaginary.
That is, moreover, what the myth proclaims. The move to the East assures Asdiwal's return to his element, the Earth, and to his native land. When he went westwards it was as a bringer of food putting an end to starvation; he made up for the absence of food while at the same time travelling in the same direction as that taken by food when it departed. Journeying in the opposite direction, in the sea-lion's stomach, he is symbolically identified with food, and he travels in the direction in which the food (of actual experience) returns.
The same applies to matrilocal residence; it is introduced as a negative reality, to make up for the non-existence of patrilocal residence caused by the death of the husbands.
What then is the West–East direction in native thought? It is the direction taken by the candlefish and the salmon when they arrive from the sea each year to enter the rivers and race upstream. If this orientation is also that which the Tsimshian must adopt in order to obtain an undistorted picture of their concrete social existence, is it not because they see themselves as being \textit{sub specie piscis}, that they put themselves in the fishes' place, or rather that they put the fish in their place?
This hypothesis, arrived at by a process of deductive reasoning, is indirectly confirmed by ritual institutions and mythology.
Fishing and the preparation of the fish are the occasion for all kinds of ritual among the natives of the Northwest Coast. We have already seen that the women must use their naked breasts to press the candle-fish in order to extract the oil from it, and that the remains must be left to rot near the dwellings in spite of the smell. The salmon does not rot, since it is dried in the sun or smoked. But there are further ritual conditions which must be observed: for instance, it must be cut up with a primitive knife made of a mussel shell, and any kind of stone, bone, or metal blade is forbidden. Women set about this operation sitting on the ground with their legs apart (Boas, 1916, pp. 449-450 and 919-932 (Nootka)).
These prohibitions and prescriptions seem to represent the same intention: to bring out the immediacy of the relationship between fish and man by treating fish as if it were a man, or at any rate by ruling out, or limiting to the extreme, the use of manufactured objects which are part of culture; or, in other words, by denying or underestimating the differences between fish and men.
The myths, for their part, tell of the visit of a prince to the kingdom of the salmon, whence he returns, having won their alliance, himself transformed into a fish. All these myths have one incident in common: the prince is welcomed by the salmon and learns that he may in no circumstances eat the same food as they, but must not hesitate to kill and eat the fish themselves, regardless of the fact that they thenceforth appear to him in human form (Boas, 1916, pp. 192-206, 770-778, 919-932).
It is at this point that the mythical identification hits upon the only real relationship between fish and men: one of food. It persists, even in the myth, as an alternative: either to eat like salmon (although one is a man) or to eat salmon (although they are like men). This latter solution is the right one, and thanks to it they are reborn from their bones, which had been carefully collected and then immersed or burned. But the first solution would be an abuse of identification, of man with salmon, not of salmon with man. The character in the myth who was guilty of this was transformed into a root or a rock – like Asdiwal – condemned to immobility and perpetually bound to the earth.
Starting with an initial situation characterized by irresponsible movement, and ending in a final situation characterized by perpetual immobility, the myth of Asdiwal expresses in its own way a fundamental aspect of the native philosophy. The start presents us with the absence of food; and everything which has been said above leads us to think that the role of Asdiwal, as bringer of food, consists in (bringing about) a negation of this absence, but that is quite another thing from (saying that Asdiwal's role equates with) the presence of food. In fact, when this presence is finally obtained, with Asdiwal taking on the aspect of 'food itself' (and no longer that of 'bringer of food'), the result is a state of inertia.
But starvation is no more a tolerable human condition than is immobility. Therefore we must conclude that for these natives the only positive form of existence is a negation of non-existence. It is out of the question to develop this theory within the limits of the present work. But let us note in passing that it would shed new light on the need for self-assertion which, in the potlatch, the feasts, the ceremonies, and the feudal rivalries, seems to be such a particular characteristic of the societies of the Northwest Pacific Coast.
VIII
There is one last problem which remains to be solved, that which is posed by the differences between the Nass River version and those recorded on the coast, in which the action takes place on the Skeena. Up to now we have followed these latter ones, which are very similar to each other. Boas even says that the two versions are 'practically identical'. Let us now look at the Nass version.
Famine reigns in the two villages of Laxqaltsap and Gitwunksilk – it is possible to place them: the first is the present Greenville on the Nass estuary, and the second is on the lower Nass, but further upstream. Two sisters, separated by marriage, each live in one of the villages. They decide to join forces, and meet half-way in a place which is named in memory of this event. They have a few provisions. The sister from down-river has only a few hawberries, the one from up-river, a small piece of spawn. They share this and bewail their plight.
One of the sisters – the one from up-river – has come with her daughter, who does not enter the story again. The one from down-river, the younger of the two, is still unmarried. A stranger visits her at night. He is called Houx, which means 'Good Luck'. When he learns of the state of the women, he miraculously provides food for them, and the younger woman soon gives birth to a son, Asi-hwil, for whom his father makes a pair of snow-shoes. At first they are useless, but once perfected, they bestow magic powers on their wearer. Asi-hwil's father also gives him two magic dogs, and
a lance which can pass through rock. From then on, the hero reveals himself to be a better hunter than other supernatural beings against whom he is matched.
Then follows the episode of Houx's retreat from his brothers-in-law which has been summarized above (see pp. 11-12). They carry off their sister and their nephew at Gitxaden, down-stream from Nass Canyon.\textsuperscript{19} There, the hero is drawn towards the sky by the slave of a supernatural being, disguised as a white bear; but he does not succeed in reaching the heavenly abode and returns to earth having lost track of the bear.
He then goes to Tsimshian country, where he marries the sister of the sea-lion hunters. He humiliates them by his superiority, is abandoned by them, visits the sea-lions in their subterranean kingdom, looks after them and cures them, gets a canoe made of their intestines which brings him back to the coast, where he kills his brothers-in-law with artificial killer-whales. He finds his wife and never leaves her again (Boas, 1902, pp. 225-229).
Clearly, this version is very poor. It has very few episodes, and when compared with Boas (1912) which has been our point of reference up to now, the sequence of events seems very confused. It would, however, be quite wrong to treat the Nass version simply as a weakened echo of the Skeena ones. In the best-preserved part, the initial sequence of events, it is as if the richness of detail had been preserved, but at the cost of permutations which, without any doubt, form a system. Let us therefore begin by listing them, distinguishing the elements which are common to both versions from the elements which have been transformed.
In both cases, the story begins in a river valley: that of the Skeena, that of the Nass. It is winter, and famine reigns. Two related women, one living upstream and the other downstream, decide to join forces, and meet half-way.
Already, several differences are apparent:
| Place of the Action | Nass | Skeena |
|---------------------|------|--------|
| State of the River | ? | Frozen |
Situation of the Two Villages
Not far apart
'Very far apart'\textsuperscript{20}
Relationship between the Two Women
Sisters
Mother and daughter
Civil Status
\[
\begin{cases}
1 \text{ married} \\
1 \text{ unmarried}
\end{cases}
\]
2 widows
These differences, it is clear, are equivalent to a weakening of all the oppositions in the Nass version. This is very striking in the (contrasted) situations of the two villages and even more so in the (contrasted) relationships between the two women. In the latter there is a constant element, the relationship of elder to younger, which is manifested in the form: mother/daughter in the one case, and elder sister/younger sister in the other, the first couple living farther apart from one another than the second and being brought together by a more radical event (the double simultaneous widowhood) than the second (of whom only one is married – it is not stated whether she has lost her husband).
One may also prove that the Nass version is a weakening of the Skeena version and that the Skeena version is not a strengthened form of the other. The proof lies in the vestigial survival of the original mother/daughter relationship in the form of the maternity of the elder sister, who is accompanied by her daughter, a detail which in every other respect has no function in the Nass version:
(a) [mother : daughter] :: [(mother + daughter) : non-mother]
the constant element being given by the opposition between retrospective fertility and prospective fertility.
But these differences, which one could consider as being 'more' or 'less', and in this sense quantitative, are accompanied by others which are genuine inversions.
In the Skeena version, the elder of the two women comes from down-river, the younger from up-river. In the Nass variant, the contrary is true, since the pair (mother + daughter) comes from Gitwunksilk, upstream of the Canyon, and the unmarried sister (who will marry the supernatural protector and is therefore identical with the daughter in the Skeena version) arrives from Laxqaltsap, which is downstream.
In the Skeena version, the women are completely emptyhanded, reduced to sharing a single rotten berry, found at their meeting-place ('a few berries' in Boas, 1895). Once again, the Nass version shows a weakening, since the women bring provisions, though they are in fact very meagre; a handful of berries and a piece of spawn:
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{Down-river} \\
\text{Skeena version:} \quad 0 \rightarrow \text{rotten} \leftarrow 0 \\
\text{berry} \\
\text{Nass version:} \quad \text{berries} \rightarrow \leftarrow \text{spawn}
\end{array}
\]
It would be easy to show that on the Northwest Pacific Coast and in other regions of America, decomposition is considered as the borderline between food and excrement.\(^{21}\) If, in the Skeena version, a single berry (quantitatively, the minimal food) is the bearer of decomposition (qualitatively, the minimal food), then it is because berries in themselves are thought of specifically as a weak kind of food, in contrast with strong foods.
Without any doubt, in the Skeena version the two women are deliberately associated not with any particular food, but with the lack of any sort of food. This 'dearth of food' however, though a negative category, is not an empty category, for the development of the myth gives it, in retrospect, a content. The two women represent 'absence of food', but they are also bound respectively to the East and to the West, to the land and to the sea. The myth of Asdiwal tells of an opposition between two types of life, also bound up with the same cardinal points and the same elements: mountain-hunters on the one side, fishermen and sea-hunters on the other (Boas, 1916, p. 403: 'The sea-hunter required a training quite different from that of the mountain-hunter'). In the Skeena version the 'alimentary' opposition is therefore double: (1) between animal food (at the extreme positions) and vegetable food (in the intermediate position) and (2) between sea-animal (West) and land-animal (East), thus:
Vegetable food: middle not defined\(^{22}\)
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\uparrow \\
(1)
\downarrow \\
\text{(sea)}
\end{array}
\]
Animal food: (West) \leftarrow (2) \rightarrow (land) strongly defined\(^{22}\)
From this we obtain the formula:
(b) [land : sea] :: [(sea + land) : middle]
and the analogy of this with (a) [p. 35] is immediately obvious.
The alimentary system of the Nass version is based on a simplified structure (with two terms instead of three) and on weakenel oppositions. From being 'not-defined', vegetable food moves to a state of being 'weakly defined'; from a borderline state between 'food' and 'absence of food', it becomes a positive food, both quantitatively (a handful of berries) and qualitatively (fresh berries). This vegetable food is now opposed not to animal food as such, a category which is strongly defined (and here distinguished by a minus sign \((-1)\)), but to the weakest imaginable manifestation of this same animal food (to which we still assign a plus sign \(+1\)). This contrast between 'weakly defined animal food' and 'strongly defined animal food' is exhibited in three ways:
fish and not meat
fish spawn and not fish
a piece 'as big as the finger'
Thus we have a system:
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{sea} \\
\text{West} \\
\text{vegetable food} \\
(\text{relatively abundant in quantity})
\end{array}
\]
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{weakly defined} \\
\leftarrow \text{opposition}
\end{array}
\]
\[
\begin{array}{c}
\text{land} \\
\text{East} \\
\text{animal food} \\
(\text{relatively weak in quality})
\end{array}
\]
From the point of view of the alimentary system, the correlation between the two variants of the myth can thus be expressed by the following formulae:
(c\(_1\)) [(-meat) : (-fish)] :: [dx(meat + fish) : dx(vegetable food)]
or in simplified form (ignoring the minute quantity \(dx\)):
(c\(_2\)) [meat : fish] :: [(meat + fish) : (vegetable food)]
where the sum of (meat + fish) constitutes the category of animal food. It will be noticed, once again, that there is an analogy between the three formulae \(a\), \(b\), and \(c\).
The two types of food in the Nass version are berries (downstream) and spawn (upstream). Spawn is an animal food from the river, berries a vegetable food from the land (earth), and,
of all earth-grown foods, this (in contrast to the game that is hunted in the mountains) is the one most commonly associated with the river banks (Boas, 1916, p. 404: 'Women go out jointly by canoe or walking in the woods to gather berries').
Thus the transformation which has occurred in the process of transferring the story from the one version to the other can, from this point of view, be written as follows:
\[(d)\] [West : East] :: [sea : land] :: [water : land (earth)] :: [river : bank]
But the opposition between the river and its banks is not only a weakened form of the fundamental contrasts between 'East' and 'West' and between 'land (earth)' and 'water', which are most strongly defined in the opposition: sea/land. It is also a function of this last opposition.
In fact, the opposition river/bank is more strongly defined inland (where the element 'water' is reduced to 'river') than towards the coast. There the opposition is no longer so pertinent because, in the category 'water', the sea takes precedence over the river, and in the category 'land (earth)', the coast takes precedence over the bank. One can thus understand the logic of the reversal whereby, up-river, we are led to put:
\[(d)\] [water : land (earth)] :: [river : bank]
whereas down-river – when the whole of the river and its banks are assimilated into the category 'land,' this time in opposition to the category 'sea' – we are led to write:
\[(e)\] [water : land (earth)] :: [sea : (river + bank)]
where the combination (river + bank) has, by permutation, been moved into the position originally occupied by 'land'.
Since \((d)\) and \((e)\) can be recast in the form:
\[(f)\] [land : water] :: [(river + bank) : sea]
which is analogous to formulae \((a)\), \((b)\), and \((c)\), this example shows how a mythological transformation can be expressed by a series of equivalences, such that the two extremes are radically inverted (cf. Lévi-Strauss, 1963a, pp. 228-229).
In fact, in the last stage of the transformation, the (downstream, West) position is occupied by a vegetable food, that is to say by an 'earth-food', while the (upstream, East) position is occupied by an animal food, which, since it consists of fish-spawn, comes from the river and is therefore a 'water-food'.
The two women, reduced to their common denominator, which is the relationship older/younger, have thus, in coherent fashion, had their positions changed over with respect to the relationship upstream/downstream.\(^{23}\)
Consequently, in the Skeena version, the weak opposition between river and bank is neutralized (this is expressed in the myth by specifying that the river is frozen and that the women walk on the ice) in favour of the strong opposition between sea and land which is, however, negatively evoked (since the women are defined by their lack of the foods which are associated with their respective (territorial) positions). In the Nass version it is the strong opposition which is neutralized, by weakening and inversion, in favour of the weak opposition between river and bank, which is positively evoked (since in this case the women are provided, albeit meagrely, with the appropriate foods).
Parallel transformations are to be found in the episode of the supernatural protector as related by the two versions. In that of the Skeena, he provides meat alone, in an ever-increasing quantity (in order: little squirrel, grouse, porcupine, beaver, goat, black bear, grizzly bear, caribou); in the Nass version, he provides meat and fish at the same time in such large quantities that in the one case the hut is 'full of meat and fish' but only 'full of dried meat' in the other. In the Skeena version this balance between the two types of life is brought about only much later and in a transitory way: during Asdiwal's third marriage with the sister of the Gitxatla people, when, accompanied by his brothers-in-law, he is abundantly provided with 'salmon and fresh meat' which he sells to the starving Tsimshian (cf. Boas, 1902, pp. 225-226, and Boas, 1912, pp. 74-77 and 120-123).
On the other hand, Asdiwal's father gives him magic objects which are immediately effective (Skeena version), whereas those given to Asi-hwil have to be gradually perfected (Nass version). In each case, the hero returns from the West like the food, transported in the insides of a sea-lion; but in the second case the change from stomach (Skeena) to intestines (Nass) suggests a food that is nearer to putrefaction, a theme that is final here and no longer initial (a rotten berry and rotten bark
Claude Lévi-Strauss
were the women's first food in the Skeena version). Nor must it be forgotten that, from this point of view, the candlefish, the only hope of escaping from starvation (in Tsimshian, candlefish is called: *hale-mâ'ik*, which means 'saviour') must be tolerated up to the point of decomposition - otherwise the fish would be offended and would never return.
IX
How can a concrete content be given to this double mechanism of the weakening of oppositions, accompanied by a reversal of correlations the formal coherence of which we have now established? It should first be noted that the inversion is given in the respective geographical positions of the two populations: the Nisqa, people of the Nass, are found in the North; the Tsimshian (whose name means: 'inside the river Skeena' from *K-sia'x*: 'Skeena') in the South. In order to marry on (relatively speaking) foreign territory, the Nass hero goes to the land of the Tsimshian, that is to say, towards the Skeena, in the South; and the Skeena-born Asdiwal's last marriage shows him, up to the time of the break, camping with his in-laws on the Nass and thus in the North. Each population spontaneously forms symmetrical but inverse conceptions of the same country.
But the myths bear witness to the fact that the duality: Skeena valley/Nass valley, which, with the region in between, forms the Tsimshian country (in the broadest sense) is seen as an opposition, as are also the economic activities which are respectively associated with each of the two rivers:
A young man of miraculous birth decided to go up to heaven while night reigned on earth. Changed into a leaf, he impregnated the daughter of the Master of the Sun, who bore a son called Giant. The child seized the sun, made himself master of daylight and went down to earth where he found himself a companion, Logobola, who was master of mist, water, and marshes. The two boys had a competition, and after several undecided contests they decided to shoot arrows and play for the River Skeena against the River Nass. Giant won by a trick and was so overjoyed that he spoke in Tsimshian - in the dialect of the lower reaches of the Skeena - to voice his feelings 'And Logobola says: "You won, Brother Giant. Now the candlefish will come to Nass River twice every summer." And Txamsem (Giant) said, "And the salmon of Skeena River shall always be fat." Thus they divided what Txamsem had won at Nass river. . . . After which the two brothers parted.' One of the versions recorded by Boas says: 'Txamsem went down to the ocean and Logobola went southward to the place he had come from' (Boas, 1916, p. 70. Cf. also Boas, 1902, p. 7ff.).
In any case, the symmetry of the geographical positions provides only the beginning of an explanation. We have seen that the reversal of correlations is itself the function of a general weakening of all the oppositions which cannot be explained merely by a substitution of South for North and North for South. In passing from the Skeena to the Nass, the myth becomes distorted in two ways, which are structurally connected: first, it is reduced and, second, it is reversed. In order to be admissible, any interpretation must take account of both of these aspects.
The Skeena people and the Nass people speak similar dialects (Boas, 1911). Their social organization is almost identical. But their modes of life are profoundly different. We have described the way of life on the Skeena and on the coast, characterized by a great seasonal movement which is in fact two-phased: between the winter towns and the spring camps on one hand, and then between the spring candlefish season on the Nass and the summer salmon-fishing on the Skeena.
As for the Nass people, it does not seem that they made periodic visits to the Skeena. The most that we are told is that those who lived very far up the Nass were called 'kit'anwi'like', 'people who left their permanent villages from time to time', because they came down towards the Nass estuary each year, but only for the candlefish season (Sapir, 1915, p. 3). The largest seasonal migrations of the Nisqa seem thus to have been limited to the Nass, while those of the Tsimshian were based on a much more complex Skeena-Nass system. The reason is that the candlefish only visit the Nass, which therefore becomes the
meeting-place of all the groups who anxiously await the arrival of their 'saviour', whereas the salmon goes up both rivers indiscriminately. Thus the Nisga lived in one valley, and the Tsimshian in two.
Since this is so, all the natives are able to conceptualize the duality Nass/Skeena as an opposition which correlates with that of candlefish/salmon. There can be no doubt about it, since the myth which lays the foundation of this opposition was recorded by Boas in two practically identical versions, one in Nass dialect, the other in Skeena dialect. But an opposition which is recognized by all need not have the same significance for each group. The Tsimshian lived through this opposition in the course of each year; the Nisga were content to know about it. Although a grammatical construction employing couplets of antithetical terms is present in the Tsimshian tongue as a very obvious model, and probably presents itself as such quite consciously to the speaker, its logical and philosophical implication would not be the same in each of the two groups. The Tsimshian use it to build up a system which is global and coherent but which is not communicable in its entirety to people whose concrete experiences are not stamped with the same duality; perhaps, also, the fact that the course of the Nass is less definitely orientated from East to West than is that of the Skeena adds to the obscurity of the topographical schema (among the Nisga).
Thus we arrive at a fundamental property of mythical thought, other examples of which might well be sought elsewhere. When a mythical schema is transmitted from one population to another, and there exist differences of language, social organization or way of life which make the myth difficult to communicate, it begins to become impoverished and confused. But one can find a limiting situation in which instead of being finally obliterated by losing all its outlines, the myth is inverted and regains part of its precision.
Similar inversions occur in optics. An image can be seen in full detail when observed through any adequately large aperture. But as the aperture is narrowed the image becomes blurred and difficult to see. When, however, the aperture is further reduced to a pinpoint, that is to say, when communication is about to vanish, the image is inverted and becomes clear again. This experiment is used in schools to demonstrate the propagation of light in straight lines, or in other words to prove that rays of light are not transmitted at random, but within the limits of a structured field.
This study is in its own way an experiment, since it is limited to a single case, and the elements isolated by analysis appear in several series of concomitant variations. If the experiment has helped to demonstrate that the field of mythical thought, too, is structured, then it will have achieved its object.
NOTES
1. The candlefish (olachen) is a small very oily fish caught in very large numbers. Valued mainly for its oil, the meat can be eaten in times of scarcity [E.R.L.].
2. Hatusmas (Boas, 1912), Hadesenas (Boas, 1895): it is a bird like the robin but not a robin (Boas, 1912, pp. 72-73). In another myth the robin announces the summer (cf. Boas, 1912, pp. 200-201). The term 'robin' is applied to a variety of birds by the English and the Americans: it would be rash to try to identify the species. According to J. R. Swanton, Hadesenas means 'luck', and describes a bird as sent by manito from Heaven (p. 286).
In this way, which has no linguistic pretensions, the transcription of native terms has been simplified to the extreme, keeping only those distinctions which are essential for avoiding ambiguities between the terms quoted.
3. The name Asdiwal certainly has several connotations. The Nass form, Asi-hiwl, means 'Crossover of Mountains' (Boas, 1902, p. 228) but cf. also 'amihwil', 'to be in danger' (Boas, 1912, Glossary, p. 257) and Asewawiyet: a different name for and special variety of the Thunder Bird (Barbeau, 1950, Vol. I, pp. 144-145 and Vol. II, p. 476).
4. For a summary and comparative analysis of all the texts which have been listed as referring to the group of the Demurrgi, see Boas (1916, p. 636 ff.).
5. As the smallest animal known to appear in mythology, and also because in the mythology of the Northwest Coast the mouse represents the animals of the earth at their most modest level: that of domestic life. The mouse is in fact the domestic animal of the earth. With this distinction she is entitled to the tiny offering of fat which drips from woolen ear-ornaments when they are thrown into the fire in her honour.
6. 'The love of the master of the sea-lions and of his whole tribe increased very much' (Boas, 1912, p. 133).
7. The Tsimshian of the Nisga group 'look to the river [Nass] for their food supply, which consists principally of salmon and candlefish. Indeed it is owing to the enormous salmon and the latter fish that run in to spawn in the early spring that the name Nass, meaning "the stomach, or food depot" has been given to the river' (G. T. Emmons, 1910).
8. In Lévi-Strauss's writings the notion of a structured conceptual scheme (schème conceptuel), which lies at the back of explicit cultural forms and
consists in the main of elements linked in binary opposition, is of basic importance. See in particular La Pensée sauvage (1962b, p. 173). Throughout this translation the French *schème* has been consistently rendered as English 'schema' and French *opposition* as English 'opposition' even though in places it might have been more elegant to write 'framework' or 'setting for schema', and 'contrast' or 'antithesis' for opposition (E.R.L.).
9. As we shall see later, the apparent gap in the cycle is explained by the fact that in the story of Waux, Asdiwal's son, the closure will be the result of a matriilateral marriage which ends in a terminal situation: husband and wife without children.
10. Asdiwal himself had inherited from his father the lightness and speed of a bird, qualities which are ideally suited to a hunter who, according to native thought, should be as light-footed as a bird on the wing (Boas, 1916, p. 408). Boas's informant considers Waux as Asdiwal's only child (Boas, 1916, p. 243). This is a mistake, for Asdiwal also had a son by his third marriage (Boas, 1912, pp. 123, 133, 135). But this point is unimportant since the third marriage was simply a doublet of the second.
11. Boas's informant seems to have made a mistake which Boas has only partially corrected. In Boas (1916) the text is as follows 'Before his mother died she wanted her son to marry one of her own cousins, and he did what his mother wanted him to do' (p. 244). Thus it would be a cousin of the mother and not of the son. The corresponding native text is to be found in Durlach (1928, p. 124) of which I give here a transcription (in simplified signs): na-guug'it dem'uxa'na'ot'dis'haxa'x a dem'hasde'igqot'k'ahla'k'ig'na'txaat'.
The kinship term *txaot* denotes the father's sister's or the mother's brother's children – that is to say, all cross-cousins. *Lgu-* is a diminutive. The suffix -x is a third person possessive. In his summary of the story of Waux, Boas repeats the suspect phrase: 'He marries one of his mother's cousins' (Boas, 1916, p. 825). But in the commentary he corrects his interpretation by placing this example quite rightly with all those he quotes of marriages with a matriilateral cross-cousin. 'The normal type of marriage, as described in the traditions, is that between a man and either his mother's brother's daughter or his father's daughter; a mother returns her daughter to marry her cousin' (ibid., 1916, p. 449).
Since p. 244 only mentions Waux's marriage, it is clear that this time Boas rectifies the kinship relations, but confuses the sex of the husband and wife. From this there arises a new contradiction, for this cousin would be the father's sister's daughter. The real meaning seems to be: before dying, his mother wanted him to marry one of his own cousins.
12. Boas (1916, pp. 185-191): Describing the marriage ceremonies of the Nisga'a as reported by another informant, Boas explains that the fight between the two groups can become so violent that one of the slaves in the suitor's camp is killed: 'This foretells that the couple will never part' (Boas, 1916, p. 591).
13. Boas (1916, p. 403). Asdiwal's double visit to heaven (which contrasts with his single journey below the earth) seems to be intended to make even clearer the analogy with salmon-fishing. In fact, his return to heaven takes place exactly as if it were a 'catch', in a net which is let down through an opening in the heavens: just like the ritual fishing for the first salmon of spring, which is carried out with a net, through a hole made in the ice which still covers the river.
14. Boas (1912, pp. 112-113). If our interpretation is correct, it must be admitted that the explicit opposition: sky/earth is here realized in an implicit form: sky/water, which is the strongest opposition inherent in the system of the three elements as used by the myth.
This system is expressed in fact by the formula (read the signs : to mean 'is to', the sign :: to mean 'as', the sign > to mean 'is above', and the sign / to mean 'is opposed to'):
1. sky : earth :: earth : water
which can also be written
2. sky > earth = water
Then the hypothesis put forward above about the 'fishing up' of Asdiwal can be verified by the following permutation:
3. sky : water :: earth : earth
which may be said to correspond to Asdiwal's second supernatural voyage, where the opposition to water (earth) is compressed by a subterranean voyage. We are therefore perfectly entitled to put:
4. sky/earth = sky/water (where 'water' stands for 'beneath the sky')
5. earth/water = earth/earth (where 'earth' stands for 'below the ground')
But this duplication of the 'earth' pole is only made necessary by the assimilation (in veiled terms) of the major opposition between sky and earth to the minor opposition, still implicit, between earth and water: Asdiwal is fished up like a fish off an earth which is confused with the liquid element, from the heights of a sky pictured in terrestrial terms as a 'green and fertile prairie'.
From the very beginning the myth seems governed by one particular opposition which is more vital than the others, even if not immediately perceptible: that between earth and water, which is also the most closely linked with models of procreation and the objective relationships between men and the world. For us though it be, analysis of a society's myths verifies the primacy of the infrastructures.
15. See Boas's hesitations in Boas (1916, pp. 401, 411, 412). Even Garfield, who gave the problems much attention, cannot bring herself to admit to the existence of succession in the patrilineal line. See Garfield, Wingert & Barbeau (1951, p. 17).
16. Boas (1916, p. 703). None the less, there are a few minor differences which suggest that Boas (1953) is a weak variant of Boas (1912).
17. J. R. Swanton (1935): 'Lakkhupuk or Gresswille' (p. 586); 'Gitwinkisilk . . . near the mouth of West River' (ibid.). In any case, Barbeau's map (1950) places Gitwinkisilk (Gitwinkisilt) upstream of the Canyon.
18. E. Sapir (1915): 'Greenvile (haq'altsa'p) . . .' (p. 2). According to Sapir, the Gitwankitkulku, 'people of the place where lizards live', from the third Nisga group, starting from downstream.
19. Sapir (1915): 'Gitxate'n, people of the fish traps' (p. 3). Barbeau (1950, map) Girtahum, at the mouth of the estuary and downstream from the canyon.
20. That is, at any rate, what the myth emphatically affirms – but the village of the younger woman is not named.
21. Many myths treat of the theft of salmon by mankind, thanks to men's refining a 'poison' of mostly fish, or to their disgust on discovering that the Mother of Salmon gives birth by her excretory canal.
22. Lévi-Strauss's distinction *marqué* non *marqué* is here rendered 'defined' / 'not defined', but note also the distinction 'marked/unmarked' as it occurs in general linguistics. In the latter context the words *man* and *author* are 'unmarked' in comparison with the words *woman* and *authoress* which are
Claude Lévi-Strauss
'marked'. Here the 'unmarked' term will be presumed to include the 'marked' category unless the latter is explicitly distinguished. For a full discussion, see Greenberg (1966).
23. The younger woman, representing prospective fertility, shows a markedly feminine character; in the elder this is not so marked. The younger must always be in the (earth) position; in the Neskna version, because she is to bear Asdiwal, master of mountains and earth-born hunter, in the Nass version for the same reason, and also because of the strictly feminine character of the gatherer of berries, which stand for earth-food. Cf. Boas (1918): 'while the men provide all the normal food except salmonfish, the women gather berries and dig roots and salmonfish' (p. 52, also p. 404).
24. E. Sapir (1915, pp. 3-7), where it is clear that Goddard (1934) was wrong in attributing only two exogamic divisions to the Nisqa instead of four. This mistake can probably be explained by the fact that the Nisqa, immediate neighbours of the Tingit, find it necessary more often than the Tsimshian to apply the rule of the lowest common multiple to their social organization, so that the laws of exogamy may be respected in marriages with foreigners.
25. Boas quotes 31 pairs of 'local particles' in oppositions of the following type: up along the ground—down along the ground; up through the air—down through the airplane—out of; backwards—forwards, etc. (Boas, 1911, pp. 300-312).
REFERENCES
Barbeau, M. 1950. Totem Poles. National Museum of Canada Bulletin, No. 119, Anthropological Series No. 30.
Reynon, W. 1941. The Tsimshians of Metlakatla. American Anthropologist 43: 83-88.
Boas, Franz. 1895. Indianische Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Küste Amerikas. Berlin.
—— 1902. Tsimshian Texts. Bulletin of Smithsonian Institution, No. 27. Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington.
—— 1911. 'Tsimshian' in Handbook of American Indian Languages, Part I. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40, Part I.
—— 1912. Tsimshian Texts (New Series). Publication of American Ethnological Society, Vol. III. Leyden.
—— 1916. Tsimshian Mythology. Annual Report Smithsonian Institution, No. 31 (1909-1910). Washington: Bureau of American Ethnology.
Durlach, T. M. 1928. The Relationship Systems of the Thingit, Haida and Tsimshian. Publications of American Ethnological Society, Vol. XI. New York.
Emmons, G. T. 1910. 'Niska' in Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30, Part II.
Garfield, V. E. 1939. Tsimshian Clan and Society. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, Vol. 7, No. 3.
Garfield, V. E., Wingert, P. S. & Barbeau, M. 1951. The Tsimshian: Their Arts and Music. Publications of American Ethnological Society, Vol. XVIII. New York.
Goddard, P. E. 1934. Indians of the Northwest Coast. American Museum of Natural History, Handbook Series No. 10. New York.
Greenberg, J. H. 1966. Language Universals. In T. A. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 3: Theoretical Foundations. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 62ff.
Lévi-Strauss, C. 1949. Les Structures élémentaires de la parenté. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
—— 1958a. Anthropologie structurale. Paris: Plon (English translation, 1963a. Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic Books).
—— 1962b. La Pensée sauvage. Paris: Plon.
Malinowski, B. 1932. The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia, 3rd edn. London: Routledge.
Richards, J. F. 1914. Cross Cousin Marriage in South India. Man 14.
Sapir, E. 1915. A Sketch of the Social Organisation of the Nass River Indians. Museum Bulletin of the Canadian Dept. of Mines, Geological Survey, No. XIX. Ottawa.
Swanton, J. R. 1909. Contributions to the Ethnology of the Haida. Memoirs of American Museum of Natural History, Vol. VIII.
—— 1952. The Indian Tribes of North America. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 145.
Wedgwood, C. H. 1928. Cousin Marriage in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th edn. | <urn:uuid:c09f987e-0e50-42ed-8444-c656de45fb32> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | http://web.sbu.edu/theology/bychkov/asdiwal.pdf | 2018-10-23T23:03:11Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583517495.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20181023220444-20181024001944-00006.warc.gz | 385,190,647 | 23,565 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.992089 | eng_Latn | 0.998807 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
1819,
6484,
10741,
15044,
17480,
21978,
26303,
30443,
34988,
37353,
40777,
45210,
49730,
54039,
58395,
63163,
67543,
71766,
75990,
80570,
84901,
90149,
97181,
101252
] | [
2,
1.0859375
] | 1 | 0 |
In the United States, as much as 40% of food produced for people to eat is wasted along the food chain. Grocery stores, restaurants, and institutions are responsible for about 40% of this waste. Donating surplus food helps local agencies serve those in need, including children and seniors. Donating food also helps the environment. Wasted food is the most prevalent material in landfills by far, representing about 20% of the trash by weight. When food is wasted, the water, energy, fertilizer, and cropland that went into producing the food is also wasted.
**LIABILITY PROTECTION**
When you donate food, you are protected by the [Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Act](#), which was passed into federal law in 1996. Organizations that donate food in good faith to a nonprofit for distribution to people in need are not subject to civil or criminal liability that arises from the condition of the food.
**TAX SAVINGS**
According to the Federal Tax Code, eligible businesses can deduct the lesser of either (a) twice the cost of acquiring the donated food or (b) the cost of acquiring the donated food, plus ½ of the food’s expected profit margin, if it were sold at fair market value. Contact your tax professional to determine its application to your business.
---
**1 IN 6 RESIDENTS IN OUR REGION EXPERIENCE FOOD INSECURITY***
**1 IN 5 CHILDREN EXPERIENCE FOOD INSECURITY OR HUNGER**
ONLY 10% OF SURPLUS FOOD IS BEING RECOVERED IN THE FOOD SERVICE AND RESTAURANT SECTOR LEAVING ABOUT **1.5 BILLION MEALS UNEATEN PER YEAR***
*Feeding America, map.feedingamerica.org/county/2017/overall/ohio/county/hamilton*
**Feeding America, map.feedingamerica.org/county/2017/child/ohio**
***ReFED, restaurant.hospitality.com***
In order to ensure donated food is kept safe, donating facilities shall adhere to all applicable sections of the Ohio Uniform Food Safety Code and your local health department. Donated prepared foods and potentially hazardous foods must meet the temperature requirements as outlined below.
**PROPER COOLING**
- **COLD FOOD**
- Must be kept at 41°F or below.
- **HOT FOOD**
- Must be kept at 135°F or above.
- **HOT FOOD THAT IS COOLED AND DONATED COLD**
- Must be cooled from 135°F to 70°F within 2 hours and then from 70°F to 41°F or below within 4 hours for a total of 6 hours.
If food is unable to be delivered at the proper temperature, is adulterated, or compromised at any time, it must be composted or discarded.
**EXAMPLES OF POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOODS**
- Cut Leaf Greens
- Cut Tomatoes
- Cut Melon
- Dairy
- Meat
- Seafood
**IDENTIFY FOOD YOU CAN DONATE**
Licensed food establishments can donate food that has not been served including any raw, cooked, processed, or prepared edible food, ice, beverage, or ingredient used or intended for use, in whole or in part for human consumption, with the condition that the items be wholesome - this includes packaged and prepared foods.
**FOOD THAT CAN BE DONATED**
- **HOT FOOD** that was not served to a guest and kept at temperature and/or cooled properly (entrees, soups, etc.)
- **COLD FOOD** that was not served to a guest and kept at temperature (sandwiches, yogurt parfaits, salads, etc.)
- **PRODUCE** (strawberries, lettuce, onions, tomatoes, herbs, etc.)
- **BEVERAGES** (juice, bottled water, lemonade, tea, etc.)
- **PACKAGED ITEMS** (dry pasta, canned vegetables, pudding, etc.)
- **DAIRY PRODUCTS** (sour cream, milk, yogurt, cheese, etc.)
- **RAW MEAT** (beef, chicken, pork, etc.)
**FOOD THAT CAN’T BE DONATED**
- Previously served food such as from a buffet or that has been served to a guest and returned to the business
- Distressed foods that have been in a flood, fire, smoke, etc.
- Food in sharply dented or rusty cans
- Food in opened or torn containers exposing the food to potential contamination
---
**FIND A LOCAL ORGANIZATION**
Contact a hunger relief organization and schedule a pickup for your surplus food.
1. **LASOUPE**
email@example.com
2. **FREESTORE FOODBANK**
firstname.lastname@example.org
3. **FOOD DONATION CONNECTION**
foodtodonate.com
---
**FOOD RECOVERY HIERARCHY**
1. **PREVENT**
Reduce the amount of food that goes unsold.
2. **RECOVER**
Donating surplus food to feed the hungry.
3. **RECYCLE**
Diverting food waste from landfills through use as animal feed, composting, or anaerobic digestion.
Adapted from the EPA Food Recovery Hierarchy | f5d06c38-d695-43ff-aaf6-1c6bebafc932 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.norwoodohio.gov/DocumentCenter/View/149/Food-Donation-Information-PDF?bidId= | 2022-12-04T11:32:32+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710972.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20221204104311-20221204134311-00300.warc.gz | 974,211,444 | 1,099 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.990391 | eng_Latn | 0.991268 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1724,
4425
] | [
2.546875
] | 2 | 1 |
Istanbul:
A World Heritage Site
by
Zeynep AHUNBAY
REPUBLIC OF TURKEY
MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND TOURISM PUBLICATIONS
© Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism
General Directorate of Libraries and Publications
3349
Handbook Series
17
ISBN: 978-975-17-3605-5
www.kulturturizm.gov.tr
e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
by
Zeynep Ahunbay
Photographs
Aras Neftçi
Sami Güner
Zeynep Ahunbay
Production
Sistem Ofset Basım Yayın San. ve Ticaret Ltd. Ş
Strazburg Caddesi No: 31/17 Sihhiye – ANKARA
Phone: 0 312 229 18 81 Fax: 0 312 229 63 97
e-mail: email@example.com
Book Design: Levent Temel
First Edition
Print run: 5000.
Printed in Ankara in 2012.
Ahunbay, Zeynep
Istanbul: A World Heritage Site/Zeynep Ahunbay; Photo. Aras Neftçi, Sami Güner, Zeynep Ahunbay.-Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2012.
168 p.: col. ill.; 20 cm.- (Ministry of Culture and Tourism Publications; 3349. Handbook Series of General Directorate of Libraries and Publications: 17)
ISBN: 978-975-17-3605-5
I. title. II. Neftçi, Aras. III. Güner, Sami. IV. Ahunbay, Zeynep. V. Series. 720.956226
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 5
ISTANBUL: QUEEN OF CITIES ........................................... 7
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY ....................... 14
OTTOMAN PERIOD (1453-1922) ........................................ 50
THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD ............................................... 78
HISTORIC AREAS OF ISTANBUL ...................................... 80
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PARK .................................................. 80
HAGIA SOPHIA ............................................................. 83
HAGIA EIRENE ............................................................. 91
TOPKAPI PALACE .......................................................... 93
THE THEODOSIAN WALL .............................................. 113
THE CASTLE OF SEVEN TOWERS .................................... 123
ZEYREK ................................................................. 125
SÜLEYMANIYE .......................................................... 131
CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC ISTANBUL ....................... 150
NOTES ................................................................. 162
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................... 165
Modern Turkish uses the Latin alphabet, modified to ensure that there is a separate letter for each main sound. The spelling thus aims at phonetic consistency. For Turkish artists, place names, publications and special terms this book employ modern Turkish spelling. Proper names have been kept in modern Turkish with one exception – İstanbul has been rendered with normal English spelling using I rather than İ unless it is part of a title. Consonants have more or less the same sound as in English, except for:
c like j in English.
ç like ch in English.
ğ the “soft g”. Depending on the adjoining letters, this is dropped, pronounced like y in English, or treated a lengthening the preceding vowel.
ı is a back, close, unrounded vowel which does not exist in English, the nearest equivalent being the phantom vowel in the second syllable of rhythm.
ö like ö in German or eu in French peur.
ş like sh in English.
ü like ü in German or u in French.
INTRODUCTION
Each historic city is important and attractive in its own way. The beauty and aura of a historic town envelopes the visitor and takes him back into history, making it possible to feel the presence of the past at a very close distance. The works of old masters transcend time and reach our day, arousing interest and feelings of admiration.
With their natural, archaeological, urban environments and assets, the popular and frequently visited places of the world: Athens, Cairo, Rome, Jerusalem, Semerkand, Kyoto are all regarded as very important; their treasured monuments and artistic, archaeological assets are sources of inspiration for the young and the old.
With its history going back to prehistoric times, Istanbul has an important place among the ancient cities of the world. Its position on the strait between Asia and Europe affords deep vistas into the Marmara Sea and the Bosphorus. Its unmatched location and silhouette makes it unique. Being located at the junction of roads from Russia to the Mediterranean and from Far East to Europe, it has attracted many people from different countries; their presence has made Istanbul a melting pot of cultures.
Being the capital of empires ruling around the Mediterranean has given Istanbul the chance to foster science and arts, along with vigor in building activity. The strife for excellence in the field of architecture was not reserved to limited periods of time; with the support of political and financial means, Istanbul has been a place where top quality designs were produced without interruption over a period of more than thousand years. As a result, the city became an open air museum where monuments like the Hagia Sophia which is a landmark in architectural history of the world and impressive Ottoman complexes from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century dominate the skyline.
Myths, songs and poems written about its beauty, the elegance of Istanbuliots, rich literary collections about the life in the city, the shadow theater figures symbolizing the comic element in the history of the city, the gourmet kitchen with hot and cold dishes and sweets stemming from the recipes of the Topkapi Palace and handed over to the life of the commons, make up the intangible heritage of Istanbul.
Zeynep AHUNBAY
Leander’s Tower (Kız Kulesi)
ISTANBUL: QUEEN OF CITIES
Moved by the destruction of important natural and cultural sites through neglect, urban sprawl, big engineering projects, UNESCO decided to take action to protect the outstanding cultural and natural heritage of the world. An international convention which would support a scientific and sustainable system of monitoring and protection was established. The World Heritage Convention was ratified by the UNESCO General Conference in Paris on 16 November 1972.
The first step was to ask states to become members. Then they would make a study of their natural and cultural treasures and select sites which could be listed as World Heritage. The Convention underlined the collaboration of nations for the protection of the cultural and natural heritage with universal value. The inscribed places would be treasured by all nations and their protection would have priority for the international community (1).
The Convention clarified the responsibilities of the state parties. The first two articles of the Convention listed the properties which could be classified as cultural and natural heritage. To be included on the World Heritage List, sites or monuments needed to have “outstanding universal value”, a concept which underlines the quality of being above national importance.
A committee was created within UNESCO to evaluate the nominations to the World Heritage List and to monitor the listed sites. The nomination files are first reviewed by an expert team from ICOMOS International and/or IUCN, depending on their characteristics; being cultural, natural or mixed sites. The Committee reviews the applications according to a total of ten criteria, six for cultural and four for natural sites. In order to be included in the List, cultural sites should satisfy at least one criteria. Outstanding universal value is tested by integrity and authenticity. Furthermore, it is necessary to guarantee a legal and administrative back up for the continuous preservation of the site (2).
Sultan Ahmet Complex and the Hippodrome
After ratifying the World Heritage Convention in 1983, Turkey started to proceed with nominations to the World Heritage List. Starting with 1984, files were prepared by the Ministry of Culture and submitted to UNESCO. The first two sites nominated for inclusion to the World Heritage List were Istanbul and Göreme. *Historic Areas of Istanbul* was inscribed in the List of World Heritage in 1985.
Old Istanbul is located on a peninsula, surrounded by the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Marmara Sea. The major part of its population lived within the area surrounded by the land and sea walls until the end of the nineteenth century. Other historic parts of the city are Galata, the medieval settlement on the northern part of the Golden Horn; Eyüp district which developed after the fifteenth century outside of the walls, to the west of the Historic Peninsula; Scutari, the Ottoman settlement on the Asian side and the villages along the Bosphorus.
The urban history of the area within the walls goes back to prehistoric times. The walled city has great archaeological
potential but there is a living city on its top and chances for excavation are quite limited. According to Turkish law, archaeological remains discovered during new constructions are respected and are put under legal protection if they are regarded as worthy of protection in-situ. There are also occasions when archeological finds revealed during the dig for the foundation of a new house are removed after documentation, in order to allow for modern development.
During the Ottoman period, the city developed over ancient remains or next to existing structures, sometimes making use of the still standing walls and substructures. The top layer of the city has buildings from Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman periods and the modern era, making a very complex but interesting urban texture. During the nineteenth century, most of the civil architecture was
in wood. Due to the destruction of entire districts by fires, there were decrees to build houses in masonry. Thus the houses in the Fener and Balat districts were built in brick and stone, after a major fire in the nineteenth century.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, great fires devastated a large proportion of the timber districts of Istanbul. These areas had to be rebuilt on a grid-iron plan with brick or concrete. With the new planning approach, the scale of the neighborhoods changed from two or three floor houses to four or five storey apartment houses and offices. This change in scale had a great impact on the urban scape of the city. Architects were concerned about the drastic change and tried to find the means to protect the remaining traditional architecture in timber.
The efforts to protect the urban fabric of the old city gained momentum in the second half of the twentieth century. Until 1973, the law for protection of cultural heritage permitted only the designation of individual houses. Ordinary historic houses in a row were not regarded as worthy of being preserved. They had to have some special features to be designated, a monumental façade or a richly decorated interior. It was not possible to designate groups of buildings, or streetscapes.
In 1973, Turkey had a new law on cultural property, which enabled the designation of urban, archaeological, natural and mixed sites. Thus, the Protection Board in Istanbul could designate areas with timber architecture.
During the preparation of the nomination file for Istanbul, only the sites under legal protection, the Archeological Park, the Land Walls, Süleymaniye and Zeyrek districts were included in the dossier. Other areas like the commercial center of town, the Grand Bazaar, Fener-Balat districts were not included.
ICOMOS experts inspected the sites and presented a positive report for designation. The selected areas were regarded as the
most prestigious of the historic city and representative of its past. The report summarized the risks Istanbul was facing at the time. In 1984, the population of Istanbul was only two and a half million in comparison to the 13.5 millions of today. The report pointed out at the risks of urban growth and pressures emanating from traffic. The four separately protected sites: the Archaeological Park, the Land Walls, Süleymaniye and Zeyrek districts were combined under the title “Historic Areas of Istanbul”. World Heritage Committee adopted the proposal in December 1985 and the Historic Areas of Istanbul entered the World Heritage List as number 356, with criteria i, ii, iii and iv.
Istanbul has been a part of the Mediterranean World since ancient times with its commercial, cultural, administrative relations. The site of old Istanbul, the area contained within the city walls is called the Historic Peninsula. The topography of the peninsula has made it possible to develop a spectacular city, using the accents of hilltops and the advantages of the shores. The interesting topography of the Historic Peninsula offers pleasant surprises to the spectators. The important complexes, living quarters, the commercial center of town and green areas were arranged with subtlety on the hills of the peninsula, creating a picture which is very interesting to look at.
The valuable vestiges of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods; the Hippodrome, the Column of Constantine, ruins of the Great Palace, Theodosian Walls, underground cisterns, imperial churches and mosques, palaces, madrasas, caravansarays present a wide variety of archaeological and architectural repertoire. The grandeur of Byzantine Empire is best expressed with its most impressive monuments being located in the capital. Several important monuments of the Ottoman period, dating from the last five hundred years, also enrich the city; some continue to live with their original functions, some are adapted to serve as museums or other cultural institutions.
HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY
The foundation of many cities are connected with some mythological figures. Istanbul also has a mythological beginning. According to Greek mythology, Zeus was in love with beautiful Io. To protect her from the wrath of his consort Hera, Zeus put Io in disguise, transforming her into a white cow. Nevertheless, Hera learned about the affair and sent gadflies to annoy Io. Horrified, Io ran away with excitement to and fro; the trajectory of her escape defined the Bosphorus (3). Io was pregnant and she gave birth to a girl named Keroessa, after passing the Golden Horn. Later Keroessa married Poseidon, the god of the sea and they had a son, Byzas, who grew up and lived in Megara, Greece. During
his visit to the oracle in Delphi, Byzas was told to go and found a city across Chalcedon, “the country of the blind”. He sailed out and travelled north from Megara, passing through the Dardanelles and reaching the entrance of the Bosphorus. As he approached the Historic Peninsula, he saw the settlement on the Asian side of the strait, presently Kadıköy, and decided that people who settled on the Asian side, while there was a much superior place on the European side, must be considered “blind”. So he settled at the tip of the promontory across Chalcedon; the colony he established was named Byzantion, after him.
The foundation of Byzantion is dated to the seventh century B.C. The Hellenistic colony developed over the first hill of the
Historic Peninsula and along the Golden Horn shore. Its economy depended on fishing, agriculture and taxes imposed on ships travelling through the Bosphorus (4). No physical remains of Byzantion are visible above ground today; some coins, steles are the finds obtained from excavations. Buildings and monuments were covered by the constructions of the later cultural strata.
Byzantion was pressed by Roman power at the end of the second century A.D. Septimius Severus sieged the city but the city
would not surrender at once. The resistance against the Roman army angered Septimius Severus. After the takeover, he set the city on fire and destroyed its walls. Later he tried to make up for the destruction. Under Roman rule, Byzantion flourished; monumental buildings fitting the grandeur of the Empire entered the urban scene.
The decision of Constantine the Great to make Byzantion the capital of the Roman Empire was a great decision and a turning
point in the history of the city. The capital city was enlarged, enclosing an additional 6 km square area for new settlement and public buildings. New walls were built and the city was called Nea Roma/New Rome or Constantinopolis, Constantine’s city (5). To draw parallels with ancient Rome, which had seven hills, Constantinopolis was also organized in a way to have seven hills. Families from Rome were invited to settle at the new capital. To embellish the city in accordance with its stature, interesting objects were brought from different parts of the Empire. The inauguration ceremony of the town took place on 11 May 330 (6).
The Hippodrome with its surviving monuments, the Aqueduct of Valens, the colossal capitals standing in the second courtyard of Topkapı Palace, the gigantic Medusa heads reused in the Basilica Cistern give an idea about the monumentality of the Roman architecture in the city.
Since the city was founded on a peninsula with the mainland in the west, its growth had to be in the westward direction. With each enlargement of the city, new defense lines were needed. The expansion of the settled area in the fourth century, under Constantine the Great, was in such a way as to include the five
Hippodrome towards the end of the fifteenth century by O. Panvinio
hills of the peninsula. Since there are no visible remains of the Constantinian wall, its exact line and features are difficult to surmise. Generally, there is an opinion that the wall started near the Marmara shore of Psammatia, advanced towards the north, uphill, passing through Ese Kapı at Cerrahpaşa, then descended down to Lycus valley, went up the hill to Fatih and reached Unkapanı on the Golden Horn.
Information about the layout of the city during the Roman period is rather schematic. Before becoming Constantinopolis, the western boundary of the city was approximately at a place where the Constantine’s Column stands today. Outside the walls, there was the necropolis of the ancient city. Constantine enlarged the city and built important monuments. He established the first Hagia Sophia at the same place where the present Hagia Sophia stands. To the south of the major church, there was the forum of Augusteion. A colonnaded street, called Mese ran from the Augusteion to the west, reaching the Forum of Constantine. Although the form of the Constantinian forum is no longer discernible, there are descriptions about its original design. The forum was circular in plan, to look like the ocean.
Marble base of the Obelisk of Theodosius on the Hippodrome
Mosaic decoration over the apse of Hagia Sophia
The Virgin and Child, mosaic, 12th century, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.
It was paved with marble slabs (7); in the middle rose the 50 m high porphyry column, topped with the bronze statue of the Emperor. The statue originally belonged to god Helios; only his head was changed to look like the Emperor. During its long history, the porphyry column suffered from fires and was braced by iron rings, thereby acquiring the name Çemberlitaş in Turkish (the column with rings).
The eastern and western gates of the forum were adorned with statues. The level of the ground rose considerably in time and the surrounding urban texture was completely changed. But the basic road structure of the ancient city has survived through the centuries. The significance of the Mese, as the main thoroughfare of the city continued during the Ottoman period. The name became *Divanyolu* during the Ottoman period. It was used by the sultan for processions, as he and his retinue moved out from the Topkapı Palace and advanced towards the main gate of the city at Edirnekapı to start campaigns in the western direction.
Column of Constantine, Çemberlitaş
Remains of the Theodosian Arch
The Column of Marcian, Kıztaşı
From the Forum of Constantine, the colonnaded street was extended towards the west, reaching the Constantinian wall. Several other forums were established on the main axis of the town. The Forum of Theodosius was located about where the Bayezit Square is located today. The remains of the monumental arch of Theodosius were discovered in 1957-58 during the excavations for the road construction between Bayezit and Aksaray (8).
A reconstitution drawing of the Theodosian Arch was made by Prof. R. Naumann, from the German Archaeological Institute, using the information from the architectural evidence discovered in-situ and the marble blocks scattered around the foundations. The form and design of the 10.5 m tall gigantic columns are very special. The shafts had reliefs carved on their shaft, making these structural elements look like tree trunks. The central part of the monument was about 21 metres high, creating a very impressive image in the center of the city. Forum Bovis was the next public space on the main road. The forum of Arcadius was located to the southwest of the city, close to the Constantinian wall.
The shape of the ancient forums were changed in later times, some of the monuments standing in their middle were disturbed by earthquakes or suffered from fires. The urban fabric was changed in the Ottoman period; some of the columns lost their public appearance, becoming enclosed in the garden of private houses. One of them is the Column of Arcadius which originally stood in the middle of the Arcadius Forum. The monument has been seriously damaged by earthquakes and fires. According to some drawings from the Ottoman period, the column had fine carvings over its shaft, arranged in a band surrounding it in the form of a spiral. Inside the column, a stairway lead to the top (10). Today only the lower part of the monument is preserved; it stands in the garden of a private house and not visible from the street.
During the eighteenth century, the column of Marcian was also standing in the garden of a house (11). After the 1912 fire which devastated a large portion of the Fatih district, a new street plan
Panoramic view of the Historic Peninsula with Yeni and Nuruosmaniye mosques
Istanbul, Turkey
was adopted. The planner for the region appreciated the value of this ancient monument and used it as the centerpiece of a new circus. Today the column stands at a crossing, with several streets directed towards it.
In the fifth century, a new fortification was built by prefect Anthemious to protect the city from the assaults of the approaching Huns (12). This defense line is called the Theodosian Wall and is combined with sea walls on the Marmara shore and Golden Horn walls on the north (13). With the death of Attila, Huns did not start the expected campaign towards Constantinople, but the Theodosian Wall with its triple defence system consisting of the ditch, front wall and the main wall, has been very helpful in defending the city against other armies.
The city was embellished with civil and religious buildings during the fifth and sixth centuries. With the spread of Christianity, religious architecture flourished; many churches and monasteries were erected. Early Christian churches were basilical in plan and had timber roofs. The oldest surviving church in Istanbul is the Basilica of St John, located within the Studious Monastery. It is located in the southwest part of town, at Psammatia, near
Yedikule. With its beautiful serpentine columns, richly carved marble architraves and opus sectile floor, the church is a fine example of early Christian art and architecture. The Basilica of Studious was converted into a mosque during the Ottoman period. As Imrahor Camii, it was well maintained until a fire in late nineteenth century destroyed its timber roof, also causing damage to the marble columns and entablature. Today, the monument has no roof and its opus sectile floor is exposed to the elements.
Istanbul has suffered from fires throughout its long history. The second Hagia Sophia founded by Theodosius II was devastated by a fire which started during the Nike revolt in 532. The remains from this basilical structure were recovered during the excavations in the atrium of Hagia Sophia in 1930’s. The floor of the second Hagia Sophia was found to be about 2.5 metres below the atrium level of the present Hagia Sophia. The surviving column bases of the second Hagia Sophia are preserved in situ. Huge architraves built of marble from the Proconnessian island, decorated with a frieze of lambs and a pediment block from the western gable give an idea about the beauty and the fine quality of the marble carving of the monument.
The interior of the church is adorned with intricate frescoes that depict various religious scenes and figures, showcasing the rich artistic heritage of the region. The ceiling features a series of arches and domes, each intricately painted with biblical narratives and saints, creating a visually stunning and spiritually uplifting environment. The frescoes not only serve as a testament to the skill and devotion of the artists but also provide a window into the spiritual life and beliefs of the community that built and continues to maintain this sacred space.
Church of the Chora Monastery, parekklesion dome
The three major monuments from the Justinianic period (532-565) Hagia Sophia, Hagia Eirene and Sergios and Bacchos were extraordinary projects of a remarkable age. The design of medieval churches was quite different from these earlier structures. Most of them were smaller in scale, due to the limited sources available for building programs. They usually had cross-in-square plans. The Lips Monastery Churches (Fenari Isa), Pantocrator (Zeyrek Camii), Churches of the Chora Monastery (Kariye Camii), Myraleion (Bodrum Camii), Pantepoptes (Eski Imaret Camii), Pammakaristos (Fethiye Camii), Gül Camii, Hagios Andreas (Koca Mustafa Paşa Camii), Vefa Kilise Camii, Theotokos Kyriotissa (Kalenderhane).
With its well preserved figural mosaics and frescos, Chora Monastery Church highlights the level of the decorative arts during the Medieval period. Though the largest of the medieval churches, the South Church of the Pantocrator Monastery, presently Zeyrek Camii, has only an opus sectile floor and some of its original marble revetment preserved in the interior. Not much survived from of its mosaic and other decoration due to severe earthquake damages and the Latin occupation of the city.
During the Latin occupation of Constantinople from 1204 until 1264, many of the valuable materials, icons, statues, capitals, marble revetments were removed from churches and the other monuments and taken to Europe, especially to Venice. With the recovery of the Paleologan dynasty, the damaged monuments were restored and the churches which had been converted to Latin ritual, were returned to Orthodox rite.
After the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmet II, most of the old churches were converted into mosques; minbars and mihrabs were added to their interiors and minarets to their exteriors. Mosques connected to Mehmet II foundation like the Hagia Sophia and the south church of the Pantocrator also had imperial loggias reserved for the sultan.
The mosaic in the apse of the church of San Clemente, Rome, depicts the twelve apostles and the Virgin Mary. The inscription around the Virgin reads "Ave Maria gratia plena," which is Latin for "Hail Mary, full of grace."
Church of the Chora Monastery; the south dome of the inner narthex
The frescoes in the church depict various religious scenes and figures, including the Ascension of Jesus Christ and other saints.
The Monastery Church of the Chora Monastery; detail from the apse of the parekklesion
Gül Camii
Remains of a wharf at Yenikapı excavation site
The ancient city had several harbours on its southern and northern coasts. Neorion harbour (near Sirkeci of today) had been in use since the Hellenistic period. The Theodosian and Sophianae harbours on the south coast were silted in time. Some old engravings from the Middle Ages and H. Schedel’s drawing from the end of the fifteenth century (14), indicate two harbours on the Marmara coast: the Julian/Sophianae/Kontoskalion and the Eleutherios/Theodosius I harbours. The harbours are depicted as protected by sea walls; they have arched openings to let in the ships. Both of the harbours were silted and out of use during the Ottoman period. P. Gyllius who visited Istanbul during the sixteenth century noted that the old
Kontoskalion harbour which was called *Kadirga Limani* by the Turkish people, was already silted (15).
Instead of the ancient harbours on the southern coast of the city; Ottomans preferred the Golden Horn which is protected from the strong south wind that affects the sea considerably. Very little was known about the harbours until the recent rescue excavations for the subway provided the opportunity to carry out research into the silted Theodosian harbour. Excavations conducted at Yenikapi revealed very interesting and significant details about the history of the city. In the western part of the harbour, ruins of the harbour walls and timber posts to which the ships were tied were brought to light. More than twenty ship wrecks with loads of amphorae and other goods provided information about the nature of the Medieval seafaring of the city.
Very little has survived from the early palaces of Constantinople. During the construction of the Justice Palace in 1950’s, remains of the Lausos and Antiochos Palaces were discovered. The design of the palaces in the Constantinian capital was closely related to the architectural tradition in Rome. These two palaces can be considered as representative of the many which have been lost. Their proximity to the Mese can be interpreted as an indication of their importance.
The remains of the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors covers a wide area from the Hagia Sophia to the Marmara coast. The fire in 1912 removed the houses above the ruins and the first researches were made possible. Excavations conducted during 1930’s at the Arasta of the Sultan Ahmet Complex brought to light a floor mosaic with mythological figures, hunting and daily life scenes. The location was identified as one of the courtyards of the Palace. The mosaic was dated to the sixth century. Restoration of the mosaics was undertaken between 1983-1994 as a joint venture between the Austrian Scientific Academy and the Turkish Ministry of Culture. The deformed sections were removed from the ground, cleaned, stabilized and replaced in their original positions. A new roof was built over the site, to protect it from the climatic conditions. The site has become the Mosaic Museum and is open to visitors.
During the restoration of the Tevkifhane, the old detention and later prison building dating from early twentieth century, some excavations were conducted in the courtyard and the surrounding area. The interesting finds from the ruins located to the north and west of the old prison provided new insight into the organization of the Great Palace. The finds from the digs are now exhibited within the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul. The in-situ remains, walls, decorated vaults, gates and the other remains of the Great Palace await protection and presentation.
Romans supplied fresh water to the city from sources in the west and the northern part of the town. Aqueducts and cisterns were constructed to bring water to the city and store it for times of war and siege. Aqueduct of Valens, also called Hadrianus Aqueduct with reference to Emperor Hadrian (16), is the earliest surviving water conveyance system in the town. It spanned the valley between two hills, starting from the fifth hill and reaching the fourth hill near the Theodosian Forum. Some claim that the stones from the walls of Chalcedon were used for its construction.
The Basilica Cistern, also known as the Sunken Palace, is an ancient underground reservoir located in Istanbul, Turkey. It was built during the reign of Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century AD to store water for the city's residents and to provide a source of water for the imperial palaces. The cistern is one of the largest and most impressive examples of Byzantine architecture and engineering. It is a rectangular structure with a series of arches and columns that support a large dome. The interior of the cistern is lined with white marble and is illuminated by candles, creating a serene and mystical atmosphere. The cistern is now a popular tourist attraction and is open to visitors who can explore its vast underground chambers and admire its stunning architecture.
Interior of Basilica Cistern from the 6th century
The two storey structure has come through the centuries with several repairs (17). It continued to be used during the Ottoman period to transfer water from new sources. Pipes belonging to new conveyance systems, established by individuals were placed above it. The eastern part of the aqueduct collapsed during the earthquake of 1509. Today the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul is responsible for the maintenance of the monument. A major restoration of the structure was taken up in the 1990’s. The monument suffers from the vibrations and the pollution generated by the heavy traffic running under it.
There are quite a number of cisterns in the historic city. Some are called the open cisterns; they have large basins without a roof. The Aspar/Sultan Selim, Aetious/Edirnekapı and Exi Marmara/Seyitömer cisterns are of this kind; they could hold large quantities of water. Their thick and high walls have withstood time, but the conduits and the mechanical systems have disappeared. The open
cisterns were abandoned during the Ottoman period. Some people used them for agricultural activity or built houses inside them. A small quarter with a masjid developed inside the Aspar cistern after the sixteenth century. In late twentieth century, the Municipality of Istanbul cleaned the accretions inside the cisterns. Today, the open cisterns are surrounded by densely built neighborhoods. Some are used as parks and playgrounds. Some temporary buildings, used for educational purposes are built within them, to make the most out of these vast structures. Considering their archaeological significance, these ancient monuments deserve to be conserved and presented in a better way.
With their closely spaced columns and brick vaults, the underground cisterns are fascinating spaces to visit. Among them, the Basilica and Binbirdirek cisterns are the more impressive. Basilica Cistern which measures 138 x 64.6 meters in plan, was constructed in the sixth century. It is located very close to the Hagia Sophia and was in use throughout the Byzantine period. Ottomans preferred to use fresh water running directly from the natural sources; so many of the Byzantine cisterns were not used and totally forgotten.
The Basilica cistern was rediscovered in the nineteenth century and became a tourist attraction. There was still some water at its bottom and visitors used a boat to reach the far ends of its mystical interior. With the establishment of the Turkish Republic, the care of aqueducts and cisterns was handed over to the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul. During 1980’s a comprehensive project was undertaken to clean the cistern and restore this exquisite monument. During the implementation of the project, interesting details were brought to light. One of the discoveries was the frieze blocks with gigantic Medusa heads; these had been used as bases for some columns. Reuse of columns and capitals from ancient monuments was common practice for the Byzantines. The discovery was exciting because of the exceptional quality of the reused material. The restoration project included the addition of a new lighting system and walking platforms for the visitors.
Beyazit Square and the Grand Bazaar
Istanbul, Turkey
The cistern is now open to the public; occasionally artistic performances and cultural events are organized taking advantage of its extraordinary atmosphere.
Though attributed to Philoxenes from the time of Constantine, the brick stamps date the construction of Binbirdirek cistern to the sixth century. The cistern is unique with its exceptionally tall columns composed of two shafts placed on top of each other. Its dark interior was used as a silk workshop during the nineteenth century. Today the property belongs to the General Directorate of Pious Foundations. After years of neglect, the interior was cleaned and restored. It is now open to the public; the interior is used for special meetings and art exhibits.
Several other cisterns have been discovered during excavations for new buildings. It is important to clean them and make accessible to the public, as part of the cultural heritage of the city. The cistern on Soğukçeşme Street near Hagia Sophia was one of the first to be restored and reused. The Touring and Automobile Club converted this small cistern close to the Topkapı Palace into a restaurant. Recently, Nakilbent, Sultan Selim and Zeyrek cisterns have been restored, to be used for exhibits and other activities.
During the Byzantine rule, Genoese people were given the permit to settle to the north of the Golden Horn, in the area called Galata. Galata developed and became a walled city; an independent settlement with its own administration. After the establishment of Ottoman rule in Constantinople, Genoese people continued to live there but there were several changes. The commercial center near the coast was remodelled. A bedesten was built in the center by Sultan Mehmet II. The great tower above the settlement was turned into a watchtower for fire and security. The settlement started to grow outside the walls. The embassies of European countries were established outside the walls of Galata, in the area called Beyoğlu.
Anadolu Hisarı; castle built by Yıldırım Bayezid on the Asian side of the Bosphorus
OTTOMAN PERIOD (1453-1922)
The transformation of Constantinople into the Ottoman capital took a long time to realize. Sultan Mehmet II, “the Conqueror”, initiated projects to restore the city and improve the living conditions. He started the construction of the Topkapı Palace, Yedikule Castle, Fatih and Eyüp complexes, several commercial buildings, including three bedestens and a cannon foundry outside of the walls of Galata. These buildings served as some of the basic institutions for state administration, religious, educational, commercial and the defense functions.
To revive the city, an appeal was made to the inhabitants who had left the city during the siege, to come back. New settlers were brought from the Balkans and Anatolia. The newly formed quarters took their names from the places the settlers originated from. Thus the name of Aksaray comes from Aksaray in central Anatolia, from which people came and settled in the fifteenth century.
Complexes which usually included a mosque, a madrasa, a primary school and a bath were founded in different parts of the town by viziers and high ranking officers. These projects satisfied the religious, social and educational demands of the neighborhoods formed around them. Mahmut Paşa, Ishak Paşa, Koca Mustafa Paşa, Murat Paşa are some of the viziers who have been active in reviving the city. New settlements also developed outside of the city walls; Eyüp, to the west of the historic town, Tophane to the north of Galata, Üsküdar and Kadıköy on the Asian side started to develop.
Fatih Complex, the religious and educational compound of Mehmet II was built on the fifth hill where the Holy Apostles Church and the tomb of Constantine the Great stood before. The old church and the tomb had been neglected; the Orthodox patriarch declined to stay there. So the site was chosen to build the complex of the new ruler. The project included a grand mosque, eight madrasas, eight prep schools, a caravansaray, a guest house, a primary school, a hospital, a double bath and the tombs of the founder and his wife. The complex was organized like a great campus, with the mosque in the center and madrasas arranged
symmetrically on the north and the south. The mosque which is considered as a step in the development of Ottoman mosques; it had a big dome and a semi dome in the qibla direction.
The complex has come to our day with several changes. The earthquake of 1766 caused great damage to the mosque and the madrasas. The central dome collapsed. The scale of the structural damage necessitated the reconstruction of the mosque. The courtyard from the fifteenth century was preserved, but the mosque was rebuilt using a new plan and structural scheme, composed of a central dome surrounded by four semidomes. The tombs of Fatih and his wife Gülbahar Hatun were also reconstructed after the earthquake of 1766.
Several losses and modifications have taken place in the Complex over the centuries. The primary school, hospital, the double bath, the caravansaray and kitchen have been lost in time. The recent earthquake of 1999 caused some cracks in the mosque, the guesthouse and the madrasas. A project for the reinforcement of the endangered structures is going on.
During the sixteenth century, the city was embellished with several complexes founded by sultans and their family members, as well as by high officers of state. The imperial complexes
offered several social, religious and educational services to their neighborhoods and also to the city. The model of the Fatih Complex was taken for the imperial foundations built in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Their programs included a hospital, a guesthouse, a bath and tombs in addition to an imperial mosque and educational buildings.
Complexes of Bayezit II, Sultan Selim, Şehzade and Süleymaniye were the major projects of the sixteenth century. The care taken to design and execute them, their locations in the city are indicators of the mastery in dealing with urban topography. With their monumental compositions, the complexes aimed to exalt and eternalize the memory of their founders.
Bayezit II Complex was raised in the center of the Historic Peninsula, close to the ancient Theodosian Forum. It is the second imperial complex founded by the Ottomans in the new capital. This part of the town acquired the name *Bayezit*, after the establishment of the complex. The complex covers a wide area; to its east there is the grand Bazaar, on its west there was the Theodosian Arch. During the construction of the complex, some earlier buildings must have been removed. P. Gyllius who visited Istanbul in the middle of the sixteenth century mentions that he wanted to see the Column of Theodosius and learned that it was removed about 40 years ago during the construction of the Bayezit Bath (18).
Interior of Bayezit II Mosque
According to its Arabic inscription, the mosque of the Bayezit Complex was built between the years 1501-1505 (19). Starting about mid fifteenth century, it became the tradition for Ottoman imperial mosques to have spacious courtyards surrounded with domed arcades. The mosque of Bayezit has a beautiful courtyard with three monumental gates and arcades decorated with coloured marbles. The structural design of the mosque was influenced by Hagia Sophia; it has a central dome flanked by two semidomes, but much reduced in scale. The mosque followed the tradition of early Ottoman period, with guestrooms attached to the mosque. Two tall minarets attached to the ends of the entrance wall add to the monumentality of the mosque.
There is also a caravansaray, a public kitchen, a primary school, a madrasa, a double bath and the tomb of the sultan. The imaret, caravansaray and the primary school constitute a group close to the mosque. The other buildings are detached from the mosque. The geometric site planning of the Fatih Complex could not be achieved here, due to the existing buildings in the area.
The mosque and the other members of the complex suffered from the 1509 earthquake which caused considerable damage to Istanbul’s monuments. The main dome of the mosque was damaged. To stabilize the structure, the supporting arches and piers were reinforced (20). The earthquake of 1766 caused further damages to the mosque (21).
Topkapi Palace and the Golden Horn
The city of Istanbul, Turkey, is a vibrant and historic metropolis located on both sides of the Bosphorus Strait. It is known for its rich cultural heritage, stunning architecture, and diverse population. The city is home to numerous historical landmarks, including the Hagia Sophia, Topkapi Palace, and the Blue Mosque. Istanbul's strategic location has made it a hub for trade and commerce throughout history, and today it remains a major economic center in Turkey. The city's cuisine, which blends influences from various cultures, is also a popular attraction for visitors. Whether exploring the ancient ruins or enjoying modern amenities, Istanbul offers a unique blend of old and new that makes it a must-visit destination.
The old Forum of Constantine, today’s Çemberlitaş Square, surrounded by Atik Ali Paşa and Nuruosmaniye mosques.
It is important that the complex has retained its integrity, with most of its members still intact. The caravansaray and the public kitchen serve as part of the Bayezit Public Library. The public kitchen is important as the earliest surviving example of this building type in Istanbul. Its functional units, like the kitchen, the refectory, cellars, bakery are organized around an arcaded courtyard. It sets a fine example for the Ottoman public kitchen; in fact, it has been taken as a model by architect Sinan for his design of Haseki and other public kitchens.
The primary school is a small building which lies to the southeast of the mosque. It consists of two parts. The first part of the building is a domed iwan; a roofed space but open to the courtyard. This part was like a porch to keep the children warm in winter.
The madrasa of the complex is to the west of the mosque, detached from the other buildings. It has a classroom and cells organized around an arcaded courtyard in the form of a U; a typology which was very popular in Ottoman architecture. Bayezit Madrasa is a fine example of this type with its good proportions and elegant details. The madrasa was transformed into a public library in the twentieth century. Recently, it has been converted into a museum for the art of calligraphy.
The double bath is a monumental building located to the southwest of the madrasa, on one of the main streets of the city. When the level of the street was lowered during the road widening operations in 1950’s, the foundations of the bath were exposed, revealing some re-used marble blocks from the Arch of Theodosius. The double bath has monumental dressing halls and beautifully decorated interior spaces; with almost symmetrically organized sections for men and women. Recently, it has been restored by Istanbul University to be used as a planetarium and a museum of astronomy.
The Palace of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (now the Tekfur Saray)
During the Byzantine period, the buzzing commercial center of Constantinople was located on the northern hillside of the Historic Peninsula. It stretched from the forums of Theodosius and Constantine to the Golden Horn coast. Being in close relation with the harbour, the area continued its use for the commercial activity through the Ottoman period. Several shops, bedestens, inns, mosques, madrasas, schools, baths were built to serve the needs of the tradesmen and the citizens. The names of the small ports reveal the type of activity which took place along the shore; Limon Iskelesi (the Port for Lemons), Hatap Iskelesi (the Port for Timber), etc. The old commercial center is still active and thriving with similar activities. The Egyptian Bazaar (Mısır Çarşısı), Mahmutpaşa, Tahtakale districts, Grand Bazaar are the places where daily life continues within its colourful atmosphere.
Some of the important caravansarays, like the Kürkçü Han from the fifteenth century, or the Büyük Valide Han from the seventeenth century, have suffered from earthquakes, neglect, change of ownership, lack of maintenance and crouching of unsuitable functions. At present, the commercial center of the historic city is on the verge of a serious transformation. The Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul is developing projects for the rehabilitation of the area. There are plans to remove the accretions and restore the historic fabric carefully; to revive the commercial part of the town and integrate it with the other parts.
The Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey
Sultan Ahmet Mosque and its environs
The political and economic support to architectural activity was at its highest during the sixteenth century. Under the leadership of Architect Sinan (1538-1588) several important projects were launched. Haseki, Şehzade, Süleymaniye, Kara Ahmet Paşa, Mihrimah Sultan, Rüstem Paşa, Sokollu complexes can be cited as some of the projects which contributed to the improvement of the quality of urban life, as well as having an impact on the general outlook of the Historic Peninsula. The panorama of the city became even more attractive and pleasing to the eye with the construction of the Şehzade and Süleymaniye complexes. Architect Sinan’s contribution to the emergence of Istanbul’s image as the Ottoman capital was outstanding.
Besides his service as the designer of magnificent complexes, Architect Sinan worked like a civil engineer constructing aqueducts and bridges. He brought drinking water to the city from the north with a long conveyance system including several aqueducts. He stabilized Hagia Sophia, designed some pavilions and baths in the Harem of the Topkapı Palace.
The vizierial palaces surrounding Süleymaniye Complex added to the attraction of the city. From the impressive vizierial palaces scattered around the city, only the Ibrahim Paşa Place on the Hippodrome survives, though reduced in size and altered. Due to its position on the Hippodrome, Ibrahim Paşa Palace had a special role. It was used like a tribune from which the Sultan attended ceremonies taking place on the public square. Especially the circumcision feasts of the young princes were the occasions when large crowds gathered on the Hippodrome. The sultan and the princes watched the games, or processions from the loggia overlooking the square. The palace was used for other purposes in late Ottoman period. Today, it is turned into the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts (22), housing a rich collection of carpets, ceramic ware and ethnographic material.
Ottoman power started to decline in the seventeenth century; the economic situation was not strong enough to support an energetic building program. Sultan Ahmet Complex, initiated at the beginning of the seventeenth century, was the leading project of the period (23). The complex covered a vast area to the east and south of the ancient Hippodrome, comprising a monumental mosque with an imperial pavillion, a madrasa, the tomb of the founder, a darulkurra, a public kitchen, a hospital, a public bath, several houses and shops for rent. Due to the difficulty of finding a vacant place in the town center, the land for the complex was acquired mainly by expropriation; some of the palaces near the Hippodrome were pulled down.
The southern end of the Hippodrome, the Sphendone, was included within the construction grounds. This area was used to build the hospital and the public kitchen of the complex. As a result, the Hippodrome became a much smaller public square.
Several changes took place in the buildings and the area surrounding the Complex in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The hospital was transformed into an arts and crafts school in late
Süleymaniye Complex
The city of Istanbul, Turkey, is a vibrant and historic metropolis that has been a melting pot of cultures for centuries. Located at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, Istanbul has played a crucial role in the history of the Ottoman Empire and continues to be a major hub for commerce and tourism.
One of the most iconic landmarks in Istanbul is the Blue Mosque, also known as Sultan Ahmed Mosque. This stunning structure was built in the 16th century during the reign of Sultan Ahmed I and is renowned for its six towering minarets and intricate blue tiles. The mosque's interior is equally impressive, featuring beautiful calligraphy and ornate decorations.
Another must-visit attraction in Istanbul is the Hagia Sophia, which served as a Christian cathedral, then an Ottoman mosque, and now a museum. The building's grandiose architecture and historical significance make it a popular destination for tourists and locals alike.
Istanbul's rich cultural heritage is also evident in its numerous museums, galleries, and historical sites. The Topkapi Palace, for instance, was once the seat of power for the Ottoman sultans and houses an extensive collection of artifacts, including the famous Diamond of the Orient.
In addition to its historical attractions, Istanbul offers a wide range of modern amenities and entertainment options. The city is home to numerous shopping centers, restaurants, and nightlife venues, making it a popular destination for both domestic and international visitors.
Overall, Istanbul is a fascinating city that offers a unique blend of ancient history and contemporary culture. Whether you're interested in exploring its rich past or experiencing its vibrant present, there's something for everyone in this enchanting metropolis.
nineteenth century. The school is still active and has incorporated the kitchen, cellars and the bakery of the complex into its premises. Another major change at the end of the nineteenth century was the construction of two new buildings on northern façade of the public kitchen. The Ministry for Mining and Forestry and the Janissary Museum buildings were raised on the southern side of the Hippodrome. The two buildings were united internally during the twentieth century to be used as a school of economics and commerce. After a fire in 1979, the buildings were restored to house the Rectorate of Marmara University and its auditorium.
In the second half of the seventeenth century, the unfinished mosque of Safiye Sultan, a structure which was initiated at the end of the sixteenth century near the shore at Eminönü, was taken up and completed by queen mother Turhan Valide Sultan. The
name of the place, Eminönü, comes from the customs office for the goods brought to the city by ships. The locality was important commercially and inhabited by Jews. Turhan Sultan paid for the expropriation of the land which belonged to Jewish people, to continue the construction of the mosque and the dependencies. The mosque was called *Yeni Cami*, meaning the “New Mosque”, a name which has come to our day. The imperial lodge of Turhan Valide Sultan, her tomb, a monumental fountain and sabil, a covered bazaar, called the Egyptian Bazaar due to the spices coming from Egypt make up the program of the second imperial building venture of the seventeenth century.
Originally, the outer courtyard of the mosque was surrounded by the ancient sea walls in the north. During the nineteenth century, the sea walls near the shore were demolished to build office buildings
between the coast and the mosque. These were removed in the middle of the twentieth century, enabling the impressive Yeni Cami to be visible again. The area surrounding the mosque is one of the busiest squares of the city, vibrant with life; the spice, coffee and fish markets continue to attract crowds to walk through its streets.
The restricted economy of the seventeenth century lead to a significant reduction in construction activity. Grand viziers and notables like Kuyucu Murat Paşa, Ekmekcioğlu Ahmet Paşa, Bayram Paşa, Köprülü Mehmet Paşa, Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa established small complexes comprising a madrasa, a primary school, the tomb of the founder and a fountain. Today the madrasas are used as research institutes attached to universities or cultural associations.
The first quarter of the eighteenth century was called the Tulip Era; a time famous for the interest in flowers, poetry and leisure in Istanbul. Sultan Ahmet III had a palace at Kâğıthane, near the river called the “sweet waters of Europe”. The section of the river passing through the palace grounds was paved with marble; several cascades, pavilions were built to make the place look like a heaven on earth.
During the eighteenth century, rococo and baroque styles were introduced to Istanbul by way of imported goods and diplomatic relations. Several kiosks at Kâğıthane, some pavilions at Topkapı Palace, the mosques of Nuruosmaniye, Laleli and Eyüp reflect the development of the baroque style in architecture.
The sultans and their family members supported the construction of several fountains in the city. The Ahmet III Fountain in front of the entrance to Topkapı Palace is the most elegant and impressive of the sabil-fountain compositions from the period. The streets and the most frequented open spaces of the town were embellished with several beautiful fountains. Among the most beautiful, the wide eaved and richly decorated fountains at Tophane, Azapkapı, Üsküdar, Küçüksu and Emirgan can be cited.
During the nineteenth century, styles which were in fashion in Europe found their way into the Ottoman capital. In addition to European architects working for the sultan, some Ottoman citizens trained as architects in Europe introduced and adapted the current styles to Istanbul. Balyan family is famous for its members who have been court architects. They were responsible for the design and execution of several palaces and administrative buildings in Istanbul during the nineteenth century. As part of
Interior of Süleymaniye Mosque
Mosque of Sokollu Mehmet Paşa at Kadırga
Interior of Sokollu Mehmet Pasa Mosque at Kadirga
the westernization of Ottoman administration, several civil and military schools, barracks, stations, hospitals, offices, museums, ministries were raised in the city, transforming its image. Some of the travellers visiting Istanbul during the reign of Mahmut II have taken notice of this rapid change and expressed their sorrow for the loss of the city’s character (24).
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Raimondo D’Aronco, an Italian architect from Udine was invited by Sultan Abdülhamit II to work in Istanbul. He became the palace architect and is well known for his Art Nouveau designs in Yıldız Palace and on the Bosphorus (25). He also contributed to the restoration of some important monuments after the earthquake of 1894.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Mining (now the Rectorate of Marmara University), Janissary Museum, Imperial Medical School (Haydar Paşa Medical School, in collaboration with A. Vallaury), are some of the projects which show his involvement in Ottoman architecture. It was a time when revivalism was in the air.
Architect Vedat Tek and Mimar Kemalettin Bey were the prominent local figures of the time, leading the style named “The First National Movement”. Architect Kemalettin Bey designed the new housing complex which was raised on the site of the destroyed district of Laleli after the big fire of 1918. The Harikzedegan Apartments (1919-1922) project is known to be the first modern housing complex designed in the Historic Peninsula. It is now transformed into a hotel. Architect Vedat Tek is another significant figure of the First National Movement. Some of his buildings in the Historic Peninsula, like the Central Post Office, Hobyar Mescid, State Registers (Tapu Kadastro) and the Fourth Vakıf Han are considered to be landmarks from early twentieth century.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, suburbs expanded in several directions; Göztepe and Feneryolu in the east, Bakırköy and Yeşilköy on the west, the Bosphorus villages to the north and the Prince’s islands in the south were important with their timber architecture. Revival styles were in fashion. Several important summer houses in Art Nouveau style along the coast of the Bosphorus, at Bakırköy, Yeşilköy, Göztepe or the Prince’s Islands attract the eye with their refined designs.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Galata which was an area reserved to Levantines, expanded outside of its walls, in several directions. Beyoğlu and Pangaltı districts developed with multi-storey housing. These areas were inhabited mainly by the Christian population of the city. Rue de Pera, today’s İstiklal Caddesi, extended from Galata to Taksim; was further linked to Harbiye and Şişli where a new life style was starting. Many families living formerly in the Historic Peninsula left their private houses with gardens and moved to Nişantaşı, Teşvikiye and Şişli to live in flats. This became the fashion for the Ottoman society who preferred the European way of life. With the expansion of new districts, Taksim, Gümüşsuyu, Taşkışla, Maçka military barracks which were located outside of the settled areas of the
city became surrounded with new neighborhoods from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The fire of Hoca Paşa in 1865 caused great damage to the area around Sirkeci and Divanyolu. Widening the main streets like Alemdar and Divanyolu as a measure to facilitate the movement of traffic resulted in further damage to the surviving monuments in the region. 1894 earthquake damaged masonry structures; several collapsed and had to be rebuilt. The great fires of Ishak Paşa (1912), Fatih, and Vefa devastated large parts of the city. Following the fire, the districts were not built according to the old street pattern; a new planning, using a grid-iron scheme was adopted. The reconstruction of the city according to a new layout and with different materials and scale resulted in great pressure for change and the loss of the surviving urban fabric.
There was need to make the city suitable for the increasing population and the new way of life. In the early 1950’s, during the construction of the wide Vatan and Millet boulevards, narrow streets were widened, the urban fabric was cut through without much care to preserve the historic city. Some monuments were moved or transferred to other locations. The new building regulation which allowed the construction of high blocks on the new streets introduced a new urban scale to the Historic Peninsula and changed its urbanscape.
THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD
With the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Ankara became the new capital of the Turkish Republic and the center of state affairs. Although Istanbul lost its priority officially, it sustained its importance as the cultural, economic and industrial center of the country. The transition from the Ottoman to the Republican Period was followed by a conscious change in the legal and administrative system which had its effects in the outlook on architecture. The newly established state wanted to be part of the new idioms, rather than sticking to the outdated revival styles. A new direction in architectural design was introduced to the new capital by the architects invited from Europe.
Some prominent Turkish architects continued their professional activities in Istanbul and designed important buildings in the Historic Peninsula. Among these the Faculty of Arts and Letters by Sedat Hakkı Eldem and Emin Onat (1944), Istanbul Publicity Center by Günay Çilingiroğlu and Muhlis Tunca (1969), the Social Security Buildings at Zeyrek by S. H. Eldem (1963) are worth mentioning.
The establishment of the legal framework for the designation of urban sites came very late in Turkey. Until 1973 historic buildings were registered as individual units; it was not possible to list groups or historic areas. With the new legislation accepted in 1973 (Law 1710), it became possible to define the boundaries of urban or archaeological sites and place them under legal protection. Thus Suleymaniye and Zeyrek districts which were noted for their timber architecture were designated as conservation areas.
The designation of Galata and Beyoğlu historic districts was accomplished much later, in 1995. For a long period of time, there was no technical or financial assistance to the historic house owners; conservation areas occupied by poor people declined seriously. Several timber houses collapsed, suffered from fire or improper interventions. With the help of new legislation which
ISTANBUL
came into force in 2005, there is now more hope for the protection of the conservation areas. The central and local governments are more concerned about the conservation of cultural heritage; financial and technical support is provided to the private house owners.
With the risk of losing more of the timber architecture in Süleymaniye and Zeyrek, the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul has initiated campaigns to train master carpenters to repair and restore timber houses.
Restoration of timber houses at Süleymaniye by the Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul
HISTORIC AREAS OF ISTANBUL
When Istanbul was nominated for World Heritage, only a limited part of its historic urban fabric was under legal protection. This is one of the reasons why not all of the areas worthy of being World Heritage are listed. The Grand Bazaar and the commercial district around it, Galata, Eyüp, Üsküdar and Bosphorus are part of historic Istanbul and bear archaeological, urban and symbolic values. By carrying out the necessary improvements and studies, they may be included in the List in the future.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL PARK
Until recently, it was customary to start the history of Istanbul with Byzantion and claim that the city has cultural levels which go back 2700 years. Recently rescue archaeology at Yenikapı, within the ancient harbour of Theodosius, revealed human existence dating back to prehistoric times. This revolutionary discovery has provided a much earlier date for human existence at the Historic Peninsula.
The better known history of the city starts with Byzantion, a Hellenistic colony which was inhabited by Megerans from Greece. Due to the continued occupation of the same site, there are areas and levels which have not been fully researched. In 1930’s Mr. Henri Prost was invited by the Municipality to prepare a regulatory plan for Istanbul. The planner appreciated the archaeological potential of the city and designated the eastern end of the Historic Peninsula as an Archaeological Park. The Park stretched from the Bosphorus in the east to the Basilica Cistern and the Hippodrome in the west, from the Golden Horn in the north to the Marmara Sea in the south. The plan focused on archaeological research to reveal the ancient features of the city and proposed to preserve and present them to the public. Topkapı Palace, the Great Palace of the Emperors, Sultan Ahmet Complex, Ibrahim Paşa Palace, Basilica Cistern and Binbirdirek are among the most
Ibrahim Paşa Palace on the Hippodrome
important monuments and complexes within this vast area. They are mainly owned by the State and maintained with public funds. The privately owned plots would be expropriated and excavations could be conducted in order to reveal the remains of the Great Palace (25). Although foreseen in the urban plan, due to lack of funds, the Archaeological Park never came to life.
The remains of the Great Palace are dispersed over a wide area and threatened by tourism development. The recent extension of the Four Season’s Hotel is a problem which was discussed by experts and the public. It is essential to take the initiative to unite the plots on which the remains are located and establish the measures for integrated protection and presentation of the whole site. Similarly, there are problems related to the management of Topkapi Palace. The Palace grounds contained within the walls (*Sur-u Sultani* and Sea Walls) are divided among several public institutions. This situation makes it hard to manage, protect and present the Palace to the public.
Within the Archaeological Park, there are several important monuments and ancient ruins. From these, the major ones are selected and presented below.
Detail from the floor mosaics of the Great Palace
HAGIA SOPHIA
With the acceptance of Christianity as the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople was embellished with monuments of the new faith. The early churches have been changed or modified in time due to fires and reconstructions. The Hagia Sophia which is standing today is the third one erected on the same spot. It is known that the first one had a basilical plan. Excavations conducted in 1930’s, within the atrium of Hagia Sophia revealed the portico of the second Hagia Sophia dating from 415.
According to the walls and the column bases preserved in situ, the second Hagia Sophia was a five nave basilica. This church suffered from the fire initiated during the Nika revolt in 532. Emperor Justinian delegated the design to two outstanding technicians of the period: Anthemios from Tralles and Isidoros from Miletus. Justinian’s desire was to erect a monument which would be a monument used for coronations (27). Construction which started in 532 proceeded quickly and the church covered by a magnificent dome and two semidomes was inaugurated in 537. The nave was surrounded by galleries on its three sides. Mosaics with gold and silver tesserae, purple and grey, green, white and honey colored marbles added to the grandeur of the interior. The church was part of a larger complex containing the patriarchate, baptisterium and the treasury-Skeuphylakion (28).
Twenty years after its construction, in 557, the large dome of Hagia Sophia, spanning more than 33 meters, was damaged by an earthquake; it collapsed in 558, destroying the altar, ciborium and the ambon. During the restorations conducted by Isidoros the Younger, the form and the height of the dome was changed. Instead of the earlier saucer dome, a hemispherical dome was erected on top of the pendentives. The reopening of the church took place in 563. During the Iconoclastic period, all the figural decoration in the church was removed; as a result of which all the existing figural mosaics in Hagia Sophia are from the medieval period.
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Hagia Sophia Complex from the south
The structure has been exposed to severe tremors throughout its long history. The earthquake in 869 caused some damages; the earthquake of 989 destroyed the western arch supporting the dome as a result of which the semidome in that direction had to be renewed. The repair after this serious damage was carried out by the Armenian architect Trdat (29). He reconstructed the western semidome and fifteen ribs of the main dome.
The earthquake in 1343 caused new cracks in the structure; the eastern semidome and one third of the eastern part of the main dome collapsed in 1346. The restoration of Hagia Sophia after this catastrophe was completed in 1353. The scar remaining from this damage can be seen on the eastern wall of the monument.
Following the Ottoman takeover of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque. As the nearest mosque to Topkapı Palace, it had the status of an imperial mosque. Mehmet II allocated large sums of money for the repairs of Hagia Sophia, enabling it to be well maintained through the centuries. A madrasa and a minaret were constructed to make it a mosque and initiate a complex. Later more minarets were added. This grand monument was Ottomanized further by additional inner fittings and annexes.
by the donations of the succeeding sultans. Through the centuries, the interior has been enriched with new furniture, calligraphy panels, mihrabs, mahfils, objects brought from ancient ruins.
In 1573 with the permission acquired from Selim II, Architect Sinan cleared away the houses crouching on Hagia Sophia’s walls and repaired the south façade of the monument. When Selim II died in 1576, he was buried to the south of Hagia Sophia; his monumental tomb was designed by Architect Sinan. Later the tombs of Murat III and Mehmet III were also constructed in the garden of Hagia Sophia, which resulted in the creation of a densely built area to the south of the monument.
The Baptistry of the Hagia Sophia was located to the south of the church and had its entrance from the north side. It is octagonal in plan and covered by a dome. After the conversion of the church into a mosque, it stopped being used, becoming a storage place for candles. In 1639, it was used to bury Sultan Mustafa I, thus became included to the group of imperial tombs in the garden of Hagia Sophia. The marble basin belonging to the original building was probably removed to bury the sultan. The font is preserved and stands in the porch of the monument. Later the baptisterium was used to bury Sultan Ibrahim I as well. The interior was probably painted in the Ottoman fashion during the conversion. Very little survives from the original mosaic decoration of the building.
Mahmut I added an ablution fountain, a primary school, a library and a public kitchen to the Hagia Sophia Complex. With its wide eaved roof and dome, the ablution fountain is a richly decorated and monumental piece of architecture, embellishing the courtyard. The library was squeezed between two buttresses on the south façade of the monument. It has a reading room accessible from the interior of the Hagia Sophia, and a stack on the south façade. The addition of a public kitchen to the complex was important; as all the major imperial establishments in Istanbul had kitchens to serve meals to the staff, students and the poor people.
The earthquake of 1766 did no major damage to Hagia Sophia, yet due to its deteriorated condition, the monument underwent a major restoration between 1847-1849 by the order of Sultan Abdülmecit. The works were directed by Fossati brothers from Italy. During this major operation, figural mosaics were revealed by removing the plaster over the walls and the upper structure. They were documented and covered again due to the ongoing mosque function of the monument. The exterior of the monument was plastered and painted with red and white stripes to simulate an alternating wall construction. A sultan’s lodge was added to the end of the north
gallery. Other buildings added during this repair are the madrasa and the muvakkithane (clock room for setting the prayer times).
The earthquake of 1894 caused some damages in Hagia Sophia and a restoration campaign was started by the Ministry of Pious Foundations (Waqf). After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, there was an intention to convert this religious edifice into a museum. In 1935 by means of a special law, Hagia Sophia became a museum. This made it possible to conduct researches under the plasters, to reveal figural mosaics and present them to the public.
At present the monument is protected by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. There are three departments responsible for the administration, conservation and restoration of the museum. The museum directorate is in charge of the administration of the museum, the Conservation Laboratory is responsible for conducting monitoring and conservation operations, the Survey and Monuments Directorate monitors the structure, contracts firms for maintenance works and supervises them.
The restoration of the dome mosaics which started with the support of the UNESCO in early 1990’s, continued with funding from World Monuments Fund and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. A 55 m high scaffolding was designed for the restoration of the dome mosaics. The scaffolding, which covered only one quarter of the floor area was rotated around the central area, until all of the dome mosaics were examined, recorded and restored.
The study and monitoring of the structure of Hagia Sophia is important because of earthquakes which might cause serious damages in the future. A project was started in 1988 to monitor the structure of Hagia Sophia by the Bosphorus and Princeton Universities. Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism established a scientific committee which has both national and international members to discuss and supervise the conservation works on the structure.
Hagia Eirene, 6th century
HAGIA EIRENE
Hagia Eirene is one of the major churches founded by Emperor Justinian in the sixth century. Though repaired and modified several times due to earthquakes, it still preserves some of its original features like its atrium, three naved structure and synthronon. After the earthquake in 740, the top of its gallery and decoration was renewed. During the Ottoman period, it was included within the Topkapı Palace grounds. It stopped functioning as a religious building but was used as a repository of arms. In the nineteenth century, the first Ottoman museum was established here. With the foundation of a military museum at Harbiye, the objects were moved there and Hagia Eirene was ready to be used for other cultural activities.
After restoration works conducted between 1973-4, the monument started to be used for musical performances, art exhibits and similar activities. With its beautiful acoustics and interior, it is an attractive place for classical music concerts.
During a recent alteration, the arcades around the atrium were reorganized to house the mosaics which had been recovered in rescue digs at different locations in the city. The presentation and reuse of this important monument needs to be reconsidered. It is important to have Hagia Irene open to the public but the type of activities taking place in it should not be contradictory to its significance and meaning. The vulnerability of Hagia Eirene is being assessed within the ISMEP (Istanbul Seismic Risk Mitigation and Emergency Preparedness) Project which is initiated by the Turkish Government.
Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror
Bab-ı Hümayun (the Imperial Gate) leads into Alay Meydanı (Parade Grounds), the first courtyard of Topkapı Palace
**TOPKAPI PALACE**
After the Conquest of Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman State was moved to Istanbul and several important projects were initiated. One of the priorities was to rehabilitate the city which had been deserted and neglected during the siege. The construction of the Fatih Complex, Topkapı Palace and commercial buildings are among the most significant projects related to the establishment of religious, social, educational, administrative and commercial institutions.
Topkapı Palace is one of the rare examples of a palace surviving from the fifteenth century. It has a great impact on the skyline of the city. To place the administrative center of the Empire over the old acropolis of Byzantion was an important decision which has affected the structure and the silhouette of the city over the centuries. A huge area covering 700 000 square meters was allocated to the palace grounds. The ruins of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods were incorporated in its grounds.
The natural lines of the hill were modified by terraces resting on retaining walls and substructures.
With centuries of building and renovations, Topkapı Palace is a rich treasure of architecture, incorporating structures from the early days of its foundation to the last days of its use as the abode of the Ottoman sultan. It was the decision of Sultan Mahmut II to leave Topkapı Palace. The Palace became a museum in the twentieth century, after the establishment of the Turkish Republic. All the interesting objects the sultans used and collected: books,
antiques and art objects are kept and exhibited within the Topkapı Palace Museum. Interiors with rich Baroque decoration dating from the late eighteenth century can be found in the Harem premises.
The area on which the Palace is founded was already surrounded by the Byzantine fortifications from the north and south. The western wall of Mehmet II’s Palace are called *Sur-u Sultani* (The Imperial Wall). It starts from Ahırkapi on the Marmara coast and rises uphill nearing a point very close to Hagia Sophia. This is also the highest point of the first hill. From here the wall advances towards the north, going down towards the Golden Horn and terminating at a point called *Demir Kapı* (the Iron Gate). The construction of this huge wall took many years. Starting in 1459, it continued during Mehmet II’s lifetime and was completed after his death in 1481. The wall is three meters thick and reinforced with 28 towers, most of which are square in plan. Towers have two floors. A wall walk runs above the lower part of the walls at the first floor level. The platform levels were designed for shooting out with cannons.
The main entrance to the Palace grounds is called the *Bab-ı Hümayun*/ The Imperial Gate and is located at the highest point of the first hill. Originally, the imperial gate had an upper floor, which is visible in drawings from the nineteenth century. During a restoration in late nineteenth century, the upper floor was removed and the building was finished with a corbelled cornice. Bab-ı Hümayun is the most monumental of the entrances to the Topkapı Palace grounds; there are several smaller gates, smaller in scale and modest in design. Some were named according to their location or special features. The changes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries resulted in the loss of some of the walls. The northern end of the Imperial Wall was demolished during the construction of the railroad in the second half of the nineteenth century (30). Military institutions were established within the
Imperial Museum, now the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul
northern part of the outer gardens. At the moment the Topkapı Palace Museum occupies only the core of the original Palace, but there are attempts to unite the grounds of the Palace under one administration.
The Palace developed around three inner courts. The first courtyard was open to the public; the level of privacy ascended as one moved towards the inner parts of the Palace. Around the
first courtyard several workshops, the office of the mayor of the city, the dormitories of the palace guards, hospital of the palace, storage areas for wood and food, boat keeping places, farming grounds were arranged. Hagia Eirene is within this courtyard. The area to the north of the courtyard was called *Gülhane*, the Rose Garden. In 1910, Sultan Reşat (r. 1908-1918) donated this part of the Palace grounds to the citizens of Istanbul, making it a public park. A new gate was opened for the purpose of providing access
to the northern part of the palace grounds (31). This gate is still in use, providing access to the public park, the Archaeological Museum and the Çinili Kiosk.
Çinili Kiosk was one of the places for the enjoyment of the Sultan. It was built in 1472 near the javelin playing grounds. With its special interior design comprising four iwans surrounding a central hall covered by a high dome, it recalls the contemporary monumental buildings of Semerkand. Its tile decoration also reflects eastern influences. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries several craftsmen came or were invited from Iran and central Asia. The original porch which had timber columns, like its contemporaries in Uzbekistan, suffered from a fire in the eighteenth century and was restored in stone.
This unique monument was turned into a museum in 1880 and serves as the Tile Museum since 1981. There is an extensive collection of interesting architectural elements made of tiles, like mihrabs and inscriptions collected from medieval and Ottoman monuments. The ceramic utensils, oil lamp collections give an idea about the history of the glazed ceramic production in Turkey.
The museum was restored in 2004-5 and opened again with an improved presentation.
Topkapı Palace had several small summer pavilions perched on the sea walls or built along the coast, for the sultan or his family, affording a beautiful view over the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn. Some of the kiosks were used for certain ceremonies. In some engravings from the nineteenth century, Yali kiosks is depicted as the building used for ceremonies. The sultan and his retinue watched the Ottoman ships leave the harbour at Yali Kiosk. A similar ceremony took place when the fleet entered the Golden Horn on its return from sailing in the far seas. Unfortunately, the coastal kiosks have not been well preserved. During the construction of the railroad in late 19th century, they were removed. Yali Kiosk was completely destroyed; only the substructure of the Incili Kiosk and Sepetciler kiosks remained. The railroad damaged the connection of the coastal kiosks with the Palace grounds.
Sepetçiler Kiosk was built in 1643, over the sea walls. It had a veranda and hall covered with a dome. It is claimed that this kiosk was used by the ladies of the harem to watch the Ottoman fleet
Darphane-i Amire (the Royal Mint)
sail out from the Golden Horn (32). The kiosk was in a ruined state until 1980’s. It was restored in early 1990’s and is now used for symposia and international meetings.
Alay Kiosk, which is situated over a tower located on the western Walls of Topkapı Palace, had an important role. It was the loggia from which the sultan watched the parade of Istanbul’s guilds. The first kiosk, which was probably made of timber, was constructed during the reign of Murat III (1574-1595). Evliya Çelebi relates in detail how the architects proceeded in the parade past this kiosk (33). The present Alay Kiosk was built in 1819, during the reign of Mahmud II. It is located across the Gate to the High Port, over a turn the wall makes towards the north. As one walks along the walls of the Palace, its monumental dome attracts the attention. It is accessible from Gülhane Park and is approached by a ramp. Its spacious halls and rooms are used by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Two important building groups have been added to the first courtyard of the Palace in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The first is the Royal Mint buildings, which started to develop
Panorama of the Golden Horn in the 19th century
The city of Istanbul, with its iconic domes and minarets, is depicted in the background, while boats filled with people navigate the water in the foreground.
in the area to the west of Hagia Eirene, starting from first half of the eighteenth century. The existing mint buildings are from the nineteenth century (34). The Mint continued to function at its historic premises until the second half of the twentieth century. After 1980’s, it moved to new premises near Beşiktaş; the old buildings were handed over to the Ministry of Culture.
The second group of buildings are the museums which were added in late nineteenth century. The Archaeological Museum was designed and built between 1891-1907 by architect A. Vallaury to house the finds from archaeological excavations. The Museum of Ancient Oriental Civilizations which is to the north of the Archaeological Museum, was built as an art school and later transformed into a museum.
A gigantic Roman capital in the second courtyard of Topkapi Palace
Entrance to the inner treasury
The entrance to the second courtyard of Topkapı Palace is through a monumental gateway flanked by two octagonal towers (35). Only the sultan could pass through this gate on horseback. Others had to walk in. Administrative and service buildings like *Divanhane*, the council of ministers, outer treasury and the kitchens surround the second courtyard. The council room, which consists of two domed rooms, is on the north side. The sultan occasionally participated in the meetings of the ministers. He could listen to the discussions, secretly, behind the latticework of a window from *Adalet Kulesi*, the tower attached to the council room. This tower was lower in the fifteenth century design, as can be seen from the miniature of Matrakçı Nasuh from the sixteenth century and the engraving of Melling from the beginning of the nineteenth century. The tower symbolized the justice of the sultan. It was heightened and its top was remodelled in the current revival style during the nineteenth century (36).
The outer treasury building which stands to the east of the Council Hall, is a rectangular building covered with eight domes. Originally it was used like a safe, silver and gold coins were kept in pots. Today the building is used for exhibiting part of the rich arms collection of Topkapı Palace. The kitchen, cellars, dormitories of the cooks lie on the southern part of the courtyard. The
Throne used for religious feasts
kitchens from the fifteenth century were remodelled by Architect Sinan after a fire in 1574 (37). According to historic documents from 1478, forty six men worked in the kitchen and bakery; there were twenty four cooks, nine bakers and thirteen tasters.
The entrance to the third court is called *Bab-üs Saade*, the Gate of Felicity. The coronation ceremonies took place in front of this gate. The gate underwent a major restoration in 1774, under the reign of Abdulhamid I; the central part of the arcade on the eastern part of the courtyard was cut and a baroque canopy was inserted in the middle.
The third courtyard, *Enderun* was the private domain of the sultan. Across the entrance, there is the Reception Hall, where the sultans received their foreign guests. It consists of a rectangular reception hall, surrounded by high arcades. The interior and the exterior of the hall are lavishly decorated with coloured marbles, glazed tiles and gilding. Some old engravings show the sultan sitting on a throne and receiving envoys. The kiosk preserves much of its original features, though renovated after a fire in the nineteenth century (38).
The third courtyard is built over a sloping terrain. The ground is inclined towards the east. The Reception Room stands at the highest point of the courtyard and is connected to the surrounding area with stairs. The kiosk of Fatih is located at the southeast corner of the courtyard. On the north side of the courtyard, there is the mosque for the guards. The Palace school where the guards at the service of the sultan were trained was also in this courtyard.
The fifteenth century layout of the Palace was modified in the course of later centuries. One of these was the transformation of the *Has Oda*, the Sultan’s Room, to *Hirka-i Saadet Dairesi*, the Suite for the Holy Relics of Islam, after the Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim I. Another important change was the addition of a library to the east of the Reception Hall by Ahmet III in the eighteenth century (39).
Until the seventeenth century, the area to the east of the third courtyard was like the outer gardens of the Palace. This part of the Palace developed in the seventeenth century. Several beautifully decorated pavillions, the Iftariye, Revan and Bagdad kiosks were built for the sultan to rest, read and enjoy the Golden
Iftariye Kiosk, loggia used by the sultan during Ramadan and religious feasts
Horn and the Bosphorus. The Kiosk of Kara Mustafa Paşa which also dates from the seventeenth century is also within this part of the Palace. It is one of the oldest timber buildings in the Palace. During the Tulip Period, this part of the Palace was used for night entertainments, with tortoises carrying candles.
Starting with Mahmud II, the sultans moved to the palaces on the Bosphorus, leaving Topkapı Palace to guards and elderly women. Yet, the archive, library and collections were kept as part of the history of the place. Sultans visited the Palace occasionally, for some ceremonies or events. Sultan Abdülaziz (r. 1861-1876) asked architect Sarkis Balyan to design a kiosk for him. Mecidiye Kiosk which is the last kiosk built within the Topkapı Palace overlooks the
Bosphorus. A small mosque and guard house were associated with this project (40). At a spot to the east of Mecidiye Kiosk, there is the Column of Goths which was put up to celebrate the victory of the Romans over the Goths. The fifteen meters tall column has a beautiful capital with an eagle carved in low relief (41).
During the nineteenth century, several important projects were realized in Istanbul. The construction of the Istanbul-Paris railroad is noteworthy for its impact on Topkapı Palace. The railroad was constructed but it stopped at the outskirts of the city, at Yedikule. To build a station in the center was almost impossible because, to reach Sirkeci, the railroad had to pass through the Palace gardens. Sultan Abdulaziz was convinced about the benefits of the railroad coming to the center of the city. So he gave permission to cut through the Topkapı Palace grounds. This resulted in the demolition of some pavilions belonging to the Palace, as well as damage to historic walls and towers.
The Column of Goths dating from to the Roman period
Yemiş Odası in the Harem of Topkapı Palace
Harem
Harem is the section of the Palace reserved for the wives, concubines, children of the sultan. There were also guards and maids working to carry out the services. Its entrance is from the second court, at a point to the north of the Council Hall. Another door opens into the third courtyard. Harem people lived within the rooms, apartments, pavilions and wards located in the northern part of the second and third courtyards.
There are doubts about the presence of a harem in the original design of the Topkapı Palace; the family of Mehmet II lived in the Old Palace at Bayezit, near the Forum Tauri before the construction of Topkapı Palace. During the reign of Sultan Süleyman I, the harem section started to develop. The construction of some pavilions at Topkapı Palace by Architect Sinan and Davut Ağa are recorded in several documents from the sixteenth century (42).
The harem of Topkapı Palace has a very complex structure; it has grown spontaneously over the centuries. Since it was attached to the north wall of the Palace, new development had to be towards the north, over retaining walls and substructures. The drop in the land towards the north afforded a beautiful view towards the Golden Horn and Galata. Harem continued its growth in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The kiosk of Osman III (r. 1754-55) is one of the most attractive designs from the eighteenth century. The kiosk has a jetty which projects over the high retaining wall separating the harem from the Gülhane Park. Its interior is purely baroque in style, reflecting the influences from France.
Besides the many rooms for women and the long corridors, there are many special spaces like baths, private suites built for some sultans, the premises of the queen mother, the ward of the guards. The gardens of the harem were carefully guarded, not to let outsiders to trespass into the private grounds. The harem did not have a kitchen of its own, the meals were served from the kitchens in the second courtyard.
Topkapı Palace was transformed into a museum in 1924, soon after the establishment of the Turkish Republic. This was the starting point for the systematic study and documentation of its movable and immovable heritage. Architects Selma Emler and Mualla Eyüpoğlu Anhegger worked on the different sections of the Palace to restore and present the large complex as a museum. The mosque of the guards became the library for manuscripts. The kitchens, Fatih’s pavillion, outer treasury were transformed into exhibition halls for the china, jewellery and the armory collections. The cellars became the archive for the documents related to the history of the Palace and several buildings founded by the sultans. The archive is very rich with its collection of documents related to the personal life of the imperial family and the other inhabitants of the Palace and the construction activity of the imperial family. It is worth noting that the construction books of Sultan Ahmet Complex are preserved in this archive, along with many other documents related to repairs and reconstructions of mosques, castles and bridges.
During the restorations, researches were conducted, to understand the evolution of the structures and their transformations. Some of the different phases of interventions are visible and reflect the changes in taste and style. *Hünkar Sofası*, the Imperial Hall is one of such places. The original interior from the sixteenth century interior was covered up by baroque elements and Dutch tiles were used to decorate some parts of the walls. New furniture and paintings tend to change the atmosphere, but the architecture is essentially Classical Ottoman in design.
The harem was cleaned of the inappropriate additions made in late nineteenth century, by those left behind after Mahmud II and his family left Topkapı Palace to move to the palaces on the Bosphorus. At areas where the unity of the interior is at risk, the last period of decoration was preserved with only small sections to indicate the findings from the earlier phases. The harem was opened to the public after lengthy restorations.
Several interesting details were uncovered in the process of cleaning and restoration. The discovery of the original dome of the *Velihaht Dairesi*, the Pavilion of the crown prince was not visible because of the construction of a timber ceiling during the late nineteenth century. The original dome with its exquisite decoration on deer hide was revealed and restored. It is one of the exceptional pieces of seventeenth century architecture.
The restoration and maintenance of the artifacts and architectural treasures of the Palace requires funds allocated regularly from the Ministry of Culture budget. The projects are developed and implemented by the Survey and Monuments Department of the Ministry of Culture and the staff of the Conservation Laboratory. A management plan is on the way for the protection of this exceptional treasure. Topkapi Palace has been exposed to several earthquakes in its long history and restorations followed the cracks and collapses. Recently there is a project by the Ministry of Culture to prepare for the earthquake expected in 30 years.
**THE THEODOSIAN WALL**
With the increase of the city’s population in the fourth century, the area contained within the Constantinian Wall became densely populated, not able to meet the demands for new development. Theodosius II decided to enlarge the city, by extending the boundary of Constantinopolis further to the west. A new wall was constructed to the west of the Constantinian Wall (43). The new defense line, called the “Theodosian Wall” started at Marmara Sea, where the
The Comnenian wall in the nineteenth century
The Shepherdess, from 'The Picturesque Tour of the Holy Land' by William Daniell, 1820.
Marble tower stands today and extended in the northern direction, reaching the Blacherna region on the Golden Horn. During the fifth century, Blacherna was a suburb with an imperial palace overlooking the Golden Horn. Theodosian Wall stopped roughly at the walls of this Palace. During the medieval period, Blacherna Palace was enlarged and new walls were constructed to defend the city. The section of the landwall from the medieval period is called “the Comnenian Wall”, due to the reigning dynasty at the time. It starts from the north of the Tekfur Saray and stretches towards the north, reaching the coast of the Golden Horn at Ayvansaray.
The Theodosian Wall was fortified with 99 towers, placed approximately 50 meters apart. The towers of the main wall are usually square in plan. Octagonal towers are placed at points where the wall makes an angle. The towers are given numbers, starting from the Marmara shore. The position of the first tower is very critical. It could defend the attacks from the sea and the shore. So its plan is pentagonal, to provide the chance to shoot from different angles.
The main towers were about 16 m high and had three levels. The ground level was accessible from the land to the east of the wall. Usually the land adjoining the wall belonged to people and they used the ground level in peace time. The first floor is at the level of the wall walk. There are windows on the walls of the towers, which made it possible to shoot with arrows.
Stairs attached to the eastern side of the main wall lead up to the wall walk.
The third level is the roof of the towers, called the platform level. It is possible to climb to the top of the towers with narrow stairs attached to the eastern side of the tower. The stairs were protected from shooting by the enemy with high curtain walls. The top of the towers were crenellated; from this level, it was possible to shoot with arrows and catapults.
The walls are about 5 meters thick and crenellated. They were built of limestone courses with bands of brick. The exteriors of walls are covered with regular coursed ashlar blocks made of local limestone. After earthquakes, the original construction technique was altered or changed. So today it is possible to see
Earthquakes damaged the city walls
both alternating wall construction and repairs carried out by using only stone.
In front of the main wall there is the front wall, a lower structure, also fortified with towers. The front wall is 3.85 m thick and reinforced with towers placed at 50 meters. Its towers are rectangular or U shaped in plan. They are smaller in size, but important in strengthening the defense line. Being located between the main towers, they make it possible to create additional points of attack in the weaker part of the front line. It was possible to shoot arrows from the windows of the towers and also from the battlements above the wall walk. The construction of the front wall is not as refined as the main wall.
The 16 m wide ditch was another important element of the fortifications. Due to the topography of the area on which the Land Wall was built, the ditch could not be horizontal. There are several partition walls in the ditch to hold the water, when it is filled. The sources for water are not known, but assumed that the sources in the western part of the city were used.
The Land Wall represents a good example of ancient Hellenistic fortification. It was very strong and could resist the attacks of different armies more than thousand years (44). Good design and
workmanship helped its walls and towers to resist the ravages of time. Yet several repairs had to be undertaken; some towers had to be reconstructed due to earthquakes.
The entrance to the city was provided by seven gates, located at points which were linked with the street pattern and the topography of the city. Porta Aurea/The Golden Gate was the most important one, used by victorious emperors as they entered the city. The entrance was flanked by two beautiful towers made of marble blocks. The second gate, located to the north of the Golden Gate, is the Belgrad Gate. The ancient names of some gates are not known. They are named according to the direction they are heading for, or the group of people who lived around it. The name Belgrade Gate derives from the fact that people who came from Belgrade settled around it in the Ottoman period. The other gates towards the north are named Silivri, Mevlevihane, Topkapi/Cannon, Pempton/Sulukule and Edirnekapi. There were also several secondary gates, mainly used by the military. The first one is situated next to Tower 1, near the Marmara Sea.
The medieval part of the Land Wall, the Comnenian Wall, was built over a sloping terrain. The topography in this part of town made it easier to defend the city. So the new wall was not designed with three components as the Theodosian Wall; it consists of only one line of defence, supported by high towers. The only gate on this part of the land walls is Porta Caligaria, *Eğri Kapı*, which is still in use. In the area close to the Golden Horn coast, the land is flat. Making it easy to attack the city. To keep the enemy far from the main wall, a front line called Pteron was constructed. There were several repairs to this part of the wall due to the attacks by foreign troops.
The Land Wall has been subjected to strong tremors soon after its erection. The construction technique used in the repairs after the 440 earthquake was very similar in detail to the original building, therefore hard to differentiate from the original. The repairs after the 740 earthquake, however are different; some are
marked with inscriptions and thus easy to date. Some towers were reconstructed after the earthquakes in the ninth and eleventh centuries. The famous earthquakes of 1509, 1766 and 1894 also caused damages to the Theodosian wall (45).
The military significance of the Land Wall diminished during the Ottoman period, because the city was no longer situated at the frontier. It was at an inland position, far from war or risk of being sieged. Yet the Venetian fleet occasionally approached towards the Dardanelles and some precautions were taken at the capital. During the first half of the seventeenth century, grand vizier Bayram Paşa carried out some repairs to the land and sea walls in order to prepare the city against the attack of the approaching Venetians.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, the ruined walls and towers of the Theodosian fortification had become a picturesque ruin. Many travellers and artists walked along the exterior of the town, watching the wild vegetation growing from the crevices of the towers. The city was still confined within the walls and the exterior was reserved to the fields and cemeteries. The engravings and sketches of the nineteenth century artists give an idea about the tranquillity of the area.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, important changes took place in the vicinity of the southern end of the walls. The leather industry which was located at Kazlıçeşme since the fifteenth century, expanded towards the east. New workshops and several other factories were constructed next to the southern end of the Land Wall. The construction of the railroad connecting Europe to Istanbul was another important event. The trains entered the city through a passage which was cut between the towers 6 and 8. The changes related to urbanization and modern development continued during the twentieth century. In 1950’s, the construction of the motorway along the coast changed the relationship of the walls with the sea. A new cut was made through the curtain wall between the Marble Tower and the first tower of the Theodosian Wall. The sea was filled to build the road, changing the relationship of the sea and the afore mentioned towers.
The Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul is responsible for the care of the Land and Sea Walls. During the preparation of the urban plan in 1937, it was decided to form a 500 meter band of protection for the Land Wall. Yet, several private buildings existed next to the walls and over the ditch. No systematic work was carried out to remove the structures which had croached in the area. After the listing of the Historic Areas of Istanbul as World Heritage, the Metropolitan Municipality took action to clear the area adjoining the Wall from accretions. This required legal operations, so several cases were sued to expropriate the land and to remove the modern buildings next to the Land Wall.
The transfer of the Kazlıçeşme industrial area was another component of the rehabilitation project concerning the environs of the Land Wall. The Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul engaged expert teams to make a survey of the cultural heritage within the protection belt of the Land Wall. A project was developed for the landscaping of the green areas along the Land Wall. Inventory cards were prepared for cultural assets which had not been
registered and presented to the Protection Board for approval and registration. Experts had discussions about the program of preparing conservation projects for the towers and wall sections. For the first phase of the implementation work, Belgrade Gate was chosen. After the preparation of the photogrammetric surveys, cleaning and excavation was conducted along the walls and towers in the project area. The restoration of Belgrade Gate and the two towers flanking it was carried out between 1987-1991. The project and its execution was not received well by the public due to the excessive reconstruction carried out; archaeologists, architects and other professionals reacted to the inappropriate treatment of important remains.
In 1991, the City administration made an assessment of the case and asked for advice from universities. The principle of minimum intervention was suggested and adopted for the preservation of the archaeological heritage. A pilot project was started at Yedikule between the towers T1-T6 (46). Between 1992-1994 towers 2 and 3 and the walls adjoining them were restored, fully respecting the principle of minimum intervention. The restoration works at the Walls were stopped by the Municipality, due to the change of administration after the election in 1994.
After the 1999 earthquake which caused some cracked or damaged towers to collapse, the City administration decided to start restoration works again, stabilizing towers which could collapse unexpectedly and endanger the life of citizens. Edirnekapi was one of the critical points where two towers flanking a major traffic artery were seriously damaged. For reasons of public safety, Towers 89 and 90 were put on the priority list for intervention. Following the restoration of these damaged towers, the section to the north of Edirnekapi, towards the Tekfur Saray was taken up. The works were conducted by a contractor, who was not properly supervised. As a result, the interventions in this area were not found satisfactory. UNESCO warned the authorities to stop the work and be more careful about keeping the authenticity of the fabric (47).
THE CASTLE OF SEVEN TOWERS
The Castle of Seven Towers is located close to the southern end of the Theodosian Wall, next to the *Porta Aurea*, Golden Gate. It was built by the order of Mehmed II, as a castle where the state treasury was kept. It is nearly pentagonal in plan. The four towers on its western side belong to the Theodosian Wall. The three in the eastern part are cylindrical in plan. The entrance to the castle is from the northeast, through an arched gateway. The walls are about 12 meters high. A small settlement developed within the castle during its use through the centuries. On a drawing from the seventeenth century, there is a small mosque and several houses; the towers are covered by conical roofs. (48) After the sixteenth century, one of the eastern towers was used as a prison where occasionally foreign envoys were put in custody. Inside this tower, which is also called the “ambassadors’ tower”, it is possible to see the names of some of the imprisoned people on the walls.
The castle became a museum in 1895. There was a fire in 1905 which devastated the settlement inside the castle walls. The houses disappeared; today only the lower part of the minaret survives from
the mosque. Action was taken by the general directorate responsible for Antiquities in the second half of the twentieth century. Architect Cahide Tamer was responsible for the works carried out between the years 1958-1970 (49). A small open air theater was created at the southwest corner of the garden in order to use the castle for performances during summer nights. Recently, the Ministry of Culture has leased the Castle grounds to a private firm, which arranges concerts and other performances inside the Castle.
Zeyrek
Zeyrek is a traditional neighborhood with significant Byzantine and Ottoman structures. It is located on a hillside overlooking the Golden Horn and Süleymaniye. The quarter is famous for its timber houses surrounding Zeyrek Camii, an important medieval monument, which was originally part of the Pantocrator Monastery founded in the twelfth century by Queen Eirene, wife of John Comnenos II. The construction started in 1118 with the South Church. Then the North Church dedicated to Lady Mary was added. The queen died in 1134 before the complex was
finished. Her husband continued the project; she was interred in between the south and the north churches and a chapel was constructed over her tomb. This building, squeezed between two larger structures, was called the Funerary Church.
There is a foundation deed from 1136 which provides information about the program of the monastery and the charity institutions attached to it. According to its foundation deed, the monastery comprised a house for the elderly, a hospital and an eye clinic. The complex was occupied by the Venetians during the Latin rule between 1204 and 1261. It was used partially as a storage place for the looted goods from the city, before they were sent to Europe. The monastery and the churches were restored by the Byzantines after they took over the city in 1261.
The dependencies of the monastery have been lost in the course of time. The name Zeyrek comes from the professor who taught at the madrasa established within the Pantocrator Monastery by the Ottomans in the fifteenth century. The madrasa use was temporary. After the completion of the Fatih Complex, the students at Zeyrek moved to the newly constructed madrasas there. The Pantocrator Monastery became Zeyrek Camii and has been used as a mosque since late fifteenth century.
Pantocrator Monastery-Zeyrek Camii
The monument suffered from several earthquakes in its long history. The style of the repairs provides evidence about the date of interventions. The 1766 earthquake probably resulted in the collapse of the central dome of the north church and produced deformations in the columns of the South Church. As a result of the damages, the columns in both the North and South churches were replaced by piers with larger cross sections. A sultan’s lodge was added to the southwest of the mosque. The damages caused by the 1894 earthquake were followed by repairs which are not documented. During the twentieth century, the responsibility of the monument was undertaken by the General Directorate of Pious Foundations. The western and northern façades of the monument were treated by architects working for the General Directorate, A. S. Ülgen and F. Çuhadaroğlu. From the restorations undertaken between 1950-1970, there is not much documentation explaining the decisions for interventions. Following a need for the renovation for the timber floor, Dumbarton Oaks conducted research within the South Church, revealing the beautiful opus sectile decoration in the central part of the naos.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the social profile of the Zeyrek neighborhood changed dramatically. The houses were
no longer inhabited by the families who had built or inherited them, but immigrants from southeast Anatolia, coming to Istanbul for jobs preferred to live in this quarter due to the low rents and its proximity to the central business district. The newcomers were not very careful about their environment. Some people climbed up the roof of the mosque and removed the expensive lead sheeting, to sell the material. The General Directorate of Pious Foundations, could not protect the lead roof. In order to stop thieves, the decision was to remove the lead roofing and replace it by imitation in concrete. This cheap material was not as good as the lead in protecting the monument; it needed constant maintenance. But the necessary care was not taken; the roof was neglected for more than twenty years, which resulted in the development of serious humidity problems.
In 1994, a conservation project was initiated by Professor Metin and Zeynep Ahunbay from Istanbul Technical University and Professor Robert Ousterhout from Illinois University to save the building from further deterioration. Documentation started with the ground level. In 1997, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality donated a large some for roof restoration. With
Roof of the Zeyrek Camii has been restored (1997-2004)
some intermissions, the restoration of the roof lasted until 2003, with support from World Monuments Fund, Illinois University and private donors. The restoration of the roof included the treatment of several structural cracks in the vaults and domes. Many interesting features about the history of the monument were uncovered during the work on the roof.
Along with the work on the roof, a restoration project was prepared for the eastern façade of the Zeyrek Camii. The
Zeyrek Camii, eastern façade after restoration in 2004
project was presented to UNESCO through Turkish National Commission for UNESCO and funds were received for its execution. The eastern façade was partially restored in 2004, improving the stability of the eastern wall and the general outlook of the monument (50).
Several fires in the Historic Peninsula devastated large parts of the city through its long history. Thus the urban fabric was renewed several times. After fires, the houses were usually rebuilt on the same street pattern. The last big fire which destroyed the houses and damaged Zeyrek Mosque started at Çırçır in 1833. Luckily, this part of town was not devastated by the big fires in early twentieth century. So the Ottoman street pattern is preserved in this part of Fatih. The timber houses dating from nineteenth and early twentieth centuries could survive and reflect the traditional atmosphere of old Istanbul, making it a spectacular site, worthy of designation as a World Heritage site.
Neglect, vandalism, fires and bad repairs to the timber houses of Zeyrek is a great source of concern to conservationists. UNESCO has warned Turkey to take urgent measures to stop demolition of the timber architecture. Some exemplar projects and implementation work has been carried out with technical support from UNESCO. An NGO specifically established to save the heritage assets at Zeyrek has collaborated with ICOMOS Turkey to restore a timber house on İbadethane Sokak. Traditional methods and materials were used in the restoration of house no. 46, in order to preserve the authenticity of the building and the site. Timber Association has taken initiative to monitor the area and warn the responsible authorities about the bad interventions and losses. Recently the Municipality of Fatih has taken action to restore some houses with financial support from the Governorate of Istanbul. KUDEB, a control and technical assistance center established by the Metropolitan Municipality is training craftsmen and supervising the works.
SÜLEYMANİYE
Süleymaniye quarter incorporates a good collection of timber houses which have not suffered from the fires in early twentieth century as well as very significant monuments and complexes. The site spans from Ragıp Paşa Avenue in the north to Şehzade Complex in the south and from Uzun Çarşı street/Macro Embolos in the east to Atatürk Boulevard in the west. Besides the extensive complex of Süleymaniye, the ancient aqueduct of Valens, Vefa Camii, a medieval church, the sixteenth century Şehzade Complex, Atıf Efendi Library from the eighteenth century, the Ottoman Ministry of War (now the Istanbul University Rectorate), the headquarters of Istanbul Muftu, Botanical Institute attached to Istanbul University are located within this district.
Süleymaniye Complex and the settlement around it has an important place within the Golden Horn silhouette of the Historic Peninsula. Süleymaniye Complex gave the district its name. It is a grand establishment reflecting the glory of the Ottoman Empire in the sixteenth century. Its program reflects the might and generosity of the imperial founder. The general layout of the complex follows the axiality of the Fatih Complex; the mosque is in a central position. It rises like a mountain over the top of the hill and catches the eye as one looks towards the Historic Peninsula from the north.
The land needed for the construction of the Complex was partly allocated from the Old Palace grounds. The rest was acquired by expropriation. Due to the sloping terrain towards the north and west, terraces were created by the construction of retaining walls. It took nearly nine years (1550-59) to build the complex which consists of a grand mosque, two tombs, a primary school, five madrasas, one medical college, a hospital, a caravansaray, a guesthouse, a refectory, a kitchen, a bakery, a Koran reading room, a bath and several shops. A spacious courtyard surrounds the mosque and its arcaded courtyard on three sides. The tomb of the founder and his wife are placed to the qibla side of the mosque,
in the garden to the southeast. Madrasas are on the northeast and southwest sides of the mosque. The northwest side is reserved for three major buildings of the complex; the hospital, the refectory-kitchen and the *tabhane*/guesthouse. Due to the slope towards the west, all of the three buildings have basements.
The structural scheme of Süleymaniye mosque was inspired by Hagia Sophia, however, Architect Sinan chose a more modest scale for his mosque design, probably due to the imminent earthquake risk. The dome of Süleymaniye is 24 meters in
diameter, in contrast to the 33 meter wide dome of Hagia Sophia. Architect Sinan contributed to the sixteenth century mosque design with many important, new details. He regarded Suleymaniye as the work of his mid-career. The three storeyed western gate of the courtyard is unique in Ottoman architecture. Marble, granite, porphyry columns were brought from different places of the Empire to embellish this grand monument. The best quality works of stone masons, tile workers and other craftsmen of the time were used in the creation of Suleymaniye.
Suleymaniye Complex and the Golden Horn
Dome of the Süleymaniye Mosque
The interior of the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey, is a stunning example of Ottoman architecture. The intricate patterns and calligraphy on the walls and ceiling are a testament to the skill and craftsmanship of the artisans who worked on the mosque. The large dome and the smaller domes surrounding it create a sense of grandeur and awe-inspiring beauty. The mosque is not only a place of worship but also a symbol of the rich cultural heritage of Turkey.
Timber houses from Süleymaniye
For the first time in Ottoman architecture, the ablution fountains were placed on the side walls of the mosque. In the courtyard, a decorative fountain with jets of water from its ceiling was a novice (51). The treatment of the structural elements, especially the buttresses on the side elevations was very ingenious. They were nicely articulated; the combination of the rhythmic two-storeyed arcade and its projecting roof was a novelty in the façade design of Ottoman mosques.
Architect Sinan used references to ancient architecture in his major works, enriching his designs and giving them a depth of history. Octagonal plan was used very often for tombs in Ottoman architecture. In his design for the tomb of Sultan Suleyman, Architect Sinan used an octagonal plan with inner and outer ambulatories, borrowing elements from Roman architecture.
The tomb of Roxelane, the dear wife of Süleyman the Magnificent is located very close to his but is quite modest in scale. The plan is octagonal on the outside, but sixteen sided inside. This typology is derived from Seljuk architecture; Architect Sinan had several references to Seljuk architecture in his works. The interior of the tomb is richly decorated with glazed tiles. The exterior is sober with regular ashlar masonry. The cylindrical drum of the tomb is unique in Ottoman architecture, with verses from the Quran carved on it (52).
Kayserili Ahmet Paşa Mansion, Süleymaniye
Conservation of the timber architecture at Süleymaniye is of high priority
Madrasas
There are six madrasas within the Complex of Suleymaniye. The first four were the highest level universities of their time. They were called the first, second, third and fourth in Ottoman (Evvel, Sani, Salis and Rabi). The first two madrasas are located on the southwest side of the mosque, on a land sloping towards the north. They are arranged symmetrically on two sides of a street. Today these two madrasas are used by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism as the manuscript library for the collections of the historic libraries of Istanbul. A team of conservators are employed for the care of the rare books in the library.
The third and fourth madrasas are on the northern side of the mosque, overlooking the Golden Horn. They are also symmetrical in layout, with their entrances located on the Mimar Sinan Street. The tomb of Architect Sinan is also located on this street. The madrasas do not have inscriptions; historic documents provide the date they started to function as 1558. The design of the northern twin madrasas is very special; their courtyards are not level but adapted to the terrain with steps. The classrooms are located at the highest point of the land. The courtyard has several terraces. One reaches the northern wing of the building by means of steps. The eastern and western arcades have sofas for the students to sit, read or to contemplate. Under the northern wing of the third and fourth madrasas, there is a row of rooms dedicated to the accommodation of poor scholars (53). These rooms were later named Mülazımlar Medresesi, the Madrasa of Scholars, although the building did not function as a madrasa.
The fifth madrasa is the Darüllhadith; a madrasa for the teaching of the sayings of the prophet Mohammad. This madrasa was the highest ranking madrasa in the Ottoman Empire, when it was built. It consists of a raised classroom and a row of cells arranged on a broken line. The madrasa was damaged seriously in the course of time; today it is difficult to trace some of the original features.
The Eyüp Sultan Mosque, located in Istanbul, Turkey, is one of the most important mosques in the city. It was built in the 15th century and is known for its unique architecture, which combines elements of Ottoman and Byzantine styles. The mosque is situated on a hill overlooking the Golden Horn and is surrounded by lush greenery. It is a popular tourist attraction and is visited by thousands of people every year. The mosque is also significant for its historical and cultural importance, as it is believed to be the burial place of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, Abu Bakr.
Süleymaniye, the first madrasa
The sixth madrasa was for medical studies; it was the first medical school in Istanbul. It is located to the west of *Sani* madrasa, with its cells placed above the western end of *Tiryaki Çarşı*, the bazaar of tobacco dealers. According to the foundation deed of Süleymaniye Complex, there were eight students in the madrasa. This means that there were eight rooms for the students and other spaces for the staff and services. Medical college was converted into a hospital in the twentieth century. Today there are twelve rooms arranged in a line. The two rooms at the ends are rectangular in plan and covered with two domes. The others are square in plan. Within the present arrangement, there is not a large room which could be used for lectures. Probably, both the theoretical courses and practical exercises took place in the hospital building. Originally, there was probably a colonnade or an arcade with a timber roof along the southern side of the cells. Several changes took place; the arcade is no longer a semi-open space but walled in.
The single domed building attached to the eastern wall of the tomb garden is the *Darülkurra*, the building for teaching the different styles of Quran reading (54). In a map showing the waterways of Suleymaniye Complex, this building is indicated as the classroom (55). In an old photo, the darülkurra has lost its roof and is surrounded by buildings. During the restoration carried out by A.S. Ulgen in 1950’s, the accretions around it were removed and its dome was reconstructed.
The primary school is located to the east of the Evvel Madrasa, above the eastern end of the Tiryaki Bazaar. Its entrance is on
the east, from a small door on Süleymaniye Street. There is a semi-open space covered by a dome at the entrance. This was used as the summer classroom. The closed part of the school is rectangular in plan (56). The primary school is used as a library for children today.
The hospital, *darüşşifā* is a spacious building, located to the southwest of the mosque, on a terrain sloping towards the west. It is organized around two courtyards. A pharmacy and a small bath were attached to it. The foundation deed of the complex lists the qualifications of the doctors who could work in this hospital. To provide health services was not assumed as a public duty in the sixteenth century; so hospitals were established by benevolent people, as part of foundations. Only the sultan and his family could afford such expensive projects. Süleymaniye hospital was the second healthcare center in Istanbul when it was built.
The *darüşziyafe*, the public kitchen of the complex is to the north of the hospital. It consists of a kitchen, a refectory, storage rooms, a bakery and the administrator’s office. The architectural design of the imaret is similar to the public kitchen of the Bayezit II Complex in Istanbul with its compact organisation and arrangement of the units around a arcaded courtyard. It is a big structure which served the students and the staff of the complex,
Rabi Madrasa, Süleymaniye
as well as the guests staying at the *tabhane*. Its basement was used as the stable for the animals of the guests staying at the *Tabhane*. According to the foundation deed of Süleymaniye Complex, the guests were welcomed at the complex and could stay there for three days, without any charge. During this period, their animals stayed at the stable and were looked after. There are two entrances to the stable; a small one from the sloping street to the south of the building and a large gate from the road along the west wall. The interior is a L shaped large hall, covered with vaults. Slit windows were used for the ventilation and illumination of the interior.
The guesthouse, *tabhane* is situated to the north of the public kitchen. The monumental gate on Süleymaniye Imaret Street leads to a forecourt from which the building is reached. The guesthouse is a spacious building with rooms and iwans arranged around a courtyard. The courtyard is paved with marble slabs and has a pool in the center. The iwan across the entrance is the most conspicuous element of the whole composition. It was reserved for guests, to come together, to have meals or to chat. There are also small sofas in front of the rooms for sitting and resting. The meals were served from the kitchen. In the Republican Period, the guesthouse was used as part of the State Archives. It was not open
to the public. The earthquake in 1999 caused some damage to its structure. Conservation works are on the way.
Imperial complexes usually have double baths, *hamams* in their programs. According to the historic documents related to its construction, the bath was one of the last buildings to be completed. Probably due to the constraints in finding a suitable place to build it, the bath of Süleymaniye Complex is a single one, meaning that it serves men and women at different hours of the day. The planimetry of the hot section has a central dome with four iwans and four corner cells. The bath has undergone some alterations in the nineteenth century. Its three bay porch was walled in to create additional space. A timber gallery, *şurvan* was added to the dressing hall. The bath stopped functioning after 1930’s, but after a restoration in late 1980’s, it is in service again.
Due to the sloping terrain on which the Complex is built, several basements had to be built, which were used as shops or storage areas. Under the terrace, to the north of the mosque, there is a long row of shops. Another long row, attached to the south wall of the third and fourth madrasas, faced these shops. This was a bazaar where craftsmen specialized in brasswork, producing samovars, braziers, candlesticks were located. The street is called *Dökmeçiler*, the founders’ bazaar. The shops are rectangular in plan and covered by vaults. The timber shutters on their façades have been changed in time. Originally, they had wide eaves which protected the goods exhibited in front of the shops. The evidence for some of the supporting elements are preserved.
Süleymaniye Complex is the greatest of Sinan’s projects in Istanbul. It was built at a time when Ottomans were very strong, economically and politically. It reflects the concept of an Ottoman imperial complex, illustrating the Ottoman building types and the arts and crafts of the sixteenth century. The integrity of the complex has to be preserved with care. The modern uses should be selected very carefully in order to present the site as a socio-cultural institution of its time.
Entrance to the Guesthouse (Tabhane) of Süleymaniye Complex
During the sixteenth century, Süleymaniye quarter was a fashionable quarter with *konaks*, houses close to the Old Palace and a nice view over the Golden Horn. The popularity of the district continued over the centuries, attracting high ranking officials. The most impressive of the vizierial complexes was the palace of Siyavuş Paşa, which had 300 rooms, baths and shops. The panorama of C. Loos from early eighteenth century, gives a good idea about how the slopes of Süleymaniye looked before major transformations took place.
Süleymaniye is located very close to the harbour area. The coastal strip between Eminönü and Unkapanı was reserved to commercial activity since the fifteenth century. Each craft had its workshop organized on a street, forming arastas, lines of shops. Commercial activity in the area to the north of Süleymaniye continued within its earlier boundaries until the twentieth century. After 1950’s there was a boom; the timber houses in the proximity of the commercial district were pulled down to give way to large scaled reinforced concrete structures. Several workshops and small industrial plants occupied these multi storeyed structures. Thus Süleymaniye, which was a residential quarter during the Ottoman period, with *konaks* commanding a nice view over the Golden Horn, lost its attraction. The social structure of the district changed dramatically with many immigrant families from southeast Anatolia. The new comers preferred to live there due to its proximity to the commercial center. Almost all the houses were rented or purchased
Yeni Cami (New Mosque) and the Galata Bridge
The Galata Bridge spans the Golden Horn in Istanbul, connecting the European and Asian sides of the city. The bridge is a significant landmark and a vital part of the city's transportation network. The Golden Horn, a natural harbor, is a major waterway that has played a crucial role in Istanbul's history and economy. The presence of ferries and boats indicates the importance of water transport in the city. The surrounding buildings showcase the architectural diversity of Istanbul, with a mix of modern and traditional styles. The bustling streets and vehicles suggest the dynamic nature of the city, where history and modernity coexist.
by families with rural background and bachelors looking for job opportunities. During Istanbul’s listing to the World Heritage, the timber houses within the district were in better condition than today and reflected the spirit of the place. But the lack of proper maintenance and changes to the fabric by demolitions have caused extensive losses since the 1990’s. The decrease in the number of historic houses poses a great risk to the integrity of the urban site.
**CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC ISTANBUL**
The topography of Historic Peninsula is very interesting with its sloping hills, valleys and shores. Claiming to be the New Rome, Constantinople was organized around seven hills. Building over a peninsula, with emphasis on its natural features was a challenge. Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, Süleymaniye, Sultan Ahmet, Aqueduct of Valens, Zeyrek, Sultan Selim Complex are the major focal points of this spectacular urban compound. With major monuments highlighting the attractive localities, an exceptional silhouette, which lends itself to interesting and impressive panoramas has been created. In addition to the prestigious religious buildings, profane buildings like fountains, sabil, timber and masonry houses add to the attraction of the city and its streets. Artists and travellers who visited Istanbul during the nineteenth century found it exotic and expressed their feelings in writing. Danish writer H.C. Andersen, who visited the city in 1842 noted “As the Marmara Sea foamed with its dark green waves, a city of the imagination, like Venice, grand Constantinople, the Istanbul of Turks appeared before us” (57). Italian writer E.De Amicis who visited Istanbul in 1874, wrote about his confrontation with the Topkapi Palace, Scutari and Galata as follows “We are passing by Sarayburnu. This is Istanbul. Magnificent, grand, great Istanbul. Thank God, glory to the created. I had not seen such beauty even in my dreams! … Hundreds of buildings and gardens rise over the slopes. Minarets like tall ivory towers with shining caps rise to
Zal Mahmut Paşa Mosque and Madrasa, Eyüp
the sky from amidst colorful houses, mosques, palaces, hamams and terraces” (58).
Melling’s early nineteenth century engravings show Istanbul as it looked before the drastic interventions to the city. The sea walls surrounding Topkapı Palace were intact; there is no coastal road around the walls. The thickly wooded Gülhane area is clearly delineated. The railroad has not disturbed the Topkapı Palace grounds yet. The hills of the ancient city are covered with small houses and impressive monuments. Hagia Sophia rises over the first hill. The Constantinian column marks the second hill. Bayezit Mosque is visible at the top of the third hill. The fourth hill, over which once the Church of Holy Apostles stood, is now occupied
by Fatih Mosque. Above the fifth hill, there is the Complex of Sultan Selim, with its rhythmic cluster of domes. The sixth hill is the highest point of the old city with its altitude reaching 76 meters. Mihrimah Sultan Mosque was raised over it in the sixteenth century by Architect Sinan. Visible from many points, it is an important landmark, pointing to the western boundary of the city and the entrance to the city: Adrianople Gate. The seventh hill is not a very conspicuous topographical element. It is on the south side of the city, overlooking the Marmara Sea; Cerrahpaşa Mosque from the end of the sixteenth century rises above this hill.
The southern silhouette of the city has several important urban elements but is not as impressive as the northern one. On its eastern end, there is the Hippodrome and Sultan Ahmet Mosque with its six minarets. The Sergius and Bacchus near the shore is an important monument from the sixth century. Bayezit II Mosque is only partially visible on this view of the city. New buildings curtain some of the major monuments and the tall structures at Levent and Maslak interfere with the monumental appearance of Old Istanbul.
During the Byzantine period, Marmara coast had several harbours which were silted in time and lost their function.
Marble Tower (Mermer Kule), the first tower of the Sea Walls on the Marmara coast
Recent excavations at Yenikapı, within the Theodosian harbour uncovered some of their secrets. Several boats, amphorae, walls provide an insight into this part of the city. The site is worthy of presentation with its interesting remains.
The modern Yenikapı harbour is very active and connects the city to different destinations around the Marmara Sea. To the west of Yenikapı there is the Vlanga district and Cerrahpaşa. Modern health facilities belonging to Istanbul University and Social Security occupy the hillside of Cerrahpaşa district. At Psammatia, Samatya where Christian population lived, several churches are visible with their tall bell towers. They are surrounded by timber and masonry houses of the Armenian and Greek population of Istanbul. Though separated from the coast, the sea walls are visible towards the western end of the city. The Marble tower marks the connection with the Land Wall. With Yedikule Castle and the nineteenth century gas works in the background, the southern silhouette of the old city is completed.
During the nineteenth century, historic Istanbul had many quarters consisting of two or three storeyed timber houses. Visitors approaching the city from the Marmara sea thought that a city with such an impressive view would have a regular street pattern. When they started to go around, the visitors were surprised by the narrow and winding streets. De Amicis underlines the fact that there is great confusion inside the city (59). Visitors who read about ancient Constantinople and expected to find the Augusteion in front of Hagia Sophia, the Forum of Constantine at Çemberlitaş, and Forum Tauri at Bayezit had difficulty in orienting themselves. They kept searching for the remnants of ancient city. The urban form of the Byzantine city was not preserved during the Ottoman period. Several of the open spaces which surrounded major monuments were occupied by houses and other buildings. In the Fossati drawing showing the exterior of Hagia Sophia prior to the restoration in the first half of the nineteenth century, timber
houses are clustered in the area between Hagia Sophia and the Blue Mosque. Several open spaces, squares were created during the twentieth century as part of the new planning of the city. The open space near the coast of Eminönü was cleaned up in 1950’s, removing the nineteenth century commercial buildings over the outer courtyard of Yeni Cami. The large open area between Şehzade Mosque and the Valens Aqueduct was created in 1950’s during the construction of the Metropolitan Municipality headquarters building by clearing the site.
The earthquake of 1894, several fires in early twentieth century caused great damage to the timber architecture of the city. After the fires, new urban plans were set up with grid iron street patterns. The new street pattern tried to preserve and present the
old monuments as part of the new scheme, but with the loss of the surrounding fabric, the meaning and impact of the historic ensembles was changed dramatically.
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, most of the inhabitants of Istanbul lived within the Theodosian Walls, with Eyüp to the west of the city and Galata to the north of the Historic Peninsula. Galata developed outside of its walls during the last quarter of the nineteenth century with new housing projects. On the Asian side of the city, Üsküdar grew more on the hillside with new living quarters and schools. Several small suburban villages developed to the east of Kadıköy. The Bosphorus villages were very much in favor as summer residences. The Prince’s islands in the Marmara Sea was another focal point for the summers.
The timber houses, kiosks and the natural beauty of the islands is noteworthy. Many historic neighborhoods and buildings from the turn of the century have good quality design and artistic value and are worthy of preservation. Due to the crisis caused by lack of funds, neglect and lack of legal apparatus to designate urban areas, this valuable heritage is only partially protected.
Several wide roads were opened in the Historic city as part of the twentieth century planning. Boulevard of Atatürk, which connects Yenikapı to Unkapanı introduced a new order and changed the scale of the urban fabric around it. Ragıp Gümüşpala Avenue cut through the commercial part of the city. These were part of H. Prost’s regulation plan which was accepted in 1938.
The historic city was subjected to great changes due to new trends in architecture and also pressures from immigration and traffic. The Turkish law for protection of Cultural Heritage did not enable the Ministry of Culture to designate urban or rural areas for protection until 1973. After this date it was possible to identify and list the better preserved areas of the city, like Süleymaniye and Zeyrek, which later became part of the World Heritage sites of Historic Istanbul. The inscription of the Historic Areas of Istanbul into the World Heritage List in 1985 brought more emphasis on the protection of the Land Walls, but it was not possible to provide technical and financial support to the privately owned houses until very recently. With a new amendment to
Dolmabahçe Palace and Mosque
the legal apparatus, the protection of the urban fabric is easier to handle. The ten percent of property taxes collected from citizens is allocated to the protection of the cultural heritage. This fund is a grant and is used through the local governments for the protection of cultural heritage.
The Management Plan for Historic Istanbul was developed very recently. There are several risks emanating from new projects for traffic problems. A new bridge is proposed from Galata to Süleymaniye, connecting Şişhane with Yenikapı. Excavations have been carried out for other subway projects connecting Yenikapı to Scutari. All these new interventions were aimed to ease the traffic between the two sides of the city. Yet the demand for more continues; construction of a tunnel for vehicles to pass under the Bosphorus is considered.
Ministry of Culture and Tourism is working on a risk preparedness project to protect the museums and other important cultural heritage under its protection against the future shocks which might endanger the structures and the collections.
in them. Detailed studies have been carried out for monuments and complexes like the Topkapi Palace, Archaeological Museum, Hagia Eirene and the Monastery of Chora.
During Istanbul’s inscription to World Heritage List, the commercial part of town, Eyüp, Galata, Bosphorus villages, Scutari and the Prince’s island were not included in the file. The historic center of the city includes the bazaar area surrounded by many caravansarays, built between the fifteenth and the twentieth century. This area constitutes an important part of the historic city, but was designated at a later date. Earthquakes and lack of maintenance has caused damages to the caravansarays but the historical and architectural importance of the commercial center of town deserves to be annexed to the World Heritage sites of Istanbul.
There is common concern among the citizens of Istanbul and Turkey about the future of the city. The protection of the natural assets and cultural properties demands a lot of work and care. To construct new skyscrapers, bridges, roads, underwater tunnels without taking care of their impact on the historic city presents great risks. Istanbul has to be protected from pressures and
vandalism by the efforts of people who know and appreciate its values. Teams of professionals and volunteers have to keep vigilance towards this goal.
We hope that Istanbul will continue to preserve its universal value with the support of its citizens and experts who try to search for better means of presenting its cultural layers, enabling all citizens of the world to appreciate it and learn from it. The last words are from Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, the poet who wrote passionately about Istanbul:
Dear Istanbul,
I looked at you from a different hilltop yesterday!
I did not see any place which I did not visit or love.
You will sit on the throne of my heart, so long as I live!
Even to love a district of yours is worth a life.
There are many brilliant cities in the world,
Yet you are the one with charming beauties.
I say that whoever has lived a long life in you and died,
Has been through a long and the most beautiful dream.
NOTES
1. UNESCO, *Basic Texts of the 1972 World Heritage Convention*, 2005, 46
2. ibid, 52-53
3. O. Tekin, “Istanbul in Antiquity: Byzantion”, *Istanbul-World City*, History Foundation of Turkey, Istanbul, 1996, p.102
4. A. Batur (Ed.), *Istanbul World City Exhibition*, p. 38.
5. W. Müller-Wiener, *Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls*, p.19
6. ibid, p. 20
7. ibid, 255
8. ibid, p. 263
9. http://whc.unesco.org/en/danger
10. S. Eyice, “Arkadios Sütunu”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 1, Istanbul, 1993, p. 306-7
11. C. C. Carbognano, *18. Yüzyılın Sonunda İstanbul*, p. 57
12. ibid, 93
13. Müller-Wiener, op. cit., p.312
14. H. Schedel, *Liber Chronicarum*, Nürnberg 1493 (in Müller-Wiener, op. cit, p. 31, Fig. 5)
15. K. Byrd, *Pierre Gilles’ Constantinople*, p. 83
16. “Bozdoğan Kemerı”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 2, Istanbul, 1994, p. 319
17. K. Çeçen, *Halkalı Suları*, p. 13
18. Byrd, op. cit, p. 150-1
19. I. A. Yüksel, *Osmanlı Mimarisinde II. Bayezid-Yavuz Selim Devri*, p. 191, 202
20. ibid, p. 204
21. T. Öz, *İstanbul Camileri*, Vol 1, p. 34
22. N. Atasoy, *Ibrahim Paşa Sarayı*; Müller-Wiener, op. cit., pp. 492-494
23. Z. Nayır, *Osmanlı Mimarlığında Sultan Ahmet Külliyesi ve Sonrası (1609-1690)*, p. 44-47
24. De Amicis, *Istanbul*, p. 140
25. *Raimondo D’Aronco in Turchia (1893-1909)*, Istituto Italiana di Cultura, Istanbul, 1995
26. H. Prost, *Istanbul Şehrinin Avrupa Kısmının Nazım Planı*, p. 7, Article P
27. A. Ödekan, “Constantinople, ‘The Queen City’, *Istanbul-World City*, Istanbul, 1996, p. 118
28. Müller-Wiener, op. cit., p. 86, p. 94
29. ibid, p. 88
30. E. H. Ayverdi, *Osmanlı Mimarisinde Fatih Devri*, Vol. IV, 688; H. Tezcan, “Sur-u Sultani”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 7, Istanbul, 1994, pp. 72-74
31. Müller-Wiener, op. cit., p. 40
32. N. Seçkin, *Topkapı Sarayı’nın Biçimlenmesine Egemen Olan Tasarım Gelenekleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma (1453-1755)*, p. 147
33. *Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi*, Book 2, p. 213
34. N. Sakaoğlu, “Darphane-i Amire’nin Kısa Tarihi”, *Dünya Kenti İstanbul*, pp. 68-77; E. Dölen, “Darphane-i Amire”, *Dünya Kenti İstanbul*, pp. 78-86
35. Seçkin, op. cit., pp. 103-104
36. D. Kuban, “Topkapı Sarayı”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 7, Istanbul, 1994, p. 285
37. Seçkin, op. cit., 162
38. ibid, p. 167
39. S. H. Eldem, *Köşkler ve Kasırlar*, Vol. II, 195
40. P. Tuğlaci, “Mecidiye Kasrı”, *Osmanlı Mimarlığında Batılılaşma Dönemi ve Balyan Ailesi*, pp. 284-5
41. Müller-Wiener, op. cit., 53
42. A. Refik, *Onuncu Asr-ı Hicride İstanbul Hayatı* (Ed. A. Uysal) Ankara, 1987, pp. 6,22
43. B. Meyer-Plath-A. M. Schneider, *Die Landmauern von Konstantinopel*, Vol. II, Berlin, 1943
44. M. Ahunbay, “Kara Surları”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 7, p. 79
45. M. and Z. Ahunbay, “Sur Onarımları”, *Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Vol. 7, Istanbul, 1994, pp. 79-80
46. M. and Z. Ahunbay, “Recent Work on the Land Walls of Istanbul: Tower 2 to Tower 5”, *Dumbarton Oaks Papers*, Number 54, Washington D.C., 2000, pp. 227-239
47. see: [http://whc.unesco.org/archive/2006/whc06-30com-19e.pdf](http://whc.unesco.org/archive/2006/whc06-30com-19e.pdf); decision no: 30 COM 7B.73
48. see: Müller-Wiener, op. cit., p. 339
49. I. Kumbaracılar-C. Tamer, *Yedikule*, TTOK, Istanbul, pp. 48-55
50. M. and Z. Ahunbay, “Restoration Work at the Zeyrek Camii 1997-1998”, *Byzantine Constantinople. Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life*, Brill 2001, pp. 117-132; M. and Z. Ahunbay, “UNESCO Destekli Bir Proje”, *Tasarım*, Vol. 154, Eylül 2005, pp. 72-85
51. K. Çeçen, *Süleymaniye Suyolları*, pp. 84-89
52. H. Önkal, *Osmanlı Hanedan Türbeleri*, pp. 144-146
53. *Süleymaniye Vakfiyesi*, (Ed. K. E. Kürkçüoğlu), VGM, Ankara, 1962, p. 26
54. Z. Ahunbay, “Mimar Sinan’ın Eğitim Yapıları”, *Mimarbaşı Koca Sinan, Yaşadığı Çağ ve Eserleri*, Vol. I, p. 276
55. Çeçen, *Süleymaniye Suyolları*, p. 43
56. Ö. Aksoy, *Osmanlı Devri İstanbul Sibyan Mektepleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme*, p. 80; Z. Ahunbay, “Mimar Sinan’ın Eğitim Yapıları”, p. 283
57. K. Hamsun-H. C. Andersen, *İstanbul’daki İki İskandinav Seyyah*, p. 92
58. *İstanbul* (1874), p. 19
59. ibid, p. 21
AHUNBAY, Metin and Zeynep, “Conservation of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul”, *More than Two Thousand Years in the History of Architecture, Safeguarding the Structures of our Architectural Heritage*, Proceedings of the International Congress, UNESCO-ICOMOS, Paris, 2003, pp. 77-83
AHUNBAY, Metin and Zeynep, “Recent Work on the Land Walls of Istanbul: Tower 2 to Tower 5, *Dumbarton Oaks Papers*, Number 54, Washington D.C., 2000, pp. 227-239
AHUNBAY, Metin and Zeynep, “Restoration Work at the Zeyrek Camii 1997-1998”, *Byzantine Constantinople: Monuments, Topography and Everyday Life*, Brill, 2001, pp. 117-132
AHUNBAY, Metin and Zeynep, “UNESCO Destekli Bir Proje”, *Tasarım*, Vol. 154, Sept. 2005, pp. 72-85
AHUNBAY, Zeynep, “Cultural Heritage of Istanbul”, *Pilot Restoration Projects Istanbul*, UNESCO Turkish National Commission, Ankara, 1998, pp. 5-14
AKSOY, Özgönül, *Osmanlı Devri İstanbul Sibyan Mektepleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme*, ITU Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul, 1968
De AMICIS, Edmondo, *Istanbul (1874)*, (trans. B. Akyavaş), Ministry of Culture Publications: 320, Ankara, 1981
ARU, Kemal Ahmet, *Türk Hamamları Etüdü*, Istanbul, 1949
ATASOY, Nurhan, *Ibrahim Paşa Sarayı*, Istanbul, 1972
AYVERDİ, Ekrem Hakkı, *Osmanlı Mimarisinde Fatih Devri*, Vol. IV, Istanbul, 1974
BATUR, Afife (Ed.), *Istanbul-World City*, History Foundation, Istanbul, 1996
BYRD, Kimberley, *Pierre Gilles’ Constantinople*, A Modern English Translation, Italica Press, New York, 2008
CARBOGNANO, C. C., *18. Yüzyılın Sonunda İstanbul* (trans. E. Özbayoğlu), Eren Publishers, Istanbul, 1993
ÇEÇEN, Kazım, *İstanbul’un Vakıf Sularından Halkalı Suları*, Istanbul, 1991
ÇELİK, Zeynep, *The Remaking of Istanbul, Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century*, University of California Press, 1993
ELDEM, Sedad Hakki, *Köşkler ve Kasırlar*, Vol. II, IDGSA, Istanbul, 1973
*EVLIYA CELEBI Seyahatnamesi* (Ed. Z. Danışman), Book 1-2, Istanbul, 1969; Book 3-11, Istanbul, 1970; Book 12-13, Istanbul, 1971
FEILDEN, Bernard M.-JOKILEHTO, Jukka, *Management Guidelines for World Cultural Heritage Sites*, ICCROM, Rome, 1993
GILLES, Pierre, *The Antiquities of Constantinople*, Italica Press, New York, 1988
GOYTISOLO, Juan, (trans. N. G. Işık), *Osmanlı’nın İstanbul’u*, YKY, Istanbul, 2004
GRELOT, John, *Istanbul Seyahatnamesi*, (Relation Nouvelle d’un Voyage de Constantinople, 1681, trans. M. Selen) Istanbul, 1998
GÜLERSOY, Nuran Z.-TEZER, A.-YIĞITER, R., *Zeyrek: a Study in Conservation*, ITU Faculty of Architecture, 2001
HAMSUN, K.-ANDERSEN, H. C., *İstanbul’da İki Iskandinav Seyyah*, YKY, Istanbul, 1993
INCICYAN, P. Ğ., (trans. H. D. Andreasyan) *18. Asırda İstanbul*, Istanbul, 1976
KOCABAŞ, Ufuk (Ed.), *Yenikapı Shipwrecks Vol. 1, The Old Ships of the New Gate 1*, Ege Publishing, Istanbul, 2008
KRAUTHEIMER, Richard, *Three Christian Capitals, Topography and Politics*, U of California Press, London, 1983
KUBAN, Doğan, *Istanbul, An Urban History*, Istanbul, 1996
KUBAN, Doğan, *Kent ve Mimarlık Üzerine İstanbul Yazıları*, Istanbul, 1998
MAINSTONE, Rowland. J., *Hagia Sophia*, Thames and Hudson, 1988
MÜLLER-WIENER, Wolfgang, *Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls*, Ernst Wasmuth Tübingen, 1977
NAYIR, Zeynep, *Osmanlı Mimarlığında Sultan Ahmet Külliyesi ve Sonrası (1609-1690)*, ITU Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul, 1975
NECIPOĞLU-KAFADAR, Gülru, *Architecture, Ceremonial and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries*, Cambridge, MA, London, 1991
OUSTERHOUT, Robert, *The Art of the Kariye Camii*, Scala Publishers, London, 2002
OZIL, Revza, “The Conservation of the Dome Mosaics of Hagia Sophia”, *International Millenium Congress More than Two Thousand Years in the History of Architecture, Architecture, Selected Papers* Vol. II, Session 3 and 6, UNESCO 2001, pp. 77-82
ÖZ, Tahsin, *İstanbul Camileri*, Vol. 1, Ankara, 1962; Vol. 2, Ankara, 1965
PROST, Henri, *İstanbul Şehrinin Avrupa Kısmının Nazım Plani*, Istanbul, (unpublished report) 1937-1942
SEÇKİN, Nadide, *Topkapı Sarayı’nın Biçimlenmesine Egemen Olan Tasarım Gelenekleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma (1453-1755)*, Ankara, 1998
STOVEL, Herb, *Risk Preparedness: A Management Manual for World Cultural Heritage*, ICCROM, Rome, 1998
TAMER, Cahide, *Istanbul Bizans Anıtları ve Onarımları*, Istanbul, 2003
TARIH VAKFI, *Istanbul Ansiklopedisi*, Istanbul, 1993
TUĞLACI, Pars, *Osmanlı Mimarlığında Batılılaşma Dönemi ve Balyan Ailesi*, Istanbul, 1981
UNESCO, *Basic Texts of the 1972 World Heritage Convention*, Paris, 2005
ÜNSAL, Behçet, “İstanbul’un İmari ve Eski Eser Kaybı”, *Türk Sanatı Tarihi Araştırma ve İncelemeleri*, Vol. II, IDGSA Türk Sanatı Tarihi Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları: 2, Istanbul, 1969, pp. 6-51
YÜKSEL, I. Aydın, *Osmanlı Mimarisinde II. Bayezid ve Yavuz Selim Devri (1481-1520)*, Vol. V, Istanbul, 1983 | 5bb95cf1-a310-410d-8a46-239a829a3d82 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://ekitap.ktb.gov.tr/Eklenti/6585,istanbulaworldheritagesitepdf.pdf?0&_tag1=4C47408FA0410A1C193484A05BC63D1F44A831DE&crefer=2CD45998CCF8633220E9E5848F401388343C9132E9089F3A246A7A00C43A477C | 2022-08-16T06:17:17+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572221.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20220816060335-20220816090335-00187.warc.gz | 233,166,197 | 34,308 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.907401 | eng_Latn | 0.997835 | [
"eng_Latn",
"dag_Latn",
"pol_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"ind_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
... | true | rolmOCR | [
115,
1094,
2343,
3321,
5617,
5647,
7662,
7703,
8779,
9631,
10431,
11576,
13606,
14339,
15085,
15584,
16040,
17335,
18606,
18655,
18724,
19789,
19821,
19853,
21997,
22074,
22092,
23312,
24556,
25122,
25172,
26367,
27122,
27345,
27413,
27544,
276... | [
2.21875,
0.9765625
] | 1 | 0 |
The position of field matron is much more than a job. It is an opportunity for service to others; an opportunity for self-sacrifice in the interest of humanity; and for the exercise of the highest attributes of mind and soul in a preeminent cause. The position should be filled only by women who have the desire and the aptitude to teach the things that influence lives for good and fill them with higher aspirations.
No woman should seek or hold the position of field matron who is not endowed with physical strength, with strong moral and mental force, and with the real missionary spirit—a real spirit of helpfulness that finds expression in a fervent desire to better the condition of a worthy race that is struggling upward to a realm of higher life, for without these qualifications, the duties will be uncongenial and success cannot be attained. The material remuneration is not large and the discouragements and adversities are many. The rewards are chiefly in the sacrifices.
* * * *
The improvement of home, educational, moral, sanitary, environmental, and social conditions, is to be regarded as the primary object of field matron effort for the advancement of the Indian people. While it is the duty of every employee in the Service, regardless of his position, to do everything possible to contribute to this end, both by effort and example, the field matron, being the one who comes into the closest relationship with the family and having the best opportunity to influence the home circle, especially the mothers and the girls, is particularly charged with the responsibility—with the duty of developing high standards of living, of inculcating a desire for progress, and of evolving plans to make the homes more attractive.
* * * *
The duties of a field matron are too varied and extensive to be enumerated or fully defined here. To a certain extent they are modified by the different conditions which obtain in the various districts and on the several reservations, and by the degree of the advancement of the Indians and their particular needs. Many of the helpful things which a field matron may do are not subject to schedule classification and their influence for good can be fully measured only in terms of human destiny.
As a general summary of the duties of field matrons, the following outline may serve to associate and coordinate their work with special phases of local conditions needing improvement, and to give a unity of purpose to their endeavors with regard to the following named objectives:
Home: To give instruction with respect to ventilation, proper heating, and sanitary care, of the place of abode, be it a home, or a tent, or a tepee; and to show the necessity for more room when such places are too small; pointing out the dangers and evils of overcrowding. In suitable cases the question of interior decorations and other matters that would add to home attractions should be given attention. Conditions that improve the home life of any people make for general progress in everything that concerns them.
There is among the Indians a marked and tender affection for their children, but too often the wife, the mother, is regarded and treated as the burden bearer. I wish we might see this habit overcome, for it is distinctly barbaric. I want to see developed and prevalent in every Indian school from the least to the largest that modern and truly chivalrous spirit that recognizes and respects the sacredness of womanhood. I should like to have every Indian boy leave school with this lofty and just sentiment fused into his character, as the picture in the porcelain, because of the deep and exquisite power it will have to bless his future home with health and happiness.
May it be the purpose, as it will be the privilege, of every field matron to work for the betterment of the condition of Indian women, especially for those who are humiliated by traditional customs which deny to them their rightful place in the home.
Then follow similar statements relating to premises, health and sanitation, practices and customs, domestic instruction, school cooperation, industrial cooperation, employment, and special classes. In some cases the injunctions under "special classes" are followed so conscientiously that the matrons have little time to themselves except when in bed asleep.
Special Classes: Field matrons are urged to have "at home" days for various purposes, such as mothers' meetings, saving-the-baby talks, cooking classes, instructions in canning, classes in sewing, and such other special gatherings as may be indicated, but when not away they should always be "at home" to the Indians within reasonable hours.
Clearly the motive back of this service has been good, but there have been only general aims, not definite objectives, nor has there been any organized plan for the work. The chief trouble, however, has been the lack of trained workers. This was recognized some years ago by Mrs. Elsie E. Newton, who was appointed Special Indian Agent in 1907 and from that time until her resignation in 1922 headed the women's work of the Service. In an early memorandum to the Office, she wrote concerning the difficulties of filling the position:
It cannot be acceptably filled by persons who are shunted into it because they do not fit elsewhere in our service, or to piece out their husband's salary. Yet now that the office has set itself against this sort of thing, we have the gravest difficulty in getting just the kind of woman we want, and often we must be content with a compromise.
* * * *
It has seemed best in many instances where missionaries were already established in an Indian community, having facilities already granted by their societies, and themselves having a personal knowledge of the Indians, to merely add sanitary and homemaking teaching to their duties and pay them accordingly from government funds. Many denominations have been included in this arrangement.
* * * *
As to employing farmers' wives as half-matrons, I am generally opposed to it. There are only rare cases when it is justifiable. It merely affords superintendents an opportunity to piece out a salary of a male employee without regard to results to be obtained. If these women have families of their own, it is obvious that they cannot really do much for the Indians. It is only when we are obliged to make bargain counter arrangements rather than none at all, that half-matrons of any sort are to be considered.
In 1912 Mrs. Newton called the attention of the Office to the unsatisfactory results of appointing field matrons from the list of matrons.
There is no justification for thinking that because a woman has passed the examination for matron, or has served as matron or seamstress in a school, she has the other qualifications for a kind of work which calls for a high degree of tact, intelligence and judgment. Many of our matrons and seamstresses may indeed have the qualifications but their work in the school has not developed them for the community work on the reservation; besides it is more than often true that a superintendent will transfer to a position of field matron some employee who cannot get along in the school.
* * * *
It is quite true that some of the most successful field matrons have been women who had no special training, but their success was due to the fact that they were well-endowed by nature, and their complete devotion to the Indians resulted in their being able to work out some practical plan and to apply their policies with persistence. Unfortunately we cannot wait until we can find only women of this rare class, while the work needs to be done.
I believe that one way to improve the personnel of this branch of the Service, is by having a separate register for field matrons secured by a discriminating examination.
As salaries were increased the makeshift arrangements referred to by Mrs. Newton were resorted to less often. But the pay has never been even fairly good compared with salaries outside the Service, and consequently there has always been a dearth of trained workers. In a letter to the Indian Office, dated June 14, 1917, Mrs. Newton wrote:
In this connection I wish to add that the handicap of nearly every woman entering field matron work is that she does not know what to do, and in nearly every case her superintendent does not know much more than she does what he wants done. The ideal arrangement would be the location at one or two points in the Service or more, where probationaries could take up a preliminary course of coaching. Or make arrangements with some university or social training school to add to its branches a department pertaining to Indian work besides. Or failing either of these, there should be a manual put out by the Indian Office, detailing what the duties of a field matron are, suggesting methods of work, giving lists of literature bearing directly or indirectly upon the problems. Something is imperative, since we lose greatly in results through a lack of articulation and training.
These practical suggestions for training incumbents did not touch upon the root cause of Mrs. Newton's dissatisfaction with the work of the field matrons. The real trouble was that the qualifications for the position were so low as to be in practice non-selective. The requirements have been raised somewhat since this letter was
---
No schooling requirements were specified until 1924, when the applicants were required to have the equivalent of an eighth grade education. In 1916 applicants were required only to "answer fully what experience and training, if any, they have had in (a) cookery, (b) household sanitation, (c) sewing, (d) care of the sick, (e) care and feeding of infants, (f) home gardening and poultry raising, and (g) social work, such as reform, settlement, slum, civic betterment, or any similar line of work," and to state "What experience, if any, they have had in the management of their own homes or in the instruction and training of others in the household arts." In 1916 the salary was $600 to $840 and quarters "usually provided free." In 1925 it was nominally $1200 to $1500 with quarters, though in actual practice it seldom exceeds $1200 with quarters.
written, but at the last examination (March 26, 1927) they were still so low that no one with professional qualifications would have been interested in the position even if the pay had been attractive. A woman with the equivalent of an eighth grade education, "eighteen months' experience in practical home nursing or care of the sick," and one year of "experience in home management and performance of general household duties, including the care of children and home cookery," could qualify.
As a matter of fact, higher standards of education than the minimum are represented by most of the field matrons, if the information furnished by the twenty-three reporting may be considered representative. Only three of these reported no education beyond the eighth grade; ten others reported no education beyond the high schools, but two of the ten were high school graduates; five had completed one or two years of college; one was a college graduate; the other four reported normal school or other specialized training in addition to their high school education. In addition to their regular schooling two of these field matrons have had two years each of nurses' training, and various of the others have had university extension courses, summer courses, correspondence courses, and the like.
These untrained workers lack supervision both local and general. The working relations between superintendents and field matrons are as a rule cordially coöperative, but superintendents cannot be expected to be qualified to give the detailed training necessary to specialized types of service. The social worker, like the forester, or the doctor, or the stockman, needs to know the job and to be able to achieve results without more local supervision than that indicated in the instructions to superintendents appended to the 1922 circular to field matrons:
Duties of Superintendents: It is expected that superintendents will give their active support to field matrons in the discharge of their duties and direct the activity by careful planning and friendly counsel. It may appear that the inconcrete results are not always commensurate with the trouble and expense involved, but it should be remembered that, even though all that is hoped for may never be realized, the true appraisement of the value of work cannot be made without regard to the sincerity, harmony and faithfulness of those who go forth to do good and of those who sustain, plan, counsel, and direct.
Individuality: While superintendents will have administrative control over the work of field matrons, it is deemed advisable that the latter should be given, so far as is consistent with the interest of good administration, an opportunity to express their individuality in the performance of their duties.
Quarters and Equipment: Superintendents will see that field matrons are provided with quarters and such station equipment as may be secured on requisition, and extend them such assistance in their work as may be advisable and expedient.
Since 1924 general supervision has been provided for by the appointment of a Supervisor of Field Matrons and Field Nurses. The creation of this position followed the demonstration by the American Red Cross in which public health nursing service was effectively given the Indians of several localities. The quality of this supervision is excellent, but the present supervisor needs assistance. Little can be done except by personal visits, for the instruction involved is a slow process. Under such conditions it is impossible for the supervisor to make the rounds of the Service in less than two years. More frequent visits would be desirable even if the local workers were well trained public health nurses.
At the present time most field matrons are trying to render visiting nursing service, a few have attempted home demonstration work, and two or three have done excellent work with the young people in stimulating them vocationally. But in spite of some outstanding exceptions, the field matron service is in large measure a service of palliative errands rather than the development of a program of constructive work. It is significant of the general quality of this service that although the work is essentially family case work, no family case records are kept. On the basis of visits with three-fourths of all the field matrons the conclusion is reached that in all but a few cases the money spent for these salaries is productive of little lasting good, notwithstanding much devotion and conscientious effort. It would be of more benefit to the Indians to spend this part of the salary budget in securing half the number of trained people at double the salary.
The Indian Office recognizes the ineffectiveness of this service and is gradually eliminating the position by substituting field nurses when vacancies occur. It should be recognized, however, that this plan meets the needs of the home only partially. The public health
nurse cannot be expected to render specialized service in those cases in which the problems are primarily economic, nor is she a specialist in the handling of those maladjustments that lead to divorce and delinquency.
Field Nurses. Since the Supervisor of Field Nurses and Field Matrons was appointed an effort has been made to secure graduate nurses for field service and a program of health education is under way. In addition to the qualifications as graduate nurse "the applicant for this position must have established 'at least four months' post graduate training in public health or visiting nurse at a school of recognized standing, or in lieu of such training, one year's full-time paid experience under supervision in public health or visiting nursing.'" At present "nine out of eleven positions are filled. The movement is crippled because salaries are sub-standard" and nurses with public health training are much in demand outside the Indian Service.
Some excellent work is being done by the field nurses in various localities. The nurses interviewed like to work with the Indians and would like to stay with the Service if they could afford to continue at the low salary and if working conditions were more nearly satisfactory. They work under various handicaps, some of which could be removed, but others of which are inherent in the pioneer nature of the work. The least excusable and therefore the most irritating relate to the lack of supplies and equipment and to poor transportation facilities. Both of these things hinder the effectiveness of their work. The standard conveyance is a cheap touring car which in some cases is old and ill-suited to winter travel, especially at high altitudes. The nurses believe that their efficiency suffers from the exposure and the necessary delays caused by unexpected repairs to old cars. The living quarters furnished
11 "(1) Graduation from a recognized school of nursing requiring a residence of at least two years in a hospital having a daily average of fifty patients or more (or having a daily average of thirty patients or more and employing at least one full-time resident instructor in nursing) giving a thorough practical and theoretical training; and (2) evidence of state registration."
12 September, 1927.
13 The salary is $1680 a year, less a deduction of $180 for quarters, heat, and light.
are not in all cases comfortable and this adds unnecessarily to the strain under which certain of the nurses work.
In some instances the work of the field nurses suffers from lack of cooperation on the part of other employees, who are unfamiliar with this type of specialized service and associate nurses only with personal service of the type found in hospitals, failing entirely to grasp the fact that the aims of the public health nurse are primarily educational. Occasionally also nurses meet with opposition from doctors who are conscious of their own limitations and fear too close association with anyone who has good training in a related field. Such doctors resort to the claim that they prefer field matrons as being "more practical." These difficulties, however, may be interpreted as indicating that the field nurse's duty of education must for a time embrace fellow employees as well as Indians.
At present no development in the Indian Service is more promising than these beginnings of public health education in the homes. Essential to the future of the Service, however, is the improvement of conditions of work, including a higher salary scale. The three nurses maintained by the New Mexico Association on Indian Affairs are paid at a much higher rate than the government nurses and are furnished closed cars. The state supported public health nurses among the Minnesota Indians are maintained on higher standards than those of the Indian Office. The work among the Indians on most reservations involves inevitable hardships because distances are long, roads rough, weather conditions severe, and the demands on the nurses' time never ending. It will be impossible to build up and maintain an efficient force unless the Indian Office can offer salaries and living conditions approximating those found elsewhere.
Superintendents. Superintendents differ greatly in their attitude toward the Indians and their conception of the objective toward which they should direct their own and their employees' efforts. As a rule they give their field matrons and field nurses support and appreciation and as good facilities for work as the very limited funds permit. But like many of the field matrons, some of the superintendents lack any conception of constructive social work and a few have a definitely antagonistic and contemptuous attitude toward the people whose welfare they are employed to promote. Some of the more intelligent and socially minded superintendents
have at various times undertaken projects for the improvement of home conditions. Two of these are noteworthy; namely, the building of houses and the Five-Year Agricultural Program.
Some of the government officers have rendered the Indians an excellent service in providing good homes at reasonable cost. Not only have they protected the well-to-do from exploitation, but they have exercised in the Indians' behalf a combination of business ability and experience that few white people can command in building homes. Some others have been ingenious in using housing material at hand and therefore inexpensive for the simple homes within the means of the poorer Indians. But on the whole the building of homes has not generally improved conditions of living as much as anticipated. Several reasons for this are apparent.
Some houses are less attractive and less healthful than the primitive dwellings of the Indians. Many are built of rough lumber with single walls and are therefore cold in winter and hot in summer. These structures are usually as utterly devoid of beauty, both inside and out, as a dwelling could possibly be. In various localities the mistake has been made of building the rooms very small, a serious thing when there are few rooms. In the Reno colony, where the rooms are as small and as crowded as those found in the tenements of New York City, twenty-nine of the fifty-one homes are one-room houses, and fifteen are two-room houses, while only seven have three rooms. On an Oregon reservation, where the Indians have great wealth in standing timber, the houses are small shacks and the people complain that they cannot get lumber for floors. More than twenty years ago the government bought about forty little portable houses in New York City and shipped them by sea to southern California, setting them up for the Mission Indians. The expectation was that the people would build better structures in front of these, but today they still serve as forlorn makeshifts.
Most of the cheaper houses are built without fireplaces, small stoves being used for heating and cooking. With the disappearance of open fire cooking the means of ventilation is cut off, for few Indians have learned to ventilate by means of windows. Under these conditions the wickiup, the hogan, and even the tent, are less dangerous to a tuberculous population than the white man's house, and it is not altogether regrettable that sometimes these houses stand idle or are used only for storage, the family meanwhile living in a wickiup or tent nearby. Any housing plan for a primitive tribe should retain at least two of the features of their native dwellings; namely, the open fire and the arbor.
On some reservations houses have been built before the Indians were ready for them. The Apaches, for example, do not like windows because they think the ghosts of the dead may look in; they abandon a house if any occupant dies. Shoshones and Bannocks will vacate a house in which a death has occurred or will use it as a barn. Some of the more progressive Navajos are building stone or log houses, but as a tribe their housing habits are influenced by ghost fear.
In many localities tribes much less primitive than these have carried Indian ways of living into modern houses. Many of them do not appreciate or know how to use modern equipment. Some are reported to have pawned furniture in order to buy other things of more practical importance to them, such as gasoline for their cars. Nothing is more forlorn than the well built, well furnished, much abused house of a well-to-do Indian. Such examples serve to strengthen the conviction that the public health nurse and the home demonstration worker should precede the builder and furnisher of homes; that training in housekeeping should precede or at least accompany the acquisition of much equipment; and that the desire for beautiful and useful things should first be created if such things are to be appreciated and used to good purpose.
On some reservations there is at present a demand for homes to be built from tribal funds. This desire on the part of the people could be made the occasion for teaching them many things they need to learn about home-making if workers could be supplied before mechanical programs of housing are adopted.
The Five-Year Industrial Program is in progress on some of the reservations of Plains Indians. It is a practical effort to stimulate the people to self support by the creation of habits of industry and by teaching them how to utilize the opportunities at hand. Most of the Indians on reservations where this plan is tried are without any great tribal or personal resources. Their future depends on their own efforts. The men are organized into farm chapters and the
women into auxiliary chapters, and this form of organization is utilized for instruction, encouragement, and the developing of the qualities of initiative, perseverance, foresight, and regularity of work. The program is a venture into adult education with the chief objective the development of character. The methods utilized are sound and something lasting is being accomplished. A Sioux on the Cheyenne River reservation where the superintendent had recently died said:
Different superintendents have different hobbies. About the time he gets working he is transferred and other man comes. As I see this five-year program it doesn't depend on one man staying. I see too that it isn't for just five years but for all time. Our superintendent took an interest in us and went into the work strongly. He saw our future better than many of us see it ourselves, but we've lost him.
This whole program is handicapped by the lack of family workers. Both men and women need the type of service that has been developed in the demonstration work of the Agricultural Department. But in the absence of such help other means have been used, such as mimeographed cartoons and mimeographed circulars of instruction to the women, some of which have been issued in the Sioux language for the benefit of those who know no English.
Where the women are definitely included in the program the response seems to be good, if the speeches made in a chapter meeting following a severe late blizzard may be taken as evidence:
I am a full blood Indian woman. Mother nursed me ten years, and I know nothing of cow milk. There are eight women in our auxiliary. We do a good deal of work. We pick cherries, plums, grapes, and wild turnips. I make jelly and have a garden that I work. We raised wheat and sold it and got flour and did not suffer for want of food. Last year we did not plant potatoes. After my store of food was put up I worked in the potato fields and got enough to buy groceries for the winter, flour, lard, etc. We also do bead and porcupine work and sell and make little purchases at the store. This snow-storm lost us no horses. I think these men that were talking about hard times should work a little harder, make bigger barns and store more hay. They are grown up men and they ought to know how to work and take care of themselves. All you women get to work, and your men, and next winter you won't suffer so. I generally have more than I need myself. I help my neighbors. I'm going to work harder yet this summer. I have even preserved and boiled cows' feet. In my auxiliary we are not having hard times. We get along pretty good. I want everybody to get after us and make us work. I'm not bragging. It can be done and we have done it.
We have 20 members and 11 have chickens and 10 have cows. We are getting along nicely. What we raised in gardens helped us through the winter. Some made enough jelly to last the winter. We do not raise cabbage. We do raise carrots and potatoes. Each is to have a small individual garden this year. I have chickens, eggs, butter, and raised wheat and sold it for flour and other grub for the winter. It is a fine thing to have chickens, eggs and milk. We tried the superintendent's recipes that were sent out in Sioux. We put up hay, alfalfa, and oats, and took care of our horses and milk cows. Alfalfa is a fine thing for it makes our cows produce more milk and cream. We lost no stock in the storm. We thank the superintendent for the program.
These young men who got up and talked, I feel sorry for them. If they had got out and worked they wouldn't be talking now. They go to fairs off the reservation instead of putting up hay and keeping it. I'm awfully sorry to hear we are starving to death right now when we have put up jelly, etc. Each one with her husband should stay at home this summer and attend to our business. We'd have no more trouble like this.
This work so well started in the face of difficulties should be developed. The superintendents need trained workers. With sufficient help the children could be organized and closer affiliation between schools and homes worked out. The economic program should be accompanied by a health program. On one of these reservations, where distances are truly magnificent, the local office reports one physician to 3500 Indians, with no field matron or nurse. There is need also for work to prevent family disintegration and crime. The local office just cited reports 100 convictions for crime within a year.
Improvement of Home Conditions. If the government is to make any considerable permanent improvement in Indian homes within the next generation certain policies should be followed:
1. Any program designed to raise Indian planes of living to the recognized "health and decency" standard should be developed on a community basis and should embrace some convenient unit like a tribe or a reservation or a locality. It should include all the
Indians of this unit and not merely the women, the traditional homemakers. The necessity for including everyone lies in the fact that homemaking is essentially a co-operative undertaking and the standards of living cannot be raised very much in any sex or age group of a population if the others lag behind. To say, as has often been said, that the backwardness of the Indian race is due to the unprogressive character of the women, is to over-simplify the diagnosis of the trouble and to obscure the deeper causes. These causes are community wide, and any plan must therefore embrace the community if it is to be successful. Any program for the women alone would be as disappointing as has been the program of education for children alone.
2. Any program for the improvement of the homes should include all departments of welfare. At various places in the Service the visitor finds health programs, industrial programs, housing programs, women's clubs, Four-H clubs, and effective day schools, but nowhere a unified program. Especially is the visitor struck with the irony of teaching the precepts of diet and sanitation to Indians in extreme poverty who can never hope to have enough to eat or a comfortable and sanitary place to live unless they learn how to make a living in a difficult environment. On the other hand, to attempt to develop economic efficiency in the presence of serious disease and under-nourishment is to start with an impossible handicap. The two efforts should supplement each other if they are to succeed.
3. Any such program should be put into effect by trained workers. The quality of the personnel is much more important than any plan of organization that can be devised, for a trained staff is capable of setting up a fairly practicable local program. On the other hand, no plan of organization, no matter how sound in principle, will work satisfactorily as interpreted by unskilled people, for no plan can be carried out mechanically to a successful end. It must be constantly subject to study and modification in the light of results.
At present the most fundamental criticism of the Indian Service has to do with personnel. In spite of many exceptions it is true that a large number of the employees would have considerable difficulty in holding similar positions outside the Service. They are particularly weak where contacts with people are involved. Many have drifted into the Service because they have failed elsewhere.
The problems of ill health and incompetence are not peculiar to the Indians but are problems of the general population. Health has been a matter of public concern in all sections for many years, and methods of controlling disease and lowering the death rate are in successful operation. Public health work is now a recognized branch of the medical and nursing professions. Universities and hospitals have for some years cooperated in offering courses of training for public health work. Organizations both public and private have for many years employed doctors and nurses for this specialized work.
Poverty has long been a matter of concern in this and other countries. Families with low standards of living have been the subjects of treatment, and methods of reducing poverty and increasing competency have been developed. Specialized workers in this field are family social case workers, home demonstration workers, and experts in the problems of agriculture and other industry. Agencies of various kinds, both urban and rural, among which are public and private relief agencies, schools, churches, industrial firms, and rural welfare organizations, have developed the specific kinds of services involved. Specialized training is offered by universities and technical schools and workers of training and experience are to be had. No one can predict how responsive the Indians might prove if their relations were to a much greater extent with the successful rather than the unsuccessful of the white race.
4. Any such program depends for its success upon financial support. Many socially minded and able superintendents have been capable of handling a comprehensive program, but have had neither employees nor funds. The Five-Year Industrial Program is a good illustration. With sufficient support this movement might be expanded so as to constitute the first demonstration in the history of the Service of what can be done with Indians on reservations.
The Indian Service is traditionally a starved service. Half way measures are the rule. Actually much money is wasted because work is half done, a bit here and a bit there. Often the essential next step cannot be taken because it involves the expenditure of a
few dollars which are not forthcoming. Permanent results, therefore, must be sacrificed.
Evidently the general public has not known the situation and has had no great interest in the Indians. Comparatively few whites have first hand knowledge of conditions, because the Indian race is scattered and is crowded back into the more remote and inaccessible parts of the country. Even the comparatively well informed in many instances discuss Indian affairs only in terms of the picturesque desert tribes of the Southwest, who though important are a minority. The Indian Office might once have assumed the function of educating the public and might have formulated a comprehensive program as a basis for requests from Congress, for it is often easier to get a large sum for a thoroughgoing undertaking than a small amount for a little project that lacks any appeal to business sense or imagination. As it is, the Indians are the victims of a nominal service which has been largely ineffective. In justice to various devoted and able officers and employees of the Indian Office it should be said that it would be difficult to improve the Service much beyond its present condition without a more nearly sufficient budget.
Education of Women for Homemaking. The program of education of the women on the reservations should include several things if the women are to become successful homemakers:
1. They should be given a knowledge of food values and their relation to health. This teaching should make the most of the very limited food resources of many Indians, but it should also embrace a plan for increasing and developing their resources. The care of cows, goats, and chickens should be taught, as well as the culture and preservation of fruits and vegetables, since these things are lacking in the diet of most Indians.
2. They should be taught the practical application of the principles of household sanitation, especially as relates to the care of infants and the protection of the well from infection by the sick. This would necessitate cooperation from the men in providing sanitary facilities, particularly in desert regions where water is scarce and must be brought from long distances.
3. Attention should be given to the development of all the varied household processes which contribute to the well-being of the family, such as sewing, canning, drying, baking, and caring for beds and bedding. Under hard conditions of life it would be desirable to develop the native Indian handicrafts as a partial means to a livelihood.
4. Special attention should be given to the development of the qualities of initiative and self reliance, for, as has been said before, government practice has tended to pauperize the Indians. Government officers have too often attempted to control the spending of money rather than to educate their wards for spending and have doled out the Indians' funds to them as if they were paupers. The result has been discontent, discouragement, and the suppression of interest and initiative on the part of the Indians.
Money should be furnished to the family as a part of a financial plan worked out with them. Orders on firms should be resorted to only when it is unwise or impractical to give cash allowances. The judgment of the spender should be tested on small amounts, and larger sums given as ability to spend wisely is evidenced. The newly rich, notably the Osages, need this training fully as much as any of the tribes. Various of the more intelligent observers say that many of this tribe are eating and drinking themselves to death. The Pawhuska office is highly efficient in protecting its clients from some kinds of white aggression, but apparently the employees have not yet had a vision of the educational possibilities involved in protecting the Indians from themselves. The office might learn from some of the more progressive banks of the country how to develop wise habits of expenditure by utilizing the service of home economics experts.
Indian women need especially a knowledge of retail markets. Traders and merchants could in many cases be enlisted to cooperate in a plan of education through shopping, and traders who exploit the Indians should not be tolerated on the reservations. One of the public health nurses sent by the American Red Cross found local merchants cooperative. In 1923 she reported:
I have got the home work pretty well lined up. I have good food for the tubercular members and have begun the scheme for getting merchants to deliver purchase orders in divided doses so that the families will not have a whole month's supply in the house for their
"The Society for Savings in Cleveland was a pioneer in this field."
dear friends and kind relatives to eat up the first week. I ought to make a study of purchase orders to get the whole story but my time for "studies" has dwindled to none at all.
Women as well as men need to be taught how to manage their property. They might be taught the elements of business law by means of a consulting service like that rendered by our Legal Aid Societies if one of the objectives of the service were educational.
Even the administration of relief might be handled in such a way as to be educational. Little can be said for relief in the form of rations. Grocery orders are better because the food can be suited to the nutritional needs of the family, and since the shopper has some power of choice there is presented an opportunity for teaching good practices in buying. But relief in the form of money is best wherever this method can be utilized, because it offers the greatest opportunity for education in the planned spending of money under normal conditions of shopping. With money instead of an order to pay for a purchase the housewife may "shop around," thus learning comparative values.
Rationing as practiced on the reservations at present is a positive interference with adult education because it obscures the fact that more fundamental forms of service to the families are needed, such as health education and medical attention, vocational advice and employment, and business advice and assistance.
Relations with State and Private Agencies. Any plan for releasing the Indians from federal control should include the preparation of the public as well as the Indians for future relationships. A shift of this kind cannot be made suddenly with satisfactory results. What has happened in eastern Oklahoma will happen elsewhere. The Indians will be stripped of their property and will live somewhere in the back country under distressing conditions of poverty and ill-health, neglected or entirely ignored by state, county, and private agencies. Some day of course the state of Oklahoma must face the consequences of the present exploitation and neglect; and similar problems will be created for other states if the national government does not seek state cooperation.
Some of the more progressive state departments of public welfare, especially departments of public health, are at present concerned for the Indians living within their boundaries and are seeking cooperation with the national government. In Minnesota, for example, the state is supporting public health nurses who are doing good work in Indian homes. The United Charities of St. Paul sent their secretary, Mr. John R. Brown, into the Chippewa country to make expert study of the reported destitution in the summer of 1924. Mr. Brown found much poverty but condemned the annual appeals for money through the press as a bad practice. He recognized, however, that the Minnesota public has a responsibility of a different character.
A general appeal in behalf of the Indians is unnecessary. It is also demoralizing. . . . If carried out consistently it would mean the complete pauperization of the Indians—it would make initiative, resourcefulness, ambition, and production impossible. It would make the Indians a perpetually parasitic people.
This would not close the door to private gifts and benefactions, or preclude special services within certain groups. This kind of help the Indians will need for a long time to come. But it should be in connection with the agencies and institutions now at work among the Indians—Indian churches and pastors; government doctors and specialists; state health nurses; teachers in the government schools and special employees who are acquainted with the facts at first hand and know the people in their own homes. Plans for aid should be worked out in cooperation with such persons and agencies but always subject at least to their knowledge and approval.
Even where there is no legal obligation public officers both county and state, as well as private organizations, should be asked to cooperate in work with Indian families. Thus local people of responsibility would acquire a definite interest in their Indians and would gain a working knowledge of conditions existing among them. The Red Cross recognized as one of the objectives of its experiment "The education of the white people in the community to accept the Indian, giving him equal privileges," and later one of their nurses reported:
We have succeeded in convincing the South Dakota Public Health Association that it might be a good idea to accept some of our little undernourished Indian children as candidates for the summer camp. . . . I am going to send a rather model boy, his behavior may convince them that it is quite possible to accept Indian children amongst the whites.
Both state and federal work with homes would be improved if workers from the Indian Service should sit with county and state committees that deal with problems like their own, and if county and state workers should be invited into the consultations of superintendents and staff members on projects for Indian communities and homes. This is a simple educational device of great value to both parties to the arrangement.
The Education of Girls for Homemaking. If Indian girls are to become better homemakers than their mothers they must be taught the essentials of homemaking either in the public schools or in the federal supported day schools and boarding schools. The national government has only slight control over the character of the teaching in the public schools. Much of the specialized work with the more primitive and backward Indians must for a long time be done through the special Indian schools. It it therefore with the instruction in these schools that this section is concerned.
Home Economics in the Schools. For a number of years an effort has been made to give the girls in schools some training for homemaking. In 1919 Mrs. Newton wrote in an inspection report:
It is almost useless to comment upon Home Training in any of our schools. It has never assumed the importance that the Course of Study requires and most women are not able to conduct such courses. They need more training in order to do it properly. I wish to recommend that someone make an outline of a course of Home Training more detailed than that in the Course; a bibliography and very definite suggestions as to approach in the various subjects.
In the same year a superintendent of long experience reported:
I have found a number of matrons who have only a vague idea about what they are to teach along the line of home training. I am beginning to feel that our course of study is too elaborate for the class of employees that we find in the service, for I find that many of them have not had any educational advantages that would fit them to carry out the work of the new course of study.
About five years ago the position of Supervisor of Home Economics was created and the position was filled by a home economics graduate with teaching experience. She has worked for an improvement of conditions in the schools, with some very definite results. The standards for teachers are not yet as high as is the rule in first-class high schools, but a few well prepared teachers have been secured, and throughout the service the work shows the effect of intelligent supervision.
Some good work is being done, especially in the latter years of the curriculum. This work is mostly confined to the classroom and laboratory, but a few schools have practice work in a demonstration cottage and more rarely the care of a garden and domestic animals. Where demonstration cottages have been provided juniors and seniors live there, or at least spend their days there, for a number of weeks and rotate duties. In one such school six girls manage the cottage. One takes the responsibility of the house for a week, getting the supplies and seeing that the rest of the girls do their work; one takes care of the rooms, including the bath room; one cares for the cow and chickens; one is assigned to the dining room; and two do the cooking. One of the cooks plans and cooks the meals with help from the other. The girls care for the milk, churn, make their own bread, and do most of the laundry work.
The teaching of cooking is all outlined on a meal basis, so that from the beginning the pupils may get practical experience in balanced meals along with the classroom lessons in nutritional values. Some effort is being made in a few schools to avoid the more elaborate kitchen equipment in the domestic science laboratories and to use as nearly as possible the simple things that the girls can hope to have in their own homes.
The teaching of sewing also is outlined on a practical plan. From the beginning the girls make garments and household supplies. Usually a girl is able before graduation to make her own clothing as well as children's garments and to mend and alter clothing.
The teaching differs in quality from school to school. Instances may be found in which the emphasis is on the product rather than upon the training of the pupils. One school has acquired some reputation for over elaborate demonstration meals served to guests of the school. In another the objective in hand sewing seemed to be not what would make the Indian girl's home a more attractive place but rather what would sell best at the annual fair. But on the other hand teachers in a number of schools have exercised considerable ingenuity in making the school work fit into the every-day life and interests of the girls. In one of the better schools the girls
criticized their own meals eaten at the school dining table, although the teacher admitted that the matter had to be handled diplomatically. In two schools the teachers used their own babies as laboratory equipment in teaching the lessons of infant care; but unfortunately a baby serves this purpose for only a year, so that the next year they had to depend on visiting Indian babies, a much less satisfactory arrangement. In one of the demonstration cottages a sick room was arranged to the best advantage and the various lessons in home nursing were demonstrated there. In other schools the girls have participated in redecorating and refurnishing rooms. In a Navajo school the boys made a hogan which the girls equipped ingeniously with store box furniture and simple utensils. In several schools the girls who go home to spend vacation are asked in the fall to report on some project carried out at home.
Some of the girls are carrying the lessons of the school into effect in their homes. The following statements are taken from the English compositions of ninth grade girls who were asked to describe a day during vacation at their homes. The first two were written by Pueblo girls, the next two by Apache and the last two by Navajos.
Also in cooking I don't cook same things over but I at least add in a vegetable every day. I do the washing almost every day whenever I see anything that needs washing. We don't have any garbage around our house for we don't like to have flies so we always carry it away. Whenever I see anything that is torn I mend them up for I know sometimes they are still useful and we don't like to waste or throw anything away that we know will still be useful as it is expensive to get things around home and we don't often get things cheap.
I took more interesting in sewing and cooking. I cooked everything what we cooked on at Domestic Science when we go to our lessons; I taught my mother what food was good for health and what wasn't, and how to safe up when things is left. I use to sew mostly any spare time I used to have. I can crochet, tat, embroidery and make my own dresses, I sometimes use to sew for my cousins, that are in school at home.
The country around my home is beautiful, it is never too hot the climate is just right for any unhealthy person. There are high mountains, the country is useful for grazing, there are little valleys where rich soil are farmed but since the Indians got sheep they let their lands go. I rather much have for my Indians to have large farms with chickens, pigs, horses, and milk cows, than sheep and tend to the lands where they might be able to grow vegetables for the family and some acres of crops to keep and sell. And on this farm I liked for them to have good large size houses with large windows for ventilation and screen windows and doors to keep out flies, instead of wandering from place to place and build one room house and live in it for a year then move again.
When I went home last summer one day I got up rather early because that evening I had planned to show my mother how to can. After I got threw cleaning I helped Mother with the breakfast, then after the dishes were washed and the kitchen all cleaned, we went out into the orchard and picked all the green apples that were on the ground, we brought them in and put them to boil, I washed them first, after they had boiled I took then out and put them threw a strainer and got all the juice out and put the juice to boil again then I put sugar in it and let it boil until it jelled then I put it in glasses and covered it paper and tied it with a string. In the afternoon Mother asked to make her a dress. I didn't know how to get started because she doesn't like dresses that are in stile. I cut it very plain, I didn't have any patern to go by so I just guess at it, when I started to sew it the needle broke, but it was because the machine was never used very much and it need to be oiled. I got the oil and oiled the machine then it was all right so I made the dress, and after all she like it the way I made it.
When I go back home, I tell them what new things I learn that they never saw or did before. Especially in cooking food getting ready for the meals. Sometimes I'll tell them to cook this and that, soon we'll be fussing over it. Not all of us fussing but my sister and I, who is married now. Sometimes I let her cook the way she wants sometimes I cook way I learned to cook in Domestic Science. When the meal is ready my father comes in everything ready wash our hands and sit down. Soon he'll say this meal is very good. Who made the meal he'll say to us. I'll answer him I did. My sister then will follow the way I cook my food. Then they all will say "Gee this way it tastes better the way Annie cooked," they'll all join in and learn my recipes.
When I was on the reservation school I used to go home every summer and help my parents in taking care of the home and children. Every summer I used to tell them about my school and what I have learn at school, and try to teach them about cleanliness in our home. We don't have a very nice home like some other Indians
but all the same I kept it clean for the good of my parents. My father always speaks of me as a housekeeper of the home because every day I used to teach my little sisters about cooking and ways of caring for foods. They enjoyed it very much. When I went away to school they miss me in summer times. Since I was away for three years I find out that they have improved in homes and cleanliness of food. I went home last summer and told them more things of this school they were interested in my education that they told me to go on with my education. I have helped them in many ways of the white races, not only my own folks but also my neighbors. I did all the sewing for my folks and neighbors. I have shown them different stitches that they were delighted in seeing it.
Some of the boys are getting similar ideas. The first is from a Pima boy, the second from an Apache boy.
I want my living room to have plenty of sunshine, circulation of air, and it should be warm in winter and floors easy to clean. I want my bedroom to have a circulation of air plenty of sunshine floor easy to clean and closets for my clothing. I want my kitchen to be more convenient as it is at my home now. I want to plant trees and flowers around my house to beautify my home. I want to have a lawn at my home. I want to improve my home farm by setting some citrus fruits away from the roadside where no children will destroy it or damage by other animals. I want my garden full of green vegetables and the rows will run from north to south.
When the Indians return from school they want books. In a tepee there is so much smoke and noise and women. It is impossible to think good thoughts and to work with books in a tepee under those circumstances.
Such results are excellent, but unfortunately they are comparatively infrequent. All the children writing were of the relatively small number who reach the ninth grade, and all were in one of the better schools in the Service. Many Indian children do not have the opportunity to complete eight grades. Many others, like children in the general population, are apt to become restless and leave school at adolescence. As has been stated in the chapter on schools, a large proportion of the students are over age. Many, therefore, reach adolescence in the lower grades. It is true that the number of adult primary pupils is growing smaller, but even yet many Indian girls get a late start and leave school after only two or three years of work.
In view of these facts it is clear that the plan of education at present leaves too many homes untouched. If the schooling of housewives in the homes visited by members of the survey staff may be taken as representative of general conditions, then training designed to meet the needs of all the homes must be given within the first six grades. The questions in regard to schooling were asked only of English speaking wives. They are of course a younger group than those who cannot speak English. About two-thirds of those questioned had stopped school before reaching the seventh grade, while only one in fifteen reported more than an eighth grade education.
The fact that only a small proportion of the girls are at present getting the essentials of home making is recognized by the supervisor and by some of the teachers, and various practical suggestions have been made, such as the teaching of child care to the older girls in the lower grades, thus taking them at the age when their interest is keen rather than at any given point of academic preparation. One of the better teachers says that while her former upper grade pupils are doing well, those from the lower grades come back to visit her with little dirty babies. Another suggestion is the teaching of camp cooking to girls below the seventh grade. Up to the present time the emphasis in the boarding schools has been put very properly upon the development of the home economics work in the upper grades. All lower grade schooling should, if at all possible, be carried on near the homes of the pupils, leaving only the later years of work to be taught in schools far removed from the homes.
The plan of education is at present too restricted in scope, embracing in most schools the preparation of food and clothing with some slight attention to the subjects of infant care and home nursing. Other definite objectives should be the development of skill in the spending of money, and of the practice and understanding of the principles of thrift. Payment in money for tasks done about the school might be used as a device for teaching the value of money. Girls as well as boys should become familiar with business forms and customs, particularly those relating to the care of property. A practical course in business law would be very much worth while if Indians are to be educated to protect themselves against exploitation.
Nothing in the education of Indian women is more essential than the development of skill in the use of leisure time with a view to creating initiative and industrious habits. The effect of the "industrial system" is not to develop industry in the students. On the contrary, it creates a bad attitude toward work because it leaves little or no leisure time. Therefore, the student gets the habit of idling at set tasks, a natural result of too much work and too little play. As a means to education, the "industrial system" cannot be defended.
Adults should be employed to do much of the work now done by children. Especially should they operate all dangerous machinery. Under the present system, Indian girls who have no choice but to work at mangles are occasionally the victims of mangle accidents with no redress such as the more progressive states provide for the employees of private firms.
The Day Schools. The education of girls for homemaking can unquestionably be made much more effective than at present. In the school, the girls should learn to create for themselves those values that they are later to create for others in their homes. Judged in the light of this objective, the present system of education can be much improved by utilizing the activities of girls outside the classroom, whether at home or in the boarding school. Much education for homemaking can be carried on only outside the classroom, through the experience of everyday life. This is true throughout the curriculum, but especially of the early years. These years should be devoted to establishing habits, developing aptitudes, and teaching skill.
The day school or the public school is better adapted to such teaching than the boarding school, for the home is the girl's natural environment and all education proceeds more effectively in the pupil's real setting. Family relationships are themselves important parts of the child's education. In schools where the children go home for the night, education must take a practical slant because home problems are forced upon the teachers. One of the arguments sometimes heard in the Service in favor of the boarding school is that the children escape contamination from home conditions. It is argued that children in day schools cannot possibly be kept free from impetigo and pediculosis. The facts are, of course, that under such conditions the education of the children needs to be expanded to embrace the parents; that instruction cannot be confined to the school room but must be carried on in the homes too.
The more progressive day schools are attempting the use of the homes for laboratory and demonstration purposes, and this plan is practical among village Indians. Children are assigned tasks at home and are allowed to take home and keep useful articles made in the schools. Articles in process of making are to be seen in some of the homes, and mothers as well as daughters are found at work at things that were originally school projects.
Occasionally in the day schools, community resources are being used in the teaching of the native arts. One of the schools sends the girls to the home of the best pottery maker for lessons in her art, but employs a woman to teach weaving at the school. Other schools are encouraging the utilization and development of native designs in various ways. Some of the most attractive designs are adaptations from scraps of ancient pottery that the children find near their homes.
In many of the day schools, the children are given a hot lunch at noon. This noon meal might be utilized educationally much more fully than at present. It offers an excellent opportunity for increasing the children's acquaintance with a variety of foods and for developing wholesome tastes, as well as for cultivating hygienic and conventionally polite habits of eating.
On some reservations, especially among the Plains Indians, the parents of boys and girls in school follow their children and settle in camps near the school houses. This is bad economically, because as a rule crops are neglected and few domestic animals can be kept. If, however, the condition must be tolerated, the opportunity for adult education should be utilized. The mothers could be taught by means of visits to their tents and log houses, as well as at evening sessions in the school rooms.
The day schools possess other advantages over the boarding schools. They are free from the hampering industrial routine of the boarding schools and have no excuse whatever for the old-fashioned military regimen. The teachers have small numbers to deal with and close contacts with the children. Moreover, the girls in the day schools are not so likely to be taught exclusively by women, an unfortunate limitation wherever it exists, since women must learn from men and men from women all through life.
In most of the day schools the building and equipment are inadequate to any considerable expansion of their work and specialized teachers are lacking. Future support should be accorded these schools in larger measure, and their number should be increased. Much practical work in home economics could be taught if the schools were developed to include from six to nine grades and teachers with the necessary training were secured.
The Boarding Schools. The boarding school, though in most respects not so effective a means of education as the day school, is likely to be a necessity to a limited number of children for a long time to come. Younger children, however, should be eliminated from the boarding schools as far as possible, and for the small number of those whose homes are too isolated to permit of education in any other way small schools conducted on the cottage plan should be provided not too far from their homes.
A long standing criticism of the boarding schools is that they do not fit the students for life among their people. In the early years of the Indian school system it was the declared policy of the Office not to prepare the Indian young people for return to the reservation, but to educate them for life among the whites. In view of this policy it is not surprising that the training of the girls is in general too little related to the life they have left and to which they will return, to be of much practical value. Though the tendency is to improve it in this regard the chief difficulty lies deep and cannot be reached merely by improvements in the course of study and in the quality of the teaching force. The underlying trouble is that Indian education is a mass process, while real education is a very individual thing. The following description, written by one of the employees in a large school, fits the case of the girls as well as that of the boys:
From babyhood the Indian youngster lives quite free and independent. There is little if any restraint in the home. He eats, sleeps, plays and does pretty much as he pleases. In the day school and the public school he gets some idea of discipline and regularity of habit but outside of school hours which are comparatively few, he is still a free agent. One day he is an individual with no plan for his many leisure hours—then another day there are no leisure hours. He is lost in a maze of bugle calls, bed making, fatigue duty. He is just one small piece of raw material on its way through a hungry relentless educational mill.
Boarding School Life Adaptable to Educational Ends. For those of the adolescent girls who go to boarding schools instead of to the public high schools these Indian schools should be made very different from the present huge institutions with their wholesale methods of regulating the lives of the children. The proportion of teachers and matrons to the number of girls should be materially increased, and wherever feasible a field service might be established to keep the school and the homes in touch with each other. The present school plants could be utilized under such a system. If public school and day school facilities were fully utilized, the number of older children dependent upon the boarding schools would be much reduced. In small boarding schools much good training might be given to the girls in connection with their every day life if the school routine were planned with reference to its educational values. The following activities might be profitably utilized:
1. Eating: This is one of the chief means of health education if properly managed. Nothing is more important in the education of the Indians than establishing in the future wives and husbands wholesome and varied tastes in foods. But in all but a few Indian schools the food is lacking in quantity and balance, it is served unattractively, and the meals are too hurried for health requirements. In one of the schools where the time allowed at the table is fifteen minutes the students are told once a month in a health lecture to eat slowly. In many schools they are exhorted in charts and health talks to drink milk and eat vegetables in quantities which the school table never supplies.
One of the best of the home economic teachers is training the older girls in her classes by utilizing their personal supplementary purchases of food and drink at a little store not far away. She has them keep account for a week of what they eat in this way, and then they balance the food values of pop, candy, and the like, against the food values of the quantity of milk, orange, or apple, that might have been purchased for the amount they spent. She hopes to get the merchant to cooperate with her by putting in five-cent bottles of milk and fruit in five-cent lots. In another school the underweight and overweight girls in domestic science are on special diets. They keep a record of their own weights while on these diets, and make graphs showing how their weights fluctuate with respect to the ideal weight.
Eating may be managed in such a way as to have a distinct social value. But twenty-minute periods are too short for this purpose. Moreover, there is far too little relaxation of formal discipline in most of the dining rooms. Some of the school dining rooms remind the visitor unpleasantly of the dining rooms of large penitentiaries. Too little attention is paid to eating habits. Merely keeping order does not improve personal habits at the table.
2. Sleeping: Apparently the fact that sleeping arrangements offer an opportunity for moral training is not generally recognized. Only in the occasional school does the necessary mutual confidence and trust between the matron and the girls seem to exist. For this fact the matrons are not entirely to blame. It is a rare woman who can stand in the place of a mother to one or two hundred girls. But some school superintendents and matrons recognize that the time must come when the girls will not sleep as prisoners, and these do not lock the doors to the fire escapes or nail down the windows. To lock the girls up is to refuse to meet the educational issue, for sex morality does not develop by removing the individual from all the normal conditions of living.\(^{15}\)
3. Care of Personal Appearance: Indians as a race are fond of personal adornment and nothing is of greater interest to most adolescent girls than their own personal appearance. Through this interest habits of cleanliness and neatness might be developed as well as good taste in dress, if only school opportunities were favorable.
In some of the schools personal cleanliness must be hard to achieve. Bathing facilities are seldom adequate to the maintenance of high standards of cleanliness. Other restrictions on personal habits grow out of a crowded schedule. In one of the schools the matrons are said to require the girls to wear their gymnasium suits under their dresses while at their day's work in order to save the time of changing. Such conditions are most unfortunate, for immaculateness of person has moral as well as health values.
Uniforms are in a sense a luxury. The government is at considerable expense for materials and much of the girls' time is consumed in routine monotonous sewing in the "production room" instead of in doing something more valuable educationally. Many Indian parents could afford to furnish their daughters' clothing,
\(^{15}\)The Indian Office has taken steps to eliminate this practice.
task should be interesting, within her powers of accomplishment; not too closely supervised and not too fatiguing. The janitor work about some of the day schools fulfills these requirements. The children accept the responsibility and say they like the work. They attack their tasks systematically and with cheerfulness and vigor. In doing this work the girls are learning something about methods of housekeeping. But in the boarding schools most industrial processes must be performed on an institutional scale. They are fatiguing and monotonous, and as a rule are of little value to the future homemaker. A story is told of a returned student who offered her guest a meal without bread, explaining that they could not have bread because they could not afford to buy one hundred pounds of flour at a time.
So far as possible each girl should have the experience of earning money, because one way of measuring the value of money is in terms of the effort required to get it, and this experience is just as important to the development of thrift as is the valuation of money in terms of commodities purchased.
6. Supervised Recreation: Schools differ greatly in the amount of attention they give to supervised or organized recreation. In some schools the older students have bands, orchestras, glee clubs, athletic teams, Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., and the like. The great majority of the students are, however, merely spectators of the activities of the few, a kind of passive recreation that is relatively of little value, especially since all students must line up and march to the various events, whether or not their personal inclinations point that way. Many schools have supervised social events like dances or other parties, some of which are remarkable for the lack of spontaneity on the part of the students. In general this type of recreation loses much of its natural value because it is routine.
In respect to organized activity the older girls do not as a rule fare as well as the boys. In the few schools where they have some organized life of their own it is noteworthy that they tend to develop initiative and responsibility, qualities much to be desired in Indian housewives. Most Indian girls love singing or have an aptitude for acting. Choral work and dramatics might be organized so as to give every girl in the school at least one form of active recreation.
In most schools the little children have some games or other supervised play during school hours, but they, like the older students, spend much time lining up, marching, and standing in ranks. Such time might much more profitably be given to games and imaginative play. If play with dolls were properly utilized even the little girls could be taught a good many things about infant care and sewing.
7. Unsupervised Leisure: Unsupervised leisure is necessary to a satisfactory development of personality and the creation of a high standard of living. Without leisure there can be little development of personal tastes, little chance to experiment, and little opportunity for reflection. Out of these things develop the power to discriminate between the greater and the less important values in life and to choose wisely between satisfactions of conflicting desires. Without this development of character the foundation for a high standard of living is lacking.
Various educated Indian men and women have referred to the lack of leisure time as one of the most difficult adjustments for Indian students and one of the greatest deprivations. One says: "Students are lost because they have no leisure, no time to think, after having spent their earliest years on the reservation where there is a sense of timelessness and where the old men don't feel that everything must be done in this generation."
Teachers and others connected with the schools comment unfavorably on the endless drill and the evening study hour at the end of a long day. It has been suggested that the reason for filling up the children's day so completely is that authorities do not know what else to do with them. This seems plausible in view of the fact that so little play space is available. In good weather the little girls may play out of doors in the late afternoon; on stormy days they are restricted to their dormitories, which are seldom homelike and are almost always overcrowded. Play space is usually in a dark barren basement room, too small for the number of girls; homelike living rooms are rare; halls are usually bare and unattractive. Most of the girls sleep in great rooms or porches with many others. The crowd is always present. They work, study, eat, sleep, make their toilets, worship, and are entertained in crowds. This is one of the worst aspects of wholesale education. Every human being needs, for normal development, some solitude, some privacy.
Reports of various supervisors contain unfavorable comments on these conditions. According to a comparatively recent report:
There are two rooms necessary to every girls' building.
1. A workroom which can also be used as a kitchenette. In this room the girls can do their own mending, make doll clothes or candy.
2. A rest room, large enough for six or eight cots for daytime use. It is not practicable to use the dormitories for this purpose and only the really sick are sent to the hospital.
The minimum of privacy necessary can be secured only by greatly reducing the school population of the present plants if the more desirable cottage system cannot be established.
Girls and boys should have opportunity to mingle in wholesome ways. Indian school education is neither co-educational nor the opposite. The boys and girls see each other and yet have little chance to know each other. It is no wonder that they sometimes resort to secret meetings. Since homemaking is a cooperative undertaking in which men must share with women, Indian homes would be the better for real co-education by means of which boys and girls might achieve a good basis for future understanding and sympathetic cooperation.
It has often been said that the schools would do well to encourage marriages between students because the race loses by unions between the returned students and "blanket Indians." Intertribal marriages are frowned on by Indian parents for reasons of the ancient clan laws and on account of former wars, but such marriages should be encouraged on eugenic grounds.
Education Value of Standards Maintained by the Boarding Schools. Since one of the primary objects of Indian education is to raise the standards of living in Indian homes, the schools themselves should represent higher standards than at present. Like most of the homes, most of the school plants are overcrowded; they are lacking in privacy; they are lacking in the comforts of life; and some are lacking in cleanliness. The school diet is more restricted than many of the pupils are accustomed to at home. The educational value of uniform clothing is slight. The whole school life is subject to routine and is devoid of most of the niceties of life. These things are bad, but even more serious are the standards of education and training represented by the personnel. In spite of many exceptions, especially among the teachers, the employees are as a rule not qualified for work in educational institutions.
The Matrons in Boarding Schools. All positions in Indian schools are of an educational nature. The head matron's position today is the weakest link in the school organization. No position has more of the human element in it and no position is more important. The morale of the entire school depends to a great degree on the efficiency of the incumbent in this position. The head matron has charge of the other matrons and of the women who supervise the industrial work. She usually lives in the building occupied by the larger girls. She must assume the responsibility for the physical and moral training of the girls. She should be a teacher in every sense of the word. She needs as good an education as that required for teachers in first-class high schools.
Of the 110 matrons reporting on educational qualifications to the survey staff, thirty-two had nothing more than an eighth grade education, while forty-one others had stopped short of high school graduation. Of the thirty-seven remaining, eleven had finished high school, seven had had one or two years of college, and sixteen had completed from one to four years in normal schools, while three others had had specialized schooling of some kind. There was not a college graduate among them. In other words, not one could qualify as a teacher in a first grade high school under standard requirements. The education of assistant matrons reporting was even less satisfactory.
Both head matrons and matrons in subordinate positions are difficult to hold at the present salaries. The positions of head matrons in all but the larger non-reservation schools have been temporarily filled the greater part of the time during the last ten years. In many of the smaller schools there have been two, three, and four head matrons within a year. Many women filling these positions now should be replaced. The management of the girls is, in too many cases, merely a matter of discipline because the matron
---
28 Head matron from $1080 to $1500 a year; matron $1020 to $1320 a year; assistant matron $900 a year. A deduction for quarters, fuel and light is made of $120 a year where salary is less than $1320, and of $180 a year where salary is $1320 or over.
knows no way to manage girls without punishment. Her sense of refinement, in fact her whole outlook on life, is not such as would commend her as a desirable person to put over girls.
The position of head matron can seldom be filled by promotion because the matrons in subordinate positions are not suitable. Many of them are wives of employees and are appointed not because of fitness, but because they are available.
The eligibles furnished by the Civil Service roster are not desirable material. Most of them are not high school graduates, nor have they had training for such a position. Their experience is mediocre. Some have been housekeepers in their own homes, others have been housemaids or have worked in laundries or stores, while a few have held minor positions in correctional institutions or asylums. Practically none has had experience with normal girls.
The upper limit on the entrance age for matrons is too high and as a class they are too old. They are expected to act as mothers to these children, yet many of them have reached the age appropriate to grandmothers. Almost one-third reported their ages as fifty or over, as the following brief statement shows.\(^{17}\)
| Age | Number | Per cent |
|--------------|--------|----------|
| Under 40 | 34 | 23.3 |
| 40 but under 50 | 46 | 44.7 |
| 50 or over | 33 | 32.0 |
That some older women retain their sympathy with youth without developing an over indulgent attitude cannot be questioned. They are, however, the exception. Too often older women lack the real understanding necessary to the happy mean between over severity and over indulgence. Women from the late twenties to the early forties are in the suitable age class for this position. As they grow older they might well be transferred to positions involving less personal responsibility for the conduct of young people.
Efforts have been made by interested outside organizations to persuade the right kind of women to qualify as matrons, but without results. The salaries are too low, and the title of matron is forbidding. The duties involved are too varied and too numerous for one person. A supervising housekeeper should have charge of the business end of the work now done by the head matron. The
\(^{17}\) For a fuller statement, see Table 6, page 666.
personal work with the girls is similar to that of deans of women in colleges and of the girls' advisers in high schools. Some such title should be adopted and qualifications and salaries should be raised so as to secure for these positions college graduates who have had successful experience in their personal relations with high school girls either as teachers or advisers. They should be qualified to give vocational advice.
*The Outing System.* An exclusively boarding school education, at its best, leaves the girl without experience in the economic side of home life. The outing system was originally designed to correct this defect. Students from Carlisle were placed out during vacations or for longer periods in the homes of substantial people, usually Quakers, with the understanding that they were to be treated as members of the family with school privileges if they remained during the school year, but under strict supervision from Carlisle. Opinions differ as to the success of the plan. In the years since Carlisle was closed, the past may have been idealized so that it has become a tradition to praise the golden age of the outing system. There can be no doubt, however, that in some cases the experience was worth while. Its features are described as follows by one of the women who was placed out from Carlisle:
1. It was an honor to the girl to be placed out. She must have a good record.
2. The homes were under inspection a long time before students were sent there.
3. The girls were treated as members of the family.
4. They were not paid for their work.
Osage women can be found today whose financial prosperity has not spoiled them, who are economical and industrious, and who say when the immaculate condition of the homes is commented upon: "How else could I keep house? I lived with Quakers."
But however successful the Carlisle plan may have been, the outing system today is not so much a preparation for homemaking as an apprenticeship for domestic service. Some good work is being done by the women in charge of this service. Without doubt some of the girls are better for the experience. In many families they get better food and quarters than at the boarding schools and can build up physically; and, just as important, they get freedom
from crowds, a close observation of home life, and in many instances personal affection. Through special arrangement some extend their outing throughout the year in order to attend the public school. Then, too, they have a friend to whom they can turn, in the supervising matron, with whom their relations seem in most cases to be cordial. Nevertheless, the Indian Service in effect regards the experience as an apprenticeship. The girls work for wages, mostly under city conditions; they are in demand with families whose regular maids want to go home or to do something more profitable during the summer; the work in practice often leads to a permanent job on leaving school. So far as any implicit intention can be perceived it is the fitting of Indian girls for domestic service, the one occupation where there is always a demand for labor because of the social stigma popularly attached to it.
The system is conducted under very rigid rules and in its operation suggests the parole system of a correctional institution. It is not surprising that an Indian who has seen something of the present system characterizes it as a kind of peonage which the children must undergo. "As food appropriations at the school get short they think they must turn the children out," he says.
Few efforts have been made to establish working connections between the boarding schools and the homes of the students. One of the schools has devised a plan for sending out small circulating libraries to Indian villages, each in the charge of a graduate, and has collected some very good material for this purpose. Another employs a field worker whose task it is to study home conditions in order that the school may make its instruction more suitable to the needs of the people and may hold the students in the school for a longer period. This institution plans next year to send a health wagon out into the hill communities from which the girls come. Occasionally a little Four-H club work is found in a boarding school, but this can hardly thrive without closer connections with homes than exists in most of the schools at present. It would be a definite improvement if the present outing system were superseded by another plan for keeping the students in touch with the outside world, a part of which should be a field service to the communities from which the children come.
**Community Life.** Among many tribes and in many localities a striking lack of development of community life for useful ends is apparent. Organized activities of native origin tend to disappear, while little has been borrowed from white civilization. In a healthy society changes of structure are always going on to meet changed conditions of life. But among the Indians, living as they do under a system of control imposed from the outside, the old social structure tends to die instead of undergoing adaptation to new conditions of existence.
*Forms of Community Organization Among Indians.* Forms of organized activity that are either indigenous or closely in harmony with primitive forms are clan organization, secret societies, the tribal council, and the Indian court. No less important in the lives of the people are the native ceremonies, such as celebrations, dances, games, and races. These forms of organization tend to disappear under the general influence of white culture, or to take on the form of a spectacle and become commercialized, thus losing much of their original significance in group life.
Forms of organization introduced by whites are churches and schools, clubs for women and children, and farm organizations including both men and women. These new organizations are not characteristic of all Indian communities, and, with the exception of the schools, reach a comparatively small number of the whole Indian population. A specialized activity apparently adopted from pioneer whites is the camp meeting, which still flourishes in eastern Oklahoma. Probably the camp feature is responsible for its popularity with the Five Civilized Tribes.
Other church organizations with features adapted from the whites exist in some sections. The "Shakers" of the Northwest have crosses and candles and a noisy ritual to the accompaniment of hand bells and violent motion, all of which they use in their attempts to heal the sick. They are successors to the medicine men and are no less obstructive to health work. In some parts of the south and east of the Indian country, the Peyote Church flourishes. The Indians assemble for meetings in churches, so-called, where they fall into trance-like stupor from the use of peyote. The organization is of no practical value to the community, and peyote addiction is probably harmful physically as well as socially. The Shakers and the Peyote Church are both reported to be growing.
Recreational Activities. Most Indians seem to cling longest to the recreational features of primitive group life and to appreciate recreational before other features of white community life. They cling to their dances and games long after they have abandoned distinctive Indian ways of dressing and living. They love celebrations and fairs and races, and in some places make Christmas, Easter, Decoration Day, Fourth of July, and other holidays of the whites occasions for going into camp and celebrating in their own way for a week or two at a time. They appreciate various forms of recreation originated by whites. A field matron reports from the southwest, of the Indians near a city:
The Indians do not lack for amusement. They attend all the "Fiestas," Carnivals, Circuses, Holiday Celebrations and Movies. Very few work Saturday afternoon, spending the half day in town, and usually having a dance in the village Saturday and Sunday evenings.
The government policy seems to have been repressive to native recreational activities. Many officers have been keenly sensible of the economic loss involved in the neglect of animals and crops while Indians gather in camp far from home. Gambling is a part of most games and contests. Dancing is often so intense and protracted as to be injurious to the health. It is often accompanied by the giving of presents. A Red Cross nurse in the Sioux country described the abuse of the custom of giving under the intense emotional strain of the dance:
I suppose that it amounted to a community rite in the old days. Now the idealism is often prostituted by those who see an opportunity for personal gain as the giving goes to individuals. Thus the clever get the money, horses, blankets, shawls, beadwork, etc., by singing a song in praise of those who have the goods. The dance goes with the song in their honor. This giving will go the limit if allowed and families return home destitute.
The same nurse describes a fair as follows:
I have dozens of ideas about the next fair but my main idea is a fond hope that there won't be one. The fair is managed by the Indians and it is Indian all right. The idea sounds well. It would seem a good educational opportunity. Being managed by the Indians it descends to feasting, dancing and roping contests with a ball game, bucking bronchos, and poor horse racing. Accidents, acute gastritis and infant diarrhea with a funeral or two and a spring crop of illegitimate babies are the concomitants. As this is one of six of the same variety between June 1st and October 1st the educational value becomes questionable. The exhibit of work was small and creditable but little interest was developed.
Missionary influence has been for the most part directed toward the suppression of dances and similar celebrations, either because they are pagan rites or because dancing is not an approved form of amusement in some denominations, or on account of the various harmful consequences of these events.
In some cases no doubt the judgment of officers and other whites with reference to the Indians' ways of amusing themselves has been biased by race prejudice. There is a touch of complacency regarding white institutions and a lack of respect for those of the Indians. Many have not the sympathetic understanding of the Red Cross nurse, who commented further upon the dancing she saw:
All those interested in bringing the Indian into any degree of economic prosperity are bound to see the extremely deleterious effects of unbridled Indian dancing. On the other hand there is no reason why we should sacrifice in toto their idealism, their art and the good of their ancient religion to our ideas of economic prosperity. One certainly cannot hold that our dancing presents a more socially valuable idea even though not economically demoralizing. At its worst ours is as destructive to our social structure as Indian dancing, and these Indians know it. My present opinion is that it would be of more value to limit the amount of "give away" with dancing than to try to forbid the dance.
A similar attitude was apparent in the comments of a Red Cross nurse among the Cheyennes:
We went to the Indian Christmas tree together. The tent resembles a circus tent inside except for the unique arrangement of the rough logs. At the entrance is a tall pine absolutely bare at which we were a bit disappointed until we saw that each family put their gifts to another family on the tree in their turn, to the tune of the big drum in the center. Nine men were seated around it, playing it while they sang. The persons receiving the gifts entered the singing and danced in a circle around the tree. The chiefs
sat on a bench facing the tree and the singers. One of the chiefs thanked the members of the tribe who contributed for the feast the next day, appointed the cooks, sang his song of joy and departed, leaving the younger crowd to dance white dances to white music. I must say it was dull, unattractive, and clumsy after the solemn, graceful rhythm of the older Indians. Though there are many evils connected with these dances, in proportion they can be no worse than the examples they have of our own.
To take away from any people their forms of recreation without replacing them by something as good or better is generally a mistake. Certainly in the case of the Indians their pronounced bent toward group recreation might be utilized to some good ends. If many day schools could be established and made local recreation centers for the little neighborhoods they serve educationally, and if recreational features could be introduced generally along with local industrial activities, then the Indians might cease to feel so great an urge to congregate in large bands far from the responsibilities of home.
Economic and Civic Organization. Long excursions in search of native foods and annuals migrations to hop or potato fields or to orchards during the season for harvesting these crops have harmful features similar to those connected with recreational and religious celebrations in camp. Such projects as the Five-Year Industrial Program and the Industrial and Better Homes Association which has been recently organized on a northwest reservation, are attempts to "fight fire with fire"; to make a community effort so interesting that the people will be content with the adventure of making a living at home. An excellent feature of these plans is the organization of the women into auxiliaries, thus enlisting all adults in the enterprise.
The occasional women's clubs, as well as the Four-H Clubs, are chiefly concerned with the encouragement of work in the homes, but in most communities where they exist they are isolated forms of organization and do not thrive as they might if they were part of a unified program. Indian women as a rule are somewhat backward as club members and are especially shy about assuming the duties of office, but they are easily interested in handicrafts or in games. In some places considerable family interest is manifested in the meetings, and husbands as well as children of all ages drop in as spectators.
A few day schools are developing programs of community work and in some cases give promise of becoming real community centers. In some schools the community activities are recreational and include basket ball and baseball teams or orchestras; in others the art of the people is encouraged and even put to industrial account. Various schools are attempting practical health education programs. In a few localities community bath houses and laundries have been established and are in use.
With the single exception of the Pueblo form of government, the Indian council and the Indian court represent about the only approach to civic life that the Indians have. Neither the council nor the court is to be found everywhere; many Indians have no form of organization. Neither the council nor the court is utilized to any great extent as a means of education for self government. Some superintendents regard these forms of organization half contemptuously, and in some cases seem to consider the council rather a nuisance because it serves as a forum for agitators. The superintendents who do try to use the council and the court have not sufficient help to accomplish very much. With proper assistance these organizations might be utilized in such a way as to diminish rather than to increase the superintendent's load.
Degenerative Tendencies. In the absence of well developed community life degenerative influences have full play. This has been the experience of white communities, and it is to be seen also among the Indians. Wherever wholesome occupational and recreational activities are lacking, ill health, shiftlessness, vice, and delinquency flourish.
Undesirable forms of commercialized recreation get the patronage of the Indians living in the vicinity of towns and cities. The field matrons who work with such Indians report disasters arising from the girls' frequenting dance halls and other cheap amusement places. In a locality where the missionary interfered with the organization of a boys' orchestra because he did not believe in dancing or dance music, the gambling houses flourish, as well as the dope peddlers, and the field matron reports:
Our police duties are oftentimes heartrending. For instance, during the past three days we have had three men stricken down by canned heat and bad liquor, two of whom died frightful deaths.
Out on the reservations, far from the amusements of urban life, the Indians find in their periodic camp life a refuge from monotony. The excesses of the dance and other diversions of camp life are undoubtedly due partly to the fact that the people have a poverty of interest in the dull round of existence in the communities where they live.
In some places the Indians seem to have lost both the form and the memory of their own native political organization. The superintendent who organized the Industrial and Better Homes Association found that those Indians had to be taught how to vote on the merits of a question. At first all voted in the affirmative. An old woman at one of the first meetings made a speech in which she explained that the young men did not know how to speak; that her tribe had lost the art because it was so long since they had had any occasion for public speaking.
In tribes that still have merely a form of organization functioning ineffectually, the agitator is influential because among his followers there is much idleness and chronic discontent instead of activity and a well developed public opinion. In a community functioning healthily some agitators would be leaders of real worth and others would have scant followings.
Standards of living tend to seek a lower level in the absence of wholesome community activity. The economic level in a community depends not only upon natural resources but also upon the degree to which economic ideals of life develop within the group. The deadly uniformity to be found in home conditions in many places exists not only because of poverty but also because the people lack economic leadership and do not know how to obtain results through coöperative effort.
The Community the Smallest Unit for Effective Work. Up to the present the government has attacked the Indian problem almost exclusively by the method of standardized routine treatment of individuals. Family work has been for the most part nominal. Community effort has been inadequately financed and staffed and not sufficiently inclusive of all the elements in the community and all departments of welfare to constitute more than the illustration of a promising method. The regulation of the affairs of adults has in large measure failed to develop independence of character or soundness of business judgment. The government school system has been as disintegrating to the community as to the family. The school routine has interfered with the development of leadership and the ability to carry out coöperative enterprises, since the children have had little participation in organization for work or play. After many years of effort and the expenditure of much money the Indians still constitute a problem. The Indians themselves are more generally blamed than the method to which they have been subjected.
The experience of the white race is that progress is a group process rather than an individual process. Just as individuals usually fail to develop far beyond the level of their families, so family development is limited by the standards of the society in which the families live. Good homes do not flourish under subnormal community conditions, nor do many children develop initiative and responsibility in a general atmosphere of shiftlessness.
Backward communities are sick communities which need diagnosis and treatment. Each one has its own peculiar difficulties, and therefore no set program can be devised and applied mechanically like a patent medicine. Community conditions like family conditions need careful study by experts in that field. In order to change bad conditions skilled leadership from outside the community is usually necessary, but the purpose of such leaders is to develop their successors from within the community so that the group may become self sufficing.
Experience in White Communities Applicable. The methods worked out in dealing with backward white communities should be applied among the Indians. The community should be made the unit of attack, and every family and individual should be included in the study of community conditions and in the resulting plan of treatment. Many reservations include several distinct communities and each should have its organization. In organizing activities the Indians should have a voice. Programs should not be imposed on them, even if the start with their sanction and cooperation should prove slow. Wherever their coöperation is sought their interest in the enterprise is deeper, but still more important, they sometimes save outsiders from fatal mistakes such as that of ignoring lines of social cleavage among them.
Utilization of Indian Activities. What is left of the Indians' primitive community activities should be studied and utilized as far
as possible for constructive ends. Such an approach to organization is tactical as well as sound. The Indian court and the Indian council could be made powerful means for creating public opinion instead of mere forms of congregate activity tolerated by the officers.
Harmful forms of recreation should be eliminated by a process of substitution rather than by direct prohibition. Some Indian dances and games could profitably be retained. A superior feature of some of them lies in the fact that everyone participates, whereas nearly all our games and dances are limited on age or sex lines. A significant thing in the experience of the American Red Cross nurses among the Indians was the demand for recreation and the willingness to try new forms as well as to revive Indian sports. At various points in the Service games, especially of a contest nature, athletic events, circulating libraries, musical organizations, dramatics, parties of various kinds, clubs with social features, and story hours have been tried with success.
Specific Training for Future Citizenship Among Whites. As a specific preparation for release from tutelage Indians should be trained in health, recreational, economic, and civic activities. Group participation in these things is a definite part of the education Indians need if they are ever to have a share in the common life of the American people. Even in sparse rural populations American whites have a degree of control over their own local government and the organization of their economic interests far beyond that of most Indians. The fundamentals of group participation can be learned by the Indians more effectively in their natural environment than after they have scattered into the larger white communities where they may encounter the barriers of race prejudice.
Economy of Organizing Communities. As an administrative device community organization would in the long run prove economical. The Indian Office exists in order to eliminate the need for its own existence. Once the Indians can take care of themselves this branch of the government service may be discontinued. The present policy of consolidating reservations in the interests of economy, even though the Indians are thereby neglected, is not true economy. But if through organization of the Indians native leaders could be developed and community responsibility could be created, then government officers could gradually withdraw supervision without causing hardship and suffering.
Even from the point of view of the local superintendent alone sound community organization in the long run would mean economical administration. The development of native leadership in sympathy with the superintendent's aims would create many centers of influence outside the office. Many government policies could be more effectively interpreted by native leaders than by government officers, because the more backward Indians are much more sensitive to the public opinion of their own people than to that of whites. Government prestige would not suffer from native promulgation of policies. Real prestige depends upon the personal qualities of the superintendent and his assistants and is found only where real leadership exists.
Type of Organization Desirable. All field workers should be engaged in the organization of community forces, and all community work of a reservation should center in the office of the superintendent. Health, industry, and the schools should all be represented by community programs, each of which should be worked out with reference to the unified effort of all. In some localities a recreation program might be carried out through the schools without a specialized employee; in others where the recreational resources of the people are few and vice and delinquency thrive, a recreation worker of experience should be employed.
In the development of a recreation program under a trained leader the worker should be employed before a community house is established. Experience in white communities has shown that trained personnel is much more important to success in this field than elaborate equipment. Many community houses and much equipment have stood idle or have been used fitfully and without perceptible good results because of the absence of responsible leadership. Even the Indian Service is not without its examples of this mistake. Money spent on a community house or a recreation center in advance of a program and workers to carry it into effect is a waste of funds.
A trained worker should precede any definite program of recreation. A good working program in the field of recreation is difficult to evolve and depends upon the insight and understanding of a good leader. Like any other satisfactory program it must be preceded by a study of local needs. The competent leader in an Indian
community would of necessity be adaptable. He would find it necessary to study Indian life sympathetically and devise new methods to attain his ends. The competent leader would also work constructively, with the object of eliminating the need for his services, as well as co-operatively with every other member of the staff, keeping himself well in the background. He should be an artist at getting apparently spontaneous action.
It should not be necessary to repeat among Indians the mistakes made among whites, especially during the war period when much so-called recreation was in the hands of people entirely unqualified as leaders. Too rapid a program development with resulting superficiality and artificiality is always a danger. A sound program should avoid the over emphasis upon athletics that leads to the various evils of commercialization. Athletic games should, however, be cultivated for the excellent character effects to be derived from team play. The Indians themselves have developed some very fine games.
If a recreation program is to be more than a merely mechanical thing unsuited to the real needs of the people, it must take account of the fact that recreation is an essential part of all healthy human life. The program must therefore have certain objectives:
1. It must make some kind of recreation available to everyone in the community regardless of age, sex, or limitations such as illness creates.
2. It must not limit recreation to congregate activities but must promote it in the homes.
3. It must not separate recreation from the other activities of life but must enliven them all with its spirit. Especially do the Indians need the element of contest in their work and in the daily routine of home life. Any permanent improvement in community standards of living will come through the operation of the spirit of emulation.
**Women as Wage Earners.** Relatively few Indian women are at present gainfully employed outside their homes, for the Indian population is scattered over vast areas and the number living convenient to industrial centers is not great. Outside of domestic service Indian women and girls are most often engaged seasonably in harvesting fruits and vegetables, or in fruit, vegetable, and fish canneries. But the tendency is apparent, especially among the younger women, to enter wage earning occupations in increasing numbers. Even among some of the primitive tribes there is a drift to the cities and a pressure upon girls as well as boys to become wage earners, for many of them live in parts of the country where the natural resources are very slender and the poverty great.
*Homemaking the Objective of School Training.* The present education of girls in the Indian schools seems intended primarily as preparation for homemaking rather than for wage earning. Preparation for homemaking is by far the most important task for the schools so far as numbers are concerned. Since nearly all girls at some time become housewives, training in homemaking is likely to be useful eventually to nearly everyone. To make this training the sole objective of the schools is, however, no longer possible if the immediate needs of all girls are to be met. Some superintendents says that the most baffling cases with which they have to deal are returned students, girls disqualified by the boarding schools for life on the reservation and qualified for no occupation off the reservation unless it be domestic service.
*Domestic Service.* The only occupation open to any large number of the girls who stop school or to those who finish the number of years of schooling offered by the average boarding school is domestic service. Even the few girls who graduate from home economics courses in the best schools in the Service have not the education necessary for teaching home economics, although they do have a good practical training for making homes of their own according to the standards current in white communities. If the schools at present prepare the rank and file of the girl students for any vocation it is domestic service. They are not fitted for life on the reservation; they are not educated for homemaking under primitive conditions, and only a few can become the wives of Indian men living in white communities; they are in many cases induced or required to spend their vacations under the outing system, which is in practice an apprenticeship for domestic service.
Many white people extol domestic service as an occupation for other people's daughters. But the women of no immigrant race that has come to America have tarried any longer in this occupation than economic necessity required. During the war when factory positions were for the first time opened to Negro women some of the
women of that race rejoiced that at last they might find work other than personal service. Domestic work though not essentially degrading carries a social stigma. This may be one reason why it is a morally hazardous occupation, as careful studies made among white wage earners have shown. Certainly among Indians a reason for the moral hazard is the social isolation imposed by the conditions of the work.
That many Indian girls have found comfortable quarters and kindness and protection in the homes where they worked is of course true. But no one wishes to spend a lifetime in domestic service, and unfortunately it is a "dead end" occupation. As a preparation for the future home life of Indian girls it is not even justified, being on the whole ineffective because the gap is too great between conditions in the homes where the girls work and any homes they are likely to have.
The impression gained by many whites is that Indians are capable of doing only unskilled work that no one else wants to do. It is difficult to understand why the government, avowedly educating its wards for a place in white civilization, should have prepared the girls almost exclusively for the least desirable of the gainful occupations open to women.
The Indian Service employs several field and outing matrons who spend part or all their time in selecting homes suitable to the girls and in looking out in various ways for their welfare. The matrons generally recognize the desirability of helping the girls to adjust themselves to city conditions in their hours off duty; although some of them open their own homes to the girls and give very generously of their time, none has sufficient free time to give the girls the oversight they need. If girls must be put out to service by the government, then the government should provide proper housing facilities and chaperonage for them. They should be housed in a comfortable building with a house mother and with facilities for entertaining their friends, so that they may have opportunities for knowing young men in wholesome ways. Since domestic service leads to no better occupation, it is the more important that it should not be allowed to interfere with opportunities for marriage.
Training for Nursing, Teaching, and Clerical Work. The need of preparation for more desirable occupations is recognized by the Indian Office and various courses are now being offered in some of the larger schools, notably Haskell Institute, in preparation for lines of work open to women. A few young women are now specializing in nursing, clerical work, and teaching. The latest addition to the list is physical education.
The education in these subjects, however, does not constitute a satisfactory preparation for the occupations to which they lead. The chief difficulty is early specialization with too meager a general education. No school carries the students beyond a twelve-year curriculum, and all schools have the industrial feature which strictly limits the time available for study or classroom work. The time for school work of a general nature is still further limited by specialized instruction in sewing, cooking, and the like. Even in the best schools only a very few girls in the last year or two are allowed to substitute real practice work for the routine industrial work of the institution. Since the industrial work has very little educational value and is sometimes physically exhausting, the girls may be said to have been throughout their course on a half-time school schedule. It is absurd to expect the teachers to work a miracle of education in the twelve years and to put these girls on a par in their general education with white girls in public schools who have started without a language handicap and have devoted twelve years of full time to general education.
These Indian graduates cannot compete for positions with the graduates of public high schools who have spent two or three subsequent years in special preparation for nursing, or teaching, or the various kinds of clerical work. Neither can they enter colleges and technical schools to secure more training even if they are financially able, since first class institutions require a diploma from an accredited high school as a condition of admittance. At present the general tendency of technical schools is to require more rather than less than a high school education as a qualification for specialized training. The relative situation of the graduate of the Indian school therefore grows no better, even though from time to time some improvements in the curriculum are made. Neither can many of the girls supplement their education by entering the public high
schools. The public schools are usually popular with the Indians who are familiar with them, but most of the girls who graduate from the boarding schools are from homes remote from high schools, or are from localities where race prejudice bars them out of the public schools, and, moreover, many of them are past the usual high school age at the time of their graduation from the Indian schools. For most of them there is no way out. Their schooling is finished.
The result is a very restricted market for their work. A large proportion of the teachers and clerical workers enter the Indian Service. But wherever they work they are in a pocket. They cannot hold positions outside the Service with firms or institutions whose standards of work are exacting. Little consistent attempt is made within the Service to train them or place them in better positions. They are likely to be discounted on account of race even inside the Service, where they occupy the lowest paid positions. These girl teachers and clerks are not as a rule expected to advance within the Service but are looked upon as a permanent source of low priced labor. In some jurisdictions they seem to be discriminated against socially.
The girl preparing for nursing suffers only part of these handicaps. Under the present arrangements with hospitals she has the opportunity to know something of conditions in the outside world, to measure her performance against that of white nurses in training, and to secure positions through the training school. But she suffers equally with the others from lack of accredited high school education.
Development of Leaders. A familiar complaint in the Indian Service concerns the backward state of the women and homes and the lack of native leadership. This condition is partly to be accounted for by the system of education. The schools have no plans for the development of leaders. Indian women doctors, nurses, teachers, and social workers with thorough professional training could do much for their people. Some young Indian women today desire to serve their race more than anything else. Some others are educated beyond the men of their acquaintance, and rather than marry men with whom they have little in common they are seeking happiness in work. Still others look forward to several years of work before marriage. Some of these young women are trying to save money for college educations but the outlook is not hopeful.
The almost complete resourcelessness of these ambitious Indian girls is difficult to realize. Compared with white girls they are intellectually isolated. They have no general information such as white girls absorb from family and community. Their white world is little larger than the Indian Service. They seldom have personal or family friends to whom they can turn for information or service. Under such circumstances the mere acquisition of information relative to colleges where they might register with entrance conditions would require a considerable degree of initiative. The routine of the Indian school does not develop initiative.
The financial problems involved in getting a higher education are in most cases beyond their power to solve. Most of them come from families too poor to send them to college. Their education has prepared them only for low salaried positions where savings are too slight to make possible the accumulation of funds for college. They know of no loan funds or scholarships.
At least two of the larger schools have done an excellent thing in furnishing quarters to two or three young women graduates who have gone back and forth from the school to a nearby college. This help and encouragement has brought a higher education within reach of girls who could hardly have managed to achieve it alone.
If the Indian schools could give the accredited high school education, other arrangements might be made for financing the higher education of outstanding girl graduates from private funds. The following are some of the possibilities:
1. With an accredited high school education they could compete for university scholarships and loans as white students do.
2. Various private agencies, like women's clubs and college sororities, might be willing to create special scholarships for Indian girls.
3. Individuals and organizations interested in special lines of work might welcome the opportunity to establish scholarships for Indian girls interested in these specialties. Business firms and art schools might profitably cooperate in developing the abilities of girls with special aptitude in native design.
4. A few Indians might wish to use some of their surplus wealth for the higher education of Indian girls.
Desirable Changes in the Plan of Education. The Indian students as undergraduates seldom know their real situation. It is not strange that later a few of them manifest some bitterness, not so much because their education was substandard as because they were kept in ignorance of the fact. The schools are badly in need of vocational advising and an employment service. The girls graduate without knowing: (1) The relative merits of the occupations they have chosen as compared with other occupations; (2) conditions affecting these occupations in the larger world; (3) how far they are able at graduation to compete for positions under these conditions; (4) where to look for positions outside the Service; or (5) how to supplement their education or to make other plans for success in the fields of their choice. This specialized work in the schools should be in charge of persons with professional qualifications at least as high as those of the teachers. They should have had experience with first class schools or other organizations prior to their appointment.
Vocational guidance and an employment service should be an integral part of the system, but these things alone do not reach the fundamental trouble. To give Indian girls a real preparation for earning their living would involve an overhauling of the present school system. Schools should be put on a full-time basis and the boarding schools should become accredited high schools. If the girls were educated through high school, it ought not to be necessary for the Indian Office to maintain technical schools. It would be more economical to offer a generous number of competitive scholarships for graduates who might want specialized training. Advanced education in schools of recognized standing in association with white students would be an excellent preparation for future work, especially since it would enlarge the girls' knowledge of the work of whites during their student life and would enlist the interest of these higher institutions in placing them in positions.
The present system of education not only fails to prepare girls for earning but also tends to disqualify them because it interferes with the development of traits of character essential to success. Institutionalized children of any race are likely to be wanting in habits of industry, initiative, and good judgment with regard to work and general conduct. Success cannot be expected of children who are deprived of the atmosphere of parental love, brought up in a formal and even militaristic manner, and taught right and wrong by means of precepts instead of being allowed volition in their conduct. If the girls of the boarding schools are to develop strong moral fiber several changes in the school system should be made:
1. The children should be kept in public or day school or, where that is impossible, in small boarding schools not too far from home until they are ready for high school.
2. The proportion of teachers and counselors to girls in non-reservation schools should be relatively much larger than at present.
3. Women with the qualifications of teachers in accredited high schools should take the place of the present matrons.
4. Unadjusted or problem children should not be educated in the same schools as the other children.
Employment Service for Women. Women and girls not in school should be included in a general employment service for Indians. The graduates of the Indian schools especially need an extension service of vocational guidance for some years, because many of them face difficult industrial and social adjustments. Young women in domestic service in cities have no less need than "outing" girls for good residence quarters and wholesome recreation outside of working hours.
The general employment service should include a woman who is expert in personnel and employment work. Her duties should include: (1) The study of occupational opportunities in all parts of the country; (2) the exercise of general supervision over the work of local employees dealing with women; and (3) cooperation with the schools in their vocational and employment work.
Handicrafts. The Indians as a race, and particularly the Indian women, show a great fondness and aptitude for handicrafts. In every tribe some form of hand manufacture is followed. In many tribes with long-continued white contacts one or more of the arts of the frontier whites have been taken over and are popular, though not significant commercially. Occasionally, as for example, among the Chippewas, a native art and a borrowed art flourished side by side. In other cases, notably among the Five Civilized Tribes,
native handicrafts seem to have disappeared almost completely, and the examples that remain might be classified as "antiques" in the popular acceptance of the term.
*Varieties of Native Handicrafts in Homes.* Various native arts are still widely popular. Some of the most important of the handicrafts practiced in the homes of one or more tribes are: Pottery making; bead work, both embroidery and loom work; basket making from a wide variety of materials; the weaving of rush or grass mats; the weaving of corn husk bags; blanket and other textile weaving, mostly in wool; the tanning of leather and making of leather garments and other articles; and the hand manufacture of silver and turquoise jewelry. Of these arts the work with beads and the making of baskets are the most nearly universal, while the making of pottery and baskets and the weaving of rugs and blankets among the desert dwellers of the Southwest are the most flourishing.
*Tendencies to Disappear or Degenerate.* The general tendency is for the native arts to disappear. In various localities this has already occurred. To some slight extent borrowed arts or the "fancy work" taught in some of the government and mission schools takes their place, but for the most part nothing is substituted. The process of disappearing is a shift with the generations. The fine old craftsmen die without having taught anyone to do the work as they did it. A typical instance is that of a Mission Indian woman, no longer young, whose baskets are much admired for workmanship and beauty and therefore bring high prices. Although her younger neighbors value her work, no one seeks to learn from her and when she is gone she will leave no successor. Across the street from her home is a neat little house with a wonderful display of old baskets, many of which were made by the deceased grandmother of the family, whose descendants are proud of the evidences of her skill but cannot practice her art.
The reason for this tendency toward the disappearance of the native crafts are several. Government employees say that many of the young people look upon the work of their elders as old fashioned, and some employees are inclined to attribute this attitude to the influence of the schools. A more fundamental reason is the impact of modern life upon Indian society. Indians like whites prefer riding about in automobiles, if they have them, instead of sitting quietly at home and working. Moreover, as the ancient religious and ceremonial customs loosen their hold, the arts connected with this department of life tend also to lapse. The old handicrafts are most flourishing where the native religious beliefs are still powerful.
Then, too, the practice of some of the handicrafts is strictly limited by availability of the necessary materials. These primitive crafts are largely dependent upon native vegetable and animal life. Even beadwork, though beads are a commercial product, requires skins and sinew. Skins in particular are difficult to secure, especially since the sale of deerskin in some parts of the Indian country is severely regulated by law. Beads of good quality are very difficult and often impossible for Indians to find in any market they frequent.
In many tribes the arts tend to degenerate. Some baskets weavers and many textile weavers now resort to the convenient use of the vivid commercial dyes instead of the more lasting and beautiful vegetable dyes of former times. Marked degeneration is noticeable in the beadwork of many localities. This degeneration is not all the Indians' fault, for beads of desirable size, shape, and color are often hard to find, and much superior workmanship is wasted on the garish beads the traders sell. In some places, however, the present practice is to work with the larger beads and thus produce for sale quickly, and to resort to poor designs or even to a hit-and-miss type of beading, very ugly and uninteresting. The designs used in much of the bead work are no longer native or distinctive. The corn husk bags of the Northwestern Indians are likewise deteriorating in finish, design, and color, though as a rule they are still of fine workmanship. Much of the pottery of the Pueblo dwelling Indians is made merely to sell and shows the carelessness incident upon quantity production. In the aggregate a vast amount of labor, most of it painstaking and much of it superior, is expended upon the making of Indian things; but far too large a part of this labor is unproductive because the Indians use poor materials, loud colors, or inferior designs.
*Tendencies to Develop.* At least one instance may be cited of a recently developed handicraft which is apparently an Indian invention. The Paiutes of a single locality cover small smoothly woven
split osier baskets entirely with beads. The designs are characteristically Indian, the color combinations fairly good, and the ingenuity and workmanship remarkable, especially in the adaptation of the woven design to spherical surfaces.
Individuals and private organizations have for years been actively interested in fostering and developing or restoring native Indian arts. Some achievements are the introduction of old designs and improved methods in the making of pottery in some of the Rio Grande Pueblos; the revival and encouragement of woolen embroidery among the women of some of the Pueblos; the increase in quality and output of silver work in a colony of Navajos by the application of business enterprise combined with high standards of excellence; and the improvement of bead work in several tribes by furnishing beads and other materials of good quality, the best of native designs or general specifications, and a steady market for the product.
Government Attitude Toward Native Arts. The government has made a little effort of late years to foster the native arts by introducing some instruction into the schools. This effort is largely confined to a few of the day schools and boarding schools of the Southwest, where rug weaving, pottery making, and the drawing and painting of typical Indian designs are encouraged. This kind of instruction, however, has not been introduced as a matter of general policy, but has developed only where individuals or organizations have been specially interested in its promotion.
No systematic effort has been made to encourage or develop the Indian handicrafts on the reservations. The general policy has been to make a white man of the Indian rather than to encourage things native. As a rule field matrons and teachers have not made much effort as individuals to stimulate activity in the native industries. Many of them appreciate the products enough to acquire specimens, but field workers as a rule feel the pressure of more immediate tasks, and many of them know little better than the Indians how to secure materials or how to find good markets for the finished work. Neither have they the time, or in some instances the taste or the skill, to control the quality of the work done, and the difficulty of disposing of low grade products has proved the chief obstacle to the development of markets where the effort has been made. In a few instances Indian women have been encouraged to forsake Indian handicrafts and to compete with whites by making for sale such things as household linens or children's clothing. Such efforts usually fail for lack of a market.
The Marketing of Products of Native Art. The Indians cannot develop their own markets because they are remote from their potential customers and because they have little business experience. Usually they sell or trade their wares directly to local dealers who dispose of them to tourists or to large dealers. But some of these Indians who live in the line of tourist travel sell directly to the tourists, especially if they come to the homes of the Indians.
Under such circumstances there can be little standardization of price. Prices are determined by individual bargaining and have little relation to intrinsic value or to the cost of production. Traders among the Navajos say that families carry their rugs to several different stores before they will sell. The Hopis, too, are keen in getting the best market possible. But the Indians of many tribes have little ability to set values. Consequently prices are often too low, especially if the necessity of the vender is great, and they are often too high, especially if the sale is made directly to the tourist. It adds to the confusion of values that the transaction between the traders and the Indians is often an exchange of commodities. Some Indians are said by traders to refuse payment in cash, preferring to barter instead. In a few localities there is a considerable exchange of handiwork and produce between Indians of different tribes.
Relation of Handicrafts to Income. Since the sale of handmade articles takes place independently of the reservation office, superintendents can make only very rough estimates of the amount of income derived from this source. Probably such sales do not form in the aggregate a large proportion of the income on many reservations; but they constitute a supplementary income much needed by most of the producing families and essential to the existence of some, and are therefore of considerable importance on reservations. Among Pueblo dwellers such income is fairly steady and dependable and is no small factor in a comparatively high standard of living. In many localities the production and sale of articles is resorted to seasonally when supplies of food are exhausted and funds are low. This is said by some observers to be the chief reason for the production of Navajo rugs. Among Indians genally the sale of handiwork constitutes a financial resource in emergencies such as crop failures. The Indians of various tribes do not like to sell their best work, and only do so as a last resort under extreme necessity.
Some of the handicrafts, such as the making of baskets and rugs, are somewhat seasonal by reason of the nature of the raw materials. But most of them afford work when there is nothing else to do, and thus idle time is turned into money. Although this utilization of spare time is as a rule a good thing, still there is danger that with an increase in the demand for these products the main support of the families might tend to fall upon the women rather than the men. One of the field matrons believes that this is now true in many Hopi families. Some observers say the same thing of the Navajos, among whom the women do practically everything connected with the rugs. They take care of the lambs, they and the children herd the sheep, they even do the shearing in some cases, and from that stage on they do all the work. Navajo children in describing their home life tell of their mothers' rising early and staying up late at night to work at their rugs. The men attend to the horses and cattle, but raise few crops.
Social Value of Handicrafts. Much of the traditional religious and social significance has been removed from Indian arts. Formerly when a woman made moccasins for her husband or father or son she sat in religious reverie and embroidered them with religious symbols; she made them strong because they must not fail their wearer in the hunt or the fight, but must fulfill an economic purpose for the family and the clan; she made them beautiful because they were for those she loved. Now the men go to the traders and buy heavy boots or shoes, while the women make the moccasins to sell to the traders. The economic motive has changed and become less personal.
The recreational and artistic aspects of these pursuits might, however, be much developed even under present conditions. The expression of individuality through creative art is one of the highest forms of happiness. It constitutes a refuge from monotony and a resource for leisure of great value to women who have only the primitive social life of the more conservative Indian communities, particularly in some of the Pueblos where the restrictions on returned students are severe. It makes possible a goal for women ambitious to achieve something noteworthy. Already individuals from several tribes have gained reputations as artists in the making of pottery, baskets, and rugs. They are known by name in the markets of the whites and some of the potters are now able to enhance the value of their products by their signatures.
The making of articles of value proves a means to the social amenities. In some tribes of the Northwest the interchange of handsome gifts made expressly for that purpose is so settled a custom that it is difficult to buy their blankets and bags outright. Handicrafts also offer a good basis for wholesome group activity. Indian women seem to enjoy working together and talking while they work just as much as do their white sisters. This probably explains the popularity of quilt making in some of the women's clubs.
The fostering and development of the native arts is a wholesome thing in inter-racial relations. It is good for both Indians and whites to realize that Indians have a distinctive contribution to make to the world. Through the Junior Red Cross, Indian and white school children have in some instances developed acquaintance by correspondence. In one such school where the Indian children have made drawings and designs illustrative of their ceremonies and arts and have explained the meaning of their drawings in their letters, the teacher says that this project has contributed more to stimulate the children's education than anything else in their school life.
Suggestions for Government Supervision. The Indian Office should include in its program the development of Indian handicrafts. This program would involve on the one hand the securing of marketable goods and on the other the organization of a market. The quality of products should be standardized and their genuineness guaranteed. Articles should be: (1) Characteristically Indian, (2) of good materials, (3) of good workmanship, (4) of good color and design, (5) usable unless intended merely for display, (6) unique or original so far as compatible with the other requisites, (7) tagged with the government's guarantee of genuineness and quality, and (8) priced fairly. To achieve these things it would be necessary to exercise some supervision over the workers in their homes. Employees should see that the workers avoid mistakes that
would make articles unsalable and that they be enabled to secure the best materials to be had. It would be necessary also to stimulate originality of design, to encourage regularity of production, and to require as far as possible good working conditions in the homes, especially with respect to cleanliness and light. This work would of course be slow, and spectacular results could not be expected.
If the experience in private ventures is significant the organization of a market would not be difficult. The typical experience is a demand for really good products, far beyond the available supply. Probably little advertising would be necessary except the issuing of simple catalogs. With two persons in advisory or supervisory positions, one with the necessary business qualifications and the other technically trained in arts of this nature and appreciative of primitive types of work, a good beginning could be made without employing specialized people locally. Much could be accomplished through the day schools and the boarding schools. At present most of the work done under government auspices is in the hands of the teachers.
The development of handicrafts should be a means to an end; namely, the improvement of the economic and social conditions of life. The success of the enterprise should therefore be measured not merely by financial results but more particularly by social consequences. The work should not be developed at the expense of family life. To aim too directly at business success might result in a system of "sweating," or might shift the burden of support unduly upon the wives. To aim at an exclusive form of art might eliminate workers who could do a good standard grade of work with profit to themselves and their customers.
The development of this work should have a place in community plans. In some cases community houses and school buildings might profitably have light comfortable rooms and workshops for the use of individuals or clubs. In all communities work in clubs and classes should be encouraged for its social value.
**Personnel.** No standardized plan for organization and personnel can be set up for mechanical application to all Indian reservations. Although the social problems of ill health, low standards of living, family disintegration, undeveloped community life, and lack of occupational adjustment are to be found everywhere, each agency has its own peculiar conditions. The size of reservations, density and distribution of population, character of the country, economic and social relation to the outside world, tribal peculiarities, historical background especially with relation to past government policies, present government policies and personnel, and cleavages among the Indians, all combine to make the development of wholesome conditions of life and work a distinctly individual task for each superintendent.
**Expert Service to the Reservation.** No superintendent, no matter how able, can develop a satisfactory program for his reservation without outside help. He needs the service of experts who are familiar with the various problems confronting him and with the methods used in handling these problems in the general population, and who have knowledge of the experience of the various reservations with reference to the peculiar character the problems and methods of treatment assume among Indians. These experts should be available from the Washington office. They should cooperate with superintendents in making local surveys and setting up programs. Their advice or supervision should be available from time to time as the program is put into execution. No local program should be set up without their assistance, for they would have specialized knowledge in their own fields, they would be free from local factional bias, and a joint program would have more prestige with the Indians than one set up by the superintendent alone.
Under some circumstances it would be both desirable and possible to utilize also expert help from state, county, and private agencies in planning for Indians who must eventually become charges upon such agencies unless educated for release from federal control.
**Trained Service on the Reservation.** As a condition for putting the local program into execution each superintendent should be provided with a staff of permanent workers who have had their previous training and experience in social work with first class organizations. The superintendent, even if the reservation is small, cannot be expected to administer it as a business and do much of the personal contact work. He should have the assistance of employees who are able to perform the function of education in their respective lines of field work, besides interpreting government policies successfully to the Indians and furnishing him with such
data concerning the welfare of the Indians as he should have for administrative purposes. These field employees should also be able to establish outside contacts with whites whenever this would serve the interests of the Indians.
Except the recent beginnings in developing field nursing, the concerted attempts to improve the quality of the work with the women in the homes have been confined almost entirely to the promulgation of rules and regulations and statements of general objectives and to the requiring of routine reports to Washington. These are only makeshifts. Three things are necessary to effective local service:
1. Training for the duties of the position. Persons with the necessary qualifications may be secured through Civil Service examination.
2. Definite objectives of work, involving a selection of the more fundamental and the more pressing needs to be met on the reservation. These objectives should be supplied by the formulation of a local program.
3. Supervision and counsel. Supervision of a general administrative character is the function of the superintendent, that of a technical professional character should be available from the expert staff in Washington.
**Types of Service to Homes.** If existing conditions are to be much changed for the better five distinct types of service must be rendered to the homes by the local staff. All these services are concerned with the same problem of subnormal standards, though occupied immediately with different aspects of the problem. All, therefore, have a common duty of mutual aid not specified under the duties of each separately. Each of the five includes also the duty of record keeping. Full and accurate records are essential to continuity of work whenever there are changes of personnel. But even if there are no shifts of workers, records are essential to good work. They are as necessary to the social case worker as is the medical case record to the doctor, and for the same reasons.
---
18 Services specially treated under other sections of this report, such as the medical and those parts of the industrial concerned primarily with the activities of the men, are omitted from this list.
(e) Teaching the women how to do retail buying, extending this instruction to the men and children also if they do any considerable part of the buying for the household.
(f) Enlisting the help of local merchants and traders and of state and county home demonstration workers in this program of education.
3. Promotion of Economic Efficiency: Promotion of economic efficiency is a part of a general industrial program. The service to women and homes includes:
(a) Vocational guidance of women who find it necessary to support the family or to add to the income, and of school girls who wish to enter wage earning occupations.
(b) Occupational training of women and girls who must add to the family income or who must be self supporting. On many reservations this training would consist largely of stimulating and developing the native handicrafts. In some localities agricultural pursuits such as the raising of chickens, turkeys, or rabbits, the keeping of bees, or the preservation of foods for the market should be developed, while in others arrangements should be made to secure training for urban occupations.
(c) Representing the interests of the women in the employment service of the agency.
(d) Coöperating with the agricultural agent or other industrial worker in developing family and community agricultural and industrial plans.
(e) Working coöperatively with state and private organizations in order to keep in touch with occupational developments and to stimulate interest in the economic problems of the Indians.
4. Treatment of Personal Maladjustments: The duties involved in the treatment of the personal maladjustments embrace:
(a) The diagnosis and treatment of the personal difficulties involved in failure to make a living, such as feeble-mindedness, insanity, physical handicaps, and occupational maladjustments, as well as lack of harmony between members of the family, and bad habits where no abnormalities are indicated.
(b) Administering relief and providing for the care of dependents, such as orphans and the aged.
(c) The prevention, as far as possible, of divorce or separation, of irregular sex relations, through the effecting of harmonious adjustments within the family and the community.
(d) The prevention of juvenile and adult delinquency by securing the treatment of physical and mental difficulties as well as by improvements in environmental conditions, both family and community. This prevention involves work with pre-delinquents and the exercise of the probationary function in connection with courts handling domestic relations and delinquency.
(e) Enlisting family coöperation in plans for clinical or institutional treatment of members whenever such treatment is desirable.
(f) Enlisting the help of state and local agencies concerned with the above problems, especially for clinical service, and for police or other community control of commercialized vice and harmful forms of recreation.
5. Community Recreation: Community recreation involves the service to homes through the development of wholesome community interests and activities of a recreational nature, and includes:
(a) The fostering of the better forms of native recreation, eliminating or controlling so far as possible any bad features; the development of local interests in order to set up competition with camp life.
(b) Encouragement of the recreational features of the native handicrafts, particularly as a relief from the monotony of chronic illness.
(c) The study and improvement of the recreational features of home life, especially the encouragement of forms of short period entertaining to take the place of the protracted visiting now prevalent.
(d) The developing of the recreational programs of community centers, usually in coöperation with the schools. The work includes the providing of play facilities for children of school age or younger; the developing of libraries and story hours, and the organizing of groups in the community for musical, athletic, and dramatic activities.
(e) Coöperation with missionaries and other private agencies in planning comprehensive programs of recreation.
(1) In mixed Indian and white communities the encouragement of community forms of recreation to promote inter-racial acquaintance and understanding.
6. Specialized Types of Social Case Work: In some parts of the Service certain special conditions may be so acute in form or so common that some of the more specialized kinds of social work will be necessary. Of these specialized forms of case work the following are examples:
(a) Medical social work, which "is based upon a medical need and is so integrated with the hospital organization and the practice of medicine that it cannot exist of itself as a separate entity. Its method is similar to that of family case work but it must utilize a particular content of medical and social knowledge and it is on a consideration of the medical problems that the social plan is initiated." The medical social worker acts as interpreter between doctor, patient, the patient's family, and the different social agencies of the community, initiating and helping to put into effect a plan whereby the patient is enabled to carry out the recommendations of the physician. Such service is peculiarly needed among the Indians in view of the prevalence of tuberculosis, a disease which usually necessitates temporary, and frequently permanent, economic adjustments.
(b) The re-education of the adult blind either in their homes or in classes with a view to making them self supporting and useful members of the community. This involves an equipment of social case work training combined with technical training in the teaching of the blind. It is partly vocational, partly recreational, and may involve a variety of social adjustments in the family group and the community.
(c) Occupational therapy in tuberculosis sanatoria. It supplies training in a variety of handicrafts as well as an understanding of the symptoms of the disease and the mental states accompanying it. The objects to be attained by such work among Indian patients would be to lessen their discontent under sanatorium existence, thus prolonging their stay and promoting a cure; and to develop for chronic cases a means to full or partial self support.
From a bulletin of the American Association of Social Workers: "Vocational aspects of medical social work."
(d) The placement of orphan or otherwise homeless children in foster homes where they may have the advantage of wholesome family life. Child placing involves an expert type of investigative work and supervision of the homes and the children. It is only one of several specialized lines of social case work with dependent or neglected children.
Positions Necessary to Performance of Services. A class of positions for each one of the four major types of service should be created in order that specially qualified persons may be available for communities with outstanding problems of a specialized character. It is hardly likely, however, that an employee of each class would prove the best local arrangement, even in a large and backward community covering large territory. In many jurisdictions the duties of adult education and the promotion of economic efficiency could be combined under a single employee, while on small reservations these duties could be shared by the public health nurse and the family case worker, in addition to their own specialized forms of work. In a small locality with flourishing day schools, recreational activities for adults as well as children might be centered in the schools if the teaching staff were able to assume the extra duties involved. Two women workers to any given area should be considered a minimum, for no one person can have the wide variety of training and experience necessary for the proper performance of all the essential services to women and homes.
The qualifications for these positions should be:
For the public health nurse: (1) Graduation from a training school of recognized standing; (2) one year's course in public health; (3) at least one year's successful experience under supervision in a regularly organized public health nursing association.
For the home demonstration worker, the vocational adviser, the general family case worker, and the recreation leader: (1) The equivalent of a B.A. or B.S. degree; (2) at least one year's technical training for social administration; (3) two years of successful experience with an organization of recognized standing.
The positions of family case worker and recreation leader should be open to both men and women.
Duties and Qualifications of the Girls' Matrons in Boarding Schools. In either a reservation or a non-reservation boarding
school each matron should be responsible for not over twenty-five girls if she is to perform the following duties satisfactorily:
1. Creating as far as possible a family atmosphere with unobtrusive protection and chaperonage.
2. Supervising or helping to supervise the spending of money and otherwise encouraging the formation of habits of value to future homemakers.
3. Counselling with girls on personal problems of all kinds. This includes vocational guidance.
4. Coöperating with teachers in the study of girls whose school work is poor or who present other personality difficulties.
5. Coöperating with teachers and others in supplying the recreational needs of girls and boys.
6. Encouraging contacts between the girls and their homes.
7. Interpreting the ways of white people to the girls and creating useful points of contact between them and whites.
8. Serving as a local representative of the central employment service for girls. Girls' matrons might constitute a local committee on placement headed by the superintendent of the school.
The educational qualifications for girls' matrons should be the same as for teachers in a school system having a recognized guidance program, and in addition: (1) A least one year's successful experience as vocational adviser in an accredited high school; or (2) at least one year's successful experience as a teacher in an accredited Indian high school; or (3) at least one year's successful experience in some form of personnel work or recreational work with young women or adolescent girls.
Salaries and Conditions of Work. Higher standards for salaries and working conditions must be set up and maintained if the Indian Service is to secure and retain competent workers on reservations. Employees who value their own efficiency will not tarry long in the Service under conditions that tend to impair their ability as workers.
Salaries should be equivalent to those paid for similar services by the best state and private organizations. If deductions for living quarters must be made they should be proportionate to the values received, and no discrimination should be made against Indian employees in the assignment of quarters. On many reservations more and better living accommodations for employees are much needed.
Either closed cars should be furnished for field workers or they should be allowed to provide their own cars and be paid mileage sufficient to cover the full expense of operation.
The recreational life of employees should be provided for, at least by supplying comfortable club rooms equipped with radios, magazines, and books. First class work cannot be done by persons suffering under the ill effects of long continued isolation from the outside world. Employees should have at least one day in seven entirely free from the duties of the Indian Service. As a rule evenings should be left free from routine duties unless equivalent time is allowed during the day. Employees should be allowed their full annual leave.
Incompetence of employees should be a cause for dismissal rather than for a long series of transfers. Transfers should be infrequent, especially since tribal customs and attitudes and other local conditions vary so widely that an employee is a considerable time in reaching the maximum of usefulness in a given situation. The employee who fails to do good work after two or three trials at the most has usually demonstrated sufficiently that he does not belong in the Indian Service. Under the conditions of isolation typical of the Service, the incompetence of one is almost sure to lower the morale of the local group. The dislike of Indians or a lack of sympathetic understanding of the race should be considered incompetence.
### Table 1.—Number of homes studied by five members of the survey staff, by reservation or locality
| Reservation or tribe | Total | Number of homes visited by |
|-------------------------------|-------|----------------------------|
| | | One person | Two or more persons |
| Total | 519 | 363 | 156 |
| Blackfeet | 19 | 9 | 10 |
| Cass Lake | 23 | 16 | 7 |
| Cheyenne River | 16 | 16 | |
| Consolidated Ute | 4 | 4 | |
| Crow | 6 | 6 | |
| Five Civilized Tribes | 88 | 33 | 55 |
| Flathead | 7 | 7 | |
| Ft. Belknap | 12 | 9 | 3 |
| Ft. Berthold | 10 | 10 | |
| Ft. Hall | 16 | 16 | |
| Ft. Peck | 9 | ... | 9 |
| Hopi | 10 | 9 | 1 |
| Hualapai | 9 | 9 | |
| Jicarilla | 7 | 7 | |
| Keshena | 9 | 9 | |
| Kiowa | 28 | 17 | 11 |
| Klamath | 8 | 8 | |
| Laguna | 3 | 3 | |
| Lapp | 5 | 5 | |
| Mission | 13 | 8 | 5 |
| Osage | 16 | 9 | 7 |
| Ponca | 5 | 4 | 1 |
| Potawatomi | 5 | 5 | |
| Nevada Industrial Colonies | 9 | 8 | 1 |
| Rocky Boy's | 10 | 10 | |
| Rosebud | 17 | 10 | 7 |
| Sacaton | 4 | 4 | |
| San Carlos | 8 | 8 | |
| Schurz | 30 | 11 | 19 |
| Shawnee | 5 | 5 | |
| Sisseton | 4 | 2 | 2 |
| Skokomish | 2 | 2 | |
| Tomah | 7 | 7 | |
| Tongue River | 13 | 13 | |
| Tulalip | 22 | 12 | 10 |
| Umatilla | 4 | 4 | |
| Warm Springs | 7 | 7 | |
| Western Navajo | 3 | 3 | |
| Winnebago | 10 | 7 | 3 |
| Yakima | 11 | 11 | |
| Zuni | 5 | 5 | |
| Scattered families | 20 | 15 | 5 |
---
### Table 2.—Number of homes of various sizes, classified according to the number of occupants
| Number of persons in household | Total | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 or more |
|--------------------------------|-------|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|-----------|
| | 366 | 97| 98| 83| 40| 19| 14| 8 | 7 |
| 1 | 13 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ..| ..| .. |
| 2 | 49 | 13| 13| 10| 7 | ..| 2 | 3 | 1 |
| 3 | 49 | 9 | 19| 10| 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
| 4 | 57 | 14| 15| 10| 10| 3 | 3 | 1 | |
| 5 | 56 | 16| 15| 12| 7 | 4 | 2 | ..| |
| 6 | 48 | 12| 12| 18| 4 | 1 | 1 | ..| |
| 7 | 36 | 10| 5 | 10| 4 | 4 | 3 | ..| |
| 8 | 17 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | ..| ..| 1 | 2 |
| 9 | 17 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 | ..| 1 | 1 |
| 10 | 13 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 1 | ..| 1 | 1 | .. |
| 11 or more | 11 | 2 | 3 | 3 | ..| 3 | ..| ..| |
---
* Only homes visited for which both number of rooms and number of members of the household were secured are included in this table.
b A household occupying two wickiups is enumerated as having two rooms. A tent or tepee alongside a house is counted an extra room if occupied by the household. Arbors are not considered rooms.
---
* This table includes only family visits made by Mr. Cloud, Dr. Dale, Dr. Edwards, Miss Mark, and Mr. Merriam which are recorded in their field notes in some detail. Many other homes were visited where it was impracticable to get much information because of absence of members of the family, language difficulties, reticence of the Indians, or limitations of time. The practice was not to attempt to get information from Indians who appeared really ill at ease.
It does not include the farms and homes visited by Dr. Spillman in his study of agriculture on the reservations visited by Dr. Duke in studying the migrated Indians. Dr. Ryan and Dr. McKenzie also visited homes as an incident to their work but these visits are not included here.
### Table 3—Number of homes of each size
| Number of rooms | Homes |
|-----------------|-------|
| | Number | Percent dairigation |
| Total | 366 | 100.0 |
| 1 | 57 | 26.5 |
| 2 | 98 | 26.8 |
| 3 | 83 | 22.6 |
| 4 | 40 | 10.9 |
| 5 | 19 | 5.2 |
| 6 | 14 | 3.8 |
| 7 | 8 | 2.2 |
| 8 | 3 | 0.8 |
| 9 | 1 | 0.3 |
| 10 | 1 | 0.3 |
| 11 | 1 | 0.3 |
| 12 | 1 | 0.3 |
### Table 4—Number of households of each size
| Number persons | Households |
|----------------|------------|
| | Number | Percent distribution |
| Total | 366 | 100.0 |
| 1 | 13 | 3.6 |
| 2 | 49 | 13.4 |
| 3 | 49 | 13.4 |
| 4 | 57 | 15.6 |
| 5 | 56 | 15.3 |
| 6 | 48 | 13.1 |
| 7 | 36 | 9.8 |
| 8 | 17 | 4.6 |
| 9 | 17 | 4.6 |
| 10 | 13 | 3.6 |
| 11 | 7 | 2.0 |
| 12 | 2 | 0.5 |
| 13 | 2 | 0.5 |
### Table 5—Amounts spent for different classes of foods by Apache and Pima families with no other source of food supply but the trader's store*
| Tribe and family number | Amount spent for | Per cent spent for |
|-------------------------|------------------|--------------------|
| | Vegetables and fruits | Milk and cheese | Meat, fish, and eggs | Bread and cereals | Fat, sugar, and food adjuncts | Total | Vegetables and fruits | Milk and cheese | Meat, fish, and eggs | Bread and cereals | Fat, sugar, and food adjuncts | Total |
| San Carlos Apache | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 1 | $2.20 | $ .55 | $8.00 | $8.55 | $6.15 | $24.99 | 8.8 | 32.1 | 34.3 | 24.7 | 100.0 | |
| 2 | $5.00 | $ .55 | $8.35 | $9.00 | $8.05 | $32.65 | 18.1 | 1.7 | 25.6 | 27.4 | 100.0 | |
| 3 | $6.55 | $ .45 | $6.00 | $5.45 | $14.55 | 4.5 | 16.8 | 41.2 | 37.5 | 19.1 | 100.0 | |
| 4 | $1.65 | $ .15 | $9.20 | $4.50 | $3.05 | $19.15 | 8.2 | 48.9 | 23.5 | 19.1 | 100.0 | |
| 5 | $5.55 | $ .25 | $14.55 | $7.05 | $7.05 | $31.45 | 8.1 | 47.3 | 22.2 | 23.2 | 100.0 | |
| 6 | $7.45 | $ .25 | $10.95 | $7.10 | $8.55 | $34.95 | 21.7 | 31.9 | 20.7 | 24.9 | 100.0 | |
| Sacaton Pima | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 1 | $2.11 | $ .67 | $6.10 | $4.35 | $9.05 | $24.55 | 9.4 | 4.3 | 27.1 | 19.3 | 40.0 | |
| 2 | $6.98 | $1.75 | $8.43 | $9.30 | $7.55 | $34.01 | 20.5 | 5.1 | 24.8 | 27.3 | 22.2 | |
| 3 | $5.89 | $1.00 | $8.99 | $5.32 | $12.88 | $34.08 | 17.3 | 2.9 | 26.4 | 37.8 | 100.0 | |
| 4 | $9.20 | $1.55 | $6.50 | $6.82 | $11.50 | $35.57 | 25.9 | 4.4 | 18.3 | 19.4 | 32.3 | |
| Gillette percentage distribution c | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 17.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 17.0 | 12.0 | ... |
| | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | to | to | to | to | to | ... |
* Store accounts were obtained from several merchants in order to get some definite idea of the food consumption of Apaches and Pimas. Each trader was asked to furnish at least one month's account for families who bought only from him and only on credit. This, of course, involves a selection, for some families are too unreliable to be allowed credit, and their buying habits are likely to be poorer than those of the families with accounts. None of these families had gardens or domestic animals. Each trader furnished the account of one family with good living conditions. In each case the accounts, covering a month, were broken down into daily spending. Preferably families consisting of father, mother, and children were selected. Each account covers approximately a month in the fall of 1926.
b Professor Sherman of Columbia University gives the following rules of safety governing expenditures for food: "(1) At least as much should be spent on meat, milk (including cream and cheese, if used) as for meats, poultry and fish, and (2) at least as much should be spent for fruits and vegetables as for meats, poultry, and fish."
c The distribution based upon the experience of Miss Lucy Gillette in her work upon family nutrition problems for the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor.
CHAPTER XII
THE MIGRATED INDIANS
General social and economic forces will inevitably operate to accelerate the migration of Indians from the reservations to industrial communities. For two major reasons the Indian Service should keep well informed regarding the conditions confronted by these migrated Indians. The first reason is that the evidence thus secured will furnish the basis for the modification and development of educational resources, such as schools and the other activities maintained by the government, to fit Indians to meet life in the face of white civilization. The second reason is that the Indian Service can render an invaluable service to migrated Indians in aiding them to become established in and adjusted to their new environment. In the case of reservations possessed of meagre economic resources and opportunities, it may even prove advisable for the government deliberately to adopt a policy looking toward expediting this movement to such industrial communities as afford fullest opportunities for labor and development.
The nature of the activities which the government itself will undertake in aiding the migrated Indians should be determined upon the basis of a thorough study of the facts in each particular situation, because as the present brief survey discloses, conditions are far from uniform. A policy and program applicable to one set of conditions would be entirely inapplicable to a different situation.
The Indians living in camps on the outskirts of Needles, Kingman, Globe, and Miami are obviously just reservation Indians, more or less temporarily industrially employed in these communities. Their needs with respect to the promotion of health and the raising of social and economic conditions are virtually the same as those of their fellows still on the reservation, though the problem of rendering these services is somewhat complicated by their immediate proximity to the white towns. It is eminently desirable that insofar as possible they should participate in the normal life. | 86364fd0-59a3-4242-82b7-6e3a8ace45f1 | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://www.narf.org/nill/documents/merriam/s_meriam_chapter11_part2_family.pdf | 2021-12-09T14:26:02+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964364169.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20211209122503-20211209152503-00416.warc.gz | 954,557,270 | 34,422 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998816 | eng_Latn | 0.999109 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
5215,
10244,
15197,
20049,
24810,
29753,
34433,
39130,
43918,
48742,
53889,
58757,
63594,
68606,
71060,
75890,
80582,
85194,
90001,
94681,
99480,
104257,
109089,
113841,
118526,
123109,
127869,
132637,
137563,
142313,
147140,
149325,
153463,
158088,
... | [
1.578125,
2.03125
] | 2 | 0 |
Dairy Farm Safety: Key Hazards and Solutions
Too often, hazards are discovered or addressed only after a worker is harmed or dies.
Becoming aware of possible hazards is the first step to preventing tragic incidents that can have devastating impacts on workers, farmers, and even the community.
Top 3 Sources for Hazards at Dairy Farms
Every farm is unique but all have hazards associated with cattle handling, manure storage, and machinery and equipment.
Animal Handling
Activities include moving cattle around the farm, feeding and milking cows, and cleaning stalls and beds.
- **Key hazard** for these activities:
- Cows get stressed and can strike, pin or step on workers.
- **Some prevention solutions** are:
- Identify and eliminate (or minimize) as many stressors as feasible. These can vary based on the handling activity, physical surroundings, tameness of the individual cow and other variables.
- Avoid the blind spot; approach slowly so cows can see you and speak calmly. Fresh cows may have a larger flight zone.
- Instead of using prods or touching cows to get them to move forward, backwards or around, learn how to use the “point of balance” technique. See illustration.
A stressed cow may kick, charge, or ram workers who enter its flight zone or blind spot during various work activities.
Image courtesy of Migrant Clinicians Network
- Tell workers about how they can get hurt, what causes stress for cows (e.g. startling noises, sudden contact, etc.) and how to recognize signs of stress. Demonstrate what workers can do to minimize stressors that can make cows nervous and unpredictable.
- Be aware of gates and other escape routes available; wear crush-resistant footwear (steel-toed boots).
Manure Storage
Locations include liquid manure and slurry storage pits, ponds, lagoons or tanks.
- **Key hazards** for these locations:
- Driving a farm vehicle too close to the edges of a manure storage site can cause the vehicle to tip over into the manure.
- Decomposing manure creates a breathing hazard zone in enclosed areas or confined spaces because toxic gases can accumulate and quickly overcome workers and cause them to fall into the manure and suffocate.
- Manure contains bacteria and other pathogens that can make workers sick.
- Damaged or poorly set up ladders can result in tip overs and falls.
- **Some prevention solutions** are:
- Install a fence, concrete “ecology” blocks or other barriers around storage sites and place warning signs to prevent entry.
- Cover manure pits and tanks and post warning signs to keep unauthorized personnel out.
- Train workers about the dangers of manure pits, ponds, lagoons and tanks and instruct them about what they’ll need to do stay safe.
The edges around manure storage sites can appear deceptively solid. Here is one possible solution that can prevent entry. Photo: L&I.
Follow permit-required confined spaces rules if workers need to enter manure storage tanks and other confined spaces to inspect, make repairs, clear blockages or do other tasks.
Wear appropriate PPE to protect against contact with bacteria and other harmful pathogens in animal waste. Wash hands frequently so you don’t spread waste contamination.
**Machinery and Equipment**
Included are skid steers, tractors, power take-off shafts (PTOs), feed mixers, manure spreaders, augers and hay balers.
- Key hazards for these sources:
- Exposed moving mechanical parts like rotating shafts, belts and pulleys, flywheels and gears, chains and sprockets, blades and shear points can catch workers’ hands, feet, hair or clothing and cause life threatening injuries. The risk for harm increases when operating equipment, clearing jams and making adjustments.
- Dangerous movement of machinery due to unexpected start up or release of stored hydraulic, electrical, pressure and other types of energy can hurt workers during inspections, maintenance, cleaning and repairs.
- Rollovers when driving a skid steer or tractor.
- Drivers can fall when getting in and out of a skid steer or tractor.
- Entering spaces in large machinery may expose workers to confined space dangers (e.g., engulfment, amputation, electrocution, suffocation).
- Some prevention solutions are:
- When you buy machines, look for well-designed safety features like covers or guards for dangerous moving parts.
- Keep machine safeguards in place and maintained.
- Safely install covers and other safeguards according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
- Develop and follow lockout/tagout procedures and provide lockout devices (e.g., locks, tags) to prevent unexpected start-up of equipment.
- Train workers on mechanical hazards and safety procedures (including lockout/tagout) for operating machinery, removing jams, cleaning and other tasks.
- Keep clothing and hair secured so it can’t get entangled.
- To reduce risk for skid steer and tractor rollovers, don’t overload the bucket and keep it low. Seat belts and rollover protection systems (ROPS) save lives during rollovers.
- Follow the “3-point contact” rule when getting into a skid steer or tractor. Don’t jump.
- Follow permit-required confined spaces rules if workers need to enter confined spaces to inspect, make repairs, clear blockages or do other tasks.
Visit [www.Lni.wa.gov/DairySafety](http://www.Lni.wa.gov/DairySafety) to find L&I’s Dairy Industry webpage and get more information about hazards and solutions, access to safety rules, sample APPs, videos, training materials and other resources to strengthen your farm’s safety program.
**Strengthen your farm’s safety program!**
Like other employers in Washington State, dairy farms are required to set up and follow a written Accident Prevention Program (APP) that addresses their particular workplace hazards. | 0963cfe0-ad17-44cf-8adc-6e7285e2b44f | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.lni.wa.gov/forms-publications/F417-261-000.pdf | 2022-12-02T17:19:42+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710909.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20221202150823-20221202180823-00318.warc.gz | 926,955,542 | 1,209 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997227 | eng_Latn | 0.997767 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2882,
5810
] | [
2.59375
] | 2 | 1 |
FENCES Context
August Wilson was named Frederick August Kittel when he was born to a German father and an African American mother in 1945. Wilson was born and raised in Pittsburgh, PA. His father drifted in and out of his family. His mother and a stepfather, David Bedford, mostly raised Wilson. When Wilson was sixteen, he was accused of plagiarism at school when he wrote a sophisticated paper that the administration did not believe he could write. When Wilson's principal would not recognize the validity of Wilson's work, she suspended him and later ignored his attempts to come back to school. Wilson soon dropped out and educated himself at the local library, reading everything he could find. In the 1960's, Wilson steeped himself in the black power movement while he worked on his poetry and short stories. Eventually, in the sixties, Wilson reinvented himself as a playwright. His work was nurtured through institutions like the Yale School of Drama, where the Dean of the Drama School at the time, theatre director Lloyd Richards, recognized Wilson's talent. Richards later collaborated with Wilson in New York on Broadway. Fences was Wilson's second play to go to Broadway and won him the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. Wilson won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama again in 1990 for his play The Piano Lesson.
Wilson has taken upon himself the responsibility to write a play about black experiences in the United States for every decade of the 20th century. Only two decades remain, the first years of the century and the 1990's. Fences is his play about blacks in the 1950's. Beginning in 1957, between the Korean and Vietnam wars, Fences ends in 1965, but the themes of the play directly place its consciousness in a pre-civil-rights-movement, pre-Vietnam-war-era psyche. Fences takes place in a still latent time. Like the popular Sam Cooke song of the day proclaims, "A Change is Gonna Come," but not quite yet.
In Fences as in Wilson's other plays, a tragic character helps pave the way for other blacks to have opportunities under conditions they were never free to experience, but never reap from their own sacrifice and talents themselves. This is Troy Maxson's situation. Troy's last name, "Maxson," is a compressed reference to the Mason-Dixon line, considered as the imaginary line originally conceived of in 1820 to define the separation between the slave states and the free states. Maxson represents an amalgamation of Troy's history in the south and present life in the north that are inextricably linked.
Wilson purposefully sets the play during the season Hank Aaron led the Milwaukee Braves to the World Series, beating the New York Giants. When Fences takes place, blacks like Aaron proved they could not only compete with white ballplayers, but that they would be leaders in the professional league. Since we can look back on history with
20/20 hindsight, Wilson asks his audience to put together what they know of American history with the way his various characters experience and perceive history through their own, often conflicted eyes.
All of Wilson’s plays take place in his hometown of Pittsburgh, and Fences is no exception. The Pittsburgh of the Maxson family is a town where Troy and other men of his generation fled from the savage conditions of sharecropping in the south. After Reconstruction failed, many blacks walked north as far as they could go to become urban citizens. Having no resources or infrastructure to depend on, men like Bono and Troy found their way in the world by spending years living in shacks, stealing, and in jail. Wilson clearly draws a linear link between the release of the slaves to the disproportionate number of black men in our jails and in low-income occupations by arguing that the majority of a homeless, resource-less group let loose into a competitive and financed society will have a hard time surviving lawfully. Wilson’s characters testify to the fact that the United States failed blacks after Lincoln abolished slavery and that the government’s failure, made effective legally through Jim Crow laws and other lawful measures to ensure inequality, continues to effect many black lives. Wilson portrays the 1950s as a time when a new world of opportunity for blacks began to open up, leaving those like Troy, who grew up in the first half of the century, to feel like a stranger in their own land. | e56a3d5a-9804-417d-9585-f33f83f8bda6 | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.jagproductionsvt.com/_files/ugd/1a03d2_94d0734cbee5472d98e2289c60ae7e5d.pdf | 2022-07-03T09:13:49+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104215805.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20220703073750-20220703103750-00620.warc.gz | 875,220,281 | 892 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998242 | eng_Latn | 0.998592 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
2869,
4383
] | [
2.515625
] | 1 | 0 |
Questions to consider when beginning a farmer led watershed group
What is your issue of concern? What do you need to focus on?
⇒ How are farms in your region of the state impacting water quality (surface waters and/or groundwater)?
⇒ What are the current farming practices that need additional understanding or evaluation?
Answering these questions allows your group to form a project that has the potential for results that are very usable and interesting to area farmers. These questions need to be answered by the larger group of farmers to serve the greatest good possible.
Possible issues of concern
- Excess phosphorus in surface water contributing to algae blooms or degraded water quality in streams or lakes
- Excessive soil erosion within fields and/or delivering sediment to streams and/or waters of the state.
- Concerns about groundwater quality or quantity that are driven by regional farming practices
Possible topics to focus on
- Soil conservation and erosion
- Building soil health
- Refining nitrogen application timing and/or nitrogen application rate
- Surface application of manure (timing or placement)
- Appropriate nutrient crediting from all sources, etc.
Is there enough farmer interest?
To begin a watershed project that is led and accepted by farmers, a group of interested farmers needs to be engaged and informed enough to make decisions about the activities and goals of the group. This key group of farmers needs to be established before any other decisions can be made. Establishing farmer leaders and decision makers means that any data collected is used appropriately and trusted. It is ideal to have 5-12 farmers willing to serve together as the board of directors, while participants in the project can double or triple the amount of farmer leaders.
How will you connect to and communicate with other established farmer led groups?
It is not about carbon copying what has already been done, but learning from past experience to shape your own group. Consider whether partnering with an established group could be helpful while building your program. Established groups could connect you with existing materials like newsletter articles, mailing lists or field day resources. Connecting with experienced participants from these groups offers an opportunity for communication across projects. This exchange of information could augment your efforts in the early years and can quickly increase the effectiveness of a new watershed group. Feed off of what others have done to kick start your program, but carefully forming your own group’s personality is critical to success.
Do you need monitoring? What assessments are available?
Wisconsin is in a very advantageous position regarding on-farm research and water quality research. There are a variety of sources to tap into before investing money or time into additional monitoring.
⇒ Is there any existing monitoring data for your area or a similar landscape?
⇒ Are there assessments that could be conducted to augment the existing data and build local knowledge?
The UW Discovery Farms® Program has a large dataset of surface water runoff information. Chances are these data are a great starting point for understanding runoff dynamics of phosphorus and sediment and addressing the issues your group defines. Utilize the existing sources of information to make decisions about what needs to be added. This will save your group time and money.
If you do decide to collect data or do any monitoring as part of your project, make sure you set a clear standard at the beginning for data sharing and privacy expectations. It is important to walk a fine line between appropriate privacy needs and sharing information that is helpful to other farmers and water quality protection in general.
Monitoring and assessment options
- In-stream grab sampling using WisCALM methodology to assess stream and lake water quality
- Assessments of nitrogen use
- Manure and legume crediting
- Measurements of residue cover
- Visual soil loss assessment (walkovers): a good way to identify issues and gain information about management suggestions.
Useful links:
- WisCALM methodology for grab sampling
- UW Discovery Farms Nitrogen Use Efficiency Project
- Yahara Pride Farms
- Grants for Producer Led Watershed Protection Projects
How much time do you (as the farmer leadership of the group) plan to invest in the group?
Leaders of currently active watershed groups in Wisconsin have invested a tremendous amount of time into the success of their groups. Success is measured by implementation, participation, and positive changes in water quality. Being realistic about the amount of time and leadership your group’s goals will require is critical to success. Not all watershed groups will be of the same scale, and the real strength is in being able to make the choice of which scale is right for your group at this time.
Elements to consider including in your watershed group:
Agribusiness sponsorship opportunities – Would companies that you do business with be interested in offering incentives to area participants? Do they have services to offer that could be used as match or in-kind support?
Formalizing the organization – is that necessary or desired? Some already established groups have taken extra steps to formalize (e.g., form into a non-profit organization or similar). Groups should determine their own goals, scale, and level of formality, and expect that to change over time.
Educational opportunities – As the group is starting, think about using meetings as a way to learn what others are doing or what we have information on in the state. Using project collaborators as a starting point, these educational meetings can fuel the decisions on what the next steps for the group should be.
Linking up with established groups – There are great farmer resources in Wisconsin that have been ‘working out the kinks’ of forming a watershed group for several years. Consider learning what other groups have to offer. All farmer participants in watershed groups already have full time jobs farming. How can groups work together to grow the success of the effort without increasing the time commitment to an unsustainable level?
Planning to apply for funding through the Producer Led Watershed Grant Program?
If so, make sure your group meets the application requirements. Producer led groups must meet a certain set of criteria to be eligible for this state-funded program. Eligibility criteria are established for participation, collaboration and budgeting. Be sure to visit the DATCP webpage for more details.
How will you use the state funding if your proposal is accepted?
A farmer led organization is not defined by whether you get a state grant or not. There are currently several existing farmer led groups that have a wide range of funding structures and program elements. Things that funding from the Producer Led Watershed Protection Grants can be most helpful with include: administrative costs like printing, postage, data storage fees, hosting events, staff time, data organization, and honorariums for participants intended to offset cost of practices. The Producer Led Watershed Protection Grant is not ideal for funding monitoring, paying for performance or providing funds for implementation of practices. Other sources of funds including outside sponsorship and/or cost share programs are more appropriate for those efforts. | 4ba1b03f-f10e-4c14-be73-0dccf10d6f3f | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://datcp.wi.gov/Documents/DiscoveryFarmsQuestions.pdf | 2022-12-01T11:08:35+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710808.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20221201085558-20221201115558-00266.warc.gz | 235,567,072 | 1,360 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99787 | eng_Latn | 0.998169 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1796,
4318,
7451
] | [
2.125
] | 1 | 0 |
The 1970s saw the emergence of the first major tourist industry in the region, centered around the Blue Grotto. The grotto is a natural rock formation with a small opening that allows sunlight to filter through and illuminate the water inside, creating a stunning blue hue. This unique feature has made the Blue Grotto one of the most popular tourist attractions in the Mediterranean.
In recent years, the Blue Grotto has become even more accessible due to the construction of a new road that connects the town of Sliema to the grotto. This has allowed for easier access to the site, making it possible for more people to experience the beauty of the Blue Grotto firsthand.
The port of Haifa, 1936. (Photo: GPO)
The construction of the dam began in 1905 and was completed in 1913. The dam is 264 feet high and 1,800 feet long, and it has a capacity of 1.5 million acre-feet of water. The dam is made of concrete and is located on the Colorado River, just upstream from the city of Los Angeles. The dam is owned and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.
معرق
Kadınlar Seçimde...
214
The construction of the first steamboat, the *Columbia*, was a significant event in the history of the Columbia River. The *Columbia* was built by Captain John McLoughlin and his crew at Fort Vancouver in 1836. It was the first steamboat to navigate the Columbia River and played a crucial role in the development of the region. The *Columbia* was powered by a steam engine and could travel up to 10 miles per hour. It was used to transport goods and people between Fort Vancouver and the Pacific Ocean. The *Columbia* was also used to explore the river and its tributaries, providing valuable information about the geography and resources of the area. The *Columbia* was eventually sold to the Hudson's Bay Company and continued to be used for transportation until it was replaced by more modern steamboats in the mid-19th century.
The U.S. Navy's submarine base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in 1940.
KOZLU
TÜRK KÖMÜR MADENLERİ AŞ.
The power plant at the foot of the mountain, with corn fields in the foreground.
The town of Vranje in 1900.
The port of Genoa, Italy, in 1930.
The first tunnel boring machine in the world, built by the German company Hochtief, was used to dig the tunnel under the Vardar River in Skopje, North Macedonia. The tunnel was completed in 1928 and is still in use today.
The construction of the first station building in 1890.
الساحل الشرقي
The street scene shows a row of multi-story buildings with balconies and awnings, typical of urban architecture. There is a tram track running down the middle of the street, indicating the presence of a tram system. A few people can be seen walking on the sidewalk, and there is a car parked on the left side of the street. The overall atmosphere suggests a busy city environment.
نفویان
Port de Zongouldak.
Salut d'Zongouldak.
F. Hirsch & Compagnie, Imprimeurs, Libraires, Dépositaires des Tables, Photographes du gouvernement turc.
Société Ottomane d'Héraclée. L'Entrée du Tcharchi (Marché) de Zoungouldak.
Construction workers at work in a tunnel.
The tunnel entrance, with a horse and rider in front.
The terrace of the Café de la Paix in 1930s.
The photograph shows a group of people standing on each other's shoulders, forming a human pyramid. The crowd around them appears to be watching the event.
The British Naval Base at Gibraltar, 1940.
The image depicts a group of people dressed in traditional attire, likely from a Middle Eastern or North African culture. The men are wearing ornate robes and turbans, while the women are adorned in long, flowing dresses with intricate patterns. The setting appears to be indoors, possibly a home or a cultural event, given the formal nature of their clothing and the presence of what seems to be a portrait on the wall in the background. The overall atmosphere suggests a celebration or a special occasion where traditional dress is being worn.
Fishing boats in the sea.
A fishing boat is seen in the Black Sea, Turkey, on March 10, 2014. (AFP Photo)
FAHRKAISSER
AVOLAS
A fishing boat with a large net in the water.
A fishing boat with a large net attached to it, floating on calm water.
B L ZONGULDAK
Fishing industry
Fishing nets are pulled in by fishermen on a boat.
The fishing industry is a significant part of Norway's economy, contributing to the country's wealth and providing employment for many people. The industry is regulated by the government to ensure sustainable practices and protect the environment.
The fishing industry is a major contributor to the economy, providing jobs and food for millions of people worldwide. However, it also has a significant impact on the environment, particularly through overfishing and bycatch.
Overfishing occurs when too many fish are caught, leading to a decline in fish populations and a disruption of marine ecosystems. This can have far-reaching consequences, including the loss of biodiversity and the collapse of entire fisheries.
Bycatch refers to the unintended capture of non-target species during fishing operations. This can result in the death or injury of these animals, which can have negative impacts on their populations and the overall health of marine ecosystems.
To address these issues, many countries have implemented regulations and management strategies aimed at sustainable fishing practices. These include quotas, closed seasons, and size limits on catch, as well as efforts to reduce bycatch through the use of selective fishing gear and other measures.
Despite these efforts, overfishing and bycatch remain significant challenges facing the global fishing industry. Continued research and innovation are needed to develop more effective management tools and practices that can help ensure the long-term sustainability of our oceans and the resources they provide.
The crew of the fishing vessel "Kamchatka" on board the Russian research vessel "Vityaz". The "Kamchatka" was seized by the "Vityaz" in the Sea of Okhotsk, 1987.
A hand holding a metal object, possibly a tool or piece of machinery, with dirt on the fingers.
The film "The Wages of Fear" (1953) is a classic example of a film that explores themes of survival and the human spirit in extreme conditions. The story follows four men who are hired to transport a dangerous chemical through a treacherous mountain pass, facing numerous obstacles and challenges along the way. The film's intense atmosphere and the characters' determination to complete their mission despite the odds make it a powerful depiction of human resilience.
Another notable film that delves into similar themes is "The Wild Bunch" (1969), directed by Sam Peckinpah. This Western epic tells the story of a group of outlaws who are forced to rob a train to pay off debts and survive. The film's gritty realism and the characters' struggle to maintain their honor amidst the chaos of their world create a compelling narrative about the human condition.
Both films use their respective settings and narratives to explore the complexities of survival, the impact of external forces on individuals, and the moral dilemmas faced by those who must make difficult choices to stay alive. Through their cinematic techniques and storytelling, these films offer profound insights into the human experience and the challenges we face in life.
A young boy in a blue and yellow sweater looks at the camera with a serious expression. He is holding onto a person's arm, which is wearing a gray jacket. The background is dark and out of focus.
The miners' strike of 1984-85 was a major event in British industrial relations, lasting for over a year and involving millions of workers. It was a bitter struggle between the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) and the Conservative government led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The strike was a response to the government's plans to close many coal mines and privatize the industry. The miners, who had been on strike since November 1984, faced severe hardship and eventually lost their jobs when the pits were closed. The strike ended in March 1985 with the NUM accepting the government's terms.
The miners' strike in 1980 was a significant event that marked the end of the era of coal mining in Poland. The strike, which lasted for several months, was a response to the government's decision to reduce wages and increase working hours. The miners, who had been working in difficult conditions for years, refused to accept these changes and went on strike.
The strike was met with strong opposition from the government, which sent in the army to break up the protests. However, the miners remained determined and continued their strike, eventually winning concessions from the government. The strike was a turning point in Polish history, as it marked the beginning of the end of the communist regime and the start of a new era of democracy.
In conclusion, the miners' strike in 1980 was a pivotal event that had a lasting impact on Polish society. It not only ended the era of coal mining but also paved the way for the country's transition to a democratic system. The strike was a testament to the power of the people and their ability to stand up for what they believe in.
The men of the 10th Mountain Division, who had been fighting in the Italian Alps for months, were given a rare treat: a Christmas dinner. The meal was served at night, and the soldiers were illuminated by the glow of their headlamps. The food was simple but delicious, and the atmosphere was festive. The men were grateful to be able to share a meal with their fellow soldiers, and they enjoyed the company of each other. It was a special moment that they would never forget.
The coastline of the Black Sea in Georgia, with its lush greenery and scenic views, is a beautiful sight to behold.
The beach is located in the town of Hendaye, which is situated on the border between France and Spain. The beach is known for its white sand and clear waters, making it a popular destination for tourists and locals alike. The town of Hendaye is also home to a number of historical landmarks, including the Fort of Saint Nicholas and the Church of Notre-Dame-de-la-Plage. The beach is easily accessible by car or public transportation, and there are several restaurants and shops nearby that offer a variety of food and drinks. Overall, the beach is a great place to relax and enjoy the beautiful scenery of the Basque Country.
A rustic wooden house with a tiled roof, featuring a window with a yellow frame. The window sill is adorned with potted plants and red chili peppers hanging to dry. A small cross hangs on the wall next to the window.
MAŞALLAH
CAN KARDEŞLER
BALIKÇILIK 3
Two men sit on chairs, one repairing a fishing net while the other watches.
Sunset at the beach in Montenegro.
The port of Samsun, Turkey, is a bustling hub for maritime activity. The image shows a variety of boats, including fishing vessels and yachts, docked at the pier. In the background, industrial structures and cranes can be seen, indicating the port's role in trade and commerce. The calm waters reflect the boats and the surrounding landscape, creating a serene yet industrious atmosphere.
The image shows a body of water with several boats in the foreground, some of which have Turkish flags. In the background, there is an industrial area with tall chimneys emitting smoke or steam. The landscape includes hills and mountains, suggesting a coastal or riverside setting. The overall scene appears to be a mix of natural and industrial elements.
ALPER
ALIMLI
NECATİ
AYTEK
The fishing port of Çanakkale, Turkey.
Fishing at sunset
Lütfi Eroğlu
The city of Trieste is located in northeastern Italy, on the Adriatic Sea. It is known for its rich history and cultural heritage, with a mix of Italian, Austrian, and Slovenian influences. The city is famous for its beautiful architecture, including the iconic Piazza Unità d'Italia and the stunning Palazzo delle Esposizioni. Trieste is also home to the University of Trieste, which has a strong reputation in the fields of science and technology. The city's location on the coast makes it a popular tourist destination, with many visitors coming to enjoy the beautiful beaches and the stunning views of the surrounding mountains.
Fishing boats in the port of Çanakkale, Turkey.
The river is lined with trees and there are cranes in the background.
The Port of Cienfuegos is a major port in Cuba, located on the southern coast of the island. It is one of the largest ports in the Caribbean and serves as an important hub for trade and transportation. The port handles a variety of goods, including sugar, coffee, tobacco, and other agricultural products. It also supports the fishing industry and has facilities for shipbuilding and repair. The port is connected to the national road network and has a significant impact on the local economy.
Amasra is a small town in Turkey, located on the coast of the Black Sea. It is known for its picturesque setting and historical significance. The town is situated on a peninsula surrounded by the sea, with a castle and a mosque standing prominently on the hilltop. Amasra is a popular tourist destination, offering visitors a glimpse into the rich history and culture of the region. The town's narrow streets and colorful houses add to its charm, making it a must-visit destination for anyone traveling through Turkey.
HOTEL
TEL: 0312-456789
FAX: 0312-456789
E-MAIL: email@example.com
A crane and a bird in flight over a dock at sunset.
The town of Kavala is located on the coast of the Aegean Sea, in the north-eastern part of Greece. It is situated at the mouth of the river Strymonas and is surrounded by mountains. The city has a rich history and is known for its beautiful beaches and cliffs.
The Canal du Midi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major tourist attraction in France. It was built in the 17th century to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, facilitating trade and transportation between the two regions. The canal passes through several picturesque towns and villages, offering visitors a chance to explore the rich history and culture of southern France. Today, it remains an important waterway for both commercial shipping and recreational boating, while also serving as a popular destination for hikers, cyclists, and nature enthusiasts.
KIRMOĞULLARI
Fishing boat at sunset, Lake Victoria, Uganda.
A woman walks along a dirt path, carrying a large woven basket on her back and a plastic bag in her hand. She is dressed in traditional clothing, including a patterned skirt and a headscarf. The path is surrounded by lush greenery, indicating a rural or countryside setting.
The image shows a serene coastal scene with a body of water surrounded by lush greenery and hills. There are a few buildings visible near the water's edge, and a small boat can be seen on the water. The foreground is filled with dense trees, partially obscuring the view of the water and the buildings. The overall atmosphere appears calm and natural.
A view of the beach and town from above, with lush greenery surrounding the area.
The ruins of the ancient city of Carthage, Tunisia, at night.
The image shows two silhouetted figures sitting on a boat at night, with a pinkish-purple hue dominating the scene. The water reflects the light from the sky, creating a serene and mysterious atmosphere.
The sun is setting over the ocean, casting a warm glow across the sky and reflecting off the water's surface.
The sun is setting behind clouds, casting a warm orange glow across the sky.
Sunset over the sea.
The dog's paw is holding a metal object, possibly a tool or a piece of equipment. The paw appears to be dirty and has some wear and tear on it. | c8e51f4d-cfa9-473e-8ba6-0f24ef2dddf8 | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.klimik.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Dia%20Gosterisi%20Zonguldak.pdf | 2022-08-14T14:55:26+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572043.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20220814143522-20220814173522-00143.warc.gz | 747,462,483 | 3,626 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.951963 | eng_Latn | 0.998829 | [
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"fra_Latn",
"fra_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown... | true | rolmOCR | [
674,
713,
1076,
1082,
1103,
1108,
1942,
2008,
2040,
2122,
2151,
2187,
2410,
2467,
2482,
2864,
2872,
3021,
3097,
3140,
3195,
3241,
3398,
3442,
3989,
4016,
4097,
4118,
4165,
4238,
4253,
4271,
4323,
4572,
5901,
6064,
6161,
7404,
7601,
8207,
... | [
2.578125
] | 1 | 0 |
We have prepared this booklet for you for one reason: for you to enter your teaching day ready to face whatever happens, relaxed and responsive. You are busy; a person with a full life. We have tried to show that all of our best lessons come from our own engagement with the world. When we use our notebooks, trust the moment and rely on the great resources that exist, teaching can become more meaningful for our students and more enjoyable for us.
We are very aware that this is a work in progress. Sometimes “form” can be important. There is a teacher that insists on typed lessons with “excellent grade copying”, but has a dismal retention rate. You can have both, but probably not both and time to go fishing or watch sunsets. We like sunsets and therefore maybe our fonts don’t always match and sometimes you can’t distinguish which of us is telling the story, but that’s OK. Teaching with your heart (just like life) is NOT NEAT.
We have put this in a notebook form so that you can add pages. We want to hear from you. We want to know what you like about the booklet and used. We want to know if something inspired you, what you had questions about and what you disagreed with.
We wish you well!
Donna McAdam
742-1030
email@example.com
Carolyn Hutton
743-5810
firstname.lastname@example.org
“I think all the time. I only work when I have to.”
Donna McAdam
ASSIGNMENT # 1: TAKE THIS NOTEBOOK WITH YOU EVERYWHERE YOU GO!
1. Read this:
Dear Adult Ed teacher,
This is your notebook. Write in it, draw in it, spill coffee on it—by the time you finish, it will be your own. In this notebook we will tell you some stories, offer some tips we have learned and some mentors we have learned from, and prompt you with some ideas; and we will give you a lot of “assignments” that involve thinking, writing, and doing some activities. But our hope is that by the time you have done these assignments, this will be your book full of your own thoughts and ideas about teaching. And we hope that you will have developed the life-long habit of carrying a notebook around to catch ideas with. If you ever took freshman English at UNH and studied with Don Murray or read Nancy Atwell’s *In the Middle* or Natalie Goldberg’s *Writing Down the Bones* or Ralph Fletcher’s books on getting kids to write, you are probably familiar with the “writing notebook” concept where a writer takes a notebook with her all day long so that things she reads and thinks about and observes through the day go in the notebook and that is her material for poems and stories. We are carrying that concept over to keeping a *teaching notebook* which serves a very similar function. A good teacher is always thinking in some part of his brain about teaching.; is always on the look-out for interesting material—so he reads flyers, talks to strangers, eavesdrops on conversations, tries strange foods—and this notebook is a kind of net to catch these experiences in. And absolutely everything can go in this notebook—notes from your personal life such as grocery lists and babysitting numbers can belong too, for a point we would like to make is that there is no separation between your life as a teacher and a regular person and the closer you can align your two lives the better your teaching will be (It is possible that one of your students could use those phone numbers) And an advantage to carrying around a notebook like this instead of one of those day timer type planners? Notebook paper is cheap and you can design your pages however you like. But above all, keeping a notebook is about being aware.. It is “mindfulness” applied to teaching. So, take some time to read through the assignments, try them, and have fun!
“Nothing is uninteresting if only you look at it long enough.”
Sarah Orne Jewett
ASSIGNMENT # 2: GATHER YOUR TOOLS!
- this notebook
- pen or pencil
- calendar
- $ for coffee and a tip so you can sit in a cafe and write
- library card
- something to read
This is all you ever really need for your “teaching notebook” adventures (and for life for that matter) Always have these.
BUT IF YOU FORGET, AT LEAST HAVE A PENCIL! YOU CAN WRITE ON PLACEMATS AND GROCERY RECEIPTS IF YOU MUST.
I hope to notice everything before I die.
Mary Oliver (White Pines)
Assignment # 3
Now what?? Illustrate the inserts in this notebook.
Even if you feel like you are in 3rd grade, do it anyway. Go sit in your favorite spot inside or outside and draw on the blank dividers in this book. Do anything you like, but make it yours. And as you illustrate, let yourself remember what it was like to be in school when the teacher asked you to do something creative. Did it scare you? Annoy you? Excite you? Did you want more direction? Did you overflow with ideas? This assignment is the beginning of asking you to think like a student. It makes a big difference in your teaching to think about your own learning history.
Assignment # 4
Think about what makes a “fun day” for you. A Red Sox game? A day at the beach? Climbing a mountain? Gardening? Reading a novel? Look at your calendar and decide on a good time to have this day and when you do it, TAKE THIS NOTEBOOK.
Plan ____________________________________________________________
Date _____________________________________________________________
General rule that Carolyn and Donna agree upon: If you have to choose between staying home and preparing for class or going to the beach...
GO TO THE BEACH!!!
But! While you are at the beach, use this notebook. Observe the tracks a sea snail makes. Draw them. Ask questions. Why does this snail go in the direction he goes (or she?) Why do some of them make straight lines and some walk in circles and some make loopy patterns? Why do they set out at all? (Remember the boy in E.B. White’s The Trumpet of the Swan who always ends his journal every night with a question?) Ask questions about tide and wavelength. Watch people watching people. Collect some shells, write a poem or just write down all the sea words you can think of.
And when you get home, just like you did when you were a kid with a pocket full of shells, look at what you have and sort it. Decide what you might do with it. Think about your class. Who are they? What are they learning? What are their capabilities?
Assignment # 5 And then, but only then go to the Internet. Use it to find out some data you didn’t know on wavelength or sea grasses or to look up a trolley schedule for going to the beach or to find a sea poem or a grammar worksheet. USE THE INTERNET ONLY TO SUPPLEMENT AND ENHANCE REAL LIFE EXPERIENCE. YOUR BEST TEACHING SELDOM COMES FROM THE COMPUTER SCREEN!
Thinking circles are a way of organizing your thoughts and providing meaningful order for your teaching. We often teach our students how to use this mapping model when they are working on their GED essay.
Here is how Donna might take her morning at the beach and turn it into lesson ideas.
In the four minutes it took to do this she generated four tentative lesson plans:
1. Math: the breakfast menu (per cent and ratio)
2. Tide lesson for science test
3. Writing assignments
4. Map work
There are LOADS of other ways to use mapping or as we like to call it “thinking in shapes”. One day, while waiting at the coffee shop, thinking about this very concept, Donna realized that she was planning her whole day using the thinking circles. Would this kind of mapping help your students in the organization of their days or in the visualization of their goals?
An overnight at the beach:
The Lighthouse Inn at Pine Point
Come Join Us In...
A unique natural setting on one of the most beautiful beaches in the world... away from noise and traffic... yet just a few minutes away from Old Orchard Beach and Portland, Maine's largest city... with churches, golfing, tennis, theaters, sailing, horse racing and fishing nearby.
Reservations: 1-800-780-3213
(207) 883-3213
366 Pine Point Road
Scarborough, Maine 04074
www.lighthouseinnatpinepoint.com
Check In - 2:00 p.m.
Check Out - 10:00 a.m.
| Rate Schedule | PER DAY - Double Occupancy |
|---------------|---------------------------|
| May 15 to July 1 | $75 to $135 |
| July 1 to Labor Day | $125 to $225 |
| Labor Day to Oct. 15 | $75 to $150 |
| Per Additional Person | $15 |
BREAKFAST MENU
Ham, Bacon or Sausage, Egg & Cheese
on an English Muffin 2.75
on a Bagel add .95
2 Eggs, Sausage & Toast 3.25
Hashbrowns add .95
Bagel Toasted w/Butter 1.25
Cream Cheese add .50
Omelet w/Cheese 3.50
add toppings each .50
Breakfast Burrito - Scrambled eggs & Cheese wrapped in a Tortilla & Toasted 3.50
add toppings each .50
French Toast (3) w/Bacon (3) 4.50
Breakfast Pizza - Mozzarella, Provolone & Cheddar Cheeses, Ham, Sausage & Bacon
Slice 1.99 16" Pie 14.99
Hot Tea or Coffee 1.50
Hot Chocolate 1.75
We serve Green Mountain Coffee
The next morning you treat everyone to breakfast
1. Pick the 3 meals
2. Figure the cost. Don't forget tax and 20% tip
Your favorite aunt has invited you and a friend to spend the night here August 15 in the most luxurious room.
Maine has a 7% room + meals tax. Show work for how much the night costs.
WRITING ASSIGNMENT
“Lessons from the Beach”
Choose one of the topics below. Using the mapping circle, spend a few minutes organizing your thoughts. Write one full page introduced with a clear topic sentence and ending with a concluding paragraph. Have fun!
• The ocean can be a source of beauty and relaxation, but the ocean can be a force of destruction. Write about the ways you know that both of these statements can be true.
• Describe a perfect day at the ocean – start to finish.
• Have you ever built the perfect sand castle and then watched the ocean claim it? Describe the process and your feelings.
• There is a saying that “Tide and time wait for no man.” (This has been attributed to Mark Twain but its source is really unknown). What does this saying mean? Can you think of some examples to illustrate your opinion.
On the next few pages are some mapping of lessons. The part that is risky in the “teaching in shapes” concept is that when you begin, the circles or squares are blank and thus it becomes up to you to fill them with the words which will lead to action. Sometimes the mapping is very simple and concrete. Other times it may be filled with daydreams or the heart’s desire.
After you have looked at some of the examples, pick a project or a lesson idea, a blank page of shapes and begin to fill it in with your ideas. One idea will flow to another and before seven minutes have passed...a lesson plan has materialized.
A TRAIN and/or BUS SCHEDULE
VOCABULARY: MAKE A LIST OF BUS AND TRAIN WORDS
USE AS BASIS FOR TIME ZONE DISCUSSIONS
Compare Train, Bus, Plane prices and time requirements
PLAN A TRIP
FIND THE STOPS ON A MAP
PRACTICE READING SCHEDULE AS PREP FOR QED Science and social studies charts
DO A MATH LESSON ON FARES AND DISCOUNTS
Teachers: what are "jumping off points" from here? (Maps? website? phone book? on trip?)
**DOWNEASTER SCHEDULE**
### Southbound Departures
| Train # Days Run | 680 Daily | 682 Daily | 684 Daily | 686 M-F | 688 Sa-Su |
|------------------|-----------|-----------|-----------|---------|-----------|
| **DEPARTS** | | | | | |
| PORTLAND, ME | 6:10a | 8:50a | 2:00p | 4:05p | 6:35p |
| Old Orchard Beach, ME | REGULAR SERVICE RESUMES MAY 1, 2005 |
| Saco/Biddeford, ME | 6:33a | 9:13a | 2:25p | 4:28p | 6:58p |
| Wells, ME | 6:51a | 9:31a | 2:43p | 4:46p | 7:16p |
| Dover, NH | 7:11a | 9:51a | 3:06p | 5:06p | 7:36p |
| Durham-UNH | 7:20a | 10:00a | 3:15p | 5:15p | 7:45p |
| Exeter, NH | 7:33a | 10:13a | 3:28p | 5:28p | 7:58p |
| Haverhill, MA | 7:56a | 10:36a | 3:51p | 5:51p | 8:21p |
| Woburn/Anderson | 8:27a | 11:07 | 4:22p | 6:22p | 8:52p |
| **ARRIVES** | | | | | |
| Boston North Station | 8:50a | 11:30a | 4:45p | 6:45p | 9:15p |
For complete schedule information visit www.AmtrakDowneaster.com
### Northbound Departures
| Train # Days Run | 681 Daily | 683 Daily | 685 M-F | 689 Sa-Su | 687 Daily |
|------------------|-----------|-----------|---------|-----------|-----------|
| **DEPARTS** | | | | | |
| BOSTON North Station | 9:45a | 12:00n | 6:15p | 6:35p | 10:20p |
| Woburn/Anderson | 10:07a | 12:22p | 6:37p | 6:57p | 10:42p |
| Haverhill, MA | 10:38a | 12:53p | 7:08p | 7:27p | 11:13p |
| Exeter, NH | 11:00a | 1:15p | 7:30p | 7:49p | 11:35p |
| Durham-UNH | 11:13a | 1:28p | 7:43p | 8:02p | 11:48p |
| Dover, NH | 11:24a | 1:39p | 7:54p | 8:13p | 11:59p |
| Wells, ME | 11:43a | 1:58p | 8:13p | 8:32p | 12:18a |
| Saco/Biddeford, ME | 12:00n | 2:16p | 8:30p | 8:49p | 12:35a |
| Old Orchard Beach, ME | REGULAR SERVICE RESUMES MAY 1, 2005 |
| **ARRIVES** | | | | | |
| Portland, ME | 12:25p | 2:45p | 8:55p | 9:15p | 1:00a |
For complete schedule information visit www.AmtrakDowneaster.com
### STATION INFORMATION
| STATION | TICKETING | TRANSPORTATION |
|--------------------------|------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| PORTLAND, ME | Amtrak agent & QuikTrak | Portland Explorer 207-774-8991 METRO Bus 207-774-0351 Concord Trailways 1-800-USA-RAIL www.transportme.org |
| OLD ORCHARD BEACH, ME | | REGULAR SERVICE RESUMES MAY 1, 2005 |
| SACO, ME | Boarding passengers may purchase tickets from conductor | Twin City Taxi: 207-284-7911, Alternative Taxi: 207-284-0269 |
| WELLS, ME | Quik Trak in station | Summer trolley 207-646-2451. Taxi service on call. |
| DOVER, NH | Quik Trak in station | CJ Trailways 603-358-7111 www.cjtrailways.com |
| DURHAM-UNH | Quik Trak in Whittemore Center | Wildcat Transit 603-862-2328 www.unh.edu/parking |
| EXETER, NH | Quik Trak in Gerry's Variety adjacent to platform | Coast Bus 603-743-5777 www.coastbus.org |
| HAVERHILL, MA | Boarding passenger may purchase tickets from conductor | MBTA Commuter Rail www.mbta.com |
| WOBURN, MA | Quik Trak near Logan Express office | MBTA Commuter Rail www.mbta.com Shuttle bus www.128b.com |
| BOSTON NORTH STATION, MA | Ticket agent & Quik Trak | MBTA Commuter Rail Subway Green & Orange Line www.mbta.com |
Fares and schedules subject to change without notice.
Some questions:
* Mary, a UNH student, wants to meet her friend at North Station for an 8pm concert. What are her train options?
* How long are you on the train from Dover to Portland?
* Each student make up one question for the class.
Using Postcards
- Tell a story about your postcard
- Write political leaders on hot issues
- Sort a pile by continent
- Share postcards of a trip
- Use as flashcards identifying places around the globe
- Write "Why I would like to vacation here..."
cooking
cook for soup kitchen
visit, get details, write up for papers
write a memory page about a food memory
double a recipe / halve a recipe
fractions word problems
create class cookbook
share a dish + recipe from heritage
use computer
Newspaper
- Write a class letter to the editor on a topic of mutual concern
- Paste headlines for a page and discuss (see sample)
- Follow a stock price
- Find all the countries named in the paper using a big map or globe
- Name all the sections of the paper and find them
- Find 10 words you don’t know and learn
- Read some particularly creative or touching obits; write your own from the perspective of living to be 90
- Study an editorial for vocabulary and point of view
- Analyze political cartoons
- Write a movie review
- Comparison shop from circulars
Groups rally to end military's access to student records
→ what's it mean?
Writing: Do you agree with this approach?
Logan sign switch has drivers searching
→ what's it mean?
Discuss names of other airports + locate on map.
Writing: A time when I was lost......
Romney event brings cash for GOP
← what's it mean? who's Romney? NH/Maine counterpart? what's the GOP?
Writing: How much money shook it cost to be a candidate?
Violence raging among teen girls
← what's it mean? Discussion: cultural? historical?
Writing: How can teen violence be lessened?
Gone to pot in Boston
↑ what's it mean? Discussion: Are there conditions, such as potholes, in your town that need to be addressed?
Writing: Letter to the editor.
There's no arguing about it—the most beautiful part of the world is wherever you grew up.
WILLIAM F. BUCKLEY, JR., Stamford, Connecticut
A QUOTE
quote a day on the board
open class with 5 min discussion about
research/write about the speaker
use as a prompt for essay writing
You cannot teach a person anything. You can only help him discover it in himself — Galileo
USE UNEXPECTED RESOURCES FOR WRITING, DISCUSSION, MATH AND VOCABULARY
- put together (a large toy? a piece of furniture) something from an instructional booklet
- 10 different fruits
- a complicated cell phone bill
- a seed packet
- the phone book
- the labels and the ingredients of 5 different hard drinks with a comparison application
- cut outs from People magazine
- a passport application
YOUR TURN...........
H
H
H
This is written out to show how an entertaining late night adventure to the bookstore/cafe easily turns to a lesson plan on global warming. In reality, the lesson would go from placemat to classroom with no written work in between. Total prep time including finding info in classroom books was about 10 minutes.
GLOBAL WARMING
1. Write the Grobman quote from Vital Statistics with a brilliantly colored marker on a colored cardboard. Ask why might this be so until someone mentions global warming. (If no one does, teacher can.)
2. Do vocab words together. Do the fill-in-the-blanks separately or as pairs.
3. Do Bar Graph exercise & spend time discussing answers.
4. Assignment: Use Internet (remainder of class – or at home) or newspaper or magazine to find one article on global warming. Student may choose to do the writing exercise, but everyone should look at the four questions as they will be the basis of tomorrow's discussion on how global warming really affects us and do we care enough to do anything. Suggest student ask at least one other person what he knows of global warming.
Following day: At the beginning of class bring any clippings/writings/personal stories together for a (15-20 min?) discussion. Lots of affirmation for students who remembered to do assignment. Teacher might bring articles based on US role in global warming to stimulate discussion.
Number of the ten warmest years on record that have occurred since 1990: TEN
P.Grobman
Call = Tony
Dorie (re: Mon)
John H.
DT (re 21st)
BUY? FIND IN DOVER LIBE?
Vital Statistics
Paul Grabman
7/05
A STATISTIC:
Number of the ten warmest years on record that have occurred since 1990 = TEN
P. 328
Use for lesson on global warming?
Check QED book?
Computer lesson?
News articles?
The beginning of a placemat lesson ....... take yours to a bookstore café and see what happens.
Read the word. Then read the definition for each word. Write a sentence using the word correctly.
1. **global warming** an increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
2. **carbon dioxide** an odorless gas that is formed when fossil fuels are burned for energy
3. **greenhouse effect** an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, which is believed to be the cause of a gradual warming of the surface of the Earth.
4. **phenomenon** any fact or event in nature that can be observed or studied, especially one that is unusual or interesting
5. **concentration** the state of a mixture being stronger or thicker, especially by reducing the amount of water
6. **enhanced** added to
7. **fossil fuel** a fuel (as coal, oil, or natural gas) that is formed in the earth from plant or animal remains
8. **climate** the usual weather that a place has
1. When the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increases, this leads to an _______________ greenhouse effect.
2. Coal, oil, and natural gas are _______________.
3. The conditions of the air, water, and land where plants and animals live make up the _______________.
4. Practices during the ______________________ caused climate changes.
5. If we want to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, we must become more _______________ with our use of energy.
6. When we drive a car, we affect the _______________ of greenhouse gases into the air.
7. The annual _______________ emission of carbon into the air keeps going up in the United States.
8. The usual temperature, rainfall, snowfall, etc. that a country has is its _______________.
9. _______________ and economic practices during the Industrial Revolution pumped carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
10. _______________ could severely harm the Earth’s ecosystems by raising the average temperature of the Earth’s surface.
11. _______________ is formed when fossil fuels are burned for energy.
12. The _______________ traps the Earth’s warmth and keeps it from escaping into space.
13. The greenhouse effect is a natural _______________; however, it could get out of control.
14. Some greenhouse gases occur naturally; however, problems may arise when the _______________ of greenhouse gases increases.
15. Plants and animals living together in shared environments are _______________.
Steps to Reading a Bar Graph
Here are some things to look for in bar graphs.
1. Read the title to learn what the bar graph is about.
2. Read the bar labels to find out what the bars represent.
3. Look at the lengths of the bars.
4. Look at the axis label to see what the scale measures.
5. Check the numbers on the scale. Are they ordinary counting numbers, or do they represent larger numbers or percents?
6. Decide what the height of a bar means. Trace with your finger from the top of the bar to the scale.
7. Find the intervals between numbers on the scale. Estimate the value of a bar that stops between two numbers.
Try It Out
Use this bar graph to answer the questions on the next page. Circle your answers.
Sources of Global Warming Gases in the U.S., 1997
Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent (in millions)
- Industry: 600
- Transportation: 480
- Commerce: 280
- Residences: 320
- Agriculture: 140
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1. This graph is mainly about
(1) steps we can take to protect the environment.
(2) sources of global warming gases produced in the U.S.
(3) gases produced by commercial buildings.
TIP: Read the title to find out what the graph is about.
2. This bar graph gives information about all of the following EXCEPT
(1) industry.
(2) residences.
(3) government.
TIP: Look at the labels under the bars to see what they represent.
3. Which source produces the smallest quantity of global warming gases?
(1) agriculture
(2) transportation
(3) industry
TIP: Find the shortest bar. Then read the label under that bar.
4. Agriculture accounts for about how many metric tons carbon equivalent of global warming gases?
(1) 135
(2) 135,000
(3) 135,000,000
TIP: Find the bar labeled Agriculture. Run your finger from the top of that bar across the graph to the scale. Read the axis label to find out what the number means.
5. Which source sends out less than 300 million metric tons carbon equivalent of global warming gases?
(1) transportation
(2) commerce
(3) residences
TIP: Find 300 on the scale. Run your finger from that point across the graph. Which bars are under that height? Which low bar is listed as an answer choice?
6. Which two sources send out similar quantities of global warming gases?
(1) commerce and residences
(2) industry and agriculture
(3) commerce and transportation
TIP: Look for bars that are close to the same height. Read their labels.
7. This graph suggests that all of the following might reduce global warming gases EXCEPT
(1) carpooling to work with friends.
(2) reducing use of electrical appliances at home.
(3) reducing the summertime temperature in your office.
TIP: Think about how you would achieve each option. For both (1) and (2), you would decrease use of machines that produce global warming gases. To lower temperature, you would have to increase such use.
Write a science fiction story.
If the Earth’s temperature continues to rise as predicted, future global warming could change life as we know it. Think about the impact of increasing temperatures. Write a science fiction story that describes a planet where global warming has caused climate change to get out of control.
Plan to write your story by answering these questions:
1. How might global warming affect the polar regions? ____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. How might global warming affect aquatic life (i.e., life in the oceans)? _______
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. How might global warming affect the planet in general? _______________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. How might your life be affected by global warming? _________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
|---|---|---|
| 4 | 5 | 6 |
| 7 | 8 | 9 |
10
Risky Teaching
ALL OF US HAVE TWO EDUCATIONS; ONE WHICH WE RECEIVE FROM OTHERS; ANOTHER, AND THE MOST VALUABLE, WHICH WE GIVE OURSELVES.
-JOHN RANDOLPH
"I've been absolutely terrified every moment of my life, and I've never let it keep me from doing a single thing I wanted to do."
-GEORGIA O'KEEFE
(Teaching
*Where the Heart Is*)
(*title of Billie Letts novel*)
This section of the notebook is about risky teaching.
What do you think of when you hear the words “risky teaching”?
**What risky teaching isn't:**
- Risky teaching is not sloppy.
- Risky teaching is not unprepared.
- Risky teaching is not anti-rule.
**What risky teaching is:**
- Risky teaching is self knowledge and being true to your teaching style.
- Risky teaching is being flexible and vulnerable and meaningful.
- Risky teaching is teaching in the moment.
- Risky teaching is being open to mistakes.
- Risky teaching is every good teacher you've ever known.
LESSON 1: YOU ARE ENOUGH!
Whoever you are, whatever your style is, the best thing you can do for your students is to be yourself.
Carolyn's Observation:
I went to Donna’s house this Spring to drop off a paper on a rainy Sunday afternoon—it was an old Victorian on a quiet street in Dover. There was a well-thumbed novel lying on a table on the porch and red tulips bloomed beside the steps. Inside there were candles and lilacs and comfortable chairs—it was the sort of place where anyone would enjoy just being home alone. But on this comfortable Sunday afternoon, Donna was sitting at the dining room table helping a student do last minute preparations for the GED. There was something about being there that evening that made me think about what I admire most about Donna and her teaching style. “Why do you teach?” I had asked her earlier when we began this project. “Because I can’t ‘not teach’” she replied. And I think that standing in her house that evening I knew what she meant. She lives her life with enthusiasm and grace—loves her life—and along with the solid skills of GED preparation--she gives this gift to her students.
Donna's Response:
I was a bit surprised when Carolyn wrote this as it seems that almost always when you stop to ask, “What's the best for the student?” the secondary question is “What's best for everyone?” and that includes yourself. Some teachers would not feel comfortable inviting a student to their home. Period. For me it is highly situational and usually simple and easy. If it is a day when I feel my home is uncluttered and quiet and I have a comfort level with the student, it may be the perfect win-win situation. In the example Carolyn cited, it was the last weekend before the year's final GED exam. The middle-aged math student had just begun a new job and missed her math pre-test.
Hmm....a lovely, rainy late Sunday afternoon. If I invite my student to take the pre-test at my dining room table, I can put in a load of wash, write a note or read on the porch swing, and then share a cup of tea with her while we go over her test. From experience I know that a student with a family, home and job may have something come up and not make our appointment. I will be much more relaxed with that possibility if I am puttering around home than if I am at school wondering if I should now lock the door or wait ten more minutes. Knowing your own style frees your time and mind for the real job here which is getting a math pre-test score and reviewing any problem areas.
-DM
Assignment # 1: Think and write about what teaching style, place, time, and tricks come naturally to you.
CAUTION: YOU MUST BELIEVE THAT YOU ARE ENOUGH.
You cannot compare yourself to other teachers although you can and should learn from them. You have to believe that you in exactly the right place and whoever you are, whoever your “best self” is, as Oprah says, BE IT. Show up. Be on time. Wear something cheerful. And pay attention to your students. Teaching is a lot like parenting. You may read all the right books and buy all the right toys and enroll your children in all the right activities, but in the end, what your children really want is for you to pay attention to them.
A true story:
(Moral: one relaxed, passionate, knowledgeable teacher “works”)
For a couple of years, as I got ready to teach my teen class, I would have symptoms: anxiety, tears, churning stomach and always the same question, What can I possibly teach them that 9-11 years in school didn’t? They’ve experienced drugs, ill-timed pregnancy, academic failure, family disappointments and discouragement. And SUDDENLY (lightbulb!) “You bring them yourself and the knowledge that you are there for them!” And for the past 17 years that has been enough. —DM
ONE MORE WORD ABOUT THE INTERNET! YOU MAY FEEL THAT YOU CANNOT COMPETE WITH ALL OF THAT KNOWLEDGE OUT THERE. YOU CAN’T. YOU WILL NEVER MASTER ONE BIT OF THE MATERIAL OUT THERE EVEN IF YOU ARE LOGGED ON 24 HOURS A DAY. AGAIN, USE THE INTERNET TO ENHANCE YOUR TEACHING, NOT TO DIRECT IT.
Wild Geese
You do not have to be good.
You do not have to walk on your knees
for a hundred miles through the desert, repenting.
You only have to let the soft animal of your body
love what it loves.
Tell me about despair, yours, and I will tell you mine.
Meanwhile the world goes on.
Meanwhile the sun and the clear pebbles of the rain
are moving across the landscapes,
over the prairies and the deep trees,
the mountains and the rivers.
Meanwhile the wild geese, high in the clean blue air,
are heading home again.
Whoever you are, no matter how lonely,
the world offers itself to your imagination,
calls to you like the wild geese, harsh and exciting—
over and over announcing your place
in the family of things.
You are Enough.
Take some time to think about your style as a teacher and what works for you. If you do not want to spend hours making lesson plans, what can you do that fits your style and makes teaching easier and more meaningful to you? Over the years I (Carolyn) know that I am creative (good) and disorganized (not so good). So in the midst of the creative energy of a class, there are some disciplines I have learned that, when I follow them, help me tremendously. They are:
**Carolyn's Teacher Checklist**
1. **The night before.** Sit down for 10 to 30 minutes to plan. Look for any materials you need that you haven’t found yet. Write down your plans in whatever form feels right to you. Gather all your supplies—music, food, books, etc and put them by the door (just like your kids are doing. If you have children do this while they are doing their work.). Get out your clothes for the next day.
*And DON'T WORK IN A FRENZY UNTIL YOU FALL INTO AN EXHAUSTED STUPOR.* Get stuff together then go do whatever you do before going to bed. So while you are reading your novel or listening to music if you get a brainstorm about your class by all means pay attention to it and change everything entirely. If you are inspired the change of plans won’t take long. Get a decent night’s sleep.
2. **Before class.** Be ready. Look over your notes—read the paper—and if possible, get to the center 15 minutes before your students come. Have your copying done, etc. AND BE FLEXIBLE. If the copy machine is broken you are okay. You write on the board and they copy. You dictate—this is a good exercise.
3. **During class.** Keep my teaching notebook open (this is the one with lesson plans in it) and put a pen beside it and whatever relevant info I need—a reminder to look up the answer to a question, find a student’s phone #, talk to the social worker—I jot these things down as I go. Or if a lesson plan occurs to me during a class I take notes.
4. **At the end of class** and talking with students, if I have any time at all, I take my notebook and jot down a log about the class. How did things go? What didn’t we cover? What did we do instead? What happens next? What do I need to do to prepare for the next class? This 5 minutes is critical and saves huge amounts of time. I don’t need to stay with this plan but I have a solid place to start from while everything is fresh in my mind. And if I need to make phone calls etc still at the center I can do it now. Preferably this is the time to have a cup of tea to soothe your voice, put up your feet if you’ve been standing for 3 hours—take care of yourself too.
5. **Later in the day.** keep the notebook. You can forget about your job on one level and on another you are always thinking. Just pay attention.
ASSIGNMENT: Think about your own lifestyle and schedule. Make a “before, during and after class” plan that could work for you.
Before class:
During class:
After class:
Being ready for each student......
Many of us work in open enrollment classrooms. It is a challenge to be prepared for for each and every student every day especially when someone who has not been in attendance for several days (weeks?) shows up ten minutes into the class.
Carolyn was recently teaching a class which was wonderfully engaged in an ongoing project involving cutting, talking, and organizing. Suddenly a whole family of non-English speaking Chinese students arrived. What would you do in this situation? Carolyn asked her regular students to carry on with the project while she sat with the new students. Her class went on smoothly because she trusted other adults to rise to the occasion and they did so beautifully. It can be a risky moment to let go of the control of your class to students, aides, or volunteers and in many instances, such as this one, all benefit.
How do you meet the needs of unexpected students?
Here are some ideas:
- Give an interest inventory (see sample in resource section)
- Give a short writing assignment or worksheet
- Make an immediate pairing with another student
- Give a parallel assignment such as a slightly easier version of what the class is doing if you believe student's ability is lower. Real life example is when, one year at the holidays, one teacher found "The Gift of the Magi" (O Henry) written at three different reading levels for her mixed level class. She was ready for anything!
- Sit with a student while your aide takes over the class or ask the aide to sit with the student. Maybe in this case a trusted student becomes "the aide."
- Give a prepared packet of your program for student to look over with dates and upcoming events. Non-readers might get a colorful packet with pictures of class activities.
What are your ideas?
Assignment for the teacher:
THROW A PARTY!!
Prep before the party might include thinking about what each guest needs (does Molly need a straight chair because of recent back surgery? Isn't Uncle Arthur allergic to nuts?) It might be arranging the room a certain way or thinking about the menu for the evening.
The guests arrive. You welcome them with a smile and a greeting. Some you hug. You take coats, make sure they are comfortable and perhaps offer food.
You check in with them during the party to see if their needs are met and to make sure they're having fun.
When it is time to leave...a warm goodbye...a "the next time we get together, we'll have to.....". Maybe you give them something to take with them.
APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM
***New Student:
Welcoming smile and demeanor
Being “ready”; something to offer upon arrival
Making student welcome. Introduce to others in the class
Homework if desired
Promo for the next class.
***New School Year or New Class:
Knowing what each student needs from TABES, notes, staff conversations
Arranging classroom to be welcoming and conducive to a variety of learning activities
Have a “MENU”—something to offer in the lesson plan which teaches and stretches the brain
Touch base with each student during the class
Promo for the next class (ie: see you Thursday—we are going to begin our history timeline)
Who Are You?
(illustrate this page!)
“It’s up to each of us to get very still and say, ‘This is who I am.’ No one else defines your life. Only you do.”
KNOW THYSELF.
This may sound easy to experienced adult educators but it isn’t always. Many of us have taken the Myers/Briggs Personality Profile and we come out with a four letter code that says we are extroverted and intuitive except then we think about how jealously we guard our alone time and we think maybe we answered the questions wrong and maybe we really are introverted …..and that is just one little example.
Some ways we get to know what we are about:
Write. Write I am….. I love…… (A teacher note: Sometimes we ask our students to write similar fill ins such as “I am here because…….” and they write “I am only here to get my GED” and then we need to think about whether it is also part of our job as a risky teacher to help them know themselves through our modeling of what that means and to help them know that getting this credential is but one more step in that discovery.
Ask people what they think and see if you agree.
Visit a colleague’s classroom (with permission, of course) and think about what happened there. How is it different from your teaching? What can you bring away from that class?
Spend time alone.
Try lots of things and keep a list and star the things you really liked. Things like:
- Solving puzzles
- Building
- Yoga
- Kayaking
- Gardening
- Baking bread
Calligraphy Puttering
Hiking Playing a kazoo
Decorating Playing softball
Knitting Talking on the phone
Writing letters Stargazing
Visualizing outcomes Being silent
Taking a bus trip Painting
Read lots. Read a variety of materials Sit at your bookshelf or another's. Start browsing through books you thought you knew but maybe don't. Ask yourself questions about what you've just read.
Here is a quote: I read Shakespeare and the Bible and I can shoot dice. That's what I call a liberal education.
-Tallulah Bankhead
do you agree with her definition?
Here's another quote: Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater.
-gail godwin
What does it mean for you and the way you work with your students?
One thing Donna knows about herself is that in the past she has assumed some things about some of her students and she is trying hard not to do that.
A true story:
Sometimes I assume things. Once I gave my teen class a blank map of North America to label adjacent countries and oceans. She: How I am supposed to know which ocean is which?
Me: Have you ever been to Hampton Beach and seen the ocean?
She: Lots of times...
Me: That's the Atlantic Ocean!
She: Ain't no sign.
-DM
Our advice: Don't assume much. You might way overestimate what your student currently knows or underestimate what your student already knows. The risking teacher finds out/asks even if the answer might surprise you.
Question: What from this "know thyself" section could be carried directly to the classroom?
What do you love? Bring it to class.
I play the mandolin in a bluegrass band. I’m not very good, but the music of little North Carolina country churches is deep in my blood and when I began to play it again I was astounded at how important this is to me. One day I brought the mandolin to class. Everyone heard some bluegrass, but what happened is that we began to sing. Students sang songs from their homeland—in their own language. And we all cried. It wasn’t that I taught them something about American roots music—a topic that I’m sure I can bore people with—or that I impressed them with my playing—but the connection was that the music of my home stirred up the love for the music of their home, and we shared that. Of course the English skills involved were that after singing these songs the students had to actually tell us what the words meant, and yet on another level everyone knew that the words were about love of a place.
NOTE: TRY TO GET PAST A FEAR OF NOT BEING “GOOD ENOUGH” TO SHARE WHAT YOU LOVE WITH YOUR STUDENTS. SO WHAT IF YOUR POETRY/MUSIC/PAINTING/PHOTOGRAPHY/COOKING ISN’T PROFESSIONAL. AS A TEACHER YOU ARE MODELING COURAGE TO YOUR STUDENTS.
Assignment: What do you love? Use Donna’s thinking circle to write as many things you can think of. (Hint: Use this diagram or draw a bigger one on a blank piece of paper)
Now, choose one of the things you love from the circles above. Make another thinking circle to explore how you might bring this to class.
Assignment: Who are you?
a. Draw a thinking shape and put your name in the middle. Then write down as many other nouns you can think of that define who you are.
example: I am Carolyn. But I am also a teacher, a mother, a musician, Rod’s wife, a reader etc
b. Now look at your web of names and circle just one of the words that is important to you right now.
c. Take 5 minutes to write about yourself in this role.
d. From time to time, go back to this web and write about a different role. Notice that you will discover more about who you are each time you think about it—you will add names to your list.
e. Read the essay (next page) “I am a Stonecutter” (this is a good story to share with students)
f. Using this story as a guide, try writing a longer piece about who you are. Share this with students along with the stonecutter story.
g. Variations: Do this same sort of exercise with “I can” “I love” “I can’t” “I am afraid of”
h. Variations: Use the “I am” exercise with ESOL to practice forms of the verb “to be.” You can discover interesting stories with “I was...but now I am...” (For example, “In my country I was a bank manager but now I am a dishwasher at Fresh City”)
Carol Hazel is a woman who loves her job. By learning new skills, she is able to do work that she finds important and enjoyable. She looks forward to going to work each day where she puts on a hard hat and cuts stone—stone that will last for generations.
This first-person account tells why Carol Hazel feels good about herself and the changes she has made in her life. It also tells why she feels such pride about the type of work she does.
I Feel Free
From Cathedral
Carol Hazel
I was born in New York City—13 when I got pregnant with my first, 16 with my second, 19 with my third, 21 when I had the fourth—a baby raising babies. But now the factory's closed; I got an operation. And I'm raising my children well, lifting myself up, doing it without public assistance, all because I'm here at the Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine in Manhattan cutting stone.
For a while I worked in a factory in the Bronx making jewelry boxes. The chemical fumes made you sick—no masks—and other people all angry that you're willing to work overtime because you have to. I also worked at a bar. There was a little stage next to the bar, with a go-go girl always dancing. It made me feel ashamed somehow.
But welfare was the worst. The constant documents: one for each kid. "What's this, what's that?" People going into your stomach for all this information. You are not your own person. Finally, two years ago I went to the welfare office for a "face-to-face," a recertification procedure. I got real depressed. Then I saw the time had come. I just turned around.
I went to a school that taught mainly construction work. After 12 weeks of training and working on reading and writing, I found myself here at the Cathedral, working under the guidance of English craftsmen. The stone got me. It fascinated me the first time I saw it. I saw the guys working there and thought, *I can do that*. And before I knew it I'm sitting in front of this stone.
It comes from the sea, from layers and layers of sedimentary rock. It smells when you cut it, a fishy odor, from everything that's settled inside. It has the odor of ages coming to you from way back in time.
Now I'm married to my stone. I talk to it. I pray for the stone to come out right. I pray for straight lines. Sunday night I can't sleep, Monday morning I can't wait to get to work. At 8 A.M. I'm there with my tools, my chisel and my mallet, which are my prize possessions.
The work is very basic. It takes a good eye and a steady hand; you learn control. You see the stone, square it, get the center line which gives you a true face. Then you cut away waste: get in close, patience. This is a good job for a woman. I don't have to sit behind a desk and worry about my boss's coffee updating documents and paperwork containing matter deposited by water or wind
or wife. I’m a stonecutter. I put on my jeans, boots, and hard hat. And the men respect me, I respect them. At lunch you’ll find us playing dominoes together.
What it’s really about is a need to be known. I’m Carol to myself. But now I’m Carol to others, not Carol going someplace to get money I didn’t have the chance to earn. I feel free now, like having a hump off your back, or an ache you don’t need.
And I find pride in my work. I know my boasting pattern is going to be on that stone, way up in the sky. “That’s my stone,” I’ll be able to say to my grandchildren. And I’ll do this job right.
---
3 shaping stonework with a broad chisel
I love to teach this poem by Mariano Ramos Hernandez in the following exercise developed by Heinle and Heinle. First, the words are all easy. Second, the poem is repetitive. Third, it is in Spanish and if I have a Spanish speaker in class I always ask him or her to read it. (Again, I often have students sing or recite a poem or just say a word in their own language because it is beautiful, because as a teacher it is good for me to hear something I don’t understand, and listening often gives me clues about pronunciation)
**Sharing Ideas: Reacting to Poetry**
A. Read part of Mariano Ramos Hernandez’ poem “Dos Patrias” (Two Lands) in Spanish or in English.
**Dos Patrias**
Soy un hombre
y con dos patrias
con dos nombres
dos historias
dos banderas
dos culturas diferentes
dos lenguajes
son dos patrias
dos amores
**Two Lands**
I am a man
with two lands
with two names
two histories
two flags
two different cultures
two languages
of two lands
two loves
(from *Intimate Verses* by Mariano Ramos Hernandez, permission granted by the author)
a. Read this poem.
b. Question: Have you ever loved two places (or two people...) at the same time? Write about this.
c. A couple years ago I was thinking about this poem and feeling homesick for North Carolina and I wrote this
I love the cold North
the deep snow, the granite coast of Maine
blueberries and birch trees;
apple orchards, pumpkin pies
and maple sugar Springs;
But my heart is in
red clay and sweet sultry nights
the muddy Yadkin river
old houses under oak trees
old dogs under porches
watermelons growing in Grandpa’s patch
and biscuits with thick, sweet molasses.
d. Just for fun, see if you can write about two loves using this structure. (I love...but my heart is in... ) Think about where you are now and what you love about it, and think about another place—your birthplace or some other place you lived or even just visited once. Maybe you moved from the city to the country or vice versa. Think with all of your 5 senses and let your writing be specific—what did you taste, hear, see, smell, and feel?
I love...
But my heart is in...
Explore who you are in pictures.
Draw your house and your family. Think about what you would say to describe what you drew. I often will begin an ESL class with this activity because once I draw my own family in stick figures everyone understands, and everyone can do it. Literacy level students can label their figures “mother, father, sister, brother, dog, cat, chickens,” etc. and advanced students can write an essay. But everyone shares the pictures and this is an immediate communication about something important to everyone.
And collect pictures that speak to you to use in class. Find a picture from a newspaper or magazine that is important to you.
2. Use pictures from the newspaper, your own photographs of meaningful people and places. THINGS YOU HAVE PUT IN YOUR NOTEBOOK. Once I used a newspaper picture of a young soldier in Iraq who had set down his rifle to pet a stray kitten. First students wrote about what they saw in the photograph. Again, beginners just used words . . . nouns and verbs. Soldier, gun, cat, stroke (my favorite sentence in this exercise” The boy is ironing the cat”) More advanced students wrote essays. The picture prompted deep discussion about the war. An obvious follow-up was a newspaper article about the war—but it could as easily be a war story from another era, a different picture, a poem about war and peace. YOU HAVE TO TRUST THAT THE NEXT STEP WILL HAPPEN.
Writing “Real”
Sometimes you have to take the lead in getting students to write through pain. And sometimes you have to know where to draw the line. Many of our students have had horrific things happen in their lives and don’t want to write these memories. Sometimes they shouldn’t—how can someone whose family were lost in the genocide in Rwanda be expected to write and edit her story? So you must make this decision as a teacher—and you take the risk of sharing hurt yourself.
Example:
The Bible says forgive your brother
Seventy times seven, or something like that,
But there was this boy named Raymond
Who was seventeen and drove the
School bus,
And he looked at my brother’s cap, the one with the
Flaps that came down over his ears
on cold days.
He grinned at my brother and he yanked
that cap off his head and went outside
And jumped up and down, up and down on it until
it was squashed flat in the dirt
while my brother
Looked out the bus window
And cried.
I guess this story wouldn’t be so sad if my brother were still living, but he died when he
was sixteen and somehow what makes me cry is to remember Calvin as a little boy in
his cap and how mean that bus driver was to him. Calvin was a good boy. He used to
stuff leftovers from school lunch in his pocket to bring to me—I would wait by the mailbox
to see what he would bring.
Assignment: Write about something that hurts.
(And why do this at all? A poet can write herself into joy, for one thing. Writing can
heal. I have a friend who took a long sad bus ride home from a broken relationship in
Texas and he wrote sad love songs the whole way, but when he stepped off the bus in
New Hampshire, he was okay.)
Know thyself and teach thy lessons............
(here are a few teachers who do)
Minnett likes to cook; she hosts student cooking classes.
Donna S. likes to shop; her class shops & wraps for Operation Santa.
Jim likes politics; he teaches exciting classes on the red/blue states.
Bruce likes trivia; his class gets a trivia question every morning.
Barbara likes music; her class sings.
Jeff likes candy; his class gets mini Tootsie rolls for good effort
Donna likes to travel; her class plans trips to Boston.
Denise likes history, her class does time lines.
Debbie likes children's books; her new readers hold discussion groups about them.
Carolyn O. like drama; she acts out some of her characters from literature.
Steve is an artist; his students make paper and create art galleries.
Jill likes math; her students use manipulatives.
Bud is a critical thinker; his students regularly critique the news.
And what about you?
Create a classroom environment in which students talk to each other about their lives. Coffee Break is important. And give them opportunities to talk about who they are, what happened last night, over the weekend, etc.
IF STUDENTS ARE TELLING REAL STORIES, REAL STUFF WILL HAPPEN IN THE CLASSROOM. THIS BECOMES YOUR MATERIAL.
A discussion becomes a writing exercise. A problem with a boss becomes a letter of complaint—there are practice forms for writing these letters. There is editing, reading aloud, brainstorming solutions—all kinds of solid learning activities take place in this context.
Assignment for the Teacher:
Ponder the Teachable Moment
Many (many) years ago when Donna was a camp counselor the concept of the spontaneous teachable moment was stressed in her training. It became a staple in her teaching and surprise (!) when she and Carolyn first discussed this booklet the use of the “teachable moment” was high on Carolyn's list.
A real life example from Carolyn:
Several years ago when I was teaching with Barbara Dorsett in Dover, she was helping a student study for the TOFEL. He was depressed and didn't feel like studying. His only friend was moving away, he said, and he was feeling sad. I asked him if he would be willing to share his feelings with the class. He did and there was an overwhelming empathetic response. We wrote a handbook about the expectations one might have about life in America. It was a tremendous amount of work, but it was so worth it.
This is the use of the “teachable moment”. It has its roots in the energy, enthusiasm, curiosity and needs of our students. It allows the session to evolve from our students with a flow that's almost imperceptible when practiced (and practiced again) by the educator.
Please note! This does not mean the teacher comes unprepared. This does not mean the class becomes chaotic with student demands. The teacher comes prepared yet open and aware to the feel of the day.
From my old counselor manual:
Changing from the traditional structured program to a spontaneous one is not as difficult as we imagine. The major stumbling block is overcoming the restrictive structure we have imposed on our own lives. It is easy to impose on others the limits we have adopted for ourselves.
There is no precise formula that will ensure the success of spontaneous program. If there were, it wouldn't be flexible or spontaneous. When it is working well a spontaneous program is like life itself – never exactly the same for any two people.
John Blackadar (Wanakee – somewhere in the early 80's)
How does the teacher get to the teachable moment? I guess the best analogy would be the question how does one get to happiness? You do not “plan” the teachable moment any more than you “plan” to be happy, but there are some beliefs and strategies that encourage serendipity in the classroom.
1. Know this: that YOUR STUDENTS ARE MORE IMPORTANT THAN YOUR LESSON PLANS, EVEN THOUGH YOUR LESSON PLANS ARE GOOD!!
In the teen class one day several people indicated an interest in cosmetology. The planned lesson was put off for a day while they compared costs, admission dates, and programs from brochures from the center’s college rack, made plans to interview hairdressers they knew using a form called interviewing for information (found in the following pages) and made an appointment to go as a group to visit the nearest beauty school. Think of the skills used in this hour!
2. Be aware. Pay attention. What is going on in the classroom? Look at body language. Is anyone near tears? Sleepy because he stayed up at a second job last night? Hungry? Bored? Angry? Maybe you need to address an issue, maybe you need to take a break and have something to eat – maybe you need to get people moving around.
3. Find ways to know where your students are. “WHAT’S ON YOUR MIND” exercise is a 5 minute class opening that has often lead to meaningful lessons and real problem solving. This year, for example, when one student came in distraught about a problem at work, everyone wrote about problems. One program director was in the room and she immediately brought the social worker in who was able to directly help some students with very real problems – a dentist appointment for someone with no dental insurance, etc.
Sometimes a written autobiography helps the students share whatever they wish and the teacher to know some things about them which may be helpful. The student may share things about their prior education or home life that will help the teacher better prepare his future lessons. This might be the place to add that sometimes the secretary or the daycare provider will have information from their casual contact with students in the coming and going of the day – a new baby due – a big birthday or trip coming up – an eviction – which might help you be ready for a teachable moment in the classroom. On the next pages are examples of an autobiography assignment and a real student story.
An alternative for literacy level students could be paper plate faces or basic drawings. Encourage them to show expression on the faces.
4. Let students lead the class. Not only let their situations direct which direction your class preparation goes in, but let your students teach the class by doing presentations and organizing others.
These strategies don’t guarantee those teachable moments but do open up the possibility they will occur more frequently.
Please write your autobiography in an interesting and informative way. You can start with your birth or with your early childhood. This writing should let your reader know something about where you came from and who you are. Therefore, a simple recounting of facts would not be as interesting as some short anecdotes or examples of what makes you YOU. Include your likes/hates/dreams/family/vacations/career plans or as much as you would like. Students always ask "how long does it have to be?" and the answer is that quality, not length is the consideration.
**RETURNING STUDENTS- Since you have already written your autobiography, your writing piece is to choose one GED writing topic (attached) and write a cohesive two-page essay.
We have found most students enjoy picking and choosing which parts of their lives to write about! Results vary from one hand written page to one 18 year old's 47 Paged typed autobiography resplendent with pictures and drawings these writings often give immediate insight to the teacher.
How Do You Get Students to tell their stories? Often stories come from the most routine class exercises, and I believe that if a story "happens" in the middle of a grammar exercise, you go with the story. If at all possible, have your student begin to write or draw or in some way tell his story. The following was written by Cindy, a student from Vietnam.
Cindy’s story
I left South Vietnam on July 20, 1982, because I wanted freedom. My brother and sister went with me in the same small boat, the boat totaled men, women, and kids 129 people. The first day and second day we had food to eat. After 8 days there was no more food and water. I was sick; I wanted to lie down but there was no place to lie down. At night it was too cold, in the day it was hot, I saw nothing but ocean and sky, nobody. We thought all people in the boat may die. All people in the boat were praying. After five hours it began to rain. We were very happy, had water to drink. The men held up their shirts to catch the water. After nine days were still on the ocean. The captain didn’t know what way to go; he was a fisherman in Vietnam waters. The fishing boat’s machine broke down, it didn’t run again. It stopped on the ocean. All we people worried and cried a lot, maybe we would die.
After two days we say one big boat cross on the ocean. We were very happy. We called to help us and one woman held up a baby one month old, she couldn’t feed her baby, she had no more milk. The people on the big boat came close, took a basket, and put 4 people in at a time. When they were done I saw my small boat break in half and go down in the ocean. Afterward, the people in the big boat gave us a lot of food to eat: water, soda, apples; we were happy and loved it but my brother got sick because he ate too much. After one day and one night we came to a small island in Malaysia to a refugee camp for people to live temporarily. We got help from the Red Cross. In camp there was no chair, no bed, no bathroom, nothing. Every week we were given 7 cans of food, one can a day, I showered and washed my clothes in the lake; I slept on the sand.
After two months I cam to another island, the Philippines. I lived the same way as in Malaysia, then waited about 6 months. We were in San Francisco, California living at a hotel 2 or 3 weeks then flew to Boston.
*"Long story, teacher, can’t write!" Cindy said several times when she began this project. But she did write. It began with an around the class question, “How did you get to this country?” I was simply asking people if they flew, drove, or came by boat—but Cindy began to tell this amazing story. “Will you write this?” I asked. “I can’t write,” she said, but what she meant was she could not write in perfectly correct English. When I told her to “Write anyway, even if you don’t know how to say things,” she began writing a broken but completely understandable story. Every few lines she would get stuck. Then together we would correct some of the syntaxes and I would ask her to tell me what happened next. She could always talk. So I would say, “Write down what you just told me.” And so she did. And then we corrected the grammar, and so on. Cindy worked on this for several days and gradually she became excited about her writing. She wrote at home. She told me her sons said, “Mommy, what you doing?” And she told them. She had never told them her story before but she decided that, now that she’d written it, she would. “They don’t understand my story,” she said. They say, “Mommy, why you don’t speak English? Mommy, why you go to school now? “Now they know my story,” she said. And that is worth everything: that the act of telling her story has helped her form, or remember, an identity that she is proud to pass on to of her children.
A Word about “Rules”.
In all this talk about teaching from who you are and teaching a student-led, in-the-moment classroom, it may seem that no rules apply. And yet both Donna and Carolyn agree that there are some solid guidelines to follow in teaching a class.
Carolyn’s Rules for teachers
1. Show up and be on time.
2. Have a plan but don’t be bound by it.
3. Make students feel welcome. Greet them by name, smile—whatever your personal style is, they must feel welcome.
4. In an ESOL classroom, have some balance of talking, listening, reading and writing (grammar and pronunciation are included in this). Conversation is most important—be sure this happens. THIS DOES NOT REQUIRE HOURS OF PREPARATION. REMEMBER THE NOTEBOOK.
5. Find out what your students are thinking. Try to give every student the opportunity to express his or her voice in some way in every class.
6. See the class as a community. Be sure there is time for students to talk to each other. Coffee Break is a good thing.
7. Make the lesson meaningful
8. Stay aware of how the class is going. Be willing to go in another direction if something isn’t working.
9. Respect the knowledge and gifts your students bring to the class. As much as possible, find ways to let them share who they are.
10. Have closure. Say goodbye as personally as you can. Connect with students as they leave and give them something to look forward to for the next class.
THE CLASS RULZ:
1. BE KIND
2. DO YOUR BEST WORK
These two seem to cover any learning or personal situations in the classroom. The “rulz” are meant for staff as well as students. This does not mean that all will go perfectly in class but it does mean that expectations and priorities are clearly stated. Of course, the more specific guidelines listed previously also apply and are incorporated into the day, but the two “rulz” set the tone.
If there is a third unwritten rule in the teen class, it would be 3. Offer food daily.
Being open to and taking advantage of the teachable moment go hand in hand with the possibility of things not turning out the way we had planned.
FAILURE.........
We have heard the platitudes. Failure makes you stronger. Failure teaches. There are no failures, only lessons, etc.
But, despite the sayings, despite the truth that failure really does teach us some things such as—I'll NEVER do that again or maybe I should try it a different way or what the heck or well, I gave it my best shot—there is another truth about failure for us and for our students. Failure doesn't feel good. How many times have we heard our students describe their learning experience prior to adult ed as failure? "I couldn't keep up." "I read too slow." "I couldn't concentrate." Failure doesn't feel good.
AND...that is why failure comes under this section on risky teaching.
You get a good idea.
You try it out in class.
It totally flops.
Now what??????
1. First, realize that this happens to EVERY teacher.
2. Make an decision about the next thing to do. Should you stick with the lesson and hope that it gets better? Should you process the lesson with the class, get some opinions on the problem and use the discarded lesson as a life lesson? Should you drop the lesson with an "obviously, this is not working...where shall we go next?"
3. Try to come to your own personal understanding about the difference between failure and a mistake.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FAILURE AND A MISTAKE?
(sometimes make a little mistake and have the students discover it)
Let's use the lesson example.
Maybe the lesson you planned that day WAS a mistake. The students did not yet have enough foundation or prior knowledge to move on to that concept. Maybe it was too hot for a 45 minute lesson with 16 year olds the week before vacation. Maybe you forgot to adequately mentally prepare for the unexpected blocks two or three students had which bogged down the whole class. Maybe this was a topic that no one in the class identified with, needed, or cared about. Yes, maybe this lesson was a mistake. This DOES NOT mean the day was a failure. The secret in not allowing a mistake to ruin the day is
awareness on the part of the teacher. Awareness may mean watching for those body language clues of yawns, glances at watches or polite passivity which indicate that learning has slowed. Sometimes people will just come right out and say “this is boring” or a student will remember a pressing appointment—court or a funeral—which he had previously forgotten. The teacher's awareness and confidence will improve the ability to keep looking back at those three steps above and getting better and better at discerning what to do next.
A risky teacher makes mistakes and probably more frequently than a teacher who takes prescribed lessons from a book or from the internet or lets his students work diligently in the Number Power 2 book for three days in a row. But, the risky teacher also teaches his students how to communicate, how to give feedback, how to plan their own work and (AHA!) how to think.
In the book Becoming a Master Student (David B. Ellis), the book often used by beginning college students, the author prepares a whole chapter entitled “Ten Reasons to Make Mistakes” and they are all geared toward the understanding that making mistakes truly is the way we move forward.
Some of us, usually out of concern for the fragility of our students, are not clear with them when a mistake has been made. Students need to know if they are doing a math problem wrong or pronouncing a word incorrectly. We need to model that mistakes are part of everyday life and here’s how you go about correcting them. That’s how we learn. When we use our own mistakes as well as our students’ mistakes as jumping off points for new learning we are modeling how to ask for and give feedback, how to re-evaluate, and how to move forward.
Failures hurt.
Mistakes teach.
Why is it impossible for people—even the very bright—to not make mistakes?
—Joy Terrace, Sioux Falls, S.D.
When we are born, we know virtually nothing. To learn anything, we must explore new territory. So, unless we behave like passive receivers of information (like a computer being programmed) or have perfect luck and guess right every time, we will make mistakes. This activity expands when we go to school and retracts after we leave, in the absence of motivation or encouragement.
But in some people, especially those who are inquisitive and bright, the process continues throughout life. They never stop learning—and making mistakes. Others try to avoid error by staying in familiar territory. But life is so short, and the world of learning so vast, that I feel safe in stating that if you do not make mistakes, you don’t know much.
—Marilyn Vos Savant
If you don’t make mistakes, you probably don’t know much.
NOTABLE FAILURES—
Dr. Milton E. Larson, “Humbling Cases for Career Counselors,” Phi Delta Kappan, February 1973, Volume LIV, No. 6, 374.
Creative and imaginative people are often not recognized by their contemporaries. Even more often, they are not recognized in school by their teachers. History is full of examples.
Einstein was four years old before he could speak and seven before he could read. Isaac Newton did poorly in grade school, and Beethoven’s music teacher once said of him, “As a composer he is hopeless.” When Thomas Edison was a boy, his teachers told him he was too stupid to learn anything. F.W. Woolworth got a job in a dry goods store when he was 21, but his employers would not let him wait on a customer because he “didn’t have enough sense.” A newspaper editor fired Walt Disney because he had “no good ideas.” Caruso’s music teacher told him, “You can’t sing. You have no voice at all.” The director of the Imperial Opera in Vienna told Madame Schumann-Heink that she would never be a singer and advised her to buy a sewing machine. Leo Tolstoy flunked out of college; Werner von Braun flunked ninth-grade algebra. Admiral Richard E. Byrd had been retired from the Navy as “unfit for service” until he flew over both Poles. Louis Pasteur was rated as “mediocre” in chemistry when he attended the Royal College. Abraham Lincoln entered the Black Hawk War as a captain and came out as a private. Louisa May Alcott was told by an editor that she could never write anything that had popular appeal. Fred Waring was once rejected for high school chorus. Winston Churchill failed the sixth grade.
...an association of British teachers called for the word “fail” to be banned from classrooms and replaced with the term “deferred success”.........
from The Week July 29, 2005 p.6
The Beet Story: How One Teacher’s “Failure” became a life-changing Success
This summer I listened to one of the best teacher success stories I have ever heard. At a party I met a woman who teaches a high school nutrition class and she told me that one year she had a troubled student—and he made a lot of trouble—seemed to enjoy distracting her and disrupting the class. He’d always rap on the desk and say, “Where’s the beat, man?” Well, one day, she’d had enough—it wasn’t a good day, she didn’t feel like putting up with this for the class period, and she sent him down to the office as a last resort. But she wasn’t happy about that. As a sincere teacher she felt she’d let him down and hadn’t done the best she could by him. She was a little down, thinking these thoughts as she was grocery shopping that evening. As she passed through the vegetable aisle she paused—at the beets. “Where’s the beat?” she thought. “Here’s the beet! I teach a nutrition course!” And excited suddenly, she bought every brand of canned beets she could find. She couldn’t wait for class to begin the next day. And the next day, sure enough, this student was rapping on his desk again. “Where’s the beat, man?” But this time she was ready. She came over to his desk and plunked down a can of beets. “Here’s the beet,” she said to him. “This is a nutrition course and this is the kind of beat you are going to find in here. Every time you say ‘where’s the beet’ to me I am going to give you this can to remind you.
Well, it got so the can of beets was famous. And the student responded. And it got so that every time he misbehaved some other student would go get the beets and put it on his desk. There was a good sense of community in the whole class and the teacher began to build a relationship with this student. She even let him rap out his final project—as long as the rap included all the elements she would have required in any other presentation.
But that’s not the end of the story. That year passed, and afterward she didn’t see much of this student (we will call him John). But she heard at the end of the year that he’d gotten into some trouble with the law and he was in jail. She was distressed and didn’t know what to do, but finally she got her can of beets and drove down to the police station and explained who she was. “Tell John his teacher came to see him,” she told the officer.” And tell him that she sent this.” And she gave the officer the beets. She didn’t hear anything more.
But two years later, in the middle of a class, there was a knock on the door. “Come in,” she said, and the door opened, and there stood a young man in a military uniform. And in his hand was a beautiful fresh beet. “I wanted to come see you,” he said, “and thank you, because when I got that can of beets in jail, I knew that somebody cared about me and wanted me to do the right thing with my life.”
We don’t always know if we make any difference at all to our students. But there is that possibility that something you do or say, even if you never find out, will have changed somebody’s life. Never forget that.
Judge each day not by the harvest, but by the seeds you plant.
Using Existing Resources
Everything you are is a gift. Even if we don’t realize it, what we learn and discover builds on what those who came before us learned and discovered. Learn to be an active part of the community of learners.
You may feel overwhelmed with this idea—after all, to “learn from others,” don’t you have to read everything that everyone else wrote? Don’t you have to spend hours perusing journals and the internet? How can you learn from others without spending hours and hours?
That is the reason for the notebook! You are around other people all the time and they all have something to teach you. You have had teachers in your past who inspired you (and some who didn’t and you can learn from them too). You read all the time—not necessarily for class—and there is wisdom in what you read. And of course, there are wonderful and wise teachers out there who have good advice to offer. Look around—you colleagues are some of them.
In this section, we will offer some advice on using the wisdom of others in your teaching, we will give a reference list of some people who have inspired us most, and we will include some lesson plans from sources that are easily available. Use these resources—and add to the list!
8 Ways to Learn From Others
• Learn something from everyone you meet.
• Keep a quotations notebook
• Keep a list of inspirational people
• Use the expertise of your colleagues
• Use the expertise of published authors in the field.
• Find out what your students know and learn from them
• Find out what community members know and ask them to share with the class.
• Find out what your classroom volunteers know and let them share with the class
• Remember your favorite teachers and model after them
• Look for "outside the box" resources for teaching ideas.
See the assignments on the following pages to explore these "learning from others" ideas further.
It is freeing to realize that we do not own all the knowledge our students should have—and we do not own our students!
Assignment # 1: Think about your favorite teacher. Who was she/he? What did she look like? What did she say and do? Why did you like this teacher?
Now think about your own teaching. Good teachers stay with us. Is there anything about this teacher that you recognize in yourself?
Take some time to read and think about the writing and assignments about teachers on the next couple pages.
You know when you’ve had a good teacher. You know when you’ve been a good teacher.
Please take a minute or three to list what makes a “good” teacher.
Some Thinking About What Makes a Good Teacher
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Some Thinking About What Makes a Good Teacher
- Models life for students
- Works efficiently
- Handles stress and disappointment with grace
- Shows appropriate (?) emotions
- Is engaged with the world
- Seeks wisdom and understands balance
- Takes risks
- Sets high standards
- Lets students know they can do challenging work
- Sees errors as opportunities
- Combines rigor and joy
- Shares quality work done by past teachers
- Is involved with students
- Delights in the teachable moment
- Knows students as people
- Assesses with multiple tools
Ms. Brown teaches at an alternative school for pregnant high school girls.
J. B. Harville School Away From School
Shreveport, Louisiana
I had a student who, when she first came into our program, was very unconventional. She did not knock on the door. She kicked the door in. We kept her for three years. When she came to us, she could not read or write. Three years ago, she graduated from us.
She came to me one day and said, "Thank you, dear lady. You have given me hope. . . . I'm going to make it just because you have faith in me."
And that was the moment I knew I was going to continue to do this as long as I can. She kicked the door in when she walked in, but she walked out like a lady.
Assignment # 2. "Sweet Learning"
Linda Christianson, in her book about teaching, *Reaching Out and Rising Up*, talks about asking students to think about who taught them something outside of the classroom. Who taught them how to cook? To shoot a basketball? To be honest? To walk in the dark without being scared? She calls this "sweet learning," because these stories are about learning but they are also almost always about love.
Do your own "sweet learning" exercise. Think about somebody who taught you something. Your grandpa teaching you to fish? Your brother teaching you how to not fall off your bike? Your sister teaching you how to tie your shoe?
For 10 minutes, write about this learning experience. Try using the Present tense, for sometimes that immediacy makes the memory more real. For example, "I am standing in grandma's kitchen watching her make me a loaf bread cake. It is October and I am 5 years old today."
In class, share this story with your students and have them write.
You write:
My Mother’s Daughter
Last month, my family and I went south to our family reunion. We enjoyed going to the reunion because it gave us a chance to catch up with other relatives. I got to visit with cousins and aunts that I never see except at weddings and funerals. This year there were 130 of us at our reunion. We had a huge picnic - everyone bringing food and a dish to pass.
My mother has been dead for five years and every year she brought rhubarb pie to the picnic. This year I decided to bring pie. My mother taught me to make this pie. It’s sour and sweet at the same time and it is good. Even though I’ve baked this pie for twenty years, I’ve never brought it to the picnic because I didn’t think it could taste like my mother’s.
“Who made this rhubarb pie?” yelled my great-aunt Coralee. I thought “Oh no, the crust is wet.” When I told her I made it she looked at me and said, “Honey, I thought your mother came down from her place in heaven and made this for us. You sure are your mother’s daughter.”
This was my favorite family reunion yet.
Trina L.
Assignment # 3 Think about your favorite book from childhood. Did you have a favorite character? Who was he or she? Why? Do you think you have modeled after this character in any way?
My (Carolyn) favorite character was Harriet the Spy, the little girl who climbed around outside of apartment houses just to discover the stories of the people who lived inside and she always carried a notebook...
Your favorite character (You can draw too!):
Assignment #4
A. What is the best advice you ever read somewhere—in a book, on a bumper sticker, in the newspaper—did you ever read something that changed the way you think?
B. Begin to collect these sayings. Donna has kept a quotes notebook for years—see the following sample page:
(Copy or paste a quote you like right here:)
ASSIGNMENT FOR THE TEACHER
Keep a notebook of quotes. Pull out the notebook for your own inspiration or for class discussion or as a gift to a student or..........
Here’s a page as an example.
"The need to be normal is the predominant anxiety disorder of modern life."
Thomas Moore
Original Self
A lover is any fighter who believes her desires are shared by the world. A lover feels the sun shines for her. She lives in a dream world where everything is possible. Love as a strategy is about how to sustain your fighter's dream, in spite of stories people tell about the difference between dream and reality. Most people in their dreams but don't make them real. They act as if there is some dividing line between the two. There is none. Montaigne wrote of a woman who lifted a calf every day and was still able to lift it when it became a cow. In her mind, she would always be able to lift this animal, and so she could. This is how the lover's mind remakes reality.
There are only two ways to live your life...one is as though nothing is a miracle, and the other is as though everything is a miracle.
—Albert Einstein
The ten most powerful two-letter words:
If it is to be,
It is up to me
Health enough to make work a pleasure,
Wealth enough to support your needs,
Strength enough to battle with difficulties and overcome them,
Grace enough to toil until good is accomplished,
Charity enough to see good in your neighbor,
Love enough to move you to be useful and helpful to others,
Faith enough to make real the things of God,
Hope enough to remove all anxious fears concerning the future.
—JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE
I have always had a dread of becoming a passenger in life ~ Margrethe II, Queen of Denmark
Assignment #5
Some wonderful lesson ideas are right on the shelves of our own centers and offices.
Get a cup of tea and a pencil. Bring a pile of your own center's resources near the copy machine. If you don't have a "center", visit the nearest one.
Now, at least once, visit the state adult ed office with the same clear intention of looking for great ideas from other educators.
........here are a few ideas from the bookshelf...............
HISTORY
1. Students discuss--or interview each other about--why their families came to the United States.
2. Select a novel or short biography of a historical figure--appropriate for the level of the group. Read and discuss it in class.
3. Use computer encyclopedia programs to find information about historical events and to generate pictures of historical figures.
4. Read aloud together a short book highlighting a cultural or historical event, i.e., a story about Harriet Tubman or Napoleon, an excerpt from the Diary of Anne Frank.
5. Show pictures of and discuss little-know women achievers.
6. Interview someone who has lived in your area for 60 years or more for information on physical changes, job changes, and political changes.
7. Examine each holiday for its origin, original meaning, and changes over the years.
8. Look at pictures of your town in past years.
9. Visit a local cemetery. Look for names that are now given to streets or buildings in the community.
10. Compare wages, menus, and grocery prices from 100 years ago and discuss the differences.
11. Ask each student to pick the right from the Bill or Rights that seems the most important, then discuss reasons in class.
12. Go over a list of important names from historical events, i.e, Civil War, Great Depression.
13. Make a time line of major events in U.S. or world history.
14. Go over a list of acronyms related to history and/or current events: LBJ, CIA, MIA. etc. You can use list as a “trivia game;” see how many can be identified by students.
15. Students meet with older Americans to discover stories from American history, show events on a time line. (from Experiential Language Teaching Techniques—Resource Handbook 3)
16. Have students brainstorm as many U.S. Presidents as they can. Next, have them arrange them in chronological order as well as they can, and attach approximate dates to each administration. (Usually, there’s a lot of guessing, but that’s okay.) Branch out from that and see what events in U.S. history, politics, and economics they students can associate with each. Let students research events and Presidents using whatever reference materials are at hand. Assemble a time line that includes Presidents, years, and events. This activity helps students assimilate information and organizes it visually, which many find helpful.
from Real Life Curriculum
prepared by 11 members of Adult Learning Staff in Dover (1997) Available at 742-1030 or state Ad.Ed office.
12. List your hobbies or things you really enjoy doing in your spare time.
__________________________________ ____________________________
__________________________________ ____________________________
__________________________________ ____________________________
13. List any topics that you would like to learn more about.
__________________________________ ____________________________
__________________________________ ____________________________
__________________________________ ____________________________
14. I am happy when ______________________________________
15. I feel I am good at _____________________________________
16. I feel I am not good at ____________________________________
17. The best thing about school when I was a child was ___________
18. The worst thing about school when I was a child was _________
19. This time I expect school ___________________________________
20. I enjoy math. ____ yes ____ no
21. I enjoy reading. ____ yes ____ no
22. I enjoy writing. ____ yes ____ no
23. I enjoy working with a group of people. ____ yes ____ no
24. I enjoy working alone. ____ yes ____ no
25. I think I learn best when _____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
MATH SURVEY
Name ___________________________ Date ________________
☑ the skills you would like to work on.
★ any that are very important to you.
_____ 1. Use a calculator
_____ 2. Measurement (using a ruler, tape measure, etc.)
_____ 3. Map reading
_____ 4. Banking (using a checking account, debit cards)
_____ 5. Money (making change)
_____ 6. Shopping (comparing prices, figuring discounts)
_____ 7. Using charts and graphs
_____ 8. Using a budget
_____ 9. Understanding bills (electric, telephones, cable)
_____ 10. Job related math
_____ 11. Multiply and divide numbers
_____ 12. Work with fractions (1/2, 1/3)
_____ 13. Work with decimals (2.5)
_____ 14. Work with percents (33% off)
_____ 15. Help child with math homework
_____ 16. Solve math problems in words
Other_____________________________________________________________________
When do you use math in your life?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
INTERVIEWING FOR INFORMATION
When you are interested in a job, interview someone who is doing that kind of job.
Before you go: Pick out two or three people you know. If you don’t know a person, call the place and ask the name of someone who does the job you are interested in. Ask for a 15 minute interview and set a time and place.
While you are there: Greet the person and shake hands.
Here are some questions you could ask:
1. What do you like about your occupation? Why?
2. What are the activities and responsibilities connected with your job?
3. What skills are necessary to perform your job activities?
4. What training and education does your occupation require?
5. How much variety is connected with your work routine?
6. What qualities do employers look for in job applicants who want to enter your occupation?
7. This interview began with the question, “what do you like about your occupation?” What do you not like about your occupation?
After your visit: Write a thank you note and take notes on your visit to keep in your notebook.
Use the nutrition label on the next page to answer these questions.
What kind of food is this label for?
How many servings will you find in this container?
How large is one serving size?
How many calories are in one serving?
How much dietary fiber is in one serving of this food?
What daily percent value for fat intake is in one serving of this food?
In your opinion, is this a healthy food? Why or why not?
from: Pam Shores mini-grant 2003 Healthy Eating Healthy Living
Macaroni and Cheese
| NUTRITION FACTS |
|-----------------|
| Serving Size 1 cup (228g) |
| Servings Per Container 2 |
| Amount Per Serving |
| Calories 250 | Calories from Fat 110 |
| % Daily Value* |
| Total Fat 12g | 18% |
| Saturated Fat 3g | 15% |
| Cholesterol 30mg | 10% |
| Sodium 470g | 20% |
| Total Carbohydrate 31g | 31% |
| Dietary Fiber 0g | 0% |
| Sugars 5g |
| Protein 5g |
| Vitamin A | 4% |
| Vitamin C | 2% |
| Calcium | 20% |
| Iron | 4% |
Percent Daily values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your Daily Values may be higher or lesser depending on your calorie needs:
| Calories | 2,000 | 2,500 |
|----------|-------|-------|
| Total Fat | Less than | 65g | 80g |
| Sat Fat | Less than | 20g | 25g |
| Cholesterol | Less than | 300mg | 300mg |
| Sodium | Less than | 2,400mg | 2,400mg |
| Total Carbohydrates | 300g | 375g |
| Dietary Fiber | 25g | 30g |
Assessing Your Listening Ability
Use a (+) if you are excellent at that skill and could easily teach others how to improve that skill.
Use a (/) if you are average at using that skill. You do as well as most people you know.
Use a (-) if you feel you need improvement in using that skill.
I listen for the other person’s feelings, not just to the words they say.
I paraphrase what other people say to me.
I don’t interrupt.
I am open-minded to ideas, some of which I don’t think I agree with.
I remember what people say.
I am willing to express my feelings.
I don’t complete other people’s sentences even when I think I know what they are going to say next.
I make eye contact.
I don’t think of what I’m going to say next while the other person is talking.
I ask the person questions in order to get more information and show that I am interested in what s/he is saying.
Reprinted with permission from *Interacting with Others: An Affective Skills Curriculum* by Patti McLaughlin, ABLE Network, Seattle, WA.
Listening Techniques
Good listeners show that they are interested in what the speaker is saying. Here are some techniques that good listeners use.
| Listening Techniques | Type/Purpose | Sample Responses |
|----------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| Acknowledgement: | • To make clear that you are interested and listening. | “I see.” |
| | • To encourage the person to continue talking. | “Good point.” |
| | • To show that you understand how the speaker feels. | “I didn’t know that.” |
| | | “I know what you mean.” |
| | | “I understand.” |
| Clarification: | • To make sure you understood. | “Do you mean that . . . ?” |
| | • To get more information. | “Could you say more about that?” |
| | • To encourage the person to speak more slowly or clearly. | “I’m not sure I understood that. Could you say it again?” |
| | | “I think I hear these points: . . . Is that right?” |
| | | “If I understand correctly, you’re saying . . . ” |
1. Tell about a time when someone really listened to you.
2. Tell about a time when you were not listened to.
Assignment # 6
Repeat . . . “the relaxed and ready teacher does not reinvent the wheel. . .the relaxed and ready teacher does not invent the wheel. . .”
Build on other people’s knowledge, research, and expertise. Whenever possible, tell your students where you got the information.
For example, in the wonderful *Seven Ways of Teaching* by David Lazear (IRI Skylight Publishing 1991) there are seven great charts with lesson ideas for each of the seven multiple intelligence areas that Lazear explores.
On the next page is an example from “visual/spatial learners” (Lazear p.46).
And on the pages that follow, some other good ideas for a few favorite books. . .
Read through these ideas, and use this space in the notebook to add your own favorites.
| HISTORY | MATHEMATICS | LANGUAGE ARTS | SCIENCE & HEALTH | GLOBAL STUDIES & GEOGRAPHY | PRACTICAL ARTS & P.E. | FINE ARTS |
|---------|-------------|---------------|-----------------|---------------------------|----------------------|----------|
| Have imaginary talks/interviews with people from the past | Do a survey of students' likes/dislikes then graph the results | Play vocabulary words "Pictionary" | Draw pictures of things seen under a microscope | Draw maps of the world from your visual memory | Draw pictures of how to perform certain physical feats | Watch dancers on video and imagine yourself in their shoes |
| Make visual diagrams and flow charts of historical facts | Estimate measurements by sight and by touch | Teach "mind-mapping" as a notetaking process | Create posters/flyers showing healthy eating practices | Study a culture through its visual art—painting and sculpture | Create visual diagrams of how to use shop machines | Pretend you can enter a painting—imagine what it's like |
| Imagine going back in time—see what it was like "back then" | Add, subtract, multiply, and divide using various manipulatives | Draw pictures of the different stages of a story you're reading | Create montages/collages on science topics (e.g., mammals) | Make maps out of clay and show geographical features | Practice drawing objects from different angles (drafting) | Listen to music with eyes closed and create a sculpture from clay |
| Paint a mural about a period of history | Imagine using a math process successfully, then really do it | Learn to read, write, and decipher code language | Draw visual patterns that appear in the natural world | Make decor for the classroom on a culture you are studying | Learn a series of "spatial games" (e.g., horseshoes, ring toss) | Draw the sets for the various scenes of a play you are reading |
| Imagine and draw what you think the future will be like | Learn metric measurement through visual equivalents | Use highlight markers to "colorize" parts of a story or poem | Pretend you are microscopic and can travel in the bloodstream | Use a map to get around an unfamiliar place or location | Imagine your computer is human—draw how it works | Draw the visual and color pattern of a dance |
† See Glossary and Appendix C
EXAMPLES
2. Teach so that when your students think of fun, joy, and learning, they think of you.
7. Never force anyone to do anything.
12. At least once a month, toss out your plans and do what you like.
18. Don’t be afraid to make mistakes but be sure to learn from them.
39. Use great assignments over and over again.
45. Look for opportunities to tell students how much they mean to you.
69. Have many definitions for “mastery.”
115. Every day look for some small way to improve your teaching.
141. Make a list of twenty things you want to accomplish during the year and refer to it often.
142. Treat them as people who know something you don’t; learn from them.
144. LET THEM SEE YOU LAUGH!!
322. Teach them there is no failure, only feedback.
343. Show your students the joy of doing what they think they cannot do.
345. Remind yourself every day that simple thoughts often produce great discoveries.
365. Make teaching fun (write to me for ideas).
or... write to Carolyn or Donna!
Approach math and science problems the way rock climbers approach mountains. The first part is devoted to preparations you make before you get to the rock. The second part is devoted to techniques used on the rock (problem) itself.
To the uninitiated, rock climbing looks scary and dangerous. For the unprepared, it is. A novice might come to a difficult place in a climb, be unable to figure out the next step, and panic. When a climber freezes, he is truly stuck. Experienced climbers figure out strategies in advance for as many situations as possible. With preparation and training, the sport takes on a different cast.
Sometimes students have the same trouble with academic problems. They get stuck, panic, and freeze. Use the following techniques to avoid that.
Before you get to the rock
1. Practice. Work lots of problems. Do assigned problems and more. Make up your own. Work with a classmate and make up problems for each other to solve.
Set clear goals for practice and write an intention statement about fulfilling those goals.
2. Divide problems by type. Make a list of the different kinds of problems and note the elements of each. By dividing problems into type or category, you can isolate the kinds of problems you have trouble with. Practice those more and get help if you need it.
3. Know your terminology. Mathematicians and scientists often borrow words from plain English and assign new meanings to them. For example, for most of the world, “work” means a job. For the physicist, “work” is force multiplied by distance.
Use 3x5 flash cards to study special terms.
4. Understand formulas. You will be asked to memorize some formulas for convenience. If you understand the basic concepts behind these formulas, you can recall them accurately. More importantly, you will be able to recreate the formulas if your recall falters. Understanding is always preferable to memorization.
5. Use summary sheets for terms and formulas. Mind map summary sheets allow you to see how various kinds of problems relate to one another. You create a structure on which you can hang data, and that helps your recall.
6. Stay current. In math and science courses, understanding the material of week number two depends on what you learned in week number one. Week number three depends on week number two, and so on. Therefore, goofing off for a week in math can have a more serious consequence than goofing off for a week in history. In most math and science courses, falling behind in the first few weeks means the whole course will become effort and struggle. Be very clear about your intentions to stay current in these courses from day one.
7. Notice when you’re in deep water. It’s tempting to shy away from difficult problems. Unfortunately, the more you do this the more difficult the problems become. Math and science courses
present wonderful opportunities to use the first step technique explained in chapter one. When you feel that you're beginning to get in trouble, write a precise discovery statement about the problem. Get it down on paper. Then write an intention statement about what you will do to correct the problem.
8. **When practicing, time yourself**. Sometimes speed counts. Notice how fast you can work problems. That way, when you get to a test, you will know how much time to allot for different types of problems.
9. **Use creative visualizations**. Use the creative visualization techniques described on page 167 to visualize yourself solving problems successfully.
Before you begin a problem-solving session, take a minute to relax, breathe deeply, and prepare yourself for the task ahead.
---
**On the rock**
1. **Survey the territory thoroughly**. Read the problem at least twice before you begin. Read slowly. Be certain you understand what is being asked.
2. **Sort the facts**. Survey the problem for all of the givens. Determine the principles and relationships involved. Look for what is to be proven or what is to be discovered. Write these down.
3. **Set up the problem**. Before you begin to compute, determine the strategy you will use to arrive at the solution and plug the data into this framework.
4. **Cancel and combine**. When you have set up a problem logically, you will be able to take shortcuts. For example, if the same term appears in both dividend and divisor, they will cancel each other.
5. **Draw a picture**. Make a diagram. Pictures help keep the facts straight. They show relationships more effectively than words.
6. **Read the problem aloud**. Sometimes the sound of your voice will jar loose the solution to a problem. Talk yourself through the solution. Read equations out loud.
7. **Check results**. Work problems backwards, then forwards. Start at both ends and work towards the middle to check your work.
Another way to check your work is to estimate the answer before you compute it.
One of my (Carolyn) favorite teachers is Nancie Atwell, a middle school teacher from Boothbay Harbor, Maine. For years she has inspired her students to read and write—and to see themselves as readers and writers who can think well, ask good questions, and write clearly and creatively. *In the Middle* is her best-known book which documents her experience of teaching the writing process to 8th graders (but this very readable and inspiring book is wonderful for adult education). She has also written *Coming to Know* which discusses how to lead students to create good research projects, and *Lessons that Change Writers* (all published by Heinmann Press). The lessons on the following pages come from this last book—a notebook of reproducible lesson pages (found in the UNH library).
Another favorite teacher/writer is Ralph Fletcher whose writing lessons for elementary students are challenging for any age. Included here (after the Nancie Atwell lessons) is a sample of writing tips from his website (ralphfletcher.com).
*What these teachers have in common is the belief that you the teacher must also be a writer. You must dare to create—and make mistakes—and share the good and bad with your students. If you show them how to write, they will write. If you show them that sometimes even teachers write badly they will have courage to write imperfectly.*
QUESTIONS TO HELP MINE YOUR HEART
What has stayed in your heart? What memories, moments, people, animals, objects, places, books, fears, scars, friends, siblings, parents, grandparents, teachers, other people, journeys, secrets, dreams, crushes, relationships, comforts, learning experiences?
What’s at the center? The edges? What’s in your heart?
Draw a heart below (❤️). Then fill it up with these things. See the next page for examples.
Peter's Heart Map
Learning to play piano
Spleen injury
My grandfather dying
Growing up in a fort
Cabot, our old springer spaniel
Sailing
My grandfather swearing
Spencer my cat
When I was younger
Driving auto for standard first time
Getting my bike
Living in the same house all my life
I first started to listen to music
Moxie
Using a knife, I saw my grandmother
Seeing my grandfather packaging fish while dying
My first car
My grandfather cooking
Always having money
Flying in planes
Learning how to bike
Spring places with my grandfather cruising in Florida
Learning how to ski
Heidi when she was a puppy
Dad Mom
Italian food when my grandmother died
Brussel sprouts
French fries
All chocolate
My stuffed 12 year old bunny
Playing soccer
Don’t write about a general idea or topic; write about a specific, observable person, place, occasion, time, object, animal, or experience. Its essence will lie in the sensory images the writer evokes: observed details of sight, sound, smell, touch, taste; and strong verbs that bring the details to life.
Don’t write about _______________. Write about a _____________
(pebbles) (pebble)
Don’t write about fall. Write about this fall day. Go to the window; go outside.
Don’t write about sunsets. Write about the amazing sunset you saw last night.
Don’t write about dogs or kittens. Observe and write about your dog, your kitten.
Don’t write about friendship. Write about your friend, about what he or she does or has done to be a good friend to you.
Don’t write about love. Write specifically about someone or something you love: these are the greatest love poems.
Don’t write about sailing. Remember and write about a time you went sailing.
Don’t write about babies. Write about your baby sister, your baby cousin.
Don’t write about reading. Write about your experience reading one book.
Don’t write about pumpkins. Write about the pumpkin you carved last night, the pumpkin you grew from seeds, your family’s jack-o’-lantern that the bad high school boys smashed on the road.
1. What’s your name?
2. How old are you?
3. What’s the problem you’re facing?
4. What’s your family background?
5. Where do you live?
6. What do you like to do?
7. What’s different about you?
8. What do you care about?
9. What do you fear?
10. What are your dreams?
11. Who are the important people in your life?
12. What are the important things in your life?
13. How will you change through confronting your problem? Possibilities:
14. What will you understand about yourself and your world at the end of the story? Possibilities:
THE RULE OF SO WHAT?
Good writing in every genre answers the question SO WHAT? Good writing has a purpose, a point, a reason it was written.
The good writer looks for and finds the meanings, the significances, the implications in the subject he or she has chosen.
Sometimes, the SO WHAT? is subtle and implicit. Sometimes it’s explicitly stated. But always a good reader finds something to think about because a good writer has found something to think about.
Robert Frost wrote, “No tears for the writer, no tears for the reader.” If you don’t find the deep meanings in your life or your characters’ lives, your readers won’t find meanings in their own.
A good writer often discovers the SO WHAT? through the thinking of the writing process. But even with hard thinking, some topics may not have a SO WHAT? These pieces can be abandoned or put on hold.
What Should I Write About?
I'm not a big believer in "story starters". I believe that the best ideas are living inside you. Your challenge is to dig them out. Do the writing only you can do. But every writer gets stuck from time to time so I've included a few ideas to jump-start your imagination. You might try to write about:
*Family story
*A particular tradition in your family.
*An artifact (arrowhead, ring, antique, etc.). Important objects in our lives often provide excellent material to write about.
*Special place: special room, attic nook, inside of a tree, scary closet. You might start by quickly sketching a map of a house full of memories. Mark those rooms where something important happened to you.
*Brother, sister, or special relative. Remember: think small. Focus on one aspect of that person, or one experience you had with him or her.
*Your place in the family. Are the oldest kid in your family? The youngest? Are you a middle child? An only child? Were you adopted?
*Best friend. (Did you ever get in trouble?)
*Moving. Did you leave behind a best friend when you moved from your old house?
*A disastrous time you had at camp or on a family vacation.
*Horrible haircut (or other mortifying experience)
*An injury. Did you ever have to go to the hospital?
*Important first: your first day in school, the first time you rode a two-wheeler, etc.
*Favorite pet, or a pet you once had.
*When your family changed: your brother went off to college, grandma came to live with you, etc.
*What you are (or used to be) afraid of.
*One thing you never want to do again!
How To Use Your Writer's Notebook
Use your notebook to breathe in the world around you. You can write about:
1) What amazes/surprises/anger you
2) What you wonder about
3) What you notice
4) "Seed Ideas" or "Triggers" to generate stories or poems
5) Small details that intrigue you
6) Snatches of talk you overhear
7) Memories
8) Lists
9) Photos, articles, ticket stubs or other artifacts
10) Your own sketches, drawings or doodles
11) Quotes or inspiring passages from books or poems
Once you have gathered a lot of writing in your notebook, try the following ideas:
1) Reread to dig out the best material
2) Experiment with new kinds of writing
3) Try to write something beautiful but don't expect all your writing to be great. Give yourself permission to write badly!
4) Write about personal things--fears, nightmares, or dreams--that contain strong feelings
5) Write about writing
Remember these tips:
*Keep your notebook with you so you can write at any place and time.
*Pull your notebook out whenever you have a few minutes with nothing else to do.
*The notebook you keep should reflect you. If you like to draw, draw in your notebook.
*Writing can be fun. Your notebook is a place to enjoy writing.
Prewriting Strategies For Your Writing
1) Write in Your Writer's Notebook. A writer's notebook gives you an easy, informal, no-pressure way to start thinking about a topic. Great for brand-new "seed ideas".
2) Talk It Out. Sometimes I'll get together with a friend to kick around an idea I'm thinking about. There's a little danger here--if you talk too much you can talk the mystery out of an idea. I have found that a little
Other Inspiring Authors:
Natalie Goldberg *Writing Down the Bones: Freeing the Writer Within*
(Shambala 1986)
Linda Christensen *Reading, Writing, and Rising Up: Teaching about Social Justice and the Power of the Written Word*
(Rethinking Schools Publication 2002)
Quote from Linda Christensen (from “Rethinking Schools” website):
“My students walk out the school door into a social emergency. They are at the center of it. I believe that writing is a basic skill that will help them both understand that emergency and work to change it.”
Assignment # 7: Find out What Your Students Know.
Idea # 1: Your students know amazing things that they can teach you and the class. Your challenge as a teacher is to find ways to help them share this knowledge. A few ideas:
Begin class with an “I can” exercise. For literacy level students use pictures of various activities. (Sometimes I use a list of questions with pictures. “Can you cook? Can you ski? Can you talk on the phone?”; sometimes I have students list 5 things they can do; sometimes they interview each other to discover these things).
Have students sign up for 5 to 15 minute slots over a period of several class sessions to share something they know with the class. This is always fun. In an ESOL class I have learned about Russian history and how to have a tea ceremony; how to eat chocolate covered ants, the importance of drummers in the Swiss army; how an abacus works (from a student who made one out of fruit loops); how beautiful the beaches of Turkey are, and so on.
NOTE: BEGINNING STUDENTS CAN DO THIS! The woman who demonstrated the tea ceremony probably spoke about 5 words in English. She poured tea, smiled, said “tea” “sugar” and “drink.” But we all understood and we all enjoyed it and she taught us something. This is empowering to a student!
Idea # 2: Let students create the material that the class uses.
The important work that you do as a teacher is MODEL. Provide stories, poems, pictures, things from your life and NOTEBOOK. Read to them from
your own favorite book—or your child’s favorite (Goodnight Moon...). Tell them about a problem you have—and encourage students to create their own work based on yours. And this work becomes what students read, discuss, edit, and write further about.
Teach grammar through “sentence lifting” a phrase borrowed from Tom Newkirk at UNH. Students write. Then you read their writing and from each piece select a common grammatical error or problem. Write these sentences on an overhead or on the board and have students correct them together. (You may want to choose just one a day) and focus on learning the relevant grammar rules. For example, if there are lots of agreement errors in the students’ writing, find a worksheet on agreement (Here is a very good use for the internet!). Grammar lessons that come from student writing are always relevant.
What are some ideas you have about using student work as class material? Brainstorm here.
Assignment #8
Think about the expertise of people around you—your family, friends, volunteers in your class, community leaders, people with ordinary jobs...and think about how their knowledge can enrich your classroom. The newspaper story on the following page is an example of how a volunteer in the class, Susan Chamberlin of Portsmouth, NH, brought her quilt-making expertise into class and inspired the students to create a meaningful, community-building project.
Use Donna’s thinking circle to brainstorm about people in the community whose expertise you might use in your class.
Note: Donna always keeps a calendar in her notebook so if she meets someone in town who is willing to come talk to her class she can schedule a time right there.
Patchwork quilt tells tales of other lands
By MICHAEL GOOT
Portsmouth Bureau Chief
PORTSMOUTH — Call it a quilt of many cultures.
Fifteen students from the English as a Second Language class at Rockingham Community Action displayed a giant patchwork quilt at City Hall on Tuesday, May 24. They had spent about three months putting the quilt together as part of a class project.
Each block of the quilt represented a folktale from different cultures. Also, each country flag was represented.
Carolyn Hutton, English instructor for the class, said the project grew out of the fact that one of the volunteers does quilting. One day she brought in one of her quilts to show.
"The students tell a lot of stories about their countries and folktales," Hutton said. "They got the idea they could tell stories using pictures."
Kristie Conrad, adult education director with Rockingham Community Action, said among the countries represented in the class were Indonesia, Russia, Brazil, the Dominican Republic and China. She said the organization hopes to display the quilt in other places around the city.
"It's probably going to be a traveling piece, so it gets out into the community and people get a better idea of other people in the community," she said.
Zhangyu Zhang of Durham is originally from China; she has been in the country for one year while her husband does post-doctorate work at the University of New Hampshire.
Her panel featured a picture telling the story of a farmer who has a tree in his yard. One day a rabbit runs into the tree and dies and the farmer has food for the day. The farmer thinks he does not have to do anything and waits for more rabbits. The moral of the story is "you have to work hard," she said.
Zhang said she enjoys the foreign language class.
"I'm very interested in hearing about American culture and New England," she said.
Nevzat Cag of Portsmouth, who is originally from Turkey, spoke about a panel that his wife, Filiz, did.
The story is about a man who wants to borrow a caldron from his stingy neighbor. The person does not want to give it up initially, but eventually is persuaded. The borrower uses it for a couple of days and then returns it with a small pot inside. He said the caldron gave birth.
Later, the man borrows the caldron again and does not return it for a long while. The neighbor is getting frustrated and expects another pot.
When it is returned, there is some of the items she has in her display case from other countries. She said she enjoyed the class from Rockingham Community Action. Here, at Portsmouth City Hall on Tuesday, May 24, they stand in front of the "story quilt" they made which tells folktales from 12 countries.
SUTARJI MUZADI, Tanya Teleganova, Zhengyu Zhang, CeeCee Cerier, Filiz Cag, Eva Alvarez Perez duel Rio, Paola Kawanka and Wellington Dias are all students of the English as a Second Language class from Rockingham Community Action. Here, at Portsmouth City Hall on Tuesday, May 24, they stand in front of the "story quilt" they made which tells folktales from 12 countries.
Beth Lorden/ Democrat photo
would believe the caldron gave birth. Cag said the moral of the story is "Don't believe that you hear."
Filiz Cag also said she enjoys the class. "The teacher is very nice. She's speaking very slow and I understand."
Using Community Members in Lesson Plans
- Craft People
- Jewelry
- George - Woodworking
- V - paper box making
- Judith - begin drawing
- Medical People
- "Career commercials"
- Job shadowing
- Q + A re medical questions
- dental hygienist
- Travelers
- speakers
- M. Sr. OV. A.
- Bankers
- Visit bank
- Loan info
- Q + A re $ issues
- Chamber Office
- Local activities
- Volunteer opp
- Diabetes Educator
- Pediatrician
My hope is that by the end of our journey together, you will share with me what my role model, the late Richard Feyman, called “the pleasure of finding things out.” Feynman, a Nobel laureate who was a legendary physicist, accomplished bongo drummer, and expert safe-cracker, summed up his lifetime of learning this way: “I was born not knowing and have only had a little time to change that here and there.”
from *Educating Alice*
by Alice Steinbach
THE BEGINNING
To pay attention, this is our endless and proper work.
Mary Oliver
“White Pine” | 09e241aa-1cfd-4f64-ad16-2651a31de444 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.education.nh.gov/sites/g/files/ehbemt326/files/inline-documents/t1-life-assignments.pdf | 2022-12-05T11:49:11+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711016.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20221205100449-20221205130449-00198.warc.gz | 782,780,851 | 27,216 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.982968 | eng_Latn | 0.999431 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"... | true | rolmOCR | [
1295,
3777,
4250,
4898,
6635,
7496,
9187,
10023,
10640,
10969,
15737,
15988,
16233,
16796,
17520,
17892,
18289,
18311,
18320,
19790,
20181,
21092,
22563,
23520,
25482,
27117,
27178,
27547,
28118,
30754,
32176,
32909,
35664,
35836,
37641,
39036,
... | [
2.53125,
4
] | 1 | 0 |
The Early Osage—"The Ishmaelites of the Savages"
by James R. Christianson
THE LOCATION OF THE ANCESTRAL HOME of the Osage tribe is not known with certainty. Tribal tradition says it was somewhere along the Ohio River. Linguistically the Osage are classified as the Dhegih speakers of the Siouan language family, as are the Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, and Quapaw. The Osage are described as being the most formidable among these southern Siouan tribes which wandered together in some prehistoric period as far as the lower course of the Ohio River. Some linguistic maps identify the original home of the Osage and other members of the same family as being in the vicinity of present-day Virginia and North Carolina, and westward to the eastern boundary of Tennessee. From here they are thought to have been driven by the Iroquois and other tribes to the general area of the lower Ohio River. Other students of Osage antiquity have determined, on the basis of ethnographical and archeological evidences, that the culture characteristically Osage was unique to the area of its late prehistoric and early historic habitation sites centered on the Osage River and extending into southeastern Oklahoma, northeastern Arkansas, and southwestern Missouri.\(^1\) The Indians themselves offer little help in resolving the question of their origin. Several Osage tribal myths relate to Osage origins but examination proves them all historically unreliable.
One myth has it that the first Osage man came down from the sun at about the same time that the first Osage woman came from the moon. These two became the parents of three boys and three girls. The two younger children—a boy and a girl—successfully communicated with the Great Spirit and were in turn given knowledge of the bow and arrow, of fire, and of the lever. They shared this information with their brothers and sisters. Eventually the six paired off and became progenitors of a powerful nation. Desiring to expand and explore, this people penetrated the wilderness in every direction ruthlessly defeating and subduing in the process all its inhabitants. They became known as Wha-sha-she or the daring men, and were so called for many hundreds of years, until the eighteenth century when they encountered white men and were subsequently renamed Ochage or Osage.\(^2\)
Throughout their recorded history, the prowess and fierceness of Osage warriors made them an object of fear to their enemies, who were many, and a prize to their allies, who were few. Of the Osage it was said that they were "noble and generous with their friends but terrible with their enemies." In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Osage, whose influence extended over most of what is presently Missouri and Arkansas north of the Arkansas River, the southern half of Kansas, and the northern half of Oklahoma, warred against tribes as far south as Texas. The losses suffered by some of their victims were so great that, as in the case of the Tonkawa, Tawakoni and Kichai, weaker tribes were forced to move beyond the reach of Osage attacks.\(^3\) Their aggressive ways won for them the title of "the Ishmaelites of the savages," for it was said "their hand was against everyone and most of the other tribes were hostile to them."\(^4\) From time to time, the offended nations would band together to fight the Osage. Such was the case in 1750 when the Wichita
---
1. Frederick Webb Hodge, ed., *Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico*, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin no. 30, pt. 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910), 156; Joab Spencer, "Missouri's Aboriginal Inhabitants," *Missouri Historical Review* 3 (July 1909): 278; Brewton Berry, Carl Chapman, John Mack, "Archeological Remains of the Osage," *American Antiquity* 10 (1944).
2. Mary Paul Ponziglione, "The Osages and Father John Schoenmakers," Osage Papers, St. Louis University, St. Louis.
3. Mary Paul Ponziglione, "The History of the Osage Indians," Osage Papers; Grant Foreman, *Indians and Pioneers: The Story of the American Southwest Before 1830* (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930), 14-17.
4. Abraham P. Nasair, "Ducharme's Invasion of Missouri, an Incident in the Anglo-Spanish Rivalry for the Indian Trade of Upper Louisiana," *Missouri Historical Review* 24 (April 1930): 435.
In 1673, Pere Marquette noted Osage village sites that were located in present-day Missouri. (From John Joseph Mathews, The Osages: Children of the Middle Waters. Copyright, 1961, University of Oklahoma Press.)
and the Comanche nations joined forces to loot and destroy a Great Osage village. The attack occurred while the main body of the band was away on the hunt, and the remaining inhabitants of the town—mostly women and children, the aged and the sick—were all killed or captured.
In contrast to the hostilities experienced in their relationship with other tribes, the Osage looked with some favor on the white men who started coming among them during the latter part of the seventeenth century. According to the available records, the first meeting occurred on the Osage River in 1673 when several Osage towns were visited by Father Jacques Marquette. Fourteen years later, in 1687, Father Anastasius Douay, a priest of LaSalle's company, visited them. By 1712 the Osage had experienced repeated contacts with the French and had come to look upon them as an ally. The Europeans in turn recognized the tribe as a distinct political entity. In 1717, following a visit among them, Louis Boisbriant, governor of Illinois and Louisiana, described the Osage as being good friends of the French, especially since they were willing to fight the Spanish.
5. Carl Chapman, "The Origin of the Osages," (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1959), 81.
6. Ibid., 75; Ponziglione, "History of the Osage Indians," 30.
To the Osage, friendship did not necessarily mean the French were not to be taken advantage of if an opportunity arose. For example, when the French explorer Charles Claude DuTisne visited a segment of the tribe in 1719, he was ill-treated and was allowed to depart only after he surrendered many of his weapons and agreed to proceed with a greatly reduced force. To make matters worse, the natives sent word to the Pawnee, toward whose villages DuTisne was proceeding, that the Frenchmen intended to capture and make slaves of them. As a result, the Pawnee greeted DuTisne and his party with hostility and forced them to retreat down the Missouri rather than allowing them to continue, as they wished, to the land of the Padoucas.\(^7\)
In 1719 another explorer, Bernard de La Harpe, was on an expedition which brought him into Osage country. He encountered a hostile band of about twenty warriors which he was able to disperse only after a considerable display of force. When finally allowed to continue, La Harpe remarked that, although friends of the French, the Osage were known to be treacherous and constantly needed to be guarded against.\(^8\) In spite of such suspicion and mistrust, the contacts between the Osage and French were more peaceful, harmonious,
---
7. DuTisne to M. de Beinville, November 22, 1719, Indian Papers, 1600-1799, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis.
8. Anna Lewis, "La Harpe's First Expedition in Oklahoma, 1718-1719," *Chronicles of Oklahoma* 2 (December 1924): 321-39.
and lasting than the associations of the Osage with any other people. This was no doubt partly because of intermarriage and some acceptance of Catholicism.
The change in civil administration from French to Spanish occurred in 1763, and in time resulted in a radical modification of the relationship between the Osage and the European power claiming jurisdiction over them. The new governors of the area were at first disposed to follow a conciliatory policy toward the Osage. For this reason, in 1769, they were included on the list of nations receiving presents from the Crown. They were still on the list in 1777. A note attached to the report of that year's gifts described the Osage as excellent hunters, their furs being the main source of supply for the Spanish post in St. Louis. The note characterized the Osage further as very hostile toward other tribes, much given to horse stealing, and always ready to break the peace. Finally, it specified the location of the tribe's two bands: the Little Osage, numbering some four hundred warriors, lived about eighty-five leagues from St. Louis near the banks of the Missouri; and the Great Osage, said to number eight hundred fighting men, located one hundred eighty leagues up the Missouri from St. Louis.\(^9\)
In 1779 Spanish officials reported that although every reasonable effort had been made to befriend the Osage, it was to no avail. In view of this, the Spanish government decided in 1780 to invoke a prohibition on all trade with the Osage nation. Finding the established avenues of commerce closed to them, the Indians initiated trade with Americans living east of the Mississippi River and developed this new relationship to the extent that they were little affected by the Spanish prohibition. They also continued to commit serious depredations against other Indian tribes. The Spanish retaliated in 1793 by declaring war against them and by encouraging all surrounding tribes to unite in an effort to destroy their common enemy. The general good demanded that the Osage be absolutely destroyed and their land secured.\(^10\)
During the ensuing months, the Spanish attempted to marshal the forces of tribes hostile to the Osage, some from as far distant as northern Mexico. Before the Spanish and their allies were ready to launch an assault, the Osage scattered over the Plains on their accustomed summer hunt, thereby eliminating all possibility of success. In the meantime, defection of the Loup and Chavuesnon tribes and a total absence of response from white settlers made victory over the Osage doubtful and introduced the possibility of an embarrassing defeat. Finally, in the spring of 1794, a large party of Osage laid siege to a village, killing one white man and so frightening the settlers that they raised an immediate cry for peace. By that time, the government was also anxious for a settlement and negotiated a peace pact.\(^11\)
Under the terms of the treaty, the Spanish obtained permission to establish a fort near the Great Osage villages. They did this hoping that the continuous presence of soldiers and traders would influence the natives to remain peaceful. On May 18, 1794, Spanish governmental officials selected Auguste Chouteau to build the fort, at the same time granting him an exclusive trading privilege that was to last six years. The establishment, named Fort Carondelet after the Spanish governor of New Orleans, was completed in 1795. Pierre L. Chouteau, the Spanish-appointed commander of the post, cooperated with Auguste in establishing a close relationship with the Osage.\(^12\)
In spite of the treaty, the Osage were slow to change their violent ways. So great was the desire of the Spanish to placate them, however, that considerable allowance was made for their abrasive behavior. Such favoritism proved extremely irritating to other tribes which continued to harbor a deep hatred for the Osage. Their feelings were expressed by a Miami chief who complained that if the people of his or any other nation were to steal horses, become intoxicated or commit other extravagant acts, their European governors would promptly label them dogs deserving death. The Osage, however, could pillage, steal, and kill and receive only caresses and presents. The Spaniards' favoritism rankled several tribes—among them the Miami, Comanche, and Chickasaw. Taking license from the earlier declaration of open season on the Osage, these tribes began sending out war parties that took many scalps. Under the leadership of Clermont, one of the principal chiefs, some of the Osage chose to ignore the pleas of the Chouteaus and retaliated. Following a successful mission, Clermont returned to find that Big Track, one of the lesser chiefs and a favorite of the Chouteaus, had replaced
---
9. Louis Houck, ed., *The Spanish Regime in Missouri*, 2 vols. (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley and Sons Co., 1909), 1:44-48, 141-44.
10. Ibid., 1:163-64, and 2:49-52. Earlier efforts to enforce conformity had led to a devastating attack in 1775 by the Sac and Fox on the Little Osage. See Chapman, "Origin of Osages," 84.
11. Houck, *Spanish Regime in Missouri*, 2:55-57; Chapman, "Origin of Osages," 88-89.
12. Houck, *Spanish Regime in Missouri*, 2:82, 100-6; Baron de Carondelet to Pierre Chouteau, May 21, 1794, P. Chouteau Papers, 1794-1795, Missouri Historical Society. Don Renate Auguste Chouteau was a rich Creole living in St. Louis. He was friendly toward Spain and highly regarded by the Osage as he and his brother Pierre had once lived among them.
him as the leader of several Great Osage towns. In response to this action precipitated by the Chouteaus, the old chief assembled his followers and removed to the lower Verdigris River near its junction with the Arkansas, thereby establishing the Arkansas band of the Osage nation.\textsuperscript{13}
By 1798 the Spanish authorities were of the opinion that, except for the Arkansas band, the presence of the fort and the influence of the Chouteaus had successfully tempered the Osage taste for troublemaking. One observer expressed the expectation that in a few years the Osage would be as much a source of help and friendship to neighboring tribes as they had been a source of injury and fear in the past. Clermont's people, on the other hand, had become notorious for their atrocities. Since the victims were mostly hunters and wanderers along the Arkansas River, a class described as the "scum of the posts," the Spanish decided to do nothing rather than have the band retaliate and disturb the Illinois settlements which had been increasing rapidly under the more peaceful conditions.\textsuperscript{14}
\textsuperscript{13} Houck, \textit{Spanish Regime in Missouri}, 2:95-96, 196. See also Chapman, “Origin of Osages,” 89-90.
\textsuperscript{14} Houck, \textit{Spanish Regime in Missouri}, 2:102, 250-51; Auguste Chouteau to Manuel Gayoso de Lemus, June 24, 1797, P. Chouteau Papers, 1796-1797, Missouri Historical Society.
\textit{Indicative of other tribes' hostility toward the Osage was the name of this Pawnee sub-chief—He Who Kills Osages.}
Although the government had granted Auguste Chouteau a trade monopoly with the tribes, other traders and merchants were anxious to secure a portion for themselves. Their zeal for profit was not dampened by the fact that the Osage would often refuse to pay for goods or would force an unequal exchange, maltreating the traders should they resist. This avarice motivated them to try to undermine the Chouteau monopoly. Meanwhile, government officials close to the scene expressed the opinion that it was no longer necessary to continue the agreement with Chouteau. Auguste himself was hesitant about his ability to continue since, under the existing agreement, the Spanish government did not subsidize the cost of maintaining the fort and of pacifying the Osage. In 1802 the question came to a head when a new governor, Juan Manuel de Salcedo, ordered that an exclusive right to trade with the Osage be granted Manuel Lisa and his partners. Thus excluded, Auguste succeeded in retaining the right to trade along the Arkansas River and persuaded many of the Great Osage to accompany him to a post he had previously established above the junction of the Verdigris and Arkansas rivers. Big Track became chief of the new settlement. At this point, the Osage nation was divided into three separate units. In addition to the group that followed Chouteau, there were the Little Osage and some Great Osage under Chief White Hair, located along the Missouri and the Osage rivers, and Clermont's band of Great Osage, living on the Arkansas River.
Between 1800 and 1803 the several Osage bands were again guilty of serious depredations. Following the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 and a subsequent "Treaty of Friendship and Allegiance" with the United States in 1804, the unrest continued. The tribe's reputation became such that hunters and trappers from the states were "afraid [sic] of those savages who are at war with the world and destroy all strangers they can meet with." Further, frontiersmen who knew them concurred that this tribe, above all others, was "extremely faithless, particularly those on the arcansa [Arkansas], the others...are but very little more to be depended upon; they pretend to make peace & enter into terms of amity, but on the first favorable occasion, they rob, plunder and even kill without hesitation." According to the same report, neighboring tribes also viewed with "great abhorrence" this "barbarous, uncivilized race," and had been "concerting plans" for destruction of the Osage.
By 1808 acts of violence charged to the Osage had increased to such a degree that Meriwether Lewis, the new governor of the Louisiana Territory, declared them beyond the protection of the United States and recalled traders from among them. Tribes hostile to the Osage were told that they were free to treat them as their common enemy and were encouraged to attack in such numbers as to either destroy or drive them out of the country. President Thomas Jefferson suggested that the friendly nations not only be encouraged to war against the Osage but that they also be armed by the federal government as a means of assuring victory.
The disciplinary measures proposed by the President and the governor did not, however, have a chance to materialize. Faced with possible destruction, several Osage factions sent a peace delegation to St. Louis in the fall of 1808 and, as part of a treaty agreement with the U.S. government, offered to meet in April 1809 with the spokesmen of the various injured nations. This show of good faith resulted in a stay of execution, whereupon the Osage failed to appear at the intended council. For this reason, when they arrived at Fort Osage in August of 1809 to trade for winter supplies, George Sibley, the factor, turned them away. He ordered them to return to their homes and gave them until snowfall to settle their differences with the other tribes. If by that time they had not demonstrated to him and to their agent, Pierre Chouteau, that they could conduct themselves properly, their enemies would be permitted to attack them from every direction. "If," General Clark wrote to Sibley, "this plan is strictly adhered to these bandits might be
---
15. Houck, *Spanish Regime in Missouri*, 2:102, 151; Walter B. Douglas, "Manuel Lisa," *Missouri Historical Collection* 3 (1911):241-42; Foreman, *Indians and Pioneers*, 21; Pierre Chouteau to Thomas Jefferson, January 31, 1805, and March 1805, Pierre Chouteau Letterbooks, Missouri Historical Society; Auguste Chouteau to El Baron de Carondelet, April 18, 1797, P. Chouteau Papers, 1796-1797; Auguste Chouteau to Manuel Gayoso de Lemus, April 14, 1799, P. Chouteau Papers, 1797-1799.
16. El Marques de Casa Calvo to Carlo de Lasso, June 9, 1800, and Manuel de Salcedo to Carlo de Lasso, August 27, 1802, P. Chouteau Papers, 1800-1803, Missouri Historical Society; Pierre Chouteau to Thomas Jefferson, October 12, 1804, Pierre Chouteau Letterbooks.
17. Thomas Jefferson and William Dunbar, *Documents Relating to the Purchase and Exploration of Louisiana* (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1904), 73-74, 166-67.
18. Lewis to Sec. of War Henry Dearborn, July 1, 1808, and Jefferson to Lewis, August 21, 1808, *The Territorial Papers of the United States*, comp. and ed. Clarence Edwin Carter (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949), 14:196-97, 219-20. Some of the Little Osage and White Hair's band of Great Osage were not under the ban.
19. James McFarlane, Osage agent, to William Clark, February 20, 1809, *Territorial Papers of United States*, 14:269.
brought to a true sense of their situation and a great portion of them may become good Indians."20
After Governor Lewis was killed in the autumn of 1809, officials lifted the ban, and the Osage were once again offered protection and allowed to visit Fort Osage. Under the terms of the treaty with the United States in 1808, the parties stipulated that the tribe surrender all but the extreme western edge of its lands in Missouri and Arkansas, about fifty million acres, in exchange for $1,200 cash, up to $5,000 in payments for damage claims against them, and $1,500 as an annual annuity.21 In addition, the treaty required that the Osage trade at the fort and that all bands, including Clermont's in Arkansas Territory, remove to the vicinity of the fort. This they did in large numbers even though the treaty was not ratified until 1810. By the spring of 1809, however, dissatisfactions arose and the natives began filtering back to their old village sites.
The death of Lewis and the subsequent change in policy encouraged them to trade at the government post, but those who had left refused to resettle in the area. The latter group attached itself to Auguste Chouteau, viewing him as their white "father." The tribesmen who remained near the fort did so primarily because of their attachment to Gen. William Clark. The divisions within the tribe were discovered by their enemies, who then proceeded to intercept trading parties journeying to and from the post.22 These attacks increased until the several bands were forced to ask the federal government for an escort. When no escort materialized and raiders killed a large number of tribesmen on a trading expedition in the spring of 1812, the Osage decided to no longer go to the government trading post. Thereafter, they dealt with traders who came to them.
At this time, George Sibley reported the location of the Osage bands as follows: the Great Osage, numbering about four hundred families, were in part on the Osage River some eighty miles south of Fort Osage; the remainder on the Neosho River 120 miles to the southwest of the fort. Contrary to the terms of the 1808 treaty, Clermont's Arkansas band, numbering six hundred families, refused to leave ceded lands in Arkansas and persisted on the Verdigris River about two hundred miles southwest of the post. The Little Osage, with 250 families, were also on the Neosho, about ten miles southwest of the fort.23
During the next several years, Sibley became increasingly sympathetic toward the tribe, feeling that their conduct on the whole had become such as to deserve the government's favor. The expressed allegiance of the Osage during the early years of the War of 1812 entitled them, he felt, "to every accom[m]odation of the obligations which the treaty lays towards them." Gen. William Clark, southern superintendent for Indian Affairs, did not take quite the same view. Learning that Sibley was going to live for some months among the Great Osage on the Osage River, he reminded him in a letter of the many whites killed by these and the Arkansas band during the previous year and of their untold depredations resulting in large property losses. In the face of this, he insisted that an example be made of some of their members, and the sooner the better.24
When the War of 1812 ended, the Osage had vacated much of the land they had surrendered in the Treaty of 1808. In 1815 the many white settlers already on the ceded land were joined by most of the Miami tribe, who settled near the Missouri River at a former Little Osage village site in present Saline County, Missouri.25 The following year, a few Cherokee arrived, and by the close of 1818 over three thousand Cherokee were living in the lower Arkansas River area. In subsequent years, the United States relocated other tribes—the Delaware in 1820, the Kickapoo in 1823, and the Creek in 1825—within the former Osage homeland. The presence of these and other Indians
---
20. Clark to Sibley, August 19, 1809, Sibley Papers, Missouri Historical Society.
21. William Clark to Sec. of War Henry Dearborn, September 23, 1808, Territorial Papers of United States., 14:224-26. See also Pierre Chouteau, Jr., to Sec. of War William Eustus, September 2, 1809, Pierre Chouteau Letterbooks, 136. A drawing of the approximate area given up in the 1808 treaty can be found in George Vance Labodie and Russell G. Fister, *The Golden Book of the Osages* (no imprint).
22. Officers at Fort Osage to Sec. of War Eustus, July 16, 1812, Territorial Papers of United States, 14:587-88.
23. Ibid. See also Sibley to Clark, July 9, 1813, Sibley Papers.
24. Sibley to Clark, July 9, 1813, and Clark to Sibley, March 18, 1814, Sibley Papers. An example of the Osage offenses here referred to is shown in Auguste Chouteau and Sylvestre Labbadie's complaint that $735 in goods had been lost to the Osage in the following manner. Joseph Suisse, an employee, has been trading with the Indians when a group of Osage came into the post, complained of the high prices, and demanded that the trader "stand aside or he would have cause to repent." They then broke open bales of blankets and distributed them all around. The loss was done for clothing and other items. When the trader and a companion attempted to stop the proceedings, they were violently thrown aside and the latter's Indian wife threatened with death for attempting to conceal some blankets. See Claim of A. P. Chouteau and Sylvestre Labbadie, June 3, 1814, Indian Papers, 1800-1815, Missouri Historical Society. Chouteau also complained that the Osage were notorious beggars and their demands for free coffee, tea, alcohol, and other sundries were not easily refused, reducing their agents to a condition of financial ruin.
25. Chapman, "Origin of Osages," 96. See also Spencer, "Missouri's Aboriginal Inhabitants," 276.
and the reluctance of the Osage to discontinue their annual hunting expeditions to these lands became a source of serious conflict. The emigrant Cherokees' displeasure with the location of their new home intensified the conflict. Cut off from access to the west, the Cherokee coveted Osage lands just north of the Arkansas River in what is presently Oklahoma and western Arkansas.\textsuperscript{26} This region was a prize because of its natural abundance and its service as a much needed outlet to the western buffalo graze.
By the summer of 1815, the government, recognizing escalating unrest, intervened by establishing an Indian commission and sending its members to meet with a deputation of headmen from the agitated tribes. The commissioners and tribal leaders arranged a council, but when the appointed date in October arrived and the Osage delegation did not appear, the situation continued unresolved. Before the government could take further preventive action, General Clark reported that the emigrant tribes had declared war. During the summer of 1817, an allied force of nearly six hundred Indians from the Miami, Delaware, and Cherokee and Creek tribes moved against several Osage towns, but with little success. Clark feared, however, that should the war continue, the Osage would soon be wiped out. The fact that the Osage were guilty of numerous serious offenses against American frontiersmen, who as a result were also on the verge of attacking them, heightened the threat of extinction. Charges against the tribe were so numerous that the government withheld total annuity payment for 1817.
\textsuperscript{26} Charles C. Royce, "The Cherokee Nation of Indians," \textit{Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84} (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1887), 217-18; Foreman, \textit{Indians and Pioneers}, 79-81.
to pay off the claims of aggrieved settlers. Without the annuity supplies, the Osage were unable to trade for the guns and ammunition they needed to successfully defend themselves.\textsuperscript{27}
In May 1818, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun informed Gov. William Clark that the President had ordered an immediate end to the conflict. Since the Osage were bested in their several encounters with the allied bands, he directed that they grant to the Cherokee the desired strip of land, thereby allowing them access to the distant buffalo herds. The President, Calhoun wrote, was anxious to placate the eastern Cherokee and hoped by this to effect their removal to the west.\textsuperscript{28}
Clark responded by arranging for a peace council to be held in St. Louis and by writing to the Osage as follows:
To the Osage Nation—Chiefs, Braves and considerate men. Open your ears and listen to a few words I send to you.
Children and Friends:
You know that I am acquainted with your situation, that I know your difficulties with other tribes and redskins and that I have felt for your distresses.
Children—You know that I have turned three Indian armies from the direction of your towns and prevented other parties from sucking the blood of your people.
Children—The country you claim is extensive and other tribes have for many years passed [sic] proved to you by their conduct that they wished to possess your lands.
Osages—if you have confidence in me attend to what I say—Your Great Father, the President of the United States is willing to purchase your lands and apportionate [sic] a part to such tribes as he may think proper, who will live in friendship with you and will strengthen your arm.
Children—I am informed that wild animals are becoming scarce every year in your country and that you are in want of many things to support your women and children—You[r] annuities are too small to be of much service to you. I wish to make that annuity larger and I also wish to render you a service in producing a continuation of peace and quietude between the Osages and the different tribes of red-skins, as well as white people.
Clark concluded by authorizing tribal chiefs to send a deputation to St. Louis in the fall of the year if they were willing to treat in the manner he proposed.\textsuperscript{29}
The Osage responded affirmatively to the governor's inquiry, and their representatives subsequently concluded a treaty on September 25, 1818. Under its terms, the tribe relinquished all claims to more than 1.8 million acres of land. In return, the federal government assumed all responsibility for the claims of citizens who could prove to the satisfaction of the commissioner of Indian affairs or his representatives that their property had been stolen or destroyed by the Osage. The total amount allowed for this purpose was not to exceed $4,000.\textsuperscript{30} A few days later, on October 6, 1818, the segment of the Cherokee tribe living on the Arkansas River and their Shawnee and Delaware allies entered into a treaty of perpetual peace with the Great and Little Osage. Each side agreed to return all its prisoners the following spring, and the Osage were to allow the other tribes undisturbed passage to all hunting grounds south of the Arkansas River. Finally, no private revenge was to be sought by any of the parties to the treaty; instead, all intertribal grievances were to be submitted to the respective agents.\textsuperscript{31}
On this pleasant note the treaty sessions ended, and the participants returned home from St. Louis. The X's on the peace pact of October 6 were hardly dry, however, when a band of Cherokee attacked the homeward-bound party of Osage, stealing some forty horses. In recompense, the Osage demanded the immediate liberation of all tribe members held prisoner by the Cherokee. When these were not immediately released, they raided a Cherokee cache and confiscated many hides and furs. This act was followed by an attack on a Cherokee hunting party which resulted in the deaths of three Cherokee hunters and the loss of their furs.\textsuperscript{32} Hostilities continued on a similar scale until 1821, when a force of some
\textsuperscript{27} R. Wash, chairman of the Indian Commission, to George Sibley, June 30, 1816, and Clark to Sibley, April 4, 1817, and November 11, 1817, Sibley Papers.
\textsuperscript{28} Calhoun to Clark, May 8, 1818, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States} (1951), 15:390-91.
\textsuperscript{29} Clark to Osage Nation, June 1818, St. Louis Superintendency Papers, 2: 87, Kansas State Historical Society.
\textsuperscript{30} \textit{American State Papers. Documents, Legislative and Executive of the Congress of the United States [Indian Affairs]}, 2 vols. (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1834), 2:167-68.
\textsuperscript{31} Osage Treaty of 1818, St. Louis Superintendency Papers, 2: 93. The 1.8 million acres obtained by the Osage became known as Lovely's Purchase. Lovely, the Cherokee agent at the time, actively encouraged the purchase. Because of his role in the original negotiations, his name was associated with the purchase although it did not appear in the treaty. See Gov. George Izard to Sec. of War, January 28, 1826, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States} (1954), 20:191.
\textsuperscript{32} Foreman, \textit{Indians and Pioneers}, 85-86. See also B. O'Fallon to George Sibley, August 25, 1819, Sibley Papers.
four hundred Osage took the field in what was to be an all-out effort to subdue the emigrant tribes. Headed by a lesser chief, Mad Buffalo, the Osage, in need of guns and ammunition, threatened to capture Fort Smith on the Arkansas River. They failed to do so, and the better equipped allied tribes subsequently defeated them. The allies followed up their victory by attacking an Osage village. The raid netted seventy to one hundred horses, plus forty Osage dead and thirty captured. The governor of the Arkansas Territory, James Miller, encouraged the allied offensive. Unable to secure the peace and believing the Osage to be the aggressors, Miller gave the tribes clearance to wage war against the Osage saying he was setting them "at liberty to let loose the Dogs of War."33 The governor's decision resulted not only from continuous intertribal unrest but also from the alleged plundering and killing of white frontiersmen by the Osage.34
Hostile acts by the tribe were so numerous by spring 1821 that territorial officials petitioned the federal government to issue weapons and ammunition sufficient to arm two hundred minutemen authorized to repel the outrages of the Osage.35 Still other voices demanded not merely the repulsion, but the destruction of the tribe. The extinction of the Osage was seen as the only real solution since the injuries they inflicted were almost equalled by those of enemy war parties which, in going against the Osage, passed through scattered white settlements and committed depredations as they went.36 Authorities in Washington rejected this extreme solution, continuing their efforts to arrange a binding peace treaty among the warring tribes.
The Cherokee and their allies signed a peace treaty with the Osage in 1822, but this pact, like its 1818 predecessor, was of short duration because of a schism among the Osage over the question of peace. Most of them, the Little and Arkansas bands especially, either did not trust the government and the Cherokee or they strongly favored continued conflict. Another peace proposal called for the removal of both Indians and whites from the area between the Osage Line and the Missouri border and the establishment of a no man's land. Some government officials believed that if all unnecessary contact were thus eliminated, peace would come to the frontier.37
About this time, 1821, missionaries, led by the Rev. Nathaniel B. Dodge, from the United Foreign Missionary Society of New York moved onto Osage lands and established Harmony Mission on the banks of the Marais des Cygnes, about fifteen miles from a large village of Great Osage and approximately the same distance from a main segment of the Little Osage. A year earlier the Union Mission had been founded near the Neosho River.38
Because of adverse and unaccustomed environmental conditions, the missions' early years were extremely trying. Additional discouragement stemmed from the Indians' near universal indifference to the message of Christianity. Year after year passed with little obvious adaptation or application by the Osage of the message of salvation which the clerics offered. Missionaries blamed their lack of success on various causes, but generally agreed that the redmen's concept of right and wrong was too simple and uninhibited to enable them to comprehend the complex Christian philosophy. Whereas the latter stressed an appreciation of such abstract terms as atonement, grace, redemption, original sin and salvation, the Osage philosophy was typified by adherence to a simplistic form of justice which is illustrated in the story of a warrior who, having recently killed a man, exclaimed to one of the ministers, "I am innocent of this murder. It was done by mistake." In another instance, a young
33. "An Account of the Osage-Cherokee War," from the Journal of Matthew Lyon, April 8, 1821; William Bradford to Sec. of War, November 20, 1821; Matthew Lyon to Sec. of War, March 22, 1821, and April 7, 1821; Gov. James Miller to the Cherokee Indians, March 20, 1821, Territorial Papers of United States (1953), 19:333, 335, 336-37, 345-45, 356. Fort Smith, named after Gen. Thomas A. Smith, was established on the Arkansas River at the mouth of Poteau River. Its erection, called for in 1818, was partly a result of the need to establish more control over the Osage. See Katie L. Gregg, "The History of Fort Osage," Missouri Historical Review 34 (1939-1940): 467-69.
34. One of the offended settlers complained to the Secretary of War: "you can have but little Ide how the people is imposed on by this trib of indians they have got on a extencive fronntier the people is weak heir in number not abel to protect them Selvs from them they now it and it maks them Sausy & mischievous they are going to & fro through our Settlements killing up our stock destroying our crops & Stealing all our best horses—it is impossibbel for the inhabittats heir to stand it if their is no means taken to stop it. therefor pleas to inter fearfull in case they may & get them confined to ther one bounds & not Suffer them to pas through our settlement." See Reuben Easton to Sec. of War, March 1819, Territorial Papers of United States 19:60-61.
35. Robert Crittenden, Acting Governor of Arkansas Territory, to Sec. of War, May 17, 1821, Territorial Papers of United States, 19:289.
36. Gov. James Miller to President of the United States, December 10, 1822, Indian Papers, 1816-1824, Missouri Historical Society.
37. Richard Graham to Sec. of War, June 1, 1821, September 20, 1821, November 12, 1821, Richard Graham Papers, 1821-1825 [hereafter cited as Graham Papers], Missouri Historical Society. Graham's jurisdiction was extended to cover the Osage in 1821.
38. Doris Denton "Harmony Mission, 1821-1837," (master's thesis, University of Kansas, 1929). 18; Berry, Chapman, Mack, "Archeological Remains," 40; John C. Calhoun to William Clark and all Osage Agents, March 15, 1832, Territorial Papers of United States, 15:710.
woman became extremely vile and immoral and refused to be counseled concerning her conduct. In time, an old man, a relative, resolved the situation by plunging a knife into her chest. The tribe admired rather than punished the old man. In a similar case, a young brave asked a sister who was disobedient and refused to listen to their parents if she intended to continue such conduct. When she answered yes, he shot and killed her.\textsuperscript{39}
In substance, the Osage did not involve a supreme being in their moral conduct and would not be persuaded to do so. Their God was a god of nature and was viewed as being “hateful and bad,” rather than “amiable and good.” Benton Pixley at Harmony Mission described the Osage attitude thus: “They hate him: he is of a bad temper; they would shoot him, if they could see him.”\textsuperscript{40} One old Indian said that as a young man his great desire had been to kill his white and red enemies and that he saw no wrong in fulfilling this objective. Deity was concerned only when he failed to kill—then God hated him for this failure.\textsuperscript{41}
In view of the Indians’ traditional philosophy, the missionaries found that the basic guilt, fear, and repentance precepts of Christianity did not take root among the Osage. The doctrine of man’s immortality and his responsibility to prepare for eternity attracted little attention. Many of them, who believed in a hereafter, saw no connection between happiness there and moral conduct here. The majority scoffed at this belief and held it up to ridicule. On this point, one missionary wrote that he had just finished describing to a group the separate and eternal nature of the soul when he saw one of his listeners “strangely intent upon catching a fly.” Having at length succeeded, he crushed the insect with his fingers. Then laying it on the floor and rubbing it about until not a vestige of it remained, he triumphantly exclaimed, “‘What remains to exist? Where is the soul?’” drawing his conclusions that men died and returned to nothing in the same way.\textsuperscript{42}
In time, the once high hopes of the ministers and their families gave way to despair and frustration. Typical of the discouragement which they felt was that expressed by the Reverend Dodge, who wondered what possible hope could be held out for such a “hard, wild, warlike people....” “God,” he wrote, “is able, indeed, to convert the Osages in a day,” but he and his fellows could only suffer it out and place their trust in the promises of God. In spite of this assurance, he confessed that he often looked upon the Osage and asked “‘Can these dry bones live?’”\textsuperscript{43}
In their numerous reports to parent denominations, the missionaries gave vivid descriptions of the Osage nature. One such report told of how on the one hand, the tribesmen were friendly and hospitable, willingly sharing the last of their food with a stranger, while on the other, at times when food was in short supply, it was their custom to leave an aged parent to perish on the plains without food or drink. The report further noted that the Osage were always at war, but were not a warlike people. They delighted in combat and were most cruel, though not prone to torture or mistreat prisoners. They often would adopt a captive child in place of one of their own who had died.\textsuperscript{44} Another missionary thought it a miracle that the tribe had not been destroyed, since they were “in continual motion; their hand is against every man, and every man’s hand against them.”\textsuperscript{45}
Outrages attributed to the Osage continued throughout the 1820s, but at a slackened pace. An attack that resulted in the killing of several white hunters on November 17, 1823, produced a general call for a severe chastening of the tribe. Threatened with action from U.S. forces stationed at Fort Gibson, the Osage surrendered five braves said to be responsible for the killings. When, some months later, they were tried and found guilty but nonetheless pardoned because of the unpunished killing of several Osage by whites in 1820, settlers along the frontier were enraged by what they saw as a total miscarriage of justice.\textsuperscript{46}
By 1825 the Osage were ready to go to the conference table to bargain—not so much for peace as for relief from their pressing economic problems. Continuous Osage depredations against both whites and Indians and subsequent claims against them had either greatly reduced or completely eliminated their annuity. This situation, plus numerous losses suffered at the hands of the Cherokee and their allies, had
\begin{itemize}
\item William F. Vaill, “Osage Indians,” \textit{Missionary Herald} 22 (September 1826): 268-69.
\item Benton Pixley, “Osages: Their Character, Manners, and Condition,” \textit{Missionary Herald} 24 (March 1828): 80.
\item Nathaniel B. Dodge, “Religious Notions and Traditions,” \textit{Missionary Herald} 25 (April 1829): 123.
\item Pixley, “Osages: Their Character, Manners and Condition,” 80.
\item Nathaniel B. Dodge, [Report on Harmony Mission], \textit{Missionary Herald} 23 (May 1827): 150.
\item Vaill, “Osage Indians,” 268.
\item Dodge, [Report on Harmony Mission], 149.
\item St. Louis Enquirer, January 13, 1824; Intelligencer, St. Louis, January 15, March 13, November 27, 1824; Arkansas Gazette, Little Rock, October 26, 1824, May 3, May 24, June 7, 1825; Louisville Public Advertiser, June 4, 1825.
\end{itemize}
brought the Osage to the point of recognizing that they were land-poor and, as in 1818, the only solution to their extreme poverty was to negotiate with the federal government.\textsuperscript{47}
William Clark, who had been appointed superintendent of the St. Louis Superintendency, of which the Osage agency became a part in 1824, was aware of the natives' plight and exploited it to the fullest in the spring of 1825 in a treaty which he outlined and proposed to Secretary of War James Barbour. Clark recommended that the government ask for the surrender of all Osage claims to land within and west of the state of Missouri and Arkansas Territory, except for a strip extending from the state line west an indefinite distance and so located as to include the Osage towns situated on the Neosho River. The Osage, he informed Barbour, could be made to agree in exchange for some $6,000 in gifts, a fifteen- or twenty-year annuity amounting to $6,000 or $7,000 a year, plus hogs, cattle, poultry, and articles of agriculture valued at approximately $12,000.\textsuperscript{48}
When the treaty negotiations were concluded, the Osage had ceded to the United States all the land Clark had sought, a total of over forty-five thousand-square miles. As payment, in addition to the money, livestock, and agricultural items recommended by Clark, the government was to pay all just claims against the tribe up to $25,000.
With the conclusion of the Treaty of 1825, the official seat of the Osage nation shifted from its historic location within the drainage area of the Missouri River to lands drained by the Arkansas River. The new reservation began twenty-five miles west of the Missouri line, was fifty miles wide, and extended as far west as the Mexican line.\textsuperscript{49}
Within a year after the treaty was signed, most of the northern Osage were settled within the boundaries of their new reserve along the Neosho and the Verdigris rivers. The Arkansas band, however, continued to resist all efforts of removal. The agent for the Arkansas Osage, Alexander McNair, pressured them with presents, threats and bribes, but succeeded in obtaining nothing more than promises that were never kept.\textsuperscript{50}
The benefits which the Osage enjoyed as a result of the Treaty of 1825 did not improve their relationship with the eastern tribes, especially the Delaware
\textsuperscript{47} Gov. James Miller to Sec. of War, March 1, 1822, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States}, 19:408-9. The government, in an effort to force the Arkansas band to reject the northern segment of the nation, required them to go to Fort Osage for the annuity. After 1816, when forty warriors were lost in an attack by enemy tribes on the journey, the headmen refused; for this reason, and later claims against the band, they received only a fraction of their share or none at all.
\textsuperscript{48} Clark to James Barbour, Sec. of War, April 19, 1825, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, St. Louis Superintendency [hereafter cited as St. Louis Superintendency], National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (microfilm, Brigham Young University).
\textsuperscript{49} \textit{U.S. Laws, 1821-1827} (Washington City: Williams A. Davis, 1827), 7:728-31; Charles C. Royce, "Indian Land Cessions in the United States," \textit{Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology} (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896), 708.
\textsuperscript{50} McNair to William Clark, March 14, 1826, March 14, 1825, St. Louis Superintendency. In spite of the resistance and subsequent removal, the tribe remained under St. Louis Superintendency jurisdiction. Maj. Richard Graham continued as Osage agent, and McNair, appointed subagent to the Arkansas band in May 1824, continued in that position. See McNair to John C. Calhoun, Sec. of War, May 29, 1824, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, National Archives, pp. 17-19 (microfilm, BYU).
and the Cherokee. As a result, a declaration of peace, which the Delaware and the Osage agreed to in June 1825, was short-lived. The first article of the pact declared that there should be perpetual peace and friendship and all problems between the two tribes would be forgotten and forgiven. Experience, however, had taught the Delaware that their treaty partner could not be trusted. Anderson, the Delaware chief, had discovered this fact after a treaty agreement in 1822. Having decided to put their declaration of friendship to the test, he went by invitation into Osage country to trap and hunt during the winter of 1823-1824. While camping along the Arkansas River, a number of Osage hunters approached him and his party, recognizing them as friends and asking for gunpowder. The Delaware obliged and even held their peace when the visitors showed themselves pilferers before going on their way. Some weeks later a second group of Osage approached Anderson's camp. After asking for and receiving a quantity of powder, they attempted to stampede and take horses and would have succeeded had Anderson and his men not prevented them. The next morning, in the chief's absence, the Osage shot one of the young Delaware warriors and took all his possessions. Shortly thereafter, Osage attacked the main Delaware camp and robbed it of many robes and furs.
Convinced of the treacherous nature of the Osage, the old chief did not hesitate to blame that tribe when, several months after the Treaty of 1825, his son was killed by Indian attackers. The boy was part of a hunting party which went out in the fall of the year "about roasting ear time." While searching for stray horses, the young brave became separated from the main band and was found dead the following day. The only evidence pointing to the Osage was a rumor that the dead warrior's horse had been seen in their possession. This, however, was proof enough for Anderson and his people, and when five members of the imputedly guilty tribe visited a Delaware village shortly thereafter, they were murdered. The Osage retaliated in December 1825 by killing a Delaware youth and stealing twenty-six horses. They, in turn, lost four braves in January, but gained revenge a few weeks later by killing four Delaware: two men, a woman, and a child. They also stole eight horses and destroyed six hundred hides. On March 19 a large party of Osage attacked a Delaware hunting camp, killing five—including two young girls and a baby. In April a Delaware war party seriously injured a number of Osage, killing one.
Beginning with the report of the murder of Anderson's son, Agent Graham made repeated efforts to convince the Delaware chief that the Osage were not guilty and that further bloodshed could be avoided if the two bands would meet and discuss the matter. Utterly disheartened at his lack of success, Graham wrote to his superiors that he saw no purpose expend-
51. "Delaware Talk," June 5, 1825, St. Louis Superintendency Papers, 2: 141, 147. See also Richard Graham to Gen. William Clark, May 29, 1826, Letters Received, 1825-1828, St. Louis Superintendency, National Archives (microfilm, BYU).
52. Richard Graham to Chief Anderson, March 18, 1826; John Campbell, Delaware agent, to Richard Graham, March 6, 1826; Chief Anderson's Statement of the Murders Committed Between the Delaware and the Osage, May 1826, Graham Papers.
53. Graham to Chief Anderson, March 18, 1826, Graham Papers.
ing further time and effort in what he termed an impossible situation. Warfare such as the Delaware and Osage were waging, he advised, was natural to the Indians and could not be prevented. If they were allowed to settle their own differences, the weaker nation would soon give in and, with both having had an opportunity to express their hatred and test their strength, they could reach a more lasting peace. Graham concluded his report by stating that the Osage were sure to lose since they were objects of bitter hatred because of their countless depredations, constant harassment, and plundering of the Santa Fe caravans. In view of this, Graham saw no reason to come to their rescue.\textsuperscript{54}
Superintendent Clark did not agree with his agent and directed him to go immediately to the village of Chief Anderson and inform him that the Great White Father would be greatly displeased if the conflict did not cease. Graham proceeded as ordered, declaring that he viewed the trip as wasted effort.\textsuperscript{55} After delivering his message, Graham found the Delaware were not fearful of incurring the displeasure of the Great Father, nor were they moved by threats of soldiers being sent into the area if they did not cease hostilities. After prolonged debate, the old chief informed the agent that he was sorry the government did not approve, but rather than forgive the Osage he wished to be given the powder and guns with which to hunt them down. His ears, he said, were closed to further talk. The war chief, Killbuck, brought the parley to a close, Graham reported, by declaring with anger that:
...if the Great Father had not interfered the thing with the Osage would have been finished...now it was too late, their tomahawks were sharp and could not be turned back. Their hearts were not bad, it was only that the Osage were evil. They wished nothing from the Osage but war.\textsuperscript{56}
By this time, the Osage were as anxious for peace as their enemies were for battle. In hopes that Graham would succeed, the various Osage bands agreed to desist from further hostilities. When word came that the Delaware were determined to destroy them with the aid of the Cherokee and other tribes, the Osage turned to the government and sought protection. At this point Clark ordered the leading chiefs of all tribes involved to come together; in the presence of troops, a peace treaty was to be drawn up and signed by all the chiefs present. To smooth over the objections which were certain to arise, the government guaranteed the payment of all claims pending against the Osage.\textsuperscript{57} Thus, with a threat and a promise, Clark intended to establish peace among the tribes along most of the Missouri-Arkansas frontier.
Since a successful council took some time to plan and convene, hostilities continued and were a source of much unrest. In October 1826 a war party from Clermont's band raided a Kickapoo village, killing nine and capturing three of its inhabitants. At about the same time, members of White Hair's village took some twenty Pawnee scalps and numerous horses. In November the Kickapoo and Delaware living on the Red River joined forces and destroyed an Osage camp, killing one brave and seriously wounding several more, besides capturing their ponies. The brave who took the scalp of the dead Indian carried it to a Cherokee village where considerable excitement and a small celebration ensued.\textsuperscript{58}
War fears and threats continued into the summer months of 1827. In August, Col. Matthew Arbuckle, commander at Fort Gibson, attempted to inspire negotiations for peace. After several frustrating and fruitless weeks, Arbuckle declared he was giving up all efforts to end the warfare. His decision was hastened by the fact that while holding a peace council with a number of Kickapoo, Delaware and Osage leaders, members of Clermont's band ruthlessly assaulted a Delaware town. Peace under these circumstances, Arbuckle declared, was impossible.\textsuperscript{59}
Others working to settle the Indian dispute were Superintendent William Clark, Pierre L. Chouteau, subagent to the Osage, and John F. Hamtramck, the newly appointed Osage agent, all of whose persistence and influence resulted in a peace council that convened in late 1827. By the end of December, the leaders of the several tribes represented had drawn up and accepted a peace agreement. Among the nations promising to live peaceably with each other
\textsuperscript{54}. Graham to William Clark, April 29, 1826, St. Louis Superintendency.
\textsuperscript{55}. Graham to George Graham, May 10, 1826, Graham Papers.
\textsuperscript{56}. Graham to William Clark, May 29, 1826, St. Louis Superintendency. See also William Arbuckle to William Clark, May 29, 1826, Graham Papers.
\textsuperscript{57}. William Arbuckle to John Campbell, Delaware agent, May 14, 1826, and Clark to James Barbour, Sec. of War, June 11, 1826, St. Louis Superintendency.
\textsuperscript{58}. John Jolly, Cherokee chief, to Edward W. Duvall, Cherokee agent, December 4, 1826, and John F. Hamtramck, Osage subagent, to William Clark, February 8, 1827, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States}, 20:318-19, 411.
\textsuperscript{59}. Arbuckle to the Adjutant General of the Western Department, August 27, 1827, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States}, 20:527, 7n.
were the Osage, Choctaw, Delaware, Kickapoo, and Shawnee.\textsuperscript{60}
The Cherokee were conspicuously absent from the council, having refused at the last moment to meet and make peace with the Osage. The feud between the two tribes went back some ten years to the time when the first handful of Cherokee emigrants from Tennessee had settled in the lower Arkansas River area. As Cherokee numbers increased, so did the agitation with the Osage. In the years that followed, there was much suffering on both sides. Of the many violent acts that occurred, however, the murder of the son of a Cherokee chief named Graves by two Osage warriors overshadowed all the rest and was largely responsible for keeping the two nations at war for most of the decade of the twenties.
In spite of their increased dislike for the Cherokee and irrespective of serious outrages which that tribe committed against them during the last months of 1827, the Osage were not drawn into a war. On the contrary, they proceeded to make peace treaties with neighboring Indian nations until they were virtually surrounded by friendly tribes. By March 1828 there had been no Cherokee raids in two months, and reports were that they were prepared to abide by the Treaty of 1827.\textsuperscript{61} This information proved correct. Except for isolated conflicts and an occasional threat of all-out violence, the Cherokee found it to their advantage in the years that followed to work through government channels in obtaining redress for the continued misdeeds of the other tribe. The Osage, meanwhile, made an honest attempt to abide by the various peace agreements. They succeeded at this for almost two years before their depredations increased to the point that they were once again viewed as the most troublesome natives on the frontier.\textsuperscript{62}
The resumption of hostilities was characterized more by petty thefts and mischievousness than by outright acts of violence. Neighboring tribes and white settlers accused them of such things as stealing horses, hogs, and furs; living on and refusing to leave the lands of the Creek and Cherokee; and sacking Harmony Mission. Unlike their misdeeds of earlier years, however, these were not deeds of the nation in general but were the crimes of renegade tribesmen, strongly opposed by the several chieftains. For this reason, the Osage chiefs and their agent made an effort to reclaim, whenever possible, whatever was stolen and either return it or consent to a reduction of the annuity equal to the amount of an unrestored claim.\textsuperscript{63}
As hoped, this arrangement helped to keep offended nations placated, but is also led to the general impoverishment of the tribe as a whole and consequently to an escalation of Osage hostility. Impoverishment plus a hard winter and the ravages of smallpox made 1831 a year of desperation for the Osage and resulted in a greater number of offenses against their neighbors than had occurred for many years. The serious unrest which resulted had the effect of causing the tribe to lose favor even with its agents. Pierre L. Chouteau, normally their closest ally and reappointed Osage agent as of June 1830, declared the time had come for the Osage to realize "their getting out of line would not be further endured without serious punishment" and all stolen livestock must be either returned or paid for immediately. He informed the guilty that since he controlled the annuity payment he would withhold everything due them until completely satisfied of their repentance.\textsuperscript{64} The crux of the problem, he wrote, lay in the continued residence since the Treaty of 1825 of members of Clermont's band on Cherokee and Creek lands. Their forced removal to the reservation proper, he insisted, was absolutely necessary if the Osage were ever to live peaceably with their neighbors.\textsuperscript{65} In an effort to achieve this, Chouteau sent messages to John Eaton, the secretary of war; to William Clark, the superintendent of Indian affairs at St. Louis; and to Col. Matthew Arbuckle, commander at Fort Gibson, urging that a council be held at the fort for the purpose of settling the differences among the Cherokee, Creek and Osage, and of arranging for the removal of Clermont's band to the
\textsuperscript{60} Hamtramck to William Clark, January 10, 1828, St. Louis Superintendency.
\textsuperscript{61} Hamtramck to William Clark, January 13, 1828, St. Louis Superintendency; Clark to Thomas L. McKenney, February 24, 1828, \textit{Territorial Papers of United States}, 20:606-7. They had made peace with the Choctaw, Delaware, Kickapoo, Shawnee, Peoria, and Seneca tribes and were in the process of treating with the Pawnee, Oto, Iowa, Kansa, and Sac.
\textsuperscript{62} Col. Matthew Arbuckle to Maj. Gen. Alex Macomb, May 31, 1830, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 204-5.
\textsuperscript{63} Pierre L. Chouteau, Osage agent, to Col. Matthew Arbuckle, March 1, 1831, and Capt. Nathaniel Pryor, Osage subagent, to Pierre L. Chouteau, February 6, 1831, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 273-76, 285-86.
\textsuperscript{64} Chouteau to Nathaniel Pryor, March 1, and March 13, 1831, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 280-81, 292-93. See also William Clark to Thomas L. McKenney, June 9, 1830, St. Louis Superintendency.
\textsuperscript{65} Chouteau to Gen. William Clark, April 5, 1831, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 325-26.
reservation.\textsuperscript{66} His correspondents offered willing support and, as a result, the council convened in May 1831.
Chouteau and his fellow agents were pleasantly surprised at the response of the Osage to the demands made at the Fort Gibson meeting. They expressed a willingness to move and openly confessed their wrongdoing by surrendering their annuity "to pay for the wrongs they had committed against their neighbors." Because the guilty bands, especially Clermont's, were so cheerful and apologetic for their offenses and because their families were going to suffer from the loss of the annuity payment, Chouteau and the other government representatives in attendance gave them food and other staples to the amount of $1,731.51.\textsuperscript{67}
Following the May 1831 council, the Arkansas Osage experienced a change of heart, causing their agent to labor intensely but vainly in an effort to have them removed to tribal lands. The errant Osage numbered more than one-third of the nation and had refrained from agreeing with the Treaty of 1825. These facts made their agent's tasks in effecting their relocation perplexingly difficult. Inasmuch as the 1825 treaty had cost them their homeland, the Arkansas Osage preferred to ignore its removal clause and remain where they were. Chouteau persisted in his efforts, not only because he desired peace, but also because he felt that the Creek and Cherokee ruthlessly took an unfair advantage of the Arkansas band. The two tribes were guilty, he declared, of taking every opportunity to make claims against the Osage for depredations, no matter who had committed them. "If a Creek Indian or negro kills a hog or steals corn," the agent declared, "the crime is charged to the Osage and as the Creek are devoid of all principle of honor they do not hesitate to claim compensation from the Osage although they know they are innocent." Chouteau felt that such was the case at the May 1831 meeting, at which time he wrote that the claims brought against the Osage by the Creek and Cherokee were both unjust and villainous and that the claimants did not "scruple to swear to the greatest of falsehoods and if able will do so again." The loss of every stray animal from the Creek nation was charged to the Osage in spite of the fact that the Cherokee, Delaware, Shawnee, and other tribes continually passed through the Creek area.\textsuperscript{68}
At this point in their history, the circumscribed nature of Osage lawlessness, plus the fact that the Cherokee and Creek were able to take advantage of them almost with impunity, was an indication of both their impoverished condition and their greatly reduced status among the frontier tribes. Although they put together a brief offensive in 1833 resulting in some three hundred warriors overrunning a Pawnee village and successfully taking four hundred horses and the scalps of many men, women and children, this was an isolated incident and proved to be nothing more than the last-gasp sword rattling of a waning power.\textsuperscript{69} The outrage was resolved the following year when Chief Walking River of the Little Osage and Chiefs White Hair and War Eagle, of the Great Osage, met with government agents and with representatives of the Pawnee and several other tribes to sue for peace. As satisfaction for their losses, the Pawnee were presented with a large part of the Osage annuity for 1834, and the council ended peacefully with the attending tribes agreeing to a solemn pact of friendship and nonaggression.\textsuperscript{70}
With this peace agreement, intertribal wars involving the major segments of the Osage nation ended. This condition evolved because of a general dissipation of the tribe's economic and military strength and as a result of the reservation bands' increased isolation. Attention now turned toward economic survival, which meant that the Osage had to live in peace with the other tribes or suffer the loss of their much needed annuities, as well as the good graces of the federal government. A further significant factor in the new peace on the frontier was the steady influx, through 1838, of the Cherokee, primarily from the state of Georgia. This, plus the more rapid adjustment of the eastern tribes to the ways of civilization, placed the Osage both numerically and economically at a disadvantage.
\textsuperscript{66} Chouteau to Eaton, April 30, 1831, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, p. 348. See also Clark to Eaton, April 22, 1831, Letters Received, St. Louis Superintendency, pp. 267-69, National Archives (microfilm, BYU).
\textsuperscript{67} Chouteau to William Clark, June 30, 1831, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, p. 350. The whole outlay was sustained by Chouteau. He made immediate application for reimbursement but was denied satisfaction for a number of years.
\textsuperscript{68} Chouteau to Col. Matthew Arbuckle, March 25, 1832, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 408-4.
\textsuperscript{69} William F. Vaill, "Journal of Mr. Vaill, During a Preaching Tour," \textit{Missionary Herald} 29 (October 1833): 369.
\textsuperscript{70} Henry Ellsworth, Federal Peace Commissioner, to Herbert E. Herring, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, December 3, 1833, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1881, Western Superintendency, 1832-1836, National Archives (microfilm, BYU); Pierre L. Chouteau to Gen. William Clark, August 6, 1834, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 539-40.
By the 1830s, the Osage were in the process of surrendering their militant independence and becoming wards of the federal government. With this transition, there was also a change in the Osage image, as perceived by various contemporaries. Col. William Arbuckle noted that in the past the federal government had always found the Osage hard to deal with and that they were considered the worst disturbers of the peace among all the Indian tribes, but he now felt that they were increasingly easy to handle and to his knowledge were without serious offense during the two previous years. They were, he claimed, determined to maintain the peace, knowing that the hand of every Indian nation was against them and that their well-being required cultivating the good offices of the U.S. government.\(^{71}\)
Like Arbuckle, George Catlin noted, as a result of a visit in 1832 to all of the principal bands, that the Osage were a changed people. Although once powerful and able to cope with any foe, in recent years they had been reduced to skeletons of their former selves. Continuous wars, the devastation wrought by smallpox in 1830 and 1831, and the loss of their vast realm to the advances of civilization had placed them on the defensive and made them a dependent nation.\(^{72}\) Isaac McCoy, writing in 1838, concurred, stating that the once powerful Osage had previously invited combat and were more than a match for other tribes living east or west of the Mississippi, but in more recent times they were a feeble and dependent people against whom “war would be an unmanly act.” They stole and depredated, he wrote, in order to prevent
---
\(^{71}\) Chouteau to Clark, August 6, 1834, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 539-40.
\(^{72}\) George Catlin, *Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, & Condition of the North American Indians. With Letters and Notes*, 2 vols. (London: Chatto & Windus, Piccadilly, 1876), 2:43-44.
starvation which resulted from the depletion of their domain and the exploitation of its wildlife. "Could one," he asked, "kill a company of hungry boys who steal from you?" Much of the Osage problem, McCoy suggested, was a result of the ineptness and indifference of absentee agents whose character was generally so deficient as to have a degrading influence on the Indians on those rare occasions when they did visit.\textsuperscript{73}
On January 8, 1837, Capt. James Cooke, following an extensive visit to numerous scattered Osage camps, reported that the nation was divided into three main villages. Two were on the reservation proper, some 150 miles from Fort Gibson, and the third, Clermont's, was on the Verdigris River some forty-five miles from the fort. All the groups visited were found to be destitute, living mostly on acorns, corn, and half-wild hogs. The hogs, along with the corn, were stolen from white settlers. This latter fact was the cause of numerous and, as Cooke found, usually exaggerated complaints from neighboring settlers and Indians. The chief claimants were the Cherokee who were said to invite the Osage to hunt on their lands for the purpose of selling them whiskey. After the purchase, when the Osage became unruly, the Cherokee would complain and ask that the troops remove them. Under these conditions, with the Osage restricted to their own lands by the military and faced with continuous pressure by the arrival of increasing numbers of eastern Cherokee, Cooke suggested that the government must meet their needs in a more satisfactory fashion. Otherwise, their only alternative to starvation was to join the wild tribes in the west or to lay waste the Missouri frontier. Thus, he concluded:
...if the government does not properly interpose, the Osage will have disappeared from the face of the earth: or, losing name, language, and character, will sink to the last gradation between them and utter barbarism, and become the nomad outcasts of the desert. This, if permitted must be pronounced when the whole case is considered, the strongest proof offered in a century, of the impulations [sic] on the American people, of apprehension, and ill faith to the Indian, and an eternal reproach upon the nation.\textsuperscript{74}
Authorities in Washington finally agreed that a council with the Osage should be held. Pursuant to this decision, they appointed Matthew Arbuckle commissioner with instructions to negotiate a treaty favorable to the tribe. Accordingly, Arbuckle met with some forty-five chiefs and warriors early in January 1839. By January 11 they reached agreement and signed a treaty the following day. The new pact completely favored the Osage. They were not required to surrender any of their reservation but were allowed additional compensation for lands ceded to the United States in the treaties of 1808, 1818, and 1825. Among the more liberal concessions made by the government were a $20,000 annuity for twenty years; hogs, cattle, and farming equipment, including wagons and carts, valued at $15,000; the building of grist and sawmills and houses for the chiefs; and the assumption of all tribal debts, including claims against the individual bands.\textsuperscript{75}
The Osage headmen were pleased with the treaty and pressed for ratification without delay. It was increasingly obvious to most tribal leaders that if they wished to survive they had little choice in the matter. They must either become civilized or suffer because the annuity, although twice what it had been in the past, amounted to no more than $2.50 per year per individual. If the government paid the promised amount in goods, its rewards were small; if in cash, it meant at best only temporary freedom from want and a chance to reestablish credit with a local trader. The same view was generally held by numerous concerned individuals who pointed out that the only recourse for the Osage, if the decade of suffering and neglect which they had just experienced was not to be repeated, was for them to change to an agricultural society and to accept the ways of the white man.
During the next thirty years, the Osage, except for a brief moment of glory during the Civil War, were a virtual nonentity in terms of power, influence, or respect among either the white or the Indian populations. During this period, their land drew the attention of white settlers and speculators, who indiscriminately settled upon and took possession of it. Ensuing pressure to surrender the land, plus the loss of their annuity payment in 1859 and their inability to secure a livelihood either from the hunt or from the soil, caused the Osage leaders to enter into negotiations for the sale of their land in 1865, 1868, and 1870.
\textsuperscript{73} "Journal of Isaac McCoy, 1828-1838," 516, Isaac McCoy Collection, Kansas State Historical Society.
\textsuperscript{74} Capt. James Cooke to William Arbuckle, January 8, 1837, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, p. 328.
\textsuperscript{75} Matthew Arbuckle to C. A. Harris, September 29, 1838, Osage Chiefs and Warriors to J. R. Poinsett, January 19, 1839, Osage Agency, 1824-1841, pp. 740, 909. The treaty outline received by Arbuckle called for the removal, at government expense, of the Arkansas Osage and an annuity allowance to the tribe of $15,000 a year for twenty years. See also Charles J. Kappler, \textit{Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties}, 2 vols. (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1904), 2:525-27.
The long-awaited legislation authorizing the purchase of the remaining Osage lands and the removal of the tribe to the Indian Territory was passed by Congress as sections twelve and thirteen of the Indian Appropriations Bill of 1870. This act and the treaty of acceptance that followed signified for the Osage the release of the last of their original domain and their removal from Kansas, but not the end of their struggle for the right to coexist with their white and Indian neighbors. White settlers preceded them onto their new homeland and defied all measures to clear them off.
By the year 1876, the Osage nation had been reduced from one of the most significant tribes in the area of the Mississippi River drainage to a band of only three thousand full and mixed bloods on a reservation purchased from their traditional enemy, the Cherokee. By this date their laws, schools, religion, and money were all regulated by representatives of the federal government while the Indians themselves, although economically better off than at any time in their history, were confined to their reservation, turning their backs on the Osage past and submitting to the white man's way of life. The Osage were, as was written of the American Indian some years earlier, "ruined by a competition which they had not the means of sustaining. They were isolated in their own country, and their race only constituted a little colony of troublesome strangers in the midst of a numerous and dominant people."76
76. Alexis de Tocqueville, *Democracy in America*, trans. Henry Reeve, 2 vols. (New York: Colonial Press, 1900), 1:448. | 9b8644ef-94e2-4db4-9c68-bb12a9697ff7 | CC-MAIN-2024-22 | https://kshs.org/publicat/history/1988spring_christianson.pdf | 2024-05-23T13:30:30+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-22/segments/1715971058625.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20240523111540-20240523141540-00619.warc.gz | 301,720,308 | 17,737 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996218 | eng_Latn | 0.997618 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
4335,
4547,
5850,
7364,
12904,
14466,
20038,
25884,
27740,
33188,
39172,
44668,
48670,
52126,
57515,
62936,
68356,
70279,
75764,
77380
] | [
2.40625,
2.265625
] | 1 | 0 |
CDM、GS相关信息，请登录：中国清洁发展机制网
http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp
Related information about CDM, GS, Please login in:
Clean Development Mechanism in China
http://cdm.ccchina.gov.cn/web/index.asp
世界自然基金会（瑞士）北京代表处---成都项目办公室
World Wide Fund for Nature Beijing Office---Chengdu Programme Office
地址：成都市一环路北二段100号五丁岗山羊座603室
邮编：610081
电话：(+86) 28-68003625
传真：(+86) 28-83199466 ext.808
Address: Room 603, Shan Yang Zuo, Wu Ding Yuan,
No.100 Bei Er Duan, Yi Huan Lu, Chengdu
Zip Code: 610081
Tel: (+86) 28-68003625
Fax: (+86) 28-83199466 ext.808
资料所有图片由WWF提供
All the pictures are provided by WWF
Why we are here
To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
www.wwfchina.org
There used to be towering trees
The Shengguozhuang Provincial Nature Reserve was established after the Third National Giant Panda Survey in 2000. Giant panda, takin, musk deer, red panda, Chinese Yew, Davidia involucrata and other rare and endangered wild animals and plants live in the Reserve. The Shengguozhuang Provincial Nature Reserve, together with nearby nature reserves, namely Ma’anshan, Meigu Dafengding, Heizhugou, Mabian Dafengding and Mamize, formed the Liangshan Mountain Range giant panda conservation network.
50 years ago, in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, there were rich forest resources in Yuexi County, Ganluo County and Meigu County. Tall trees grew in the mountains. But during 1980s, the forest was cut down massively for the construction of the Chengdu-Kunming Railway and the flakeboard factory, thus only the shrub layer with bamboo species survived.
这里曾大树参天
2000年全国第三次大熊猫调查后，经四川省人民政府批准成立申果庄省级自然保护区，区内分布有大熊猫、扭角羚、林麝、小熊猫等珍稀濒危野生动物以及红豆杉、珙桐等国家重点保护植物。申果庄自然保护区与周边的马鞍山、美姑大风顶、黑竹沟、马边大风顶及麻咪泽自然保护区相连形成凉山山系大熊猫保护网络。
50年前，凉山彝族自治州的越西县、甘洛县、美姑县森林资源十分丰富，参天大树随处可见。上世纪80年代，为了支持国家建设成昆铁路、成立刨花板厂，这里的森林资源被大面积采伐，仅留下以竹类为主的灌木层。
目前，申果庄自然保护区周边的拉吉乡、瓦里觉乡、申果乡、瓦曲觉乡和申普乡薪柴使用困难，村民不仅需要耗费大量的劳动力去收集薪柴，而且传统的生活方式对村民的健康也产生着威胁，而生活在这里的国宝大熊猫也正面临着失去它们原有乐园的威胁。
At present, the Sheng Guozhuang area, such as the Laji County, Wali jue County, Shengguo County, Waqujue County, and Shengpu County have been facing the shortage of firewood. Villagers not only need to consume a great deal of labor to collect firewood, but also let their health threatened by traditional living style of burning wood. While at the same time, our national treasure, the giant panda, which lives in the area, is also facing the threat of losing its original living paradise day by day.
The Three-feet Stove is over, marching into the Electrical Energy Times
The Shengguozhuang Provincial Nature Reserve sits in the remote rural area of Sichuan Province, therefore, the State Grid has not covered this area. People illuminate with diesel lights or kerosene lamp, and burn wood as their major energy to cook food and to get warm in cold winter times by using the three-foot stoves. On one hand, burning wood produces a lot of dust and smoke that do harm to villagers' health; on the other hand, it consumes a great deal of firewood, leading to the cutting of forest and generates huge amount of greenhouse gases, having negative impacts on the giant panda habitats.
结束“三锅桩”，走进“电能时代”
从2011年至2013年，由WWF（世界自然基金会）和三井物产环境基金共同合作的微水电项目将在申果庄区域为村民安装120台微水电，解决部分社区的用电问题，减少薪柴消耗，减少碳排放，保护森林，保护国宝大熊猫和人类共有的家园。
From 2011 to 2013, the Micro Hydro-power Station project conducted jointly by WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) and the Mitsui & Co. Ltd. Environment Fund installs 120 Micro-hydro generators in Shengguozhuang area. The project provides electricity for communities around the nature reserve, reduces the consumption of firewood and carbon emissions, and also protects the forest ---- the home for the giant panda, as well as for our human beings.
未建微水电前，我们花很多时间砍柴、背柴。
Before using micro hydro-power, we spent a lot of time cutting and carrying firewood home.
可是砍这么多的柴还是不够用。
But it was still far from enough.
用煤油灯照明、用“三锅庄”煮饭，烟雾熏得睁不开眼。每天早晨起床鼻子两边和两个鼻孔内都是黑黑的一层。
Illuminating with kerosene lamp, cooking with the three-foot stoves, we can hardly open our eyes in the smoke. And our nostrils were dark every morning when we got up.
在WWF的资助下，申果庄自然保护区指导我们修建微水电站。
With the support from WWF, Shengguozhuang Provincial Nature Reserve guides us to build the station.
微水电机在水流的带动下迅速转动。
The micro hydro-power generator is rotating rapidly driven by the water flow.
微水电机建成后，我们可以点电灯了。
The micro hydro-power station enable us to use electrical lights.
用电饭煲做饭，既卫生，又省力。
Cooking with rice cooker, both hygienic and effort saving.
休闲的时候，还可以看看电视。
We can watch TV in our spare time.
Micro hydro-power station helps
- Solve the basic lighting problem
- Adjust the rural industrial structure by reducing the consumption of firewood and freeing the labor for its collection
- Improve environmental sanitation and people’s health through use of electricity instead of firewood which produces dust and smoke
- Beautify the rural landscape and no more firewood piling and dust everywhere
- Promote the villager’s spiritual civilization through TV, radio and other cultural and leisure activities
微水电的大贡献
本期微水电项目共计为申果庄区域村民安装120台发电机，这些电机平均寿命为10年。
| Data Illustration | each generator (average / year) | each year (120 generators) | 10 years |
|--------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------|---------|
| Trees Protected (cubic meters) | 17.5 | 2,100 | 21,000 |
| Reduction of CO₂ emission | 7.28 | 873.6 | 8,736 |
| Giant panda habitat protected (ha.) | 0.213 | 25.56 | 255.6 |
The Project is installing 120 generators for the villagers of Shengguozhuang area in total, and their average life expectancy is ten years.
另外，微水电也能为当地村民创收
¥ 246,960---energy revenue Each generator produces 1.5 kW / h for 8 hours a day, and produces 4380 kWh a year. According to the local price---0.47 yuan / kWh, each generator generates 2,058 yuan every year, and the project creates 246,960 yuan each year totally by all generators.
¥ 474,960 yuan---theoretical income Suppose all the labor saved from the firewood collection by the project can be put to work in other industries and get paid, according to the local prices---50 to 60 yuan per person each day, the saved labor can generate 474,960 yuan every year, which means about 800 yuan increase for each local villagers.
微水电项目本身是一个有利于当地经济发展和环境保护的项目。砍伐森林获得薪柴用于燃烧是仅次于化石燃料燃烧的全球温室气体排放源。《京都议定书》中确定的清洁发展机制（CDM），允许工业化国家通过在发展中国家开展项目活动所获得的减排增汇来抵偿其承诺的减限排指标。微水电项目通过减少森林砍伐起到减排的目的。与此同时，WWF正在尝试一种可持续的保护资金筹集机制，通过国际碳减排市场，利用黄金标准（GS）、自愿减排（VER）、清洁发展机制（CDM）等，将项目产生的碳减排指标进行交易，所获收益返回于今后社区微水电维护管理以及新项目的开发中，让更多的保护项目可持续性地运作下去。
Micro hydro-power project itself is a very productive project for local economic development and environmental protection. Firewood burning is an original emission source of the global greenhouse gas, which is just second to fossil fuel combustion. According to the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that has been defined in Kyoto Protocol, industrialized countries are allowed to carry out projects on carbon emission reduction to compensate its unfulfilled reduction amount in its own country. The Project realizes the goal by decreasing cutting of forest for firewood. At the same time, WWF is trying a sustainable fund-raising mechanism for conservation. Taking advantages of Gold Standard (GS), Voluntary emission reduction (VER), and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the carbon emission reduction amount achieved from the project can be traded in the international carbon reduction market. And the gains will be used in the maintenance and management of the micro hydro-power generators in the communities and the extension of new projects so as to run more projects sustainably. | <urn:uuid:3334b28c-1c47-4462-b507-043f7cf047db> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://pear-carbon-offset.org/project/Micro-hydro%20power%20project%20brochure.pdf | 2018-12-17T00:09:19Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376828018.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20181216234902-20181217020902-00286.warc.gz | 216,589,129 | 2,408 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.925801 | eng_Latn | 0.974887 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
752,
1891,
2508,
3206,
4150,
4593,
5102,
5815,
6461,
7832
] | [
2.03125
] | 1 | 0 |
From Cook to the 1840 Constitution:
The Name Change from Sandwich to Hawaiian Islands
Russell Clement
Most everyone knows that Hawaii was once called the Sandwich Islands. Today that name is used infrequently to evoke a certain nostalgia and quaintness. During the early and mid-19th century, however, the name Sandwich Islands was used extensively, particularly by foreigners. The purposes of this paper are: 1) to trace the use of the name “Sandwich Islands” up to about 1840 when the name “Hawaiian Islands” gradually began to take precedence; 2) to analyze its official use in treaties, laws, and constitutions; and 3) to examine the major factors and influences underlying the name change.
Foreign Usage of the Name “Sandwich Islands”
Captain James Cook’s name for the Hawaiian Islands, the Sandwich Islands, was widely accepted and commonly used by foreigners and foreign governments for well over fifty years after his arrival. Cook first sighted Oahu on January 18, 1778. His lengthy journal entry for Monday, February 2, 1778 centers particularly on “Atooi” or Kauai.¹ On this day he also named the island group after his patron:
Of what number this newly-discovered Archipelago consists, must be left for future investigation. We saw five of them, whose names, as given by the natives, are Woahoo [Oahu], Atooi [Kauai], Onehehow [Niihau], Oreehoua [Lehua], and Tahoora [Kaula]. . . . I named the whole group the Sandwich Islands, in honour of the Earl of Sandwich.²
Cook’s name for the islands spread with news of the discovery. Early visitors and explorers unanimously refer to them as the Sandwich
¹ Russell Clement is Special Collections Librarian at Brigham Young University—Hawaii Campus.
Islands. For example, Captain Portlock recorded arriving at "Owhyhee" [Hawaii], the principal of the Sandwich Islands on May 24, 1786. Etienne Marchand referred to the group as the "Sandwich Islands" in October, 1791, as did Captain Vancouver in March, 1792. Later, in November, 1816, Kotzebue recorded visiting the "Sandwich Islands." Lord Byron's Voyage of the H. M. S. Blonde to the Sandwich Islands in the Years 1824-1825 is another example of the common use of the name.
Early recorded correspondence throughout the reigns of Kamehameha I (1795-1819) and Kamehameha II (1819-1824) attests to the wide use and general acceptance of Cook's name for the islands. Letters concerning trade, treaties, missionary activities, and shipping matters are replete with references to the Sandwich Islands.
Similarly, foreign-based organizations sprang up bearing the name Sandwich Islands. On October 15, 1819, for instance, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions organized its influential Sandwich Islands Mission. The first English language newspaper printed in the islands was appropriately named the Sandwich Islands Gazette and Journal of Commerce, published in Honolulu from July, 1836 to July, 1839. Another early Honolulu newspaper was entitled the Sandwich Island Mirror.
During the early 19th century, then, foreigners used the name Sandwich Islands predominately. Most likely, this was out of convenience and convention. Visitors and the first foreign settlers had no conceivable reason to change or debate Cook's name for the islands. Consequently, early histories of Hawaii nearly always contain the name Sandwich Islands in their titles.
Laws, Treaties, and Constitutions
More official and better documented are the early laws, treaties, and constitutions of the Hawaiian Monarchy. Very few written laws were enacted before Kamehameha III began his long reign (1824-1854). Possibly, Hawaiian rulers and chiefs were mistakenly waiting for Great Britain to send a code of laws for the islands. In addition, with the kapu system in effect until 1819, there was little need for written laws before the 1820s.
The first printed laws of the Kingdom were published on March 8, 1822, only two months after Elisha Loomis introduced printing in Hawaii. These two early laws dealt with unruly and riotous seamen and mention neither the Sandwich Islands nor the Hawaiian Islands.
When the Kingdom is named in later laws, however, the name Sandwich Islands appears until about 1840. An early harbor law, for example, concludes: "Oahu, Sandwich Islands, June 2, 1825." A liquor
law of 1838 begins: "Be it enacted by the King and Chiefs of the Sandwich Islands..." Laws of May 29, 1839 and September 10, 1840 both use the name Sandwich Islands. A law of May 17, 1840 uses the names interchangeably.
Treaties of the early 19th century between the Hawaiian Kingdom and foreign powers also refer to the islands as the Sandwich Islands. Hawaii's first treaty, signed on December 23, 1826, concerned American shipping rights. The name Sandwich Islands is used throughout. A British treaty signed in 1836 also uses the name Sandwich Islands, as does the French treaty of 1839. Later, in 1844, the name appears in a treaty with Great Britain. Not until the 1849 treaty between the United States and Hawaii does the name Hawaiian Islands appear in an official treaty. Of all official documents, foreign influence was probably strongest in treaties. It seems logical that these early treaties reflect the foreigners' penchant for the name Sandwich Islands.
More authoritative than laws and treaties are the constitutions of Hawaii. The first major step toward a formal, constitutional government came in 1838 when former missionary William Richards entered the service of Kamehameha III. By June 7, 1839, the well-known Declaration of Rights or Hawaiian Magna Charta was presented. The Declaration, which borrowed heavily from John Locke and the United States Constitution, contains the following phrase:
Whatever chief shall presevering act in violation of this Constitution, shall no longer remain a chief of the Sandwich Islands.
One year later, on October 8, 1840, Hawaii had its first constitution. The preamble is an amended version of the 1839 Declaration of Rights. However, a significant change was made regarding the name Sandwich Islands. Factors influencing this change will be discussed in the last section of this paper. The phrase quoted above from the Declaration reads as follows in the 1840 constitution:
Whatever chief shall act preseveringly in violation of this constitution, shall no longer remain a chief of the Hawaiian Islands.
The name Hawaiian Islands is repeated three times in the first constitution and the name Sandwich Islands never appears. The change had to be conscious.
Later constitutions follow the pattern of the first by calling the islands the Hawaiian Islands whenever the Kingdom is named. In the 1852 constitution, for example, Articles 12, 61, 96-98, and 101 include the name Hawaiian Islands.
Two articles of the 1852 constitution go further in officially establishing the name Hawaiian Islands. Under the subheading "Of the Legislative Power," Article 61 names the legislature "the Legislature of the Hawaiian Islands."21 Article 101, under the subheading "General Provisions," is explicit in regards to proper elocutionary force for legislation: "The enacting style in making and passing all Acts and Laws, shall be:—'Be it enacted by the King, the Nobles and the Representatives of the Hawaiian Islands. . . ."22
The constitutions of 1864 and 1887 also refer to the Kingdom as the Hawaiian Islands. The 1864 constitution begins, "Granted by His Majesty Kamehameha V, By the Grace of God, King of the Hawaiians Islands. . . ."23
Officially, then, the 1840 constitution named the islands the Hawaiian Islands. The 1852 constitution reinforced the name and later laws and constitutions consistently follow the 1840 precedent. After 1840, the name Sandwich Islands was slowly replaced by the name Hawaiian Islands.
Factors Underlying the Name Change
The important change to "Hawaiian Islands" in the 1840 constitution appears to be based upon at least three identifiable factors. First, Hawaiians disliked the name Sandwich Islands. Second, government under Kamehameha III was asserting itself. The Hawaiian Kingdom was moving from external, foreign controls to internal self-government. Third, growing American influence and preference of the name Hawaiian Islands was increasing at the expense of British power.
Firstly, native Hawaiians seem to have rejected the name Sandwich Islands whenever it became a matter of concern. Apparently, Cook's appellation for their islands was ignored, or most Hawaiians were simply ignorant of the name. In any case, they preferred the name Hawaii. Thrum's Hawaiian Annual for 1923 states: "It may be safely said that the term 'Sandwich Islands' was never accepted by local authority, or had official use."24 In 1872, James J. Jarves wrote:
... the Sandwich Islands were so named by Cook. . . . Their legitimate appellation and the one by which they still continue to be distinguished by the aboriginal inhabitants is "Hawaii nei pae aina," a collective term, synonymous with "these Hawaiian Islands."25
There is some evidence that both Kamehameha I and Kamehameha III protested the name Sandwich Islands. In October, 1818, Captain Vasilii M. Golovnin of the Russian Navy visited the islands and was well-received by old Kamehameha I.26 In regards to the name Sandwich Islands, Golovnin related the King's reaction:
Europeans, who have lived here more than twenty years, told me that Kamehameha [I] could not hear without indignation that the English claimed any jurisdiction over his land. He even goes so far as to object to the name "Sandwich Islands," which was given them by Capt. Cook, insisting that each one should be called by its own name, and the group—that of the King of Hawaii.\textsuperscript{27}
King Kamehameha III also reportedly voiced his dislike of the name Sandwich Islands. Again the source is secondhand, this time from Captain Finch of the U. S. Navy. Finch visited Honolulu in 1829 with official Navy Department letters addressed to Kamehameha III. He reported that the King explained:
... the Government and natives generally have dropped or do not admit the designation, of "Sandwich Islands" as applied to their possessions; but adopt and use that of "Hawaiian Islands"; in allusion to the fact that the whole group having been subjected by the first Kamehameha who was the chief of the principal island . . . and also in contradiction of the assertion made by some persons that Kamehameha had ceded sovereignty to Capt. Vancouver for and in behalf of the British Government.\textsuperscript{28}
Finch's record of Kamehameha III's statement could be the first recorded use of the name Hawaiian Islands.\textsuperscript{29}
The second factor influencing the change from Sandwich to Hawaiian Islands was the movement toward formalized, internal government in the late 1830s and 1840s under Kamehameha III.\textsuperscript{30} David Malo, writing in 1837, captured Hawaiian anxieties about encroaching foreign domination:
If a big wave comes in, large and unfamiliar fishes will come from the dark ocean, and when they see the small fishes of the shallows they will eat them up. The white man's ships have arrived with clever men from the big countries, they know our people are few in number and our country is small, they will devour us.\textsuperscript{31}
On the political front, Malo's "large and unfamiliar fishes" were at least temporarily averted by the 1840 constitution and subsequent governmental strengthening.\textsuperscript{32} By early 1843, the United States had officially recognized the Hawaiian Kingdom. A few months later, both Great Britain and France followed suit.\textsuperscript{33}
In regards to the name change and the emerging independent Kingdom, Thrum states:
That confusion for a time may have prevailed as Hawaii gradually developed in the scale of civilization to demand recognition in the brotherhood of independent nations is not strange, but gradually the legitimate native name gained supremacy and the English given name died from disuse.\textsuperscript{34}
The third influence was the growing presence of Americans in Hawaiian government and their apparent dislike of the name Sandwich Islands. The influence and advisory functions of Americans William
Richards, Gerrit P. Judd, and Richard Armstrong has been widely researched.
Another important American, James Jackson Jarves, may have had the most direct influence on discontinuing the Sandwich Islands name. Jarves was editor of *The Polynesian* during this time. (In 1844, he was named director of the Hawaiian government press as well as editor of *The Polynesian*, then the official government journal). On October 3, 1840, one week before Hawaii’s first constitution, *The Polynesian* carried a timely editorial entitled, “Hawaii, versus Sandwich Islands.” The editorial strongly advocated the names Hawaii and Hawaiian over the “awkward compound adjective, ‘Sandwich Islands.’”
Stating, “We give preference to Hawaii for the group,” and claiming “the natives have ever used ‘Hawaii nei’ as applicable to the islands,” the editorial concludes:
Nothing tends more rapidly to denationalize a people than to change their language. . . . In a race like this, struggling for a political existence, every thing which tends to incite a spirit of patriotism, to arouse the “amor patriae” should be studiously encouraged.\(^{35}\)
Taylor, writing in 1931, also believes that American and British tensions were involved. He states: “the change of name came about as a gradual evolution, quite likely because American influences desired use of ‘Hawaiian Islands’ as opposed to English designation of ‘Sandwich Islands.’”\(^{36}\)
In conclusion, Cook’s name for the islands was commonly used until the 1840s. Native dislike of the name, formalized government, and American influences were important factors in initiating the gradual name change to the Hawaiian Islands. Although the first use of the name Hawaiian Islands may have been as early as 1829, the official change appeared in the 1840 constitution, with a period of transition from about 1840 to 1865.
* * * * *
Some early indications of the name change from Sandwich Islands to Hawaiian Islands:
1. After the newspaper *The Polynesian* was purchased by the Hawaiian Kingdom in May, 1844, it was soon announced as “the official journal of the Hawaiian Government.”\(^{37}\)
2. *The Friend; a Semi-Monthly Journal Devoted to Temperance, Seamen, Marine, and General Intelligence* printed its address prior
to 1846 as "Honolulu, Oahu, S. I." Beginning with Volume IV, Number 1 (January 1, 1846), the address reads "Honolulu, Oahu, H.I."
3. Minutes of an interview in 1848 between James J. Jarves and U.S. Secretary of State James Buchanan use both names interchangeably.\(^{38}\)
4. In 1853, the Hawaiian Evangelical Association replaced the Sandwich Islands Mission.
5. In 1852, the Hawaiian Mission Children's Society was formed.
6. The Honolulu English language newspapers in the late 1830s and 1840s are entitled *Sandwich Islands Gazette*, *Sandwich Islands Mirror*, and *Sandwich Islands News*. Later, in the 1860s, the *Hawaiian Gazette* began. An exception is *The Hawaiian Spectator*, which began publication in 1836.
7. Early histories of Hawaii refer to the Sandwich Islands. With few exceptions, histories after the 1850s generally use the name Hawaiian Islands.\(^{39}\)
NOTES
\(^1\) James Cook, *A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean* (London: W. and A. Strahan, 1784), II, 219–252.
\(^2\) Cook, II, 221–222.
\(^3\) Nathaniel Portlock, *A Voyage Round the World* (1789; rpt. Amsterdam: N. Israel; New York: Da Capo Press, 1968), p. 68.
\(^4\) Charles P. C. Fleuriel, *A Voyage Round the World, Performed During the Years 1790, 1791, and 1792, by Etienne Marchand* (1801; rpt. Amsterdam: N. Israel; New York: Da Capo Press, 1969), II, 1.
\(^5\) George Vancouver, *A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, and Round the World* (1798; rpt. Amsterdam: N. Israel; New York: Da Capo Press, 1969), I, 153.
\(^6\) Otto von Kotzebue, *A Voyage of Discovery, Into the South Sea and Bering's Straits* (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, et al., 1821), I, 290–358.
\(^7\) *Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde to the Sandwich Islands, in the Years 1824–1825* (London: J. Murray, 1826).
\(^8\) For numerous examples see Ralph S. Kuykendall, *The Hawaiian Kingdom* (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968), I, 66, 76, 81, 93, 99, 101, etc.
\(^9\) For example, Hiram Bingham, *A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sand-Islands* (Hartford, Connecticut: H. Huntington, 1847).
\(^10\) See *Voyage of the H. M. S. Blonde*, pp. 133, 154–157.
\(^11\) Kuykendall, I, 120–121.
\(^12\) W. D. Westervelt, "Hawaiian Printed Laws Before the Constitution," Hawaiian Historical Society, Annual Report no. 16 (Honolulu, 1909), pp. 41–42.
\(^13\) *The Hawaiian Spectator*, October, 1838, pp. 390–392.
14 Lorrin A. Thurston, *Fundamental Law in Hawaii* (Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Co., 1904), pp. 36–38, 404, 126.
15 Kuykendall, I, 98–99, 148, 235–236, 166–167.
16 Charles I. Bevans, comp., *Treaties and Other Agreements of the United States of America, 1776–1949* (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968–1976), VIII, 864–879.
17 *The Hawaiian Spectator*, July, 1839, pp. 347–348.
18 Robert C. Lydecker, comp., *Roster Legislatures of Hawaii, 1841–1918* (Honolulu: Hawaiian Gazette Co., 1918), p. 8.
19 Lydecker, pp. 8–15.
20 Lydecker, pp. 36–48.
21 Lydecker, p. 42.
22 Lydecker, p. 47.
23 Lydecker, p. 88.
24 Thomas G. Thrum, *Hawaiian Annual for 1923* (Honolulu: Thrum, 1923), p. 70.
25 James Jackson Jarves, *History of the Hawaiian Islands*, 4th ed. (Honolulu: H. M. Whitney, 1872), p. 5.
26 Golovnin's account of his world travels was first published in St. Petersburg in 1822. The first complete English translation, *Around the World on the Sloop "Kamchatka," 1817–1819*, was published by University Press of Hawaii in 1979 (translated by Ella Lury Wiswell).
27 "Golovnin's visit to Hawaii in 1818," *The Friend*, July, 1892, p. 52. See also pages 50–53 and 60–62.
28 A. P. Taylor, "Islands of the Hawaiian Domain," TS, Hawaii State Archives, January 10, 1931, p. 27.
29 Thrum, p. 70.
30 Kuykendall, I, 153–169.
31 Gavan Daws, *Shoal of Time; a History of the Hawaiian Islands* (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 106.
32 Kuykendall, I, 167–169. See also Neil M. Levy, "Native Hawaiian Land Rights," *California Law Review*, 63 (July, 1975), 851–853.
33 Kuykendall, I, 185–205.
34 Thrum, p. 70.
35 *The Polynesian*, October 3, 1840, p. 66. Compare footnote 25 for Jarves' later paraphrase.
36 Taylor, p. 28.
37 *The Polynesian*, July, 1840.
38 Kuykendall, I, 378. See also Bingham, pp. 586–587 for similar correspondence using the names interchangeably in 1842.
39 An important exception is Samuel L. Clemens' popular *Letters from the Sandwich Islands*, published in 1866. | 5d309ed5-b72a-41c6-80d2-17ed3ed7d0e2 | CC-MAIN-2024-18 | https://jenvermet.com/content/files/bitstream/10524/495/JL14054.pdf | 2024-04-16T08:06:00+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817073.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20240416062523-20240416092523-00112.warc.gz | 303,952,297 | 4,614 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.93671 | eng_Latn | 0.991965 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
1710,
4306,
6765,
9333,
12247,
14514,
16902,
18893
] | [
2.609375
] | 2 | 2 |
How to read 'Surface' weather maps
On surface maps you will often see station weather plots. Since meteorologists must convey a lot of information without using a lot of words, plots are used to describe the weather at a station for a specific time. When all stations are plotted on a map, a "picture" of where the high and low pressure areas are located, as well as the location of fronts, can be obtained.
There are a large number of weather symbols used for station plotting. Some are used for weather elements such as rain, snow, and lightning. Others represent the speed of the wind, types of clouds, air temperature, and air pressure. All of these symbols help meteorologists depict the weather occurring at a weather observing station.
This sample plot represents the maximum amount of information about the current weather at an observing station. Hand plotted maps usually contain the full weather information. However, most computer generated surface weather maps omit some data such as clouds types and heights.
Before computers, the plotting of weather maps was considered an art. In fact, Aerographers (weathermen) in the U.S. Navy continue to plots maps by hand. A skilled plotter can easily fit the above information under the space covered by a dime.
Decoding these plots is easier than it may seem. The values are located in a form similar to a tic-tac-toe pattern. Print key, (pdf)
| In the upper left, the temperature is plotted in Fahrenheit. In this example, the temperature is 77°F. |
| --- |
| Along the center, the cloud types are indicated. These cloud types use the same cloud codes as found in the cloud chart section. The top symbol is the high-level cloud type followed by the mid-level cloud type. The lowest symbol represents low-level cloud over a number which tells the height of the base of that cloud (in hundreds of feet). In this example, the high level cloud is Cirrus, the mid-level cloud is Altocumulus and the low-level clouds is a cumulonimbus with a base height of 2000 feet. [more on these symbols] |
| At the upper right is the atmospheric pressure reduced to mean sea level in millibars (mb) to the nearest tenth with the leading 9 or 10 omitted. In this case the pressure would be 999.8 mb. If the pressure was plotted as 024 it would be 1002.4 mb. When trying to determine whether to add a 9 or 10 use the number that will give you a value closest to 1000 mb. |
| On the second row, the far left number is the visibility in miles. In this example, the visibility is 5 miles. |
| Next to the visibility is the present weather symbol. There 95 symbols which represent the weather that is either presently occurring or has ended within the previous hour. In this example, a light rain shower was occurring at the time of the observation. [See all the symbols] |
| The circle symbol in the center represents the amount of total cloud cover reported in eighths. This cloud cover includes all low, middle, and high level clouds. In this example, 7/8th of the sky was covered with clouds. [see the complete list of symbols] |
| This number and symbol tell how much the pressure has changed (in tenths of millibars) in the past three hours and the trend in the change of the pressure during that same period. In this example, the pressure was steady then fell (lowered) becoming 0.3 millibars LOWER than it was three hours ago. [see all pressure tendency symbols] |
| These lines indicate wind direction and speed rounded to the nearest 5 knots. The longest line, extending from the sky cover plot, points in the direction that the wind is blowing FROM. Thus, in this case, the wind is blowing FROM the southwest. The shorter lines, called barbs, indicate the wind speed in knots (kts). The speed of the wind is determined by the barbs. Each long barb represents 10 kts with short barbs representing 5 kts. In this example, the station plot contains two long barbs so the wind speed is 20 kts, or about 24 mph. [more about wind barbs] |
| The 71 at the lower left is the dewpoint temperature. The dewpoint temperature is the temperature the air would have to cool to become saturated, or in other words reach a relative humidity of 100%. |
| The lower right area is reserved for the past weather, which is the most significant weather that has occurred within the past six hours excluding the most recent hour. [see the complete past weather symbols] |
Analyzing Weather Maps
Once you can read a station plot you can begin to perform map analyses. Meteorologists use the station plots to draw lines of constant pressure (isobars), temperature (isotherms), and dewpoint (isodrosotherms) to achieve an understanding of the current state of the atmosphere. This knowledge ultimately leads to better weather forecasts and warnings.
Learning Lesson: Drawing Conclusions | 96781d46-5876-4806-8af7-4a1f3b3d9923 | CC-MAIN-2025-08 | https://www.chem.pmf.hr/_download/repository/Meteorol_symbols_reading.pdf | 2025-02-15T11:16:42+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2025-08/segments/1738831951979.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20250215085341-20250215115341-00541.warc.gz | 651,485,834 | 1,055 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998691 | eng_Latn | 0.998691 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
4813
] | [
3.921875
] | 1 | 1 |
3 1761 01691193 5
| | |
|---|---|
| 143 | |
| 155 | |
| 164 | |
| 173 | |
| 185 | |
| 199 | |
| 217 | |
| 227 | |
| 236 | |
| 247 | |
| 263 | |
| 275 | |
| 283 | |
| 294 | |
The following is a list of the most common causes of death in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The data is based on 2019 statistics.
1. Heart disease
2. Cancer
3. Stroke
4. Chronic lower respiratory diseases
5. Accidents (unintentional injuries)
6. Diabetes
7. Alzheimer's disease
8. Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis
9. Influenza and pneumonia
10. Septicemia
11. Intentional self-harm (suicide)
12. Kidney disease
13. Parkinson's disease
14. Liver disease
15. Dementia
Note: The CDC also includes "all other causes" in their list, which accounts for the remaining deaths not listed above.
"At that sound the Ottawa and the other chiefs sprang to their feet."
WACOUSTA
A Tale of the Pontiac Conspiracy
BY
MAJOR RICHARDSON
Author of "The Canadian Brothers,"
"Hardscrabble," "Écarté," etc.
With Illustrations by
CHARLES W. JEFFERYS
"Vengeance is still alive; from her dark covert,
With all her snakes erect upon her crest,
She stalks in view and fires me with her charms."
THE REVENGE.
TORONTO
HISTORICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
1906
Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand nine hundred and six, by the Historical Publishing Co., Toronto, at the Department of Agriculture.
ILLUSTRATIONS
"At that sound the Ottawa and the other chiefs sprang to their feet." - Frontispiece
Portrait of the Author - v
"Choking up the gateway . . . a dense mass of dusky Indians were to be seen." - 192
"The soldiery, . . . collected along the line of rampart in front, were watching the progress of the ball-players." - 268
"During the whole of that day the cousins had continued on deck, clasped in each other's arms." - 309
"Wacousta began his descent, not as before by adhering to the staff, but by the rope." - 442
Richardson
The following is a list of the most common causes of hearing loss:
- **Age**: As we age, our hearing can naturally decline due to the normal wear and tear on our ears and the aging process.
- **Noise Exposure**: Prolonged exposure to loud noises can damage the sensitive hair cells in the inner ear, leading to hearing loss. This is often referred to as noise-induced hearing loss.
- **Medications**: Certain medications, including some antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and aspirin in high doses, can cause hearing loss as a side effect.
- **Infections**: Infections such as mumps, measles, and meningitis can cause hearing loss, especially in children.
- **Trauma**: Traumatic events like head injuries or blows to the ear can cause hearing loss by damaging the structures of the ear.
- **Genetics**: Some people inherit genes that make them more susceptible to hearing loss.
- **Autoimmune Disorders**: Conditions like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis can affect the inner ear, leading to hearing loss.
- **Circulatory System Issues**: Problems with blood flow to the ears, such as those caused by high blood pressure or heart disease, can impact hearing.
- **Tumors**: Tumors in or around the ear can compress the nerves responsible for hearing, causing hearing loss.
- **Earwax Buildup**: Excessive earwax can block the ear canal, making it difficult for sound waves to reach the eardrum, which can lead to temporary hearing loss.
- **Ototoxicity**: Certain chemicals and substances can be toxic to the inner ear, causing hearing loss. This includes some medications and industrial solvents.
Understanding these causes can help in managing and preventing hearing loss effectively.
INTRODUCTION
It is well known to every man conversant with the earlier history of this country that, shortly subsequent to the cession of the Canadas to England by France, Pontiac, the great head of the Indian race of that period, had formed a federation of the various tribes, threatening extermination to the British posts established along the Western frontier. These were nine in number, and the following stratagem was resorted to by the artful chief to effect their reduction. Investing one fort with his warriors, so as to cut off all communication with the others, and to leave no hope of succor, his practice was to offer terms of surrender, which never were kept in the honorable spirit in which the far more noble and generous Tecumseh always acted with his enemies, and thus, in turn, seven of these outposts fell victims to their confidence in his truth.
Detroit and Michilimackinac, or Mackinaw as it is now called, remained, and all the ingenuity of the chieftain was directed to the possession of these strongholds. The following plan, well worthy of his invention, was at length determined upon. During a temporary truce, and while Pontiac was holding forth proposals for an ultimate and durable peace, a game of lacrosse was arranged by him to take place simultaneously on the common or clearing on which rested the forts of Michilimackinac and Detroit. The better to accomplish their object, the guns of the warriors had been cut short and given to their women, who were instructed to conceal them under their blankets, and during the game, and
seemingly without design, to approach the drawbridge of the fort. This precaution taken, the players were to approach and throw over their ball, permission to regain which they presumed would not be denied. On approaching the drawbridge they were with fierce yells to make a general rush, and, securing the arms concealed by the women, to massacre the unprepared garrison.
The day was fixed; the game commenced, and was proceeded with in the manner previously arranged. The ball was dexterously hurled into the fort, and permission asked to recover it. It was granted. The drawbridge was lowered, and the Indians dashed forward for the accomplishment of their work of blood. How different the results in the two garrisons! At Detroit, Pontiac and his warriors had scarcely crossed the drawbridge when, to their astonishment and disappointment, they beheld the guns of the ramparts depressed—the artillerymen with lighted matches at their posts and covering the little garrison, composed of a few companies of the 42nd Highlanders, who were also under arms, and so distributed as to take the enemy most at an advantage. Sullenly they withdrew, and without other indication of their purpose than what had been expressed in their manner, and carried off the missing ball. Their design had been discovered and made known by means of significant warnings to the Governor by an Indian woman who owed a debt of gratitude to his family, and was resolved, at all hazards, to save them.
On the same day the same artifice was resorted to at Michilimackinac, and with the most complete success. There was no guardian angel there to warn them of danger, and all fell beneath the rifle, the tomahawk, the war-club, and the knife, one or two of the traders—a Mr. Henry among the rest—alone excepted.
It was not long after this event when the head of the military authorities in the Colony, apprised of the fate of these captured posts, and made acquainted with the perilous condition of Fort Detroit, which was then reduced to the last extremity, sought an officer who would
volunteer the charge of supplies from Albany to Buffalo, and thence across the lake to Detroit, which, if possible, he was to relieve. That volunteer was promptly found in my maternal grandfather, Mr. Erskine, from Strabane, in the North of Ireland, then an officer in the Commissariat Department. The difficulty of the undertaking will be obvious to those who understand the danger attending a journey through the Western wilderness, beset as it was by the warriors of Pontiac, ever on the look out to prevent succor to the garrison, and yet the duty was successfully accomplished. He left Albany with provisions and ammunition sufficient to fill several Schenectady boats—I think seven—and yet conducted his charge with such prudence and foresight, that notwithstanding the vigilance of Pontiac, he finally and after long watching succeeded, under cover of a dark and stormy night, in throwing into the fort the supplies of which the remnant of the gallant "Black Watch," as the 42nd was originally named, and a company of whom, while out reconnoitering, had been massacred at a spot in the vicinity of the town, thereafter called the Bloody Run, stood so greatly in need. This important service rendered, Mr. Erskine, in compliance with the instructions he had received, returned to Albany, where he reported the success of the expedition.
The colonial authorities were not regardless of his interests. When the Pontiac confederacy had been dissolved, and quiet and security restored in that remote region, large tracts of land were granted to Mr. Erskine, and other privileges accorded which eventually gave him the command of nearly a hundred thousand dollars—an enormous sum to have been realized at that early period of the country. But it was not destined that he should retain this. The great bulk of his capital was expended on almost the first commercial shipping that ever skimmed the surface of Lakes Huron and Erie. Shortly prior to the Revolution, he was possessed of seven vessels of different tonnage, and the trade in which he had embarked, and of which he was the head, was rapidly
increasing his already large fortune, when one of those autumnal hurricanes, which even to this day continue to desolate the waters of the treacherous lake last named, suddenly arose and buried beneath its engulfing waves not less than six of these schooners laden with such riches, chiefly furs, of the West as then were most an object of barter.
Mr. Erskine, who had married the daughter of one of the earliest settlers from France, and of a family well known in history, a lady who had been in Detroit during the siege of the British garrison by Pontiac, now abandoned speculation, and contenting himself with the remnant of his fortune, established himself near the banks of the river, within a short distance of the Bloody Run. Here he continued throughout the Revolution. Early, however, in the present century, he quitted Detroit and repaired to the Canadian shore, where on a property nearly opposite, which he obtained in exchange, and which in honor of his native country he named Strabane—known as such to this day—he passed the autumn of his days. The last time I beheld him was a day or two subsequent to the affair of the Thames, when General Harrison and Colonel Johnson were temporary inmates of his dwelling.
My father, of a younger branch of the Annandale family, the head of which was attainted in the Scottish rebellion of 1745, was an officer of Simcoe’s well-known Rangers, in which regiment, and about the same period, the present Lord Hardinge commenced his services in this country. Being quartered at Fort Erie, he met and married at the house of one of the earliest Canadian merchants a daughter of Mr. Erskine, then on a visit to her sister, and by her had eight children, of whom I am the oldest and only survivor. Having a few years after his marriage been ordered to St. Joseph’s, near Michilimackinac, my father thought it expedient to leave me with Mr. Erskine at Detroit, where I received the first rudiments of my education. But here I did not remain long, for it was during the period of the stay of the detachment of Simcoe’s Rangers at St. Joseph that Mr. Erskine repaired with his family to the Canadian shore, where on the more elevated and conspicuous part of his grounds, which are situated nearly opposite the foot of Hog Island, so repeatedly alluded to in “Wacousta,” he had caused a flag-staff to be erected, from which each Sabbath day proudly floated the colors under which he had served, and which he never could bring himself to disown.
It was at Strabane that the old lady, with whom I was a great favorite, used to enchain my young interest by detailing various facts connected with the siege she so well remembered, and infused into me a longing to grow up to manhood that I might write a book about it. The details of the Pontiac plan for the capture of the two forts were what she most enlarged upon, and although a long lapse of years of absence from the scene, and ten thousand incidents of a higher and more immediate importance might have been supposed to weaken the recollections of so early a period of life, the impression has ever vividly remained. Hence the first appearance of “Wacousta” in London in 1832, more than a quarter of a century later. The story is founded solely on the artifice of Pontiac to possess himself of those two last British forts. All else is imaginary.
It is not a little curious that I, only a few years subsequent to the narration by old Mrs. Erskine of the daring and cunning feats of Pontiac, and his vain attempt to secure the fort of Detroit, should myself have entered it in arms. But it was so. I had ever hated school with a most bitter hatred, and I gladly availed myself of an offer from General Brock to obtain for me a commission in the king’s service. Meanwhile I did duty as a cadet with the gallant 41st regiment, to whom the English edition of “Wacousta” was inscribed, and was one of the guard of honor who took possession of the fort. The duty of a sentinel over the British colors, which had just been hoisted, was assigned to me, and I certainly felt not a little proud of the distinction.
Five times within half a century had the flag of that fortress been changed. First the lily of France, then the red cross of England, and next the stars and stripes of America had floated over its ramparts; and then again the red cross, and lastly the stars. On my return to this country a few years since, I visited those scenes of stirring excitement in which my boyhood had been passed, but I looked in vain for the ancient fortifications which had given a classical interest to that region. The unsparing hand of utilitarianism had passed over them, destroying almost every vestige of the past. Where had risen the only fortress in America at all worthy to give antiquity to the scene, streets had been laid out and made, and houses had been built, leaving not a trace of its existence save the well that formerly supplied the closely besieged garrison with water; and this, half imbedded in the herbage of an enclosure of a dwelling house of mean appearance, was rather to be guessed at than seen; while at the opposite extremity of the city, where had been conspicuous for years the Bloody Run, cultivation and improvement had nearly obliterated every trace of the past.
Two objections have been urged against "Wacousta" as a consistent tale—the one as involving an improbability, the other a geographical error. It has been assumed that the startling feat accomplished by that man of deep revenge, who is not alone in his bitter hatred and contempt for the base among those who, like spaniels, crawl and kiss the dust at the instigation of their superiors, and yet arrogate to themselves a claim to be considered gentlemen and men of honor and independence—it has, I repeat, been assumed that the feat attributed to him in connection with the flag-staff of the fort was impossible. No one who has ever seen these erections on the small forts of that day would pronounce the same criticism. Never very lofty, they were ascended at least one-third of their height by means of small projections nailed to them for footholds for the artillerymen, frequently compelled to clear the flag lines entangled at the
truck; therefore a strong and active man, such as Wacousta is described to have been, might very well have been supposed, in his strong anxiety for revenge and escape with his victim, to have doubled his strength and activity on so important an occasion, rendering that easy of attainment by himself which an ordinary and unexcited man might deem impossible. I myself have knocked down a gate, almost without feeling the resistance, in order to escape the stilettos of assassins.
The second objection is to the narrowness attributed in the tale to the river St. Clair. This was done in the license usually accorded to a writer of fiction, in order to give greater effect to the scene represented as having occurred there, and, of course, in no way intended as a geographical description of the river, nor was it necessary. In the same spirit and for the same purpose it has been continued.
It will be seen that at the termination of the tragedy enacted at the bridge, by which the Bloody Run was in those days crossed, that the wretched wife of the condemned soldier pronounced a curse that could not, of course, well be fulfilled in the course of the tale. Some few years ago I published in Canada—I might as well have done so in Kamschatka—the continuation, which was to have been dedicated to the last King of England, but which, after the death of that monarch, was inscribed to Sir John Harvey, whose letter, as making honorable mention of a gallant and beloved brother, I feel it a duty to the memory of the latter to subjoin.*
The "Prophecy Fulfilled," which, however, has never been seen out of the small country in which it appeared—
* "Government House, Fredericton, N.B.,
November 26th, 1839.
"Dear Sir,—I am favored with your very interesting communication of the 2nd instant, by which I learn that you are the brother of two youths whose gallantry and merits—and with regard to one of them, his sufferings—during the late war excited my warmest admiration and sympathy. I beg you to believe that I am far from insensible to the affecting proofs which you have made known to me of this grateful recollection of any
Detroit, perhaps, alone excepted—embraces and indeed is intimately connected with the Beauchamp tragedy, which took place at or near Weisiger’s Hotel, in Frankfort, Kentucky, where I had been many years before confined as a prisoner of war. While connecting it with the “Prophecy Fulfilled,” and making it subservient to the end I had in view, I had not read or even heard of the existence of a work of the same character, which had already appeared from the pen of an American author. Indeed, I have reason to believe that the “Prophecy Fulfilled,” although not published until after a lapse of years, was the first written. No similarity of treatment of the subject exists between the two versions, and this, be it remembered, I remark without in the slightest degree impugning the merit of the production of my fellow-laborer in the same field.
The Author.
New York City, January 1st, 1851.
little service which I may have had it in my power to render them; and I will add that the desire which I felt to serve the father will be found to extend itself to the son, if your nephew should ever find himself under circumstances to require from me any service which it may be within my power to render him.
“With regard to your very flattering proposition to inscribe your present work to me, I can only say that, independent of the respect to which the author of so very charming a production as ‘Wacousta’ is entitled, the interesting facts and circumstances so unexpectedly brought to my knowledge and recollection would ensure a ready acquiescence on my part.
“I remain, dear sir, your very faithful servant,
“(Signed) J. Harvey.
“Major Richardson, Montreal.”
WACOUSTA
CHAPTER I.
It was during the midnight watch, late in September, 1763, that the English garrison of Detroit was thrown into the utmost consternation by the sudden and mysterious introduction of a stranger within its walls. The circumstance at this moment was particularly remarkable; for the period was so fearful and pregnant with events of danger, the fort being assailed on every side by a powerful and vindictive foe, that a caution and vigilance of no common kind were unceasingly exercised by the prudent governor for the safety of those committed to his charge. A long series of hostilities had been pursued by the North American Indians against the subjects of England within the few years that had succeeded to the final subjection of the Canadas to her victorious arms; and many and sanguinary were the conflicts in which the devoted soldiery were made to succumb to the cunning and numbers of their savage enemies.
In those lone regions both officers and men, in their respective ranks, were, by a communionship of suffering, isolation, and peculiarity of duty, drawn towards each other with feelings of almost fraternal affection; and the fates of those who fell were lamented with sincerity of soul, and avenged, when opportunity offered, with a determination prompted equally by indignation and
despair. This sentiment of union, existing even between men and officers of different corps, was, with occasional exceptions, of course, doubly strengthened among those who fought under the same colors and acknowledged the same head; and as it often happened in Canada during this interesting period that a single regiment was distributed into two or three fortresses, each so far removed from the other that communication could with the utmost facility be cut off, the anxiety and uncertainty of these detachments became proportioned to the danger with which they knew themselves to be more immediately beset.
The garrison of Detroit, at the date above named, consisted of a third of the —— regiment, the remainder of which occupied the forts of Michilimackinac and Niagara, and to each division of this regiment was attached an officer's command of artillery. It is true that no immediate overt act of hostility had for some time been perpetrated by the Indians, who were assembled in force around the former garrison; but the experienced officer to whom the command had been intrusted was too sensible of the craftiness of the surrounding hordes to be deceived, by any outward semblance of amity, into neglect of those measures of precaution which were so indispensable to the security of his trust.
In this he pursued a line of policy happily adapted to the delicate nature of his position. Unwilling to excite the anger or wound the pride of the chiefs by any outward manifestation of distrust, he affected to confide in the sincerity of their professions, and, by inducing his officers to mix occasionally in their councils, and his men in the amusements of the inferior warriors, contrived to impress the conviction that he reposed altogether on their faith. But, although these acts were in some degree coerced by the necessity of the times, and a perfect knowledge of all the misery that must accrue to them in the event of their provoking the Indians into acts of open hostility, the prudent governor took such precautions as were deemed efficient to defeat any treacherous attempt
at violation of the tacit treaty on the part of the natives.
The officers never ventured out unless escorted by a portion of their men, who, although appearing to be dispersed among the warriors, still kept sufficiently together to be enabled, in a moment of emergency, to afford succor, not only to each other, but to their superiors. On these occasions, as a further security against surprise, the troops left within were instructed to be in readiness, at a moment's warning, to render assistance, if necessary, to their companions, who seldom on any occasion ventured out of reach of the cannon of the fort, the gate of which was hermetically closed, while numerous supernumerary sentinels were posted along the ramparts, with a view to give the alarm if anything extraordinary was observed to occur without.
Painful and harassing as were the precautions it was found necessary to adopt on these occasions, and little desirous as were the garrison to mingle with the natives on such terms, still the plan was pursued by the governor from the policy already named: nay, it was absolutely essential to the future interests of England that the Indians should be won over by acts of confidence and kindness; and so little disposition had hitherto been manifested by the English to conciliate, that everything was to be apprehended from the untamable rancor with which these people were but too well disposed to repay a neglect at once galling to their pride and injurious to their interests.
Such, for a term of many months, had been the trying and painful duty that had devolved on the governor of Detroit, when, in the summer of 1763, the whole of the Western tribes of Indians, as if actuated by one common impulse, suddenly threw off the mask, and commenced a series of the most savage trespasses upon the English settlers in the vicinity of the several garrisons, who were cut off in detail, without mercy, and without reference to either age or sex. On the first alarm the weak bodies of troops, as a last measure of security, shut themselves up in their respective forts, where they
were as incapable of rendering assistance to others as of receiving it themselves.
In this emergency the prudence and forethought of the governor of Detroit were eminently conspicuous; for, having long foreseen the possibility of such a crisis, he had caused a plentiful supply of all that was necessary to the subsistence and defence of the garrison to be provided at an earlier period, so that, if foiled in their attempts at stratagem, there was little chance that the Indians would speedily reduce them by famine. To guard against the former, a vigilant watch was constantly kept by the garrison both day and night, while the sentinels, doubled in number, were constantly on the alert. Strict attention, moreover, was paid to such parts of the ramparts as were considered most assailable by a cunning and midnight enemy; and, in order to prevent any imprudence on the part of the garrison, all egress or ingress was prohibited that had not the immediate sanction of the chief. With this view the keys of the gate were given in trust to the officer of the guard; to whom, however, it was interdicted to use them unless by direct and positive order of the governor.
In addition to this precaution, the sentinels on duty at the gate had strict private instructions not to suffer any one to pass either in or out unless conducted by the governor in person; and this restriction extended even to the officer of the guard.
Such being the cautious discipline established in the fort, the appearance of a stranger within the walls at the still hour of midnight could not fail to be regarded as an extraordinary event, and to excite an apprehension which could scarcely have been surpassed had a numerous and armed band of savages suddenly appeared among them. The first intimation of this fact was given by the violent ringing of an alarm bell, a rope communicating with which was suspended in the governor's apartments, for the purpose of arousing the slumbering soldiers in any case of pressing emergency.
Soon afterwards the governor himself was seen to
issue from his rooms in the open area of the parade, clad in his dressing-gown, and bearing a lamp in one hand and a naked sword in the other. His countenance was pale, and his features, violently agitated, betrayed a source of alarm which those who were familiar with his usual haughtiness of manner were ill able to comprehend.
"Which way did he go?—why stand ye here?—follow—pursue him quickly—let him not escape, on your lives!"
These sentences, hurriedly and impatiently uttered, were addressed to the two sentinels who, stationed in front of his apartments, had, on the first sound of alarm from the portentous bell, lowered their muskets to the charge, and now stood immovable in that position.
"Who does your honor mane?" replied one of the men, startled, yet bringing his arms to the "recover," in salutation of his chief.
"Why, the man—the stranger—the fellow who has just passed you."
"Not a living soul has passed us since our watch commenced, your honor," observed the second sentinel; "and we have now been here upwards of an hour."
"Impossible, sirs; ye have been asleep on your posts, or ye must have seen him. He passed this way, and could not have escaped your observation had ye been attentive to your duty."
"Well, sure, and your honor knows bist," rejoined the first sentinel; "but so hlip me St. Patrick, as I have sirved man and boy in your honor's rigiment this twelve years, not even the fitch of a man has passed me this blissed night. And here's my comrade, Jack Halford, who will take his Bible oath to the same, with all due disfrince to your honor."
The pithy reply to this eloquent attempt at exculpation was a brief "Silence, sirrah, walk about!"
The men brought their muskets once more, and in silence, to the shoulder, and in obedience to the command of their chief, resumed their limited walk; crossing each other at regular intervals in the course that
enfiladed, as it were, the only entrance to the governor's apartments.
Meanwhile everything was bustle and commotion among the garrison, who, roused from sleep by the appalling sound of the alarm bell at that late hour, were hastily arming. Throughout the obscurity might be seen the flitting forms of men, whose already fully accoutred persons proclaimed them to be of the guard; while in the lofty barracks numerous lights flashing to and fro, and moving with rapidity, attested the alacrity with which the troops off duty were equipping for some service of more than ordinary interest. So noiseless, too, was this preparation, as far as speech was concerned, that the occasional opening and shutting of pans, and ringing of ramrods to ascertain the efficiency of the muskets, might be heard distinctly in the stillness of the night at a distance of many furlongs.
He, however, who had touched the secret spring of all this picturesque movement, whatever might be his gratification and approval of the promptitude with which the summons to arms had been answered by his brave troops, was far from being wholly satisfied with the scene he had conjured up. Recovered from the first and irrepressible agitation which had driven him to sound the tocsin of alarm, he felt how derogatory to his military dignity and proverbial coolness of character it might be considered to have awakened a whole garrison from their slumbers, when a few files of the guard would have answered his purpose equally well.
Besides, so much time had been suffered to elapse, that the stranger might have escaped; and if so, how many might be disposed to ridicule his alarm, and consider it as emanating from an imagination disturbed by sleep, rather than caused by the actual presence of one endowed like themselves with the faculties of speech and motion.
For a moment he hesitated whether he should not countermand the summons to arms which had been so precipitately given; but when he recollected the harrowing threat that had been breathed in his ear by his midnight visitor—when he reflected, moreover, that even now it was probable he was lurking within the precincts of the fort with a view to the destruction of all that it contained—when, in short, he thought of the imminent danger that must attend them should he be suffered to escape—he felt the necessity of precaution, and determined on his measures, even at the risk of manifesting a prudence which might be construed unfavorably. On re-entering his apartments, he found his orderly, who, roused by the midnight tumult, stood waiting to receive the commands of his chief.
"Desire Major Blackwater to come to me immediately." The mandate was quickly obeyed. In a few seconds a short, thick-set and elderly officer made his appearance in a gray military undress frock.
"Blackwater, we have traitors within the fort. Let diligent search be made in every part of the barracks for a stranger, an enemy, who has managed to procure admittance among us; let every nook and cranny, every empty cask, be examined forthwith; and cause a number of additional sentinels to be stationed along the ramparts, in order to intercept his escape."
"Good heaven, is it possible?" said the major, wiping the perspiration from his brows, though the night was unusually chilly for the season of the year—"how could he contrive to enter a place so vigilantly guarded?"
"Ask me not how, Blackwater," returned the governor, seriously; "let it suffice that he has been in this very room, and that ten minutes since he stood where you now stand."
The major looked aghast. "God bless me, how singular! How could the savage contrive to obtain admission? or was he in reality an Indian?"
"No more questions, Major Blackwater. Hasten to distribute the men, and let diligent search be made everywhere; and recollect, neither officer nor man courts his pillow until dawn."
The "major" emphatically prefixed to his name was a sufficient hint to the stout officer that the doubts thus
familiarly expressed were here to cease, and that he was now addressed in the language of authority by his superior, who expected a direct and prompt compliance with his orders. He therefore slightly touched his hat in salutation, and withdrew to make the dispositions that had been enjoined by his colonel.
On regaining the parade, he caused the men, already forming into companies, and answering to the roll-call of their respective non-commissioned officers, to be wheeled into square, and then in a low but distinct voice stated the cause of alarm; and, having communicated the orders of the governor, finished by recommending to each the exercise of the most scrutinizing vigilance; as on the discovery of the individual in question, and the means by which he had contrived to procure admission, the safety of the whole garrison, it was evident, must depend.
The soldiers now dispersed in small parties throughout the interior of the fort, while a select body were conducted to the ramparts by the officers themselves, and distributed between the sentinels already posted there, in such numbers, and at such distances, that it appeared impossible anything wearing the human form could pass them unperceived, even in the obscurity that reigned around.
When this duty was accomplished, the officers proceeded to the posts of the several sentinels who had been planted since the last relief, to ascertain if any or either of them had observed aught to justify the belief that an enemy had succeeded in scaling the works. To all their inquiries, however, they received a negative reply, accompanied by a declaration, more or less positive with each, that such had been their vigilance during the watch, had any person come within their beat, detection must have been inevitable.
The first question was put to the sentinel stationed at the gate of the fort, at which point the whole of the officers of the garrison were, with one or two exceptions, now assembled. The man at first evinced a good deal of confusion; but this might arise from the singular fact of
the alarm that had been given, and the equally singular circumstance of his being thus closely interrogated by the collective body of his officers: he, however, persisted in declaring that he had been in no wise inattentive to his duty, and that no cause for alarm or suspicion had occurred near his post.
The officers then, in order to save time, separated into two parties, pursuing opposite circuits, and arranging to meet at that point of the ramparts which was immediately in the rear, and overlooking the centre of the semi-circular sweep of wild forest which circumvented the fort.
"Well, Blessington, I know not what you think of this sort of work," observed Sir Everard Valletort, a young lieutenant of the —— regiment, recently arrived from England, and of the party who now traversed the rampart to the right; "but confound me if I would not rather be a barber's apprentice in London upon nothing, and find myself, than continue a life of this kind much longer."
"Hist, Valletort, hist! speak lower," said Captain Blessington, the senior officer present, "or our search must be in vain. Poor fellow!" he pursued, laughing low and good-humoredly at the picture of miseries thus solemnly enumerated by his subaltern; "how much, in truth, are you to be pitied, who have so recently basked in all the sunshine of enjoyment at home. For our parts, we have lived so long amid these savage scenes that we have almost forgotten what luxury, or even comfort, means. Doubt not, my friend, that in time you will, like us, be reconciled to the change."
"Confound me for an idiot, then, if I give myself time," replied Sir Everard, affectedly. "It was only five minutes before that cursed alarm bell was sounded in my ears, that I had made up my mind fully to resign or exchange the instant I could do so with credit to myself; and, I am sure, to be called out of a warm bed at this unseasonable hour offers little inducement for me to change my opinion."
"Resign or exchange with credit to yourself!" sullenly observed a stout, tall officer of about fifty, whose spleen might well be accounted for in his rank of "Ensign" Delme. "Methinks there can be little credit in exchanging or resigning when one's companions are left behind, and in a post of danger."
"Troth, and ye may say that with your own pritty mouth," remarked another veteran, who answered to the name of Lieutenant Murphy; "for it isn't now, while we are surrounded and dediviled by the savages, that any man of the —— regiment should be after talking of bating a retrace."
"I scarcely understand you, gentlemen," warmly and quickly retorted Sir Everard, who, with all his dandyism and effeminacy of manner, was of a high and resolute spirit. "Do either of you fancy that I want courage to face a positive danger, because I may not happen to have any particular vulgar predilection for early rising?"
"Nonsense, Valletort, nonsense," interrupted, in accents of almost feminine sweetness, his friend Lieutenant Charles De Haldimar, the youngest son of the governor. "Murphy is an eternal echo of the opinions of those who look forward to promotion; and as for Delme —do you not see the drift of his observation? Should you retire, as you have threatened, of course another lieutenant will be appointed in your stead; but, should you chance to lose your scalp during the struggle with the savages, the step goes in the regiment, and he, being the senior ensign, obtains promotion in consequence."
"Ah!" observed Captain Blessington, "this is indeed the greatest curse attached to the profession of a soldier. Even among those who most esteem, and are drawn towards each other as well by fellowship in pleasure as companionship in danger, this vile and debasing principle—this insatiable desire for personal advancement—is certain to intrude itself; since we feel that over the mangled bodies of our dearest friends and companions we can alone hope to attain preferment and distinction."
This conversation, interrupted only by occasional
questioning of the sentinels whom they passed in their circuit, was carried on in an audible whisper, which the close approximation of the parties to each other, and the profound stillness of the night, enabled them to hear with distinctness.
When the conversation dropped the party pursued their course in silence. They had just passed the last sentinel posted in their line of circuit, and were within a few yards of the immediate rear of the fortress, when a sharp "Hist!" and sudden halt of their leader, Captain Blessington, threw them all into an attitude of the most profound attention.
"Did you hear?" he asked, in a subdued whisper, after a few seconds of silence, in which he had vainly sought to catch a repetition of the sound. "Assuredly," he pursued, finding that no one answered, "I distinctly heard a human groan."
"Where?—in what direction?" asked Sir Everard and De Haldimar in the same breath.
"Immediately opposite to us on the common. But see! here are the remainder of the party stationary, and listening also."
They now stole gently forward a few paces, and were soon at the side of their companions, all of whom were straining their necks and bending their heads in the attitude of men listening attentively.
"Have you heard anything, Erskine?" asked Captain Blessington in the same low whisper, and addressing the officer who led the opposite party.
"Not a sound ourselves, but here is Sir Everard's black servant, Sambo, who has just riveted our attention by declaring he distinctly heard a groan towards the skirt of the common."
"He is right," hastily rejoined Blessington; "I heard it also."
Again a deathlike silence ensued, during which the eyes of the party were strained eagerly in the direction of the common. The night was clear and starry, yet the dark shadow of the broad belt of forest threw all that
part of the waste which came within its immediate range into impenetrable obscurity.
"Do you see anything?" whispered Vallettort to his friend, who stood next him. "Look—look!" and he pointed with his finger.
"Nothing," returned De Haldimar, after an anxious gaze of a minute, "but that dilapidated old bomb-proof."
"See you not something dark, and slightly moving, immediately in a line with the left angle of the bomb-proof?"
De Haldimar looked again. "I do begin to fancy I see something," he replied; "but so confusedly and indistinctly that I know not whether it be not merely an illusion of my imagination. Perhaps it is a stray Indian dog devouring the carcass of the wolf you shot yesterday."
"Be it dog or devil, here is for a trial of his vulnerability. Sambo, quick, my rifle."
The young negro handed to his master one of those long heavy rifles which the Indians usually make choice of for killing buffalo, elk, and other animals whose wildness renders them difficult of approach. He then, unbidden, and as if tutored to the task, placed himself in a stiff upright position in front of his master, with every nerve and muscle braced to the most inflexible steadiness. The young officer next threw the rifle on the right shoulder of the boy for a rest, and prepared to take his aim on the object that had first attracted his attention.
"Make haste, massa—him go directly—Sambo see him get up."
All was breathless attention among the group of officers; and when the sharp ticking sound produced by the cocking of the rifle of their companion fell on their ears, they bent their gaze upon the point towards which the murderous weapon was levelled with the most aching and intense interest.
"Quick, quick, massa—him quite up," again whispered the boy.
The words had scarcely passed his lips, when the crack
of the rifle, followed by a bright blaze of light, sounded throughout the stillness of the night with exciting sharpness. For an instant all was hushed; but scarcely had the distant woods ceased to reverberate the spirit-stirring echoes when the anxious group of officers were surprised and startled by a sudden flash, the report of a second rifle from the common, and the whizzing of a bullet past their ears. This was instantly succeeded by a fierce, wild, and prolonged cry, expressive at once of triumph and revenge. It was that peculiar cry which an Indian utters when the reeking scalp has been wrested from his murdered victim.
"Missed him, as I am a sinner," exclaimed Sir Everard, springing to his feet, and knocking the butt of his rifle on the ground with a movement of impatience. "Sambo, you young scoundrel, it was all your fault—you moved your shoulder as I pulled the trigger. Thank heaven, however, the aim of the Indian appears to have been no better, although the sharp whistling of his ball proves his piece to have been well levelled for a random shot."
"His aim has been too true," faintly pronounced the voice of one somewhat in the rear of his companions. "The ball of the villain has found a lodgment in my breast. God bless ye all, my boys; may your fates be more lucky than mine!"
While he yet spoke Lieutenant Murphy sank into the arms of Blessington and De Haldimar, who had flown to him at the first intimation of his wound, and was in the next instant a corpse.
CHAPTER II.
To your companies, gentlemen, to your companies on the instant. There is treason in the fort, and we have need of all our diligence and caution. Captain De Haldimar is missing, and the gate has been found unlocked. Quick, gentlemen, quick; even now the savages may be around us, though unseen."
"Captain De Haldimar missing!—the gate unlocked!" exclaimed a number of voices. "Impossible!—surely we are not betrayed by our own men."
"The sentinel has been relieved, and is now in irons," resumed the communicator of this startling piece of intelligence. It was the adjutant of the regiment.
"Away, gentlemen, to your posts immediately," said Captain Blessington, who, aided by De Haldimar, hastened to deposit the stiffening body of the unfortunate Murphy, which they still supported, upon the rampart. Then, addressing the adjutant, "Mr. Lawson, let a couple of files be sent immediately to remove the body of their officer."
"That shot which I heard from the common as I approached was not fired at random, I find," observed the adjutant, as they all now hastily descended to join their men; "who has fallen?"
"Murphy, of the Grenadiers," was the reply of one near him.
"Poor fellow! our work commences badly," resumed Mr. Lawson. "Murphy killed and Captain De Haldimar missing. We had few officers enough to spare before, and their loss will be severely felt; I greatly fear, too,
these casualties may have a tendency to discourage the men."
"Nothing more easy than to supply their place by promoting some of our oldest sergeants," observed Ensign Delme, who, as well as the ill-fated Murphy, had risen from the ranks. "If they behave themselves well, the king will confirm their appointments."
"But my poor brother, what of him, Lawson? What have you learnt connected with his disappearance?" asked Charles De Haldimar, with deep emotion.
"Nothing satisfactory, I am sorry to say," returned the adjutant; "in fact, the whole affair is a mystery which no one can unravel. Even at this moment the sentinel, Frank Halloway, who is strongly suspected of being privy to his disappearance, is undergoing a private examination by your father, the governor."
"Frank Halloway!" repeated the youth, with a start of astonishment; "surely Halloway could never prove a traitor—and especially to my brother, whose life he once saved at the peril of his own."
The officers had now gained the parade, when the "Fall in, gentlemen; fall in," quickly pronounced by Major Blackwater, prevented all further questioning on the part of the younger De Haldimar.
The scene, though circumscribed in limit, was picturesque in effect, and might have been happily illustrated by the pencil of the painter. The immediate area of the parade was filled with armed men, distributed into three divisions, and forming, with their respective ranks facing outwards, as many sides of a hollow square, the mode of defence invariably adopted by the governor in all cases of sudden alarm.
In a few minutes from the falling in of the officers with their respective companies, the clank of irons was heard in the direction of the guard-room, and several forms were seen slowly advancing into the area already occupied as we have described. This party was preceded by the adjutant, Lawson, who, advancing towards Major Blackwater, communicated a message that was followed
by the command of the latter officer for the three divisions to face inwards.
The officer of artillery also gave the word to his men to form lines of single files immediately in the rear of their respective guns, leaving space enough for the entrance of the approaching party, which consisted of half a dozen files of the guard, under a non-commissioned officer, and one whose manacled limbs, rather than his unaccoutred uniform, attested him to be not merely a prisoner, but a prisoner confined for some serious and flagrant offence.
This party now advanced through the vacant quarter of the square, and took their stations immediately in the centre. Here the countenances of each, and particularly that of the prisoner, who was, if we may so term it, the centre of that centre, were thrown into strong relief by the bright glare of the torches, so that the features of the prisoner stood revealed to those around as plainly as if it had been noonday. Not a sound, not a murmur, escaped from the ranks; but though the etiquette and strict laws of military discipline chained all speech, the workings of the inward mind remained unchecked, and as they recognized in the prisoner Frank Halloway, one of the bravest and boldest in the field, and as all had hitherto imagined, one of the most devoted to his duty, an irrepressible thrill of amazement and dismay crept throughout the frames, and for a moment blanched the cheeks of those especially who belonged to the same company.
On being summoned from their fruitless search after the stranger to fall in without delay, it had been whispered among the men that treason had crept into the fort, and a traitor, partly detected in his crime, had been arrested and thrown into irons; but the idea of Frank Halloway being that traitor was the last that could have entered into their thoughts, and yet they now beheld him covered with every mark of ignominy, and about to answer for his high offence, in all human probability, with his life.
With the officers the reputation of Halloway for courage and fidelity stood no less high; but, while they secretly lamented the circumstances of his defalcation, they could not disguise from themselves the almost certainty of his guilt, for each, as he now gazed upon the prisoner, recollected the confusion and hesitation of manner he had evinced when questioned by them preparatory to their ascending to the ramparts.
Once more the suspense of the moment was interrupted by the entrance of other forms into the area. They were those of the adjutant, followed by a drummer, bearing his instrument, and the governor's orderly, charged with pens, ink, paper, and a book which, from its peculiar form and color, every one present knew to be a copy of the articles of war. A variety of contending emotions passed through the breasts of many, as they witnessed the silent progress of these preparations, rendered painfully interesting by the peculiarity of their position and the wildness of the hour at which they thus found themselves assembled together.
The prisoner himself was unmoved; he stood proud, calm and fearless amid the guard, of whom he had so recently formed one; and though his countenance was pale, as much, perhaps, from a sense of the ignominious character in which he appeared as from more private considerations, still there was nothing to denote either the abjectness of fear or the consciousness of merited disgrace. Once or twice a low sobbing, that proceeded at intervals from one of the barrack windows, caught his ear, and he turned his glance in that direction with a restless anxiety, which he exerted himself in the instant afterwards to repress; but this was the only mark of emotion he betrayed.
The above dispositions having been hastily made, the adjutant and his assistants once more retired. After the lapse of a minute a tall, martial-looking man, habited in a blue military frock, and of handsome, though stern, haughty, and inflexible features, entered the area. He
was followed by Major Blackwater, the captain of artillery, and Adjutant Lawson.
"Are the garrison all present, Mr. Lawson? Are the officers all present?"
"All except those of the guard, sir," replied the adjutant, touching his hat with a submission that was scrupulously exacted on all occasions of duty by his superior.
The governor passed his hand for a moment over his brows. It seemed to those around him as if the mention of that guard had called up recollections which gave him pain; and it might be so, for his eldest son, Captain Frederick De Haldimar, had commanded the guard. Whither he had disappeared, or in what manner, no one knew.
"Are the artillery all present, Captain Wentworth?" again demanded the governor, after a moment in silence, and in his wonted firm authoritative voice.
"All present, sir," rejoined the officer, following the example of the adjutant, and saluting his chief.
"Then let a drum-head court-martial be assembled immediately, Mr. Lawson, and without reference to the roster let the senior officers be selected."
The adjutant went round to the respective divisions, and in a low voice warned Captain Blessington, and the four senior subalterns, for that duty. One by one the officers as they were severally called upon left their places in the square, and sheathing their swords, stepped into that part of the area appointed as their temporary court. They were now all assembled, and Captain Blessington, the senior of his rank in the garrison, was preparing to administer the customary oaths, when the prisoner Halloway advanced a pace or two in front of his escort, and removing his cap, in a clear, firm, but respectful voice, thus addressed the governor:
"Colonel De Haldimar, that I am no traitor, as I have already told you, the Almighty God, before whom I swore allegiance to His Majesty, can bear me witness. Appearances, I own, are against me; but, so far from being a traitor, I would have shed my last drop of blood
in defence of the garrison and your family. Colonel De Haldimar," he pursued, after a momentary pause, in which he seemed to be struggling to subdue the emotion which rose, despite of himself, to his throat, "I repeat, I am no traitor, and I scorn the imputation—but here is my best answer to the charge. This wound" (and he unbuttoned his jacket, opened his shirt, and disclosed a deep scar upon his white chest), "this wound I received in defence of my captain's life at Quebec. Had I not loved him I should not so have exposed myself, neither but for that should I now stand in the situation of shame and danger in which my comrades behold me."
Every heart was touched by this appeal—this bold and manly appeal to the consideration of the governor. The officers especially, who were fully conversant with the general merit of Halloway, were deeply affected, and Charles De Haldimar—the young, the generous, the feeling Charles De Haldimar—even shed tears.
"What mean you, prisoner?" interrogated the governor, after a short pause, during which he appeared to be weighing and deducing inferences from the expressions just uttered. "What mean you by stating, but for that (alluding to your regard for Captain De Haldimar) you would not now be in this situation of shame and danger?"
The prisoner hesitated a moment, and then rejoined, but in a tone that had less of firmness in it than before: "Colonel De Haldimar, I am not at liberty to state my meaning; for, though a private soldier, I respect my word, and have pledged myself to secrecy."
"You respect your word, and have pledged yourself to secrecy! What mean you, man, by this rhodomontade? To whom can you have pledged yourself, and for what, unless it be to some secret enemy without the walls? Gentlemen, proceed to your duty; it is evident that the man is a traitor, even from his own admission. On my life," he pursued, more hurriedly, and speaking in an undertone, as if to himself, "the fellow has been bribed by, and is connected with ——."
The name escaped not his lips; for, aware of the emotion he was betraying, he suddenly checked himself, and assumed his wonted stern and authoritative bearing.
Once more the prisoner addressed the governor in the same clear, firm voice in which he had opened his appeal.
"Colonel De Haldimar, I have no connection with any living soul without the fort; and again I repeat I am no traitor, but a true and loyal British soldier, as my services in this war, and my comrades, can well attest. Still, I seek not to shun that death which I have braved a dozen times at least in the —— regiment. All that I ask is, that I may not be tried—that I may not have the shame of hearing sentence pronounced against me yet; but if nothing should occur before eight o'clock to vindicate my character from this disgrace, I will offer up no further prayer for mercy. In the name of that life, therefore, which I once preserved to Captain De Haldimar, at the price of my own blood, I entreat a respite from trial until then."
"In the name of God and all His angels, let mercy reach your soul, and grant his prayer!"
Every ear was startled, every heart touched by the plaintive, melancholy, silver tones of the voice that faintly pronounced the last appeal, and all recognized it for that of the young, interesting, and attached wife of the prisoner. Again the latter turned his gaze towards the window whence the sound proceeded, and by the glare of the torches a tear was distinctly seen by many coursing down his manly cheek.
The weakness was momentary. In the next instant he closed his shirt and coat, and resuming his cap stepped back once more amid his guard, where he remained stationary, with the air of one who, having nothing further to hope, has resolved to endure the worst that can happen with resignation and fortitude.
After the lapse of a few moments, again devoted to much apparent deep thought and conjecture, the governor once more, and rather hurriedly, resumed:
"In the event, prisoner, of this delay in your trial being granted, will you pledge yourself to disclose the secret to
which you have alluded? Recollect, there is nothing but that which can save your memory from being consigned to infamy forever; for who, among your comrades, will believe the idle denial of your treachery, when there is the most direct proof against you? If your secret die with you, moreover, every honest man will consider it as having been one so infamous and injurious to your character, that you were ashamed to reveal it."
These suggestions of the colonel were not without their effect; for in the sudden swelling of the prisoner's chest, as allusion was made to the disgrace that would attach to his memory, there was evidence of a high and generous spirit to whom obloquy was far more hateful than even death itself.
"I do promise," he at length replied, stepping forward, and uncovering himself as before; "if no one appears to justify my conduct at the hour I have named, a full disclosure of all I know touching this affair shall be made. And may God of His infinite mercy grant for Captain De Haldimar's sake, as well as mine, I may not then be wholly deserted!"
There was something so peculiarly solemn and impressive in the manner in which the unhappy man now expressed himself, that a feeling of the utmost awe crept into the bosoms of the surrounding throng; and more than one veteran of the Grenadiers, the company to which Halloway belonged, was heard to relieve his chest of the long pent-up sigh that struggled for release.
"Enough, prisoner," rejoined the governor; "on this condition do I grant your request; but recollect—your disclosure ensures no hope of pardon, unless, indeed, you have the fullest proof to offer in your defence. Do you perfectly understand me?"
"I do," replied the soldier firmly; and again he placed his cap on his head, and retired a step or two back among the guard.
"Mr. Lawson, let the prisoner be removed and conducted to one of the private cells. Who is the subaltern of the guard?"
"Ensign Fortescue," was the answer.
"Then let Ensign Fortescue keep the key of the cell himself. Tell him, moreover, I shall hold him individually responsible for his charge."
Once more the prisoner was marched out of the arena; and, as the clanking sound of his chains became gradually fainter in the distance, the same voice that had before interrupted the proceedings pronounced a "God be praised! God be praised!" with such melody of sorrow in its intonations that no one could listen to it unmoved. Both officers and men were more or less affected, and all hoped—they scarcely knew why or what—but all hoped something favorable would occur to save the life of the brave and unhappy Frank Halloway.
Of the first interruption by the wife of the prisoner the governor had taken no notice; but on this repetition of the expression of her feelings he briefly summoned, in the absence of the adjutant, the sergeant-major of the regiment to his side.
"Sergeant-Major Bletson, I desire that in future, on all occasions of this kind, the women of the regiment may be kept out of the way. Look to it, sir!"
The sergeant-major, who had stood as erect as his own halbert, which he held before him in a saluting position during this brief admonition of his colonel, acknowledged by a certain air of deferential respect and dropping of the eyes, unaccompanied by speech of any kind, that he felt the reproof, and would in future take care to avoid all similar cause for complaint. He then stalked stiffly away, and resumed in a few hasty strides his position in rear of the troops.
"Hard-hearted man!" pursued the same voice; "if my prayers of gratitude to heaven give offence, may the hour never come when my lips shall pronounce their bitterest curse upon your severity!"
There was something so plainly wild, so solemnly prophetic, in these sounds of sorrow as they fell faintly upon the ear, and especially under the extraordinary circumstances of the night, that they might have been taken for
the warnings of some supernatural agency. During their utterance not even the breathing of human life was to be heard in the ranks. In the next instant, however, Sergeant-major Bletson was seen repairing, with long and hasty strides, to the barrack whence the voice proceeded, and the interruption was heard no more.
Meanwhile the officers who had been summoned from the ranks for the purpose of forming the court-martial still lingered in the centre of the square, apparently waiting for the order of their superior before they should resume their respective stations. As the quick and comprehensive glance of Colonel De Haldimar now embraced the group, he at once became sensible of the absence of one of the seniors, all of whom he had desired should be selected for the court-martial.
"Mr. Lawson," he remarked, somewhat sternly, as the adjutant now returned from delivering over his prisoner to Ensign Fortescue, "I thought I understood from your report the officers were all present!"
"I believe, sir, my report will be found perfectly correct," returned the adjutant, in a tone which, without being disrespectful, marked his offended sense of the implication.
"And Lieutenant Murphy——"
"Is here, sir," said the adjutant, pointing to a couple of files of the guard who were bearing a heavy burden and following into the square. "Lieutenant Murphy," he pursued, "has been shot on the ramparts; and I have, as directed by Captain Blessington, caused the body to be brought here that I may receive your orders respecting the interment." As he spoke, he removed a long military gray cloak which completely enshrouded the corpse and disclosed by the light of the still brightly flaming torches of the gunners the features of the unfortunate Murphy.
"How did he meet his death?" enquired the governor; without, however, manifesting the slightest surprise, or appearing at all moved at the discovery.
"By a rifle shot fired from the common, near the old
bomb-proof," observed Captain Blessington, as the adjutant looked to him for the particular explanation he could not render himself.
"Ah! this reminds me," pursued the austere commandant; "there was a shot fired also from the ramparts. By whom, and at what?"
"By me, sir," said Lieutenant Valletort, coming forward from the ranks, "and at what I conceived to be an Indian, lurking as a spy upon the common."
"Then, Lieutenant Sir Everard Valletort, no repetition of these firings, if you please; and let it be borne in mind by all, that although, from the peculiar nature of the service in which we are engaged, I so far depart from the established regulations of the army as to permit my officers to arm themselves with rifles, they are to be used only as occasion may require in the hour of conflict, and not for the purpose of throwing a whole garrison into alarm by trials of skill and dexterity upon shadows at this unseasonable hour."
"I was not aware, sir," returned Sir Everard proudly, and secretly galled at being thus addressed before the men, "it could be deemed a military crime to destroy an enemy at whatever hour he might present himself, and especially on such an occasion as the present. As for my firing at a shadow, those who heard the yell that followed the second shot, can determine that it came from no shadow, but from a fierce and vindictive enemy. The cry denoted even something more than the ordinary defiance of an Indian; it seemed to express a fiendish sentiment of personal triumph and revenge."
The governor started involuntarily. "Do you imagine, Sir Everard Valletort, the aim of your rifle was true—that you hit him?"
The question was asked so hurriedly, and in a tone so different from that in which he had hitherto spoken, that the officers around simultaneously raised their eyes to those of their colonel with an expression of undissembled surprise. He observed it, and instantly resumed his habitual sternness of look and manner.
"I rather fear not, sir," replied Sir Everard, who had principally remarked the emotion, "but may I hope" (and this was said with emphasis), "in the evident disappointment you experience at my want of success, my offence may be overlooked?"
The governor fixed his penetrating eyes on the speaker, as if he would have read his inmost mind, and then calmly and even impressively observed:
"Sir Everard Valletort, I do overlook the offence, and hope you may as easily forgive yourself. It were well, however, that your indiscretion, which can only find its excuse in your being so young an officer, had not been altogether without some good result. Had you killed or disabled the—the savage there might have been a decent palliative offered, but what must be your feelings, sir, when you reflect that the death of yon officer," and he pointed to the corpse of the unhappy Murphy, "is in a great degree attributable to yourself? Had you not provoked the anger of the savage and given a direction to his aim by the impotent and wanton discharge of your own rifle this accident would never have happened."
This severe reproofing of an officer who had acted from the most praiseworthy of motives, and who could not possibly have anticipated the unfortunate catastrophe that had occurred, was considered especially harsh and unkind by every one present; and a low and almost inaudible murmur passed through the company to which Sir Everard was attached. For a minute or two that officer appeared deeply pained, not more from the reproof itself than from the new light in which the observation of his chief had taught him to view, for the first time, the cause that had led to the fall of Murphy. Finding, however, that the governor had no further remarks to address to him, he once more returned to his station in the ranks.
"Mr. Lawson," resumed the commandant, turning to the adjutant, "let this victim be carried to the spot on which he fell, and there interred. I know no better grave for a soldier than beneath the sod that has been
moistened with his blood. Recollect," he continued, as the adjutant once more led the party out of the arena—"no firing, Mr. Lawson. The duty must be silently performed, and without the risk of provoking a forest of arrows, or a shower of bullets from the savages. Major Blackwater," he pursued, as soon as the corpse had been removed, "let the men pile their arms even as they now stand, and remain ready to fall in at a minute's notice. Should anything extraordinary happen before the morning you will, of course, apprise me." He then strode out of the arena with the same haughty and measured step that had characterized his entrance.
"Our colonel does not appear to be in one of his most amiable moods to-night," observed Captain Blessington, as the officers, after having disposed of their respective companies, now proceeded along the ramparts to assist at the last funeral offices of their unhappy associate. "He was disposed to be severe, and must have put you in some measure out of conceit with your favorite rifle, Valletort."
"True," rejoined the baronet, who had already rallied from the momentary depression of his spirits, "he hit me devilish hard, I confess, and was disposed to display more of the commanding officer than quite suits my ideas of the service. His words were as caustic as his looks; and could both have pierced me to the quick, there was no inclination on his part wanting. By my soul I could . . . but I forgive him. He is the father of my friend; and for that reason will I chew the cud of mortification, nor suffer if possible a sense of his unkindness to rankle at my heart. All all events, Blessington, my mind is made up and resign or exchange I certainly shall the instant I find a decent loop-hole to creep out of."
Sir Everard fancied the ear of his captain was alone listening to these expressions of his feeling, or in all probability he would not have uttered them. As he concluded the last sentence, however, he felt his arm gently grasped by one who walked a pace or two silently in their rear. He turned, and recognized Charles De Haldimar.
"I am sure, Valletort, you will believe how much pained I have been at the severity of my father; but, indeed, there was nothing personally offensive intended. Blessington can tell you, as well as myself, it is his manner altogether. Nay, that although he is the first in seniority after Blackwater, the governor treats him with the same distance and hauteur he would use towards the youngest ensign in the service. Such are the effects of his long military habits and his ideas of the absolutism of command. Am I not right, Blessington?"
"Quite right, Charles. Sir Everard may satisfy himself his is no solitary instance of the stern severity of your father. Still, I confess, notwithstanding the rigidity of manner which he seems on all occasions to think so indispensable to the maintenance of authority in a commanding officer, I never knew him so inclined to find fault as he is to-night."
"Perhaps," observed Valletort, good humoredly, "his conscience is rather restless, and he is willing to get rid of it and his spleen together. I would wager my rifle against the worthless scalp of the rascal I fired at to-night that this same stranger, whose asserted appearance has called us from our comfortable beds, is but the creation of his disturbed dreams. Indeed, how is it possible anything formed of flesh and blood could have escaped us with the vigilant watch that has been kept on the ramparts? The old gentleman certainly had that illusion strongly impressed on his mind when he so sapiently spoke of my firing at a shadow."
"But the gate," interrupted Charles De Haldimar, with something of mild reproach in his tones; "you forget, Valletort, the gate was found unlocked, and that my brother is missing. He, at least, was flesh and blood, as you say, and yet he has disappeared. What more probable, therefore, than that this stranger is at once the cause and the agent of his abduction?"
"Impossible, Charles," observed Captain Blessington; "Frederick was in the midst of his guard. How, therefore, could he be conveyed away without the alarm being
given? Numbers only could have succeeded in so desperate an enterprise; and yet there is no evidence, or even suspicion, of more than one individual having been here."
"It is a singular affair altogether," returned Sir Everard, musingly. "Of two things," however, I am satisfied. The first is, that the stranger, whoever he may be, and if he really has been here, is no Indian; the second, that he is personally known to the governor, who has been, or I mistake much, more alarmed at his individual presence than if Pontiac and his whole band had suddenly broken in upon us. Did you remark his emotion when I dwelt on the peculiar character of personal triumph and revenge which the cry of the lurking villain outside seemed to express? and did you notice the eagerness with which he enquired if I thought I had hit him? Depend upon it, there is more in all this than is dreamt of in our philosophy."
"And it was your undisguised perception of that emotion," remarked Captain Blessington, "that drew down his severity upon your own head. It was, however, too palpable not to be noticed by all; and I dare say conjecture is as busily and as vaguely at work among our companions as it is with us. The clue to the mystery, in a great degree, now dwells with Frank Halloway, and to him we must look for its elucidation. His disclosure will be one, I apprehend, full of ignominy to himself, but of the highest interest and importance to us all. And yet I know not how to believe the man the traitor he appears."
"Did you remark that last harrowing exclamation of his wife?" observed Charles De Haldimar, in a tone of unspeakable melancholy. "How fearfully prophetic it sounded in my ears. I know not how it is," he pursued, "but I wish I had not heard those sounds; for since that moment I have had a sad, strange presentiment of evil at my heart. Heaven grant my poor brother may make his appearance, as I still trust he will, at the hour Halloway seems to expect, for if not, the latter most assuredly dies."
I know my father well, and, if convicted by a court-martial, no human power can alter the destiny that awaits Frank Halloway."
"Rally, my dear Charles, rally," said Sir Everard, affecting a confidence he did not feel himself; "indulge not in these idle and superstitious fancies. I pity Halloway from my soul, and feel the deepest interest in his pretty and unhappy wife; but that is no reason why one should attach importance to the incoherent expressions wrung from her in the agony of grief."
"It is kind of you, Valletort, to endeavor to cheer my spirits when, if the truth were confessed, you acknowledge the influence of the same feelings. I thank you for the attempt, but time alone can show how far I shall have reason, or otherwise, to lament the occurrences of this night."
They had now reached that part of the ramparts whence the shot from Sir Everard's rifle had been fired. Several men were occupied in digging a grave in the precise spot on which the unfortunate Murphy had stood when he received his death wound; and into this, when completed, the body, enshrouded in the cloak already alluded to, was deposited by his companions.
CHAPTER III.
WHEN the adjutant was yet reading, in a low and solemn voice, the service for the dead, a fierce and distant yell, as if from a legion of devils, burst suddenly from the forest, and brought the hands of the startled officers instinctively to their swords. This appalling cry lasted without interruption for many minutes, and was then as abruptly checked as it had been unexpectedly delivered. A considerable pause succeeded, and then it rose with even more startling vehemence than before.
By one unaccustomed to those devilish sounds, no distinction could have been made in the two several yells that had been thus savagely pealed forth; but those to whom practice and long experience in the warlike habits and customs of the Indians had rendered their shouts familiar, at once divined, or fancied they divined, the cause. The first was, to their conception, a yell expressive at once of vengeance and disappointment in pursuit,—perhaps of some prisoner who had escaped from their toils; the second, of triumph and success,—in all probability indicative of the recapture of that prisoner.
For many minutes afterwards the officers continued to listen, with the most aching attention, for a repetition of the cry, or even fainter sounds, that might denote either a nearer approach to the fort, or the final departure of the Indians. After the second yell, however, the woods in the heart of which it appeared to have been uttered
were buried in as profound a silence as if they had never yet echoed back the voice of man; and all at length became satisfied that the Indians, having accomplished some particular purpose, had retired once more to their distant encampment for the night. Captain Erskine was the first who broke the almost breathless silence that prevailed among themselves.
"On my life, De Haldimar is a prisoner with the Indians. He has been attempting his escape—has been detected, followed, and again fallen into their hands. I know their infernal yells but too well. The last expressed their savage joy at the capture of a prisoner; and there is no one of us missing but De Haldimar."
"Not a doubt of it," said Captain Blessington; "the cry was certainly what you describe it, and heaven only knows what will be the fate of our poor friend."
No other officer spoke, for all were oppressed by the weight of their own feelings, and sought rather to give indulgence to speculation in secret, than to share their impressions with their companions. Charles De Haldimar stood a little in the rear, leaning his head upon his hand against the box of the sentry (who was silently though anxiously pacing his walk), and in an attitude expressive of the deepest dejection and sorrow.
"I suppose I must finish Lawson's work, although I am but a poor hand at this sort of thing," resumed Captain Erskine, taking up the prayer-book the adjutant had, in hastening on the first alarm to get the men under arms, carelessly thrown on the grave.
He then commenced the service at the point where Mr. Lawson had so abruptly broken off, and went through the remainder of the prayers. A very few minutes sufficed for the performance of this solemn duty, which was effected by the faint dim light of the at length dawning day, and the men in attendance proceeded to fill up the grave of their officer.
Gradually the mists that had fallen during the latter hours of the night began to ascend from the common and disperse themselves in air, conveying the appearance of a rolling sheet of vapor retiring back upon itself and disclosing objects in succession, until the eye could embrace all that came within its extent of vision. As the officers yet lingered near the rude grave of their companion, watching with abstracted air the languid and almost mechanical action of their jaded men, as they emptied shovel after shovel of the damp earth over the body of its new tenant, they were suddenly startled by an expression of exultation from Sir Everard Valletort.
"By Jupiter, I have pinked him," he exclaimed triumphantly. "I knew my rifle could not err; and as for my sight, I have carried away too many prizes in target-shooting to have been deceived in that. How delighted the old governor will be, Charles, to hear this. No more lecturing, I am sure, for the next six months at least"; and the young officer rubbed his hands together at the success of his shot with as much satisfaction and unconcern for the future as if he had been in his own native England in the midst of a prize-ring.
Roused by the observation of his friend, De Haldimar quitted his position near the sentry box, and advanced to the outer edge of the rampart. To him, as to his companions, the outline of the old bomb-proof was now distinctly visible, but it was some time before they could discover, in the direction in which Valletort pointed, a dark speck upon the common; and this so indistinctly, they could scarcely distinguish it with the naked eye.
"Your sight is quite equal to your aim, Sir Everard," remarked Lieutenant Johnstone, one of Erskine's subalterns, "and both are decidedly superior to mine; yet I used to be thought a good riflemen, too, and have credit for an eye no less keen than that of an Indian; you have the advantage of me, however; for I honestly admit I never could have picked off yon fellow in the dark as you have done."
As the dawn increased the dark shadow of a human form stretched at its length upon the ground became perceptible; and the officers, with one unanimous voice, bore loud testimony to the skill and dexterity of him who had
under such extreme disadvantages accomplished the death of their skulking enemy.
"Bravo, Valletort," said Charles De Haldimar, recovering his spirits as much from the idea now occurring to him that this might indeed be the stranger whose appearance had so greatly disturbed his father as from the gratification he felt in the praises bestowed on his friend. "Bravo, my dear fellow!" then approaching, and in a half whisper, "when next I write to Clara, I shall request her with my cousin's assistance to prepare a chaplet of bays wherewith I shall myself crown you as their proxy. But what is the matter now, Valletort? Why stand you there gazing upon the common as if the victim of your murderous aim was rising from his bloody couch to reproach you with his death? Tell me, shall I write to Clara for the prize, or will you receive it from her own hands?"
"Bid her rather pour her curses on my head; and to those, De Haldimar, add your own," exclaimed Sir Everard, at length raising himself from the statue-like position he had assumed. "Almighty God," he pursued in the same tone of deep agony, "what have I done? Where shall I hide myself?"
As he spoke he turned away from his companions, and covering his eyes with his hand, with quick and unequal steps, even like those of a drunken man, walked, or rather ran, along the rampart, as if fearful of being overtaken. The whole group of officers, and Charles De Haldimar in particular, were struck with dismay at the language and action of Sir Everard; and for a moment they fancied that fatigue and watching and excitement had partially affected his brain. But when after the lapse of a minute or two they again looked out upon the common, the secret of his agitation was too faithfully and too painfully explained.
What had at first the dusky and dingy hue of a half-naked Indian was now perceived, by the bright beams of light just gathering in the east, to be the gay and striking uniform of a British officer. Doubt as to who that
officer was there could be none, for the white sword-belt suspended over the right shoulder, and thrown into strong relief by the field of scarlet on which it reposed, denoted the wearer of this distinguished badge of duty to be one of the guard.
If they could regret the loss of such a companion as Murphy, how deep and heartfelt must have been the sorrow they experienced when they beheld the brave, generous, manly, amiable, and highly-talented Frederick De Haldimar—the pride of the garrison, and the idol of his family—lying extended, a cold, senseless corpse, slain by the hand of the bosom friend of his brother!
Notwithstanding the stern severity of the governor, whom few circumstances, however critical or exciting, could surprise into relaxation of his habitual stateliness, it would have been difficult to name two young men more universally liked and esteemed by their brother officers than were the De Haldimars—the first for the qualities already named; the second, for those retiring, mild, winning manners, and gentle affections, added to extreme and almost feminine beauty of countenance for which he was remarkable. Alas, what a gloomy picture was now exhibited to the minds of all! Frederick De Haldimar a corpse, and slain by the hand of Sir Everard Valletort! What but disunion could follow this melancholy catastrophe? and how could Charles De Haldimar, even if his bland nature should survive the shock, ever bear to look again upon the man who had, however innocently or unintentionally, deprived him of a brother whom he adored?
These were the impressions that passed through the minds of the compassionating officers as they directed their glance alternately from the common to the pale and marble-like features of the younger De Haldimar, who, with parted lips and stupid gaze, continued to fix his eyes upon the inanimate form of his ill-fated brother, as if the very faculty of life itself had been for a period suspended. At length, however, while his companions watched in silence the mining workings of that grief which they feared to interrupt by ill-timed observations, even of condolence, the death-like hue which had hitherto suffused the usually blooming cheek of the young officer was succeeded by a flush of the deepest dye, while his eyes, swollen by the tide of blood now rushing violently to his face, appeared to be bursting from their sockets. The shock was more than his delicate frame, exhausted as it was by watching and fatigue, could bear. He tottered, reeled, pressed his hand upon his head, and before any one could render him assistance, fell senseless on the ramparts.
During the interval between Sir Everard Valletort's exclamation and the fall of Charles De Haldimar the men employed at the grave had performed their duty, and were gazing with mingled astonishment and concern both on the body of their murdered officer and on the dumb scene acting around them. Two of these were now despatched for a litter, with which they speedily reappeared. On this Charles De Haldimar, already delirious with the fever of intense excitement, was carefully placed, and, followed by Captain Blessington and Lieutenant Johnstone, borne to his apartment in the small range of buildings constituting the officers' barracks. Captain Erskine undertook the disagreeable office of communicating these distressing events to the governor; and the remainder of the officers once more hastened to join or linger near their respective companions, in readiness for the order which it was expected would be given to despatch a numerous party of the garrison to secure the body of Captain De Haldimar.
CHAPTER IV.
The sun was just rising above the horizon in all that peculiar softness of splendor which characterizes the early days of autumn in America as Captain Erskine led his company across the drawbridge that communicated with the fort. It was the first time it had been lowered since the investment of the garrison by the Indians; and as the dull and rusty chains performed their service with a harsh and grating sound, it seemed as if an earnest were given of melancholy boding. Although the distance to be traversed was small, the risk the party incurred was great; for it was probable the savages, ever on the alert, would not suffer them to effect their object unmolested. It was perhaps singular, and certainly contradictory, that an officer of the acknowledged prudence and forethought ascribed to the governor—qualities which in a great degree neutralized his excessive severity in the eyes of his troops—should have hazarded the chance of having his garrison enfeebled by the destruction of a part, if not the whole, of the company appointed to this dangerous duty; but with all his severity Colonel De Haldimar was not without strong affection for his children. The feelings of the father, therefore, in a great degree triumphed over the prudence of the commander; and to shield the corpse of his son from the indignities which he well knew would be inflicted on it by Indian barbarity, he had been induced to accede to the earnest prayer of Captain Erskine, that he might be permitted to lead out his company for the purpose of securing the body.
Every means was taken to cover the advance and
ensure the retreat of the detachment. The remainder of the troops were distributed along the rear of the ramparts, with instructions to lie flat on their faces until summoned by their officers from that position, which was to be done only in the event of close pursuit from the savages. Artillerymen were also stationed at the several guns that flanked the rear of the fort and necessarily commanded both the common and the outskirt of the forest, with orders to fire with grape-shot at a given signal. Captain Erskine’s instructions were, moreover, if attacked, to retreat back under the guns of the fort slowly and in good order, and without turning his back upon the enemy.
Thus confident of support, the party, after traversing the drawbridge with fixed bayonets, inclined to the right, and following the winding of the ditch by which it was surrounded, made the semi-circuit of the rampart until they gained the immediate centre of the rear, and in a direct line with the bomb-proof. Here their mode of advance was altered to guard more effectually against the enemy with whom they might possibly have to contend. The front and rear ranks of the company, consisting in all of ninety men, were so placed as to leave space in the event of attack for a portion of each to wheel inwards so as to present in an instant three equal faces of a square. As the rear was sufficiently covered by the cannon of the fort to defeat any attempt to turn their flanks, the manoeuvre was one that enabled them to present a fuller front in whatever other quarter they might be attacked; and had this additional advantage, that in the advance by single files a narrower front was given to the aim of the Indians, who, unless they fired in an oblique direction, could only of necessity bring down two men (the leading files) at a time.
In this order, and anxiously overlooked by their comrades, whose eyes alone peered from above the surface of the rampart on which they lay prostrate, the detachment crossed the common; one rank headed by Captain Erskine, the other by Lieutenant Johnstone. They had now
approached within a few yards of the unfortunate victim, when Captain Erskine commanded a halt of his party; and two files were detached from the rear of each rank to place the body on a litter with which they had provided themselves. He and Johnstone also moved in the same direction in advance of the men, prepared to render assistance if required. The corpse lay on its face and in no way despoiled of any of its glittering habiliments; a circumstance that too well confirmed the fact of De Haldimar's death having been accomplished by the ball from Sir Everard Valletort's rifle. It appeared, however, the ill-fated officer had struggled much in the agonies of death; for the left leg was drawn up into an unnatural state of contraction, and the right hand, closely compressed, grasped a quantity of grass and soil, which had been evidently torn up in a paroxysm of suffering and despair.
The men placed the litter at the side of the body, which they now proceeded to raise. As they were in the act of depositing it on this temporary bier, the plumed hat fell from the head, and disclosed, to the astonishment of all, the scalpless crown completely saturated in its own clotted blood and oozing brains. An exclamation of horror and disgust escaped at the same moment from the lips of the two officers, and the men started back from their charge as if a basilisk had suddenly appeared before them.
Captain Erskine exclaimed: "What the devil is the meaning of all this, Johnstone?"
"What, indeed!" rejoined his lieutenant, with a shrug of his shoulders that was intended to express his inability to form any opinion on the subject.
"Unless it should prove," continued Erskine, "as I sincerely trust it may, that poor Valletort is not, after all, the murderer of his friend. It must be so. De Haldimar has been slain by the same Indian who killed Murphy. Do you recollect his scalp cry? He was in the act of despoiling his victim of this trophy of success when
Sir Everard fired. Examine the body well, Mitchell, and discover where the wound lies.”
The old soldier to whom this order was addressed now prepared, with the assistance of his comrades, to turn the body upon its back, when suddenly the air was rent with terrific yells that seemed to be uttered in their very ears, and in the next instant more than a hundred dark and hideous savages sprang simultaneously to their feet within the bomb-proof, while every tree along the skirt of the forest gave back the towering form of a warrior. Each of these, in addition to his rifle, was armed with all those destructive implements of warfare which render the Indians of America so formidable and so terrible an enemy.
“Stand to your arms, men,” shouted Captain Erskine, recovering from his first and unavoidable, though but momentary, surprise. “First and fourth sections, on your right and left backwards wheel! Quick, men, within the square for your lives!” As he spoke he and Lieutenant Johnstone sprang hastily back, and in time to obtain admittance within the troops, who had rapidly executed the manoeuvre commanded. Not so with Mitchell and his companions. On the first alarm they had quitted the body of the mutilated officer and flown to secure their arms, but even while in the act of stooping to take them up, they had been grappled by a powerful and vindictive foe; and the first thing they beheld on regaining their upright position was a dusky Indian at the side, and a gleaming tomahawk flashing rapidly round the head of each.
“Fire not, on your lives!” exclaimed Captain Erskine hastily, as he saw several of the men in front levelling, in the excitement of the moment, their muskets at the threatening savages. “Prepare for attack,” he pursued; and in the next instant each man dropped on his right knee, and a barrier of bristling bayonets seemed to rise from the very bowels of the earth. Attracted by the novelty of the sight, the bold and daring warriors, although still retaining their firm grasp of the unhappy
soldiers, were for a moment diverted from their bloody purpose and temporarily suspended the quick and rotatory motion of their weapons. Captain Erskine took advantage of this pause to seize the halbert of one of his sergeants, to the extreme point of which he hastily attached a white pocket handkerchief, that was loosely thrust into the breast of his uniform; this he waved on high three several times and then relinquishing the halbert dropped also on his knee within the square.
"The dog of a Saganaw asks for mercy," said a voice from within the bomb-proof and speaking in the dialect of the Ottawas. "His pale flag bespeaks the quailing of his heart, and his attitude denotes the timidity of the hind. His warriors are like himself, and even now upon their knees they call upon their Manitou to preserve them from the vengeance of the redskins. But mercy is not for dogs like these. Now is the time to make our tomahawks warm in their blood; and every head that we count shall be a scalp upon our war poles."
As he ceased, one universal and portentous yell burst from the fiend-like band; and again the weapons of death were fiercely brandished around the heads of the stupefied soldiers who had fallen into their power.
"What can they be about?" anxiously exclaimed Captain Erskine, in the midst of this deafening clamor, to his subaltern. "Quiet, man; d—— you, quiet, or I'll cut you down," he pursued, addressing one of the soldiers whose impatience caused him to bring his musket half up to his shoulder. And again he turned his head in the direction of the fort. "Thank God, here it comes at last. I feared my signal had not been noticed."
While he yet spoke the loud roaring of a cannon from the ramparts was heard, and a shower of grape-shot passed over the heads of the detachment, and was seen tearing up the earth around the bomb-proof and scattering fragments of stone and wood into the air. The men simultaneously and unbidden gave three cheers.
In an instant the scene was changed. As if moved by some mechanical impulse the fierce band that lined the
bomb-proof sank below the surface, and were no longer visible, while the warriors in the forest again sought shelter behind the trees. The captured soldiers were also liberated without injury, so sudden and startling had been the terror produced in the savages by the lightning flash that announced its heavy messengers of destruction. Discharge after discharge succeeded without intermission; but the guns had been levelled so high, to prevent injury to their own men, they had little other effect than to keep the Indians from the attack. The rush of bullets through the close forest and the crashing of trees and branches as they fell with startling force upon each other were, with the peals of artillery, the only noises now to be heard; for not a yell, not a word was uttered by the Indians after the first discharge; and but for the certainty that existed in every mind, it might have been supposed the whole of them had retired.
"Now is your time," cried Captain Erskine; "bring in the litter to the rear and stoop as much as possible to avoid the shot."
The poor half-strangled fellows, however, instead of obeying the order of their captain, looked round in every direction for the enemy by whom they had been so rudely handled, and who had glided from them almost as imperceptibly and swiftly as they had at first approached. It seemed as if they apprehended that any attempt to remove the body would be visited by those fierce devils with the same appalling and ferocious threatenings.
"Why stand ye there, ye dolts," continued their captain, "looking around as if ye were bewitched? Bring the litter into the rear. Mitchell, you fool, are you grown a coward in your old age? Are you not ashamed to set such an example to your comrades?"
The doubt thus implied of the courage of his men, who, in fact, were merely stupefied with the scene they had gone through, had, as Captain Erskine expected, the desired effect. They now bent themselves to the litter, on which they had previously deposited their muskets, and, with a self-possession that contrasted singularly with
their recent air of wild astonishment, bore it to the rear at the risk of being cut in two at every moment by the fire from the fort. One fierce yell, instinctively proffered by several of the lurking band in the forest, marked their disappointment and rage at the escape of their victims; but all attempt at uncovering themselves so as to be enabled to fire was prevented by the additional showers of grape which that yell immediately brought upon them.
The position in which Captain Erskine now found himself was highly critical. Before him, and on either flank, was a multitude of savages who only awaited the cessation of the fire from the fort to commence their fierce and impetuous attack. That that fire could not long be sustained was evident, since ammunition could ill be spared for the present inefficient purpose, where supplies of all kinds were so difficult to be obtained; and, if he should attempt a retreat, the upright position of his men exposed them to the risk of being swept away by the ponderous metal that already fanned their cheeks with the air it so rapidly divided. Suddenly, however, the fire from the batteries was discontinued, and this he knew to be a signal for himself. He gave an order in a low voice, and the detachment quitted their recumbent and defensive position, still remaining formed in square. At the same instant a gun flashed from the fort; but not as before was heard the rushing sound of the destructive shot crushing the trees in its resistless course.
The Indians took courage at this circumstance, for they deemed the bullets of their enemies were expended and that they were merely discharging their powder to keep up the apprehension originally produced. Again they showed themselves like so many demons from behind their lurking places, and yells and shouts of the most terrific and threatening character once more rent the air and echoed through the woods. Their cries of anticipated triumph were, however, of short duration. Presently, a hissing noise was heard in the air, and close to the bomb-proof, and at the very skirt of the forest, they
beheld a huge globe of iron fall perpendicularly to the earth, to the outer part of which was attached what they supposed to be a reed, that spat forth innumerable sparks of fire, without, however, seeming to threaten the slightest injury. Attracted by the novel sight, a dozen warriors sprang to the spot and fastened their gaze upon it with all the childish wonder and curiosity of men in a savage state. One, more eager and restless than his fellows, stooped over it to feel with his hand of what it was composed. At that moment it burst, and limbs and heads and entrails were seen flying in the air with the fragments of the shell, and prostrate and struggling forms lay writhing on every hand in the last fierce agonies of death.
A yell of despair and a shout of triumph burst at the same moment from the adverse parties. Taking advantage of the terror produced by this catastrophe in the savages, Captain Erskine caused the men bearing the corpse to retreat, with all possible expedition, under the ramparts of the fort. He waited until they got nearly half way, and then threw forward the wheeling sections that had covered this movement once more into single file, in which order he commenced his retreat. Step by step, and almost imperceptibly, the men paced backwards, ready at a moment's notice to reform the square. Partly recovering from the terror and surprise produced by the bursting of the shell, the Indians were quick in perceiving this movement; filled with rage at having been so long balked of their aim they threw themselves once more impetuously from their cover and, with stimulating yells at length opened their fire. Several of Captain Erskine's men were wounded by this discharge, when again and furiously the cannon opened from the fort. It was then that the superiority of the artillery was made manifest. Both right and left of the retreating files the ponderous shot flew heavily past, carrying death and terror to the Indians; while not a man of those who intervened was scathed or touched in its progress. The warriors in the forest were once more compelled to shelter themselves behind the trees; but in the bomb-proof, where they were
more secure, they were also more bold. From this a galling fire, mingled with the most hideous yells, was now kept up; and the detachment, in their slow retreat, suffered considerably.
Several men had been killed, and about twenty, including Lieutenant Johnstone, wounded, when again one of those murderous globes fell hissing in the very centre of the bomb-proof. In an instant the Indian fire was discontinued, and their dark and pliant forms were seen hurrying with almost incredible rapidity over the decapitated walls and flying into the very heart of the forest, so that when the shell exploded, a few seconds afterwards, not a warrior was to be seen. From this moment the attack was not renewed, and Captain Erskine made good his retreat without further molestation.
"Well, old buffers!" exclaimed one of the leading files, as the detachment, preceded by its dead and wounded, now moved along the moat in the direction of the drawbridge, "how did you like the grip of them red savages? I say, Mitchell, old Nick will scarcely know the face of you, it's so much altered by fright. Did you see," turning to the man in his rear, "how harum-scarum he looked when the captain called out to him to come off?"
"Hold your clapper, you spooney, and be d——d to you!" exclaimed the angry veteran. "Had the Ingin fastened his paw on your ugly neck as he did upon mine, all the pitiful life your mother put into you would have been spirited away from very fear; so you needn't brag!"
"Sure and if any of ye had a grain of spunk ye would have fired and freed a fellow from the clutch of them Ingin thieves," muttered another of the men at the litter. "All the time the devil had me by the throat, swinging his tommyhawk about my head, I saw ye dancing up and down in the heavens instead of being on your marrow bones on the common."
"And didn't I want to do it?" rejoined the first speaker. "Ask Tom Winkler here if the captain didn't swear he'd cut my head off if I even offered so much as to touch the trigger of my musket."
"Faith, and lucky he did," replied his covering man (for the ranks had again joined), "since but for that there wouldn't be at this moment so much as a hair of the scalp of one of you left."
"By gracious," said a good-humored, quaint looking Irishman, who had been fixing his eyes on the litter during this colloquy; "it sames to me, my boys, that ye have caught the wrong cow by the horns, and that all your pains has been for nothing at all, at all. By the pope, ye are all wrong; it's like bringing salt butter to Cork, or coals to your Newcastle, as ye call it. Who the divil ever heard of an officer wearing ammunition shoes?"
The men all turned their gaze on that part of the vestment of the corpse to which their attention had been directed by this remark, when it was at once perceived, although it had hitherto escaped the observation even of the officers, that not only the shoes were those usually worn by the soldiers, and termed ammunition or store shoes, but also the trousers were of the description of coarse gray peculiar to that class.
"By the piper and ye're right, Dick Doherty," exclaimed another Irishman; "sure and it isn't the officer at all! Just look at the great black fist of him, too, and never call me Phil Sheban if it ever was made for the handling of an officer's spit."
"What a set of hignoramuses ye must be," grunted old Mitchell, "not to see that the captain's hand is only covered with dirt; and as for the ammunition shoes and trousers, why you know your officers wear anything since we have been cooped up in this here fort."
"Yes, by the holy poker, off duty, if they like it," returned Phil Sheban; "but it isn't even the colonel's own born son that dare to do so while officer of the guard."
At this point of their conversation, one of the leading men at the litter, in turning to look at its subject, stumbled over the root of a stump that lay in his way, and fell violently forward. The sudden action destroyed the equilibrium of the corpse, which rolled off its temporary bier upon the earth, and disclosed, for the first time, a face
begrimed with masses of clotted blood, which had streamed forth from the scalped brain during the night.
"It's the devil himself," said Phil Sheban, making the sign of the cross half in jest, half in earnest; "for it isn't the captain at all, and who but the devil could have managed to clap on his regimentals?"
"No, it's an Ingin," remarked Dick Burford, sagaciously; "it's an Ingin that has killed the captain and dressed himself in his clothes. I thought he smelt strong when I helped to pick him up."
"What a set of prating fools ye are," interrupted the leading sergeant; "who ever saw an Ingin with light hair? and sure this hair on the neck is that of a Christian."
At that moment Captain Erskine, attracted by the sudden halt produced by the falling of the body, came quickly up to the front.
"What is the meaning of all this, Cassidy?" he sternly demanded of the sergeant; "why is this halt without my orders, and how comes the body here?"
"Carter stumbled against a root, sir, and the body rolled over upon the ground."
"And was the body to roll back again?" angrily rejoined his captain. "What mean ye, fellows, by standing there; quick, replace it upon the litter, and mind this does not occur again."
"They say, sir," said the sergeant, respectfully, as the men proceeded to their duty, "that it is not Captain De Haldimar after all, but an Ingin."
"Not Captain De Haldimar! are ye all mad? and have the Indians, in reality, turned your brains with fear?"
What, however, was his own surprise, and that of Lieutenant Johnstone, when, on a closer examination of the corpse, which the men had now placed with its face uppermost, they discovered the bewildering fact that it was not, indeed, Captain De Haldimar who lay before them, but a stranger dressed in the uniform of that officer.
There was no time to solve or even to dwell on the singular mystery; for the Indians, though now retired,
might be expected to rally and renew the attack. Once more, therefore, the detachment moved forward; the officers dropping as before to the rear, to watch any movements of the enemy should he reappear. Nothing, however, occurred to interrupt their march; and in a few minutes the heavy clanking of the chains of the drawbridge, as it was again raised by its strong pulleys, and the dull creaking sound of the rusty bolts and locks that secured the ponderous gate, announced that the detachment was once more safely within the fort.
While the wounded men were being conveyed to the hospital, a group comprising almost all the officers of the garrison hastened to meet Captain Erskine and Lieutenant Johnstone. Congratulations on the escape of the one, and compliments, rather than condolences, on the accident of the other, which the arm *en echarpe* denoted to be slight, were hastily and warmly proffered. These felicitations were the genuine ebullitions of the hearts of men who really felt a pride, unmixed with jealousy, in the conduct of their fellows; and so cool and excellent had been the manner in which Captain Erskine had accomplished his object, that it had claimed the undivided admiration of all who had been spectators of the affair, and had, with the aid of their telescopes, been able to follow the minutest movements of the detachment.
"By heaven!" he at length replied, his chest swelling with gratified pride at the warm and generous approval of his companions; "this more than repays me for every risk. Yet, to be sincere, the credit is not mine, but Wentworth's. But for you, my dear fellow," grasping and shaking the hand of that officer, "we should have rendered but a Flemish account of ourselves. How beautifully those guns covered our retreat! and the first mortar that sent the howling devils flying in air like so many will-o'-the-wisps, who placed that, Wentworth?"
"I did," replied the officer, with a quickness that denoted a natural feeling of exultation; "but Bombardier Kitson's was the most effective. It was his shell that
drove the Indians finally out of the bomb-proof and left the coast clear for your retreat."
"Then Kitson, and his gunners also, merit our best thanks," pursued Captain Erskine, whose spirits, now that his detachment was in safety, were more than usually exhilarated by the exciting events of the last hour; "and what will be more acceptable, perhaps, they shall each have a glass of my best old Jamaica before they sleep—and such stuff is not to be met with every day in this wilderness of a country. But, confound my stupid head! where are Charles De Haldimar and Sir Everard Vallettort?"
"Poor Charles is in a high fever, and confined to his bed," remarked Captain Blessington, who now came up, adding his congratulations in a low tone that marked the despondency of his heart; "and Sir Everard I have just left on the rampart with the company, looking, as he well may, the very image of despair."
"Run to them, Summers, my dear boy," said Erskine, hastily addressing himself to a young ensign who stood near him; "run quickly, and relieve them of their error. Say it is not De Haldimar who has been killed, therefore they need not make themselves any longer uneasy on that score."
The officers gave a start of surprise. Summers, however, hastened to acquit himself of the pleasing task assigned him, without waiting to hear the explanations of the singular declaration.
"Not De Haldimar!" eagerly and anxiously exclaimed Captain Blessington. "Who then have you brought to us in his uniform, which I clearly distinguished from the rampart as you passed? Surely you would not tamper with us at such a moment, Erskine?"
"Who it is, I know no more than Adam," rejoined the other; "unless, indeed, it be the devil himself. All I do know is, it is not our friend De Haldimar; although, as you observe, he most certainly wears his uniform. But you shall see and judge for yourselves, gentlemen. Sergeant Cassidy," he inquired of that individual, who
now came to ask if the detachment was to be dismissed, "where have you placed the litter?"
"Under the piazza of the guard-room, sir," answered the sergeant. These words had scarcely been uttered when a general and hasty movement of the officers, anxious to satisfy themselves by personal observation it was not indeed De Haldimar who had fallen, took place in the direction alluded to, and in the next moment they were at the side of the litter.
A blanket had been thrown upon the corpse to conceal the loathsome disfigurement of the face, over which masses of thick coagulated blood were laid in patches and streaks that set all recognition at defiance. The formation of the head alone, which was round and short, denoted it to be not De Haldimar's. Not a feature was left undefiled; and even the eyes were so covered it was impossible to say whether their lids were closed or open. More than one officer's cheek paled with the sickness that rose to his heart as he gazed on the hideous spectacle; yet as the curiosity of all was strongly excited to know who the murdered man really was who had been so unaccountably inducted in the uniform of their lost companion, they were resolved to satisfy themselves without further delay. A basin of warm water and a sponge were procured from the guard-room of Ensign Fortescue, who now joined them, and with these Captain Blessington proceeded to remove the disguise.
In the course of this lavation it was discovered the extraordinary flow of blood and brains had been produced by the infliction of a deep wound on the back of the head by the sharp and ponderous tomahawk of an Indian. It was the only blow that had been given; and the circumstance of the deceased having been found lying on his face accounted for the quantity of gore that, trickling downwards, had so completely disguised every feature. As the coat of thick encrusted matter gave way beneath the frequent application of the moistening sponge, the pallid hue of the countenance denoted the murdered man to be a white. All doubt, however, was soon at an end.
The ammunition shoes, the gray trousers, the coarse linen, and the stiff leathern stock encircling the neck, attested the sufferer to be a soldier of the garrison; but it was not until the face had been completely denuded of its unsightly covering, and every feature fully exposed, that that soldier was at length recognized to be Harry Donellan, the trusty and attached servant of Captain De Haldimar.
While yet the officers stood apart, gazing at the corpse, and forming a variety of conjectures, as vague as they were unsatisfactory, in regard to their new mystery, Sir Everard Valletort, pale and breathless with the speed he had used, suddenly appeared among them.
"God of heaven! can it be true—and is it really not De Haldimar whom I have shot?" wildly asked the agitated young man. "Who is this, Erskine?" he continued, glancing at the litter. "Explain, for pity sake, and quickly."
"Compose yourself, my dear Valletort," replied the officer addressed. "You see this is not De Haldimar, but his servant Donellan. Neither has the latter met his death from your rifle; there is no mark of a bullet about him. It was an Indian tomahawk that did the business; and I will stake my head against a hickory nut the blow came from the same rascal at whom you fired, and who gave back the shot and the scalp halloo."
This opinion was unanimously expressed by the remainder of the officers. Sir Everard was almost as much overpowered with his joy as he had previously been overwhelmed by his despair, and he grasped and shook the hand of Captain Erskine, who had thus been the means of relieving his conscience, with an energy of gratitude and feeling that almost drew tears from the eyes of that blunt but gallant officer.
"Thank God! thank God!" he fervently exclaimed, "I have not then even the death of poor Donellan to answer for"; and hastening from the guard-room, he pursued his course hurriedly and delightedly to the barrack room of his friend.
CHAPTER V.
The hour fixed for the trial of the prisoner Halloway had now arrived, and the officers composing the court were all met in the mess-room of the garrison, surrounding a long green table covered with green cloth, over which were distributed pens, ink and paper for taking minutes of the evidence, and such notes of the proceedings as the several members might deem necessary in the course of the trial. Captain Blessington presided, and next him, on either hand, were the first in seniority, the two junior occupying the lowest places. The demeanor of the several officers, serious and befitting the duty they were met to perform, was rendered more especially solemn from the presence of the governor, who, sitting a little to the right of the president, and without the circle, remained covered, with his arms folded across his chest. At a signal given by the president to the orderly in waiting, that individual disappeared from the room, and soon afterwards Frank Halloway, strongly ironed, as on the preceding night, was ushered in by several files of the guard, under Ensign Fortescue himself.
The prisoner having been stationed a few paces on the left of the president, that officer stood up to administer the customary oath. His example was followed by the rest of the court, who now rose, and extending each his right hand upon the prayer-book, repeated, after the president, the form of words prescribed by military law. They then, after successively touching the sacred volume with their lips, once more resumed their seats at the table.
The prosecutor was the adjutant, Lawson, who now
handed over to the president a paper, from which the latter officer read, in a clear and distinct voice, the following charges, viz.:
"1st. For having on the night of —th September, 1763, while on duty at the gate of the Fortress of Detroit, either admitted a stranger into the garrison himself, or suffered him to obtain admission, without giving the alarm, or using the means necessary to ensure his apprehension, such conduct being treasonable, and in breach of the articles of war.
"2nd. For having been accessory to the abduction of Captain Frederick De Haldimar and Private Harry Donellan, the disappearance of whom from the garrison can only be attributed to a secret understanding existing between the prisoner and the enemy without the walls, such conduct being treasonable, and in breach of the articles of war."
"Private Frank Halloway," continued Captain Blessington, after having read these two short but important charges, "you have heard what has been preferred against you; what say you, therefore? Are you guilty, or not guilty?"
"Not guilty," firmly and somewhat exultingly replied the prisoner, laying his hand at the same time on his swelling heart.
"Stay, sir," sternly observed the governor, addressing the president; "you have not read all the charges."
Captain Blessington took up the paper from the table, on which he had carelessly thrown it, after reading the accusations above detailed, and perceived for the first time that a portion had been doubled back. His eye now glanced over a third charge, which had previously escaped his attention.
"Prisoner," he pursued, after the lapse of a minute, "there is a third charge against you, viz., for having, on the night of the —th Sept., 1763, suffered Captain De Haldimar to unclose the gate of the fortress, and accompanied by his servant, Private Harry Donellan, to pass your post without the sanction of the governor, such conduct being in direct violation of a standing order of the garrison and punishable with death."
The prisoner started. "What!" he exclaimed, his cheek paling for the first time with momentary apprehension; "is this voluntary confession of my own to be turned into a charge that threatens my life? Colonel De Haldimar, is the explanation which I gave you only this very hour and in private to be made the public instrument of my condemnation? Am I to die because I had not firmness to resist the prayer of my captain and of your son, Colonel De Haldimar?"
The president looked towards the governor, but a significant motion of the head was the only reply; he proceeded—
"Prisoner Halloway, what plead you to this charge? Guilty, or not guilty?"
"I see plainly," said Halloway, after the pause of a minute, during which he appeared to be summoning all his energies to his aid; "I see plainly that it is useless to strive against my fate. Captain De Haldimar is not here, and I must die. Still I shall not have the disgrace of dying as a traitor, though I own I have violated the orders of the garrison."
"Prisoner," interrupted Captain Blessington, "whatever you may have to urge, you had better reserve for your defence. Meanwhile, what answer do you make to the last charge preferred? Are you guilty, or not guilty?"
"Guilty," said Halloway, in a tone of mingled pride and sorrow, "guilty of having listened to the earnest prayer of my captain and suffered him, in violation of my orders, to pass my post. Of the other charges I am innocent."
The court listened with the most profound attention and interest to the words of the prisoner, and they glanced at each other in a manner that marked their sense of the truth they attached to his declaration.
"Halloway, prisoner," resumed Captain Blessington, mildly, yet impressively; "recollect the severe penalty which the third charge, no less than the others, entails,
and recall your admission. Be advised by me," he pursued, observing his hesitation. "Withdraw your plea, then, and substitute that of 'Not guilty' to the whole."
"Captain Blessington," returned the prisoner, with deep emotion, "I feel all the kindness of your motive; and if anything can console me in my present situation, it is the circumstance of having presiding at my trial an officer so universally beloved by the whole corps. Still," and again his voice acquired its wonted firmness, and his cheek glowed with honest pride, "still I scorn to retract my words. Of the two first charges I am as innocent as the babe unborn. To the last I plead guilty; and vain would it be to say otherwise, since the gate was found open while I was on duty, and I know the penalty attached to the disobedience of orders."
After some further but ineffectual remonstrances on the part of the president, the pleas of the prisoner were recorded, and the examination commenced. Governor De Haldimar was the first witness.
That officer, having been sworn, stated that on the preceding night he had been intruded upon in his apartment by a stranger, who could have obtained admission only through the gate of the fortress, by which also he must have made good his escape. That it was evident the prisoner had been in correspondence with their enemies; since, on proceeding to examine the gate, it had been found unlocked, while the confusion manifested by him on being accused satisfied all who were present of the enormity of his guilt. Search had been made everywhere for the keys, but without success.
The second charge was supported by presumptive evidence alone; for although the governor swore to the disappearance of his son and the murder of his servant, and dwelt emphatically on the fact of their having been forcibly carried off with the connivance of the prisoner, still there was no other proof of this than the deductions drawn from the circumstances already detailed. To meet this difficulty, however, the third charge had been framed.
In proof of this the governor stated that the prisoner, on being interrogated by him immediately subsequent to his being relieved from his post, had evinced such confusion and hesitation as to leave no doubt whatever of his guilt; that, influenced by the half promise of communication, which the court had heard as well as himself, he had suffered the trial of the prisoner to be delayed until the present hour, strongly hoping he might then be induced to reveal the share he had borne in these unworthy and treasonable practices; that, with a view to obtain this disclosure, so essential to the safety of the garrison, he had, conjointly with Major Blackwater, visited the cell of the prisoner, to whom he related the fact of the murder of Donellan in the disguise of his master's uniform, conjuring him, at the same time, if he regarded his own life, and the safety of those who were most dear to him, to give a clue to the solution of this mysterious circumstance, and disclose the nature and extent of his connection with the enemy without; that the prisoner, however, resolutely denied, as before, the guilt imputed to him, but having had time to concoct a plausible story, stated (doubtless with a view to shield himself from the severe punishment he well knew to be attached to his offence), that Captain De Haldimar himself had removed the keys from the guard-room, opened the gate of the fortress, and accompanied by his servant, dressed in a colored coat, had sallied forth upon the common. "And this," emphatically pursued the governor, "the prisoner admits lie permitted, although well aware that, by an order of long standing for the security of the garrison, such a flagrant dereliction of his duty subjected him to the punishment of death."
Major Blackwater was the next witness examined. His testimony went to prove the fact of the gate having been found open, and the confusion manifested by the prisoner. It also substantiated that part of the governor's evidence on the third charge, which related to the confession recently made by Halloway, on which that charge had been framed.
The sergeant of the guard and the governor's orderly having severally corroborated the first portions of Major Blackwater's evidence, the examination on the part of the prosecution terminated; when the president called on the prisoner Halloway for his defence. The latter, in a clear, firm, and collected tone, and in terms that surprised his auditory, thus addressed the court:
"Mr. President and Gentlemen,—Although standing before you in the capacity of a private soldier, and oh! bitter and humiliating reflection, in that most wretched and disgraceful of all situations, a suspected traitor, I am not indeed what I seem to be. It is not for me here to enter into the history of my past life; neither will I tarnish the hitherto unsullied reputation of my family by disclosing my true name. Suffice it to observe, I am a gentleman by birth; and although of late years I have known all the hardships and privations attendant on my fallen fortunes, I was once used to bask in the luxuries of affluence and to look upon those who now preside in judgment over me as my equals. A marriage of affection—a marriage with one who had nothing but her own virtues and her own beauty to recommend her—drew upon me the displeasure of my family, and the little I possessed, independently of the pleasure of my relations, was soon dissipated. My proud soul scorned all thought of supplication to those who had originally spurned my wife from their presence; and yet my heart bled for the privations of her who, alike respectable in family, was both from sex and the natural delicacy of her frame so far less constituted to bear up against the frowns of adversity than myself. Our extremity had now become great—too great for human endurance; when, through the medium of the public prints, I became acquainted with the glorious action that had been fought in this country by the army under General Wolfe. A new light burst suddenly upon my mind and visions of after prosperity constantly presented themselves to my view. The field of honor was open before me, and there was a probability I might, by good conduct, so far merit the approbation of my superiors as to obtain, in course of time, that rank among them to which by birth and education I was so justly entitled to aspire. Without waiting to consult my Ellen, whose opposition I feared to encounter until opposition would be fruitless, I hastened to Lieutenant Walgrave, the recruiting officer of the regiment—tendered my services—was accepted and approved—received the bounty money—and became definitely a soldier, under the assumed name of Frank Halloway.
"It would be tedious and impertinent, gentlemen," resumed the prisoner, after a short pause, "to dwell on the humiliation of spirit to which both my wife and myself were subjected at our first introduction to our new associates, who, although invariably kind to us, were nevertheless ill suited, both by education and habit, to awaken anything like congeniality of feeling or similarity of pursuit. Still we endeavored, as much as possible, to lessen the distance that existed between us; and from the first moment of our joining the regiment, determined to adopt the phraseology and manners of those with whom an adverse destiny had so singularly connected us. In this we succeeded; for no one, up to the present moment, has imagined either my wife or myself to be other than the simple, unpretending Frank and Ellen Halloway.
"On joining the regiment in this country," pursued the prisoner, after another pause, marked by much emotion, "I had the good fortune to be appointed to the Grenadier Company. Gentlemen, you all know the amiable qualities of Captain De Haldimar. But although, unlike yourselves, I have learnt to admire that officer only at a distance, my devotion to his interests has been proportioned to the kindness with which I have ever been treated by him; and may I not add, after this avowal of my former condition, my most fervent desire has all along been to seize the first favorable opportunity of performing some action that would eventually elevate me to a position in which I might, without blushing for the absence of the ennobling qualities of birth and condition, avow myself his friend, and solicit that distinction from my
equal which was partially extended to me by my superior? The opportunity I sought was not long wanting. At the memorable affair with the French General, Levi, at Quebec, in which our regiment bore so conspicuous a part, I had the good fortune to save the life of my captain. A band of Indians, as you all, gentlemen, must recollect, had approached our right flank unperceived, and while busily engaged with the French in front, we were compelled to divide our fire between them and our new and fierce assailants. The leader of that band was a French officer, who seemed particularly to direct his attempts against the life of Captain De Haldimar. He was a man of powerful proportions and gigantic stature—"
"Hold!" said the governor, starting suddenly from the seat in which he had listened, with evident impatience, to this long outline of the prisoner's history. "Gentlemen," addressing the court, "that is the very stranger who was in my apartment last night—the being with whom the prisoner is evidently in treacherous correspondence, and all this absurd tale is but a blind to deceive your judgment and mitigate his own punishment. Who is there to prove the man he has just described was the same who aimed at Captain De Haldimar's life at Quebec?"
A flush of deep indignation overspread the features of the prisoner, whose high spirit, now he had avowed his true origin, could ill brook the affront thus put upon his veracity.
"Colonel De Haldimar!" he proudly replied, while his chains clanked with the energy and force with which he drew up his person into an attitude of striking dignity; "for once I sink the private soldier and address you in the character of the gentleman and your equal. I have a soul, sir, notwithstanding my fallen fortunes, as keenly alive to honor as your own; and not even to save my wretched life would I be guilty of the baseness you now attribute to me. You have asked," he pursued, in a more solemn tone, "what proof I have to show this individual to be the same who attempted the life of Captain De Haldimar. To Captain De Haldimar himself, should
Providence have spared his days, I shall leave the melancholy task of bearing witness to all I here advance when I shall be no more. Nay, sir," and his look partook at once of mingled scorn and despondency, "well do I know the fate that awaits me; for in these proceedings—in that third charge—I plainly read my death warrant. But what, save my poor and wretched wife, have I to regret? Colonel De Haldimar," he continued, with a vehemence meant to check the growing weakness which the thought of his unfortunate companion called up to his heart, "I saved the life of your son, even by your own admission, no matter whose the arm that threatened his existence; and in every other action in which I have been engaged honorable mention has ever been made of my conduct. Now, sir, I ask what has been my reward? So far from attending to the repeated recommendations of my captain for promotion, even in a subordinate rank, have you once deemed it necessary to acknowledge my services by even a recognition of them in any way whatever?"
"Mr. President, Captain Blessington," interrupted the governor haughtily, "are we met here to listen to such language from a private soldier? You will do well, sir, to exercise your prerogative and stay such impertinent matter, which can have no reference whatever to the defence of the prisoner."
"Prisoner," resumed the president, who as well as the other members of the court had listened with the most profound and absorbing interest to the singular disclosure of him whom they still only knew as Frank Halloway, "this language cannot be permitted; you must confine yourself to your defence."
"Pardon me, gentlemen," returned Halloway, in his usual firm but respectful tone of voice; "pardon me if, standing on the brink of the grave as I do, I have so far forgotten the rules of military discipline as to sink for a moment the soldier in the gentleman; but to be taxed with an unworthy fabrication, and to be treated with contumely when avowing the secret of my condition, was
more than human pride and human feeling could tolerate."
"Confine yourself, prisoner, to your defence," again remarked Captain Blessington, perceiving the restlessness with which the governor listened to these bold and additional observations of Halloway.
Again the governor interposed: "What possible connection can there be between this man's life and the crime with which he stands charged? Captain Blessington, this is trifling with the court, who are assembled to try the prisoner for his treason, and not to waste their time in listening to a history utterly foreign to the subject."
"The history of my past life, Colonel De Haldimar," proudly returned the prisoner, "although tedious and uninteresting to you, is of the utmost importance to myself; for on that do I ground the most essential part of my defence. There is nothing but circumstantial evidence against me on the two first charges; and as those alone can reflect dishonor on my memory, it is for the wisdom of this court to determine whether that evidence is to be credited in opposition to the solemn declaration of him who, in admitting one charge, equally affecting his life with the others, repudiates as foul those only which would attain his honor. Gentlemen," he pursued, addressing the court, "it is for you to determine whether my defence is to be continued or not; yet, whatever be my fate, I would fain remove all injurious impression from the minds of my judges; and this can only be done by a simple detail of circumstances which may, by the unprejudiced, be as simply believed."
Here the prisoner paused; when, after some low and earnest conversation among the members of the court, two or three slips of written paper were passed to the president. He glanced his eye hurriedly over them, and then directed Halloway to proceed with his defence.
"I have stated," pursued the interesting soldier, "that the officer who led the band of Indians was a man of gigantic stature and of apparently great strength. My
attention was particularly directed to him from this circumstance, and as I was on the extreme flank of the Grenadiers, and close to Captain De Haldimar, I had every opportunity of observing his movements principally pointed at that officer. He first discharged a carbine, the ball of which killed a man of the company at his (Captain De Haldimar's) side; and then, with evident rage at having been defeated in his aim, he took a pistol from his belt, and advancing with rapid strides to within a few paces of his intended victim, presented it in the most deliberate manner. At that moment, gentlemen (and it was but the work of a moment), a thousand confused and almost inexplicable feelings rose to my heart. The occasion I had long sought was at length within my reach; but even the personal considerations which had hitherto influenced my mind were sunk in the anxious desire I entertained to preserve the life of an officer so universally beloved and so every way worthy of the sacrifice. While yet the pistol remained levelled I sprang before Captain De Haldimar, received the ball in my breast, and had just strength sufficient to fire my musket at the formidable enemy when I sank senseless to the earth.
"It will not be difficult for you, gentlemen, who have feeling minds, to understand the pleasurable pride with which, on being conveyed to Captain De Haldimar's own apartments in Quebec, I found myself almost overwhelmed by the touching marks of gratitude showered on me by his relatives. Miss Clara De Haldimar, in particular, like a ministering angel, visited my couch of suffering almost every hour, and always provided with some little delicacy, suitable to my condition, of which I had long since tutored myself to forget even to use. But what principally afforded me pleasure was to remark the consolations which she tendered to my poor drooping Ellen, who, already more than half subdued by the melancholy change in our condition in life, frequently spent hours together in silent grief at the side of my couch, and watching every change in my countenance with all the
intense anxiety of one who feels the last stay on earth is about to be severed for ever. Ah! how I then longed to disclose to this kind and compassionating being the true position of her on whom she lavished her attention, and to make her known not as the inferior honored by her notice, but as the equal alike worthy of her friendship and deserving of her esteem; but the wide, wide barrier that divided the wife of the private soldier from the daughter and sister of the commissioned officer sealed my lips, and our true condition continued unrevealed.
"Gentlemen," resumed Halloway, after a short pause, "if I dwell on these circumstances, it is with a view to show how vile are the charges preferred against me. Is it likely, with all the incentives to good conduct I have named, I should have proved a traitor to my country? And, even if so, what to gain, I would ask; and by what means was a correspondence with the enemy to be maintained by one in my humble station? As for the second charge, how infamous, how injurious is it to my reputation, how unworthy to be entertained! From the moment of my recovery from that severe wound, every mark of favor that could be bestowed on persons in our situation had been extended to my wife and myself by the family of Colonel De Haldimar; and my captain, knowing me merely as the simple and low born Frank Halloway, although still the preserver of his life, has been unceasing in his exertions to obtain such promotion as he thought my conduct generally, independently of my devotedness to his person, might claim. How these applications were met, gentlemen, I have already stated; but notwithstanding Colonel De Haldimar has never deemed me worthy of the promotion solicited, that circumstance could in no way weaken my regard and attachment for him who had so often demanded it. How then, in the name of heaven, can a charge so improbable, so extravagant, as that of having been instrumental in the abduction of Captain De Haldimar be entertained? and who is there among you, gentlemen, who will for one moment believe I could harbor a thought so absurd as that of lending myself to
the destruction of one for whom I once cheerfully offered up the sacrifice of my blood? And now," pursued the prisoner, after another short pause, "I come to the third charge—that charge which most affects my life but impugns neither my honor nor my fidelity. That God before whom I know I shall shortly appear can attest the sincerity of my statement, and before Him do I now solemnly declare what I am about to relate is true.
"Soon after the commencement of my watch last night I heard a voice distinctly on the outside of the rampart, near my post, calling in a low and subdued tone on the name of Captain De Haldimar. The accents, hastily and anxiously uttered, were apparently those of a female. For a moment I continued irresolute how to act, and hesitated whether or not I should alarm the garrison; but, at length, presuming it was some young female of the village with whom my captain was acquainted, it occurred to me the most prudent course would be to apprise that officer himself. While I yet hesitated whether to leave my post for a moment for the purpose, a man crossed the parade a few yards in my front; it was Captain De Haldimar's servant, Donellan, then in the act of carrying some things from his master's apartment to the guard-room. I called to him to say the sentinel at the gate wished to see the captain of the guard immediately. In the course of a few minutes he came up to my post, when I told him what I had heard. At that moment the voice again repeated his name, when he abruptly left me and turned to the left of the gate, evidently on his way to the rampart. Soon afterwards I heard Captain De Haldimar, immediately above me, sharply calling out 'Hist, hist!' as if the person on the outside, despairing of success, was in the act of retreating. A moment or two of silence succeeded, when a low conversation ensued between the parties. The distance was so great I could only distinguish inarticulate sounds; yet it seemed to me as if they spoke not in English, but in the language of the Ottawa Indians, a tongue with which, as you are well aware, gentlemen, Captain De Haldimar is familiar."
This had continued about ten minutes when I again heard footsteps hastily descending the rampart and moving in the direction of the guard-house. Soon afterwards Captain De Haldimar reappeared at my post, accompanied by his servant, Donellan; the former had the keys of the gate in his hand, and he told me that he must pass to the skirt of the forest on some business of the last importance to the safety of the garrison.
"At first I peremptorily refused, stating the severe penalty attached to the infringement of an order the observation of which had so especially been insisted upon by the governor, whose permission, however, I ventured respectfully to urge, might without difficulty be obtained if the business was really of the importance he described it. Captain De Haldimar, however, declared he well knew the governor would not accord that permission, unless he was positively acquainted with the nature and extent of the danger to be apprehended; and of these, he said, he was not himself sufficiently aware. All argument of this nature proving ineffectual, he attempted to enforce his authority, not only in his capacity of officer of the guard, but also as my captain, ordering me, on pain of confinement, not to interfere with or attempt to impede his departure. This, however, produced no better result; for I knew that, in this instance, I was amenable to the order of the governor alone, and I again firmly refused to violate my duty.
"Finding himself thwarted in his attempt to enforce my obedience, Captain De Haldimar, who seemed much agitated and annoyed by what he termed my obstinacy, now descended to entreaty; and in the name of that life which I had preserved to him and of that deep gratitude which he had ever since borne to me, conjured me not to prevent his departure.
"'Halloway,' he urged, 'your life, my life, my father's life, the life of my sister Clara, perhaps, who nursed you in illness, and who has ever treated your wife with attention and kindness—all these depend upon your compliance with my request. Hear me,' he pursued, following up
the impression which he clearly perceived he had produced in me by this singular and touching language, 'I promise to be back within the hour; there is no danger attending my departure, and here will I be before you are relieved from your post; no one can know I have been absent, and your secret will remain with Donellan and myself. Do you think,' he concluded, 'I would encourage a soldier of my regiment to disobey a standing order of the garrison, unless there was some very extraordinary reason for my so doing? But there is no time to be lost in parley. Halloway! I entreat you to offer no further opposition to my departure. I pledge myself to be back before you are relieved.'
"Gentlemen," impressively continued the prisoner, after a pause, during which every member of the court seemed to breathe for the first time, so deeply had the attention of all been riveted by the latter part of this singular declaration, "how, under these circumstances, could I be expected to act? Assured by Captain De Haldimar in the most solemn manner that the existence of those most dear to his heart hung on my compliance with his request, how could I refuse to him, whose life I had saved, and whose character I so much esteemed, a boon so earnestly—nay, so imploringly—solicited? I acceded to his prayer, intimating at the same time, if he returned not before another sentinel should relieve me, the discovery of my breach of duty must be made and my punishment inevitable. His last words, however, were to assure me he should return at the hour he had named, and when I closed the gate upon him it was under the firm impression his absence would only prove of the temporary nature he had stated.
"Gentlemen," abruptly concluded Halloway, "I have nothing further to add; if I have failed in my duty as a soldier, I have, at least, fulfilled that of a man; and although the violation of the first entails upon me the punishment of death, the motives which impelled me to that violation will not, I trust, be utterly lost sight of by those by whom my punishment is to be awarded."
The candid, fearless and manly tone in which Halloway had delivered this long and singular statement, however little the governor appeared to be affected by it, evidently made a deep impression on the court, who had listened with undiverted attention to the close. Some conversation again ensued in a low tone among several members, when two slips of written paper were passed up, as before, to the president. These excited the following interrogatories:
"You have stated, prisoner, that Captain De Haldimar left the fort accompanied by his servant, Donellan. How were they respectively dressed?"
"Captain De Haldimar in his uniform; Donellan, as far as I could observe, in his regimental clothing also, with this difference, that he wore his servant's round glazed hat and his gray great-coat."
"How, then, do you account for the extraordinary circumstance of Donellan having been found murdered in his master's clothes? Was any allusion made to a change of dress before they left the fort?"
"Not the slightest," returned the prisoner; "nor can I in any way account for this mysterious fact. When they quitted the garrison each wore the dress I have described."
"In what manner did Captain De Haldimar and Donellan effect their passage across the ditch?" continued the president, after glancing at the second slip of paper. "The drawbridge was evidently not lowered and there were no other means at hand to enable him to effect his object with promptitude. How do you explain this, prisoner?"
When this question was put the whole body of officers, and the governor especially, turned their eyes simultaneously on Halloway, for on his hesitation or promptness in replying seemed to attach much of the credit they were disposed to accord his statement. Halloway observed it and colored. His reply, however, was free, unfaltering and unstudied.
"A rope with which Donellan had provided himself was secured to one of the iron hooks that support the pulleys immediately above the gate. With this they swung themselves in succession to the opposite bank."
The members of the court looked at each other, apparently glad that an answer so confirmatory of the truth of the prisoner's statement had been thus readily given.
" Were they to have returned in the same manner?" pursued the president, framing his interrogatory from the contents of another slip of paper, which, at the suggestion of the governor, had been passed to him by the prosecutor, Mr. Lawson.
"They were," firmly replied the prisoner. "At least, I presumed they were, for I believe in the hurry of Captain De Haldimar's departure he never once made any direct allusion to the manner of his return; nor did it occur to me until this moment how they were to regain possession of the rope without assistance from within."
"Of course," observed Colonel De Haldimar, addressing the president, "the rope still remains. Mr. Lawson, examine the gate, and report accordingly."
The adjutant hastened to acquit himself of this laconic order, and soon afterwards returned, stating not only that there was no rope, but that the hook alluded to had disappeared altogether.
For a moment the cheek of the prisoner paled; but it was evidently less from any fear connected with his individual existence than from the shame he felt at having been detected in a supposed falsehood. He, however, speedily recovered his self-possession, and exhibited the same character of unconcern by which his general bearing throughout the trial had been distinguished.
On this announcement of the adjutant the governor betrayed a movement of impatience that was meant to convey his utter disbelief of the whole of the prisoner's statement, and his look seemed to express to the court it should also arrive, without hesitation, at the same conclusion. Even all authoritative as he was, however, he felt that military etiquette and strict discipline prevented
his interfering further in this advanced state of the proceedings.
"Prisoner," again remarked Captain Blessington, "your statement in regard to the means employed by Captain De Haldimar in effecting his departure is, as you must admit, unsupported by appearances. How happens it the rope is no longer where you say it was placed? No one could have removed it but yourself. Have you done so? and if so, can you produce it, or say where it is to be found?"
"Captain Blessington," replied Halloway, proudly, yet respectfully, "I have already invoked that great Being before whose tribunal I am so shortly to appear in testimony of the truth of my assertion; and again, in His presence, do I repeat, every word I have uttered is true. I did not remove the rope, neither do I know what is become of it. I admit its disappearance is extraordinary, but a moment's reflection must satisfy the court I would not have devised a tale the falsehood of which could at once have been detected on an examination such as that which has just been instituted. When Mr. Lawson left this room just now, I fully expected he would have found the rope lying as it had been left. What has become of it, I repeat, I know not; but in the manner I have stated did Captain De Haldimar and Donellan cross the ditch. I have nothing further to add," he concluded, once more drawing up his fine tall person, the native elegance of which could not be wholly disguised even in the dress of a private soldier; "nothing further to disclose. Yet do I repel with scorn the injurious insinuation against my fidelity suggested in these doubts. I am prepared to meet my death as best may become a soldier, and let me add, as best may become a proud and well-born gentleman; but humanity and common justice should at least be accorded to my memory. I am an unfortunate man, but no traitor."
The members were visibly impressed by the last sentence of the prisoner. No further question, however, was
asked, and he was again removed by the escort, who had been wondering spectators of the scene, to the cell he had so recently occupied. The room was then cleared of the witnesses and strangers, the latter comprising nearly the whole of the officers off duty, when the court proceeded to deliberate on the evidence and pass sentence on the accused.
CHAPTER VI.
ALTHOUGH the young and sensitive De Haldimar had found physical relief in the summary means resorted to by the surgeon, the moral wound at his heart not only remained unsoothed, but was rendered more acutely painful by the wretched reflections which, now that he had full leisure to review the past and anticipate the future in all the gloom attached to both, so violently assailed him. From the moment when his brother's strange and mysterious disappearance had been communicated by the adjutant in the manner we have already seen, his spirits had been deeply and fearfully depressed. Still he had every reason to expect, from the well-known character of Halloway, the strong hope expressed by the latter might be realized; and that at the hour appointed for trial his brother would be present to explain the cause of his mysterious absence, justify the conduct of his subordinate, and exonerate him from the treachery with which he now stood charged. Yet, powerful as this hope was, it was unavoidably qualified by dispiriting doubt; for a nature affectionate and bland as that of Charles De Haldimar could not but harbor distrust while a shadow of uncertainty in regard to the fate of a brother so tenderly loved remained. He had forced himself to believe as much as possible what he wished, and the effort had, to a certain extent, succeeded; but there had been something so solemn and so impressive in the scene that had passed when the prisoner was first brought up for trial, something so fearfully prophetic in the wild language of his unhappy wife, he had found it
impossible to resist the influence of the almost superstitious awe they had awakened in his heart.
What the feelings of the young officer were subsequently, when in the person of the murdered man on the common, the victim of Sir Everard Valletort's aim, he recognized that brother whose disappearance had occasioned him so much inquietude, we shall not attempt to describe; their nature is best shown in the effect they produced—the almost overwhelming agony of body and mind which had borne him, like a stricken plant, unresisting to the earth. But now that, in the calm and solitude of his chamber, he had leisure to review the fearful events conspiring to produce this extremity, his anguish of spirit was even deeper than when the first rude shock of conviction had flashed upon his understanding. A tide of suffering that overpowered, without rendering him sensible of its positive and abstract character, had in the first instance oppressed his faculties and obscured his perception; but now, slow, sure, stinging, and gradually succeeding each other, came every bitter thought and reflection of which that tide was composed; and the generous heart of Charles De Haldimar was a prey to feelings that would have wrung the soul and wounded the sensibilities of one far less gentle and susceptible than himself.
Between Sir Everard Valletort and Charles De Haldimar, who, it has already been remarked, were lieutenants in Captain Blessington's company, a sentiment of friendship had been suffered to spring up almost from the moment of Sir Everard's joining. The young men were nearly of the same age; and although the one was all gentleness, the other all spirit and vivacity, not a shade of disunion had at any period intervened to interrupt the almost brotherly attachment subsisting between them, and each felt the disposition of the other was the one most assimilated to his own. In fact, Sir Everard was far from being the ephemeral character he was often willing to appear. Under a semblance of affectation, and much assumed levity of manner—never, however, personally
offensive—he concealed a brave, generous, warm and manly heart, and talents becoming the rank he held in society, such as would not have reflected discredit on one numbering twice his years. He had entered the army, as most young men of rank usually did at that period, rather for the agrémens it held forth than with any serious view to advancement in it as a profession. Still he entertained the praiseworthy desire of being something more than what is among military men emphatically termed "a feather-bed soldier." Not that we mean, however, to assert he was not a feather-bed soldier in its more literal sense; in fact, his own observations, recorded in the early part of this volume, sufficiently prove his predilection for the indulgence of pressing his downy couch to what is termed a decent hour in the day.
We need scarcely state, Sir Everard's theories on this important subject were seldom reduced to practice; for even long before the Indians had broken out into open hostility, when such precautions were rendered indispensable, Colonel De Haldimar had never suffered either officer or man to linger on his pillow after the first faint dawn had appeared. This was a system to which Sir Everard could never reconcile himself. "If the men must be drilled," he urged, "with a view to their health and discipline, why not place them under the direction of the adjutant or the officer of the day, whoever he might chance to be, and not unnecessarily disturb a body of gentlemen from their comfortable slumbers at that unconscionable hour?" Poor Sir Everard! this was the only grievance of which he complained, and he complained bitterly. Scarcely a morning passed without his inveighing loudly against the barbarity of such a custom; threatening at the same time, amid the laughter of his companions, to quit the service in disgust at what he called so ungentlemanly and gothic a habit; and, but for two motives, there is every probability he would have seriously availed himself of the earliest opportunity of retiring. The first of these was his growing friendship for the amiable and gentle Charles De Haldimar; the second,
the secret, and scarcely to himself acknowledged, interest which had been created in his heart for his sister Clara, whom he only knew from the glowing descriptions of his friend, and the strong resemblance she was said to bear to him by the other officers.
Clara De Haldimar was the constant theme of her younger brother's praise. Her image was ever uppermost in his thoughts, her name ever hovering on his lips; and when alone with his friend Valletort it was his delight to dwell on the worth and accomplishments of his amiable and beloved sister. Then, indeed, would his usually calm blue eyes sparkle with the animation of his subject, while his coloring cheek marked all the warmth and sincerity with which he bore attestation to her gentleness and her goodness. The heart of Charles De Haldimar, soldier as he was, was pure, generous and unsophisticated as that of the sister whom he so constantly eulogized; and, while listening to his eloquent praises, Sir Everard learnt to feel an interest in a being whom all declared to be the counterpart of her brother, as well in personal attraction as in singleness of nature. With all his affected levity, and notwithstanding his early initiation into fashionable life—the matter-of-fact life which strikes at the existence of our earlier and dearer illusions—there was a dash of romance in the character of the young baronet which tended much to increase the pleasure he always took in the warm descriptions of his friend. The very circumstance of her being personally unknown to him was, with Sir Everard, an additional motive for interest in Miss De Haldimar.
Imagination and mystery generally work their way together; and as there was a shade of mystery attached to Sir Everard's very ignorance of the person of one whom he admired and esteemed from the report alone, imagination was not slow to improve the opportunity, and to endow the object with characteristics which perhaps a more intimate knowledge of the party might have led him to qualify. In this manner in early youth are the silken and willing fetters of the generous and enthusiastic
forged. We invest some object whose praises, whispered secretly in the ear, have glided imperceptibly to the heart with all the attributes supplied by our own vivid and readily according imaginations; and so accustomed do we become to linger on the picture, we adore the semblance with an ardor which the original often fails to excite.
We do not say Clara De Haldimar would have fallen short of the high esteem formed of her worth by the friend of her brother; neither is it to be understood Sir Everard suffered this fair vision of his fancy to lead him into the wild and labyrinthian paths of boyish romance.
Whatever were the impressions of the young baronet, and however he might have been inclined to suffer the fair image of the gentle Clara, such as he was perhaps wont to paint it, to exercise its spell upon his fancy, certain it is he never expressed to her brother more than that esteem and interest which it was but natural he should accord to the sister of his friend. Neither had Charles De Haldimar, even amid all his warmth of commendation, ever made the slightest allusion to his sister that could be construed into a desire she should awaken any unusual or extraordinary sentiment of preference. Much and fervently as he desired such an event, there was an innate sense of decorum, and it may be secret pride, that caused him to abstain from any observation having the remotest tendency to compromise the spotless delicacy of his adored sister; and such he would have considered any expression of his own hopes and wishes, where no declaration of preference had been previously made. There was another motive for this reserve on the part of the young officer. The baronet was an only child, and would, on attaining his majority, of which he wanted only a few months, become the possessor of a large fortune. His sister Clara, on the contrary, had little beyond her own fair fame and the beauty transmitted to her by the mother she had lost. Colonel De Haldimar was a younger son, and had made his way through life with his sword and an unblemished-reputation alone—advantages he had shared with his children, for the two eldest of
whom his interest and long services had procured commissions in his own regiment.
But even while Charles De Haldimar abstained from all expression of his hopes, he had fully made up his mind that Sir Everard and his sister were so formed for each other it was next to an impossibility they could meet without loving. In one of his letters to the latter he had alluded to his friend in terms of so high and earnest panegyric that Clara had acknowledged, in reply, she was prepared to find in the young baronet one whom she should regard with partiality, if it were only on account of the friendship subsisting between him and her brother. This admission, however, was communicated in confidence, and the young officer had religiously preserved his sister's secret.
These and fifty other recollections now crowded on the mind of the sufferer only to render the intensity of his anguish more complete; among the bitterest of which was the certainty that the mysterious events of the past night had raised up an insuperable barrier to this union; for how could Clara De Haldimar become the wife of him whose hands were, however innocently, stained with the life-blood of her brother! To dwell on this, and the loss of that brother; was little short of madness, and yet De Haldimar could think of nothing else; nor for a period could the loud booming of the cannon from the ramparts, every report of which shook his chamber to its very foundations, call off his attention from a subject which, while it pained, engrossed every faculty and absorbed every thought. At length, towards the close, he called faintly to the old and faithful soldier, who at the foot of the bed stood watching every change of his master's countenance, to know the cause of the cannonade. On being informed the batteries in the rear were covering the retreat of Captain Erskine, who in his attempt to obtain the body had been surprised by the Indians, a new direction was temporarily given to his thoughts, and he now manifested the utmost impatience to know the result.
In a few minutes Morrison, who in defiance of the
surgeon's strict order not on any account to quit the room, had flown to obtain some intelligence which he trusted might remove the anxiety of his suffering master, again made his appearance, stating the corpse was already secured, and close under the guns of the fort, beneath which the detachment, though hotly assailed from the forest, were also fast retreating.
"And is it really my brother, Morrison? Are you quite certain that it is Captain De Haldimar?" asked the young officer, in the eager accents of one who, with the fullest conviction on his mind, yet grasps at the faintest shadow for a consoling doubt. "Tell me that it is not my brother, and half of what I possess in the world shall be yours."
The old soldier brushed a tear from his eye. "God bless you, Mr. De Haldimar, I would give half my grey hairs to be able to do so; but it is indeed too truly the captain who has been killed. I saw the very wings of his regimentals as he lay on his face on the litter."
Charles De Haldimar groaned aloud. "Oh God! oh God! would that I had never lived to see this day." Then, springing suddenly up in his bed—"Morrison, where are my clothes? I insist on seeing my slaughtered brother myself."
"Good heaven, sir, consider," said the old man, approaching the bed, and attempting to replace the covering which had been spurned to its very foot—"consider you are in a burning fever, and the slightest cold may kill you altogether. The doctor's orders are, you were on no account to get up." The effort made by the unfortunate youth was momentary. Faint from the blood he had lost, and giddy from the excitement of his feelings, he sunk back exhausted on his pillow and wept like a child.
Old Morrison shed tears also; for his heart bled for the sufferings of one whom he had nursed and played with even in early infancy, and whom, although his master, he regarded with the affection he would have borne to his own child. As he had justly observed, he would have willingly given half his remaining years to be able to
remove the source of the sorrow which so deeply oppressed him.
When this paroxysm had somewhat subsided De Haldimar became more composed; but this was rather that composure which grows out of the apathy produced by overwhelming grief than the result of any relief afforded to his suffering heart by the tears he had shed. He had continued some time in this faint and apparently tranquil state when confused sounds in the barrack-yard, followed by the raising of the heavy drawbridge, announced the return of the detachment. Again he started up in his bed and demanded his clothes, declaring his intention to go out and receive the corpse of his murdered brother. All opposition on the part of the faithful Morrison was now likely to prove fruitless, when suddenly the door opened and an officer burst hurriedly into the room.
"Courage! courage! my dear De Haldimar; I am the bearer of good news. Your brother is not the person who has been slain."
Again De Haldimar sank back upon his pillow, overwhelmed by a variety of conflicting emotions. A moment afterwards, and he exclaimed reproachfully, yet almost gasping with the eagerness of his manner—
"For God's sake, Sumners—in the name of common humanity—do not trifle with my feelings. If you would seek to lull me with false hopes, you are wrong. I am prepared to hear and bear the worst at present, but to be undeceived again would break my heart."
"I swear to you by everything I have been taught to revere as sacred," solemnly returned Ensign Sumners, deeply touched by the affliction he witnessed, "what I state is strictly true. Captain Erskine himself sent me to tell you."
"What, is he only wounded, then?" and a glow of mingled hope and satisfaction was visible even through the flush of previous excitement on the cheek of the sufferer. "Quick, Morrison, give me my clothes. Where is my brother, Sumners?" and again he raised up
his debilitated frame with the intention of quitting his couch.
"De Haldimar, my dear De Haldimar, compose yourself and listen to me. Your brother is still missing, and we are as much in the dark about his fate as ever. All that is certain is, we have no positive knowledge of his death; but surely that is a thousand times preferable to the horrid apprehensions under which we have all hitherto labored."
"What mean you, Sumners? or am I so bewildered with my sufferings as not to comprehend you clearly? Nay, nay, forgive me; but I am almost heart-broken at this loss, and scarcely know what I say. But what is it you mean? I saw my unhappy brother lying on the common with my own eyes. Poor Valletort himself—" here a rush of bitter recollections flashed on the memory of the young man, and the tears coursed each other rapidly down his cheek. His emotion lasted a few moments, and he pursued: "Poor Valletort himself saw him, for he was nearly as much overwhelmed with affliction as I was; and even Morrison beheld him also, not ten minutes since under the very walls of the fort; nay, distinguished the wings of his uniform, and yet you would persuade me my brother, instead of being brought in a corpse, is still missing and alive. This is little better than trifling with my wretchedness, Sumners," and again he sank back exhausted on his pillow.
"I can easily forgive your doubts, De Haldimar," returned the sympathizing Sumners, taking the hand of his companion and pressing it gently in his own; "for, in truth, there is a great deal of mystery attached to the whole affair. I have not seen the body myself, but I distinctly heard Captain Erskine state it certainly was not your brother, and he requested me to apprise both Sir Everard Valletort and yourself of the fact."
"Who is the murdered man, then? and how comes he clad in the uniform of one of our officers? Pshaw! it is too absurd to be credited. Erskine is mistaken—he must be mistaken—it can be no other than my poor
brother Frederick. Sumners, I am sick, faint, with this cruel uncertainty; go, my dear fellow, at once, and examine the body; then return to me, and satisfy my doubts, if possible."
"Most willingly, if you desire it," returned Sumners, moving towards the door; "but believe me, De Haldimar, you may make your mind tranquil on the subject—Erskine spoke with certainty."
"Have you seen Valletort?" asked De Haldimar, while an involuntary shudder pervaded his frame.
"I have. He flew on the instant to make further inquiries, and was in the act of going to examine the body of the murdered man when I came here. But here he is himself, and his countenance is the harbinger of anything but a denial of my intelligence."
"Oh, Charles, what a weight of misery has been removed from my heart!" exclaimed that officer, now rushing to the bedside of his friend and seizing his extended hand. "Your brother, let us hope, still lives."
"Almighty God, I thank thee!" fervently ejaculated De Haldimar; and then, overcome with joy, surprise and gratitude, he again sank back upon his pillow, sobbing and weeping violently.
Sumners had, with delicate tact, retired the moment Sir Everard made his appearance; for he, as well as the whole body of officers, was aware of the close friendship that subsisted between the young men.
We shall not attempt to paint all that passed between the friends during the first interesting moments of an interview which neither had expected to enjoy again, or the delight and satisfaction with which they congratulated themselves on the futility of those fears which, if realized, must have embittered every future moment of their lives with the most harrowing recollections.
With that facility with which in youth the generous and susceptible are prone to exchange their tears for smiles as some powerful motive for the reaction may prompt, the invalid had already, and for the moment, lost sight of the painful past in the pleasurable present, so
that his actual excitement was strongly in contrast with the melancholy he had so recently exhibited. Never had Charles De Haldimar appeared so eminently handsome; and yet his beauty resembled that of a frail and delicate woman rather than that of one called to the manly and arduous profession of a soldier. The large, blue, long dark-lashed eye, in which a shade of languor harmonized with the soft but animated expression of the whole countenance—the dimpled mouth—the small, clear, and even teeth—all these now characterized Charles De Haldimar; and if to these we add a voice rich, full and melodious, and a smile sweet and fascinating, we shall be at no loss to account for the readiness with which Sir Everard suffered his imagination to draw on the brother for those attributes he ascribed to the sister.
It was while this impression was strong upon his fancy he took occasion to remark, in reply to an observation of De Haldimar’s, alluding to the despair with which his sister would have been seized had she known one brother had fallen by the hand of the friend of the other:
“The grief of my own heart, Charles, on this occasion, would have been little inferior to her own. The truth is, my feelings during the last three hours have let me into a secret, of the existence of which I was, in a great degree, ignorant until then; I scarcely know how to express myself, for the communication is so truly absurd and romantic you will not credit it.” He paused, hesitated, and then, as if determined to anticipate the ridicule he seemed to feel would be attached to his confession, with a forced half laugh pursued: “The fact is, Charles, I have been so much used to listen to your warm and eloquent praises of your sister, I have absolutely, I will not say fallen in love with (that would be going too far), but conceived so strong an interest in her, that my most ardent desire would be to find favor in her eyes. What say you, my friend? Are you inclined to forward my suit; and, if so, is there any chance for me, think you, with herself?”
The breast of Charles De Haldimar, who had listened
with deep and increasing attention to this avowal, swelled high with pleasurable excitement, and raising himself up in his bed with one hand, while he grasped one of Sir Everard’s with the other, he exclaimed with a transport of affection too forcible to be controlled:
“Oh, Valletort, Valletort! this is, indeed, all that was wanting to complete my happiness. My sister Clara I adore with all the affection of my nature; I love her better than my own life, which is wrapped up in hers. She is an angel in disposition—all that is dear, tender, and affectionate—all that is gentle and lovely in woman; one whose welfare is dearer far to me than my own, and without whose presence I could not live. Valletort, that prize, that dearer half of myself, is yours—yours for ever. I have long wished you should love each other, and I felt, when you met, you would. If I have hitherto forborne from expressing this fondest wish of my heart, it has been from delicacy—from a natural fear of compromising the purity of my adored Clara. Now, however, you have confessed yourself interested, by a description that falls far short of the true merit of that dear girl, I can no longer disguise my gratification and delight. Valletort,” he concluded, impressively, “there is no other man on earth to whom I would say so much; but you were formed for each other, and you will, you must, be the husband of my sister.”
If the youthful and affectionate De Haldimar was happy, Sir Everard was no less so; for already, with the enthusiasm of a young man of twenty, he painted to himself the entire fruition of those dreams of happiness that had so long been familiarized to his imagination.
A single knock was now heard at the door of the apartment; it was opened and a sergeant appeared at the entrance.
“The company are under arms for punishment parade, Lieutenant Valletort,” said the man, touching his cap.
In an instant the visionary prospects of the young men gave place to the stern realities connected with that announcement of punishment. The treason of Halloway
—the absence of Frederick De Haldimar—the danger by which they were beset—and the little probability of a reunion with those who were most dear to them—all these recollections now flashed across their minds with the rapidity of thought; and the conversation that had so recently passed between them seemed to leave no other impression than what is produced from some visionary speculation of the moment.
CHAPTER VII.
As the bells of the fort tolled the tenth hour of morning, the groups of dispersed soldiery, warned by the rolling of the assembly drum, once more fell into their respective ranks in the order described in the opening of this volume. Soon afterwards the prisoner, Halloway, was reconducted into the square by a strong escort, who took their stations as before in the immediate centre, where the former stood principally conspicuous to the observation of his comrades. His countenance was paler, and had less, perhaps, of the indifference he had previously manifested; but to supply this there was a certain subdued air of calm dignity, and a composure that sprang, doubtless, from the consciousness of the new character in which he now appeared before his superiors. Colonel De Haldimar almost immediately followed, and with him were the principal staff of the garrison, all of whom, with the exception of the sick and wounded and their attendants, were present to a man. The former took from the hands of the adjutant, Lawson, a large packet, consisting of several sheets of folded paper closely written upon. These were the proceedings of the court-martial.
After enumerating the several charges, and detailing the evidence of the witnesses examined, the governor came at length to the finding and sentence of the court, which were as follows:
"The court having duly considered the evidence adduced against the prisoner, private Frank Halloway, together with what he has urged in his defence, are of opinion—
"That with regard to the first charge, it is not proved.
"That with regard to the second charge, it is not proved.
"That with regard to the third charge, even by his own voluntary confession, the prisoner is guilty.
"The court having found the prisoner, Private Frank Halloway, guilty of the third charge preferred against him, which is in direct violation of a standing order of the garrison entailing capital punishment, do hereby sentence him, the said prisoner, private Frank Halloway, to be shot to death at such time and place as the officer commanding may deem fit to appoint."
Although the utmost order pervaded the ranks, every breath had been suspended, every ear stretched during the reading of the sentence; and now that it came arrayed in terror and in blood, every glance was turned in pity on its unhappy victim. But Halloway heard it with the ears of one who has made up his mind to suffer; and the faint half smile that played upon his lips spoke more in scorn than in sorrow. Colonel De Haldimar pursued:
"The court having found it imperatively incumbent on them to award the punishment of death to the prisoner, private Frank Halloway, at the same time gladly avail themselves of their privilege by strongly recommending him to mercy. The court cannot, in justice to the character of the prisoner, refrain from expressing their unanimous conviction that, notwithstanding the mysterious circumstances which have led to his confinement and trial, he is entirely innocent of the treachery ascribed to him. The court have founded this conviction on the excellent character, both on duty and in the field, hitherto borne by the prisoner—his well-known attachment to the officer with whose abduction he stands charged—and the manly, open, and (as the court are satisfied) correct history given of his former life. It is, moreover, the impression of the court that, as stated by the prisoner, his guilt of the third charge has been the
result only of his attachment for Captain De Haldimar. And for this, and the reasons above assigned, do they strongly recommend the prisoner to mercy.
(Signed) "Noël Blessington,
"Captain and President.
"Sentence approved and confirmed.
"Charles De Haldimar,
"Colonel and Commandant."
While these concluding remarks of the court were being read, the prisoner manifested the deepest emotion. If a smile of scorn had previously played upon his lip, it was because he fancied the court, before whom he had sought to vindicate his fame, had judged him with a severity not inferior to his colonel's; but now that, in the presence of his companions, he heard the flattering attestation of his services, coupled even as it was with the sentence that condemned him to die, tears of gratitude and pleasure rose despite of himself to his eyes; and it required all his self-command to enable him to abstain from giving expression to his feelings towards those who had so generously interpreted the motives of his dereliction from duty. But when the melancholy and startling fact of the approval and confirmation of the sentence met his ear, without the slightest allusion to that mercy which had been so urgently recommended, he again overcame his weakness, and exhibited his wonted air of calm and unconcern.
"Let the prisoner be removed, Mr. Lawson," ordered the governor, whose stern and somewhat dissatisfied expression of countenance was the only comment on the recommendation for mercy.
The order was promptly executed. Once more Halloway left the square, and was reconducted to the cell he had occupied since the preceding night.
"Major Blackwater," pursued the governor, "let a detachment consisting of one-half the garrison be got in readiness to leave the fort within the hour. Captain Wentworth, three pieces of field artillery will be required. Let them be got ready also." He then retired from the
arena, while the officers who had just received his commands prepared to fulfil the respective duties assigned them.
Since the first alarm of the garrison no opportunity had hitherto been afforded the officers to snatch the slightest refreshment. Advantage was now taken of the short interval allowed by the governor, and they all repaired to the mess-room, where their breakfast had long since been provided.
"Well, Blessington," remarked Captain Erskine, as he filled his plate for the third time from a large haunch of venison, for which his recent skirmish with the Indians had given him an unusual relish, "so it appears your recommendation of poor Halloway to mercy is little likely to be attended to. Did you remark how displeased the colonel looked as he bungled through it? One might almost be tempted to think he had an interest in the man's death, so determined does he appear to carry his point."
Although several of his companions, perhaps, felt and thought the same, still there was no one who would have ventured to avow his real sentiments in so unqualified a manner. Indeed such an observation proceeding from the lips of any other officer would have excited the utmost surprise; but Captain Erskine, a brave, bold, frank, and somewhat thoughtless soldier, was one of those beings who are privileged to say anything. His opinions were usually expressed without ceremony; and his speech was not the most circumspect now, as since his return to the fort he had swallowed, fasting, two or three glasses of a favorite spirit, which, without intoxicating, had greatly excited him.
"I remarked enough," said Captain Blessington, who sat leaning his head on one hand, while with the other he occasionally, and almost mechanically, raised a cup filled with a liquid of pale blood color to his lips, "quite enough to make me regret from my very soul I should have been his principal judge. Poor Halloway, I pity him much; for, on my honor, I believe him to be the gentleman he represents himself to be."
"A finer fellow does not live," remarked the last remaining officer of the Grenadiers. "But surely Colonel De Haldimar cannot mean to carry the sentence into effect. The recommendation of a court, couched in such terms as these, ought alone to have some weight with him."
"It is quite clear, from the fact of his having been remanded to his cell, the execution of the poor fellow will be deferred at least," observed one of Captain Erskine's subalterns. "If the governor had intended he should suffer immediately, he would have had him shot the moment after his sentence was read. But what is the meaning and object of this new sortie? and whither are we now going? Do you know, Captain Erskine, our company is again ordered for this duty?"
"Know it, Leslie! of course I do; and for that reason am I paying my court to the more substantial part of the breakfast. Come, Blessington, my dear fellow, you have quite lost your appetite, and we may have sharp work before we get back. Follow my example; throw that nasty blood-thickening sassafras away, and lay a foundation from this venison. None sweeter is to be found in the forests of America. A few slices of that, and then a glass each of my best Jamaica, and we shall have strength to go through the expedition if its object be the capture of the bold Pontiac himself."
"I presume the object is rather to seek for Captain De Haldimar," said Lieutenant Boyce, the officer of the Grenadiers; "but in that case why not send out his own company?"
"Because the colonel prefers trusting to cooler heads and more experienced arms," good humoredly observed Captain Erskine. "Blessington is our senior, and his men are all old stagers. My lads, too, have had their mettle up already this morning, and there is nothing like that to prepare men for a dash of enterprise. It is with them as with blood horses, the more you put them on their speed the less anxious are they to quit the course. Well, Johnstone, my brave Scot, ready for another
skirmish?" he asked, as that officer now entered to satisfy the cravings of an appetite little inferior to that of his captain.
"With 'nunquam non paratus' for my motto," gaily returned the young man, "it were odd, indeed, if a mere scratch like this should prevent me from establishing my claim to it by following wherever my gallant captain leads."
"Most courteously spoken, and little in the spirit of a man yet smarting under the infliction of a rifle wound, it must be confessed," remarked Lieutenant Leslie. "But, Johnstone, you should bear in mind a too close adherence to that motto has been in some degree fatal to your family."
"No reflections, Leslie, if you please," returned his brother subaltern, slightly reddening. "If the head of our family was unfortunate enough to be considered a traitor to England, he was not so, at least to Scotland; and Scotland was the land of his birth. But let his political errors be forgotten. Though the winged spur no longer adorn the booted heel of an earl of Annandale, the time may not be far distant when some liberal and popular monarch of England shall restore a title forfeited neither through cowardice nor dishonor but from an erroneous sense of duty."
"That is to say," muttered Ensign Delme, looking round for an approval as he spoke, "that our present king is neither liberal nor popular. Well, Mr. Johnstone, were such an observation to reach the ears of Colonel De Haldimar, you would stand a very fair chance of being brought to a court-martial."
"That is to say nothing of the kind, sir," somewhat fiercely retorted the young Scot; "but anything I do say you are at liberty to repeat to Colonel De Haldimar, or whom you will. I cannot understand, Leslie, why you should have made any allusion to the misfortunes of my family at this particular moment, and in this public manner. I trust it was not with a view to offend me;" and
he fixed his large black eyes upon his brother subaltern, as if he would have read every thought of his mind.
"Upon my honor, Johnstone, I meant nothing of the kind," frankly returned Leslie. "I merely meant to hint that as you had had your share of service this morning, you might, at least, have suffered me to borrow your spurs while you reposed for the present on your laurels."
"There are my gay and gallant Scots!" exclaimed Captain Erskine, as he swallowed off a glass of the old Jamaica which stood before him, and with which he usually neutralized the acidities of a meat breakfast. "Settled like gentlemen and lads of spirit, as ye are," he pursued, as the young men cordially shook each other's hand across the table. "What an enviable command is mine, to have a company of brave fellows who would face the devil himself were it necessary, and two hot and impatient subs, who are ready to cut each other's throat for the pleasure of accompanying me against a set of savages that are little better than so many devils. Come, Johnstone, you know the colonel allows us but one sub at a time, in consequence of our scarcity of officers, therefore it is but fair Leslie should have his turn. It will not be long, I dare say, before we shall have another brush with the rascals."
"In my opinion," observed Captain Blessington, who had been a silent and thoughtful witness of what was passing around him, "neither Leslie nor Johnstone would evince so much anxiety were they aware of the true nature of the duty for which our companies have been ordered. Depend upon it, it is no search after Captain De Haldimar in which we are about to be engaged; for much as the colonel loves his son, he would on no account compromise the safety of the garrison by sending a party into the forest, where poor De Haldimar, if alive, is at all likely to be found."
"Faith, you are right, Blessington; the governor is not one to run these sort of risks on every occasion. My chief surprise, indeed, is that he suffered me to venture
even upon the common; but if we are not designed for some hostile expedition, why leave the fort at all?"
"The question will need no answer if Halloway be found to accompany us."
"Pshaw! why should Halloway be taken out for the purpose? If he be shot at all he will be shot on the ramparts, in the presence of, and as an example to, the whole garrison. Still, on reflection, I cannot but think it impossible the sentence should be carried into full effect, after the strong, nay, the almost unprecedented recommendation to mercy recorded on the face of the proceedings."
Captain Blessington shook his head despondingly. "What think you, Erskine, of the policy of making an example which may be witnessed by the enemy as well as the garrison? It is evident, from his demeanor throughout, nothing will convince the colonel that Halloway is not a traitor, and he may think it advisable to strike terror into the minds of the savages by an execution which will have the effect of showing the treason of the soldier to have been discovered."
In this opinion many of the officers now concurred; and as the fate of the unfortunate Halloway began to assume a character of almost certainty, even the spirit of the gallant Erskine, the least subdued by the recent distressing events, was overclouded; and all sank, as if by one consent, into silent communion with their thoughts, as they almost mechanically completed the meal at which habit rather than appetite still continued them. Before any of them had yet risen from the table, a loud and piercing scream met their ears from without; and so quick and universal was the movement it produced, that its echo had scarcely yet died away in distance when the whole of the breakfast party had issued from the room and were already spectators of the cause.
As the officers now passed from the mess-room nearly opposite to the gate they observed, at that part of the barracks which ran at right angles with it, and immediately in front of the apartment of the younger De Haldimar, whence he had apparently just issued, the governor, struggling, though gently, to disengage himself from a female, who, with disordered hair and dress, lay almost prostrate upon the piazza, and clasping his booted leg with an energy evidently borrowed from the most rooted despair. The quick eye of the haughty man had already rested on the group of officers drawn by the scream of the supplicant. Numbers, too, of the men, attracted by the same cause, were collected in front of their respective block-houses, and looking from the windows of the rooms in which they were also breakfasting preparatory to the expedition. Vexed and irritated beyond measure at being thus made a conspicuous object of observation to his inferiors, the unbending governor made a violent and successful effort to disengage his leg; and then, without uttering a word, or otherwise noticing the unhappy being who lay extended at his feet, he stalked across the parade to his apartments at the opposite angle, without appearing to manifest the slightest consciousness of the scene that had awakened such universal attention.
Several of the officers, among whom was Captain Blessington, now hastened to the assistance of the female, whom all had recognized, from the first, to be the interesting and unhappy wife of Halloway. Many of the comrades of the latter, who had been pained and pitying spectators of the scene, also advanced for the same purpose; but, on perceiving their object anticipated by their superiors, they withdrew to the block-houses whence they had issued. Never was grief more forcibly depicted than in the whole appearance of this unfortunate woman; never did anguish assume a character more fitted to touch the soul or to command respect. Her long fair hair, that had hitherto been hid under the coarse mob cap usually worn by the wives of the soldiers, was now divested of all fastening, and lay shadowing a white and polished bosom, which, in her violent struggles to detain the governor, had burst from its rude but modest confinement, and was now displayed in all the dazzling delicacy of youth and sex. If the officers gazed for a moment
with excited look upon charms that had long been strangers to their sight, and of an order they little deemed to find in Ellen Halloway, it was but the involuntary tribute rendered by nature unto beauty. The depth and sacredness of that sorrow which had left the wretched woman unconscious of her exposure in the instant afterwards imposed a check upon admiration, which each felt to be a violation of the first principles of human delicacy, and the feeling was repressed almost in the moment that gave it birth.
They were immediately in front of the room occupied by Charles De Haldimar, in the piazza of which were a few old chairs, on which the officers were in the habit of throwing themselves during the heat of the day. On one of these Captain Blessington, assisted by the officer of Grenadiers, now seated the suffering and sobbing wife of Halloway. His first care was to repair the disorder of her dress; and never was the office performed by man with greater delicacy, or absence of levity by those who witnessed it. This was the first moment of her consciousness. The inviolability of modesty for a moment rose paramount even to the desolation of her heart, and putting rudely aside the hand that reposed unavoidably upon her person, the poor woman started from her seat and looked wildly about her, as if endeavoring to identify those by whom she was surrounded. But when she observed the pitying gaze of the officers fixed upon her in earnestness and commiseration, and heard the benevolent accents of the ever kind Blessington exhorting her to composure, her weeping became more violent and her sobs more convulsive. Captain Blessington threw an arm round her waist to prevent her from falling, and then motioning to two or three women of the company to which her husband was attached, who stood at a little distance in front of one of the block-houses, prepared to deliver her over to their charge.
"No, no, not yet!" burst at length from the agonized woman, as she shrank from the rude but well-intentioned touch of the sympathizing assistants, who had promptly
answered the signal; then, as if obeying some new direction of her feelings, some new impulse of her grief, she liberated herself from the slight grasp of Captain Blessington, turned suddenly round, and, before anyone could anticipate the movement, entered an opening on the piazza, raised the latch of a door situated at its extremity, and was, in the next instant, in the apartment of the younger De Haldimar.
The scene that met the eyes of the officers, who now followed close after her, was one well calculated to make an impression on the hearts even of the most insensible. In the despair and recklessness of her extreme sorrow, the young wife of Halloway had already thrown herself upon her knees at the bedside of the sick officer, and with her hands upraised and firmly clasped together was now supplicating him in tones contrasting singularly in their gentleness with the depth of the sorrow that had rendered her thus regardless of appearances and insensible to observation.
"Oh, Mr. De Haldimar!" she implored, "in the name of God and of our blessed Saviour, if you would save me from madness, intercede for my unhappy husband and preserve him from the horrid fate that awaits him. You are too good, too gentle, too amiable, to reject the prayer of a heart-broken woman. Moreover, Mr. De Haldimar," she proceeded, with deeper energy, while she caught and pressed between her own white and bloodless hands one nearly as delicate that lay extended near her, "consider all my dear but unfortunate husband has done for your family. Think of the blood he once spilt in the defence of your brother's life; that brother, through whom alone, oh, God! he is now condemned to die. Call to mind the days and nights of anguish I passed near his couch of suffering, when yet writhing beneath the wound aimed at the life of Captain De Haldimar. Almighty Providence!" she pursued, in the same impassioned yet plaintive voice, "why is not Miss Clara here to plead the cause of the innocent, and to touch the stubborn heart of her merciless father? She would, indeed, move heaven
and earth to save the life of him to whom she so often vowed eternal gratitude and acknowledgment. Ah, she little dreams of his danger now; or, if prayer and intercession could avail, my husband would yet live, and this terrible struggle at my heart would be no more."
Overcome by her emotion, the unfortunate woman suffered her aching head to droop upon the edge of the bed, and her sobbing became so painfully violent that all who heard her expected at every moment some fatal termination to her immoderate grief. Charles De Haldimar was little less affected, and his sorrow was the more bitter as he had just proved the utter inefficacy of anything in the shape of appeal to his inflexible father.
"Mrs. Halloway, my dear Mrs. Halloway, compose yourself," said Captain Blessington, now approaching, and endeavoring to raise her gently from the floor, on which she still knelt, while her hands even more firmly grasped that of De Haldimar. "You are ill, very ill, and the consequence of this dreadful excitement may be fatal. Be advised by me, and retire. I have desired my room to be prepared for you, and Sergeant Wilmot's wife shall remain with you as long as you may require it."
"No, no, no!" she again exclaimed with energy, "what care I for my own wretched life—my beloved and unhappy husband is to die. Oh, God! to die without guilt—to be cut off in his youth—to be shot as a traitor—and that simply for obeying the wishes of the officer whom he loved!—the son of the man who now spurns all supplication from his presence. It is inhuman, it is unjust, and heaven will punish the hard-hearted man who murders him—yes, murders him! for such a punishment for such an offence is nothing less than murder." Again she wept bitterly, and as Captain Blessington still essayed to soothe and raise her: "No, no! I will not leave this spot," she continued; "I will not quit the side of Mr. De Haldimar until he pledges himself to intercede for my poor husband. It is his duty to save the life of him who saved his brother's life; and God and human justice are with my appeal. Oh, tell me, then, Mr. De Haldimar, if you
would save my wretched heart from breaking—tell me you will intercede for and obtain the pardon of my husband!"
As she concluded this last sentence in passionate appeal she had risen from her knees, and conscious only of the importance of the boon solicited, now threw herself upon the breast of the highly pained and agitated young officer. Her long and beautiful hair fell floating over his face and mingled with his own, while her arms were wildly clasped around him in all the energy of frantic and hopeless adjuration.
"Almighty God!" exclaimed the agitated young man, as he made a feeble and fruitless effort to raise the form of the unhappy woman; "what shall I say to impart a comfort to this suffering being? Oh, Mrs. Halloway," he pursued, "I would willingly give all I possess in this world to be the means of saving your unfortunate husband—and as much for his own sake as for yours would I do this; but, alas! I have not the power. Do not think I speak without conviction. My father has just been with me and I have pleaded the cause of your husband with an earnestness I should scarcely have used had my own life been at stake. But all my entreaties have been in vain. He is obstinate in the belief my brother's strange absence and Donellan's death are attributable only to the treason of Halloway. Still, there is a hope. A detachment is to leave the fort within the hour, and Halloway is to accompany them. It may be my father intends this measure only with a view to terrify him to a confession of guilt and that he deems it politic to make him undergo all the fearful preliminaries without carrying the sentence itself into effect."
The unfortunate woman said no more. When she raised her heaving chest from that of the young officer, her eyes, though red and shrunk to half their usual size with weeping, were tearless; but on her countenance there was an expression of wild woe infinitely more distressing to behold, in consequence of the almost unnatural check so suddenly imposed upon her feelings. She tottered rather than walked through the group of officers, who gave way on either hand to let her pass, and rejecting all assistance from the women who had followed into the room and who now, in obedience to another signal from Captain Blessington, hastened to her support, finally gained the door and quitted the apartment.
CHAPTER VIII.
The sun was high in the meridian as the second detachment, commanded by Colonel De Haldimar in person, issued from the fort of Detroit. It was that soft and hazy season, peculiar to the bland and beautiful autumn of Canada, when the golden light of heaven seems as if transmitted through a veil of tissue, and all of animate and inanimate nature, expanding and fructifying beneath its fostering influence, breathes the most delicious languor and voluptuous repose. It was one of those still, calm, warm, and genial days which in those regions come under the vulgar designation of the Indian summer, a season that is ever hailed by the Canadian with a satisfaction proportioned to the extreme sultriness of the summer and the equally oppressive rigor of the winter by which it is immediately preceded and followed.
Such a day as that we have just described was the —— September, 1763, when the chief portion of the English garrison of Detroit issued forth from the fortifications in which they had so long been cooped up, and in the presumed execution of a duty undeniably the most trying and painful that ever fell to the lot of soldier to perform. The detachment wended its slow and solemn course with a mournful pageantry of preparation that gave fearful earnest of the tragedy expected to be enacted.
In front, and dragged by the hands of the gunners, moved two of the three-pounders that had been
ordered for the duty. Behind these came Captain Blessington's company and in their rear the prisoner Halloway, divested of his uniform and clad in a white cotton jacket and a cap of the same material. Six rank and file of the Grenadiers followed, under the command of a corporal, and behind these again came eight men of the same company, four of whom bore on their shoulders a coffin, covered with a coarse black pall that had perhaps already assisted at fifty interments, while the other four carried, in addition to their own, the muskets of their burdened comrades. After these marched a solitary drummer-boy, whose tall bearskin cap attested him to be of the Grenadiers also, while the muffled instrument marked the duty for which he had been selected. Like his comrades, none of whom exhibited their scarlet uniforms, he wore the collar of his great coat closely buttoned beneath his chin, which was only partially visible above the stiff leathern stock that encircled his neck. Although his features were half buried in his huge cap and the high collar of his coat, there was an air of delicacy about his person that seemed to render him unsuited to such an office, and more than once was Captain Erskine, who followed immediately behind him at the head of his company, compelled to call sharply to the urchin, threatening him with a week's drill unless he mended his feeble and unequal pace and kept from under the feet of his men. The remaining gun brought up the rear of the detachment, who marched with fixed bayonets and two balls in each musket; the whole presenting a front of sections that completely filled up the road along which they passed. Colonel De Haldimar, Captain Wentworth, and the adjutant, Lawson, followed in the extreme rear.
An event so singular as that of the appearance of the English without their fort, beset as they were by a host of fierce and dangerous enemies, was not likely to pass unnoticed by a single individual in the little village of Detroit. We have already observed that most of the colonist settlers had been cruelly massacred at the very onset of hostilities. Not so, however, with the Canadians,* who, from their anterior relations with the natives and the mutual and tacit good understanding that subsisted between both parties, were suffered to continue in quiet and unmolested possession of their homes, where they preserved an avowed neutrality, never otherwise infringed than by the assistance secretly and occasionally rendered to the English troops, whose gold they were glad to receive in exchange for the necessaries of life.
Every dwelling of the infant town had commenced giving up its tenants from the moment when the head of the detachment was seen traversing the drawbridge, so that by the time it reached the highway and took its direction to the left the whole population of Detroit were already assembled in groups and giving expression to their several conjectures with a vivacity of language and energy of gesticulation that would not have disgraced the parent land itself. As the troops drew nearer, however, they all sank at once into a silence as much the result of certain unacknowledged and undefined fears as of the respect the English had ever been accustomed to exact.
At the further extremity of the town, and at a bend in the road which branched off more immediately towards the river, stood a public house, whose creaking sign bore three ill-executed fleur-de-lis, apologetic emblems of the arms of France. The building itself was little more than a rude log hut, along the front of which ran a plank, supported by two stumps of trees, and serving as a temporary accommodation both for the traveller and the inmate. On this bench three persons, apparently attracted by the beauty of the day and the mildness of the autumnal sun, were now seated, two of whom were leisurely puffing their pipes, while the third, a female, was employed in carding wool, a quantity of which lay in a basket at her feet, while she warbled in a low tone one of the simple airs of her native land. The elder of the two men, whose age might be about fifty, offered nothing remarkable in his appearance; he was dressed in a coat made of the
* The term "Canadian" as used by the author denotes—as the name originally did—the descendants of French settlers in Canada.
common white blanket, while his hair, cut square upon the forehead, and tied into a club of nearly a foot long, fell into the cape or hood attached to it.
His companion was habited in still a more extraordinary manner. His lower limbs were cased up to the mid-thigh in leathern leggings, the seam of which was on the outside, leaving a margin or border of about an inch wide, which had been slit into innumerable small fringes, giving them an air of elegance and lightness; a garter of leather, curiously wrought with the stained quills of the porcupine, encircled each leg immediately under the knee, where it was tied in a bow and then suffered to hang pendant half way down the limb; to the fringes of the leggings, moreover, were attached numerous dark-colored horny substances, emitting, as they rattled against each other at the slightest movement of the wearer, a tinkling sound resembling that produced by a number of small thin delicate brass bells; these were the tender hoofs of the wild deer, dried, scraped and otherwise prepared for this ornamental purpose.
The form and face of this individual were in perfect keeping with the style of his costume and the character of his equipment. His stature was beyond that of the ordinary race of men, and his athletic and muscular limbs united the extremes of strength and activity. His features, marked and prominent, wore a cast of habitual thought, strangely tinctured with ferocity, and the expression of his otherwise not unhandsome countenance was repellant and disdainful. At the first glance he might have been taken for one of the swarthy natives of the soil, but though time and constant exposure to scorching suns had given to his complexion a dusky hue, still there was wanting the quick, black, penetrating eye, the high cheek bone, the straight, coarse, shining black hair, the small bony hand and foot, and the placidly proud and serious air by which the former are distinguished: His own eye was of a deep bluish gray, his hair short, dark and wavy, his hands large and muscular, and so far from exhibiting any of the self-command of the Indian,
the constant play of his features betrayed each passing thought with the same rapidity with which it was conceived. But if any doubt could have existed in the mind of him who beheld this strangely accoutred figure, it would have been instantly dispelled by a glance at his limbs. From his leggings to the hip that portion of the lower limb was completely bare, and disclosed, at each movement of the garment that was suffered to fall loosely over it, not the swarthy and copper-colored flesh of the Indian, but the pale though sunburnt skin of one of a more temperate clime. His age might be about forty-five.
At the moment when the English detachment approached the bend in the road, these two individuals were conversing earnestly together, pausing only to puff at intervals thick and wreathing volumes of smoke from their pipes, which were filled with a mixture of tobacco and odoriferous herbs. Presently, however, sounds that appeared familiar to his ear arrested the attention of the wildly accoutred being we have last described. It was the heavy roll of the artillery carriages already advancing along the road, and somewhat in the rear of the hut. To dash his pipe to the ground, seize and cock and raise his rifle to his shoulder, was but the work of a moment. Startled by the suddenness of the action, his male companion moved a few paces also from his seat to discover the cause of this singular movement. The female, on the contrary, stirred not, but ceasing for a moment the occupation in which she had been engaged, fixed her dark and brilliant eyes upon the tall form of the rifleman, whose athletic limbs, thrown into powerful relief by the distention of each nerve and muscle, appeared to engross her whole admiration and interest, without any reference to the cause that had produced this abrupt and hostile change in his movements. It was evident that, unlike the other inhabitants of the town, this group had been taken by surprise, and were utterly unprepared to expect anything in the shape of interruption.
For upwards of a minute, during which the march of the men became audible even to the ears of the female, the
formidable warrior, for such his garb denoted him to be, continued motionless in the attitude he had at first assumed. No sooner, however, had the head of the advancing column come within sight, than the aim was taken, the trigger pulled, and the small and ragged bullet sped hissing from the grooved and delicate barrel. A triumphant cry was next pealed from the lips of the warrior—a cry produced by the quickly repeated application and removal of one hand to and from the mouth, while the other suffered the butt-end of the now harmless weapon to fall loosely upon the earth. He then slowly and deliberately withdrew within the cover of the hut.
This daring action, which had been viewed by the leading troops with astonishment not unmixed with alarm, occasioned a temporary confusion in the ranks, for all believed they had fallen into an ambuscade of the Indians. A halt was instantly commanded by Captain Blessington, in order to give time to the governor to come up from the rear, while he proceeded with one of the leading sections to reconnoitre the front of the hut. To his surprise, however, he found neither enemy nor evidence that an enemy had been there. The only individuals visible were the Canadian and the dark-eyed female. Both were seated on the bench, the one smoking his pipe with a well-assumed appearance of unconcern, the other carding her wool, but with a hand that by a close observer might be seen to tremble in its office, and a cheek that was paler than at the moment when we first placed her before the imagination of the reader. Both, however, started with unaffected surprise on seeing Captain Blessington and his little force turn the corner of the house from the main road, and certain looks of recognition passed between all parties that proved them to be no strangers to each other.
"Ah, monsieur," said the Canadian, in a mingled dialect, neither French nor English, while he attempted an ease and freedom of manner that was too miserably affected to pass current with the mild but observant officer whom he addressed, "how much surprise I am and glad to see you. It is a long times since you came out of de
fort. I hope de gouverneur and de officer be all very well. I was tinking to go to-day to see if you want anyting. I have got some nice rum of the Jamaique for Capitaine Erskine. Will you please to try some?" While speaking, the voluble host of the Fleur de Lis had risen from his seat, laid aside his pipe, and now stood with his hands thrust into the pockets of his blanket coat.
"It is indeed a long time since we have been here, Master Francois," somewhat sarcastically and dryly replied Captain Blessington; "and you have not visited us quite so often latterly yourself, though well aware we were in want of fresh provisions. I give you all due credit, however, for your intention of coming to-day, but you see we have anticipated you. Still this is not the point. Where is the Indian who fired at us just now? and how is it we find you leagued with our enemies?"
"What, sir, is it you say?" asked the Canadian, holding up his hands with feigned astonishment. "Me league myself with de savage? Upon my honor I did not see nobody fire, or I should tell you. I love de English too well to do dem harms."
"Come, come, Francois, no nonsense. If I cannot make you confess, there is one not far from me who will. You know Colonel De Haldimar too well to imagine he will be trifled with in this manner; if he detects you in a falsehood, he will certainly cause you to be hanged up at the first tree. Take my advice, therefore, and say where you have secreted this Indian; and recollect, if we fall into an ambuscade, your life will be forfeited at the first shot we hear fired."
At this moment the governor, followed by his adjutant, came rapidly up to the spot. Captain Blessington communicated the ill success of his queries, when the former cast on the terrified Canadian one of those severe and searching looks which he so well knew how to assume.
"Where is the rascal who fired at us, sirrah? tell me instantly or you have not five minutes to live."
The heart of mine host of the Fleur de Lis quailed within him at this formidable threat, and the usually ruddy
hue of his countenance had now given place to an ashy paleness. Still, as he had positively denied all knowledge of the matter on which he was questioned, he appeared to feel his safety lay in adhering to his original statement. Again, therefore, he assured the governor on his honor (laying his hand upon his heart as he spoke) that what he had already stated was the fact.
"Your honor, you pitiful trading scoundrel; how dare you talk to me of your honor? Come, sir, confess at once where you have secreted this fellow or prepare to die."
"If I may be so bold, your honor," said one of Captain Blessington's men, "the Frenchman lies. When the Ingin fired among us, this fellow was peeping under his shoulder and watching us also. If I had not seen him too often at the fort to be mistaken in his person, I should have known him, at all events, by his blanket coat and red handkerchief."
This blunt statement of the soldier, confirmed as it was the instant afterwards by one of his comrades, was damning proof against the Canadian, even if the fact of the rifle being discharged from the front of the hut had not already satisfied all parties of the falsehood of his assertion.
"Come forward, a couple of files, and seize this villain," resumed the governor, with his wonted sternness of manner. "Mr. Lawson, see if his hut does not afford a rope strong enough to hang the traitor to one of his own apple trees."
Both parties proceeded at the same moment to execute the two distinct orders of their chief. The Canadian was now firmly secured in the grasp of the two men who had given evidence against him, when, seeing all the horror of the dreadful fate that awaited him, he confessed the individual who had fired had been sitting with him the instant previously, but that he knew no more of him than of any other savage occasionally calling at the Fleur de Lis. He added, that on discharging the rifle he had bounded across the palings of the orchard and fled in the
direction of the forest. He denied all knowledge or belief of an enemy waiting in ambush; stating, moreover, even the individual in question had not been aware of the sortie of the detachment until apprised of their near approach by the heavy sound of the gun carriages.
"Here are undeniable proofs of the man's villany, sir," said the adjutant, returning from the hut and exhibiting objects of new and fearful interest to the governor. "This hat and rope I found secreted in one of the bedrooms of the auberge. The first is evidently Donellan's, and from the hook attached to the latter I apprehend it to be the same stated to have been used by Captain De Haldimar in crossing the ditch."
The governor took the hat and rope from the hands of his subordinate, examined them attentively, and after a few moments of deep musing, during which his countenance underwent several rapid though scarcely perceptible changes, turned suddenly and eagerly to the soldier who had first convicted the Canadian in his falsehood, and demanded if he had seen enough of the man who had fired to be able to give even a general description of his person.
"Why, yes, your honor, I think I can; for the fellow stood long enough after firing his piece for a painter to have taken him off from head to foot. He was a taller and larger man by far than our biggest Grenadier, and that is poor Harry Donellan, as your honor knows. But as for his dress, though I could see it all, I scarcely can tell how to describe it. All I know is, he was covered with smoked deerskin in some such fashion as the great chief Pontiac, only instead of having his head bare and shaved he wore a strange outlandish sort of a hat, covered over with wild birds' feathers in front."
"Enough," interrupted the governor, motioning the man to silence; then, in an undertone to himself: "By heaven, the very same." A shade of disappointment and suppressed alarm passed rapidly across his brow; it was but momentary. "Captain Blessington," he ordered quickly and impatiently, "search the hut and grounds for this lurking Indian, who is, no doubt, secreted in the
neighborhood. Quick, quick, sir; there is no time to be lost." Then, in an intimidating tone to the Canadian, who had already dropped on his knees, supplicating mercy and vociferating his innocence in the same breath: "So, you infernal scoundrel, this is the manner in which you have repaid our confidence. Where is my son, sir? Or have you already murdered him, as you did his servant? Tell me, you villain, what have you to say to these proofs of your treachery? But stay, I shall take another and fitter opportunity to question you. Mr. Lawson, secure this traitor properly, and let him be conveyed to the centre of the detachment."
This mandate was promptly obeyed; and in despite of his own unceasing prayers and protestations of innocence, and the tears and entreaties of his dark-eyed daughter Babette, who had thrown herself on her knees at his side, the stout arms of mine host of the Fleur de Lis were soon firmly secured behind his back with the strong rope that had been found under such suspicious circumstances in his possession. Before he was marched off, however, two of the men who had been sent in pursuit returned from the orchard, stating that further search was now fruitless. They had penetrated through a small thicket at the extremity of the grounds, and had distinctly seen a man answering the description given by their comrades in full flight towards the forest skirting the heights in front.
The governor was evidently far from being satisfied with the result of a search too late instituted to leave even a prospect of success. "Where are the Indians principally encamped, sirrah?" he sternly demanded of his captive; "answer me truly, or I will carry off this wench as well, and if a single hair of a man of mine be even singed by a shot from a skulking enemy, you may expect to see her bayoneted before your eyes."
"Ah, my God! Monsieur le Gouverneur," exclaimed the affrighted aubergiste, "as I am an honest man, I shall tell de truth, but spare my child. They are all in
de forest, and half a mile from de little river dat runs between dis and the Pork Island."
"Hog Island, I suppose you mean."
"Yes sir, de Hog Island is de one I means."
"Conduct him to the centre, and let him be confronted with the prisoner," directed the governor, addressing his adjutant; "Captain Blessington, your men may resume their stations in the ranks." The order was obeyed; and notwithstanding the tears and supplications of the now highly excited Babette, who flung herself upon his neck, and was only removed by force, the terrified Canadian was borne off from his premises by the troops.
CHAPTER IX.
WHILE this scene was enacting in front of the Fleur de Lis, one of a far more touching and painful nature was passing in the very heart of the detachment itself. At the moment when the halt was ordered by Captain Blessington a rumor ran through the ranks that they had reached the spot destined for the execution of their ill-fated comrade. Those only in the immediate front were aware of the true cause; but although the report of the rifle had been distinctly heard by all, it had been attributed by those in the rear to the accidental discharge of one of their own muskets. A low murmur, expressive of the opinion generally entertained, passed gradually from rear to front, until it at length reached the ears of the delicate drummer-boy who marched behind the coffin. His face was still buried in the collar of his coat, and what was left uncovered of his features by the cap was in some degree hidden by the forward drooping of his head upon his chest. Hitherto he had moved almost mechanically along, tottering and embarrassing himself at every step under the cumbrous drum that was suspended from a belt around his neck over the left thigh, but now there was a certain indescribable drawing up of the frame and tension of the whole person, denoting a concentration of all the moral and physical energies—a sudden working up, as it were, of the intellectual and corporeal being to some determined and momentous purpose.
At the first halt of the detachment the weary supporters of the coffin had deposited their rude and sombre burden upon the earth, preparatory to its being resumed
by those appointed to relieve them. The dull sound emitted by the hollow fabric as it touched the ground caught the ear of him for whom it was destined, and he turned to gaze upon the sad and lonely tenement so shortly to become his final resting place. There was an air of calm composure and dignified sorrow upon his brow that infused respect into the hearts of all who beheld him, and even the men selected to do the duty of executioners sought to evade his glance as his steady eye wandered from right to left of the fatal rank. His attention, however, was principally directed towards the coffin which lay before him; on this he gazed fixedly for upwards of a minute. He then turned his eyes in the direction of the fort, shuddered, heaved a profound sigh, and looking up to heaven with the apparent fervor that became his situation, seemed to pray for a moment or two inwardly and devoutly. The thick and almost suffocating breathing of one immediately beyond the coffin was now distinctly heard by all. Halloway started from his attitude of devotion, gazed earnestly on the form whence it proceeded, and then wildly extending his arms, suffered a smile of satisfaction to illumine his pale features. All eyes were now turned upon the drummer boy, who, evidently laboring under convulsive excitement of feeling, suddenly dashed his cap and instrument to the earth, and flew as fast as his tottering and uncertain steps would admit across the coffin and into the arms extended to receive him.
"My Ellen! oh, my own devoted but too unhappy Ellen!" passionately exclaimed the soldier, as he clasped the slight and agitated form of his disguised wife to his throbbing heart. "This, this, indeed, is joy even in death. I thought I could have died more happily without you, but nature tugs powerfully at my heart; and to see you once more, to feel you once more here" (and he pressed her wildly to his breast), "is indeed a bliss that robs my approaching fate of half its terror."
"Oh, Reginald! my dearly beloved Reginald! my murdered husband!" cried the unhappy woman; "your Ellen
will not survive you. Her heart is already broken, though she cannot weep; but the same grave shall contain us both. Reginald, do you believe me? I swear it; the same grave shall contain us both."
Exhausted with the fatigue and excitement she had undergone, the faithful and affectionate creature now lay without sense or motion in the arms of her wretched husband. Halloway bore her, unopposed, a pace or two in advance and deposited her unconscious form on the fatal coffin.
No language of ours can render justice to the trying character of the scene. All who witnessed it were painfully affected, and over the bronzed cheek of many a veteran coursed a tear which, like that of Sterne's recording angel, might have blotted out a catalogue of sins. Although each was prepared to expect a reprimand from the governor for suffering the prisoner to quit his station in the ranks, humanity and nature pleaded too powerfully in his behalf, and neither officer nor man attempted to interfere, unless with a view to render assistance. Captain Erskine, in particular, was deeply pained, and would have given anything to recall the harsh language he had used towards the supposed idle and inattentive drummer boy. Taking from a pocket in his uniform a small flask of brandy, which he had provided against casualties, the compassionating officer slightly raised the head of the pale and unconscious woman with one hand, while with the other he introduced a few drops between her parted lips. Halloway knelt at the opposite side of the coffin, one hand searching, but in vain, the suspended pulse of his inanimate wife; the other unbuttoning the breast of the drummer-boy's jacket, which, with every other part of the equipment, she wore beneath the loose great-coat so effectually accomplishing her disguise.
Such was the position of the chief actors in this truly distressing drama at the moment when Colonel De Haldimar came up with his new prisoner to mark what effect would be produced on Halloway by his unexpected appearance. His own surprise and disappointment may be
easily conceived when, in the form of the recumbent being who seemed to engross universal attention, he recognized by the fair and streaming hair and half exposed bosom the unfortunate being whom, only two hours previously, he had spurned from his feet in the costume of her own sex, and reduced, by the violence of her grief, to almost infantine debility. Question succeeded question to those around, but without eliciting any clue to the means by which this mysterious disguise had been effected. No one had been aware, until the truth was so singularly and suddenly revealed, the supposed drummer was any other than one of the lads attached to the Grenadiers; and as for the other facts, they spoke too plainly to the comprehension of the governor to need explanation.
Once more, however, the detachment was called to order. Halloway struck his hand violently upon his brow, kissed the wan lips of his still unconscious wife, breathing, as he did so, a half murmured hope she might indeed be the corpse she appeared. He then raised himself from the earth with a light and elastic yet firm movement, and resumed the place he had previously occupied, where, to his surprise, he beheld a second victim, bound, and apparently devoted to the same death. When the eyes of the two unhappy men met, the governor closely watched the expression of the countenance of each, but although the Canadian started on beholding the soldier, it might be merely because he saw the latter arrayed in the garb of death and followed by the most unequivocal demonstration of a doom to which he himself was in all probability devoted. As for Halloway, his look betrayed neither consciousness nor recognition, and though too proud to express complaint or to give vent to the feelings of his heart, his whole soul seemed to be absorbed in the unhappy partner of his luckless destiny. Presently he saw her borne, and in the same state of insensibility, in the arms of Captain Erskine and Lieutenant Leslie, towards the hut of his fellow prisoner, and he heard the former officer enjoin the weeping girl Babette, to whose
charge they delivered her over, to pay every attention to her her situation might require. The detachment then proceeded.
The narrow but deep and rapid river alluded to by the Canadian as running midway between the town and Hog Island, derived its source far within the forest, and formed the bed of one of those wild, dark, and thickly wooded ravines so common in America. As it neared the Detroit, however, the abruptness of its banks was so considerably lessened as to render the approach to it on the town side over an almost imperceptible slope. Within a few yards of its mouth, as we have already observed, a rude but strong wooden bridge, over which lay the high road, had been constructed by the French; and from the centre of this all the circuit of intermediate clearing, even to the very skirt of the forest, was distinctly commanded by the naked eye.
To the right, on approaching from the town, lay the adjacent shores of Canada, washed by the broad waters of the Detroit, on which it was thrown into strong relief, and which, at the distance of about a mile in front, was seen to diverge into two distinct channels, pursuing each a separate course until they again met at the western extremity of Hog Island. On the left and in the front rose a succession of slightly undulating hills, which at a distance of little more than half a mile terminated in an elevation considerably above the immediate level of the Detroit side of the ravine. That again was crowned with thick and overhanging forest, taking its circular sweep around the fort. The intermediate ground was studded over with rude stumps of trees, and bore in various directions distinct proofs of the spoliation wrought among the infant possessions of the murdered English settlers. The view to the rear was less open, the town being partially hidden by the fruit-laden orchards that lined the intervening high road and hung principally on its left. This was not the case with the fort. Between these orchards and the distant forest lay a line of open country, fully commanded by its cannon, even to the
ravine we have described, and in a sweep that embraced everything from the bridge itself to the forest in which all trace of its source was lost.
When the detachment had arrived within twenty yards of the bridge, they were made to file off to the left until the last gun had come up. They were then fronted, the rear section of Captain Erskine's company resting on the road, and the left flank, covered by the two first guns, pointed obliquely, both in front and rear, to guard against surprise in the event of any of the Indians stealing round to the cover of the orchards. The route by which they had approached this spot was upwards of two miles in extent, but as they now filed off into the open ground the leading sections observed, in a direct line over the cleared country, and at a distance of little more than three-quarters of a mile, the dark ramparts of the fortress that contained their comrades, and could even distinguish the uniforms of the officers and men drawn up in line along the works, where they were evidently assembled to witness the execution of the sentence on Halloway.
Such a sight as that of the English so far from their fort was not likely to escape the notice of the Indians. Their encampment, as the Canadian had truly stated, lay within the forest, and beyond the elevated ground already alluded to; and to have crossed the ravine, or ventured out of reach of the cannon of the fort, would have been to seal the destruction of the detachment. But the officer to whom their security was entrusted, although he had his own particular views for venturing thus far, knew also at what point to stop; and such was the confidence of his men in his skill and prudence, they would have fearlessly followed wherever he might have chosen to lead. Still, even amid all the solemnity of preparation attendant on the duty they were out to perform, there was a natural and secret apprehensiveness about each that caused him to cast his eyes frequently and fixedly on that part of the forest which was known to afford cover to their merciless foes. At times they fancied they beheld
the dark and flitting forms of men gliding from tree to tree along the skirt of the wood, but when they gazed again nothing of the kind was to be seen, and the illusion was at once ascribed to the heavy state of the atmosphere and the action of their own precautionary instincts.
Meanwhile the solemn tragedy of death was preparing in mournful silence. On the centre of the bridge, and visible to those even within the fort, was placed the coffin of Halloway, and at twelve paces in front were drawn up the six rank and file on whom had devolved by lot the cruel duty of the day. With calm and fearless eye the prisoner surveyed the preparations for his approaching end; and whatever might be the inward workings of his mind, there was not among the assembled soldiery one individual whose countenance betrayed so little of sorrow and emotion as his own. With a firm step, when summoned, he moved towards the fatal coffin, dashing his cap to the earth as he advanced and baring his chest with the characteristic contempt of death of the soldier. When he had reached the centre of the bridge, he turned facing his comrades and knelt upon the coffin. Captain Blessington, who, permitted by the governor, had followed him with a sad heart and heavy step, now drew a prayer-book from his pocket and read from it in a low voice. He then closed the volume, listened to something the prisoner earnestly communicated to him, received a small packet which he drew from the bosom of his shirt, shook him long and cordially by the hand, and then hastily resumed his post at the head of the detachment.
The principal inhabitants of the village, led by curiosity, had followed at a distance to witness the execution of the condemned soldier, and above the heads of the line and crowning the slope were collected groups of both sexes and of all ages, that gave a still more imposing character to the scene. Every eye was now turned upon the firing party, who only awaited the signal to execute their melancholy office, when suddenly, in the direction of the forest, and upon the extreme height, there burst the tremendous and deafening yells of more than a thousand savages. For an instant Halloway was forgotten in the instinctive sense of individual danger, and all gazed eagerly to ascertain the movements of their enemy. Presently a man, naked to the waist, his body and face besmeared with streaks of black and red paint, and his whole attitude expressing despair and horror, was seen flying down the height with a rapidity proportioned to the extreme peril in which he stood. At about fifty paces in his rear followed a dozen bounding, screaming Indians, armed with uplifted tomahawks, whose anxiety in pursuit lent them a speed that even surpassed the efforts of flight itself. It was evident the object of the pursued was to reach the detachment, that of the pursuers to prevent him.
The struggle was maintained for a few moments with equality, but in the end the latter were triumphant, and at each step the distance that separated them became less. At the first alarm the detachment, with the exception of the firing party, who still occupied their ground, had been thrown into square, and with a gun planted in each angle, awaited the attack momentarily expected. But although the heights were now alive with the dusky forms of naked warriors, who from the skirt of the forest watched the exertions of their fellows, the pursuit of the wretched fugitive was confined to these alone. Foremost of the latter, and distinguished by his violent exertions and fiendish cries, was the tall and wildly attired warrior of the Fleur de Lis. At every bound he gained upon his victim. Already were they descending the nearest of the undulating hills, and both now became conspicuous to all around; but principally the pursuer, whose gigantic frame and extraordinary speed riveted every eye, even while the interest of all was excited for the wretched fugitive alone.
At that moment Halloway, who had been gazing on the scene with an astonishment little inferior to that of his comrades, sprang suddenly to his feet upon the coffin, and waving his hand in the direction of the pursuing
enemy, shouted aloud in a voice of mingled joy and triumph:
"Ha! Almighty God, I thank thee! Here, here comes one who alone has the power to snatch me from my impending doom."
"By heaven, the traitor confesses, and presumes to triumph in his guilt," exclaimed the voice of one who, while closely attending to every movement of the Indians, was also vigilantly watching the effect likely to be produced on the prisoner by this unexpected interruption.
"Corporal, do your duty."
"Stay, stay—one moment stay!" implored Halloway, with uplifted hands.
"Do your duty, sir," fiercely repeated the governor.
"Oh, stop—for God's sake, stop! Another moment and he will be here, and I—"
He said no more—a dozen bullets penetrated his body—one passed directly through his heart. He leaped several feet in the air, and then fell heavily, a lifeless, bleeding corpse, across the coffin.
Meanwhile the pursuit of the fugitive was continued, but by the warrior of the Fleur de Lis alone. Aware of their inefficiency to keep pace with this singular being, his companions had relinquished the chase, and now stood resting on the brow of the hill where the wretched Halloway had first recognized his supposed deliverer, watching eagerly, though within musket shot of the detachment, the result of a race on which so much apparently depended. Neither party, however, attempted to interfere with the other, for all eyes were now turned on the flying man and his pursuer with an interest that denoted the extraordinary efforts of the one to evade and the other to attain the accomplishment of his object. The immediate course taken was in a direct line for the ravine, which it evidently was the object of the fugitive to clear at its nearest point. Already had he approached within a few paces of its brink, and every eye was fastened on the point where it was expected the doubtful leap would be taken, when suddenly, as if despairing to accomplish it at
a bound, he turned to the left, and winding along its bank, renewed his efforts in the direction of the bridge. This movement occasioned a change in the position of the parties which was favorable to the pursued. Hitherto they had been so immediately on a line with each other, it was impossible for the detachment to bring a musket to bear upon the warrior without endangering him whose life they were anxious to preserve. For a moment or two his body was fairly exposed, and a dozen muskets were discharged at intervals from the square, but all without success. Recovering his lost ground, he soon brought the pursued again in a line between himself and the detachment, edging rapidly nearer to him as he advanced, and uttering terrific yells, that were echoed back from his companions on the brow of the hill. It was evident, however, his object was the recapture, not the destruction, of the flying man, for more than once did he brandish his menacing tomahawk in rapid sweeps around his head, as if preparing to hurl it, and as often did he check the movement.
The scene at each succeeding moment became more critical and intensely interesting. The strength of the pursued was now nearly exhausted, while that of his formidable enemy seemed to suffer no diminution. Leap after leap he took with fearful superiority, sideling as he advanced. Already had he closed upon his victim, while with a springing effort a large and bony hand was extended to secure his shoulder in his grasp. The effort was fatal to him, for in reaching too far he lost his balance and fell heavily upon the sward. A shout of exultation burst from the English troops, and numerous voices now encouraged the pursued to renew his exertions. The advice was not lost, and although only a few seconds had elapsed between the fall and recovery of his pursuer, the wretched fugitive had already greatly increased the distance that separated them. A cry of savage rage and disappointment burst from the lips of the gigantic warrior, and concentrating all his remaining strength and speed into one final effort, he bounded and leapt like a
deer of the forest whence he came. The opportunity for recapture, however, had been lost in his fall, for already the pursued was within a few feet of the high road and on the point of turning the extremity of the bridge. One only resource was now left. The warrior suddenly checked himself in his course and remained stationary; then, raising and dropping his glittering weapon several times in a balancing position, he waited until the pursued had gained the highest point of the open bridge. At that moment the glittering steel, aimed with singular accuracy and precision, flew whistling through the air, and with such velocity of movement as to be almost invisible to the eyes of those who attempted to follow it in its threatening course. All expected to see it enter into the brain against which it had been directed; but the fugitive had marked the movement in time to save himself by stooping low to the earth, while the weapon, passing over him, entered with a deadly and crashing sound into the brain of the weltering corpse. This danger passed, he sprang once more to his feet, nor paused again in his flight until, faint and exhausted, he sank without motion under the very bayonets of the firing party.
A new direction was now given to the interest of the assembled and distinct crowds that had witnessed these startling incidents. Scarcely had the wretched man gained the protection of the soldiery when a shriek divided the air, so wild, so piercing and so unearthly that even the warrior of the Fleur de Lis seemed to lose sight of his victim in the harrowing interest produced by that dreadful scream. All turned their eyes for a moment in the quarter whence it proceeded, when presently, from behind the groups of Canadians crowning the slope, was seen flying with the rapidity of thought one who resembled rather a spectre than a being of earth—it was the wife of Halloway. Her long fair hair was wild and streaming, her feet and legs and arms were naked, and one solitary and scanty garment displayed rather than concealed the symmetry of her delicate person. She flew to the fatal bridge, threw herself on the body of her
bleeding husband, and imprinting her warm kisses on his bloody lips, for a moment or two presented the image of one whose reason has fled forever. Suddenly she started from the earth; her face, her hands, and her garments so saturated with the blood of her husband that a feeling of horror crept throughout the veins of all who beheld her. She stood upon the coffin and across the corpse, raised her eyes and hands imploringly to heaven, and then, in accents wilder even than her words, uttered an imprecation that sounded like the prophetic warning of some unholy spirit.
"Inhuman murderer!" she exclaimed, in tones that almost paralyzed the ears on which it fell, "if there be a God of justice and of truth He will avenge this devilish deed. Yes, Colonel De Haldimar, a prophetic voice whispers to my soul that even as I have seen perish before my eyes all that I loved on earth, without mercy and without hope, so even shall you witness the destruction of your accursed race. Here—here—here," and she pointed downwards, with singular energy of action, to the corpse of her husband, "here shall their blood flow till every vestige of his own is washed away; and oh, if there be spared one branch of thy detested family may it be only that they may be reserved for some death too horrible to be conceived!"
Overcome by the frantic energy with which she had uttered these appalling words she sank backwards, and fell, uttering another shriek, into the arms of the warrior of the Fleur de Lis, who bore off his prize in triumph, and fled, with nearly the same expedition he had previously manifested, in the direction of the forest, before any one could recover sufficiently from the effect of the scene to think even of interfering.
CHAPTER X.
It was on the evening of that day, so fertile in melancholy incident, to which the previous pages have been devoted, that the drawbridge of Detroit was for the third time since the investment of the garrison lowered—not as previously, with a disregard of the intimation that might be given to those without by the sullen and echoing rattle on its ponderous chains, but with a caution attesting how much secrecy of purpose was sought to be preserved. There was, however, no array of armed men within the walls that denoted an expedition of a hostile character. Overcome with the harassing duties of the day the chief portion of the troops had retired to rest, and a few groups of the guard alone were to be seen walking up and down in front of their post, apparently with a view to check the influence of midnight drowsiness, but, in reality, to witness the result of certain preparations going on by torchlight in the centre of the barrack square.
In the midst of an anxious group of officers, comprising nearly all of that rank within the fort, stood two individuals attired in a costume having nothing in common with the gay and martial habiliments of the former. They were tall, handsome young men, whose native elegance of carriage was but imperfectly hidden under an equipment evidently adopted for, and otherwise fully answering, the purpose of disguise. A blue cotton shell jacket, closely fitting to the person, trousers of the same material, a pair of strong deerskin moccasins and a colored handkerchief tied loosely round the collar of a checked shirt, the whole surmounted by a rough blanket coat, forming the principal portion of their garb. Each, moreover, wore a false queue of about nine inches in length, the effect of which was completely to change the character of the countenance, and render to the features a Canadian-like expression. A red worsted cap, resembling a bonnet de nuit, was thrown carelessly over the side of the head, which could, at any moment when deeper disguise should be deemed necessary, command the additional protection of the rude hood that fell back upon the shoulders from the collar of the coat to which it was attached. Into a broad belt that encircled the jacket of each were thrust a brace of pistols and a strong dagger; the whole so disposed, however, as to be invisible when the outer garment was closed; this, again, was confined by a rude sash of worsted of different colors, not unlike, in texture and quality, what is worn by our sergeants at the present day. They were otherwise armed, however, and in a less secret manner. Across the right shoulder of each was thrown a belt of worsted also, to which were attached a rude powder-horn and shot-pouch, with a few straggling bullets, placed there as if rather by accident than design. Each held carelessly in his left hand, and with its butt resting on the earth, a long gun, completing an appearance the attainment of which had in all probability been sedulously sought—that of a Canadian duck-hunter.
A metamorphosis so ludicrously operated in the usually elegant costume of two young English officers—for such they were—might have been expected to afford scope to the pleasantry of their companions and to call forth those sallies which the intimacy of friendship and the freemasonry of the profession would have fully justified. But the events that had occurred in such rapid succession since the preceding midnight were still painfully impressed on the recollection of all, and some there were who looked as if they never would smile again; neither laugh nor jeering, therefore, escaped the lips of one of the surrounding group. Every countenance wore a cast of thought—a character of abstraction—ill suited to the indulgence of levity; and the little conversation that
passed between them was in a low and serious tone. It was evident some powerful and absorbing dread existed in the mind of each, inducing him rather to indulge in communion with his own thoughts and impressions than to communicate them to others. Even the governor himself had, for a moment, put off his usual distance, to assume an air of unfeigned concern, and it might be dejection, contrasting strongly with his habitual haughtiness. Hitherto he had been walking to and fro, a little apart from the group, and with a hurriedness and indecision of movement that betrayed to all the extreme agitation of his mind. For once, however, he appeared to be, if not insensible to observation, indifferent to whatever comments might be formed or expressed by those who witnessed his emotion. He was at length interrupted by the adjutant, who communicated something in a low voice.
"Let him be brought up, Mr. Lawson," was the reply. Then, advancing into the heart of the group and addressing the two adventurers, he enquired, in a tone that startled from its singular mildness, if they were provided with everything they required.
An affirmative reply was given, when the governor, taking the taller of the young men aside, conversed with him earnestly, and in a tone of affection strangely blended with despondency. The interview, however, was short, for Mr. Lawson now made his appearance, conducting an individual who has already been introduced to our readers. It was the Canadian of the Fleur de Lis. The adjutant placed a small wooden crucifix in the hands of the governor.
"Francois," said the latter, impressively, "you know the terms on which I have consented to spare your life. Swear, then, by this cross that you will be faithful to your trust, that neither treachery nor evasion shall be practised, and that you will to the utmost of your power aid in conveying these gentlemen to their destination. Kneel and swear it."
"I do swear it!" fervently repeated the aubergiste, kneeling and imprinting his lips with becoming reverence
on the symbol of martyrdom. "I swear to do dat I shall engage, and may de bon Dieu have mercy to my soul as I shall fulfil my oat."
"Amen," pronounced the governor, "and may heaven deal by you even as you deal by us. Bear in mind, moreover, that as your treachery will be punished, so also shall your fidelity be rewarded. But the night wears apace, and ye have much to do." Then turning to the young officers who were to be his companions, "God bless you both; may your enterprise be successful! I fear," offering his hand to the younger, "I have spoken harshly to you, but at a moment like the present you will no longer cherish a recollection of the unpleasant past."
The only answer was a cordial return of his own pressure. The Canadian in his turn now announced the necessity for instant departure, when the young men, following his example, threw their long guns carelessly over the left shoulder. Low, rapid and fervent adieux were uttered on both sides; and although the hands of the separating parties met only in a short and hurried grasp, there was an expression in the touch of each that spoke to their several hearts long after the separation had actually taken place.
"Stay one moment!" exclaimed a voice, as the little party now moved towards the gateway; "ye are both gallantly enough provided without, but have forgotten there is something quite as necessary to sustain the inward man. Duck shooting, you know, is wet work. The last lips that were moistened from this," he proceeded, as the younger of the disguised men threw the strap of the proffered canteen over his shoulder, "were those of poor Ellen Halloway."
The mention of that name, so heedlessly pronounced by the brave but inconsiderate Erskine, produced a startling effect on the taller of the departing officers. He struck his brow violently with his hand, uttered a faint groan, and bending his head upon his chest, stood in an attitude expressive of the deep suffering of his mind. The governor, too, appeared agitated, and sounds like those of suppressed sobs came from one who lingered at the side of him who had accepted the offer of the canteen. The remainder of the officers preserved a deep and mournful silence.
"It is times dat we should start," again observed the Canadian, "or we shall be taken by de daylight before we can clear de reever."
This intimation once more aroused the slumbering energies of the taller officer. Again he drew up his commanding figure, extended his hand to the governor in silence, and turning abruptly round, hastened to follow close in the footsteps of his conductor.
"You will not forget all I have said to you," whispered the voice of one who had reserved his parting for the last, and who now held the hand of the younger adventurer closely clasped within his own. "Think, oh, think how much depends on the event of your dangerous enterprise."
"When you behold me again," was the reply, "it will be with smiles on my lip and gladness in my heart, for if we fail there is that which whispers I shall never see you more. But keep up your spirits and hope for the best. We embark under cheerless auspices, it is true; but let us trust to Providence for success in so good a cause. God bless you!"
In the next minute he had joined his companions, who with light and noiseless tread were already pursuing their way along the military road that led to the eastern extremity of the town. Soon afterwards the heavy chains of the drawbridge were heard grating on the ear, in despite of the evident caution used in restoring it to its wonted position, and all again was still.
It had at first been suggested their course should be held in an angular direction across the cleared country alluded to in our last chapter, in order to avoid all chance of recognition in the town, but as this might have led them into more dangerous contact with some of the outlying parties of Indians, who were known to prowl around the fort at night, this plan had been abandoned for the
more circuitous and safe passage by the village. Through this our little party now pursued their way, and without encountering aught to impede their progress. The simple mannered inhabitants had long since retired to rest, and neither light nor sound denoted the existence of man or beast within its precincts. At length they reached that part of the road which turned off abruptly in the direction of the Fleur de Lis. The rude hut threw its dark shadows across their path, but all was still and deathlike as in the village they had just quitted. Presently, however, as they drew nearer, they beheld reflected from one of the upper windows a faint light that fell upon the ground immediately in front of the auberge, and at intervals the figure of a human being approaching and receding from it, as if in the act of pacing the apartment.
An instinctive feeling of danger rose at the same moment to the hearts of the young officers, and each, obeying the same impulse, unfastened one of the large horn buttons of his blanket coat and thrust his right hand into the opening.
"Francois, recollect your oath," hastily aspirated the elder, as he grasped the hand of their conductor rather in supplication than in threat: "if there be aught to harm us here your own life will most assuredly pay the forfeit of your faith."
"It is nothing but a woman," calmly returned the Canadian; "it is my Babette, who is sorry at my loss. But I shall come and tell you directly."
He then stole gently round the corner of the hut, leaving his anxious companions in the rear of the little building, and completely veiled in the obscurity produced by the mingling shadows of the hut itself and a few tall pear trees that overhung the paling of the orchard at some yards from the spot on which they stood.
They waited some minutes to hear the result of the Canadian's admittance into his dwelling, but although each with suppressed breathing sought to catch those sounds of welcome with which a daughter might be supposed to greet a parent so unexpectedly restored, they
listened in vain. At length, however, while the ears of both were on the rack to drink in the tones of a human voice, a faint scream floated on the hushed air and all again was still.
"Good!" whispered the elder of the officers; "that scream is sweeter to my ears than the softest accents of a woman's love. It is evident the ordinary tones of speech cannot find their way to us here from the front of the hut. The faintness of yon cry, which was unquestionably that of a female, is a convincing proof of it."
"Hist!" urged his companion, in the same almost inaudible whisper, "what sound was that?"
Both again listened attentively, when the noise was repeated. It came from the orchard and resembled the sound produced by the faint crash of rotten sticks and leaves under the cautious, but unavoidably rending, tread of a human foot. At intervals it ceased, as if the person treading, alarmed at his own noise, was apprehensive of betraying his approach, and then recommenced, only to be checked in the same manner. Finally it ceased altogether. For upwards of five minutes the young men continued to listen for a renewal of the sound, but nothing was now audible save the short and fitful gusts of a rising wind among the trees of the orchard.
"It must have been some wild animal in search of its prey," again whispered the younger officer; "had it been a man, we should have heard him leap the paling before this."
"By heaven, we are betrayed—here he is," quickly rejoined the other in the same low tone. "Keep close to the hut and stand behind me. If my dagger fail you must try your own. But fire not, on your life, unless there be more than two, for the report of a pistol will be the destruction of ourselves and all that are dear to us."
Each with uplifted arm now stood ready to strike, even while his heart throbbed with a sense of danger that had far more than the mere dread of personal suffering or death to stimulate to exertion in self-defence. Footsteps were now distinctly heard stealing round that part of the
hut which bordered on the road, and the young men turned from the orchard, to which their attention had previously been directed, towards the new quarter whence they were intruded upon.
It was fortunate this mode of approach had been selected. That part of the hut which rested on the road was so exposed as to throw the outline of objects into strong relief, whereas in the direction of the thickly wooded orchard all was impenetrable gloom. Had the intruder stolen unannounced upon the alarmed but determined officers by the latter route, the dagger of the first would in all probability have been plunged to its hilt in his bosom. As it was, each had sufficient presence of mind to distinguish, as it now doubled the corner of the hut and reposed upon the road, the stout, square-set figure of the Canadian. The daggers were instantly restored to their sheaths, and each, for the first time since the departure of their companion, respired freely. "It is quite well," whispered the latter as he approached. "It was my poor Babette, who tought I was gone to be kill. She scream so loud as if she had seen my ghost. But we must wait a few minute in de house and you shall see how glad my girl is to see me once again."
"Why this delay, Francois? Why not start directly?" urged the taller officer; "we shall never clear the river in time; and if the dawn catches us in the waters of the Detroit we are lost for ever."
"But you see I am not quite prepare yet," was the answer. "I have many tings to get ready for the canoe, which I have not use for a long times. But you shall not wait ten minute, if you do not like. Dere is a good fire and Babette shall give you someting to eat while I get it all ready."
The young men hesitated. The delay of the Canadian, who had so repeatedly urged the necessity for expedition while in the fort, had, to say the least of it, an appearance of incongruity. Still it was evident, if disposed to harm them, he had full opportunity to do so without much risk of effectual opposition from themselves. Under all circumstances, therefore, it was advisable rather to appear to confide implicitly in his truth than, by manifesting suspicion, to pique his self-love and neutralize whatever favorable intentions he might cherish in their behalf. In this mode of conduct they were confirmed by a recollection of the sacredness attached by the religion of their conductor to the oath so solemnly pledged on the symbol of the cross, and by a conviction of the danger of observation to which they stood exposed, if, as they apprehended, it was actually a human footstep they had heard in the orchard. This last recollection suggested a remark.
"We heard a strange sound within the orchard while waiting here for your return," said the taller officer; "it was like the footstep of a man treading cautiously over the rotten leaves and branches. How do you account for it?"
"Oh, it was my pigs," replied the Canadian, without manifesting the slightest uneasiness at the information. "They run about in de orchard for de apples what blows down wid de wind."
"It could not be a pig we heard," pursuing his questioner; "but another thing, Francois, before we consent to enter the hut—how will you account to your daughter for our presence? and what suspicion may she not form at seeing two armed strangers in company with you at this unseasonable hour?"
"I have tell her," replied the Canadian, "dat I have bring two friends who go wid me in de canoe to shoot de ducks for two or tree days. You know, sir, I go always in de fall to kill de ducks wid my friends, and she will not tink it strange."
"You have managed well, my brave fellow; and now we follow you in confidence. But in the name of heaven use all possible despatch, and if money will lend a spur to your actions, you shall have plenty of it when our enterprise has been accomplished."
Our adventurers followed their conductor in the track by which he had so recently rejoined them. As they
turned the corner of the hut, the younger, who brought up the rear, fancied he again heard a sound in the direction of the orchard resembling that of one lightly leaping to the ground. A gust of wind, however, passing rapidly at that moment through the dense foliage, led him to believe it might have been produced by the sullen fall of one of the heavy fruits it had detached in its course. Unwilling to excite new and unnecessary suspicion in his companion he confined the circumstance to his own breast and followed into the hut.
After ascending a flight of about a dozen rude steps they found themselves in a small room, furnished with no other ceiling than the sloping roof itself, and lighted by an unwieldy iron lamp placed on a heavy oak table near the only window with which the apartment was provided. The latter had suffered much from the influence of time and tempest, and owing to the difficulty of procuring glass in so remote a region had been patched with slips of paper in various parts. The two corner and lower panes of the bottom sash were out altogether, and pine shingles, such as are used even at the present day for covering the roofs of dwelling houses, had been fitted into the squares, excluding air and light at the same time. The centre pane of this tier was, however, clear and free from flaw of every description. Opposite to the window blazed a cheerful wood fire, recently supplied with fuel, and at one of the inner corners of the room was placed a low uncurtained bed that exhibited marks of having been lain in since it was last made. On a chair at its side were heaped a few dark-looking garments, the precise nature of which were not distinguishable at a cursory and distant glance.
Such were the more remarkable features of the apartment into which our adventurers were now ushered. Both looked cautiously around on entering, as if expecting to find it tenanted by spirits as daring as their own, but with the exception of the daughter of their conductor, whose moist black eyes expressed as much by tears as by smiles the joy she felt at this unexpected
return of her parent, no living object met their enquiring glance. The Canadian placed a couple of rush-bottomed chairs near the fire, invited his companions to seat themselves until he had completed his preparations for departure, and then, desiring Babette to hasten supper for the young hunters, quitted the room and descended the stairs.
CHAPTER XI.
The position of the young men was one of embarrassment, for while the daughter, who was busied in executing the command of her father, remained in the room, it was impossible they could converse together without betraying the secret of their country, and as a result of this, the falsehood of the character under which they appeared. Long residence in the country had, it is true, rendered the patois of that class of people whom they personated familiar to one, but the other spoke only the pure and native language of which it was a corruption. It might have occurred to them at a cooler moment and under less critical circumstances that even if their disguise had been penetrated, it was unlikely a female manifesting so much lively affection for her parent would have done aught to injure those with whom he had evidently connected himself. But the importance attached to their entire security from danger left them but little room for reflection of a calming character while a doubt of that security remained.
One singularity struck them both. They had expected the young woman, urged by a natural curiosity, would have commenced a conversation, even if they did not, and he who spoke the patois was prepared to sustain it as well as his anxious and overcharged spirit would enable him; and as he was aware the morning had furnished sufficient incident of fearful interest, he had naturally looked for a verbal re-enactment of the harrowing and dreadful scene. To their surprise, however, they both remarked that, far from evincing a desire to enter into conversation the young woman scarcely ever looked at them, but lingered
constantly near the table and facing the window. Still, to avoid an appearance of singularity on their own part as far as possible, the elder of the officers motioned to his companion, who, following his example, took a small pipe and some tobacco from a compartment in his shot pouch, and commenced puffing the wreathing smoke from his lips—an occupation more than any other seeming to justify their silence.
The elder officer sat with his back to the window and immediately in front of the fire; his companion, at a corner of the rude hearth, and in such a manner that, without turning his head, he could command every part of the room at a glance. In the corner facing him stood the bed already described. A faint ray of firelight fell on some minute object glittering in the chair, the contents of which were heaped up in disorder. Urged by that wayward curiosity which is sometimes excited even under circumstances of the greatest danger and otherwise absorbing interest, the young man kicked the hickory log that lay nearest to it with his moccasined foot and produced a bright, crackling flame, the reflection of which was thrown entirely upon the object of his gaze—it was a large metal button, on which the number of his regiment was distinctly visible. Unable to check his desire to know further, he left his seat to examine the contents of the chair. As he moved across the room he fancied he heard a light sound from without; his companion also seemed to manifest a similar impression by an almost imperceptible start; but the noise was so momentary and so fanciful neither felt it worth his while to pause upon the circumstance.
The young officer now raised the garments from the chair—they consisted of a small gray great-coat and trousers, a waistcoat of coarse white cloth, a pair of worsted stockings and the half-boots of a boy, the whole forming the drum-boy's equipment worn by the wretched wife of Halloway when borne senseless into the hut on that fatal morning. Hastily quitting a dress that called up so many dreadful recollections, and turning to his
companion with a look that denoted apprehension lest he, too, should have beheld these melancholy remembrances of the harrowing scene, the young officer hastened to resume his seat. In the act of so doing his eye fell upon the window at which the female lingered. Had a blast from heaven struck his sight, the terror of his soul could not have been greater. He felt his cheek to pale and his hair to bristle beneath his cap, while the checked blood crept slowly and coldly, as if its very function had been paralyzed; still he had presence of mind sufficient not to falter in his step or to betray by an extraordinary movement that his eye had rested on anything hateful to behold.
His companion had emptied his first pipe and was in the act of refilling it when he resumed his seat. He was evidently impatient at the delay of the Canadian and already were his lips ready to give utterance to his disappointment when he felt his foot significantly pressed by that of his friend. An instinctive sense of something fearful that was to ensue, but still demanding caution on his part, prevented him from turning hastily round to know the cause. Satisfied, however, there was danger, though not of an instantaneous character, he put his pipe gently by, and stealing his hand under his coat again grasped the hilt of his dagger. At length he slowly and partially turned his head, while his eyes inquiringly demanded of his friend the cause of this alarm. Partly to aid in concealing his increasing paleness and partly with a view to render it a medium for the conveyance of subdued sound, the hand of the latter was raised to his face in such a manner that the motion of his lips could not be distinguished from behind.
"We are betrayed," he scarcely breathed. "If you can command yourself, turn and look at the window, but for God's sake arm yourself with resolution or look not at all; first draw the hood over your head and without any appearance of design. Our only chance of safety lies in this—that the Canadian may still be true and that our disguise may not be penetrated."
In despite of his native courage—and this had often been put to honorable proof—he thus mysteriously addressed felt his heart to throb violently. There was something so appalled in the countenance of his friend—something so alarming in the very caution he had recommended—that a vague dread of the horrible reality rushed at once to his mind, and for a moment his own cheek became ashy pale and his breathing painfully oppressed. It was the natural weakness of the physical man over which the moral faculties had for an instant lost their directing power. Speedily recovering himself, the young man prepared to encounter the alarming object which had already so greatly intimidated his friend. Carefully drawing the blanket hood over his head, he rose from his seat, and with the energetic movement of one who has formed some desperate determination, turned his back to the fireplace and threw his eyes rapidly and eagerly upon the window. They fell only on the rude patchwork of which it was principally composed. The female had quitted the room.
"You must have been deceived," he whispered, keeping his eye still bent upon the window, and with so imperceptible a movement of the lips that sound alone could have betrayed that he was speaking; "I see nothing to justify your alarm. Look again."
The younger officer once more directed his glance towards the window, and with a shuddering of the whole person as he recollected what had met his eye when he last looked upon it. "It is no longer there, indeed," he returned in the same scarcely audible tone. "Yet I could not be mistaken; it was between those two corner squares of wood in the lower sash."
"Perhaps it was merely a reflection produced by the lamp on the centre pane," rejoined his friend, still keeping his eye riveted on the suspicious point.
"Impossible! but I will examine the window from the spot on which I stood when I first beheld it."
Again he quitted his seat and carelessly crossed the room. As he returned he threw his glance upon the
pane, when, to his infinite horror and surprise, the same frightful vision presented itself.
"God of heaven!" he exclaimed aloud, and unable longer to check the ebullition of his feelings—"what means this? Is my brain turned? and am I the sport of my own delusive fancy—do you see it now?"
No answer was returned. His friend stood mute and motionless, with his left hand grasping his gun and his right thrust into the waist of his coat. His eye grew upon the window, and his chest heaved and his cheek paled and flushed alternately with the subdued emotion of his heart. A human face was placed close to the unblemished glass, and every feature was distinctly revealed by the lamp that still lay upon the table. The glaring eye was fixed on the taller of the officers, but though the expression was unfathomably guileful, there was nothing that denoted anything like a recognition of the party. The brightness of the wood fire had so far subsided as to throw the interior of the room into partial obscurity, and under the disguise of his hood it was impossible for one without to distinguish the features of the taller officer. The younger, who was scarcely an object of attention, passed comparatively unnoticed.
Fatigued and dimmed with the long and eager tension of its nerves, the eye of the latter now began to fail him. For a moment he closed it, and when again it fell upon the window it encountered nothing but the clear and glittering pane. For upwards of a minute he and his friend still continued to rivet their gaze, but the face was no longer visible.
Why is it that what is called the "human face divine" is sometimes gifted with a power to paralyze that the most loathsome reptile in the creation cannot attain? Had a cougar of the American forest, roaring for prey, appeared at the window, ready to burst the fragile barrier and fasten its talons in their hearts, its presence would not have struck such sickness to the souls of our adventurers as did that human face. It is that man, naturally fierce and inexorable, is alone the enemy of his own
species. The solution of this problem—this glorious paradox in nature—we leave to profounder philosophers to resolve. Sufficient for us be it to know and to deplore that it is so.
Footsteps were now heard upon the stairs, and the officers, aroused to a full sense of their danger, hastily and silently prepared themselves for the encounter. "Drop a bullet into your gun," whispered the elder, setting the example himself. "We may be obliged to have recourse to it at last. Yet make no show of hostility unless circumstances satisfy us we are betrayed; then, indeed, all that remains for us will be to sell our lives as dearly as we can. Hist! he is here."
The door opened, and at the entrance, which was already filled up in the imaginations of the young men with a terrible and alarming figure, appeared one whose return had been anxiously and long desired. It was a relief indeed to their gallant but excited hearts to behold another than the form they had expected, and although for the moment they knew not whether the Canadian came in hostility or friendship, each quitted the attitude of caution into which he had thrown himself, and met him midway in his passage through the room. There was nothing in the expression of his naturally open and good-humored countenance to denote he was at all aware of the causes for alarm that had operated so powerfully upon themselves. He announced with a frank look and unfaltering voice everything was in readiness for their departure.
The officers hesitated, and the taller fixed his eyes upon those of mine host as if his gaze would have penetrated to the innermost recesses of his heart. Could this be a refinement of treachery, or was he really ignorant of the existence of the danger which threatened them? Was it not more probable his object was to disarm their fears, that they might be given unprepared and, therefore, unresisting victims to the ferocity of their enemies? Aware as he was that they were both well provided with arms, and fully determined to use them with effect, might not
his aim be to decoy them to destruction without lest the blood spilt under his roof, in the desperation of their defence, should hereafter attest against him and expose him to the punishment he would so richly merit? Distracted by these doubts the young men scarcely knew what to think or how to act, and anxious as they had previously been to quit the hut, they now considered the moment of their doing so would be that of their destruction. The importance of the enterprise on which they were embarked was such as to sink all personal considerations. If they had felt the influences of intimidation on their spirits, it arose less from any apprehension of consequences to themselves than from the recollection of the dearer interests involved in their perfect security from discovery.
"Francois," feelingly urged the taller officer, again adverting to his vow, "you recollect the oath you solemnly pledged upon the cross of our Saviour. Tell me, then, as you hope for mercy, have you taken that oath only that you might the more securely betray us to our enemies? What connection have you with them at this moment? and who is he who stood looking through that window not ten minutes since?"
"As I shall hope for mercy in my God," exclaimed the Canadian, with unfeigned astonishment, "I have not see nobody. But what for do you tink so? It is not just. I have given my oat to serve you and I shall do it."
There was candor both in the tone and countenance of the man as he uttered these words, half in reproach, half in justification; and the officers no longer doubted.
"You must forgive our suspicions at a moment like the present," soothingly observed the younger; "yet, Francois, your daughter saw and exchanged signals with the person we mean. She left the room soon after he made his appearance. What has become of her?"
The Canadian gave a sudden start, looked hastily around, and seemed to perceive for the first time the girl was absent. He then put a finger to his lip to enjoin silence, advanced to the table and extinguished the light.
Desiring his companions, in a low whisper, to tread cautiously and follow, he now led the way with almost noiseless step to the entrance of the hut. At the threshold of the door were placed a large and well-filled sack, a light mast and sail, and half a dozen paddles. The latter burden he divided between the officers, on whose shoulders he carefully balanced them. The sack he threw across his own, and without expressing even a regret that an opportunity of bidding adieu to his child was denied him, hastily skirted the paling of the orchard until, at the further extremity, he had gained the high road. The heavens were obscured by passing clouds driven rapidly by the wind, during the short pauses of which our adventurers anxiously and frequently turned to listen if they were pursued. Save the rustling of the trees that lined the road and the slight dashing of the waters on the beach, however, no sound was distinguishable. At length they gained the point whence they were to start. It was the fatal bridge, the events connected with which were yet so painfully fresh in their recollection.
"Stop one minute here," whispered the Canadian, throwing his sack upon the sand near the mouth of the lesser river; "my canoe is chain about twenty yards up de bridge. I shall come to you directly." Then, cautioning the officers to keep themselves concealed under the bridge, he moved hastily under the arch and disappeared in the dark shadow which it threw across the rivulet.
The extremities of the bridge rested on the banks of the little river in such a manner as to leave a narrow passage along the sands immediately under the declination of the arch. In accordance with the caution of their conductor the officers had placed themselves under it, and with their backs slightly bent forward to meet the curvature of the bridge, so that no ray of light could pass between their bodies and the fabric itself, now awaited the arrival of the vessel on which their only hope depended. We shall not attempt to describe their feelings on finding themselves at that lone hour of the night immediately under a spot rendered fearfully memorable by the tragic
occurrences of the morning. That terrible pursuit of the fugitive, the execution of the soldier, the curse and prophecy of his maniac wife, and, above all, the forcible abduction and threatened espousal of that unhappy woman by the formidable being who seemed to have identified himself with the evils with which they stood menaced—all rushed with rapid tracery on the mind and excited the imagination until each, filled with a sentiment not unallied to superstitious awe, feared to whisper forth his thoughts, lest in so doing he should invoke the presence of those who had principally figured in the harrowing and revolting scene.
"Did you not hear a noise?" at length whispered the elder, as he leaned himself forward, and bent his head to the sand, to catch more distinctly a repetition of the sound.
"I did; there again. It is upon the bridge, and not unlike the step of one endeavoring to tread lightly. It may be some wild beast, however."
"We must not be taken by surprise," returned his companion. "If it be a man, the wary tread indicates consciousness of our presence. If an animal, there can be no harm in setting our fears at rest." Cautiously stealing from his lurking-place the young officer emerged into the open sands, and in a few measured noiseless strides gained the extremity of the bridge. The dark shadow of something upon its centre caught his eye, and a low sound like that of a dog lapping met his ear. While his gaze yet lingered on the shapeless object, endeavoring to give it a character, the clouds which had so long obscured it passed momentarily from before the moon, and disclosed the appalling truth. It was a wolf-dog lapping up from the earth, in which they were encrusted, the blood and brains of the unfortunate Frank Halloway.
Sick and faint at the disgusting sight the young man rested his elbow on the railing that passed along the edge of the bridge, and leaning his head on his hand for a moment, forgot the risk of exposure he incurred in the
intenseness of the sorrow that assailed his soul. His heart and imagination were already far from the spot on which he stood when he felt an iron hand upon his shoulder. He turned, shuddering with an instinctive knowledge of his yet unseen visitant, and beheld standing over him the terrible warrior of the Fleur de Lis.
"Ha, ha, ha!" laughed the savage, in a low triumphant tone, "the place of our meeting is well timed, though somewhat singular, it must be confessed. Nay," he fiercely added, grasping as in a vice the arm that was already lifted to strike him, "force me not to annihilate you on the spot. Ha! hear you the cry of my wolf-dog?" as that animal now set up a low but fearful howl; "it is for your blood he asks, but your hour is not yet come."
"No, by heaven, it is not!" exclaimed a voice; a rapid and rushing sweep was heard through the air for an instant, and then a report like a stunning blow. The warrior released his grasp—placed his hand upon his tomahawk, but without strength to remove it from his belt—tottered a pace or two backwards—and then fell, uttering a cry of mingled pain and disappointment, at his length upon the earth.
"Quick, quick to your cover!" exclaimed the young officer as a loud shout was now heard from the forest in reply to the yell of the fallen warrior. "If Francois come not we are lost; the howl of that wolf-dog alone will betray us, even if his master should be beyond all chance of recovery."
"Desperate diseases require desperate remedies," was the reply; "there is little glory in destroying a helpless enemy, but the necessity is urgent, and we must leave nothing to chance." As he spoke he knelt upon the huge form of the senseless warrior, whose scalping knife he drew from its sheath, and striking a firm and steady blow, quitted not the weapon until he felt his hand reposing on the chest of his enemy. The howl of the wolf-dog, whose eyes glared like two burning coals through the surrounding gloom, was now exchanged to a fierce and snap-pish bark. He made a leap at the officer while in the act
of rising from the body, but his fangs fastened only in the chest of the shaggy coat, which he wrung with the strength and fury characteristic of his peculiar species. This new and ferocious attack was fraught with danger little inferior to that which they had just escaped, and required the utmost promptitude of action. The young man seized the brute behind the neck in a firm and vigorous grasp, while he stooped upon the motionless form over which this novel struggle was maintained, and succeeded in making himself once more master of the scalping knife. Half choked by the hand that unflinchingly grappled with him, the savage animal quitted his hold and struggled violently to free himself. This was the critical moment. The officer drew the heavy sharp blade from the handle to the point across the throat of the infuriated beast, with a force that divided the principal artery. He made a desperate leap upwards, spouting his blood over his destroyer, and then fell gasping across the body of his master. A low growl, intermingled with faint attempts to bark, which the rapidly oozing life rendered more and more indistinct, succeeded; and at length nothing but a gurgling sound was distinguishable.
Meanwhile the anxious and harassed officers had regained their place of concealment under the bridge, where they listened with suppressed breathing for the slightest sound to indicate the approach of the canoe. At intervals they fancied they could hear a noise resembling the rippling of water against the prow of a light vessel, but the swelling cries of a band of Indians, becoming at every instant more distinct, were too unceasingly kept up to admit of their judging with accuracy.
They now began to give themselves up for lost, and many and bitter were the curses they inwardly bestowed on the Canadian, when the outline of a human form was seen advancing along the sands and a dark object upon the water. It was their conductor, dragging the canoe along with all the strength and activity of which he was capable.
"What the devil have you been about all this time,
Francois?" exclaimed the taller officer, as he bounded to meet him. "Quick, quick, or we shall be too late. Hear you not the bloodhounds on their scent?" Then seizing the chain in his hand, with a powerful effort he sent the canoe flying through the arch to the very entrance of the river. The burdens that had been deposited on the sands were hastily flung in, the officers stepping lightly after. The Canadian took the helm, directing the frail vessel almost noiselessly through the water, and with such velocity that when the cry of the disappointed savages was heard resounding from the bridge it had already gained the centre of the Detroit.
CHAPTER XII.
TWO days had succeeded the departure of the officers from the fort, but unproductive of any event of importance. About daybreak, however, on the morning of the third, the harassed garrison were once more summoned to arms by an alarm from the sentinels planted in rear of the works; a body of Indians they had traced and lost at intervals, as they wound along the skirt of the forest in their progress from their encampment, were at length developing themselves in force near the bomb-proof. With a readiness which long experience and watchfulness had rendered in some degree habitual to them, the troops flew to their respective posts; while a few of the senior officers, among whom was the governor, hastened to the ramparts to reconnoitre the strength and purpose of their enemies. It was evident that the views of these were not immediately hostile; for neither were they in their war paint, nor were their arms of a description to carry intimidation to a disciplined and fortified soldiery. Bows, arrows, tomahawks, war clubs, spears and scalping knives, constituted their warlike equipments, but neither rifle nor firearms of any kind were discernible. Several of their leaders, distinguishable by a certain haughty carriage and commanding gesticulation, were collected within the elevated bomb-proof, apparently holding a short but important conference apart from their people, most of whom stood or lay in picturesque attitudes around the ruin. These also had a directing spirit. A tall and noble looking warrior, wearing a deerskin hunting frock closely girded around his loins, appeared to command the deference of his colleagues, claiming profound attention when he spoke himself, and manifesting his assent or dissent to the apparently expressed opinions of the lesser chiefs merely by a slight movement of the head.
"There he is, indeed!" exclaimed Captain Erskine, speaking as one who communes with his own thoughts, while he kept his telescope levelled on the form of the last warrior; "looking just as noble as when three years ago he opposed himself to the progress of the first English detachment that had ever penetrated to this part of the world. What a pity such a fine fellow should be so desperate and determined an enemy!"
"True; you were with Major Rogers on that expedition," observed the governor. "I have often heard him speak of it. You had many difficulties to contend against, if I recollect."
"We had indeed, sir," returned the frank-hearted Erskine, dropping the glass from his eye. "So many, in fact, that more than once in the course of our progress through the wilderness did I wish myself at headquarters with my company. Never shall I forget the proud and determined expression of Pontiac's countenance when he told Rogers in his figurative language, 'he stood in the path in which he travelled.'"
"Thank heaven, he at least stands not in the path in which others travel," musingly rejoined the governor. "But what sudden movement is that within the ruin?"
"The Indians are preparing to show a white flag," shouted an artilleryman from his station in one of the embrasures below.
The governor and his officers received this intelligence without surprise; the former took the glass from Captain Erskine and coolly raised it to his eye. The consultation had ceased, and the several chiefs were now seen quitting the bomb-proof to join their respective tribes. One of those remaining sprang upon an elevated fragment of the ruin and uttered a prolonged cry, the purport of which—and it was fully understood from its peculiar nature—was to claim attention from the fort. He then received from
the hands of the other chief a long spear, to the end of which was attached a piece of white linen. This he waved several times above his head, then stuck the barb of the spear firmly into the projecting fragment. Quitting his elevated station he next stood at the side of the Ottawa chief, who had already assumed the air and attitude of one waiting to observe in what manner his signal would be received.
"A flag of truce in all its bearings, by Jupiter!" remarked Captain Erskine. "Pontiac seems to have acquired a few lessons since we first met."
"This is evidently the suggestion of some European," observed Major Blackwater; "for how could he understand anything of the nature of a white flag? Some of these vile spies have put him up to this."
"True enough, Blackwater; and they appear to have found an intelligent pupil," observed Captain Wentworth. "I was curious to know how he would make the attempt to approach us, but certainly never once dreamt of his having recourse to so civilized a method. Their plot works well, no doubt; still we have the counter-plot to oppose it."
"We must foil them with their own weapons," remarked the governor, "even if it be only with a view to gain time. Wentworth, desire one of your bombardiers to hoist the French flag on the staff." The order was promptly obeyed. The Indians made a simultaneous movement expressive of their satisfaction, and in the course of a minute the tall warrior, accompanied by nearly a dozen inferior chiefs, was seen slowly advancing across the common towards the group of officers.
"What generous confidence the fellow has for an Indian!" observed Captain Erskine, who could not dissemble his admiration of the warrior. "He steps as firmly and as proudly within reach of our muskets as if he was leading in the war-dance."
"How strange," mused Captain Blessington, "that one who meditates so deep a treachery should have no apprehension of it in others!"
"It is a compliment to the honor of our flag," observed the governor, "which it must be our interest to encourage. If, as you say, Erskine, the man is really endowed with generosity, the result of this affair will assuredly call it forth."
"If it prove otherwise, sir," was the reply, "we must only attribute his perseverance to the influence which that terrible warrior of the Fleur de Lis is said to exercise over his better feelings. By the by, I see nothing of him among this flag of truce party. It could scarcely be called a violation of faith to cut off such a rascally renegade. Were he of the number of those advancing, and Vallertort's rifle within my reach, I know not what use I might not be tempted to make of the last."
Poor Erskine was singularly infelicitous in touching, and ever unconsciously, on a subject sure to give pain to more than one of his brother officers. A cloud passed over the brow of the governor, but it was one that originated more in sorrow than in anger. Neither had he time to linger on the painful recollections hastily and confusedly called up by the allusion made to this formidable and mysterious being, for the attention of all was now absorbed by the approaching Indians. With a bold and confiding carriage the fierce Pontiac moved at the head of his little party, nor hesitated one moment in his course until he got near the brink of the ditch and stood face to face with the governor, at a distance that gave both parties not only the facility of tracing the expression of each other's features, but of conversing without effort. There he made a sudden stand, and thrusting his spear into the earth assumed an attitude as devoid of apprehension as if he had been in the heart of his own encampment.
"My father has understood my sign," said the haughty chief. "The warriors of a dozen tribes are far behind the path the Ottawa chief has just travelled, but when the redskin comes unarmed the hand of the Saganaw is tied behind his back."
"The stronghold of the Saganaw is his safeguard," replied the governor, adopting the language of the Indian.
"When the enemies of his great father come in strength he knows how to disperse them, but when a warrior throws himself unarmed into his power he respects his confidence and his arms hang rusting at his side."
"The talk of my father is big," replied the warrior, with a scornful expression that seemed to doubt the fact of so much indifference as to himself; "but when it is a great chief who directs the nations, and that chief his sworn enemy, the temptation to the Saganaw may be strong."
"The Saganaw is without fear," emphatically rejoined the governor; "he is strong in his own honor, and he would rather die under the tomahawk of the redskin than procure a peace by an act of treachery."
The Indian paused; cold, calm looks of intelligence passed between him and his followers, and a few indistinct and guttural sentences were exchanged among themselves.
"But our father asks not why our moccasins have brushed the dew from off the common," resumed the chief; "and yet it is long since the Saganaw and the redskin have spoken to each other except through the war whoop. My father must wonder to see the great chief of the Ottawas without the hatchet in his hand."
"The hatchet often wounds those who use it unskilfully," calmly returned the governor. "The Saganaw is not blind. The Ottawas and the other tribes find the war paint heavy on their skins. They see that my young men are not to be conquered, and they have sent the great head of all the nations to sue for peace."
In spite of the habitual reserve and self-possession of his race, the haughty warrior could not repress a movement of impatience at the bold and taunting language of his enemy, and for a moment there was a fire in his eye that told how willingly he would have washed away the insult in his blood. The same low guttural exclamations that previously escaped their lips marked the sense entertained of the remark by his companions.
"My father is right," pursued the chief, resuming his
self-command; "the Ottawas and the other tribes ask for peace, but not because they are afraid of war. When they strike the hatchet into the war post they leave it there until their enemies ask them to take it out."
"Why come they now, then, to ask for peace?" was the cool demand.
The warrior hesitated, evidently at a loss to give a reply that could reconcile the palpable contradiction of his words. "The rich furs of our forests have become many," he at length observed, "since we first took up the hatchet against the Saganaw, and every bullet we keep for our enemies is a loss to our trade. We once exchanged furs with the children of our father of the pale flag. They gave us in return guns, blankets, powder, ball, and all that the redman requires in the hunting season. These are all expended, and my young men would deal with the Saganaw as they did with the French."
"Good! The redskins would make peace, and although the arm of the Saganaw is strong, he will not turn a deaf ear to their desire."
"All the strongholds of the Saganaw except two have fallen before the great chief of the Ottawas!" proudly returned the Indian, with a look of mingled scorn and defiance. "They, too, thought themselves beyond the reach of our tomahawks; they were deceived. In less than a single moon nine of them have fallen, and the tents of my young warriors are darkened with their scalps,—but this is past. If the redskin asks for peace, it is because he is tired of seeing the blood of the Saganaw on his tomahawk. Does my father hear?"
"We will listen to the great chief of the Ottawas and hear what he has to say," returned the governor, who, as well as the officers at his side, could with difficulty conceal their disgust and sorrow at the dreadful intelligence thus imparted of the fates of their companions. "But peace," he pursued with dignity, "can only be made in the council-room and under the sacred pledge of the calumet. The great chief has a wampum belt on his shoulder and a calumet in his hand. His aged warriors,
too, are at his side. What says the Ottawa? Will he enter? If so, the gate of the Saganaw shall be open to him."
The warrior started, and for a moment the confidence that had hitherto distinguished him seemed to give place to an apprehension of meditated treachery. He, however, speedily recovered himself and observed emphatically, "It is the great head of all the nations whom my father invites to the council seat. Were he to remain in the hands of the Saganaw his young men would lose their strength. They would bury the hatchet forever in despair and hide their faces in the laps of their women."
"Does the Ottawa chief see the pale flag on the stronghold of his enemies? While that continues to fly he is safe as if he were under the cover of his own wigwam. If the Saganaw could use guile like a fox" (and this was said with marked emphasis), "what should prevent him from cutting off the Ottawa and his chiefs even where they now stand?"
A half smile of derision passed over the dark cheek of the Indian. "If the arm of the Ottawa is strong," he said, "his foot is not less swift. The short guns of the chiefs of the Saganaw" (pointing to the pistols of the officers) "could not reach us; and before the voice of our father could be raised, or his eye turned, to call his warriors to his side, the Ottawa would be already far on his way to the forest."
"The great chief of the Ottawas shall judge better of the Saganaw," returned the governor. "He shall see that his young men are ever watchful at their posts. Up, men, and show yourselves." A second or two sufficed to bring the whole of Captain Erskine's company, who had been lying flat on their faces, to their feet on the rampart. The Indians were evidently taken by surprise, though they evinced no fear. The low and guttural "ugh!" was the only expression they gave to their astonishment, not unmingled with admiration.
But although the chiefs preserved their presence of mind, the sudden appearance of the soldiers had excited
alarm among their warriors, who, grouped in and around the bomb-proof, were watching every movement of the conferring parties with an interest proportioned to every risk they conceived their head men had incurred in venturing under the very walls of their enemies. Fierce yells were uttered, and more than a hundred dusky warriors, brandishing their tomahawks in air, leaped along the skirt of the common, evidently only awaiting the signal of their great chief to advance and cover his retreat. At the command of the governor, however, the men had again suddenly disappeared from the surface of the rampart, so that when the Indians finally perceived their leader stood unharmed and unmolested on the spot he had previously occupied, the excitement died away and they once more assumed their attitude of profound attention.
"What thinks the great chief of the Ottawas now?" asked the governor. "Did he imagine that the young white men lie sleeping like beavers in their dams when the hunter sets his traps to catch them? Did he imagine that they foresee not the designs of their enemies, and that they are not always on the watch to prevent them?"
"My father is a great warrior," returned the Indian; "and if his arm is full of strength his head is full of wisdom. The chiefs will no longer hesitate; they will enter the stronghold of the Saganaw and sit with him in the council." He next addressed a few words, and in a language not understood by those upon the walls, to one of the younger of the Indians. The latter acknowledged his sense and approbation of what was said to him by an assentient and expressive "ugh!" which came from his chest without any apparent motion of the lips, much in the manner of a modern ventriloquist. He then hastened with rapid and lengthened boundings across the common towards his band. After the lapse of a minute or two from reaching them another simultaneous cry arose, differing in expression from any that had hitherto been heard. It was one denoting submission to the will and compliance with some conveyed desire of their superior.
"Is the gate of the Saganaw open?" asked the latter, as soon as his ear had been greeted with the cry we have just named. "The Ottawa and the other great chiefs are ready; their hearts are bold, and they throw themselves into the hands of the Saganaw without fear."
"The Ottawa chief knows the path," dryly rejoined the governor. "When he comes in peace it is ever open to him, but when his young men press it with the tomahawk in their hands the big thunder is roused to anger and they are scattered away like the leaves of the forest in the storm. Even now," he pursued, as the little band of Indians moved slowly round the walls, "the gate of the Saganaw opens for the Ottawa and the other chiefs."
"Let the most vigilant caution be used everywhere along the works, but especially in the rear," continued the governor, addressing Captain Blessington, on whom the duty of the day had devolved. "We are safe while their chiefs are with us, but still it will be necessary to watch the forest closely. We cannot be too much on our guard. The men had better remain concealed, every twentieth file only standing up to form a look-out chain. If any movement of a suspicious nature be observed, let it be communicated by the discharge of a single musket, that the drawbridge may be raised on the instant." With the delivery of these brief instructions he quitted the rampart with the majority of his officers. Meanwhile, hasty preparations had been made in the mess-room to receive the chiefs. The tables had been removed, and a number of clean rush mats, manufactured after the Indian manner into various figures and devices, spread carefully on the floor. At the further end from the entrance was placed a small table and chair, covered with scarlet cloth. This was considerably elevated above the surface of the floor and intended for the governor. On either side of the room near these were ranged a number of chairs for the accommodation of the inferior officers.
Major Blackwater received the chiefs at the gate. With a firm, proud step, rendered more confident by his very unwillingness to betray anything like fear, the tall,
and as Captain Erskine had justly designated him, the noble-looking Pontiac trod the yielding planks that might in the next moment cut him off from his people forever. The other chiefs, following the example of their leader, evinced the same easy fearlessness of demeanor, nor glanced once behind them to see if there was anything to justify the apprehension of hidden danger.
The Ottawa was evidently mortified at not being received by the governor in person. "My father is not here!" he said fiercely to the major. "How is this? The Ottawa and the other chief are kings of all their tribes. The head of one great people should be received only by the head of another great people!"
"Our father sits in the council hall," returned the major. "He has taken his seat that he may receive the warriors with becoming honor. But I am the second chief and our father has sent me to receive them."
To the proud spirit of the Indian this explanation hardly sufficed. For a moment he seemed to struggle, as endeavoring to stifle his keen sense of an affront put upon him. At length he nodded his head haughtily and condescendingly in token of assent, and gathering up his noble form and swelling out his chest, as with a view to strike terror as well as admiration into the hearts of those by whom he expected to be surrounded, stalked majestically forward at the head of his confederates.
An indifferent observer, or one ignorant of these people, would have been at fault, but those who understood the workings of an Indian's spirit could not have been deceived by the tranquil exterior of these men. The rapid, keen, and lively glance—the suppressed sneer of exultation—the half start of surprise—the low, guttural and almost inaudible "ugh!"—all these indicated the eagerness with which, at one sly but compendious view, they embraced the whole interior of a fort which it was of such vital importance to their future interests they should become possessed of, yet which they had so long and so unsuccessfully attempted to subdue. As they advanced into the square, they looked around, expecting to
behold the full array of their enemies, but to their astonishment not a soldier was to be seen. A few women and children only, in whom curiosity had overcome a natural loathing and repugnance to the savages, were peeping from the windows of the block-houses. Even at a moment like the present the fierce instinct of these latter was not to be controlled. One of the children, terrified at the wild appearance of the warriors, screamed violently, and clung to the bosom of its mother for protection. Fired at the sound, a young chief raised his hand to his lips, and was about to peal forth his terrible war whoop in the centre of the fort when the eye of the Ottawa suddenly arrested him.
CHAPTER XIII.
THERE were few forms of courtesy observed by the warriors towards the English officers on entering the council room. Pontiac, who had collected all his native haughtiness into one proud expression of look and figure, strode in without taking the slightest notice even of the governor. The other chiefs imitated his example, and all took their seats upon the matting in the order prescribed by their rank among the tribes and their experience in council. The Ottawa chief sat at the near extremity of the room, and immediately facing the governor. A profound silence was observed for some minutes after the Indians had seated themselves, during which they proceeded to fill their pipes. The handle of that of the Ottawa chief was decorated with numerous feathers fancifully disposed.
"This is well," at length observed the governor. "It is long since the great chiefs of the nations have smoked the sweet grass in the council hall of the Saganaw. What have they to say that their young men may have peace to hunt the beaver and to leave the print of their moccasins in the country of the buffalo? What says the Ottawa chief?"
"The Ottawa chief is a great warrior," returned the other, haughtily, and again repudiating in the indomitableness of his pride the very views that a more artful policy had first led him to avow. "He has already said that within a single moon nine of the strongholds of the Saganaw have fallen into his hands and that the scalps of the white men fill the tents of his warriors. If the redskins wish for peace it is because they are sick with
spilling the blood of their enemies. Does my father hear?"
"The Ottawa has been cunning like the fox," calmly returned the governor. "He went with deceit on his lips and said to the great chiefs of the strongholds of the Saganaw: 'You have no more forts upon the lakes; they have all fallen before the redskins; they gave themselves into our hands, and we spared their lives and sent them down to the great towns near the salt lake.' But this was false; the chiefs of the Saganaw, believing what was said to them, gave up their strongholds, but their lives were not spared and the grass of the Canadas is yet moist with their blood. Does the Ottawa hear?"
Amazement and stupefaction sat for a moment on the features of the Indians. The fact was as had been stated; and yet so completely had the several forts been cut off from all communication it was deemed almost impossible one could have received tidings of the fate of the other unless conveyed through the Indians themselves.
"The spies of the Saganaw have been very quick to escape the vigilance of the redskins," at length replied the Ottawa; "yet they have returned with a lie upon their lips. I swear by the Great Spirit that nine of the strongholds of the Saganaw have been destroyed. How could the Ottawa go with deceit upon his lips when his words were truth?"
"When the redskins said so to the warriors of the last forts they took, they said true; but when they went to the first, and said that all the rest had fallen, they used deceit. A great nation should overcome their enemies like warriors, and not seek to beguile them with their tongues under the edge of the scalping knife!"
"Why did the Saganaw come into the country of the redskins?" haughtily demanded the chief. "Why did they take our hunting ground from us? Why have they strong places encircling the country of the Indians like a belt of wampum round the waist of a warrior?"
"This is not true," rejoined the governor. "It was not the Saganaw, but the warriors of the pale flag, who
first came and took away the hunting grounds and built the strong places. The great father of the Saganaw had beaten the great father of the pale flag quite out of the Canadas, and he sent his young men to take their place and to make peace with the redskins, to trade with them and to call them brothers."
"The Saganaw was false," retorted the Indian. "When a chief of the Saganaw came for the first time with his warriors into the country of the Ottawas, the chief of the Ottawas stood in his path and asked him why and from whom he came? That chief was a bold warrior, and his heart was open, and the Ottawa liked him; and when he said he came to be friendly with the redskins the Ottawa believed him, and he shook him by the hand, and said to his young men, 'Touch not the life of a Saganaw, for their chief is the friend of the Ottawa chief and his young men shall be the friends of the red warriors.' Look!" he proceeded, marking his sense of the discovery by another of those ejaculatory "ughs!" so expressive of surprise in an Indian, "at the right hand of my father I see a chief," pointing to Captain Erskine, "who came with those of the Saganaw who first entered the country of the Detroit; ask that chief if what the Ottawa says is not true. When the Saganaw said he came only to remove the warriors of the pale flag, that he might be friendly and trade with the redskins, the Ottawa received the belt of wampum he offered, and smoked the pipe of peace with him, and he made his men bring bags of parched corn to his warriors who wanted food, and he sent to all the nations on the lakes and said to them, 'The Saganaw must pass unhurt to the stronghold on the Detroit.' But for the Ottawa not a Saganaw would have escaped, for the nations were thirsting for their blood and the knives of the warriors were eager to open their scalps. Ask the chief who sits at the right hand of my father," he again energetically repeated, "if what the Ottawa says is not true."
"What the Ottawa says is true," rejoined the governor, "for the chief who sits on my right hand has often said
that but for the Ottawa the small number of the warriors of the Saganaw must have been cut off, and his heart is big with kindness to the Ottawa for what he did. But if the great chief meant to be friendly, why did he declare war after smoking the pipe of peace with the Saganaw? Why did he destroy the wigwams of the settlers and carry off the scalps even of their weak women and children? All this has the Ottawa done, and yet he says that he wished to be friendly with my young men. But the Saganaw is not a fool. He knows the Ottawa chief had no will of his own. On the right hand of the Ottawa sits the great chief of the Delawares and on his left the great chief of the Shawaneees. They have long been sworn enemies of the Saganaw, and they came from the rivers that run near the salt lake to stir up the redskins of the Detroit to war. They whispered wicked words in the ear of the Ottawa chief and he determined to take up the bloody hatchet. This is a shame to a great warrior. The Ottawa was a king over all the tribes in the country of the fresh lakes and yet he weakly took counsel like a woman from another."
"My father lies!" fiercely retorted the warrior, half springing to his feet, and involuntarily putting his hand upon his tomahawk. "If the settlers of the Saganaw have fallen," he resumed in a calmer tone, while he again sank upon his mat, "it is because they did not keep their faith with the redskins. When they came weak and were not secure in their strongholds their tongues were smooth and full of soft words, but when they became strong under the protection of their thunder they no longer treated the redskins as their friends, and they laughed at them for letting them come into their country. But," he pursued, elevating his voice, "the Ottawa is a great chief and he will be respected." Then, adverting in bitterness to the influence supposed to be exercised over him—"What my father has said is false. The Shawaneees and the Delawares had no talk with the Ottawa chief to make him do what his own wisdom did not tell him."
"Then, if the talk came not from the Shawaneees and
the Delawares, it came from the spies of the warriors of the pale flag. The great father of the French was angry with the great father of the Saganaw because he conquered his warriors in many battles, and he sent wicked men to whisper lies of the Saganaw into the ears of the redskins, and to make them take up the hatchet against them. There is a tall spy at this moment in the camp of the redskins," he pursued, with earnestness, and yet paling as he spoke. "It is said he is the bosom friend of the great chief of the Ottawas. But I will not believe it. The head of a great nation would not be the friend of a spy—of one who is baser than a dog. His people would despise him, and they would say, 'Our chief is not fit to sit in council or to make war, for he is led by the word of a paleface who is without honor.'"
The swarthy cheek of the Indian reddened and his eye kindled into fire. "There is no spy, but a great warrior in the camp of the Ottawas," he fiercely replied. "Though he came from the country that lies beyond the salt lake, he is now a chief of redskins, and his arm is mighty and his heart is big. Would my father know why he has become a chief of the Ottawas?" he pursued, with scornful exultation. "When the strongholds of the Saganaw fell the tomahawk of the 'white warrior' drank more blood than that of a redskin, and his tent is hung round with poles bending under the weight of the scalps he has taken. When the great chief of the Ottawas dies the paleface will lead his warriors and take the first seat in the council. The Ottawa chief is his friend."
"If the paleface be the friend of the Ottawa," pursued the governor, in the hope of obtaining some particular intelligence in regard to this terrible and mysterious being, "why is he not here to sit in council with the chiefs? Perhaps," he proceeded, tauntingly, as he fancied he perceived a disinclination on the part of the Indian to account for the absence of the warrior, "the paleface is not worthy to take his place among the head men of the council. His arm may be strong like that of a warrior, but his head may be weak like that of a woman, or perhaps
he is ashamed to show himself before the palefaces who have turned him out of their tribe."
"My father lies!" again unceremoniously retorted the warrior. "If the friend of the Ottawa is not here, it is because his voice cannot speak. Does my father recollect the bridge on which he killed his young warrior? Does he recollect the terrible chase of the paleface by the friend of the Ottawa? Ugh!" he continued, as his attention was now diverted to another object of interest, "that paleface was swifter than any runner among the redskins, and for his fleetness he deserved to live to be a great hunter in the Canadas, but fear broke his heart—fear of the friend of the Ottawa chief. The redskins saw him fall at the feet of the Saganaw without life, and they saw the young warriors bear him off in their arms. Is not the Ottawa right?" The Indian paused, threw his eye rapidly along the room, and then, fixing it on the governor, seemed to wait with deep but suppressed interest for his reply.
"Peace to the bones of a brave warrior!" seriously and evasively returned the governor; "the paleface is no longer in the land of the Canadas, and the young warriors of the Saganaw are sorry for his loss, but what would the Ottawa say of the bridge, and what has the pale warrior, the friend of the Ottawa, to do with it?"
A gleam of satisfaction pervaded the countenance of the Indian as he eagerly bent his ear to receive the assurance that the fugitive was no more; but when allusion was made to the strange warrior his brow became overcast and he replied, with mingled haughtiness and anger: "Does my father ask? He has dogs of spies among the settlers of the pale flag, but the tomahawk of the redskins will find them out, and they shall perish even as the Saganaw themselves. Two nights ago, when the warriors of the Ottawas were returning from the scout upon the common they heard the voice of Onondato, the wolf-dog of the friend of the Ottawa chief. The voice came from the bridge where the Saganaw killed his young warrior and it called upon the redskins for assistance. My young men gave their war cry and ran like wild deer to destroy the
enemies of their chief, but when they came the spies had fled and the voice of Onondato was low and weak as that of a new fawn, and when the warriors came to the other end of the bridge they found the pale chief lying across the road and covered over with blood. They thought he was dead, and their cry was terrible, for the pale warrior is a great chief and the Ottawas love him; but when they looked again they saw that the blood was the blood of Onondato, whose throat the spies of the Saganaw had cut that he might not hunt them and give them to the tomahawk of the redskins."
Frequent glances, expressive of their deep interest in the announcement of this intelligence, passed between the governor and his officers. It was clear the party who had encountered the terrible warrior of the Fleur de Lis were not spies (for none were employed by the garrison), but their adventurous companions who had so recently quitted them. This was put beyond all doubt by the night, the hour, and the not less important fact of the locality, for it was from the bridge described by the Indian, near which the Canadian had stated his canoe to be chained, they were to embark upon their perilous and uncertain enterprise. The question of their own escape from danger in this unlooked for collision with so powerful and ferocious an enemy, and of the fidelity of the Canadian, still remained involved in doubt, which it might be imprudent if not dangerous to seek to have resolved by any direct remark on the subject to the keen and observant warrior. The governor removed this difficulty by artfully observing: "The great chief of the Ottawas has said they were the spies of the Saganaw who killed the pale warrior. His young men have found them, then, or how could he know they were spies?"
"Is there a warrior among the Saganaw who dares to show himself in the path of the redskins unless he come in strength and surrounded by his thunder?" was the sneering demand. "But my father is wrong if he supposes the friend of the Ottawa is killed. No," he pursued fiercely, "the dogs of spies could not kill him; they
were afraid to face so terrible a warrior. They came behind him in the dark, and they struck him on the head like cowards and foxes as they were. The warrior of the paleface and the friend of the Ottawa chief is sick, but not dead. He lies without motion in his tent, and his voice cannot speak to his friend to tell him who were his enemies, that he may bring their scalps to hang up within his wigwam. But the great chief will soon be well and his arm will be stronger than ever to spill the blood of the Saganaw as he has done before."
"The talk of the Ottawa chief is strange," returned the governor, emphatically and with dignity. "He says he comes to smoke the pipe of peace with the Saganaw, and yet he talks of spilling their blood as if it was water from the lake. What does the Ottawa mean?"
"Ugh!" exclaimed the Indian in his surprise. "My father is right, but the Ottawa and the Saganaw have not yet smoked together. When they have the hatchet will be buried forever. Until then they are still enemies."
During this long and important colloquy of the leading parties the strictest silence had been preserved by the remainder of the council. The inferior chiefs had continued deliberately puffing the smoke from their curled lips as they sat cross-legged on their mats, and nodding their heads at intervals in confirmation of the occasional appeal made by the rapid glance of the Ottawa, and uttering their guttural "Ugh!" whenever any observation of the parlant parties touched their feelings or called forth their surprise. The officers had been no less silent and attentive listeners to a conversation on the issue of which hung so many dear and paramount interests. A pause in the conference gave them an opportunity of commenting in a low tone on the communication made in the strong excitement of his pride by the Ottawa chief in regard to the terrible warrior of the Fleur de Lis, who, it was evident, swayed the councils of the Indians and consequently exercised an influence over the ultimate destinies of the English which it was impossible to contemplate without alarm. It was evident to all, from
whatsoever cause it might arise, this man cherished a rancor towards certain individuals in the fort, inducing an anxiety in its reduction scarcely equalled by that entertained on the part of the Indians themselves. Beyond this, however, all was mystery and doubt, nor had any clue been given to enable them to arrive even at a well founded apprehension of the motives which had given birth to the vindictiveness of purpose so universally ascribed to him even by the savages themselves.
The chiefs also availed themselves of this pause in the conversation of the principals to sustain a low and animated discussion. Those of the Shawanee and Delaware nations were especially earnest, and, as they spoke across the Ottawa, betrayed by their vehemence of gesture the action of some strong feeling upon their minds, the precise nature of which could not be ascertained from their speech at the opposite extremity of the room. The Ottawa did not deign to join in their conversation, but sat smoking his pipe in all the calm forbidding dignity of a proud Indian warrior conscious of his own importance.
"Does the great chief of the Ottawas then seek for peace in his heart at length?" resumed the governor, "or is he come to the stronghold of Detroit, as he went to the other strongholds, with deceit on his lips?"
The Indian slowly removed the pipe from his mouth, fixed his keen eye searchingly on that of the questioner for nearly a minute, and then briefly and haughtily said, "The Ottawa chief has spoken."
"And do the great chiefs of the Shawanees, and the great chiefs of the Delawares, and the great chiefs of the other nations, ask for peace also?" demanded the governor. "If so, let them speak for themselves and for the warriors."
We will not trespass on the reader by a transcript of the declarations of the inferior chiefs. Each in his turn avowed motives similar to those of the Ottawa for wishing the hatchet might be buried for ever, and that their young men should mingle once more in confidence not only with the English troops, but with the settlers who
would again be brought into the country at the cessation of hostilities. When each had spoken the Ottawa passed the pipe of ceremony, with which he was provided, to the governor. The latter put it to his lips and commenced smoking. The Indians keenly and half furtively watched the act, and looks of deep intelligence, that escaped not the notice of the equally anxious and observant officers, passed among them.
"The pipe of the great chief of the Ottawas smokes well," calmly remarked the governor, "but the Ottawa chief in his hurry to come and ask for peace has made a mistake. The pipe and all its ornaments are red like blood; it is the pipe of war and not the pipe of peace. The great chief of the Ottawas will be angry with himself; he has entered the stronghold of the Saganaw and sat in the council without doing any good for his young men. The Ottawa must come again."
A deep but subdued expression of disappointment passed over the features of the chiefs. They watched the countenances of the officers to see whether the substitution of one pipe for the other had been attributed in their estimation to accident or design. There was nothing, however, to indicate the slightest doubt of their sincerity.
"My father is right," replied the Indian, with an appearance of embarrassment, which, whether natural or feigned, had nothing suspicious in it. "The great chief of the Ottawas has been foolish, like an old woman. The young chiefs of his tribe will laugh at him for this. But the Ottawa chief will come again and the other chiefs with him, for, as my father sees, they all wish for peace; and that my father may know all the nations wish for peace as well as their headmen, the warriors of the Ottawa and of the Shawanee and of the Delaware shall play at ball upon the common to amuse his young men, while the chiefs sit in council with the chiefs of the Saganaw. The redskins shall come naked and without their rifles and their tomahawks, and even the squaws of the warriors shall come upon the common to show the Saganaw they may be without fear. Does my father hear?"
"The Ottawa chief says well," returned the governor; "but will the pale friend of the Ottawa come also to take his seat in the council hall? The great chief has said the pale warrior has become the second chief among the Ottawas, and that when he is dead the pale warrior will lead the Ottawas and take the first seat in the council. He, too, should smoke the pipe of peace with the Saganaw, that they may know he is no longer their enemy."
The Indian hesitated, uttering merely his quick ejaculatory "Ugh!" in expression of his surprise at so unexpected a requisition. "The pale warrior, the friend of the Ottawa, is very sick," he at length said; "but if the Great Spirit should give him back his voice before the chiefs come again to the council the paleface will come, too. If my father does not see him then he will know the friend of the Ottawa chief is very sick."
The governor deemed it prudent not to press the question too closely, lest in so doing he should excite suspicion and defeat his own object. "When will the Ottawa and the other chiefs come again?" he asked; "and when will their warriors play ball upon the common that the Saganaw may see them and be amused?"
"When the sun has travelled so many times," replied Pontiac, holding up three fingers of his left hand, "then will the Ottawa and the other chiefs bring their young warriors and their young women."
"It is too soon," was the reply; "the Saganaw must have time to collect their presents that they may give them to the young warriors who are swiftest at the race and most active at the ball. The great chief of the Ottawas, too, must let the settlers of the pale flag, who are the friends of the redskins, bring in food for the Saganaw, that a great feast may be given to the chiefs and to the warriors, and that the Saganaw may make peace with the Ottawas and the other nations as becomes a great people. In twice so many days" (holding up three of his fingers in imitation of the Indian), "the Saganaw will be ready to receive the chiefs in council that they may smoke the
pipe of peace and bury the hatchet forever. What says the great chief of the Ottawas?"
"It is good," was the reply of the Indian, his eye lighting up with deep and exulting expression. "The settlers of the pale flag shall bring food to the Saganaw. The Ottawa chief will send them, and he will desire his young men not to prevent them. In so many days, then," indicating with his fingers, "the great chiefs will sit again in council with the Saganaw, and the Ottawa chief will not be a fool to bring the pipe he does not want."
With this assurance the conference terminated. Pontiac raised his tall frame from the mat on which he had squatted, nodded condescendingly to the governor, and strode haughtily into the square or area of the fort. The other chiefs followed his example, and to Major Blackwater was again assigned the duty of accompanying them without the works. The glance of the savages, and that of Pontiac in particular, was less wary than at their entrance. Each seemed to embrace every object on which the eye could rest, as if to fix its position indelibly in his memory. The young chief who had been so suddenly and opportunely checked while in the very act of pealing forth his terrible war-whoop again looked up at the windows of the blockhouse in quest of those whom his savage instinct had already devoted in intention to his tomahawk, but they were no longer there. Such was the silence that reigned everywhere, the fort appeared to be tenanted only by the few men of the guard who lingered near their stations, attentively watching the Indians as they passed towards the gate. A very few minutes sufficed to bring the latter once more in the midst of their warriors, whom for a few moments they harangued earnestly, when the whole body again moved off in the direction of their encampment.
CHAPTER XIV.
The week that intervened between the visit of the chiefs and the day appointed for their second meeting in council was passed by the garrison in perfect freedom from alarm, although, as usual, in diligent watchfulness and preparations for casualties. In conformity with his promise, the Indian had despatched many of the Canadian settlers with such provisions as the country then afforded to the governor, and these, happy to obtain the gold of the troops in return for what they could conveniently spare, were not slow in availing themselves of the permission. Dried bear's meat, venison and Indian corn composed the substance of these supplies, which were in sufficient abundance to produce a six weeks' increase to the stock of the garrison. Hitherto they had been subsisting in a great degree upon salt provisions, the food furtively supplied by the Canadians being necessarily, from their dread of detection, on so limited a scale that a very small portion of the troops had been enabled to profit by it. This, therefore, was an important and unexpected benefit, derived from the falling in of the garrison with the professed views of the savages, and one which, perhaps, few officers would, like Colonel De Haldimar, have possessed the forethought to have secured. But although it served to relieve the animal wants of the man, there was little to remove his moral inquietude. Discouraged by the sanguinary character of the warfare in which they seemed doomed to be forever engaged, and harassed by constant watchings—seldom taking off their clothes for weeks together—the
men had gradually been losing their energy of spirit in the contemplation of the almost irremediable evils by which they were beset, and looked forward with sad and disheartening conviction to a fate that all things tended to prove to them was unavoidable, however the period of its consummation might be protracted. Among the officers this dejection, although proceeding from a different cause, was no less prevalent, and notwithstanding they sought to disguise it before their men, when left to themselves they gave unlimited rein to a despondency hourly acquiring strength as the day fixed on for the second council with the Indians drew near.
At length came that terrible and eventful day, and, as if in mockery of those who saw no beauty in its golden beams, arrayed in all the gorgeous softness of its autumnal glory. Sad and heavy were the hearts of many within that far distant and isolated fort as they rose, at the first glimmering of light above the horizon, to prepare for the several duties assigned them. All felt the influence of a feeling that laid prostrate the moral energies even of the boldest, but there was one young officer in particular who exhibited a dejection degenerating almost into stupefaction, and more than once when he received an order from his superior hesitated as one who either heard not or, in attempting to perform it, mistook the purport of his instructions and executed some entirely different duty. The countenance of this officer, whose attenuated person otherwise bore traces of languor and debility, but too plainly marked the abstractedness and terror of his mind, while the set stiff features and contracted muscles of the face contributed to give an expression of vacuity that one who knew him not might have interpreted unfavorably. Several times during the inspection of his company at the early parade he was seen to raise his head and throw forward his ear, as if expecting to catch the echo of some horrible and appalling cry, until the men themselves remarked and commented by interchange of looks on the singular conduct of their officer, whose thoughts had evidently no connection with
the duty he was performing or the spot on which he stood.
When this customary inspection had been accomplished —how imperfectly has been seen—and the men dismissed from their ranks, the same young officer was observed, by one who followed his every movement with interest, to ascend that part of the rampart which commanded an unbroken view of the country westward from the point where the encampment of the Indians was supposed to lie down to the bridge on which the terrible tragedy of Halloway's death had been so recently enacted. Unconscious of the presence of two sentinels, who moved to and fro near their respective posts on either side of him, the young officer folded his arms, and gazed in that direction for some minutes with his whole soul riveted on the scene. Then, as if overcome by recollections called up by that on which he gazed, he covered his eyes hurriedly with his hands, and betrayed by the convulsed movement of his slender form he was weeping bitterly. The paroxysm past, he uncovered his face, sank with one knee upon the ground, and upraising his clasped hands as if in appeal to his God seemed to pray deeply and fervently. In this attitude he continued for some moments when he became sensible of the approach of an intruder. He raised himself from his knee, turned and beheld one whose countenance was stamped with a dejection scarcely inferior to his own. It was Captain Blessington.
"Charles, my dear Charles!" exclaimed the latter, hurriedly, as he laid his hand upon the shoulder of the emaciated De Haldimar, "consider you are not alone. For God's sake, check this weakness! There are men observing you on every side, and your strange manner has already been the subject of remark in the company."
"When the heart is sick like mine," replied the youth, in a tone of fearful despondency, "it is alike reckless of forms and careless of appearances. I trust, however," and here spoke the soldier, "there are few within this fort who will believe me less courageous because I have been seen to bend my knee in supplication to my God. I
did not think that you, Blessington, would have been the first to condemn the act."
"I condemn it, Charles! you mistake me, indeed you do," feelingly returned his captain, secretly pained at the mild reproach contained in the concluding sentence; "but there are two things to be considered. In the first instance, the men, who are yet in ignorance of the great evils with which we are threatened, may mistake the cause of your agitation; you were in tears just now, Charles, and the sentinels must have remarked it as well as myself. I would not have them to believe that one of their officers was affected by the anticipation of coming disaster in a way their own hearts are incapable of estimating. You understand me, Charles? I would not have them too much discouraged by an example that may become infectious."
"I do understand you, Blessington," and a forced and sickly smile played for a moment over the wan yet handsome features of the young officer; "you would not have me appear a weeping coward in their eyes."
"Nay, dear Charles, I did not say it."
"But you meant it, Blessington; yet, think not,"—and he warmly pressed the hand of his captain—"think not, I repeat, I take your hint in any other than the friendly light in which it was intended. That I have been no coward, however, I hope I have given proof more than once before the men, most of whom have known me from my cradle, yet whatever they may think is to me at this moment a matter of utter indifference. Blessington," and again the tears rolled from his fixed eyes over his cheek, while he pointed with his finger to the western horizon, "I have neither thought nor feeling for myself; my whole heart lies buried there. Oh, God of heaven!" he pursued, after a pause, and again raising his eyes in supplication, "avert the dreadful destiny that awaits my beloved sister."
"Charles, Charles, if only for that sister's sake, then calm an agitation which if indulged in will assuredly destroy you. All will yet be well. The delay obtained
by your father has been sufficient for the purpose proposed. Let us hope for the best; if we are deceived in our expectation it will then be time enough to indulge in a grief which could scarcely be exceeded were the fearful misgivings of your mind to be realized before your eyes."
"Blessington," returned the young officer—and his features exhibited the liveliest image of despair—"all hope has long since been extinct in my breast. See you yon theatre of death?" he mournfully pursued, pointing to the fatal bridge, which was thrown into full relief against the placid bosom of the Detroit; "recollect you the scene that was acted on it? As for me, it is ever present to my mind—it haunts me in my thoughts by day, and in my dreams by night. I shall never forget it while memory is left to curse me with the power of retrospection. On the very spot on which I now stand was I borne in a chair to witness the dreadful punishment; you see the stone at my feet, I marked it by that. I saw you conduct Halloway to the centre of the bridge; I beheld him kneel to receive his death; I saw, too, the terrible race for life that interrupted the proceedings; I marked the sudden up-spring of Halloway to his feet upon the coffin, and the exulting waving of his hands as he seemed to recognize the rivals for mastery in the race. Then was heard the fatal volley and I saw the death struggle of him who had saved my brother's life. I could have died, too, at that moment—and would to Providence I had!—but it was otherwise decreed. My aching interest was for a moment diverted by the fearful chase now renewed upon the height, and in common with those around me, I watched the efforts of the pursuer and the pursued with painful earnestness and doubt as to the final result.
"Ah, Blessington, why was this not all? The terrible shriek uttered at the moment when the fugitive fell, apparently dead, at the feet of the firing party, reached us even here. I felt as if my heart must have burst, for I knew it to be the shriek of poor Ellen Halloway—the suffering wife, the broken-hearted woman—who had so recently, in all the wild abandonment of her grief, wetted
my pillow and even my cheek with her burning tears, while supplicating an intercession with my father for mercy, which I knew it would be utterly fruitless to promise. The discovery of her exchange of clothes with one of the drum-boys of the Grenadiers was made soon after you left the fort. I saw her leap upon the coffin, and standing over the body of her unhappy husband, raise her hands to heaven in adjuration, and my heart died within me. I recollected the words she had spoken on a previous occasion, during the first examination of Halloway, and I felt it to be the prophetic denunciation then threatened that she was now uttering on all the race of De Haldimar. I saw no more, Blessington. Sick, dizzy, and with every faculty of my mind annihilated, I turned away from the horrid scene and was again borne to my room."
Captain Blessington was deeply affected, for there was a solemnity in the voice of the young officer that carried conviction to the heart.
The attention of both was diverted by the report of a musket from the rear of the fort. Shortly afterwards the word was passed along the chain of sentinels upon the ramparts that the Indians were issuing in force from the forest upon the common near the bomb-proof. Then was heard, as the sentinel at the gate delivered the password, the heavy roll of the drum summoning to arms.
"Ha! here already!" said Captain Blessington, as glancing towards the forest he beheld the skirt of the wood now alive with dusky human forms. "Pontiac's visit is earlier than we had been taught to expect, but we are as well prepared to receive him now as later; and, in fact, the sooner the interview is terminated, the sooner we shall know what we have to depend upon. Come, Charles, we must join the company, and let me entreat you to evince less despondency before the men. It is hard, I know, to sustain an artificial character under such disheartening circumstances; still, for example's sake, it must be done."
"What I can I will do, Blessington," rejoined the youth,
as they both moved from the ramparts, "but the task is in truth one to which I find myself wholly unequal. How do I know that even at this moment my defenceless, terrified and innocent sister may not be invoking the name and arm of her brother to save her from destruction?"
"Trust in Providence, Charles. Even although our worst apprehensions be realized, as I fervently trust they will not, your sister may be spared. The Canadian could not have been unfaithful, or we should have learnt something of his treachery from the Indians. Another week will confirm us in the truth or fallacy of our impressions. Until then let us arm our hearts with hope. Trust me, we shall yet see the laughing eyes of Clara fill with tears of affection as I recount to her all her too sensitive and too desponding brother has suffered for her sake."
De Haldimar made no reply. He deeply felt the kind intention of his captain, but was far from cherishing the hope that had been recommended. He sighed heavily, pressed the arm on which he leaned in gratitude for the motive, and moved silently with his friend to join their company below the rampart.
CHAPTER XV.
MEANWHILE the white flag had again been raised by the Indians upon the bomb-proof, and this having been readily met by a corresponding signal from the fort, a numerous band of savages now issued from the cover, with which their dark forms had hitherto been identified, and spread themselves far and near upon the common. On this occasion they were without arms, offensive or defensive, of any kind, if we may except the knife which was always carried at the girdle, and which constituted a part rather of their necessary dress than of their warlike equipment. These warriors might have been about five hundred in number, and were composed chiefly of picked men from the nations of the Ottawas, the Delawares and the Shawanees, each race being distinctly recognizable from the others by certain peculiarities of form and feature which individualized, if we may so term it, the several tribes. Their only covering was the legging before described, composed in some instances of cloth, but principally of smoked deerskin, and the flap that passed through the girdle around the loins by which the straps attached to the leggings were secured. Their bodies, necks, and arms were, with the exception of a few slight ornaments, entirely naked; and even the blanket that served them as a couch by night and a covering by day had, with one single exception, been dispensed with, apparently with a view to avoid anything like encumbrance in their approaching sport. Each individual was provided with a stout sapling of about three feet in length, curved and flattened at the root extremity like
that used at the Irish hurdle, which game, in fact, the manner of ball-playing among the Indians in every way resembled.
Interspersed among the warriors were a nearly equal number of squaws. These were to be seen lounging carelessly about in small groups, and were of all ages, from the hoary-headed, shrivelled-up hag, whose eyes still sparkled with a fire that her lank and attenuated frame denied, to the young girl of twelve, whose dark and glowing cheek, rounded bust and penetrating glance, bore striking evidence of the precociousness of Indian beauty. These latter looked with evident interest on the sports of the young warriors, who, throwing down their hurdles, either vied with each other in the short but incredibly swift foot-race, or indulged themselves in wrestling and leaping, while their companions, abandoned to the full security they felt to be attached to the white flag waving on the fort, lay at their lazy length upon the sward, ostensibly following the movements of the several competitors in these sports, but in reality with heart and eye directed solely to the fortification that lay beyond. Each of these females, in addition to the machecoti, or petticoat, which in one solid square of broadcloth was tightly wrapped around the loins, also carried a blanket loosely thrown around the person, but closely confined over the shoulders in front and reaching below the knee. There was an air of constraint in their movements which accorded ill with the occasion of festivity for which they were assembled, and it was remarkable, whether it arose from deference to those to whom they were slaves as well as wives and daughters, or from whatever other cause it might be, none of them ventured to recline upon the sward in imitation of the warriors.
When it had been made known to the governor that the Indians had begun to develop themselves in force upon the common unarmed, yet redolent with the spirit that was to direct their meditated sports, the soldiers were dismissed from their respective companies to the ramparts, where they were now to be seen, not drawn up in
formidable and hostile array, but collected together in careless groups and simply in their side-arms. This reciprocation of confidence on the part of the garrison was acknowledged by the Indians by marks of approbation, expressed as much by the sudden and classic disposition of their fine forms into attitudes strikingly illustrative of their admiration and pleasure, as by the interjectional sounds that passed from one to the other of the throng. From the increased alacrity with which they now lent themselves to the preparatory and inferior amusements of the day it was evident their satisfaction was complete.
Hitherto the principal chiefs had, as on the previous occasion, occupied the bomb-proof, and now, as then, they appeared to be deliberating among themselves, but evidently in a more energetic and serious manner. At length they separated, when Pontiac, accompanied by the chiefs who had attended him on the former day, once more led in the direction of the fort. The moment of his advance was the signal for the commencement of the principal game. In an instant those of the warriors who lay reclining on the sward sprang to their feet, while the wrestlers and racers resumed their hurdles and prepared themselves for the trial of mingled skill and swiftness. At first they formed a dense group in the centre of the common, and then, diverging in two equal files both to the right and to the left of the immediate centre, where the large ball was placed, formed an open chain extending from the skirt of the forest to the commencement of the village. On the one side were ranged the Delawares and Shawanees and on the other the more numerous nations of the Ottawas. The women of these several tribes, apparently much interested in the issue of an amusement in which the manliness and activity of their respective friends were staked, had gradually and imperceptibly gained the front of the fort, where they were now huddled in groups at about twenty paces from the drawbridge, and bending eagerly forward to command the movements of the ball players.
In his circuit round the walls Pontiac was seen to remark the confiding appearance of the unarmed soldiery with a satisfaction that was not sought to be disguised, and from the manner in which he threw his glance along each face of the rampart it was evident his object was to embrace the numerical strength collected there. It was, moreover, observed, when he passed the groups of squaws on his way to the gate, he addressed some words in a strange tongue to the elder matrons of each.
Once more the dark warriors were received at the gate by Major Blackwater, and as with firm but elastic tread they moved across the square, each threw his eyes rapidly and anxiously around and with less of concealment in his manner than had been manifested on the former occasion. On every hand the same air of nakedness and desertion met their gaze. Not even a soldier of the guard was to be seen, and when they cast their eyes upwards to the windows of the blockhouses they were found to be tenantless as the area through which they passed. A gleam of fierce satisfaction pervaded the swarthy countenances of the Indians, and the features of Pontiac in particular expressed the deepest exultation. Instead of leading his party he now brought up the rear, and when arrived in the centre of the fort, he, without any visible cause for the accident, stumbled and fell to the earth. The other chiefs for the moment lost sight of their ordinary gravity and marked their sense of the circumstance by a prolonged sound, partaking of the mingled character of a laugh and a yell. Startled at the cry, Major Blackwater, who was in front, turned to ascertain the cause. At that moment Pontiac sprang lightly again to his feet, responding to the yell of his confederates by another even more startling, fierce and prolonged than their own. He then stalked proudly to the head of the party, and even preceded Major Blackwater into the council-room.
In this rude theatre of conference some changes had been made since their recent visit, which escaped not the observation of the quick-sighted chiefs. Their mats lay in the position they had previously occupied, and the
chairs of the officers were placed as before, but the room itself had been considerably enlarged. The slight partition terminating the interior extremity of the mess-room, and dividing it from that of one of the officers, had been removed, and midway through this, extending entirely across, was drawn a curtain of scarlet cloth, against which the imposing figure of the governor, elevated as his seat was above those of the other officers, was thrown into strong relief. There was another change that escaped not the observation of the Indians, and that was, not more than one-half of the officers who had been present at the first conference were now in the room. Of these latter one had, moreover, been sent away by the governor the moment the chiefs were ushered in.
"Ugh!" ejaculated the proud leader, as he took his seat unceremoniously, and yet not without reluctance, upon the mat. "The council-room of my father is bigger than when the Ottawa was here before, yet the number of his chiefs is not so many."
"The great chief of the Ottawas knows that the Saganaw has promised the redskins a feast," returned the governor. "Were he to leave it to his young warriors to provide it he would not be able to receive the Ottawa like a great chief and to make peace with him as he could wish."
"My father has a great deal of cloth, red like the blood of the paleface," pursued the Indian, rather in demand than in observation, as he pointed with his finger to the opposite end of the room. "When the Ottawa was here last he did not see it."
"The great chief of the Ottawas knows that the great father of the Saganaw has a big heart to make presents to the redskins. The cloth the Ottawa sees there is sufficient to make leggings for the chiefs of all the nations."
Apparently satisfied with this reply the fierce Indian uttered one of his strong guttural and assentient "ughs," and then commenced filling the pipe of peace, correct on the present occasion in all its ornaments, which was handed to him by the Delaware chief. It was remarked
by the officers this operation took up an unusually long portion of his time, and that he frequently turned his ear, like a horse stirred by the huntsman's horn, with quick and irrepressible eagerness towards the door.
"The pale warrior, the friend of the Ottawa chief, is not here," said the governor, as he glanced his eye along the semicircle of Indians. "How is this? Is his voice still sick that he cannot come, or has the great chief of the Ottawas forgotten to tell him?"
"The voice of the pale warrior is still sick and he cannot speak," replied the Indian. "The Ottawa chief is very sorry, for the tongue of his friend the paleface is full of wisdom."
Scarcely had the last words escaped his lips when a wild shrill cry from without the fort rang on the ears of the assembled council and caused a momentary commotion among the officers. It arose from a single voice, and that voice could not be mistaken by any who had heard it once before. A second or two, during which the officers and chiefs kept their eyes intently fixed on each other, passed anxiously away, and then nearer to the gate, apparently on the very drawbridge itself, was pealed forth the wild and deafening yell of a legion of devilish voices. At that sound the Ottawa and the other chiefs sprang to their feet, and their own fierce cry responded to that yet vibrating on the ears of all. Already were their gleaming tomahawks brandished wildly over their heads, and Pontiac had even bounded a pace forward to reach the governor with the deadly weapon, when, at the sudden stamping of the foot of the latter upon the floor, the scarlet cloth in the rear was thrown aside and twenty soldiers, their eyes glancing along the barrels of their levelled muskets, met the startled gaze of the astonished Indians.
An instant was enough to satisfy the keen chief of the true state of the case. The calm, composed mien of the officers, not one of whom had even attempted to quit his seat amid the din by which his ears were so alarmingly assailed; the triumphant, yet dignified and even severe
expression of the governor's countenance, and, above all, the unexpected presence of the prepared soldiery—all these at once assured him of the discovery of his treachery and the danger that awaited him. The necessity for an immediate attempt to join his warriors without was now obvious to the Ottawa, and scarcely had he conceived the idea before it was sought to be executed. In a single spring he gained the door of the mess-room, and, followed eagerly and tumultuously by the other chiefs, to whose departure no opposition was offered, in the next moment he stood on the steps of the piazza that ran along the front of the building whence he had issued.
The surprise of the Indians on reaching this point was now too powerful to be dissembled, and incapable either of advancing or receding, they remained gazing on the scene before them with an air of mingled stupefaction, rage and alarm. Scarcely ten minutes had elapsed since they had proudly strode through the naked area of the fort, and yet even in that short space of time its appearance had been entirely changed. Not a part was there now of the surrounding buildings that was not redolent with human life and hostile preparation. Through every window of the officers' low rooms was to be seen the dark and frowning muzzle of a field-piece bearing upon the gateway, and behind these were artillerymen holding their lighted matches, supported again by files of bayonets that glittered in their rear. In the blockhouses the same formidable array of field-pieces and muskets was visible, while from the four angles of the square as many heavy guns, that had been artfully masked at the entrance of the chiefs, seemed ready to sweep away everything that should come before them. The guard-room near the gate presented the same hostile front. The doors of this, as well as of the other buildings, had been firmly secured within, but from every window affording cover to the troops gleamed a line of bayonets rising above the threatening field-pieces, pointed at a distance of little more than twelve feet directly upon the gateway. In addition to his musket, each man of the guard, moreover,
held a hand grenade, provided with a short fuse that could be ignited in a moment from the matches of the gunners and with immediate effect. The soldiers in the block-houses were similarly provided.
Almost magical as was the change thus suddenly effected in the appearance of the garrison, it was not the most interesting feature in the exciting scene. Choking up the gateway, in which they were completely wedged, and crowding the drawbridge, a dense mass of dusky Indians were to be seen casting their fierce glances around, yet paralyzed in their movements by the unlooked for display of a resisting force threatening instant annihilation to those who should attempt either to advance or to recede. Never, perhaps, was astonishment and disappointment more forcibly depicted on the human countenance than as they were now exhibited by these men, who had already in imagination secured to themselves an easy conquest. They were the warriors who had so recently been engaged in the manly yet innocent exercise of the ball, but, instead of the harmless hurdle, each now carried a short gun in one hand and a gleaming tomahawk in the other. After the first general yelling heard in the council-room not a sound was uttered. Their burst of rage and triumph had evidently been checked by the unexpected manner of their reception, and they now stood on the spot on which the further advance of each had been arrested, so silent and motionless that, but for the rolling of their dark eyes as they keenly measured the insurmountable barriers that were opposed to their progress, they might almost have been taken for a wild group of statuary.
Conspicuous at the head of these was he who wore the blanket—a tall warrior on whom rested the startled eye of every officer and soldier who was so situated as to behold him. His face was painted black as death, and as he stood under the arch of the gateway, with his white turbaned head towering far above those of his companions, this formidable and mysterious enemy might have
"Choking up the gateway . . . . . . a dense mass of dusky Indians were to be seen."
been likened to the spirit of darkness presiding over his terrible legions.
In order to account for the extraordinary appearance of the Indians, armed in every way for death, at a moment when neither gun nor tomahawk was apparently within miles of their reach, it will be necessary to revert to the first entrance of the chiefs into the fort. The fall of Pontiac had been the effect of design, and the yell pealed forth by him on recovering his feet, as if in taunting reply to the laugh of his comrades, was in reality a signal intended for the guidance of the Indians without. These now, following up their game with increasing spirit, at once changed the direction of their line, bringing the ball nearer the fort. In their eagerness to effect this object they had overlooked the gradual secession of the unarmed troops, spectators of their sport, from the ramparts, until scarcely more than twenty stragglers were left. As they neared the gate the squaws broke up their several groups, and forming a line on either hand of the road leading to the drawbridge, appeared to separate solely with a view not to impede the action of the players. For an instant a dense group collected around the ball, which had been driven to within a hundred yards of the gate, and fifty hurdles were crossed in their endeavors to secure it, when the warrior who formed the solitary exception to the multitude in his blanket covering, and who had been lingering in the extreme rear of the party, came rapidly up to the spot where the well-affected struggle was maintained. At his approach the hurdles of the other players were withdrawn, when at a single blow of his powerful arm the ball was seen flying into the air in an oblique direction, and was for a moment lost altogether to the view. When it again met the eye it was descending perpendicularly into the very centre of the fort.
With the fleetness of thought now commenced a race that had ostensibly for its object the recovery of the lost ball, and in which he who had driven it with such resistless force outstripped them all. Their course lay between the two lines of squaws, and scarcely had the heads of the bounding Indians reached the opposite extremity of those lines when the women suddenly threw back their blankets and disclosed each a short gun and a tomahawk. To throw away their hurdles and seize upon these was the work of an instant. Already, in imagination, was the fort their own, and such was the peculiar exultation of the black and turbaned warrior when he felt the planks of the drawbridge bending beneath his feet, all the ferocious joy of his soul was pealed forth in the terrible cry which, rapidly succeeded by that of the other Indians, had resounded so fearfully through the council-room. What their disappointment was when on gaining the interior they found the garrison prepared for their reception has already been shown.
"Secure that traitor, men!" exclaimed the governor, advancing into the square and pointing to the black warrior, whose quick eye was now glancing on every side to discover some assailable point in the formidable defences of the troops.
A laugh of scorn and derision escaped the lips of the warrior. "Is there a man—are there any ten men, even with Governor De Haldimar at their head—who will be bold enough to attempt it?" he asked. "Nay!" he pursued, stepping boldly a pace or two in front of the wondering savages, "here I stand singly and defy your whole garrison!"
A sudden movement among the soldiers in the guard-room announced they were preparing to execute the order of their chief. The eye of the black warrior sparkled with ferocious pleasure, and he made a gesture to his followers which was replied to by the sudden tension of their hitherto relaxed forms into attitudes of expectancy and preparation.
"Stay, men; quit not your cover for your lives!" commanded the governor in a loud, deep voice. "Keep the barricades fast and move not."
A cloud of anger and disappointment passed over the features of the black warrior. It was evident the
object of his bravado was to draw the troops from their defences, that they might be so mingled with their enemies as to render the cannon useless unless friends and foes (which was by no means probable) should alike be sacrificed. The governor had penetrated the design in time to prevent the mischief.
In a moment of uncontrollable rage the savage warrior aimed his tomahawk at the head of the governor. The latter stepped lightly aside and the steel sank with such force into one of the posts supporting the piazza that the quivering handle snapped close off at its head. At that moment a single shot fired from the guard-house was drowned in the yell of approbation which burst from the lips of the dark crowd. The turban of the warrior was, however, seen flying through the air, carried away by the force of the bullet which had torn it from his head. He himself was unharmed.
"A narrow escape for us both, Colonel De Haldimar," he observed, as soon as the yell subsided, and with an air of the most perfect unconcern. "Had my tomahawk obeyed the first impulse of my heart I should have cursed myself and died. As it is, I have reason to avoid all useless exposure of my own life at present. A second bullet may be better directed, and to die robbed of my revenge would ill answer the purpose of a life devoted to its attainment. Remember my pledge!"
At the hasty command of the governor a hundred muskets were raised to the shoulders of his men, but before a single eye could glance along the barrel the formidable and active warrior had bounded over the heads of the nearest Indians into a small space that was left unoccupied, when, stooping suddenly to the earth, he disappeared altogether from the view of his enemies. A slight moving in the centre of the numerous band crowding the gateway and extending even beyond the bridge was now discernible; it was like the waving of a field of standing corn through which some animal rapidly winds its torturous course, bending aside as the object advances and closing again when it has passed. After
the lapse of a minute the terrible warrior was seen to spring again to his feet far in the rear of the band, and then, uttering a fierce shout of exultation, to make good his retreat towards the forest.
Meanwhile Pontiac and the other chiefs of the council continued rooted to the piazza on which they had rushed at the unexpected display of the armed men behind the scarlet curtain. The loud "waugh" that burst from the lips of all on finding themselves thus foiled in their schemes of massacre had been succeeded the instant afterwards by feelings of personal apprehension, which each, however, had collectedness enough to disguise. Once the Ottawa made a movement as if he would have cleared the space that kept him from his warriors, but the emphatical pointing of the finger of Colonel De Haldimar to the levelled muskets of the men in the block-house prevented him, and the attempt was not repeated. It was remarked by the officers, who also stood on the piazza close behind the chiefs, when the black warrior threw his tomahawk at the governor a shade of displeasure passed over the features of the Ottawa, and that when he found the daring attempt was not retaliated on his people his countenance had been momentarily lighted up with a satisfied expression, apparently marking his sense of forbearance so unexpectedly shown.
"What says the great chief of the Ottawas now?" asked the governor, calmly, and breaking a profound silence that had succeeded to the last fierce yell of the formidable being just departed. "Was the Saganaw not right when he said the Ottawa came with guile in his heart and a lie upon his lips? But the Saganaw is not a fool, and he can read the thoughts of his enemies upon their faces and long before their lips have spoken."
"Ugh!" ejaculated the Indian; "my father is a great chief and his head is full of wisdom. Had he been feeble like the other chiefs of the Saganaw, the stronghold of the Detroit must have fallen and the redskins would have danced their war dance round the scalps of his young
men, even in the council-room where they came to talk of peace."
"Does the great chief of the Ottawas see the big thunder of the Saganaw?" pursued the governor; "if not, let him open his eyes and look. The Saganaw has but to move his lips and swifter than the lightning would the palefaces sweep away the warriors of the Ottawa; even where they now stand, in less time than the Saganaw is now speaking, would they mow them down like the grass of the prairie."
"Ugh!" again exclaimed the chief, with mixed doggedness and fierceness; "if what my father says is true, why does he not pour out his anger upon the redskins?"
"Let the great chief of the Ottawas listen," replied the governor, with dignity. "When the great chiefs of all the nations that are in league with the Ottawas came last to the council the Saganaw knew that they carried deceit in their hearts and that they never meant to smoke the pipe of peace or to bury the hatchet in the ground. The Saganaw might have kept them prisoners that their warriors might be without a head, but he had given his word to the great chief of the Ottawas, and the word of a Saganaw is never broken. Even now, while both the chiefs and the warriors are in his power, he will not slay them, for he wishes to show the Ottawa the desire of the Saganaw is to be friendly with the redskins and not to destroy them. Wicked men from the Canadas have whispered lies in the ear of the Ottawa, but a great chief should judge for himself and take counsel only from the wisdom of his own heart. The Ottawa and his warriors may go," he resumed, after a short pause; "the path by which they came is again open to them. Let them depart in peace, the big thunder of the Saganaw shall not harm them."
The countenance of the Indian, who had clearly seen the danger of his position, wore an expression of surprise which could not be dissembled; low exclamations passed between him and his companions, and then, pointing to
the tomahawk that lay half buried in the wood, he said, doubtingly:
"It was the paleface, the friend of the great chief of the Ottawas, who struck the hatchet at my father. The Ottawa is not a fool to believe the Saganaw can sleep without revenge."
"The great chief of the Ottawas shall know us better," was the reply. "The young warriors of the Saganaw might destroy their enemies where they now stand, but they seek not their blood. When the Ottawa chief takes counsel from his own heart, and not from the lips of a cowardly dog of a paleface who strikes his tomahawk and then flies, his wisdom will tell him to make peace with the Saganaw, whose warriors are without treachery even as they are without fear."
Another of those deep interjectional "ughs" escaped the chest of the proud Indian.
"What my father says is good," he returned; "but the paleface is a great warrior and the Ottawa chief is his friend. The Ottawa will go."
He then addressed a few sentences, in a tongue unknown to the officers, to the swarthy and anxious crowd in front. These were answered by a low, sullen, yet assentient grunt from the united band, who now turned, though with justifiable caution and distrust, and recrossed the drawbridge without hindrance from the troops. Pontiac waited until the last Indian had departed, and then, making a movement to the governor which, with all its haughtiness, was meant to mark his sense of the forbearance and good faith that had been manifested, once more stalked proudly and calmly across the area, followed by the remainder of the chiefs. The officers who were with the governor ascended to the ramparts to follow their movements, and it was not before their report had been made that the Indians were merging once more into the heart of the forest the troops were withdrawn from their formidable defences and the gate of the fort again firmly secured.
CHAPTER XVI.
WHILE the reader is left to pause over the rapid succession of incidents resulting from the mysterious entrance of the warrior of the Fleur de Lis into the English fort, be it our task to explain the circumstances connected with the singular disappearance of Captain De Haldimar and the melancholy murder of his unfortunate servant.
It will be recollected that the ill-fated Halloway, in the course of his defence before the court-martial, distinctly stated the voice of the individual who had approached his post, calling on the name of Captain De Haldimar, on the night of the alarm, to have been that of a female, and that the language in which they subsequently conversed was that of the Ottawa Indians. This was strictly the fact; and the only error into which the unfortunate soldier had fallen had reference merely to the character and motives of the party. He had naturally imagined, as he had stated, it was some young female of the village whom attachment for his officer had driven to the desperate determination of seeking an interview; nor was this impression at all weakened by the subsequent discourse of the parties in the Indian tongue, with which it was well known most of the Canadians, both male and female, were more or less conversant. The object of that short, low and hurried conference was, indeed, one that well warranted the singular intrusion; and in the declaration of Halloway we have already seen the importance and anxiety attached by the young officer to the communication.
Without waiting to repeat the motives assigned for his
departure, and the prayers and expostulations to which he had recourse to overcome the determination and sense of duty of the unfortunate sentinel, let us pass at once to the moment when, after having cleared the ditch conjointly with his faithful follower, in the manner already shown, Captain De Haldimar first stood side by side with his midnight visitant.
The night, it has elsewhere been observed, was clear and starry, so that objects upon the common, such as the rude stump that here and there raised its dark low head above the surface, might be dimly seen in the distance. To obviate the danger of discovery by the sentinels appeared to be the first study of the female, for when Captain De Haldimar, followed by his servant, had reached the spot on which she stood, she put the forefinger of one hand to her lips and with the other pointed to his booted foot. A corresponding signal showed that the lightness of the material offered little risk of betrayal. Donellan, however, was made to doff his heavy ammunition shoes, and with this precaution they all stole hastily along under the shadows of the projecting ramparts until they had gained the extreme rear. Here the female suddenly raised her tall figure from the stooping position in which she, as well as her companions, had performed the dangerous circuit, and, placing her finger once more significantly on her lips, led in the direction of the bomb-proof unperceived by the sentinels, most of whom, it is probable, had up to the moment of the alarm subsequently given been too much overcome by previous watching and excitement to have kept the most vigilant lookout.
Arrived at the skirt of the forest, the little party drew up within the shadow of the ruin, and a short and earnest dialogue ensued in Indian between the female and the officer. This was succeeded by a command from the latter to his servant, who after a momentary but respectful expostulation, which, however, was utterly lost on him to whom it was addressed, proceeded to divest himself of his humble apparel, assuming in exchange the more elegant uniform of his superior. Donellan, who was also
of the Grenadiers, was remarkable for the resemblance he bore in figure to Captain De Haldimar, wanting, it is true, the grace and freedom of movement of the latter, but still presenting an outline which, in an attitude of profound repose, might, as it subsequently did, have set even those who were most intimate with the officer at fault.
"This is well," observed the female, as the young man proceeded to induct himself in the gray coat of his servant, having previously drawn the glazed hat close over his waving and redundant hair; "if the Saganaw is ready Oucanasta will go."
"Sure and your honor does not mane to lave me behind!" exclaimed the anxious soldier, as his captain now recommended him to stand close concealed near the ruin until his return. "Who knows what ambuscade the she-devil may lead your honor into, and thin who will you have to bring you out of it?"
"No, Donellan; it must not be. I first intended it, as you may perceive by my bringing you out, but the expedition on which I am going is of the utmost importance to us all, and too much precaution cannot be taken. I fear no ambuscade, for I can depend on the fidelity of my guide; but the presence of a third person would only embarrass without assisting me in the least. You must remain behind—the woman insists upon it, and there is no more to be said."
"To Ould Nick with the ugly witch for her pains!" half muttered the disappointed soldier to himself. "I wish it may be as your honor says, but my mind misgives me sadly that evil will come of this. Has your honor secured the pistols?"
"They are here," returned his captain, placing a hand on either chest. "And now, Donellan, mark me. I know nothing that can detain me longer than an hour; at least, the woman assures me, and I believe her, that I may be back then, but it is well to guard against accidents. You must continue here for the hour, and for the hour only. If I come not then return to the fort without delay, for
the rope must be removed and the gate secured before Halloway is relieved. The keys you will find in the pocket of my uniform; when you have done with them let them be hung up in their proper place in the guard-room. My father must not know, either, that Halloway suffered me to pass the gate, or that you accompanied me."
"Lord love us, your honor talks as if you would never return, giving such a heap of orders!" exclaimed the startled man; "but if I go back alone, as I trust in heaven I shall not, how am I to account for being dressed in your honor's regimentals?"
"I tell you, Donellan," impatiently returned the officer, "that I shall be back, but I only wish to guard against accidents. The instant you get into the fort you will take off my clothes and resume your own. Who the devil is to see you in the uniform unless it be Halloway?"
"If the Saganaw would not see the earth red with the blood of his race he will go," interrupted the female. "Oucanasta can feel the breath of the morning fresh upon her cheek, and the council of the chiefs must be begun."
"The Saganaw is ready and Oucanasta shall lead the way," hastily returned the officer. "One word more, Donellan," and he pressed the hand of his domestic kindly, "should I not return, you must, without committing Halloway or yourself, cause my father to be apprised that the Indians meditate a deep and treacherous plan to get possession of the fort. What that plan is I know not yet myself, neither does this woman know, but she says I shall hear it discussed unseen, even in the heart of their own encampment. All you have to do is to acquaint my father with the existence of danger. And now be cautious; above all things keep close under the shadow of the bomb-proof, for there are scouts constantly prowling about the common and the glittering of the uniform in the starlight may betray you."
"But why may I not follow your honor?" again urged the faithful soldier; "and where is the use of my remaining here to count the stars and hear the 'all's well' from the fort when I could be so much better employed in guarding your honor from harm? What sort of protection can that Ingin woman afford who is of the race of our bitterest enemies, them cursed Ottawas, and your honor venturing, too, like a spy, into the very heart of the blood-hounds? Ah, Captain De Haldimar, for the love of God do not trust yourself alone with her, or I am sure I shall never see your honor again!"
The last words (unhappily too prophetic) fell only on the ear of him who uttered them: The female and the officer had already disappeared round an abrupt angle of the bomb-proof, and the soldier, as directed by his master, now drew up his tall figure against the ruin, where he continued for a period immovable as if he had been planted there in his ordinary character of sentinel, listening, until they eventually died away in distance, to the receding footsteps of his master, and then ruminating on the several apprehensions that crowded on his mind in regard to the probable issue of his adventurous project.
Meanwhile Captain De Haldimar and his guide trod the mazes of the forest with an expedition that proved the latter to be well acquainted with its bearings. On quitting the bomb-proof she had struck into a narrow winding path less seen than felt in the deep gloom pervading the wood, and with light steps bounded over obstacles that lay strewed in their course, emitting scarcely more sound than would have been produced by the slimy crawl of its native rattlesnake. Not so, however, with the less experienced tread of her companion. Wanting the pliancy of movement given to it by the light moccasin, the booted foot of the young officer, despite of all his precaution, fell heavily to the ground, producing such a rustling among the dried leaves that had an Indian ear been lurking anywhere around his approach must inevitably have been betrayed. More than once, too, neglecting to follow the injunction of his companion, who moved in a stooping posture, with her head bent over her chest, his
hat was caught in the closely matted branches and fell sullenly and heavily to the earth, evidently much to the discomfiture of his guide.
At length they stood on the verge of a dark and precipitous ravine, the abrupt sides of which were studded with underwood so completely interwoven that all passage appeared impracticable. What, however, seemed an insurmountable obstacle proved in reality an estimable advantage, for it was by clinging to this, in imitation of the example set by his companion, the young officer was prevented from rolling into an abyss the depth of which was lost in the profound obscurity that pervaded the scene. Through the bed of this dark dell rolled a narrow stream, so imperceptible to the eye in the "living darkness," and so noiseless in its course, that it was not until warned by his companion he stood on the very brink of it, Captain De Haldimar was made sensible of its existence. Both cleared it at a single bound in which the activity of the female was not the least conspicuous, and clambering up the opposite steep, secured their footing by the aid of the same underwood that had assisted them in their descent.
On gaining the other summit, which was not done without detaching several large stones from their sandy bed, they again fell into the path which had been lost sight of in traversing the ravine. They had proceeded along this about half a mile when the female suddenly stopped, and pointing to a dim and lurid atmosphere that now began to show itself between the thin foliage, whispered that in the opening beyond stood the encampment of the Indians. She then seated herself on the trunk of a fallen tree that lay at the side of the almost invisible path they had hitherto pursued, and motioning to her companion to unboot himself, proceeded to unlace the fastenings of her moccasins.
"The foot of the Saganaw must fall like the night dew on the prairie," she observed; "the ear of the redskin is quicker than the lightning, and he will know that a paleface is near if he hear but his tread upon a blade of grass."
The young officer had at the first suggestion of his guide divested himself of his boots, prepared to perform the remainder of the journey merely in his stockings, but his companion now threw herself upon her knees before him, and without further ceremony proceeded to draw over his foot one of the moccasins she had just relinquished.
"The feet of the Saganaw are soft as those of a young child," she remarked, in a voice of commiseration, "but the moccasins of Oucanasta shall protect them from the thorns of the forest."
This was too un-European—too much reversing the established order of things—to be borne patiently. As if he had felt the dignity of his manhood offended by the proposal, the officer drew his foot hastily back, declaring, as he sprang from the log, he did not care for the thorns and could not think of depriving a female, who must be much more sensible of pain than himself.
Oucanasta, however, was not to be outdone in politeness. She calmly reseated herself on the log, drew her right foot over her left knee, caught one of the hands of her companion and placing it upon the naked sole desired him to feel how impervious to attack of every description was that indurated portion of the lower limb.
This practical argument was not without its weight and had more effect in deciding the officer than a volume of remonstrance. When Captain De Haldimar had passed his unwilling hand over the foot of Oucanasta, which, whatever her face might have been, was certainly anything but delicate, and encountered numerous ragged excrescences and raspy callousities that set all symmetry at defiance, a wonderful revolution came over his feelings, and secretly determining the moccasins would be equally well placed on his own feet, he no longer offered any opposition.
This important point arranged, the officer once more followed his guide in silence. Gradually the forest as they advanced became lighter with the lurid atmosphere before alluded to, and at length through the trees could
be indistinctly seen the Indian fires from which it proceeded. The young man was now desired by his conductress to use the utmost circumspection in making the circuit of the wood, in order to gain a position immediately opposite to the point where the path they had hitherto pursued terminated in the opening. This, indeed, was the most dangerous and critical part of the undertaking. A false step or the crackling of a decayed branch beneath the foot would have been sufficient to betray proximity, in which case his doom was sealed.
Fortunate did he now deem himself in having yielded to the counsel of his guide. Had he retained his unbending boot it must have crushed whatever it pressed, whereas the pliant moccasin, yielding to the obstacles it encountered, enabled him to pass noiselessly over them. Still, while exempt from danger on this score, another, scarcely less perplexing, became at every instant more obvious, for as they drew nearer to the point which the female sought to gain, the dim light of the half-slumbering fires fell so immediately upon their path that had a single human eye been turned in that direction their discovery was inevitable.
It was with a beating heart, to which mere personal fear, however, was a stranger, that Captain De Haldimar performed this concluding stage of his adventurous course, but, at a moment when he considered detection unavoidable and was arming himself with resolution to meet the event, the female suddenly halted, placing in the act the trunk of an enormous beech between her companion and the dusky forms within, whose very breathing could be heard by the anxious officer. Without uttering a word she took his hand, and drawing him gently forward, disappeared altogether from his view. The young man followed, and in the next moment found himself in the bowelless body of the tree itself, into which on the side of the encampment both light and sound were admitted by a small aperture formed by the natural decay of the wood.
The Indian pressed her lips to the ear of her comion and rather breathed than said: "The Saganaw will see and hear everything from this in safety, and what he hears let him treasure in his heart. Oucanasta must go. When the council is over she will return and lead him back to his warriors."
With this brief intimation she departed, and so noiselessly that the young officer was not aware of her absence until some minutes of silence had satisfied him she must be gone. His first care then was to survey through the aperture, that lay in a level with his eye, the character of the scene before him. The small plain in which lay the encampment of the Indians was a sort of oasis of the forest, girt around with a rude belt of underwood, and somewhat elevated, so as to present the appearance of a mound constructed on the first principles of art. This was thickly, although irregularly, studded with tents, some of which were formed of large coarse mats thrown over poles disposed in a conical shape, while others were more rudely composed of the leafy branches of the forest.
Within these, groups of human forms lay wrapped in their blankets, stretched at their lazy length. Others, with their feet placed close to the dying embers of their fires, diverged like so many radii from their centre, and lay motionless in sleep as if life and consciousness were wholly extinct. Here and there was to be seen a solitary warrior securing, with admirable neatness and with delicate ligatures formed of the sinew of the deer, the guiding feather, or fashioning the bony barb of his long arrow, while others, with the same warlike spirit in view, employed themselves in cutting and greasing small patches of smoked deerskin, which were to secure and give a more certain direction to the murderous bullet. Among the warriors were interspersed many women, some of whom might be seen supporting in their laps the heavy heads of their unconscious helpmates, while they occupied themselves by the firelight in parting the long black matted hair and maintaining a destructive warfare against the pigmy inhabitants of that dark region.
These signs of life and activity in the body of the camp
generally were, however, but few and occasional, and at the spot where Captain De Haldimar stood concealed the scene was different. At a few yards from the tree stood a sort of shed, composed of tall poles placed upright in the earth and supporting a roof formed simply of rude boughs, the foliage of which had been withered by time. This simple edifice might be about fifty feet in circumference. In the centre blazed a large fire that had been newly fed, and around this were assembled a band of swarthy warriors, some twenty or thirty in number, who by their proud, calm and thoughtful bearing might at once be known to be chiefs.
The faces of most of these were familiar to the young officer, who speedily recognized them for the principals of the various tribes Pontiac had leagued in arms against his enemies. That chief himself, ever remarkable for his haughty eye and commanding gesture, was of the number of those present, and sat a little aloof from his inferiors, with his feet stretched towards the fire, and half reclining on his side in an attitude of indolence, yet with his mind evidently engrossed by deep and absorbing thought. From some observations that distinctly met his ear Captain De Haldimar gathered the party were only awaiting the arrival of an important character, without whose presence the leading chief was unwilling the conference should begin. The period of the officer's concealment had just been long enough to enable him to fix all these particulars in his mind when suddenly the faint report of a distant rifle was heard echoing throughout the wood. This was instantly succeeded by a second, that sounded more sharply on the ear, and then followed a long and piercing cry that brought every warrior, even those who slept, quickly to his feet.
An anxious interval of some minutes passed away in the fixed and listening attitudes which the chiefs especially assumed, when a noise resembling that of some animal forcing its way rapidly through the rustling branches was faintly heard in the direction in which the shots had been fired. This gradually increased as it evidently approached the encampment, and then distinctly could be heard the light yet unguarded boundings of a human foot. At every moment the rustling of the underwood, rapidly divided by the approaching form, became more audible, and so closely did the intruder press upon the point in which Captain De Haldimar was concealed that that officer, fancying he had been betrayed, turned hastily around and grasping one of the pistols he had secreted in his chest, prepared himself for a last and deadly encounter. An instant or two was sufficient to reassure him. The form glided hastily past, brushing the tree with its garments in its course, and, clearing at a single bound the belt of underwood that divided the encampment from the tall forest, stood suddenly among the group of anxious and expectant chiefs.
This individual, a man of tall stature, was powerfully made. He wore a jerkin or hunting-coat of leather, and his arms were a rifle, which had every appearance of having just been discharged, a tomahawk reeking with blood, and a scalping-knife which, in the hurry of some recent service it had been made to perform, had missed its sheath, and was thrust naked into the belt that encircled his loins. His countenance wore an expression of malignant triumph, and as his eye fell on the assembled throng its self-satisfied and exulting glance seemed to give them to understand he came not without credentials to recommend him to their notice. Captain De Haldimar was particularly struck by the air of bold daring and almost insolent recklessness pervading every movement of this man; and it was difficult to say whether the haughtiness of bearing peculiar to Pontiac himself was not exceeded by that of this herculean warrior.
By the body of chiefs his appearance had been greeted with a more general grunt of approbation, but the countenance of the leader expressed a more personal interest. All seemed to expect he had something of moment to communicate, but as it was not consistent with the dignity of Indian etiquette to enquire, they waited calmly until it should please their new associate to enter on the history
of his exploits. In pursuance of an invitation from Pontiac, he now took his seat on the right hand of that chief and immediately facing the tree from which Captain De Haldimar, strongly excited both by the reports of the shots that had been fired and the sight of the bloody tomahawk of the recently arrived Indian, gazed earnestly and anxiously on the swarthy throng.
Glancing once more triumphantly round the circle, who sat smoking their pipes in calm and deliberate silence, the latter now observed the eye of a young chief who sat opposite to him intently riveted on his left shoulder. He raised his hand to the part, withdrew it, looked at it and found it wet with blood. A slight start of surprise betrayed his own unconsciousness of the accident, yet secretly vexed at the discovery which had been made, and urged probably by one of his wayward fits, he demanded haughtily and insultingly of the young chief, if that was the first time he had ever looked on the blood of a warrior.
"Does my brother feel pain?" was the taunting reply. "If he is come to us with a trophy, it is not without being dearly bought. The Saganaw has spilt his blood."
"The weapons of the Saganaw, like those of the smooth face of the Ottawa, are without sting," angrily retorted the other. "They only prick the skin like a thorn, but when Wacousta drinks the blood of his enemy," and he glanced his eye fiercely at the young man, "it is the blood next his heart."
"My brother has always big words upon his lips," returned the young chief, with a scornful sneer at the implied threat against himself. "But where are his proofs?"
For a moment the eye of the party thus challenged kindled into flame, while his lips were firmly compressed together, and as he half bent himself forward to scan with greater earnestness the features of his questioner, his right hand sank to his left side, tightly grasping the handle of his scalping-knife. The action was but momentary. Again he drew himself up, puffed the smoke deliberately from his bloody tomahawk, and thrusting his right hand
into his bosom, drew leisurely forth a reeking scalp, which he tossed insolently across the fire into the lap of the young chief. A loud and general "ugh!" testified the approbation of the assembled group at the unequivocal answer thus given to the demand of the youth. The eye of the huge warrior sparkled with a deep and ferocious exultation.
"What says the smooth face of the Ottawa now?" he demanded, in the same insolent strain. "Does it make his heart sick to look upon the scalp of a great chief?"
The young man quietly turned the horrid trophy over several times in his hand, examining it attentively in every part. Then, tossing it back with contemptuous coolness to its owner, he replied:
"The eyes of my brother are weak with age. He is not cunning like a redskin. The Ottawa has often seen the Saganaw in their fort, and he knows their chiefs have fine hair like women, but this is like the bristle of the fox. My brother has not slain a great chief, but a common warrior."
A flush of irrepressible and threatening anger passed over the features of the savage.
"Is it for a boy," he fiercely asked, "whose eyes know not yet the color of blood to judge of the enemies that fall by the tomahawk of Wacousta? but a great warrior never boasts of actions that he does not achieve. It is the son of the great chief of the Saganaw whom he has slain. If the smooth face doubts it and has courage to venture, even at night, within a hundred yards of the fort, he will see a Saganaw without a scalp, and he will know that Saganaw by his dress—the dress," he pursued, with a low emphatic laugh, "that Oucanasta, the sister of the smooth face, loved so much to look upon."
Quicker than thought was the upspringing of the young Indian to his feet. With a cheek glowing, an eye flashing, and his gleaming tomahawk whirling rapidly round his head, he cleared at a single bound the fire that separated him from his insulter. The formidable man who had thus wantonly provoked the attack was equally
prompt in meeting it. At the first movement of the youth he, too, had leapt to his feet and brandished the terrible weapon that served in the double capacity of pipe and hatchet. A fierce yell escaped the lips of each as they thus met in close and hostile collision, and the scene for the moment promised to be one of the most tragic character, but before either could find an assailable point on which to test his formidable weapon, Pontiac himself had thrown his person between them, and in a voice of thunder commanded the instant abandonment of their purpose. Exasperated even as they now mutually were, the influence of that authority, for which the great chief of the Ottawas was well known, was not without due effect on the combatants. His anger was principally directed against the assailant, on whom the tones of his reproofing voice produced a change the intimidation of his powerful opponent could never have affected. The young chief dropped the point of his tomahawk, bowed his head in submission, and then, resuming his seat, sat during the remainder of the night with his arms folded and his head bent in silence over his chest.
"Our brother has done well," said Pontiac, glancing approvingly at him who had exhibited the reeking trophy and whom he evidently favored. "He is a great chief, and his words are truth. We heard the report of his rifle, and we also heard the cry that told he had borne away the scalp of an enemy. But we will think of this to-morrow. Let us now commence our talk."
Our readers will readily imagine the feelings of Captain De Haldimar during this short but exciting scene. From the account given by the warrior there could be no doubt the murdered man was the unhappy Donellan, who, probably neglecting the caution given him, had exposed himself to the murderous aim of this fierce being, who was apparently a scout sent for the purpose of watching the movements of the garrison. The direction of the firing, the allusion made to the regimentals, nay, the scalp itself, which he knew from the short crop to be that of a soldier, and fancied he recognized from its color to be
that of his servant, formed but too conclusive evidence of the fact; and bitterly and deeply, as he gazed on this melancholy proof of the man's sacrifice of life to his interest, did he repent that he had made him the companion of his adventure, or that having done so he had not either brought him away altogether or sent him instantly back to the fort.
Commiseration for the fate of the unfortunate Donellan naturally induced a spirit of personal hostility towards his destroyer, and it was with feelings strongly excited in favor of him whom he now discovered to be the brother of his guide that he saw him spring fiercely to the attack of his gigantic opponent. There was an activity about the young chief amply commensurate with the great physical power of his adversary, while the manner in which he wielded his tomahawk proved him to be anything but the novice in the use of the formidable weapon the other had represented him. It was with a feeling of disappointment, therefore, which the peculiarity of his own position could not overcome, he saw Pontiac interpose himself between the parties.
Presently, however, a subject of deeper and more absorbing interest than even the fate of his unhappy follower engrossed every faculty of his mind and riveted both eye and ear in painful tension to the aperture in his hiding-place. The chiefs had resumed their places and the silence of a few minutes had succeeded to the fierce affray of the warriors, when Pontiac, in a calm and deliberate voice, proceeded to state he had summoned all the heads of the nations together to hear a plan he had to offer for the reduction of the last remaining forts of their enemies, Michilimackinac and Detroit. He pointed out the tediousness of the warfare in which they were engaged; the desertion of their hunting-grounds by their warriors, and their consequent deficiency in all those articles of European traffic which they were formerly in the habit of receiving in exchange for their furs. He dwelt on the beneficial results that would accrue to them all in the event of the reduction of those two important
fortresses, since in that case they would be enabled to make such terms with the English as would secure to them considerable advantages, while instead of being treated with the indignity of a conquered people they would be enabled to command respect from the imposing attitude this final crowning of their successes would enable them to assume. He stated that the prudence and vigilance of the commanders of these two unreduced fortresses were likely long to baffle, as had hitherto been the case, every open attempt at their capture, and admitted he had little expectation of terrifying them into a surrender by the same artifice that had succeeded with the forts on the Ohio and the lower lakes. The plan, however, which he had to propose was one he felt assured would be attended with success. He would disclose that plan, and the great chiefs should give it the advantage of their deliberation.
Captain De Haldimar was on the rack. The chief had gradually dropped his voice as he explained his plan until at length it became so low that undistinguishable sounds alone reached the ear of the excited officer. For a moment he despaired of making himself fully master of the important secret, but in the course of the deliberation that ensued the blanks left unsupplied in the discourse of the leader were abundantly filled up. (It was what the reader has already seen.) The necessities of the Indians were to be urged as a motive for their being tired of hostilities. A peace was to be solicited, a council held, a ball-playing among the warriors proposed as a mark of their own sincerity and confidence during that council, and when the garrison, lulled into security, should be thrown entirely off their guard, the warriors were to seize their guns and tomahawks, with which (the former cut short for the better concealment of their purpose) their women would be provided, rush in under pretext of regaining their lost ball, when a universal massacre of men, women and children was to ensue, until nothing wearing the garb of a Saganaw should be left.
It would be tedious to follow the chief through all
the minor ramifications of his subtle plan. Suffice it they were of a nature to throw the most wary off his guard, and so admirably arranged was every part, so certain did it appear their enemies must fall into the snare, that the oldest chiefs testified their approbation with a vivacity of manner and expression little wont to characterize the deliberative meetings of these reserved people. But deepest of all was the approval of the tall warrior who had so recently arrived. To him had the discourse of the leader been principally directed, as one whose counsel and experience were especially wanting to confirm him in his purpose. He was the last who spoke, but when he did it was with a force—an energy—that must have sunk every objection, even if the plan had not been so perfect and unexceptionable in its concoction as to have precluded a possibility of all negative argument.
During the delivery of this animated speech the warrior’s swarthy countenance kindled into fierce and rapidly varying expression. A thousand dark and complicated passions evidently struggled at his heart, and as he dwelt leisurely and emphatically on the sacrifice of human life that must inevitably attend the adoption of the proposed measure his eye grew larger, his chest expanded, nay, his very nostrils appeared to dilate with unfathomably guileful exultation. (Captain De Haldimar thought he had never gazed on anything wearing the human shape half so atrociously savage.)
Long before the council was terminated the inferior warriors, who had been so suddenly aroused from their slumbering attitudes, had again retired to their tents and stretched their lazy length before the embers of their fires. The weary chiefs now prepared to follow their example. They emptied the ashes from the bowls of their pipe-tomahawks, replaced them carefully at their side, rose and retired to their respective tents. Pontiac and the tall warrior alone remained. For a time they conversed earnestly together. The former listened attentively to some observations made to him by his companion, in the course of which the words “chief of the Saganaw—fort—spyenemy," and two or three others equally unconnected, were alone audible to the ear of him who so attentively sought to catch the slightest sound. He then thrust his hand under his hunting-coat, and, as if in confirmation of what he had been stating, exhibited a coil of rope and the glossy boot of an English officer. Pontiac uttered one of his sharp ejaculatory "ughs!" and then, rising quickly from his seat, followed by his companion, soon disappeared in the heart of the encampment.
CHAPTER XVII.
How shall we attempt to paint all that passed through the mind of Captain De Haldimar during this important conference of the fierce chiefs?—where find language to convey the cold and thrilling horror with which he listened to the calm discussion of a plan, the object of which was the massacre not only of a host of beings endeared to him by long communionship of service, but of those who were wedded to his heart by the dearer ties of affection and kindred? As Pontiac had justly observed, the English garrisons, strong in their own defences, were little likely to be speedily reduced while their enemies confined themselves to overt acts of hostility, but against their insidious professions of amity who could oppose a sufficient caution? His father, the young officer was aware, had all along manifested a spirit of conciliation towards the Indians, which, if followed up by the government generally, must have had the effect of preventing the cruel and sanguinary war that had so recently desolated this remote part of the British possessions. How likely, therefore, was it, having his object always in view, he should give in to the present wily stratagem where such plausible motives for the abandonment of their hostile purpose were urged by the perfidious chiefs!
From the few hasty hints already given him by his guide—that kind being, who evidently sought to be the saviour of the devoted garrison—De Haldimar had gathered that a deep and artful plan was to be submitted to the chiefs by their leader, but little did he imagine it was of the finished nature, it now proved to be. Any other than
the present attempt the vigilance and prudence of his experienced father, he felt, would have rendered abortive; but there was so much speciousness in the pleas that were to be advanced in furtherance of their assumed object he could not but admit the almost certainty of their influence even on him.
Sick and discouraged as he was at the horrible perspective thus forced on his mental view, the young officer had not for some moments presence of mind to reflect that the danger of the garrison existed only so long as he should be absent from it. At length, however, the cheering recollection came, and with it the mantling rush of blood to his faint heart. But short was the consoling hope; again he felt dismay in every fibre of his frame; for he now reflected that although his opportune discovery of the meditated scheme would save one fort, there was no guardian angel to extend, as in this instance, its protecting influence to the other; and within that other there breathed those who were dearer far to him than his own existence—beings whose lives were far more precious to him than any even in the garrison of which he was a member. His sister Clara, whom he loved with a love little inferior to that of his younger brother; and one even more dearly loved than Clara—Madeline De Haldimar, his cousin and affianced bride—were both inmates of Michilimackinac, which was commanded by the father of the latter in the —— regiment. With Madeline De Haldimar he had long since exchanged his vows of affection, and their nuptials, which were to have taken place about the period when the present war broke out, had only been suspended because all communication between the two posts had been entirely cut off by the enemy.
Captain De Haldimar had none of the natural weakness and timidity of character which belonged to the gentler and more sensitive Charles. Sanguine and full of enterprise, he seldom met evils half way, but when they did come he sought to master them by the firmness and collectedness with which he opposed his mind to their infliction. If his heart was now racked with the most acute
suffering, his reason incapacitated from exercising its calm deliberate power, the seeming contradiction arose not from any deficiency in his character, but was attributable wholly to the extraordinary circumstances of the moment.
It was a part of the profound plan of the Ottawa chief that it should be essayed on the two forts on the same day, and it was a suggestion of the murderer of poor Donellan that a parley should be obtained through the medium of a white flag, the nature of which he explained to them as it was understood among their enemies. If invited to the council, then they were to enter or not as circumstances might induce; but in any case they were to go unprovided with the pipe of peace, since this could not be smoked without violating everything held most sacred among themselves. The red, or war pipe, was to be substituted as if by accident, and for the success of the deception they were to presume on the ignorance of their enemies. This, however, was not important, since the period of their first parley was to be the moment chosen for the arrangement of a future council and the proposal of a ball-playing upon the common. Three days were to be named as the interval between the first conference of Pontiac with the governor and the definitive council which was to ensue, during which, however, it was so arranged that before the lip of a redskin should touch the pipe of peace the ball-players should rush in and massacre the unprepared soldiery, while the chiefs despatched the officers in council.
It was the proximity of the period allotted for the execution of their cruel scheme that mainly contributed to the dismay of Captain De Haldimar. The very next day was appointed for carrying into effect the first part of the Indian plan, and how was it possible that a messenger, even admitting he should elude the vigilance of the enemy, could reach the distant post of Michilimackinac within the short period on which hung the destiny of that devoted fortress. In the midst of the confused and distracting images that now crowded on his
brain came at length one thought, redolent with the brightest colorings of hope. On his return to the garrison, the treachery of the Indians being made known, the governor might so far, and with a view of gaining time, give in to the plan of his enemies as to obtain such delay as would afford the chance of communication between the forts. The attempt on the part of those who should be selected for this purpose would, it is true, be a desperate one; still it must be made, and with such incentives to exertion as he had how willingly would he propose his own services!
The more he dwelt on this mode of defeating the subtle designs of the enemy, the more practicable did it appear. Of his own safe return to the fort he entertained not a doubt, for he knew and relied on the Indian woman, who was bound to him by a tie of gratitude which her conduct that night evidently denoted to be superior even to the interests of her race. Moreover, as he approached the encampment unnoticed while the chiefs were yet awake to everything around them, how little probability was there of his return being detected while all lay in the most profound repose. It is true that for a moment his confidence deserted him as he recurred to the earnest dialogue of the two Indians and the sudden display of the rope and boot, the latter of which articles he had at once recognized to be one of those he had so recently worn; but his apprehensions on that score were again speedily set to rest when he reflected, had any suspicion existed in the minds of these men that an enemy was lurking near them, a general alarm would have been spread and hundreds of warriors despatched to scour the forest.
The night was now rapidly waning away and already the cold damp air of an autumnal morning was beginning to make itself felt. More than half an hour had elapsed since the departure of Pontiac and his companion, and yet Oucanasta came not. With a sense of the approach of day came new and discouraging thoughts, and for some minutes the mind of the young officer became petrified with horror as he reflected on the bare possibility of his
escape being intercepted. The more he lingered on this apprehension the more bewildered were his ideas, and already in horrible perspective he beheld the destruction of his nearest and dearest friends, and the host of those who were humbler followers and partakers in the same destiny. Absolutely terrified with the misgivings of his own heart, he, in the wildness and unconnectedness of his purpose, now resolved to make the attempt to return alone, although he knew not even the situation of the path he had so recently quitted. He had actually moved a pace forward on his desperate enterprise, when he felt a hand touching the extended arm with which he groped to find the entrance to his hiding-place. The unexpected collision sent a cold shudder through his frame, and such was the excitement to which he had worked himself up, it was not without difficulty he suppressed an exclamation that must inevitably have sealed his doom. The soft tone of Oucanasta’s voice reassured him.
“The day will soon dawn,” she whispered; “the Saganaw must go.”
With the return of hope came the sense of all he owed to the devotedness of this kind woman. He grasped the hand that still lingered on his arm, pressed it affectionately in his own, and then placed it in silence on his throbbing heart. The breathing of Oucanasta became deeper, and the young officer fancied he could feel her trembling with agitation. Again, however, and in a tone of more subdued expression, she whispered that he must go.
There was little urging necessary to induce a prompt compliance with the hint. Cautiously emerging from his concealment, Captain De Haldimar now followed close in the rear of his guide, who took the same circuit of the forest to reach the path that led towards the fort. This they speedily gained, and then pursued their course in silence until they at length arrived at the log where the exchange of moccasins had been made.
“Here the Saganaw may take breath,” she observed, as she seated herself on the fallen tree; “the sleep of the
redskin is sound, and there is no one upon the path but Oucanasta."
Anxious as he felt to secure his return to the fort, there was an implied solicitation in the tones of her to whom he owed so much that prevented Captain De Haldimar from offering an objection which he feared might be construed into slight.
For a moment or two the Indian remained with her arms folded and her head bent over her chest, and then, in a low, deep, but tremulous voice, observed:
"When the Saganaw saved Oucanasta from perishing in the angry waters, there was a girl of the palefaces with him whose skin was like the snows of the Canadian winter and whose hair was black like the fur of the squirrel. Oucanasta saw," she pursued, dropping her voice yet lower, "that the Saganaw was loved by the pale girl, and her own heart was very sick, for the Saganaw had saved her life, and she loved him, too. But she knew she was very foolish and that an Indian girl could never be the wife of a handsome chief of the Saganaw, and she prayed to the Great Spirit of the redskins to give her strength to overcome her feelings, but the Great Spirit was angry with her and would not hear her." She paused a moment, and then abruptly demanded, "Where is that pale girl now?"
Captain De Haldimar had often been rallied, not only by his brother officers but even by his sister and Madeline De Haldimar herself, on the conquest he had evidently made of the heart of this Indian girl. The event to which she had alluded had taken place several months previous to the breaking out of hostilities. Oucanasta was directing her frail bark one evening along the shores of the Detroit when a gust of wind upset the canoe and left its pilot struggling amid the waves. Captain De Haldimar, who happened to be on the bank at the moment with his sister and cousin, was an eye-witness of her danger, and quickly flew down the steep to her assistance. Being an excellent swimmer, he was not long in gaining the spot where, exhausted with the exertion she had made,
and encumbered with her awkward machecoti, the poor girl was already on the point of perishing. But for his timely assistance, indeed, she must have sunk to the bottom, and since that period the grateful being had been remarked for the strong but unexpressed attachment she felt for her deliverer. This, however, was the first moment Captain De Haldimar became acquainted with the extent of feelings the avowal of which not a little startled and surprised, and even annoyed him. The last question, however, suggested a thought that kindled every fibre of his being into expectancy—Oucanasta might be the saviour of those he loved, and he felt that if time were but afforded her she would. He rose from the log, dropped on one knee before the Indian, seized both her hands with eagerness, and then, in tones of earnest supplication, whispered:
"Oucanasta is right; the pale girl with the skin like snow and hair like the fur of the squirrel is the bride of the Saganaw. Long before he saved the life of Oucanasta he knew and loved that pale girl. She is dearer to the Saganaw than his own blood, but she is in the fort beyond the great lake, and the tomahawks of the redskins will destroy her, for the warriors of that fort have no one to tell them of their danger. What says the red girl? will she go and save the lives of the sister and the wife of the Saganaw?"
The breathing of the Indian became deeper, and Captain De Haldimar fancied she sighed heavily as she replied:
"Oucanasta is but a weak woman and her feet are not swift like those of a runner among the redskins, but what the Saganaw asks for his sake she will try. When she has seen him safe to his own fort she will go and prepare herself for the journey. The pale girl shall lay her head on the bosom of the Saganaw, and Oucanasta will try to rejoice in her happiness."
In the fervor of his gratitude the young officer caught the drooping form of the generous Indian wildly to his heart; his lips pressed hers, and during the kiss that followed the heart of the latter bounded and throbbed as if it would have passed from her own into the bosom of her companion.
Never was a kiss less premeditated, less unchaste. Gratitude, not passion, had called it forth, and had Madeleine De Haldimar been near at the moment the feeling that impelled the seeming infidelity to herself would have been regarded as an additional claim on her affection. On the whole, however, it was a most unfortunate and ill-timed kiss, and, as is often the case under such circumstances, led to the downfall of the woman. In the vivacity of his embrace Captain De Haldimar had drawn his guide so far forward upon the log that she lost her balance and fell with a heavy and reverberating crash among the leaves and dried sticks that were strewed thickly around.
Scarcely a second elapsed when the forest was alive with human yells that fell achingly on the ears of both, and bounding warriors were heard on every hand, rapidly dividing the dense underwood they encountered in their pursuit. Quick as thought the Indian had regained her feet. She grasped the hand of her companion, and hurrying, though not without caution, along the path, again stood on the brow of the ravine through which they had previously passed.
"The Saganaw must go alone," she whispered. "The redskins are close upon our trail, but they will find only an Indian woman when they expect a paleface. Oucanasta will save her friend."
Captain De Haldimar did as he was desired. Clinging to the bushes that lined the face of the precipitous descent, he managed once more to gain the bed of the ravine. For a moment he paused to listen to the sounds of his pursuers, whose footsteps were now audible on the eminence he had just quitted, and then, gathering himself up for the leap that was to enable him to clear the rivulet, he threw himself heavily forward. His feet alighted upon an elevated and yielding substance that gave way with a crashing sound that echoed far and near throughout the forest,
and he felt himself secured as if in a trap. Although despairing of escape, he groped with his hands to discover what it was that thus detained him, and found he had fallen through a bark canoe, the bottom of which had been turned upwards. The heart of the fugitive now sank within him; there could be no doubt that his retreat was intercepted. The canoe had been placed there since he last passed through the ravine, and it was evident from the close and triumphant yell that followed the rending of the frail bark such a result had been anticipated.
Stunned as he was by the terrific cries of the savages, and confused as were his ideas, Captain De Haldimar had still presence of mind to perceive the path itself offered him no further security. He therefore quitted it altogether and struck in an oblique direction up the opposite face of the ravine. Scarcely had he gone twenty yards when he heard the voices of several Indians conversing earnestly near the canoe he had just quitted, and presently afterwards he could distinctly hear them ascending the opposite brow of the ravine by the path he had recently congratulated himself on having abandoned. To advance or to recede was now equally impracticable, for on every side he was begirt by enemies into whose hands a single false step must inevitably betray him. What would he not have given for the presence of Oucanasta, who was so capable of advising him in this difficulty! but from the moment of his descending into the ravine he had utterly lost sight of her.
The spot on which he now rested was covered with thick brushwood, closely interwoven at their tops, but affording sufficient space beneath for a temporary close concealment, so that unless some Indian should touch him with his foot there was little seeming probability of his being discovered by the eye. Under this he crept, and lay breathless and motionless with his head raised from the ground and his ear on the stretch for the slightest noise. For several minutes he remained in this position, vainly seeking to catch the sound of a voice or the fall of a footstep; but the most deathlike silence had succeeded
to the fierce yellings that had so recently rent the forest. At times he fancied he could distinguish faint noises in the direction of the encampment, and so certain was he of this he at length came to the conclusion that the Indians, either baffled in their search had relinquished the pursuit, or having encountered Oucanasta had been thrown on a different scent. His first intention had been to lie concealed until the following night, when the warriors, no longer on the alert, should leave the path once more open to him, but now that the conviction of their return was strong on his mind he changed his determination, resolving to make the best of his way to the fort with the aid of the approaching dawn. With this view he partly withdrew his body from beneath its canopy of underwood, but scarcely had he done so when a hundred tongues, like the baying of so many blood-hounds, again rent the air with their wild cries, which seemed to rise up from the very bowels of the earth and close to the appalled ear of the young officer.
Scarcely conscious of what he did, Captain De Haldimar grasped one of his pistols, for he fancied he felt the hot breathing of human life upon his cheek. With a sickly sensation of fear he turned to satisfy himself whether it was not an illusion of his heated imagination. What, however, was his dismay when he beheld bending over him a dark and heavy form, the outline of which alone was distinguishable in the deep gloom in which the ravine remained enveloped! Desperation was in the heart of the excited officer; he cocked his pistol, but scarcely had the sharp clicking sound floated on the air when he felt a powerful hand upon his chest, and with as much facility as if he had been a child was he raised by that invisible hand to his feet. A dozen warriors now sprang to the assistance of their comrade, when the whole, having disarmed and bound their prisoner, led him back in triumph to their encampment.
CHAPTER XVIII.
The fires of the Indians were now nearly extinct, but the faint light of the fast dawning day threw a ghastly, sickly hue over the countenances of the savages, which rendered them even more terrific in their war paint. The chiefs grouped themselves immediately around their prisoner, while the inferior warriors, forming an outer circle, stood leaning their dark forms upon their rifles, and following with keen and watchful eye every movement of their captive. Hitherto the unfortunate officer had been too much engrossed by his despair to pay any immediate attention to the individual who had first discovered and seized him. It was sufficient for him to know all hope of the safety of the garrison had perished with his captivity, and with that recklessness of life which often springs from the very consciousness of inability to preserve it, he now sullenly awaited the death which he expected at each moment would be inflicted. Suddenly his ear was startled by an interrogatory in English from one who stood behind him.
With a movement of surprise, Captain De Haldimar turned to examine his questioner. It was the dark and ferocious warrior who had exhibited the scalp of his ill-fated servant. For a moment the officer fixed his eyes firmly and unshrinkingly on those of the savage, seeking to reconcile the contradiction that existed between his dress and features and the purity of the English he had just spoken. The other saw his drift and, impatient of the scrutiny, again repeated, as he fiercely pulled the
strong leathern thong by which the prisoner now found himself secured to his girdle:
"Who and what are you? Whence come you? And for what purpose are you here?" Then, as if struck by some sudden recollection, he laid his hand upon the shoulder of his victim, and while his eye grew upon his features, he pursued, in a tone of vehemence: "Ha! by heaven, I should know that face! But stay, one proof and I am satisfied." While he yet spoke he dashed the menial hat of his captive to the earth, put aside his hair, and then, with fiendish exultation, pursued: "It is even so. Do you recollect the battle of the Plains of Abraham, Captain De Haldimar? Recollect you the French officer who aimed so desperately at your life, and whose object was defeated by a soldier of your regiment? I am that officer; my victim escaped me then, but not forever. The hour of vengeance is now nearly arrived, and your capture is the pledge of my success. Hark, how the death-cry of all his hated race will ring in madness on your father's ear!"
Amazement, stupefaction, and horror filled the mind of the wretched officer at this extraordinary declaration. He perfectly recollected that the individual who had evinced so much personal hostility on the occasion alluded to was indeed a man wearing the French uniform, although at the head of a band of savages, and of a stature and strength similar to those of him who now so fiercely avowed himself the bitter and deadly foe of all his race. If this were so, and his tone and language left little room for doubt, the doom of the ill-fated garrison was indeed irrevocably sealed. This mysterious enemy evidently possessed great influence in the councils of the Indians, and while the hot breath of his hatred continued to fan the flame of fierce hostility that had been kindled in the bosom of Pontiac, whose particular friend he appeared to be, there would be no end to the atrocities that must follow. Great, however, as was the dismay of Captain De Haldimar, who, exhausted with the adventures of the night, presented a ghastly image of anxiety and fatigue, it
was impossible for him to repress the feelings of indignation with which the language of this fierce man had inspired him.
"If you are in reality a French officer," he said, "and not an Englishman, as your accent would denote, the sentiments you have now avowed may well justify the belief that you have been driven with ignominy from a service which your presence must eternally have disgraced. There is no country in Europe that would willingly claim you for its subject. Nay, even the savage race, with whom you are now connected, would, if apprised of your true nature, spurn you as a thing unworthy to herd even with their wolf-dogs."
A fierce sardonic laugh burst from the lips of the warrior, but this was so mingled with rage as to give an almost devilish expression to his features.
"Igno—igno—ignominy!" he repeated, while his right hand played convulsively with the handle of his tomahawk, "is it for De Haldimar to taunt me with ignominy? Fool!" he pursued, after a momentary pause, "you have sealed your doom." Then, abruptly quitting the handle of his weapon, he thrust his hand into his bosom, and again drawing forth the reeking scalp of Donellan, he dashed it furiously in the face of his prisoner. "Not two hours since," he exclaimed, "I cheered myself with the thought that the scalp of a De Haldimar was in my pouch. Now, indeed, do I glory in my mistake. The torture will be a more fitting death for you."
Had an arm of the insulted soldier been at liberty the offence would not have gone unavenged even there; for such was the desperation of his heart that he felt he could have hugged the death struggle with his insolent captor, notwithstanding the fearful odds, nor quitted him until one or both should have paid the debt of fierce enmity with life. As it was, he could only betray by his flashing eye, excited look, and the impatient play of his foot upon the ground, the deep indignation that consumed his heart.
The tall savage exulted in the mortification he had
awakened, and as his eye glanced insolently from head to foot along his enemy, its expression told how much he laughed at the impotence of his anger. Suddenly, however, a change passed over his features. The moccasin of the officer had evidently attracted his attention, and he now demanded, in a more serious and imperative tone—
"Ha! what means this disguise? Who is the wretch whom I have slain, mistaking him for a nobler victim, and how comes it that an officer of the English garrison appears here in the garb of a servant? By heaven, it is so! you are come as a spy into the camp of the Indians to steal away the counsels of the chiefs. Speak, what have you heard?"
With these questions returned the calm and self-possession of the officer. He at once saw the importance of his answer, on which hung not merely his own last faint chance of safety, but that also of his generous deliverer. Struggling to subdue the disgust which he felt at holding converse with this atrocious monster, he asked, in turn:
"Am I, then, the only one whom the warriors have overtaken in their pursuit?"
"There was a woman, the sister of that boy," and he pointed contemptuously to the young chief who had so recently assailed him, and who now, in common with his followers, stood impatiently listening to a colloquy that was unintelligible to all. "Speak truly, was she not the traitress who conducted you here?"
"Had you found me here," returned the officer, with difficulty repressing his feelings, "there might have been some ground for the assertion; but surely the counsels of the chiefs could not be overheard at the distant point at which you discovered me."
"Why, then, were you there in this disguise? And who is he," again holding up the bloody scalp, "whom I have despoiled of this?"
"There are few of the Ottawa Indians," returned Captain De Haldimar, "who are ignorant that I once saved that young woman's life. Is it, then, so very extraordinary an attachment should have been the consequence? The man whom you slew was my servant. I had brought him out with me for protection during my interview with the woman, and I exchanged my uniform with him for the same purpose. There is nothing in this, however, to warrant the supposition of my being a spy."
During the delivery of these more than equivocal sentences, which, however, he felt were fully justified by circumstances, the young officer had struggled to appear calm and confident, but despite of his exertions his consciousness caused his cheek to color and his eye to quail beneath the searching glance of his ferocious enemy. The latter thrust his hand into his chest, and slowly drew forth the rope he had previously exhibited to Pontiac.
"Do you think me a fool, Captain De Haldimar," he observed, sneeringly, "that you expect so paltry a tale to be palmed successfully on my understanding? An English officer is not very likely to run the risk of breaking his neck by having recourse to such a means of exit from a besieged garrison, merely to intrigue with an Indian woman, when there are plenty of soldier's wives within, and that, too, at an hour when he knows the scouts of his enemies are prowling in the neighborhood. Captain De Haldimar," he concluded, slowly and deliberately, "you have lied."
Despite of the last insult his prisoner remained calm. The very observation that had just been made afforded him a final hope of exculpation, which, if it benefited not himself, might still be of service to the generous Oucanasta.
"The onus of such language," he observed, coolly and with dignity, "falls not on him to whom it is addressed, but on him who utters it. Yet one who professes to have been himself a soldier must see in this very circumstance a proof of my innocence. Had I been sent out as a spy to reconnoitre the movements, and to overhear the council of our enemies, the gate would have been open for my egress; but that rope is in itself an evidence I must have stolen forth unknown to the garrison."
Whether it was that the warrior had his own particular reasons for attaching truth to this statement, or that he merely pretended to do so, Captain De Haldimar saw with secret satisfaction his last argument was conclusive.
"Well, be it so," retorted the savage, while a ferocious smile passed over his swarthy features; "but whether you have been here as a spy, or have merely ventured out in prosecution of an intrigue, it matters not. Before the sun has travelled far in the meridian you die, and the tomahawk of your father's deadly foe—of—of—of Wacousta, as I am called, shall be the first to drink your blood."
The officer made a final effort at mercy. "Who or what you are, or whence your hatred of my family, I know not," he said, "but surely I have never injured you: wherefore, then, this insatiable thirst for my blood? If you are indeed a Christian and a soldier, let your heart be touched with humanity, and procure my restoration to my friends. You once attempted my life in honorable combat, why not wait, then, until a fitting opportunity shall give not a bound and defenceless victim to your steel, but one whose resistance may render him a conquest worthy of your arm?"
"What! and be baulked of the chance of my just revenge? Hear me, Captain De Haldimar," he pursued, in that low, quick, deep tone that told all the strong excitement of his heart; "I have, it is true, no particular enmity to yourself, further than that you are a De Haldimar, but hell does not supply a feeling half so bitter as my enmity to your proud father, and months, nay, years, have I passed in the hope of such an hour as this. For this I have forsown my race and become—what you now behold me—a savage both in garb and character. But this matters not," he continued, fiercely and impatiently; "your doom is sealed, and before another sun has risen your stern father's gaze shall be blasted with the sight of the mangled carcass of his first born. Ha! ha! ha!" and he laughed low and exultingly, "even now I think I see
him withering, if heart so hard can wither, beneath this proof of my undying hate."
"Fiend!—monster!—devil!" exclaimed the excited officer, now losing sight of all considerations of prudence in the deep horror inspired by his captor. "Kill me—torture me—commit any cruelty on me, if such be your savage will, but outrage not humanity by the fulfilment of your last disgusting threat. Suffer not a father's heart to be agonized—a father's eye to be blasted—with a view of the mangled remains of him to whom he has given life."
Again the savage rudely pulled the thong that bound his prisoner to his girdle, and removing his tomahawk from his belt, and holding its sullied point close under the eye of the former, exclaimed, as he bent eagerly over him:
"See you this, Captain De Haldimar? At the still hour of midnight, while you had abandoned your guard to revel in the arms of your Indian beauty, I stole into the fort by means of the same rope that you had used in quitting it. Unseen by the sentinels I gained your father's apartment. It was the first time we had met for twenty years, and I do believe that had the very devil himself presented himself in my place he would have been received with fewer marks of horror. Oh, how that proud man's eye quailed beneath this glittering blade! He attempted to call out, but my look paralyzed his tongue, and cold drops of sweat stole rapidly down his brow and cheek. Then it was that my seared heart once more beat with the intoxication of triumph. Your father was alone and unarmed, and throughout the fort not a sound was to be heard save the distant tread of the sentinels. I could have laid him dead at my feet at a single blow, and yet have secured my retreat. But no, that was not my object. I came to taunt him with the promise of my revenge—to tell him the hour of my triumph was approaching fast; and, hal!" he concluded, laughing hideously as he passed his large rude hand through the wavy hair of the now uncovered officer, "this is, indeed, a fair and unexpected first earnest of the full redemption
of my pledge. No—no!" he continued, as if talking to himself, "he must not die. Tantalus-like, he shall have death ever apparently within his grasp, but until all his race have perished before his eyes, he shall not attain it."
Hitherto the Indians had preserved an attitude of quiet, listening to the interrogatories put to the prisoner with that wonder and curiosity with which a savage people hear a language different from their own, and marking the several emotions that were elicited in the course of the animated colloquy of the palefaces. Gradually, however, they became impatient under its duration, and many of them, in the excitement produced by the fierce manner of him who was called Wacousta, fixed their dark eyes upon the captive, while they grasped the handles of their tomahawks as if they would have disputed with the former the privilege of dyeing his weapon first in his blood. When they saw the warrior hold up his menacing blade to the eye of his victim, while he passed his hand through the redundant hair, that at once inferred the sacrifice was about to be completed, and rushing furiously forward, they bounded and leaped and yelled and brandished their own weapons in the most appalling manner.
Already had the unhappy officer given himself up for lost; fifty bright tomahawks were playing about his head at the same instant, and death—that death which is never without terror to the young, however brave they may be in the hour of generous conflict—seemed to have arrived at last. He raised his eyes to heaven, committing his soul to his God in the same silent prayer that he offered up for the preservation of his friends and comrades; and then, bending them upon the earth, summoned all his collectedness and courage to sustain him through the trial. At the very moment, however, when he expected to feel the crashing steel within his brain, he felt himself again violently pulled by the thong that secured his hands. In the next he was pressed close to the chest of his vast enemy, who, with one arm encircling his prisoner and the other brandishing his fierce blade in rapid evolutions round his head, kept the yelling band at bay, with the
evident unshaken determination to maintain his sole and acknowledged right to the disposal of his captive.
For several moments the event appeared doubtful, but notwithstanding his extreme agility in the use of a weapon in the management of which he evinced all the dexterity of the most practised native, the odds were fearfully against Wacousta; and while his flashing eye and swelling chest betrayed his purpose rather to perish himself than suffer the infringement of his claim, it was evident that numbers must in the end prevail against him. On an appeal to Pontiac, however, of which he now suddenly bethought himself, the authority of the latter was successfully exerted and he was again left in the full and undisturbed possession of his prisoner.
A low and earnest conversation now ensued among the chiefs, in which, as before, Wacousta bore a principal part. When this was terminated several Indians approached the unhappy officer, and unfastening the thong with which his hands were firmly and even painfully girt, deprived him both of coat, waistcoat and shirt. He was then bound a second time in the same manner, his body besmeared with paint, and his head so disguised as to give him the caricature semblance of an Indian warrior. When these preparations were completed he was led to the tree in which he had been previously concealed, and there firmly secured. Meanwhile Wacousta, at the head of a numerous band of warriors, had departed once more in the direction of the fort.
With the rising of the sun now vanished all traces of the mist that had fallen since the early hours of morning, leaving the unfortunate officer ample leisure to survey the difficulties of his position. He had fancied, from the course taken by his guide the previous night, that the plain or oasis, as we have elsewhere termed it, lay in the very heart of the forest; but that route now proved to have been circuitous. The tree to which he was bound was one of a slight belt separating the encampment from the open grounds which extended towards the river, and which was so thin and scattered on that side as to leave
the clear silver waters of the Detroit visible at intervals. Oh, what would he not have given at that cheering sight to have had his limbs free and his chance of life staked on the swiftness of his flight! While he had imagined himself begirt by interminable forest, he felt as one whose very thought to elude those who were, in some degree, the deities of that wild scene must be paralyzed in its first conception. But here was the vivifying picture of civilized nature. Cornfields, although trodden down and destroyed—dwelling houses, although burnt or dilapidated—told of the existence of those who were of the same race with himself, and notwithstanding these had perished even as he must perish, still there was something in the aspect of the very ruins of their habitations which, contrasted with the solemn gloom of the forest, carried a momentary and indefinable consolation to his spirit. Then there was the ripe and teeming orchard, and the low whitewashed cabin of the Canadian peasant, to whom the offices of charity and the duties of humanity were no strangers, and who, also, although the secret enemies of his country, had no motive for personal hostility towards himself. Then on the river itself, even at that early hour, was to be seen fastened to the long stake driven into its bed, or secured by the rude anchor of stone appended to a cable of twisted bark, the light canoe or clumsy periagua of the peasant fisherman, who ever and anon drew up from its deep bosom whatever tenant of these waters might chance to affix itself to the traitorous hook. It is true that his view of these objects was only occasional and indistinct, but his intimate acquaintance with the localities beyond brought everything before Captain De Haldimar's eye; and even while he sighed to think they were forever cut off from his reach, he already, in idea, followed the course of flight he should pursue were the power but afforded him.
From this train of painful and exciting thought the wretched captive was aroused by a faint but continued yelling in a distant part of the forest, and in the direction that had been taken by Wacousta and his warriors. Then,
after a short interval, came the loud booming of the cannon of the fort, carried on with a spirit and promptitude that told of some pressing and dangerous emergency, and fainter afterwards the sharp shrill reports of the rifles, bearing evidence the savages were already in close collision with the garrison. Various were the conjectures that passed rapidly through the mind of the young officer during a firing that had called almost every Indian in the encampment away to the scene of action, save the two or three young Ottawas who had been left to guard his own person and who lay upon the sward near him, with head erect and ear sharply set, listening to the startling sounds of conflict. What the motive of the hurried departure of the Indians was he knew not, but he had conjectured the object of the fierce Wacousta was to possess himself of the uniform in which his wretched servant was clothed, that no mistake might occur in his identity when its true owner should be exhibited in it within view of the fort, mangled and disfigured in the manner that fierce and mysterious man had already threatened. It was exceedingly probable the body of Donellan had been mistaken for his own, and that in the anxiety of his father to prevent the Indians from carrying it off, the cannon had been directed to open upon them. But if this were the case, how were the reports of the rifles and the fierce yellings that continued, save at intervals, to ring throughout the forest to be accounted for? The bullets of the Indians evidently could not reach the fort, and they were too wily, and attached too much value to their ammunition, to risk a shot that was not certain of carrying a wound with it. For a moment the fact itself flashed across his mind, and he attributed the fire of small arms to the attack and defence of a party that had been sent out for the purpose of securing the body supposed to be his own; yet, if so, again how was he to account for his not hearing the report of a single musket? His ear was too well practised not to know the sharp crack of the rifle from the heavy, dull discharge of the musket, and as yet the former only had been distinguishable amid the
intervals that ensued between each sullen booming of the cannon.
While this impression continued on the mind of the anxious officer he caught, with the avidity of desperation, at the faint and improbable idea that his companions might be able to penetrate to his place of concealment and procure his liberation; but when he found the firing, instead of drawing nearer, was confined to the same spot, and even more fiercely kept up by the Indians towards the close, he again gave way to his despair, and resigning himself to his fate, no longer sought comfort in vain speculation as to its cause. His ear now caught the report of the last shell as it exploded, and then all was still and hushed as if what he had so recently heard was but a dream.
The first intimation given Captain De Haldimar of the return of the savages was the death howl set up by the women within the encampment. He turned his eyes, instinct with terror, towards the scene, and beheld the warriors slowly issuing from the opposite side of the forest into the plain and bearing in silence the dead and stiffened forms of those who had been cut down by the destructive fire from the fort. Their mien was sullen and revengeful, and more than one dark and gleaming eye did he encounter turned upon him with an expression that seemed to say a separate torture should avenge the death of each of their fallen comrades.
The early part of the morning wore away in preparation for the interment of the slain. These were placed in rows under the council shed, where they were attended by their female relatives, who composed the features and confined the limbs, while the gloomy warriors dug within the limit of the encampment rude graves of a depth just sufficient to receive the body. When these were completed the dead were deposited, with the usual superstitious ceremonies of these people, in their several receptacles, after which a mound of earth was thrown up over each, and the whole covered with round logs, so disposed as to form a tomb of semi-circular shape. At the head of
each grave was finally planted a pole bearing various devices in paint, intended to illustrate the warlike achievements of the defunct parties.
Captain De Haldimar had followed the course of these proceedings with a beating heart, for too plainly had he read, in the dark and threatening manner both of men and women, that the retribution about to be wreaked upon himself would be terrible indeed. Much as he clung to life, and bitterly as he mourned at his early cutting off from the affections hitherto identified with his existence, his wretchedness would have been less had he not been overwhelmed by the conviction that with him must perish every chance of the safety of those the bare recollection of whom made the bitterness of death even more bitter. Harrowing as were these reflections, he felt that immediate destruction, since it could not be avoided, would be rather a blessing than otherwise. But such evidently was not the purpose of his relentless enemy. Every species of torment which his cruel invention could supply would, he felt convinced, be exercised upon his frame, and with this impression on his mind it would have required sterner nerves than his not to have shrunk from the very anticipation of so dreadful an ordeal.
It was now noon, and yet no visible preparation was making for the consummation of the sacrifice. This Captain De Haldimar imputed to the absence of the fierce Wacousta, whom he had not seen since the return of the warriors from the skirmish. The momentary disappearance of this extraordinary and ferocious man was, however, fraught with no consolation to his unfortunate prisoner, who felt he was only engaged in taking such measures as would render not only his destruction more certain, but his preliminary sufferings more complicated and protracted. While he was thus indulging in fruitless speculation as to the motive for his absence, he fancied he heard the report of a rifle, succeeded immediately afterwards by the war-whoop, at a considerable distance and in the direction of the river. In this impression he was confirmed by the sudden upstarting to their feet of the
young Indians to whose custody he had been committed, who now advanced to the outer edge of the belt of forest, with the apparent object of obtaining a more unconfined view of the open ground that lay beyond. The rapid gliding of spectral forms from the interior of the encampment in the same direction denoted, moreover, that the Indians generally had heard and were attracted by the same sound.
Presently afterwards repeated "waughs!" and cries of "Wacousta!—Wacousta!" from those who had reached the extreme skirt of the forest fell on the dismayed ear of the young officer. It was evident from the peculiar tones in which these words were pronounced that they beheld that warrior approaching them with some communication of interest, and, sick at heart and filled with irrepressible dismay, Captain De Haldimar felt his pulse to throb more violently as each moment brought his enemy nearer to him.
A startling interest was now created among the Indians, for as the savage warrior neared the forest his lips pealed forth that peculiar cry which is meant to announce some intelligence of alarm. Scarcely had its echoes died away in the forest when the whole of the warriors rushed from the encampment towards the clearing. Directed by the sound, Captain De Haldimar bent his eyes upon the thin skirt of wood that lay immediately before him, and at intervals could see the towering form of that vast warrior bounding with incredible speed up the sloping ground that led from the town towards the forest. A ravine lay before him, but this he cleared with a prodigious effort at a single leap, and then continuing his way up the slope amid the low guttural acclamations of the warriors at his extraordinary dexterity and strength, finally gained the side of Pontiac, then leaning carelessly against a tree at a short distance from the prisoner.
A low and animated conversation now ensued between these two important personages, which at moments assumed the character of violent discussion. From what
Captain De Haldimar could collect, the Ottawa chief was severely reproving his friend for the inconsiderate ardor which had led him that morning into collision with those whom it was their object to lull into security by a careful avoidance of hostility, and urging the possibility of their plan being defeated in consequence. He, moreover, obstinately refused the pressing request of Wacousta in regard to some present enterprise which the latter had just suggested, the precise nature of which, however, Captain De Haldimar could not learn. Meanwhile the rapid flitting of numerous forms to and from the encampment, arrayed in all the fierce panoply of savage warfare, while low exclamations of excitement occasionally caught his ear, led the officer to infer, strange and unusual as such an occurrence was, that either the detachment already engaged or a second was advancing on their position. Still, this offered little chance of security for himself, for more than once during his long conference with Pontiac had the fierce Wacousta bent his eye in ferocious triumph on his victim, as if he would have said: "Come what will—whatever be the result—you at least shall not escape me." Indeed, so confident did the latter feel that the instant of attack would be the signal of his own death, that after the first momentary and instinctive cheering of his spirit, he rather regretted the circumstance of their approach; or, if he rejoiced at all, it was only because it afforded him the prospect of immediate death, instead of being exposed to all the horror of a lingering and agonizing suffering from the torture.
While the chiefs were yet earnestly conversing, the alarm cry previously uttered by Wacousta was repeated, although in a low and subdued tone, by several of the Indians who stood on the brow of the eminence. Pontiac started suddenly to the same point, but Wacousta continued for a moment or two rooted to the spot on which he stood, with the air of one in doubt as to what course he should pursue. He then abruptly raised his head, fixed his dark and menacing eye on his captive, and was already in the act of approaching him when the earnest
and repeated demands for his presence by the Ottawa chief drew him once more to the outskirt of the wood.
Again Captain De Haldimar breathed freely. The presence of that fierce man had been a clog upon the vital functions of his heart, and to be relieved from it, even at a moment like the present when far more important interests might be supposed to occupy his mind, was a gratification of which not even the consciousness of impending death could wholly deprive him. From the continued pressing of the Indians towards one particular point in the clearing, he now conjectured that from that point the advance of the troops was visible. Anxious to obtain even a momentary view of those whom he deemed himself fated never more to mingle with in this life, he raised himself upon his feet and stretched his neck and bent his eager glance in the direction by which Wacousta had approached, but so closely were the dark warriors grouped among the trees he found it impossible. Once or twice, however, he thought he could distinguish the gleaming of the English bayonets in the bright sunshine as they seemed to file off in a line parallel with the ravine. Oh, how his generous heart throbbed at that moment, and how ardently did he wish that he could have stood in the position of the meanest soldier in those gallant ranks! Perhaps his own brave and devoted Grenadiers were of the number, burning with enthusiasm to be led against the captors or destroyers of their officer, and this thought added to his wretchedness still more.
While the unfortunate prisoner, thus strangely excited, bent his whole soul on the scene before him, he fancied he heard the approach of a cautious footstep. He turned his head as well as his confined position would admit, and beheld close behind him a dark Indian, whose eyes alone were visible above the blanket in which his person was completely enveloped. His right arm was uplifted and the blade of a scalping-knife glittered in his hand. A cold shudder ran through the veins of the young officer and he closed his eyes that he might not see the blow which he felt was about to be directed at his heart. The
Indian glanced hurriedly yet cautiously around to see if he was observed, and then, with the rapidity of thought, divided first the thongs that secured the legs and then those which confined the arms of the defenceless captive. When Captain De Haldimar, full of astonishment at finding himself once more at liberty, again unclosed his eyes they fell on the not unhandsome features of the young chief, the brother of Oucanasta.
"The Saganaw is the prisoner of Wacousta," said the Indian, hastily, "and Wacousta is the enemy of the young Ottawa chief. The warriors of the palefaces are there" (and he pointed directly before him). "If the Saganaw has a bold heart and a swift foot he may save his life;" and with this intimation he hurried away in the same cautious manner, and was in the next instant seen making a circuit to arrive at the point at which the principal strength of the Indians was collected.
The position of Captain De Haldimar had now attained its acme of interest, for on his own exertions alone depended everything that remained to be accomplished. With wonderful presence of mind he surveyed all the difficulties of his course, while he availed himself at the same moment of whatever advantages were within his grasp. On the approach of Wacousta the young Indians to whose custody he had been committed had returned to their post, but no sooner had that warrior, obeying the call of Pontiac, again departed, than they once more flew to the extreme skirt of the forest, after first satisfying themselves the ligatures which confined their prisoner were secure. Either with a view of avoiding unnecessary encumbrance in their course, or through hurry and inadvertence, they had left their blankets near the foot of the tree. The first thought of the officer was to seize one of these, for in order to gain the point whence his final effort to join the detachment must be made, it was necessary he should pass through the body of scattered Indians who stood immediately in his way, and the disguise of the blanket could alone afford him a reasonable chance of moving unnoticed among them. Secretly congratulating himself on the insulting mockery that had inducted his
and repeated demands for his presence by the Ottawa chief drew him once more to the outskirt of the wood.
Again Captain De Haldimar breathed freely. The presence of that fierce man had been a clog upon the vital functions of his heart, and to be relieved from it, even at a moment like the present when far more important interests might be supposed to occupy his mind, was a gratification of which not even the consciousness of impending death could wholly deprive him. From the continued pressing of the Indians towards one particular point in the clearing, he now conjectured that from that point the advance of the troops was visible. Anxious to obtain even a momentary view of those whom he deemed himself fated never more to mingle with in this life, he raised himself upon his feet and stretched his neck and bent his eager glance in the direction by which Wacousta had approached, but so closely were the dark warriors grouped among the trees he found it impossible. Once or twice, however, he thought he could distinguish the gleaming of the English bayonets in the bright sunshine as they seemed to file off in a line parallel with the ravine. Oh, how his generous heart throbbed at that moment, and how ardently did he wish that he could have stood in the position of the meanest soldier in those gallant ranks! Perhaps his own brave and devoted Grenadiers were of the number, burning with enthusiasm to be led against the captors or destroyers of their officer, and this thought added to his wretchedness still more.
While the unfortunate prisoner, thus strangely excited, bent his whole soul on the scene before him, he fancied he heard the approach of a cautious footstep. He turned his head as well as his confined position would admit, and beheld close behind him a dark Indian, whose eyes alone were visible above the blanket in which his person was completely enveloped. His right arm was uplifted and the blade of a scalping-knife glittered in his hand. A cold shudder ran through the veins of the young officer and he closed his eyes that he might not see the blow which he felt was about to be directed at his heart. The
Indian glanced hurriedly yet cautiously around to see if he was observed, and then, with the rapidity of thought, divided first the thongs that secured the legs and then those which confined the arms of the defenceless captive. When Captain De Haldimar, full of astonishment at finding himself once more at liberty, again unclosed his eyes they fell on the not unhandsome features of the young chief, the brother of Oucanasta.
"The Saganaw is the prisoner of Wacousta," said the Indian, hastily, "and Wacousta is the enemy of the young Ottawa chief. The warriors of the palefaces are there" (and he pointed directly before him). "If the Saganaw has a bold heart and a swift foot he may save his life;" and with this intimation he hurried away in the same cautious manner, and was in the next instant seen making a circuit to arrive at the point at which the principal strength of the Indians was collected.
The position of Captain De Haldimar had now attained its acme of interest, for on his own exertions alone depended everything that remained to be accomplished. With wonderful presence of mind he surveyed all the difficulties of his course, while he availed himself at the same moment of whatever advantages were within his grasp. On the approach of Wacousta the young Indians to whose custody he had been committed had returned to their post, but no sooner had that warrior, obeying the call of Pontiac, again departed, than they once more flew to the extreme skirt of the forest, after first satisfying themselves the ligatures which confined their prisoner were secure. Either with a view of avoiding unnecessary encumbrance in their course, or through hurry and inadvertence, they had left their blankets near the foot of the tree. The first thought of the officer was to seize one of these, for in order to gain the point whence his final effort to join the detachment must be made, it was necessary he should pass through the body of scattered Indians who stood immediately in his way, and the disguise of the blanket could alone afford him a reasonable chance of moving unnoticed among them. Secretly congratulating himself on the insulting mockery that had inducted his
upper form in the disguising war-paint of his enemies, he now drew the protecting blanket close up to his eyes, and then, with every nerve braced up, every faculty of mind and body called into action, commenced his dangerous enterprise.
He had not, however, taken more than two or three steps in advance when, to his great discomfiture and alarm, he beheld the formidable Wacousta approaching from a distance, evidently in search of his prisoner. With the quickness of thought he determined on his course. To appear to avoid him would be to excite the suspicion of the fierce warrior, and, desperate as the alternative was, he resolved to move undeviatingly forward. At each step that drew him nearer to his enemy the beating of his heart became more violent, and had it not been for the thick coat of paint in which he was invested the involuntary contraction of the muscles of his face must inevitably have betrayed him. Nay, even as it was, had the keen eye of the warrior fallen on him, such was the agitation of the officer, he felt he must have been discovered. Happily, however, Wacousta, who evidently took him for some inferior warrior hastening to the point where his fellows were already assembled, passed without deigning to look at him, and so close their forms almost touched. Captain De Haldimar now quickened his pace. It was evident there was no time to be lost, for Wacousta on finding him gone would at once give the alarm, when a hundred warriors would be ready on the instant to intercept his flight. Taking the precaution to disguise his walk by turning in his toes after the Indian manner, he reached with a beating heart the first of the numerous warriors who were collected within the belt of forest, anxiously watching the movements of the detachment in the plain below. To his infinite joy he found that each was too much intent on what was passing in the distance to heed anything going on near themselves, and when he at length gained the extreme opening and stood in a line with those who were the farthest advanced, without having excited a single suspicion in his course, he could scarcely believe the evidence of his senses.
Still, the most difficult part of the enterprise remained to be completed. Hitherto he had moved under the friendly cover of the underwood, the advantage of which had been to conceal that part of his regimental trousers which the blanket left exposed, and if he moved forward into the clearing the quick glance of an Indian would not be slow in detecting the difference between these and his own ruder leggings. There was no alternative now but to commence his flight from the spot on which he stood, and for this he prepared himself. At one rapid and comprehensive view he embraced the immediate localities before him. On the other side of the ravine he could now distinctly see the English troops, either planning, as he conceived, their own attack, or waiting in the hope of drawing the Indians from their cover. It was evident that to reach them the ravine must be crossed, unless the more circuitous route by the bridge, which was hid from his view by an intervening hillock, should be preferred; but as the former had been cleared by Wacousta in his ascent, and was the nearest point by which the detachment could be approached, to this did he now direct his undivided attention.
While he yet paused with indecision, at one moment fancying the time for starting was not yet arrived, and at the next that he had suffered it to pass away, the powerful and threatening voice of Wacousta was heard proclaiming the escape of his captive. Low but expressive exclamations from the warriors marked their sense of the importance of the intelligence, and many of them hastily dispersed themselves in pursuit. This was the critical moment for action; for, as the anxious officer had rather wished than expected, those Indians who had been immediately in front and whose proximity he most dreaded were among the number of those who dashed into the heart of the forest.
Captain De Haldimar now stood alone and full twenty paces in front of the nearest of the savages. For a
moment he played with his moccasined foot to satisfy himself of the power and flexibility of its muscles, and then, committing himself to his God, dashed the blanket suddenly from his shoulder, and with eye and heart fixed on the distant soldiery, darted down the declivity with a speed of which he had never yet believed himself capable. Scarcely, however, had his fleeing form appeared in the opening when a tremendous and deafening yell rent the air, and a dozen wild and naked warriors followed instantly in pursuit. Attracted by that yell, the terrible Wacousta, who had been seeking his victim in a different quarter, bounded forward to the front with an eye flashing fire and a brow compressed into the fiercest hate, and so stupendous were his efforts, so extraordinary was his speed, that, had it not been for the young Ottawa chief, who was one of the pursuing party and who, under the pretence of assisting in the recapture of the prisoner, sought every opportunity of throwing himself before and embarrassing the movements of his enemy, it is highly probable the latter would have succeeded. Despite of these obstacles, however, the fierce Wacousta, who had been the last to follow, soon left the foremost of his companions far behind him; and but for his sudden fall while in the very act of seizing the arm of his prisoner, his gigantic efforts must have been crowned with the fullest success. But the reader has already seen how miraculously Captain De Haldimar, reduced to the last stage of debility, as much from inanition as from the unnatural efforts of his flight, finally accomplished his return to the detachment.
CHAPTER XIX.
At the western extremity of the Lake Huron, and almost washed by the waters of that pigmy ocean, stands the fort of Michilimackinac. Constructed on a smaller scale and garrisoned by a less numerical force, the defences of this post, although less formidable than those of the Detroit, were nearly similar at the period embraced by our story, both in matter and in manner. Unlike the latter fortress, however, it boasted none of the advantages afforded by culture; neither, indeed, was there a single spot in the immediate vicinity that was not clad in the eternal forest of these regions. It is true that art and laborious exertion had so far supplied the deficiencies of nature as to isolate the fort and throw it under the protecting sweep of its cannon, but while this afforded security it failed to produce anything like a pleasing effect to the eye.
The very site on which the fortress now stood had at one period been a portion of the wilderness that everywhere around was only terminated by the sands on the lake shore, and although time and the axe of the pioneer had in some degree changed its features, still there was no trace of that blended natural scenery that so pleasingly diversified the vicinity of the sister fort. Here and there along the imperfect clearing and amid the dark and thickly studded stumps of the felled trees, which in themselves were sufficient to give the most lugubrious character to the scene, rose the rude log cabin of the settler, but beyond this cultivation appeared to have lost her
power in proportion with the difficulties she had to encounter. Even the two Indian villages, l'Arbre-Croche and Chabouiga, situate about a mile from the fort, with which they formed nearly an equilateral triangle, were hid from the view of the garrison by the dark dense forest in the heart of which they were embedded.
Lakeward the view was scarcely less monotonous, but it was not, as in the rear, that monotony which is never occasionally broken in upon by some occurrence of interest. If the eye gazed long and anxiously for the white sail of the well known armed vessel, charged at stated intervals with letters and tidings of those whom time and distance and danger, far from estranging, rendered more dear to the memory and bound more closely to the heart, it was sure of being rewarded at last; and then there was no picture on which it could love to linger so well as that of the silver waves bearing that valued vessel in safety to its wonted anchorage in the offing. Moreover, the light swift bark canoes of the natives often danced joyously on its surface, and while the sight was offended at the savage skulking among the trees of the forest, like some dark spirit moving cautiously in its course of secret destruction, and watching the moment when he might pounce unnoticed upon his unprepared victim, it followed with momentary pleasure and excitement the activity and skill displayed by the harmless paddler in the swift and meteor-like race that set the troubled surface of the Huron in a sheet of hissing foam.
Nor was this all. When the eye turned woodward it fell heavily and without interest upon a dim and dusky point known to enter upon savage scenes and unexplored countries, whereas whenever it reposed upon the lake it was with an eagerness and energy that embraced the most vivid recollections of the past, and led the imagination buoyantly over every well-remembered scene that had previously been traversed, and which must be traversed again before the land of the European could be pressed once more. The forest, in a word, formed, as it were, the gloomy and impenetrable walls of the prison-house, and
the bright lake that lay before it the only portal through which happiness and liberty could be again secured.
The principal entrance into the fort, which presented four equal sides of a square, was from the forest; but immediately opposite to this, and behind the apartments of the commanding officer, there was another small gate that opened upon the lake shore, but which since the investment of the place had been kept bolted and locked with a precaution befitting the danger to which the garrison was exposed. Still there were periods, even now, when its sullen hinges were to be heard moaning on the midnight breeze; for it served as a medium of communication between the besieged and others who were no less critically circumstanced than themselves.
The very day before the Indians commenced their simultaneous attack on the several posts of the English the only armed vessel that had been constructed on these upper lakes, serving chiefly as a medium of communication between Detroit and Michilimackinac, had arrived with despatches and letters from the former fort. A well-concerted plan of the savages to seize her in her passage through the narrow waters of the river St. Clair had only been defeated by the vigilance of her commander, but ever since the breaking out of the war she had been imprisoned within the limits of the Huron. Laborious indeed was the duty of the devoted crew. Several attempts had been renewed by the Indians to surprise them, but although their little fleets stole cautiously and noiselessly at the still hour of midnight to the spot where, at the last expiring rays of twilight, they had beheld her carelessly anchored, and apparently lulled into security, the subject of their search was never to be met with.
No sooner were objects on the shore rendered indistinct to the eye than the anchor was silently weighed, and gliding wherever the breeze might choose to carry her, the light bark was made to traverse the lake with every sail set until dawn. None, however, were suffered to slumber in the presumed security afforded by this judicious flight. Every man was at his post, and while a silence so
profound was preserved that the noise of a falling pin might have been heard upon her decks, everything was in readiness to repel an attack of their enemies should the vessel in her course come accidentally in collision with their pigmy fleets. When morning broke and no sign of their treacherous foes was visible, the vessel was again anchored and the majority of the crew suffered to retire to their hammocks, while the few whose turn of duty it chanced to be kept a vigilant lookout, that on the slightest appearance of alarm their slumbering comrades might again be aroused to energy and action.
Severe and harassing as had been the duty on board this vessel for many months—at one moment exposed to the assaults of savages, at another assailed by gales that are so prevalent and so dangerous on the American lakes—the situation of the crew was even less enviable than that of the garrison itself. What chiefly contributed to their disquietude was the dreadful consciousness that, however their present efforts might secure a temporary safety, the period of their fall was only protracted. A few months more must bring with them all the severity of the winter of those climes, and then, blocked up in a sea of ice, exposed to all the rigor of cold, all the miseries of hunger, what effectual resistance could they oppose to the numerous bands of Indians who, availing themselves of the defenceless position of their enemies, would rush from every quarter to their destruction.
At the outset of these disheartening circumstances the officer had summoned his faithful crew together, and pointing out the danger and uncertainty of their position, stated that two chances of escape still remained to them. The first was by an attempt to accomplish the passage of the river St. Clair during some dark and boisterous night, when the Indians would be least likely to suspect such an intention: it was at this point that the efforts of their enemies were principally to be apprehended; but if under cover of storm and darkness they could accomplish this difficult passage, they would easily gain the Detroit, and thence pass into Lake Erie, at the further extremity of
which they might, favored by Providence, effect a landing and penetrate to the inhabited parts of the colony of New York. The other alternative was—and he left it to themselves to determine—to sink the vessel on the approach of winter and throw themselves into the fort before them, there to await and share the destiny of its gallant defenders.
With the generous enthusiasm of their profession, the noble fellows had determined on the latter course. With their officer they fully coincided in opinion that their ultimate hopes of life depended on the safe passage of the St. Clair; for it was but too obvious that, soon or late, unless some very extraordinary revolution should be effected in the intentions of the Indians, the fortress must be starved into submission. Still, as it was tolerably well supplied with provisions, this gloomy prospect was remote, and they were willing to run all chances with their friends on shore rather than desert them in their extremity. The determination expressed by them, therefore, was that when they could no longer keep the lake in safety they would, if the officer permitted it, scuttle the vessel and attempt an entrance into the fort, where they would share the fate of the troops, whatever it might chance to be.
No sooner was this resolution made known than their young commander sought an opportunity of communicating with the garrison. This, however, was no very easy task; for, so closely was the fort hemmed in by the savages, it was impossible to introduce a messenger within its walls, and so sudden had been the cutting off of all communication between the vessel and the shore that the thought had not even occurred to either commander to establish the most ordinary intelligence by signal. In this dilemma recourse was had to an ingenious expedient. The despatches of the officer were enclosed in one of the long tin tubes in which were generally deposited the maps and charts of the schooner, and to this, after having been carefully soldered, was attached an inch rope of several hundred fathoms in length; the case was then put into
one of the ship's guns, so placed as to give it the elevation of a mortar. Thus prepared, advantage was taken of a temporary absence of the Indians to bring the vessel within half a mile of the shore, and when the attention of the garrison, naturally attracted by this unusual movement, was sufficiently awakened, that opportunity was chosen for the discharge of the gun; and as the quantity of powder had been proportionably reduced for the limited range, the tube was soon safely deposited within the rampart. The same means were adopted in replying, and one end of the rope remaining attached to the schooner, all that was necessary was to solder up the tube as before and throw it over the ramparts upon the sands, whence it was immediately pulled over her side by the watchful mariners.
As the despatch conveyed to the garrison, among other subjects of interest, bore the unwelcome intelligence that the supplies of the crew were nearly expended, an arrangement was proposed by which at stated intervals a more immediate communication with the former might be effected. Whenever, therefore, the wind permitted, the vessel was kept hovering in sight during the day, beneath the eyes of the savages, and on the approach of evening an unshotted gun was discharged, with a view of drawing their attention more immediately to her movements; every sail was then set and under a cloud of canvas the course of the schooner was directed towards the source of the St. Clair,* as if an attempt to accomplish that passage was to be made during the night. No sooner, however, had the darkness fairly set in than the vessel was put about, and beating against the wind generally contrived to reach the offing at a stated hour, when a boat provided with muffled oars was sent off to the shore. This ruse had several times deceived the Indians, and it was on these occasions that the small gate to which we have alluded
*The author here takes what he in his introduction claims is "the license usually accorded to a writer of fiction" in representing the St. Clair River as but a short distance from Michilimackinac.
was opened for the purpose of conveying the necessary supplies.
The buildings of the fort consisted chiefly of block-houses, the internal accommodations of which were fully in keeping with their rude exterior, being but indifferently provided with the most ordinary articles of comfort, and fitted up as the limited resources of that wild and remote district could supply. The best and most agreeably situated of these, if a choice could be made, was that of the commanding officer. This building rose considerably above the others, and, overhanging that part of the rampart which skirted the shores of the Huron, commanded a full view of the lake, even to its extremity of frowning and belting forest.
To this block-house there were two staircases; the principal leading to the front entrance from the barrack-square, the other opening in the rear close under the rampart and communicating by a few rude steps with the small gate that led upon the sands. In the lower part of this building, appropriated by the commanding officer to that exclusive purpose, the official duties of his situation were usually performed, and on the ground-floor a large room, that extended from front to rear of the block-house on one side of the passage, had formerly been used as a hall of council with the Indian chiefs. The floor above this comprised both his own private apartments and those set apart for the general use of the family; but above all, and preferable from their cheerful view over the lake, were others which had been reserved for the exclusive accommodation of Miss De Haldimar. The upper floor consisted of two sleeping apartments with a sitting-room, the latter extending the whole length of the block-house, and opening immediately upon the lake from the only two windows with which that side of the building was provided. The principal staircase led into one of the bedrooms, and both of the latter communicated immediately with the sitting-room, which again in its turn opened at the opposite extremity on the narrow staircase that led to the rear of the block-house.
The furniture of the apartment, which might be taken as a fair sample of the best the country could afford, was wild, yet simple in the extreme. Neat rush mats of an oblong square, and fantastically put together so as to exhibit in the weaving of the several colored reeds both figures that were known to exist in the creation and those which could have no being save in the imagination of their framers, served as excellent substitutes for carpets; while rush-bottomed chairs, the product of Indian ingenuity also, occupied those intervals around the room that were unsupplied by the matting. Upon the walls were hung numerous specimens both of the dress and of the equipments of the savages, and mingled with these were many natural curiosities, the gifts of Indian chiefs to the commandant at various times before the war.
Nothing could be more unlike the embellishments of a modern European boudoir than those of this apartment, which had in some degree been made the sanctum of its present occupants. Here was to be seen the scaly carcase of some huge serpent, extending its now harmless length from the ceiling to the floor; there an alligator stuffed after the same fashion; and in various directions the skins of the beaver, the marten, the otter, and an infinitude of others of that genus, filled up spaces that were left unsupplied by the more ingenious specimens of Indian art. Head dresses tastefully wrought in the shape of the crowning bays of the ancients and composed of the gorgeous feathers of the most splendid of the forest birds; bows and quivers handsomely and even elegantly ornamented with that most tasteful of Indian decorations, the stained quill of the porcupine; war-clubs of massive ironwood, their handles covered with stained horse-hair and feathers, curiously mingled together; macheotis, hunting coats, moccasins and leggings, all worked in porcupine quill and fancifully arranged—these, with many others, had been called into requisition to bedeck and relieve the otherwise rude and naked walls of the apartment.
Nor did the walls alone reflect back the picture of
savage ingenuity, for on the various tables, the rude polish of which was hid from view by the simple covering of green baize, which moreover constituted the garniture of the windows, were to be seen other products of their art. Here stood upon an elevated stand a model of a bark canoe, filled with its complement of paddlers carved in wood and dressed in full costume, the latter executed with such singular fidelity of feature that although the speaking figures sprung not from the experienced and classic chisel of the sculptor, but from the rude scalping-knife of the savage, the very tribe to which they belonged could be discovered at a glance by the European who was conversant with the features of each; then there were handsomely ornamented vessels made of the birch bark, and filled with the delicate sugars which the natives extract from the maple tree in early spring; these of all sizes, even to the most tiny that could well be imagined, were valuable rather as exquisite specimens of the neatness with which those slight vessels could be put together, sewn as they were merely with strips of the same bark, than from any intrinsic value they possessed. Covered over with fantastic figures, done either in paint or in quill work artfully interwoven into the fibres of the bark, they presented in their smooth and polished surface strong evidence of the address of the savages in their preparation of this most useful and abundant produce of the country. Interspersed with these, too, were numerous stands filled with stuffed birds, some of which combined in themselves every variety and shade of dazzling plumage; and numerous rude cases contained the rarest specimens of the American butterfly, most of which were of sizes and tints that are nowhere equalled in Europe. One solitary table alone was appropriated to whatever wore a transatlantic character in this wild and museum-like apartment. On this lay a Spanish guitar, a few pieces of old music, a collection of English and French books, a couple of writing-desks, and, scattered over the whole, several articles of unfinished needlework.
Such was the apartment in which Madeline and Clara
De Haldimar were met at the moment we have selected for their introduction to our readers. It was the morning of that day on which the second council of the chiefs, the result of which has already been seen, was held at Detroit. The sun had risen bright and gorgeously above the adjacent forest, throwing his golden beams upon the calm glassy waters of the lake, and now, approaching rapidly towards the meridian, gradually diminished the tall bold shadows of the blockhouses upon the shore. At the distance of about a mile lay the armed vessel so often alluded to; her light, low hull dimly seen in the hazy atmosphere that danced upon the waters, and her attenuated masts and sloping yards, with their slight tracery of cordage, recalling rather the complex and delicate ramifications of the spider's web than the elastic yet solid machinery to which the lives of those within had so often been committed in sea and tempest. Upon the strand and close opposite to the small gate, which now stood ajar, lay one of her boats, the crew of which had abandoned her, with the exception only of a single individual, apparently her coxswain, who with the tiller under his arm lay half extended in the stern sheets, his naked chest exposed, and his tarpaulin hat shielding his eyes from the sun while he indulged in profound repose. These were the only objects that told of human life. Everywhere beyond the eye rested on the faint outline of forest that appeared like the softened tracing of a pencil at the distant junction of the waters with the horizon.
The windows that commanded this prospect were now open, and through that which was nearest to the gate half reclined the elegant, slight form of a female, who, with an open letter in her hand, glanced her eye alternately and with an expression of joyousness towards the vessel that lay beyond and the point in which the source of the St. Clair was known to lie. It was Clara De Haldimar.
Presently the vacant space at the same window was filled by another form, but of less girlish appearance—one that embraced all the full rich contour of the Medicean
Venus, and a lazy languor in its movements that harmonized with the speaking outlines of the form, and without which the beauty of the whole would have been at variance and imperfect. The general expression, moreover, of a countenance which, closely analyzed, could not be termed beautiful, marked a mind at once ardent in its conceptions and steady and resolute in its silent accomplishments of purpose. She was of the middle height.
Such was the person of Madeline De Haldimar, but attractive, or rather winning, as were her womanly attributes, her principal power lay in her voice—the beauty, nay voluptuousness, of which nothing could surpass. It was impossible to listen to the slow, full, rich, deep and melodious tones that fell trembling from her lips upon the ear and not feel, aye shudder, under all their fascination on the soul. In such a voice might the Madonna of Raphael have been supposed to offer up her supplications from the gloomy precincts of the cloister. No wonder that Frederick De Haldimar loved her, and loved her with all the intense devotedness of his own glowing heart. His cousin was to him a divinity whom he worshipped in the innermost recesses of his being, and his in return was the only ear in which the accents of that almost superhuman voice had breathed the thrilling confession of an attachment which its very tones announced would be deep and imperishable as the soul in which it had taken root. Often in the hours that preceded the period when they were to have been united, heart and mind and thought, in one common destiny, would he start from her side, his brain whirling with very intoxication, and then, obeying another wild impulse, rush once more into her embrace, and clasping his beloved Madeline to his heart, entreat her again to pour forth all the melody of that confession in his enraptured ear. Artless and unaffected as she was generous and impassioned, the fond and noble girl never hesitated to gratify him whom alone she loved; and deep and fervent was the joy of the soldier when he found that each passionate entreaty, far from being met with caprice, only drew from the lips of his cousin warmer
and more affectionate expressions of her attachment. Such expressions coming from any woman must have been rapturous and soothing in the extreme; but when they flowed from a voice whose very sound was melody, they acted on the heart of Captain De Haldimar with a potency that was as irresistible as the love itself which she inspired.
Such was the position of things just before the commencement of the Indian war. Madeline De Haldimar had been for some time on a visit to Detroit, and her marriage with her cousin was to have taken place within a few days. The unexpected arrival of intelligence from Michilimackinac that her father was dangerously ill, however, retarded the ceremony; and up to the present period their intercourse had been completely suspended. If Madeline De Haldimar was capable of strong attachment to her lover, the powerful ties of nature were no less deeply rooted in her heart, and commiseration and anxiety for her father now engrossed every faculty of her mind. She entreated her cousin to defer the solemnization of their nuptials until her parent should be pronounced out of danger, and having obtained his consent to delay, instantly set off for Michilimackinac, accompanied by her cousin Clara, whom she had prevailed on the governor to part with until her own return. Hostilities were commenced very shortly afterwards, and although Major De Haldimar speedily recovered from his illness, the fair cousins were compelled to share the common imprisonment of the garrison.
When Miss De Haldimar joined her more youthful cousin at the window, through which the latter was gazing thoughtfully on the scene before her, she flung her arm around her waist with the protecting manner of a mother. The mild blue eyes of Clara met those that were fastened in tenderness upon her, and a corresponding movement on her part brought the more matronly form of her cousin into close and affectionate contact with her own.
"Oh, Madeline, what a day is this!" she exclaimed;
"and how often on my bended knees have I prayed to heaven that it might arrive! Our trials are ended at last and happiness and joy are once more before us. There is the boat that is to conduct us to the vessel which in its turn is to bear me to the arms of my dear father and you to those of the lover who adores you. How beautiful does that fabric appear to me now! Never did I feel half the pleasure in surveying it I do at this moment."
"Dear, dear girl!" exclaimed Miss De Haldimar, and she pressed her closer and in silence to her heart; then, after a slight pause, during which the mantling glow upon her brow told how deeply she desired the reunion alluded to by her cousin—"that, indeed, will be an hour of happiness to us both, Clara; for irrevocably as our affections have been pledged, it would be silly in the extreme to deny that. I long most ardently to be restored to him who is already my husband. But tell me," she concluded, with an archness of expression that caused the long-lashed eyes of her companion to sink beneath her own, "are you quite sincere in your own case? I know how deeply you love your father and your brothers, but do these alone occupy your attention? Is there not a certain friend of Charles whom you have some little curiosity to see also?"
"How silly, Madeline!" and the cheek of the young girl became suffused with a deeper glow. "You know I have never seen this friend of my brother; how, then, can I possibly feel more than the most ordinary interest in him? I am disposed to like him, certainly, for the mere reason that Charles does, but this is all."
"Well, Clara, I will not pretend to decide; but certain it is, this is the last letter you received from Charles, and that it contains the strongest recommendations of his friend to your notice. Equally certain is it that scarcely a day has passed since we have been shut up here that you have not perused and reperused it half a dozen times. Now, as I am confessedly one who should know something of these matters, I must be suffered to pronounce these are strong symptoms, to say the very least. Ah!
Clara, that blush declares you guilty. But who have we here? Middleton and Baynton."
The eyes of the cousins now fell upon the ramparts immediately under the window. Two officers, one apparently on duty for the day, were passing at the moment, and as they heard their names pronounced, stopped, looked up and saluted the young ladies, with that easy freedom of manner which, unmixed with either disrespect or effrontery, so usually characterizes the address of military men.
"What a contrast, by heaven!" exclaimed he who wore the badge of duty suspended over his chest, throwing himself playfully into a theatrical attitude expressive at once of admiration and surprise, while his eye glanced intelligently over the fair but dissimilar forms of the cousins. "Venus and Psyche in the land of the Pot-towatomies, by all that is magnificent! Come, Middleton, quick, out with that eternal pencil of yours and perform your promise."
"And what may that promise be?" asked Clara, laughingly, and without adverting to the hyperbolical compliment of the dark-eyed officer who had just spoken.
"You shall hear," pursued the lively captain of the guard. "While making the tour of the ramparts just now to visit my sentries, I saw Middleton leaning most sentimentally against one of the boxes in front, his notebook in one hand and his pencil in the other. Curious to discover the subject of his abstraction, I stole cautiously behind him, and saw that he was sketching the head of a tall and rather handsome squaw, who, in the midst of a hundred others, was standing close to the gateway watching the preparations of the Indian ball players. I at once taxed him with having lost his heart, and rallying him on his bad taste in devoting his pencil to anything that had a red skin, never combed its hair, and turned its toes in while walking, pronounced his sketch to be an absolute fright. Well, will you believe what I have to add? The man absolutely flew into a tremendous passion with me and swore that she was a Venus, a Juno, a Minerva—a
beauty of the first water, in short; and finished by promising that when I could point out any woman who was superior to her in personal attractions he would on the instant write no less than a dozen consecutive sonnets, in her praise. I now call upon him to fulfil his promise, or maintain the superiority of his Indian beauty."
Before the laughing Middleton could find time to reply to the light and unmeaning rattle of his friend the quick low roll of a drum was heard from the front. The signal was understood by both officers, and they prepared to depart.
"This is the hour appointed for the council," said Captain Baynton, looking at his watch, "and I must be with my guard to receive the chiefs with becoming honor. How I pity you, Middleton, who will have the infliction of one of their great big talks, as Murphy would call it, dinned into your ear for the next two hours at least! Thank heaven, my tour of duty exempts me from that, and by way of killing an hour I think I shall go and carry on a flirtation with your Indian Minerva, alias Venus, alias Juno, while you are discussing the affairs of the nation with closed doors. But hark! there is the assembly drum again. We must be off. Come, Middleton, come. Adieu!" waving his hand to the cousins, "we shall meet at dinner."
"What an incessant talker Baynton is!" observed Miss De Haldimar, as the young men now disappeared round an angle of the rampart; "but he has reminded me of what I had nearly forgotten, and that is to give orders for dinner. My father has invited all the officers to dine with him to-day in commemoration of the peace which is being concluded. It will be the first time we shall have all met together since the commencement of this cruel war, and we must endeavor, Clara, to do honor to the feast."
"I hope," timidly observed her cousin, shuddering as she spoke, "that none of those horrid chiefs will be present, Madeline; for, without any affectation of fear whatever, I feel that I could not so far overcome my disgust as to sit at the same table with them. There was a time, it is true, when I thought nothing of these things, but since the war I have witnessed and heard so much of their horrid deeds, that I shall never be able to endure the sight of an Indian face again. Ah!" she concluded, turning her eyes upon the lake, while she clung more closely to the embrace of her companion; "would to heaven, Madeline, that we were both at this moment gliding in yonder vessel and in sight of my father's fort!"
CHAPTER XX.
The eyes of Miss De Haldimar followed those of her cousin and rested on the dark hull of the schooner, with which so many recollections of the past and anticipations of the future were associated in their minds. When they had last looked upon it all appearance of human life had vanished from its decks, but now there was strong evidence of unusual bustle and activity. Numerous persons could be seen moving hastily to and fro, their heads just peering above the bulwarks; and presently they beheld a small boat move from the ship's side and shoot rapidly ahead, in a direct line with the well-known bearings of the St. Clair's course. While they continued to gaze on this point, following the course of the light vessel, and forming a variety of conjectures as to the cause of a movement especially remarkable from the circumstance of the commander being at that moment in the fort, whither he had been summoned to attend the council, another and scarcely perceptible object was dimly seen at the distance of about half a mile in front of the boat. With the aid of a telescope, which had formed one of the principal resources of the cousins during their long imprisonment, Miss De Haldimar now perceived a dark and shapeless mass moving somewhat heavily along the lake and in a line with the schooner and the boat. This was evidently approaching, for each moment it loomed larger upon the hazy water, increasing in bulk in the same proportion that the departing skiff became less distinct; still it was impossible to discover at that distance in what manner it was propelled. Wind there was none, not as
much as would have changed the course of a feather dropping through space, and except where the dividing oars of the boatmen had agitated the waters, the whole surface of the lake was like a sea of pale and liquid gold.
At length the two dark bodies met, and the men in the boat were seen to lie upon their oars, while one in the stern seemed to be in the act of attaching a rope to the formless matter. For a few moments there was a cessation of all movement, and then again the active and sturdy rowing of the boatmen was renewed, and with an exertion of strength even more vigorous than that they had previously exhibited. Their course was now directed towards the vessel, and as it gradually neared that fabric the rope by which the strange looking object was secured could be distinctly though faintly seen with the telescope. It was impossible to say whether the latter, whatever it might be, was urged by some invisible means, or merely floated in the wake of the boat; for although the waters through which it passed ran rippling and foaming from their course, this effect might have been produced by the boat which preceded it. As it now approached the vessel, it presented the appearance of a dense wood of evergreens, the overhanging branches of which descended close to the water's edge, and baffled every attempt of the cousins to discover its true character.
The boat had now arrived within a hundred yards of the schooner, when a man was seen to rise from its bows, and, putting both his hands to his mouth, after the manner of sailors in hailing, to continue in that position for some moments, apparently conversing with those who were grouped along the nearest gangway. Then were observed rapid movements on the decks, and men were seen hastening aloft and standing out upon the foremost yards. This, however, had offered no interruption to the exertions of the boatmen, who still kept plying with a vigor that set even the sailless vessel in motion, as the foaming water, thrown from their bending oar-blades, dashed angrily against her prow. Soon afterwards, both the boat and her prize disappeared on
the opposite side of the schooner, which now, lying with her broadside immediately on a line with the shore, completely hid them from the further view of the cousins.
"Look!—look!" said Clara, clinging sensitively and with alarm to the almost maternal bosom against which she reposed, while she pointed with her finger to another dark mass that was moving through the lake in a circular sweep from the point of wood terminating the clearing on the right of the fort.
Miss De Haldimar threw the glass on the object to which her attention was now directed. It was evidently some furred animal, and presented all the appearance either of a large water-rat or a beaver, the latter of which it was pronounced to be as a nearer approach rendered its shape more distinct. Ever and anon, too, it disappeared altogether under the water; and when it again came in sight it was always several yards nearer. Its course, at first circuitous, at length took a direct line with the stern of the boat, where the sailor who was in charge still lay extended at his drowsy length, his tarpaulin hat shading his eyes, and his arms folded over his uncovered chest, while he continued to sleep as profoundly as if he had been comfortably berthed in his hammock in the middle of the Atlantic.
"What a large, bold animal it is," remarked Clara, in the tone of one who wishes to be confirmed in an impression but indifferently entertained. "See how close it approaches the boat! Had that lazy sailor but his wits about him, he might easily knock it on the head with his oar. It is—it is a beaver, Madeline; I can distinguish its head even with the naked eye."
"Heaven grant it may be a beaver," answered Miss De Haldimar, in a voice so deep and full of meaning that it made her cousin start and turn paler even than before. "Nay, Clara, dearest, command yourself, nor give way to what may, after all, prove a groundless cause of alarm. Yet I know not how it is, my heart misgives me sadly; for I like not the motions of this animal, which are strangely and unusually bold. But this is not all; a beaver or a rat might ruffle the mere surface of the water, yet this leaves behind it a deep and gurgling furrow, as if the element had been ploughed to its very bottom. Observe how the lake is agitated and discolored wherever it has passed. Moreover, I dislike this sudden bustle on board the schooner, knowing, as I do, there is not an officer present to order the movements now visibly going forward. The men are evidently getting up the anchor; and see how her sails are loosened, apparently courting the breeze, as if she would fly to avoid some threatened danger. Would to heaven this council scene were over; for I do, as much as yourself, dearest Clara, distrust these cruel Indians."
A significant gesture from her trembling cousin again drew her attention from the vessel to the boat. The animal, which now exhibited the delicate and glossy fur of the beaver, had gained the stern, and remained stationary within a foot of her quarter. Presently the sailor made a sluggish movement, turning himself heavily on his side, and with his face towards his curious and daring visitant. In the act the tarpaulin had fallen from his eyes, but still he awoke not. Scarcely had he settled himself in his new position when, to the infinite horror of the excited cousins, a naked human hand was raised from beneath the surface of the lake and placed upon the gunwale of the boat. Then rose slowly, and still covered with its ingenious disguise, first the neck, then the shoulders, and finally the form, even to the midwaist, of a dark and swarthy Indian, who, stooping low and cautiously over the sailor, now reposed the hand that had quitted the gunwale upon his form, while the other was thrust searchingly into the belt encircling his waist.
Miss De Haldimar would have called out, to apprise the unhappy man of his danger, but her voice refused its office, and her cousin was even less capable of exertion than herself. The deep throbbings of their hearts were now audible to each, for the dreadful interest they took in the scene had excited their feelings to the most intense stretch of agony. At the very moment, however,
when, with almost suspended animation, they expected to see the knife of the savage driven into the chest of the sleeping and unsuspecting sailor, the latter suddenly started up, and instinct with the full sense of the danger by which he was menaced, in less time than we take to describe it, seized the tiller of his rudder, the only available instrument within his reach, and directing a powerful blow at the head of his amphibious enemy, laid him without apparent life or motion across the boat.
"Almighty God! what can this mean?" exclaimed Miss De Haldimar, as soon as she could recover her presence of mind. "There is some fearful treachery in agitation; and a cloud now hangs over all that will soon burst with irresistible fury on our devoted heads. Clara, my love," and she conducted the almost fainting girl to a seat, "wait here until I return." The moment is critical, and my father must be apprised of what we have seen. Unless the gates of the fort are instantly closed we are lost."
"Oh, Madeline, leave me not alone," entreated the sinking Clara. "We will go together. Perhaps I may be of service to you below."
"The thought is good; but have you strength and courage to face the dark chiefs in the council-room? If so, hasten there and put my father on his guard while I fly across the parade and warn Captain Baynton of the danger."
With these words she drew the arm of her agitated cousin within her own, and rapidly traversing the apartment gained the bedroom which opened close upon the head of the principal staircase. Already were they descending the first steps when a loud cry that sent a thrill of terror through their blood was heard from without the fort. For a moment Miss De Haldimar continued irresolute, and leaning against the rude balustrade for support, passed her hand rapidly across her brow as if to collect her scattered energies. The necessity for prompt and immediate action was, however, evident, and she alone was capable of exertion. Speechless with
alarm and trembling in every joint, the happy Clara had now lost all command of her limbs, and clinging close to the side of her cousin by her wild looks alone betrayed consciousness had not wholly deserted her. The energy of despair lent more than woman's strength to Miss De Haldimar. She caught the fainting girl in her arms, retraced her way to the chamber, and depositing her burden on the bed, emphatically enjoined her on no account to move until her return. She then quitted the room and rapidly descended the staircase.
For some moments all was still and hushed as the waveless air, and then again a loud chorus of shouts was heard from the ramparts of the fort. The choked breathing of the young girl became more free, and the blood rushed once more from her oppressed heart to the extremities. Never did tones of the human voice fall more gratefully on the ear of mariner cast on some desert island than did those on that of the highly excited Clara. It was the loud laugh of the soldiery, who, collected along the line of rampart in front, were watching the progress of the ball-players.
Cheered by the welcome sounds, the girl raised herself from the bed to satisfy her eye her ear had not deceived her. The windows of both bedchambers looked immediately on the barrack square and commanded a full view of the principal entrance. From that at which she now stood the revived but still anxious girl could distinctly see all that was passing in front. The ramparts were covered with soldiers, who, armed merely with their bayonets, stood grouped in careless attitudes—some with their wives leaning on their arms—others with their children upraised that they might the better observe the enlivening sports without; some lay indolently with their legs overhanging the works—others, assuming pugilistic attitudes, dealt their harmless blows at each other—and all were blended together, men, women and children, with that heedlessness of thought that told how little of distrust existed within their breasts. The soldiers of the guard, too, exhibited the same air of calm and unThe soldiery, . . . collected along the line of rampart in front, were watching the progress of the ball-players."—p. 268.
suspecting confidence; some walking to and fro within the square, while the greater portion either mixed with their comrades above, or with arms folded, legs carelessly crossed, and pipe in mouth, leaned lazily against the gate and gazed beyond the lowered drawbridge on the Indian games.
A mountain weight seemed to have been removed from the breast of Clara at this sight, as she now dropped upon her knees before the window, and raised her hands in pious acknowledgment to heaven.
"Almighty God, I thank thee," she fervently exclaimed, her eye once more lighting up, and her cheek half suffused with blushes at her late vague and idle fears, while she embraced at a single glance the whole of the gladdening and inspiring scene.
While her soul was yet upturned whither her words had gone before, her ears were again assailed by sounds that curdled her blood and made her spring to her feet as if stricken by a bullet through the heart, or powerfully touched by some electric fluid. It was the well-known and devilish war-cry of the savages, startling the very air through which it passed, and falling like a deadly blight upon the spirit. With a mechanical and desperate effort at courage, the unhappy girl turned her eyes below, and there met images of death in their most appalling shapes. Hurry and confusion and despair were everywhere visible, for a band of Indians were already in the fort, and these, fast succeeded by others, rushed like a torrent into the square and commenced their dreadful work of butchery. Many of the terrified soldiers, without thinking of drawing their bayonets, flew down the ramparts in order to gain their respective block-houses for their muskets; but these everywhere met death from the crashing tomahawk, short rifle or gleaming knife, others, who had presence of mind sufficient to avail themselves of their only weapons of defence, rushed down in the fury of desperation on the yelling fiends, resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible, and for some minutes an obstinate contest was maintained; but the vast superiority of the Indian numbers triumphed, and although the men fought with all the fierceness of despair, forcing their way to the block-houses, their mangled corpses strewed the area in every direction. Neither was the horrid butchery confined to these. Women clinging to their husbands for protection, and in the recklessness of their despair impeding the efforts of the latter in their self-defence; children screaming in terror or supplicating mercy on their bended knees; infants clasped to their parents' breasts—all alike sunk under the unpitying steel of the bloodthirsty savages. At the guard-house the principal stand had been made; for at the first rush into the fort the men on duty had gained their station, and having made fast the barricades, opened their fire upon the enemy. Mixed pell-mell as they were with the Indians, many of the English were shot by their own comrades, who, in the confusion of the moment, were incapable of taking a cool and discriminating aim. These, however, were finally overcome. A band of desperate Indians rushed upon the main door, and with repeated blows from their tomahawks and massive war-clubs succeeded in demolishing it, while others diverted the fire of those within. The door once forced, the struggle was soon over. Every man of the guard perished, and their scalpless and disfigured forms were thrown out to swell the number of those that already deluged the square with their blood.
Even amid all the horrors of this terrific scene the agonized Clara preserved her consciousness. The very imminence of the danger endued her with strength to embrace it under all its most disheartening aspects, and she whose mind had been wrought up to the highest pitch of powerful excitement by the mere preliminary threatenings, was comparatively collected under the catastrophe itself. Death, certain death, to all she saw was inevitable, and while her perception at once embraced the futility of all attempts at escape from the general doom, she snatched from despair the power to follow its gloomy details without being annihilated under their weight.
The confusion of the garrison had now reached its acme of horror. The shrieks of women and the shrill cries of children, as they severally and fruitlessly fled from the death certain to overtake them in the end; the cursings of the soldiers, the yellings of the Indians, the reports of rifles and the crashing of tomahawks—these, with the stamping of human feet in the death struggle maintained in the council-room below between the chiefs and the officers, and which shook the block-house to its very foundation, all mixed up in terrible chorus together, might have called up a not inapt image of hell to the bewildered and confounded brain. And yet the sun shone in yellow lustre, and all nature smiled and wore an air of calm, as if the accursed deed had had the sanction of heaven and the spirits of light loved to look upon the frightful atrocities then in perpetration.
In the first distraction of her spirit, Clara had utterly lost all recollection of her cousin, but now that she had, with unnatural desperation, brought her mind to bear upon the fiercest points of the grim reality, she turned her eye everywhere amid the scene of death in search of the form of her beloved Madeline, whom she did not remember to have seen cross the parade in pursuance of the purpose she had named. While she yet gazed fearfully from the windows, loud bursts of mingled anguish and rage, that were almost drowned in the fiercer yells with which they were blended, ascended from the ground-floor of the block-house. These had hitherto been suppressed, as if the desperate attack of the chiefs on the officers had been made with closed doors. Now, however, there was an evident outburst of all parties into the passage, and there the struggle appeared to be desperately and fearfully maintained. In the midst of that chaotic scene the loud and piercing shriek of a female rose far above the discordant yell even of the savages. There was an instant of pause, and then the crashing of a skull was heard, and the confusion was greater than before; shrieks and groans and curses and supplications rent the air.
The first single shriek came from Madeline De Haldimar, and vibrated through every chord of the heart on which it sank. Scarcely conscious of what she did, Clara, quitting the window, once more gained the top of the staircase, and at the extremity of her voice called on the name of her cousin in the most piteous accents. She was answered by a loud shout from the yelling band; and presently bounding feet and screaming voices were heard ascending the stairs. The terrified girl fancied at the moment she heard a door open on the floor immediately below her and someone dart suddenly up the flight communicating with the spot on which she stood. Without waiting to satisfy herself she rushed with all the mechanical instinct of self-preservation back into her own apartment. As she passed the bedroom window she glanced once more hastily into the area below, and there beheld a sight that, filling her soul with despair, paralyzed all further exertion. A tall savage was bearing off the apparently lifeless form of her cousin through the combatants in the square, her white dress stained all over with blood and her beautiful hair loosened and trailing on the ground. She followed with her burning eyes until they passed the drawbridge and finally disappeared behind the intervening rampart, and then, bowing her head between her hands and sinking upon her knees, she reposed her forehead against the sill of the window and awaited unshrinkingly, yet in a state of inconceivable agony, the consummation of her own unhappy destiny.
The sounds of ascending feet were now heard in the passage without, and presently, while the clangor of a thousand demons seemed to ring throughout the upper part of the building, a man rushed furiously into the room. The blood of the young girl curdled in her veins. She mechanically grasped the ledge of the window on which her aching head still reposed, and with her eyes firmly closed, to shut out from view the fiend whose sight she dreaded even more than the death which threatened her, quietly awaited the blow that was to terminate at once her misery and her life. Scarcely, however, had the feet of the intruder pressed the sanctuary of her bedchamber when the heavy door, strongly studded with nails, was pushed rapidly to, and bolt and lock were heard sliding into their several sockets. Before Clara could raise her head to discover the cause of this movement, she felt herself firmly secured in the grasp of an encircling arm, and borne hastily through the room. An instinctive sense of something worse even than death now flashed across the mind of the unhappy girl; and while she feared to unclose her eyes, she struggled violently to disengage herself.
"Clara! dear Miss De Haldimar, do you not know me?" exclaimed her supporter, while, placing her for a moment on a seat, he proceeded to secure the fastenings of the second door that led from the bedchamber into the larger apartment.
Reassured by the tones of a voice which, even in that dreadful moment of trial and destruction, were familiar to her ear, the trembling girl opened her eyes wildly upon her protector. A slight scream of terror marked her painful sense of recognition. It was Captain Baynton whom she beheld; but how unlike the officer who a few minutes before had been conversing with her from the ramparts. His fine hair, matted with blood, now hung loosely and disfiguringly over his eyes, and his pallid face and brow were covered with gore spots, the evident spatterings from the wounds of others; while a stream that issued from one side of his head attested he himself had not escaped unhurt in the cruel mêlée. A skirt and a lapel had been torn from his uniform, which, together with other portions of his dress, was now stained in various parts by the blood continually flowing from his wound.
"Oh, Captain Baynton," murmured the fainting girl, her whole soul sinking within her as she gazed shudderingly on his person, "is there no hope for us? must we die?"
"No, by heaven! not while I have strength to save you," returned the officer, with energy. "If the savages have not penetrated to the rear we may yet escape. I
saw the postern open just now on my passage round the rampart, and the boat of the schooner upon the strand. Ha!" he exclaimed, as he flew to the window and cast his eye rapidly below, "we are lost! The gate is still clear and not an Indian to be seen, but the coward sailor is pulling for his life towards the vessel. But hold! another boat is now quitting the ship's side. See how manfully they give themselves to the oars; in a few minutes they will be here. Come, Clara, let us fly!" and again he caught her up in his arms and bore her across the room. "Hark! hear you not the exulting yellings of the monsters? They are forcing the outer door; mark how they redouble their efforts to break it open! That passed, but one more barrier remains between us and inevitable and instant death."
"And my cousin, my uncle!" shrieked the unhappy girl, as the officer now bore her rapidly down the back staircase.
"Oh, ask me not!" exclaimed Baynton; "were I to linger again on all I have witnessed I should go mad. All—all have perished! But hark!"
A tremendous yell now bursting from the passage announced at once the triumph of the savages in having effected an entrance into the bedroom and their disappointment at finding their pursuit baulked by a second door. Presently afterwards their heavy weapons were to be heard thundering at this new obstacle in the most furious manner. This gave new stimulus to the exertions of the generous officer. Each winding of the staircase was familiar to him, and he now descended it with a rapidity which, considering the burden that reposed against his chest, could only have been inspired by his despair. The flight terminated at a door that led directly upon the rampart without communicating with any of the passages of the building, and in this consisted the principal facility of escape; for, in order to reach them, the savages must either make the circuit of the blockhouse or overtake them in the course they were now following.
In this trying emergency the presence of mind of the young officer, wounded and bleeding as he was, did not desert him. On quitting the larger apartment above he had secured the outside fastenings of a small door at the top of the stairs, and having now gained the bottom, he took a similar precaution. All that remained was to unclose the bolts of the ponderous door that opened upon their final chance of escape; this was speedily done, but here the feelings of the officer were put to a severe test. A rude partition divided him from the fatal council-room, and while he undid the fastenings the faint and dying groans of his butchered brother officers rang in his ears, even at the moment that he felt his feet dabbling in the blood that oozed through the imperfectly closed planks of which the partition was composed. As for Clara, she was insensible to all that was passing. At the moment of the Indian yell announcing their entry into the bedroom she had fainted.
The huge door came (now creaking back upon its hinges, when the sounds of the yet unfinished conflict in front, which had hitherto been deadened in their descent through the remote staircase, rang once more fiercely and startling upon the ear. A single glance satisfied Captain Baynton the moment for exertion was come, and that the way to the lake shore, which by some strange oversight both the Indians and the men had overlooked, was perfectly clear. He clasped his unconscious burden closer to his chest, and then, setting his life upon the cast, hastened down the few steps that led to the rampart, and dashed rapidly through the postern; in the next minute he stood on the uttermost verge of the sands, unharmed and unfollowed.
Baynton cast his eyes anxiously along the surface of the lake, but such was the excitement and confusion of his mind produced by the horrid recollection of the past scene, it was not until he had been abruptly hailed from it he could see a boat at the distance of about two hundred yards, the crew of which were lying on their oars. It was the long-boat of the schooner, which, prevented
from a nearer approach by a sand bar that ran along the lake to a considerable extent, had taken her station there to receive the fugitives. Two tall young men, in the dress yet having little the mien of common sailors, were standing up in her stern, and one of these, with evident anxiety in his manner, called on Baynton by name to make the best of his way to the boat. At that moment a loud and frantic yell came from the block-house the latter had just quitted. In the wild impulse of his excited feelings he answered with a cheer of defiance as he turned to discover the precise point whence it proceeded. The windows of the apartment so recently occupied by the unhappy cousins were darkened with savage forms, who now pealed forth their mingled fury and disappointment in the most terrific manner.
"Fly, fly, Baynton, or you are lost!" exclaimed the same voice from the boat; "the devils are levelling from the windows."
While he yet spoke several shots came whizzing along the waters, and a spent ball even struck the now rapidly fleeing officer in the back, but the distance was too great for serious injury. The guns of the savages had been cut so short for their desperate enterprise that they carried little farther than a horse pistol.
Again, in the desperation of his feelings and heedless of the danger he was drawing on himself and charge, the officer turned fiercely round and shouted at his utmost lungs a peal of triumph in the ears of his enemies. Scarcely, however, had the sounds escaped his lips when two hideously painted Indians sprang through the postern, and, silent as the spectres they resembled, rushed down the sands and thence into the lake. Loud shouts from the windows above were again pealed forth, and from the consternation visible on the features of those within the boat the nearly exhausted Baynton learned all the risk he incurred. Summoning all his strength, he now made the most desperate efforts to reach his friends. The lake was little more than knee deep from the shore to the bar, but, encumbered as he was, the difficulty opposed
to his movements was immeasurably against him; and yet he seemed generously resolved to perish rather than relinquish his charge. Already were his pursuers, now closely followed by a numerous band, within twenty yards of him, when the two young men, each armed with a cutlass and pistol, sprang from the boat upon the sand bar. As the Indians came on, they fired deliberately at them, but both missed their aim. Encouraged by this failure, the fearless devils dashed eagerly on, brandishing their gleaming tomahawks, but uttering not a sound. Already was the unfortunate Baynton within a few feet of the bar when he felt that the savages were immediately upon him.
"Take—take, for God's sake, take her!" he cried, as with a desperate effort he threw the light form of the still unconscious girl into the arms of one of the young men. "My strength is quite exhausted, and I can do no more."
For the first time a yell burst from the lips of the pursuing savages as they saw him to whom the guardianship of the wretched Clara was now confided suddenly spring from the sand bar into the lake and in a few rapid strokes gain the side of the boat. Leaving the hapless Baynton to be disposed of by his companion, the foremost darted upon the bank, burning with disappointment and resolved to immolate another victim. For a moment he balanced his tomahawk, and then, with the rapidity of thought, darted it at the covered head of the youth who still lingered on the bar. A well timed movement of the latter averted the blow, and the whizzing steel passed harmlessly on. A guttural "ugh!" marked the disappointment of the Indian, now reduced to his scalping-knife, but before he could determine whether to advance or to retreat, his opponent had darted upon him, and with a single blow from his cutlass cleft his skull nearly asunder. The next instantaneous purpose of the victor was to advance to the rescue of the exhausted Baynton; but when he turned to look for him he saw the mangled form of what had once been that gallant and handsome
officer floating, without life or motion, on the blood-stained surface of the Huron, while his fiendish murderer, calmly awaiting the approach of his companions, held up the reeking scalp in triumph to the view of the still yelling groups within the block-house.
"Noble, generous, self-devoted fellow!" exclaimed the youth, as he fixed his burning, tearless eye for a moment on the unfortunate victim; "even you, then, are not spared to tell the horrid story of this butchery. Yet is the fate of the fallen far, far more enviable than that of those who have survived this day." He then committed his cutlass to its sheath, and, leaping into the deep water that lay beyond the bar, was in a few seconds once more in the stern of the boat.
Meanwhile, the numerous band who followed their two first fierce comrades into the lake bounded rapidly forward; and so active were their movements that, at almost the same moment when the second of the youths had gained his temporary place of refuge, they stood yelling and screaming on the sand-bar he had just quitted. Two or three, excited to desperation by the blood they had seen spilt, plunged unhesitatingly into the opposite depths of the lake, and the foremost of these was the destroyer of the ill-fated Baynton. With his bloody scalping-knife closely clutched between his teeth, and his tomahawk in his right hand, this fierce warrior buffeted the waves lustily with one arm, and noiselessly, as in the early part of his pursuit, urged his way toward the boat. In the stern of this a few planks from the schooner had been firmly lashed, to serve as a shield against the weapons of the savages, and were so arranged as to conceal all within while retiring from the shore. A small aperture had, however, been bored for the purpose of observing the movements of the enemy without risk. Through this an eye was now directed, while only the blades of the oars were to be seen projecting from the boat's sides as they reposed in their rowlocks.
Encouraged by the seeming apathy and inertness of the crew, the swimming savages paused not to consider of
consequences, but continued their daring course as if they apprehended neither risk nor resistance. Presently a desperate splash was heard near the stern of the boat, and the sinuous form of the first savage was raised above the gunwale, his grim face looking devilish in its smeared war-paint, and his fierce eyes gleaming and rolling like fire-balls in their sockets. Scarcely was he seen, however, when he had again disappeared. A blow from the cutlass that had destroyed his companion descended like lightning on his naked and hairless head; and in the agony of death he might be seen grinding his teeth against the knife which the instinctive ferocity of his nature forbade his relinquishing.
A yell of fury burst from the savages on the bar, and presently a shower of bullets flew whistling through the air. Several were heard striking the rude rampart in the stern, but although the boat was scarcely out of pistol-shot, the thickness of the wood prevented injury to those within. Another fierce yell followed this volley; and then nearly a score of warriors, giving their guns in charge to their companions, plunged furiously into the water, and, with an air of the most infuriated determination, leaped rather than swam along its surface.
"Now then, my lads, give way," said he at the lookout; "there are more than a dozen of the devils in full cry, and our only chance is in flight! Ha! another here!" as, turning to issue these directions, he chanced to see the dark hand of a savage at that moment grasping the gunwale of the boat as if with a view to retard her movements until the arrival of his companions.
A heavy blow from his cutlass accompanied these words. The fingers, divided at their very roots, rolled to the bottom of the boat, and the carcass of the savage dropped, with a yell of anguish, far in the rear. The heavy oar-blades of the seamen now made play, dashing the lake away in sheets of foam; and in less than five minutes the heads of the swimming savages were seen like so many rats upon the water, as they returned once more in disappointment from their fruitless pursuit.
CHAPTER XXI.
The sun had gone down, as he had risen, in all the gloriousness of his autumnal splendor, and twilight was now fast descending on the waters of the Huron. A slight breeze was just beginning to make itself felt from the land, the gradual rising of which was hailed by many an anxious heart, as the schooner, which had been making vain attempts to quit her anchorage during the day, now urged her light bows through the slightly curling element. A deathlike silence, interrupted only by the low, gruff voice of a veteran seaman as he issued, in technical language, the necessary orders for the management of the vessel, prevailed everywhere along her decks. The dress and general appearance of this individual announced him for a petty officer of the royal service; and it was evident, from the tone of authority with which he spoke, he was now in the enjoyment of a temporary command. The crew, consisting of about thirty souls, and chiefly veterans of the same class, were assembled along the gangways, each man wearing a brace of pistols in the belt, which, moreover, secured a naked cutlass around his loins; and these now lingered near the several guns that were thrown out from their gloomy-looking ports as if ready for some active service. But, although the arming of these men indicated hostile preparation, there was none of that buoyancy of movement and animation of feature to be observed which so usually characterize the indomitable daring of the British sailor. Some stood leaning their heads pensively on their hands against the rigging and hammocks, that were stowed away along the bulwarks,
after the fashion of warships in boarding; others, with arms tightly folded across their chests, gazed earnestly and despondingly on the burning fort in the distance, amid the rolling volumes of smoke and flame from which, ever and anon, arose the fiendish yell of those who, having already sacked, were now reducing it to ashes. Nor was this the only object of their attention. On the sand-bank alluded to in our last chapter were to be dimly seen through the growing dusk the dark outlines of many of the savages, who, frantic with rage at their inability to devote them to the same doom, were still unwilling to quit a spot which brought them nearest to the last surviving objects of their enmity. Around this point were collected the numerous canoes, filled also with warriors; and at the moment when the vessel, obeying the impulse given by her flowing sails, glided from the anchorage, these followed, scudding in her wake, and made a show of attacking her in the stern. The sudden yawing of the schooner, however, in bringing her tier of bristling ports into view, had checked the ardor of the pursuing fleet, and the discharge of a single gun, destroying in its course three of their canoes, and carrying death among those who directed them, had driven them back in the greatest hurry and confusion to their yelling and disappointed comrades.
The after-deck of the schooner presented a different, though not less sombre and discouraging scene. On a pile of mattresses lay the light and almost inanimate form of Clara De Haldimar, her fair and redundant hair overshadowing her pallid brow and cheek, and the dress she had worn at the moment of her escape from the fort still spotted with the blood of her generous but unfortunate preserver. Close at her side, with her hands clasped in his, while he watched the expression of deep suffering reflected from each set feature, and yet with the air of one preoccupied with some other subject of painful interest, sat on an empty box the young man in sailor's attire whose cutlass had performed the double service of destroying his own immediate opponent and avenging the
death of the devoted Baynton. At the head of the rude couch, and leaning against a portion of the schooner's stern-work, stood his companion, who from delicacy appeared to have turned away his eyes from the group below, merely to cast them vacantly on the dark waters through which the vessel was now beginning to urge her course.
Such was the immediate position of this little party when the gun fired at the Indians was heard booming heavily along the lake. The loud report, in exciting new sources of alarm, seemed to have dissipated the spell that had hitherto chained the energies and perception of the still weak but now highly excited girl.
"Oh, Captain Baynton, where are we?" she exclaimed, starting up suddenly in terror, and throwing her arms around him who sat at her side, as if she would have clung to him for protection. "Is the horrid massacre not finished yet? Where is Madeline? Where is my cousin? Oh, I cannot leave the fort without her."
"Ha! where indeed is she?" exclaimed the youth, as he clasped his trembling and scarcely conscious burden to his breast, "Almighty God, where is she?" Then, after a short pause, and in a voice of tender but exquisite anguish, "Clara, my beloved sister, do you not know me? It is not Baynton, but your brother, who now clasps you to his breaking heart."
A deluge of tears was the only answer of the wretched girl. They were the first she had shed—the first marks of consciousness she had exhibited. Hitherto her heart had been oppressed; every fibre of her brain racked almost to bursting, and filled only with ghastly flitting visions of the dreadful horrors she had seen perpetrated, she had continued, since the moment of her fainting in the block-house, as one bereft of all memory of the past or apprehension of the present. But now the full out-pouring of her grief relieved the overcharged brain and heart, even while the confused images floating before her recollection acquired a more tangible and painful character. She raised herself a moment from the breast on which her
burning head reposed, looked steadfastly in the face that hung anxiously over her own, and saw indeed that it was her brother. She tried to speak, but she could not utter a word, for the memory of all that had occurred that fatal morning rushed with mountain weight upon her fainting spirit, and again she wept and more bitterly than before.
The young man pressed her in silence to his bosom; nor was it until she had given full vent to her grief that he ventured to address her on the subject of his own immediate sorrows. At length when she appeared somewhat calm he observed, in a voice broken by emotion:
"Clara, dearest, what account have you to give me of Madeline? Has she shared the fate of all? or have you reason to suppose her life has been spared?"
Another burst of tears succeeded to these questions, for coupled with the name of her cousin arose all the horrid associations connected with her loss. As soon, however, as she could compose herself she briefly stated all she had witnessed of the affair, from the moment when the boat of the schooner was seen to meet the strange-looking object on the water to that when she had beheld her ill-fated cousin borne away apparently lifeless in the arms of the tall Indian by whom she had been captured.
During this recital the heart of Captain De Haldimar—for it was he—beat audibly against the cheek that still reposed on his breast; but when his sister had, in a faint voice, disclosed her melancholy narrative with the manner of her cousin's disappearance he gave a sudden start, uttering at the same time an exclamation of joy.
"Thank God, she still lives!" he cried, pressing his sister once more in fondness to his heart; then turning to his companion, who, although seemingly abstracted, had been a silent and attentive witness of the scene: "By heaven! Valletort, there is yet a hope. She it was indeed whom we saw borne out of the fort, and subsequently made to walk by the cruel Indian who had charge of her."
"Valletort, Valletort," murmured Clara, unconsciously, her sick heart throbbing with she knew not what. "How
is this, Frederick? Where, then, is Captain Baynton? and how came you here?"
"Alas! Clara, poor Baynton is no more. Even at the moment when he confided the unconscious burden, preserved at the peril of his own life, to the arms of Sir Everard here, he fell beneath the tomahawk of a pursuing savage. Poor, noble, generous Baynton," he continued, mournfully; "to him, indeed, Clara, are you indebted for your life; yet was it purchased at the price of his own."
Again the pained and affectionate girl wept bitterly, and her brother proceeded:
"The strange object you saw on the lake, my love, was nothing more than a canoe disguised with leafy boughs, in which Sir Everard Valletort and myself, under the guidance of old Francois of the Fleur de Lis, whom you must recollect, have made the dangerous passage of the St. Clair in the garb of duck hunters—which latter we had only discarded on reaching the schooner, in order to assume another we conceived better suited to our purpose. Alas!" and he struck his hand violently against his brow, "had we made directly for the shore without touching the vessel at all, there might have been time to save those we came to apprise of their danger. Do you not think there was, Valletort?"
"Most assuredly not," returned his companion, anxious to remove the impression of self-blame that existed in the mind of Captain De Haldimar. "From the moment of our reaching the schooner, which lay immediately in our route, to that when the shout was raised by the savages as they rushed into the fort, there was scarcely an interval of three minutes, and it would have required a longer period to have enabled us to gain the shore."
"Thank—thank you for that," exclaimed the officer, drawing himself up with the air of one who breathes more freely. "I would not for the wealth and honors of the united world that such a cause for self-reproach should linger on my mind. By heaven! it would break my heart to think we had been in time to save them and yet had lost the opportunity through even one moment of neglect."
Then turning once more to his sister: "Now, Clara, that I see you in safety I have another sacred duty to perform. I must leave you, but not alone."
"What mean you, Frederick?" exclaimed his agitated sister, clinging more closely to his embrace. "Scarce have we met and you talk of leaving me. Oh, whither would you go?"
"Surely, my love," and he spoke half reproachfully, although with tenderness of accent, "my meaning must be obvious. But what do I say? You know it not. Madeline still lives. We saw her as we pulled towards the shore led across the clearing in the direction of Chabouiga. Hear me, then; the canoe in which we came is still towing from the vessel's stern, and in this do I mean to embark without further loss of time in search of her who is dearer to me than existence. I know," he pursued with emotion, "I have but little hope of rescuing; even if I do succeed in finding her; but at least I shall not have to suffer under the self-reproach of having neglected the only chance that now lies within my reach. If she be doomed to die I shall then have nothing left to live for—except you, Clara," he continued, after a pause, pressing the weeping girl to his heart as he remarked how much she seemed pained by the declaration.
Having placed his sister once more on the couch, and covered her with a cloak that had been brought from the cabin of the unfortunate commander, Captain De Haldimar now rose from his humble seat, and grasping the hand of his friend—
"Valletort," he said, "I commit this dear girl to your keeping. Hitherto we have been equal sharers in an enterprise having for its object the preservation of our mutual companions and friends. At present, interests of a more personal nature occupy my attention, and to these must I devote myself alone. I trust you will reach Detroit in safety, and when you have delivered my unfortunate sister into the arms of her father, you will say to him from me, I could not survive the loss of that being to whom I had sworn eternal fidelity and affection. Francois
must be my only companion on this occasion. Nay," he continued, pointing to his sister, in answer to the rising remonstrance of the baronet, "will you desert the precious charge I have confided to your keeping? Recollect, Valletort," in a more subdued tone, "that besides yourself there will be none near her but rude and uneducated sailors; honest men enough in their way, it is true; but not the sort of people to whom I should like to confide my poor sister."
The warm and silent pressure by Sir Everard of his hand announced his participation in the sentiment; and Captain De Haldimar now hastened forward to apprise the Canadian of his purpose. He found mine host of the Fleur de Lis seated in the forecastle of the schooner, and with an air of the most perfect unconcern discussing a substantial meal, consisting of dried uncooked venison, raw onions and Indian corn bread, the contents of a large bag or wallet that lay at his feet. No sooner, however, had the impatient officer communicated his design, asking at the same time if he might expect his assistance in the enterprise, than the unfinished meal of the Canadian was discontinued, the wallet refilled, and the large greasy clasp-knife, with which the portions had been separated, closed and thrust into a pocket of his blanket coat!
"I shall go to de devils for you, Capitaine, if we must," he said, as he raised his portly form, not without effort, from the deck, slapping the shoulder of the officer at the same time somewhat rudely with his hand. There was nothing, however, offensively familiar in this action. It expressed merely the devotedness of heart with which the man lent himself to the service to which he had pledged himself, and was rather complimentary than otherwise to him to whom it was directed. Captain De Haldimar took it in the light in which we have just shown it, and he grasped and shook the rough hand of the Canadian with an earnestness highly gratifying to the latter.
Everything was now in readiness for their departure. The canoe, still covered with its streaming boughs, was drawn close up to the gangway, and a few hasty necessaries thrown in. While this was passing, the officer had again assumed his disguise of a duck-hunter; and he now appeared in the blanket costume in which we introduced Sir Everard and himself in the eleventh chapter.
"If I may be so bold as to put in my oar, your honor," said the veteran boatswain, on whom the command of the schooner had fallen, as he now advanced, rolling his quid in his mouth and dropping his hat on his shoulder, while the fingers of the hand which clutched it were busily occupied in scratching his bald head, "if I may be so bold, there is another chap here as might better serve your honor's purpose than that 'ere fat Canadian, who seems to think only of stuffing while his betters are fasting."
"And who is he, my good Mullins?" asked Captain De Haldimar.
"Why, that 'ere Ingin, your honor, as began the butchery in the fort yonder by trying to kill Jack Fuller while he laid asleep this morning, waiting for the captain in the jolly boat. Jack never seed him coming until he felt his black hands upon his throat, and then he ups with the tiller at his noddle and sends him floundering across the boat's thwarts like a flat-fish. I thought, your honor, seeing as how I have got the command of the schooner, of tying him up to the mainmast, and giving him two or three round dozen or so and then sending him to swim among the mascannungy with a twenty-four pound shot in his neckcloth; but seeing as how your honor is going among them savages agin I thought as how some good might be done with him if your honor could contrive to keep him in tow and close under your lee quarter to prevent his escape."
"At all events," returned the officer, after a pause of some moments, during which he appeared to be deliberating on his course of action, "it may be dangerous to keep him in the vessel, and yet if we take him ashore he may be the means of our more immediate destruction, unless, indeed, as you observe, he can be so secured as to prevent the possibility of escape, but that I very much doubt
indeed. Where is he, Mullins? I should like to see and question him."
"He shall be up, your honor, in no time," replied the sailor, once more resuming his hat and moving a pace or two forward. Then, addressing two or three men in the starboard: "Bear a hand there, my men, and cast off the lashings of that black Ingin and send him aft here to the officer."
The order was speedily executed. In a few minutes the Indian stood on the quarter-deck, his hands firmly secured behind and his head sunk upon his chest in sullen despondency. In the increasing gloom, in which objects were now gradually becoming more and more indistinct, it was impossible for Captain De Haldimar to distinguish his features, but there was something in the outline of the Indian's form that impressed him with the conviction he had seen it before. Advancing a pace or two forward, he pronounced in an emphatic and audible whisper the name of Oucanasta.
The Indian gave an involuntary start—uttered a deep interjectional "Ugh!"—and raising his head from his chest fixed his eyes steadily on the officer.
"Hookynaster! Hookynaster!" growled Jack Fuller, who had followed to hear the examination of his immediate captive; "why, your honor, that jaw-breaking name reminds me as how the chap had a bit of a paper, when I chucked him into the jolly-boat, stuck in his girdle. It was covered over with pencil-marks, as writing like; but all was rubbed out agin, except some such sort of a name as that."
"Where is it? what have you done with it?" hastily asked Captain De Haldimar.
"Here, in my backy-box, your honor. I kept it safe, thinking as how it might sarve to let us know all about it afterwards."
The sailor now drew from the receptacle just named a dirty piece of folded paper, deeply impregnated with the perfume of stale and oft re-chewed quids of coarse
tobacco, and then with the air of one conscious of having "rendered the state some service," hitched up his trousers with one hand, while with the other he extended the important document.
To glance his eye hurriedly over the paper by the light of a dark lanthorn that had meanwhile been brought upon deck, unclasp his hunting-knife, and divide the ligatures of the captive, and then warmly press his liberated hands with his own, were with Captain De Haldimar but the work of a minute.
"Hilloa! which the devil way does the wind blow now?" muttered Fuller, the leer of self-satisfaction that had hitherto played in his eye rapidly giving place to an air of seriousness and surprise, an expression that was not at all diminished by an observation from his new commander.
"I tell you what it is, Jack," said the latter, impressively; "I don't pretend to have more gumption [discernment] than my messmates; but I can see through a millstone as clear as any man as ever heaved a lead in these here lakes, and may I never pipe boatswain's whistle again if you arn't somehow or other in the wrong box. That 'ere Ingin's one of us!"
The feelings of Captain De Haldimar may easily be comprehended by our readers, when, on glancing at the paper, he found himself confirmed in the impression previously made on him by the outline of the captive's form. The writing, nearly obliterated by damp, had been rudely traced by his own pencil on a leaf torn from his pocket-book on the night of his visit to the Indian encampment, and at the moment when, seated on the fatal log, Oucanasta had promised her assistance in at least rescuing his betrothed bride. They were addressed to Major De Haldimar, and briefly stated that a treacherous plan was in contemplation by the enemy to surprise the fort, which the bearer, Oucanasta (the latter word strongly marked), would fully explain if she could possibly obtain access within. From the narrative entered into by Clara,
who had particularly dwelt on the emotions of fear that had sprung up in her own and cousin's heart by the sudden transformation of a supposed harmless beaver into a fierce and threatening savage, he had no difficulty in solving the enigma.
The Indian, in whom he had recognized the young chief who had saved him from the fury of Wacousta, had evidently been won upon by his sister to perform a service which offered so much less difficulty to a warrior than to a woman; and it was clear that, finding all other means of communication with the fort undiscovered to his own people impracticable, he had availed himself of the opportunity, when he saw the boat on the strand, to assume a disguise so well adapted to insure success. It was no remarkable thing to see both the beaver and the otter moving on the calm surface of the waters in the vicinity of the forts, even at mid-day; and, occupied as the Indians were to a man at that moment with their cruel projects, it was by no means likely that their attention should have been called off from these to so apparently unimportant a circumstance. The act that had principally alarmed the cousins and terminated as we have seen in the sudden attack of the sailor had evidently been misconceived. The hand supposed to be feeling for the heart of the sluggard had in all probability been placed on his chest with a view to arouse him from his slumber; while that which was believed to have been dropped to the handle of the knife was in reality merely seeking the paper that contained the announcement which if then delivered might have saved the garrison.
Such was the train of conjecture that now passed through the mind of the officer, but although he thus placed the conduct of the Indian in the most favorable light, his impression received no confirmation from the lips of the latter. Sullenly and doggedly, notwithstanding the release from his bonds, the Ottawa hung his head upon his chest, with his eyes riveted on the deck, and obstinately refused to answer every question put to him by his deliverer. This, however, did not the less tend to
confirm Captain De Haldimar in his belief. He knew enough of the Indian character to understand the indignant and even revengeful spirit likely to be aroused by the treatment the savage had met with in return for his intended services. He was aware that, without pausing to reflect on the fact that the sailor, ignorant of his actual purpose, could merely have seen in him an enemy in the act of attempting his life, the chief would only consider and inflame himself over the recollection of the blow inflicted, and that with the true obstinancy of his race he would rather suffer captivity or death itself than humble the haughty pride of his nature by condescending to an explanation with those by whom he felt himself so deeply injured. Still, even amid all his own personal griefs—griefs that rendered the boon in some degree at present valueless—Captain De Haldimar could not forget that the youth, no matter by what motive induced, had rescued him from a dreadful death on a previous occasion. With the generous warmth, therefore, of a grateful mind he now sought to impress on the Indian the deep sense of obligation under which he labored; explaining, at the same time, the very natural error into which the sailor had fallen, and concluding with a declaration that he was free to quit the vessel in the canoe in which he himself was about to take his departure for the shore in search of her whom his sister had pledged herself at all hazards to save.
The address of the officer, touching and impressive as language ever is that comes from the heart, was not altogether without effect on the Indian. Several times he interrupted him with a short, quick, approving "ugh!" and when he at length received the assurance that he was no longer a prisoner, he raised his eyes rapidly, although without moving his head, to the countenance of his deliverer. Already were his lips opening to speak for the first time when the attention of the group around him was arrested by his giving a sudden start of surprise. At the same moment he raised his head, stretched his neck, threw forward his right ear, and uttering a loud and emphatic "waugh!" pointed with his finger over the bows of the vessel.
All listened for upwards of a minute in mute suspense, and then a faint and scarcely distinguishable sound was heard in the direction in which he pointed. Scarcely had it floated on the air when a shrill, loud and prolonged cry of peculiar tendency burst hurriedly and eagerly from the lips of the captive, and spreading over the broad expanse of water, seemed to be re-echoed back from every point of the surrounding shore.
Great was the confusion that followed this startling yell on the decks of the schooner. "Cut the hellfiend down!" "Chuck him overboard!" "We are betrayed!" "Every man to his gun!" "Put the craft about!" were among the numerous exclamations that now rose simultaneously from at least twenty lips and almost drowned the loud shriek that burst again from the wretched Clara De Haldimar.
"Stop, Mullins! Stop, men!" shouted Captain De Haldimar, firmly, as the excited boatswain, with two or three of his companions, now advanced with the intention of laying violent hands on the Indian. "I will answer for his fidelity with my life. If he be false it will be time enough to punish him afterwards, but let us calmly await the issue like men. Hear me," he proceeded, as he remarked their incredulous, uncertain, and still threatening air, "this Indian saved me from the tomahawks of his tribe not a week ago, and even now he has become our captive in the act of taking a note from me to the garrison to warn them of their danger. But for that slumbering fool," he added, bitterly, pointing to Fuller, "who slept when he should have watched, yon fort would not have been what it is—a mass of smoking ruins. He has an ocean of blood upon his soul that all the waters of the Huron can never wash out!"
Struck by the vehement manner of the officer, and the disclosure he had just made, the sailors sunk once more into inaction and silence. The boatswain alone spoke:
"I thought, your honor, as how Jack Fuller, who sartinly is a better hand at a snooze than a watch, had got in a bit of a mess, but shiver my topsails if I think it's quite fair to blame him, neither, for clapping a stopper on the Ingin's cable, seeing as how he was expecting a shot between wind and water. Still, as the chap turns out to be an honest chap, and has saved your honor's life, above all, I don't much care if I give him a grip. Here, old fellow, tip us your fist!"
Without seeming to understand that his cry had been productive of general and intense alarm throughout the vessel, the Indian had viewed the sudden rushing of the crew towards him as an act of gratuitous hostility, and without shrinking from the attack had once more resumed his original air of dogged sullenness. It was evident to him, from the discussion going on, that some violence about to be offered to his person had only been prevented by the interference of the officer. With the natural haughtiness of his savage nature, he therefore rejected the overtures of the sailor, whose hand he had observed among the first that were raised against him.
While the angry boatswain was yet rolling his quid within his capacious jaws, racking his brain for the strongest language wherein to give vent to his indignation, his ears were suddenly saluted by a low but clear "Hilloa!" from the bows of the schooner.
"Ay, ay!" was the brief response.
"There's something approaching us ahead on the weather forequarter," continued the same voice, which was that of the man on the lookout.
The most profound silence now pervaded the deck. Every individual, including Captain De Haldimar and the boatswain, had flown to the gangway of the quarter indicated, which was on the side occupied by the couch of the unfortunate Clara. Presently a noise like that produced by a single paddle rapidly dividing the water was heard by every anxious ear. Night had long since thrown her mantle over the surrounding waste, and all that was to be seen reflected from the bosom of the gradually darkening waters, scarcely ruffled by the yet incipient
breeze, were a few straggling stars that here and there appeared in the overcast heavens. Hitherto no object could be discovered by those who strained their eyes eagerly and painfully through the gloom, although the sounds became at each moment more distinct. It was evident the party, guided by the noise of the rippling waves that fell from the bows of the schooner, was enabled to follow up a course the direct clue to which had been indicated by the cry of the captive. Every man stood near his gun on the starboard battery, and the burning matches hanging over their respective buckets ready to be seized at a moment's notice. Still, but little room for apprehension existed, for the practised ears of the mariners could easily tell that a solitary bark alone approached, and of one, or even ten, they entertained no fear. Suddenly, as the course of the vessel was now changed a point to windward—a movement that brought her bows more off the adjacent shore—the sound in which all were more or less interested was heard not more than twenty yards off and in a line with the gangway at which the principal of the crew were assembled. In the next minute the low hull of a canoe came in sight, and then a tall and solitary human figure was seen in the stern bending alternately to the right and to the left, as the paddle was rapidly and successively changed from side to side.
Another deep and exulting "ugh!" was now heaved from the chest of the Indian, who stood calmly on the spot on which he had at first rested, while Fuller prepared a coil of rope to throw to the active steersman.
"Avast there, Jack!" growled the boatswain, addressing the sailor, "how can the stranger keep the bow of his craft on and grapple at the same time? Just pass one end of the coil round your waist and swing yourself gently into her."
The head of the canoe was now near enough for the purpose. The sailor did as he was desired, having previously divested himself of his shoes, and leaping forward alighted on what appeared to him to be a bundle of blankets stowed away in her bows. No sooner, however,
had he secured his footing when, with another desperate leap, and greatly to the astonishment of all around, he bounded once more to the deck of the schooner, his countenance exhibiting every mark of superstitious alarm. In the act of quitting the canoe he had spurned her several feet from the vessel, which the silent steersman was again making every effort to reach.
"Why, what the devil's the matter with you now?" exclaimed the rough boatswain, who, as well as Captain De Haldimar and the rest of the crew, had quitted the gangway to learn the cause of this extraordinary conduct. "D—— my eyes, if you aren't worse scared than when the Ingin stood over you in the jolly boat."
"Scared, ay, to be sure I am; and so would you be scared, too, if you'd a see'd what I did. May I never touch the point at Portsmouth if I ain't seen her ghost."
"Where?" — "Whose ghost?" — "What ghost?" — "What do you mean, Jack?" exclaimed several men in the same breath, while the superstitious dread so common to mariners drew them still closer in the group that encircled their companion.
"Well, then, as I am a miserable sinner," returned the man, impressively, and in a low tone, "I see'd in the bows of the canoe—and the hand that steered it was not made of flesh and blood like ours—what do you think? the ghost of——"
Captain De Haldimar heard no more. At a single bound he had gained the ship's side. He strained his eyes anxiously over the gangway in search of the canoe, but it was gone. A deathlike silence throughout the deck followed the communication of the sailor, and in that pause the sound of the receding boat could be heard, not urged, as it had approached, by one paddle, but by two. The heart of the officer throbbed almost to suffocation, and his firmness, hitherto supported by the manly energies of nature, now failed him quite. Heedless of appearances, regardless of being overlooked, he tottered like a drunken man for support against the mainmast. For a moment or two he leant his head upon his hand, with the air of one
immersed in the most profound abstraction, while the crew, at once alarmed and touched by the deep distress into which this mysterious circumstance had plunged him, stood silently and respectfully watching his emotion. Suddenly he started from his attitude of painful repose, like one awakening from a dream, and demanded what had become of the Indian.
Everyone looked around, but the captive was nowhere to be seen. Search was made below, both in the cabin and in the foredecks, and men were sent up aloft to see if he had secreted himself in the rigging, but all returned, stating he was nowhere to be found. He had disappeared from the vessel altogether, yet no one knew how, for he had not been observed to stir from the spot on which he had first planted himself. It was plain, however, he had joined the mysterious party in the canoe, from the fact of the second paddle having been detected; and all attempt at pursuit, without endangering the vessel on the shallows, whither the course of the fugitives was now directed, was declared by the boatswain utterly impracticable.
The announcement of the Indian’s disappearance seemed to put the climax to the despair of the unfortunate officer. “Then is our every hope lost!” he groaned aloud, as, quitting the centre of the vessel, he slowly traversed the deck and once more stood at the side of his no less unhappy and excited sister. For a moment or two he remained with his arms folded across his chest, gazing on the dark outline of her form, and then, in a wild paroxysm of silent, tearless grief, threw himself suddenly on the edge of the couch, and clasping her in a long close embrace to his audibly beating heart, lay like one bereft of all sense and consciousness of surrounding objects.
CHAPTER XXII.
The night passed away without further event on board the schooner, yet in all the anxiety that might be supposed incident to men so perilously situated. Habits of long since acquired superstition, too powerful to be easily shaken off, moreover, contributed to the dejection of the mariners, among whom there were not wanting those who believed the silent steersman was in reality what their comrade had represented—an immaterial being sent from the world of spirits to warn them of some impending evil. What principally gave weight to this impression were the repeated asseverations of Fuller during the sleepless night passed by all on deck, that what he had seen was no other, could be no other, than a ghost! exhibiting in its hueless, fleshless cheeks the well-known lineaments of one who was supposed to be no more; and if the story of their comrade had needed confirmation among men in whom faith in, rather than love for, the marvellous was a constitutional ingredient, the terrible effect that seemed to have been produced on Captain De Haldimar by the same mysterious visitation would have been more than conclusive. The very appearance of the night, too, favored the delusion. The heavens, comparatively clear at the moment when the canoe approached the vessel, became suddenly enveloped in the deepest gloom at its departure, as if to enshroud the course of those who, having so mysteriously approached, had also so unaccountably disappeared. Nor had this threatening state of the atmosphere the counterbalancing advantage of storm and tempest to drive them onward.
through the narrow waters of the St. Clair, and enable them by anticipating the pursuit of their enemies to shun the Scylla and Charybdis that awaited their more leisurely advance. The wind increased not, and the disappointed seamen remarked with dismay that their craft scarcely made more progress than at that moment when she first quitted her anchorage.
It was now near the first hours of day; and although, perhaps, none slept, there were few who were not apparently at rest, and plunged in the most painful reflections. Still occupying her humble couch, and shielded from the night air merely by the cloak that covered her own blood-stained garments, lay the unhappy Clara, her deep groans and stifled sobs bursting occasionally from the pent-up heart, and falling on the ears of the mariners like sounds of fearful import produced by the mysterious agency that already held such undivided power over their thoughts. On the bare deck at her side lay her brother, his face turned upon the planks, as if to shut out all objects from eyes he had not the power to close, and with one arm supporting his heavy brow, while the other, cast around the restless form of his beloved sister, seemed to offer protection and to impart confidence, even while his lips denied the accents of consolation. Seated on an empty hen-coop at their head was Sir Everard Valletort, his back reposing against the bulwarks of the vessel, his arms folded across his chest, and his eyes bent mechanically on the man at the helm, who stood within a few paces of him—an attitude of absorption which he ever and anon changed to one of anxious and enquiring interest, whenever the agitation of Clara was manifested in the manner already shown.
The main deck and forecastle of the vessel presented a similar picture of mingled unquietness and repose. Some of the seamen might be seen seated on the gun-carriages, with their cheeks pressing the rude metal that served them for a pillow. Others lay along the decks, with their hands resting on the elevated hatches; while not a few, squatted on their haunches with their knees doubled up
to their very chins, supported in that position the aching head that rested between their rough and horny palms. A first glance might have induced the belief that all were buried in the most profound slumber, but the quick jerking of a limb, the fitful, sudden shifting of a position, the utter absence of that deep breathing which indicates the unconsciousness of repose, only required to be noticed to prove the living silence that reigned throughout was not born either of apathy or sleep.
At the gangway at which the canoe had approached now stood the individual already introduced to our readers as Jack Fuller. The same superstitious terror that had caused his flight had once more attracted him to the spot where the subject of his alarm first appeared to him; and without seeming to reflect that the vessel in her slow but certain progress had left all vestige of the mysterious visitor behind, he continued gazing over the bulwarks on the dark waters, as if he expected at each moment to find his sight stricken by the same appalling vision. It was at the moment when he had worked up his naturally dull imagination to its highest perception of the supernatural that he was joined by the rugged boatswain, who had passed the greater part of the night in pacing up and down the decks, watching the aspect of the heavens, and occasionally tauting a rope or squaring a light yard, unassisted, as the fluttering of the canvas in the wind rendered the alteration necessary.
"Well, Jack!" bluntly observed the latter, in a gruff whisper that resembled the suppressed growling of a mastiff, "what are ye thinking of now? Not got over your flumbustification yet, that ye stand here looking as sanctified as an old parson!"
"I'll tell ye what it is, Mr. Mullins," returned the sailor, in the same key; "you may make as much game on me as you like, but these here strange sort of doings are somehow quizzical, and although I fears nothing in the shape of flesh and blood, still when it comes to having to do with those as is gone to Davy Jones' locker like, it gives a fellow an all-overishness as isn't quite the thing. You understand me?"
"Hang me if I do!" was the brief rejoinder.
"Well, then," continued Fuller, "if I must out with it, I must. I think that 'ere Ingin must have been the devil, or how could he come so sudden and unbeknownst upon me with the head of a 'possum; and then again, how could he get away from the craft without our seeing him? and how came the ghost on board of the canoe?"
"Avast there, old fellow; you means not the head of a 'possum, but a beaver; but that 'ere's all nat'ral enough and easily 'counted for, but you haven't told us whose ghost it was, after all."
"No; the captain made such a spring to the gunnel as frightened it all out of my head; but come closer, Mr. Mullins, and I'll whisper it in your ear. Hark! what was that?"
"I hears nothing," said the boatswain, after a pause.
"It's very odd," continued Fuller; "but I thought as how I heard it several times afore you came."
"There's something wrong, I take it, in your upper story, Jack Fuller," coolly observed his companion; "that 'ere ghost has quite capsized you."
"Hark, again!" repeated the sailor. "Didn't you hear it then? A sort of a groan, like."
"Where?—in what part?" calmly demanded the boatswain, though in the same suppressed tone in which the dialogue had been carried on.
"Why, from the canoe that lies alongside there. I heard it several times afore."
"Well, if you aren't turned a real coward at last," politely remarked Mr. Mullins. "Can't the poor fat devil of a Canadian snooze a bit in his hammock without putting you so completely out of your reckoning?"
"The Canadian—the Canadian!" hurriedly returned Fuller; "why, don't you see him there, leaning with his back to the mainmast, and as fast asleep as if the devil himself couldn't wake him?"
"Then it was the devil you heard, if you like," quaintly retorted Mullins, "but bear a hand and tell us all about this here ghost."
"Hark, again! what was that?" once more enquired the excited sailor.
"Only a gust of wind passing through the dried boughs of the canoe," said the boatswain; "but since we can get nothing out of that crazed noddle of yours, see if you can't do something with your hands. That 'ere canoe running alongside takes half a knot off the ship's way. Bear a hand then and cast off the painter, and let her drop astarn that she may follow in our wake. Hilloa! what's the matter with the man now?"
And well might he ask. With his eyeballs staring, his teeth chattering, his body half bent, and his arms thrown forward, yet pendent as if suddenly arrested in that position while in the act of reaching the rope, the terrified sailor stood gazing on the stern of the canoe, in which by the faint light of the dawning day was to be seen an object well calculated to fill the least superstitious heart with horror and dismay. Through an opening in the foliage peered the pale and spectral face of a human being, with its dull eyes bent fixedly and mechanically upon the vessel. In the centre of the wan forehead was a dark incrustation as of blood covering the superfices of a newly closed wound. The pallid mouth was partially unclosed, so as to display a row of white and apparently lipless teeth, and the features were otherwise set and drawn, as those of one who is no longer of earth. Around the head was bound a covering so close as to conceal every part save the face, and once or twice a hand was slowly raised and pressed upon the blood spot that dimmed the passing fairness of the brow. Every other portion of the form was invisible.
"Lord have mercy upon us!" exclaimed the boatswain, in a voice that, now elevated to more than its natural tone, sounded startlingly on the stillness of the scene; "sure enough, it is indeed a ghost!"
"Ha! do you believe me now?" returned Fuller, gaining confidence from the admission of his companion, and in the same elevated key. "It is, as I hope to be saved, the ghost I see'd afore."
The commotion on deck was now everywhere universal. The sailors started to their feet, and with horror and alarm visibly imprinted on their countenances, rushed tumultuously towards the dreaded gangway.
"Make way—room, fellows!" exclaimed a hurried voice; and presently Captain De Haldimar, who had bounded like lightning from the deck, appeared with eager eye and excited cheek among them. To leap into the boat and disappear under the foliage was the work of a single instant. All listened breathlessly for the slightest sound; and then every heart throbbed with the most undefinable emotions, as his lips were heard giving utterance to the deep emotion of his own spirit:
"Madeline, oh, my own lost Madeline!" he exclaimed, with almost frantic energy of passion; "do I then press you once more to my doting heart? Speak, speak to me—for God's sake, speak, or I shall go mad! Air, air—she wants air only—she cannot be dead."
These last words were succeeded by the furious rending asunder of the fastenings that secured the boughs, and presently the whole went overboard, leaving revealed the tall and picturesque figure of the officer, whose left arm encircled while it supported the reclining and powerless form of one who well resembled, indeed, the spectre for which she had been mistaken, while his right hand was busied in detaching the string that secured a portion of the covering round her throat. At length it fell from her shoulders, and the well-known form of Madeline De Haldimar, clad even in the vestments in which they had been wont to see her, met the astonished gaze of the excited seamen. Still there were some who doubted it was the corporeal woman whom they beheld, and several of the crew who were Catholics even made the sign of the cross as the supposed spirit was now borne up the gangway in the arms of the pained yet gratified De Haldimar; nor was it until her feet were seen finally resting on the deck that Jack Fuller could persuade himself it was indeed Miss De Haldimar, and not her ghost, that lay clasped to the heart of the officer.
With the keen rush of the morning air upon her brow returned the suspended consciousness of the bewildered Madeline. The blood came slowly and imperceptibly to her cheek, and her eyes, hitherto glazed, fixed and inexpressive, looked enquiringly, yet with stupid wonderment, around. She started from the embrace of her lover, gazed alternately at his disguise, at himself and at Clara, and then, passing her hand several times rapidly across her brow, uttered an hysteric scream and threw herself impetuously forward on the bosom of the sobbing girl, who, with extended arms, parted lips, and heaving bosom, sat breathlessly awaiting the first dawn of the returning reason of her more than sister.
We should vainly attempt to paint all the heartrending misery of the scene exhibited in the gradual restoration of Miss De Haldimar to her senses. From a state of torpor, produced by the freezing of every faculty into almost idiocy, she was suddenly awakened to all the terrors of the past, and the deep intonations of her rich voice were heard only in expressions of agony that entered into the most iron-hearted of the assembled seamen, while they drew from the bosom of her gentle and sympathizing cousin fresh bursts of desolating grief. Imagination itself would find difficulty in supplying the harrowing effect upon all, when, with upraised hands and on her bended knees, her large eyes turned wildly up to heaven, she invoked in deep and startling accents the terrible retribution of a just God on the inhuman murderers of her father, with whose life-blood her garments were profusely saturated, and then with hysteric laughter demanded why she alone had been singled out to survive the bloody tragedy. Love and affection, hitherto the first principles of her existence, then found no entrance into her mind. Stricken, broken-hearted, stultified to all feeling save that of her immediate wretchedness, she thought only of the horrible scenes through which she had passed; and even he whom at another moment she could have clasped in an agony of fond tenderness to her beating bosom—he to whom she had pledged her virgin faith and
was bound by the dearest of human ties—he whom she had so often longed to behold once more, and had thought of the preceding day with all the tenderness of her impassioned and devoted soul—even he did not in the first hours of her terrible consciousness so much as command a single passing regard. All the affections were for a moment blighted in her bosom. She seemed as one devoted, without the power of resistance, to a grief which calcined and preyed upon all other feelings of the mind. One stunning and annihilating reflection seemed to engross every principle of her being; nor was it for hours after she had been restored to life and recollection that a deluge of burning tears, giving relief to her heart and a new direction to her feelings, enabled her at length to separate the past from, and in some degree devote herself to, the present. Then, indeed, for the first time did she perceive and take pleasure in the presence of her lover, and clasping her beloved and weeping Clara to her heart, thank her God, in all the fervor of true piety, that she at least had been spared to shed a ray of comfort on her distracted spirit.
The day now rapidly developing, full opportunity was afforded the mariners to survey the strict nature of their position. To all appearance they were yet in the middle of the lake, for around them lay the belting sweep of forest that bounded the perspective of the equidistant circle of which their bark was the focus or immediate centre. The wind was dying gradually away, and when at length the sun rose in all its splendor there was scarce air enough in the heavens to keep the sails from flapping against the masts or to enable the vessel to obey her helm. In vain was the low and peculiar whistle of the seamen heard, ever and anon, in invocation of the departing breeze. Another day, calm and breathless as the preceding, had been chartered from the world of light; and their hearts failed them as they foresaw the difficulty of their position and the almost certainty of their retreat being cut off. It was while laboring under the disheartening consciousness of danger, peculiar to all, that the anxious
boatswain summoned Captain De Haldimar and Sir Everard Valletort, by a significant beck of the finger, to the side of the deck opposite to that on which still lay the suffering and nearly broken-hearted girls.
"Well, Mullins, what now?" inquired the former, as he narrowly scanned the expression of the old man's features; "that clouded brow of yours, I fear me, bodes no agreeable information."
"Why, your honor, I scarcely knows what to say about it; but seeing as I'm the only officer in the ship, now our poor captain is killed, God bless him! I thought I might take the liberty to consult with your honors as to the best way of getting out of the jaws of them sharks of Ingins; and two heads, as the saying is, is always better than one."
"And now you have the advantage of three," observed the officer, with a sickly smile; "but I fear, Mullins, that if your own be not sufficient for the purpose, ours will be of little service. You must take counsel from your own experience and knowledge of nautical matters."
"Why, to be sure, your honor," and the sailor rolled his quid from one cheek to the other; "I think I may say as how I'll venture to steer the craft with any man on the Canada lakes, and bring her safe into port, too; but seeing as how I'm only a petty officer, and not yet recommended by his worship the governor for the full command, I thought it but right to consult with my superiors, not as to the management of the craft, but the best as is to be done. What does your honor think of making for the high land over the larboard bow yonder, and waiting for the chance of the night breeze to take us through the St. Clair?"
"Do whatever you think best," returned the officer. "For my part, I scarcely can give an opinion. Yet how are we to get there? There does not appear to be a breath of wind."
"Oh, that's easily managed; we have only to brail and furl up a little, to hide our cloth from the Ingins, and
then send the boats ahead to tow the craft, while some of us lend a hand at her own sweeps. We shall get close under the lee of the land afore night, and then we must pull up agin along shore, until we get within a mile or so of the head of the river."
"But shall we not be seen by our enemies?" asked Sir Everard; "and will they not be on the watch for our movements and intercept our retreat?"
"Now that's just the thing, your honor, as they're not likely to do, if so be as we bears away from yon headlands. I know every nook and sounding round the lake; and odd enough if I didn't, seeing as how the craft circumnavigated it at least a dozen times since we have been cooped up here. Poor Captain Danvers (may the devil take his murderers, I say, though it does make a commander of me for once), he used always to make for that 'ere point whenever he wished to lie quiet, for never once did we see so much as a single Ingin on the headland. No, your honor, they keeps all at t'other side of the lake, seeing as how that is the main road from Mackinac to Detroit."
"Then, by all means, do so," eagerly returned Captain De Haldimar. "Oh, Mullins! take us but safely through, and if the interest of my father can procure a king's commission you shall not want it, believe me."
"And if half my fortune can give additional stimulus to exertion, it shall be shared with pleasure between yourself and crew," observed Sir Everard.
"Thank your honors—thank your honors," said the boatswain, somewhat electrified by these brilliant offers. "The lads may take the money if they like; all I cares about is the king's commission. Give me but a swab on my shoulder and the money will come fast enough of itself. But still, shiver my topsails if I wants any bribery to make me do my duty; besides, if 'twas only for them poor girls alone I would go through fire and water to sarve them. I'm not very chicken-hearted in my old age, your honors, but I don't recollect the time when I blubbered so much as I did when Miss Madeline come
aboard. But I can't bear to think of it; and now let us see and get all ready for towing."
Everything now became bustle and activity on board the schooner. The matches, no longer required for the moment, were extinguished, and the heavy cutlasses and pistols unbuckled from the loins of the men and deposited near their respective guns. Light forms flew aloft, and standing out upon the yards, loosely furled the sails that had previously been hauled and clewed up; but as this was an operation requiring little time in so small a vessel, those who were engaged in it speedily glided to the deck again, ready for a more arduous service. The boats had, meanwhile, been got forward, and into these the sailors sprang with an alacrity that could scarcely have been expected from men who had passed not only the preceding night, but many before it, in utter sleeplessness and despair. But the imminence of the danger and the evident necessity existing for exertion aroused them to new energy, and the hitherto motionless vessel was now made to obey the impulse given by the tow ropes of the boats in a manner that proved their crews to have entered on their toil with the determination of men resolved to devote themselves in earnest to their tasks. Nor was the spirit of action confined to these. The long sweeps of the schooner had been shipped, and such of the crew as remained on board labored effectually at them—a service in which they were essentially aided not only by mine host of the Fleur de Lis, but by the young officers themselves.
At mid-day the headlands were seen looming largely in the distance, while the immediate shores of the ill-fated fortress were momentarily and in the same proportion disappearing under the dim line of horizon in the rear. More than half their course, from the spot whence they commenced towing, had been completed when the harassed men were made to quit their oars in order to partake of the scanty fare of the vessel, consisting chiefly of dried bear's meat and venison. Spirit of any description they had none; but, unlike their brethren of the Atlantic, when driven to extremities in food they knew
not what it was to poison the nutritious properties of the latter by sipping the putrid dregs of the water-cask in quantities scarce sufficient to quench the fire of their parched palates. Unslaked thirst was a misery unknown to the mariners of these lakes; it was but to cast their buckets deep into the tempting element, and water, pure, sweet and grateful as any that ever bubbled from the moss-clad fountain of sylvan deity, came cool and refreshing to their lips, neutralizing in a measure the crudities of the coarsest food. It was to this inestimable advantage the crew of the schooner had been principally indebted for their health during the long series of privations, as far as related to fresh provisions and rest, to which they had been subjected. All appeared as vigorous in frame and robust in health as at the moment when they had last quitted the waters of the Detroit, and but for the inward sinking of the spirit reflected in many a bronzed and furrowed brow, there was little to show they had been exposed to any very extraordinary trials.
Their meal having been hastily despatched, and sweetened by a draught from the depths of the Huron, the seamen once more sprang into their boats and devoted themselves, heart and soul, to the completion of their task, pulling with a vigor that operated on each and all with a tendency to encouragement and hope. At length the vessel, still impelled by her own sweeps, gradually approached the land, and at rather more than an hour before sunset was so near that the moment was deemed arrived when, without danger of being perceived, she might be run up along the shore to the point alluded to by the boatswain. Little more than another hour was occupied in bringing her to her station, and the red tints of departing day were visible in the direction of the ill-fated fortress of Michilimackinac when the sullen rumbling of the cable, following the heavy splash of the anchor, announced the place of momentary concealment had been gained.
The anchorage lay between two projecting headlands, to the outermost extremities of which were to be seen,
The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science. It is intended to provide a quick reference for those who need to understand these concepts.
1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program so that it can be accessed efficiently.
3. Database: A collection of data organized in a way that allows for easy retrieval and manipulation.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software system that provides services for creating, maintaining, and using databases.
5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that it cannot be read by anyone except the intended recipient.
6. Hashing: A technique for converting data into a fixed-size string of characters.
7. Interface: A way of communicating between two systems or programs.
8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities.
9. Operating System (OS): A software system that manages the hardware and software resources of a computer.
10. Programming Language: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute.
11. Query: A request for information from a database.
12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access or modification.
13. Software: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute.
14. System: A collection of related components that work together to achieve a common goal.
15. User Interface (UI): The way a user interacts with a computer program or system.
16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that can run on top of another computer system.
17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser.
18. XML: A markup language used to structure and organize data in a way that can be easily parsed and manipulated by computers.
"During the whole of that day the cousins had continued on deck, clasped in each other's arms."
overhanging the lake, the stately birch and pine, connected at their base by impenetrable brushwood extending to the very shore, and affording the amplest concealment except from the lake side and the banks under which the schooner was moored. From the first quarter, however, little danger was incurred, as any canoes the savages might send in discovery of their course must unavoidably be seen the moment they appeared over the line of the horizon, while, on the contrary, their own vessel, although much larger, resting on and identified with the land, must be invisible except on a very near approach. In the opposite direction they were equally safe; for, as Mullins had truly remarked, none save a few wandering hunters, whom chance occasionally led to the spot, were to be met with in a part of the country that lay so completely out of the track of communication between the fortresses. It was, however, but to double the second headland in their front and they came within view of the St. Clair, the head of which was situated little more than a league beyond the spot where they now lay. Thus, secure for the present and waiting only for the rising of the breeze, of which the setting sun had given promise, the sailors once more snatched their hasty refreshment while two of their number were sent aloft to keep a vigilant lookout along the circuit embraced by the enshrouded headlands.
During the whole of the day the cousins had continued on deck, clasped in each other's arms, and shedding tears of bitterness and heaving the most heartrending sobs at intervals, yet but rarely conversing. The feelings of both were too much oppressed to admit of the utterance of their grief. The vampire of despair had banqueted on their hearts. Often had Sir Everard and De Haldimar paused momentarily from the labor of their oars to cast an eye of anxious solicitude on the scarcely conscious girls, wishing, rather than expecting to find, the violence of their desolation abated, and that in the full expansion of unreserved communication they were relieving their sick hearts from the terrible weight of woe that bore them down. Captain De Haldimar had even once or twice essayed to introduce the subject himself, in the hope that
some fresh paroxysm following their disclosures would remove the horrible stupefaction of their senses, but the wild look and excited manner of Madeline whenever he touched on the chord of her affliction had as often caused him to desist.
Towards the evening, however, her natural strength of character came in aid of his quiescent efforts to soothe her, and she appeared not only more composed but more sensible of the impression produced by surrounding objects. As the last rays of the sun were tinging the horizon, she drew up her form in a sitting position against the bulwarks, and raising her clasped hands to heaven, while her eyes were bent long and fixedly on the distant west, appeared some minutes wholly lost in that attitude of absorption. Then she closed her eyes, and through the swollen lids came coursing one by one over her quivering cheek large tears, that seemed to scald a furrow where they passed. After this she became more calm—her respiration more free, and she even consented to taste the humble meal which the young man now offered for the third time. Neither Clara nor herself had eaten food since the preceding morning, and the weakness of their frames contributed not a little to the increasing despondency of their spirits; but, notwithstanding several attempts previously made, they had rejected what was offered them with insurmountable loathing. When they had now swallowed a few morsels of the sliced venison ham, prepared with all the delicacy the nearly exhausted resources of the vessel could supply, accompanied by a small portion of the corn-bread of the Canadian, Captain De Haldimar prevailed on them to swallow a few drops of the spirit that still remained in the canteen given them by Erskine on their departure from Detroit. The genial liquid sent a kindling glow to their chilled hearts, and for a moment deadened the pungency of their anguish, and then it was that Miss De Haldimar entered briefly on the horrors she had witnessed, while Clara, with her arm encircling her waist, fixed her dim and swollen eyes, from which a tear ever and anon rolled heavily to her lap, on those of her beloved cousin.
CHAPTER XXIII.
WITHOUT borrowing the affecting language of the unhappy girl—a language rendered even more touching by the peculiar pathos of her tones and the searching agony of spirit that burst at intervals through her narrative—we will merely present our readers with a brief summary of what was gleaned from her melancholy disclosure. On bearing her cousin to the bedroom, after the terrifying yell first heard from without the fort, she had flown down the front stairs of the block-house in the hope of reaching the guard-room in time to acquaint Captain Baynton with what she and Clara had witnessed from the window. Scarcely, however, had she gained the exterior of the building when she saw that officer descending from a point of the rampart immediately on her left and almost in a line with the block-house. He was running to overtake and return the ball of the Indian players, which had at that moment fallen into the centre of the fort and was now rolling rapidly away from the spot on which Miss De Haldimar stood. The course of the ball led the pursuing officer out of the reach of her voice, and it was not until he had overtaken and thrown it again over the rampart she could succeed in claiming his attention. No sooner; however, had he heard her hurried statement than, without waiting to take the orders of his commanding officer, he prepared to join his guard and gave directions for the immediate closing of the gates. But the opportunity was now lost. The delay occasioned by the chase and recovery of the ball had
given the Indians time to approach the gates in a body, while the unsuspicious soldiery looked on without so much as dreaming to prevent them; and Captain Baynton had scarcely moved forward in execution of his purpose when the yelling fiends were seen already possessing themselves of the drawbridge and exhibiting every appearance of fierce hostility. Wild, maddened at the sight, the almost frantic Madeline, alive only to her father's danger, rushed back towards the council-room, whence the startling yell from without had already been echoed and where the tramp of feet and the clashing of weapons were distinguishable.
Cut off from his guard by the rapid inundation of warriors, Captain Baynton had at once seen the futility of all attempts to join the men, and his first impression evidently had been to devote himself to the preservation of the cousins. With this view he turned hastily to Miss De Haldimar, and hurriedly naming the back staircase of the block-house, urged her to direct her flight to that quarter. But the excited girl had neither consideration nor fear for herself; she thought only of her father; and, even while the fierceness of contest was at its height within, she suddenly burst into the council-room. The confusion and horror of the scene that met her eyes no language can render; blood was flowing in every direction, and dying and dead officers, already stripped of their scalps, were lying strewn around the room. Still the survivors fought with all the obstinancy of despair, and many of the Indians had shared the fate of their victims.
Miss De Haldimar attempted to reach her father, then vigorously combatting with one of the most desperate of the chiefs; but before she could dart through the intervening crowd a savage seized her by the hair and brandished a tomahawk rapidly over her neck. At this moment Captain Baynton sent his glittering blade deep into the heart of the Indian, who, relinquishing his grasp, fell dead at the feet of his intended victim. The devoted officer then threw his left arm round her waist, and parrying with his sword-arm the blows of those who sought to intercept
his flight, dragged his reluctant burden towards the door. Hotly pressed by the remaining officers, nearly equal in number, the Indians were now compelled to turn and defend themselves in front, when Captain Baynton took that opportunity of getting once more into the corridor; not, however, without having received a severe wound immediately behind the right ear, and leaving a skirt and lapel of his uniform in the hands of two savages who had successively essayed to detain him. At that moment the band without had succeeded in forcing open the door of the guard-room, and the officer saw at a glance there was little time left for decision. In hurried and imploring accents he besought Miss De Haldimar to forget everything but her own danger, and to summon resolution to tear herself from the scene; but prayer and entreaty, and even force, were alike employed in vain. Clinging firmly to the rude balustrades, she refused to be led up the staircase, and wildly resisting all his efforts to detach her hands, declared she would again return to the scene of death, in which her beloved parent was so conspicuous an actor.
While Captain Baynton was yet engaged in this fruitless attempt to force Madeline from the spot, the door of the council-room was suddenly burst open and a group of bleeding officers, among whom was Major De Haldimar, followed by their yelling enemies, rushed wildly into the passage, and at the very foot of the stairs where they yet stood the combat was renewed. From that moment Miss De Haldimar lost sight of her generous protector. Meanwhile the tumult of execrations and groans and yells was at its height, and one by one she saw the unhappy officers sink beneath weapons yet reeking with the blood of their comrades, until not more than three or four, including her father and the commander of the schooner, were left. At length Major De Haldimar, overcome by exertion and faint from wounds, while his wild eye darted despairingly on his daughter, had his sword-arm desperately wounded, when the blade dropped to the earth and a dozen weapons glittered above his head. The wild
shriek that had startled Clara then burst from the agonized heart of her maddened cousin, and she darted forward to cover her father's head with her arms. But her senses failed her in the attempt, and the last thing she recollected was falling over the weltering form of Middleton, who pressed her, as she lay there, in the convulsive energy of death, to his almost pulseless heart.
A vague consciousness of being raised from the earth and borne rapidly through the air came over her even in her insensibility, but without any definite perception of the present or recollection of the past, until she suddenly, when about midway between the fort and the point of wood that led to Chabouiga, opened her eyes and found herself in the firm grasp of an Indian, whose features, even in the hasty and fearful glance she cast at the countenance, she fancied were not unfamiliar to her. Not another human being was to be seen in the clearing at that moment, for all the savages, including even the women assembled outside, were within the fort assisting in the complex horrors of murder, fire and spoliation. In the wild energy of returning reason and despair, the wretched girl struggled violently to free herself, and so far with success that the Indian, whose strength was evidently fast failing him, was compelled to quit his hold and suffer her to walk.
No sooner did Miss De Haldimar feel her feet touching the ground, when she again renewed her exertions to free herself and return to the fort; but the Indian held her firmly secured by a leathern thong he now attached to her waist, and every attempt proved abortive. He was evidently much disconcerted at her resistance, and more than once she expected, and almost hoped, the tomahawk at his side would be made to revenge him for the test to which his patience was subjected; but Miss De Haldimar looked in vain for the expression of ferocity and impatience that might have been expected from him at such a moment. There was an air of mournfulness and even kindness, mingled with severity, on his smooth brow, that harmonized ill with the horrible atrocities in which he had
to all appearance, covered as he was with blood, been so recent and prominent an actor. The Indian remarked her surprise, and then, looking hurriedly but keenly around, and finding no living being near them, suddenly tore the shirt from his chest, and emphatically pronouncing the names, "Oucanasta," "De Haldimar," disclosed to the still struggling captive the bosom of a woman. After which, pointing in the direction of the wood and finally towards Detroit, she gave Miss De Haldimar to understand that was the course intended to be pursued.
In a moment the resistance of the latter ceased. She at once recognized the young Indian woman whom her cousin had rescued from death, and aware, as she was, of the strong attachment that had subsequently bound her to her preserver, she was at no loss to understand how she might have been led to devote herself to the rescue of one whom it was probable she knew to be his affianced wife. Once, indeed, a suspicion of a different nature crossed her mind; for the thought occurred to her she had only been saved from the general doom to be made the victim of private revenge—that it was only to glut the jealous vengeance of the woman at a more deliberate hour she had been made a temporary captive. The apprehension, however, was no sooner formed than extinguished. Bitterly, deeply as she had reason to abhor the treachery and cunning of the dark race to which her captor belonged, there was an expression of openness and sincerity, and even imploringness, in the countenance of Oucanasta which, added to her former knowledge of the woman, at once set this fear at rest, inducing her to look upon her rather in the character of a disinterested saviour than in that of a cruel and vindictive enemy, goaded on to the indulgence of malignant hate by a spirit of rivalry and revenge. Besides, even were her cruelest fears to be realized, what could await her worse than the past? If she could even succeed in getting away it would only be to return upon certain death, and death only could await her, however refined the tortures accompanying its infliction, in the event of her quietly following and yielding
herself up to the guidance of one who offered this slight consolation, at least, that she was one of her own sex. But Miss De Haldimar was willing to attribute more generous motives to the Indian, and, fortified in her first impression, she signified by signs, that seemed to be perfectly intelligible to her companion, she appreciated her friendly intentions and confided wholly in her.
No longer checked in her efforts, Oucanasta now directed her course towards the wood, still holding the thong that remained attached to Miss De Haldimar's waist, probably with a view to deceive any individuals from the villages on whom they might chance to fall into the belief that the English girl was in reality her prisoner. No sooner, however, had they entered the depths of the forest, when, instead of following the path that led to Chabouiga, Oucanasta took a direction to the left, and then, moving nearly on a parallel line with the course of the lake, continued her flight as rapidly as the rude nature of the underwood and the unpractised feet of her companion would permit.
They had travelled in this manner for upwards of four hours without meeting a breathing thing, or even so much as exchanging a sound between themselves, when, at length, the Indian stopped at the edge of a deep cavern-like excavation in the earth, produced by the tearing up by the wild tempest of an enormous pine. Into this she descended and presently reappeared with several blankets and two light painted paddles. Then, unloosing the thong from the waist of the exhausted girl, she proceeded to disguise her in one of the blankets in the manner already shown, securing it over the head, throat and shoulders with the badge of captivity, now no longer necessary for her purpose. She then struck off at right angles from the course they had previously pursued, and in less than twenty minutes both stood on the lake shore, apparently at a great distance from the point whence they had originally set out. The Indian gazed for a moment anxiously before her, and then, with an exclamation evidently meant to convey a sense of pleasure and satisfaction, pointed forward upon the lake. Miss De' Haldimar followed with eager and aching eyes the direction of her finger, and beheld the well-known schooner evidently urging her flight towards the entrance of the St. Clair. Oh, how her sick heart seemed ready to burst at that moment! From the vessel she turned her eyes away upon the distant shore which it was fast quitting, and beheld a column of mingled flame and smoke towering far above the horizon and attesting the universal wreck of what had so long been endeared to her as her home. And she had witnessed all this and yet had strength to survive it!
The courage of the unhappy girl had hitherto been sustained by no effort of volition of her own. From the moment when, discovering a friend in Oucanasta, she had yielded herself unresistingly to the guidance of that generous creature, her feelings had been characterized by an obtuseness strongly in contrast with the high excitement that had distinguished her previous manner. A dreamy recollection of some past horror, it is true, pursued her during her rapid and speechless flight, but any analysis of the causes conducing to that horror her subjugated faculties were unable to enter upon. She had followed her conductor almost without consciousness, and with such deep absorption of spirit that she neither once conjectured whither they were going nor what was to be the final issue of their flight. But now, when she stood on the lake shore, suddenly awakened, as if by some startling spell, to every harrowing recollection, and with her attention assisted by objects long endeared and rendered familiar to her gaze—when she beheld the vessel that had last borne her across the still bosom of the Huron fleeing forever from the fortress where her arrival had been so joyously hailed—when she saw that fortress itself presenting the hideous spectacle of a blackened mass of ruins fast crumbling into nothingness—a faintness, as of death, came over her, and she sank without life on the beach.
Of what passed afterwards Madeline had no recollection. She neither knew how she had got into the canoe nor
what means the Indian had taken to secure her approach to the schooner. She had no consciousness of having been removed to the bark of the Canadian, nor did she even remember having risen and gazed through the foliage on the vessel at her side; but she presumed, the chill air of the morning having partially restored pulsation, she had moved instinctively from her recumbent position to the spot in which her spectre-like countenance had been perceived by Fuller. The first moment of her returning reason was that when, standing on the deck of the schooner, she found herself so unexpectedly clasped to the heart of her lover.
Twilight had entirely passed away when Miss De Haldimar completed her sad narrative, and already the crew, roused to exertion by the swelling breeze, were once more engaged in weighing the anchor and setting and trimming the sails of the schooner, which latter soon began to shoot round the concealing headland into the opening of the St. Clair. A deathlike silence prevailed throughout the decks of the little bark, as her bows, dividing the waters of the basin that formed its source, gradually immerged into the current of that deep but narrow river; so narrow, indeed, that from its centre the least active of the mariners might have leaped without difficulty to either shore.* This was the most critical part of the dangerous navigation. With a wide seaboard and full command of their helm they had nothing to fear, but so limited was the passage of this river, it was with difficulty the yards and masts of the schooner could be kept disengaged from the projecting boughs of the dense forest that lined the adjacent shores to their very junction with the water. The darkness of the night, moreover, while it promised to shield them from the observation of the savages, contributed greatly to perplex their movements; for such was the abruptness with which the river wound itself round in various directions, that it required a man constantly on the alert at the bows to
* See explanation on page xi. of Introduction.
apprise the helmsman of the course he should steer to avoid collision with the shores. Canopies of weaving branches met in various directions far above their heads, and through these the schooner glided with a silence that might have called up the idea of a Stygian freight. Meanwhile, the men stood to their guns, concealing the matches in their war-buckets as before; and while they strained both ear and eye through the surrounding gloom to discover the slightest evidence of danger, grasped the handles of their cutlasses with a firm hand, ready to unsheathe them at the first intimation of alarm.
At the suggestion of the boatswain, who hinted at the necessity of having cleared decks, Captain De Haldimar had prevailed on his unfortunate relatives to retire to the small cabin arranged for their reception; and here they were attended by an aged female, who had long followed the fortunes of the crew, and acted in the twofold character of laundress and seamstress. He himself, with Sir Everard, continued on deck, watching the progress of the vessel with an anxiety that became more intense at each succeeding hour. Hitherto their course had been unimpeded, save by the obstacles already enumerated; and they had now, at an hour before dawn, gained a point that promised a speedy termination to their danger and perplexities. Before them lay a reach in the river enveloped in more than ordinary gloom, produced by the continuous weaving of the tops of the overhanging trees; and in the perspective a gleam of relieving light, denoting the near vicinity of the lake that lay at the opposite extremity of the St. Clair, whose name it also bore. This was the narrowest part of the river; and so approximate were its shores that the vessel in her course could not fail to come in contact both with the obtruding foliage of the forest and the dense bulrushes skirting the edge of either bank.
"If we get safe through this here place," said the boatswain, in a rough whisper, to his anxious and attentive auditors, "I think as how I'll venture to answer for the craft. I can see daylight dancing upon the lake already."
Ten minutes more and she will be there." Then, turning to the man at the helm,—"Keep her in the centre of the stream, Jim. Don't you see you're hugging the weather shore?"
"It would take the devil himself to tell which is the centre," growled the sailor, in the same suppressed tone. "One might steer with one's eyes shut in such a queer place as this, and never be no worser off than with them open."
"Steady her helm, steady," rejoined Mullins, "it's as dark as pitch, to be sure, but the passage is straight as an arrow, and with a steady helm you can't miss it. Make for the light ahead."
"Abaft there!" hurriedly and loudly shouted the man on the lookout at the bows, "there's a tree lying across the river, and we're just upon it."
While he yet spoke, and before the boatswain could give such instructions as the emergency required, the vessel suddenly struck against the obstacle in question; but the concussion was not of the violent nature that might have been anticipated. The course of the schooner, at no one period particularly rapid, had been considerably checked since her entrance into the gloomy arch, in the centre of which her present accident had occurred; so that it was without immediate injury to her hull and spars she had been thus suddenly brought to. But this was not the most alarming part of the affair. Captain De Haldimar and Sir Everard both recollected that, in making the same passage not forty-eight hours previously, they had encountered no obstacle of the kind, and a misgiving of danger rose simultaneously to the heart of each. It was, however, a thing of too common occurrence, where storm and tempest were so prevalent and partial, to create more than a mere temporary alarm; for it was quite as probable the barrier had been interposed by some fitful outburst of nature as that it arose from design on the part of their enemies; and when the vessel had continued stationary for some minutes, without the prepared and expectant crew discovering the slightest indication of attack, the former
impression was preserved by the officers—at least avowedly to those around.
"Bear a hand, my lads, and cut away," at length ordered the boatswain, in a low but clear tone; "half a dozen at each end of the stick, and we shall soon clear a passage for the craft."
A dozen sailors grasped their axes and hastened forward to execute the command. They sprang lightly from the entangled bows of the schooner, and diverging in equal numbers, moved to either extremity of the fallen tree.
"This is sailing through the heart of the American forest with a vengeance," muttered Mullins, whose annoyance at their detention was strongly manifested as he paced up and down the deck. "Shiver my topsails if it isn't bad enough to clear the St. Clair at any time, much more so when one's running for one's life, and not a whisper's length from one's enemies. Do you know, Captain," abruptly checking his movement, and familiarly placing his hand on the shoulder of De Haldimar, "the last time we sailed through this very reach I couldn't help telling poor Captain Danvers, God rest his soul, what a nice spot it was for an Ingin ambuscade, if they only had gumption enough to think of it."
"Hark!" said the officer, whose heart, eye, and ear were painfully on the alert, "what rustling is that we hear overhead?"
"It's Jack Fuller, no doubt, your honor; I sent him up to clear away the branches from the main topmast rigging." Then, raising his head and elevating his voice, "Hilloa! aloft there!"
The only answer was a groan, followed by a deeper commotion among the rustling foliage.
"Why, what the devil's the matter with you now, Jack?" pursued the boatswain, in a voice of angry vehemence. "Are ye scared at another ghost, that ye keep groaning there after that fashion?"
At that moment a heavy, dull mass was heard tumbling through the upper rigging of the schooner towards the
deck, and presently a human form fell at the very feet of the small group, composed of the two officers and the individual who had last spoken.
"A light, a light!" shouted the boatswain; "the foolish chap has lost his hold through fear, and ten to one if he hasn't cracked his skull-piece for his pains. Quick there with a light, and let's see what we can do for him."
The attention of all had been arrested by the sound of the falling weight, and as one of the sailors now advanced, bearing a dark lantern from below, the whole of the crew, with the exception of those employed on the fallen tree, gathered themselves in a knot round the motionless form of the prostrate man. But no sooner had their eyes encountered the object of their interest, when each individual started suddenly and involuntarily back, baring his cutlass and drawing forth his pistol, the whole presenting a group of countenances strongly marked by various shades of consternation and alarm, even while their attitudes were those of men prepared for some fierce and desperate danger. It was indeed Fuller whom they beheld, but not laboring, as the boatswain had imagined, under the mere influence of superstitious fear. He was dead, and the blood flowing from a deep wound inflicted by a sharp instrument in his chest, and the scalped head, too plainly told the manner of his death and the danger that awaited them all.
A pause ensued, but it was short. Before any one could find words to remark on the horrible circumstances, the appalling war-cry of the savages burst loudly from every quarter upon the ears of the devoted crew. In the desperation of the moment several of the men clutched their cutlasses between their teeth, and seizing the concealed matches, rushed to their respective stations at the guns. It was in vain the boatswain called out to them, in a voice of stern authority, to desist, intimating that their only protection lay in the reservation of the fire of their batteries. Goaded and excited beyond the power of resistance to an impulse that set all subordination at defiance, they applied the matches, and almost at the same
instant the terrific discharge of both broadsides took place, rocking the vessel to the water's edge, and reverberating, throughout the confined space in which she lay, like the deadly explosion of some deeply excavated mine.
Scarcely had the guns been fired when the seamen became sensible of their imprudence. The echoes were yet struggling to force a passage through the dense forest when a second yell of the Indians announced the fiercest joy and triumph, unmixed by disaster, at the result; and then the quick leaping of many forms could be heard as they divided the crashing underwood and rushed forward to close with their prey. It was evident, from the difference of sound, their first cry had been pealed forth while lying prostrate on the ground and secure from the bullets, whose harmless discharge that cry was intended to provoke, for now the voices seemed to rise progressively from the earth until they reached the level of each individual height, and were already almost hotly breathing in the ears of those they were destined to fill with illimitable dismay.
"Shiver my topsails, but this comes of disobeying orders!" roared the boatswain, in a voice of mingled anger and vexation. "The Ingins are quite as cunning as ourselves, and aren't to be frightened that way. Quick, every cutlass and pistol to his gangway, and let's do our best. Pass the word forward for the axemen to return to their quarters."
Recovered from their first paroxysm of alarm, the men at length became sensible of the presence of a directing power, which, humble as it was, their long habits of discipline had taught them to respect, and, headed on the one side by Captain De Haldimar, and on the other by Sir Everard Valletort, neither of whom, however, entertained the most remote chance of success, flew as commanded to their respective gangways. The yells of the Indians had ceased, and all was hushed into stillness; but as the anxious and quick-sighted officers gazed over the bulwarks, they fancied they could perceive, even through the deep gloom that everywhere prevailed, the forms of
men resting in cautious and eager attitudes on the very verge of the banks, and at a distance of little more than half pistol shot. Every heart beat with expectancy—every eye was riveted intently in front, to watch and meet the first movement of their foes, but not a sound of approach was audible to the equally attentive ear. In this state of aching suspense they might have continued about five minutes, when suddenly their hearts were made to quail by a third cry that came, not as previously, from the banks of the river, but from the very centre of their own decks, and from the topmast and rigging of the schooner.
So sudden and unexpected, too, was this fresh danger, that before the two parties had time to turn and assume a new posture of defence, several of them had already fallen under the butchering blades of their enemies. Then commenced a desperate but short conflict, mingled with yellings that again were answered from every point; and rapidly gliding down the pendent ropes were to be seen the active and dusky forms of men, swelling the number of assailants who had gained the deck in the same noiseless manner, until resistance became almost hopeless.
"Ha! I hear the footsteps of our lads at last," exclaimed Mullins exultingly to his comrades, as he finished despatching a third savage with his sturdy weapon. "Quick, men!—quick! Up with hatchet and cutlass, and take them in the rear. If we are to die, let's die ——" game, he would perhaps have added, but death arrested the word on his lips, and his corpse rolled along the deck until its further progress was stopped by the stiffened body of the unhappy Fuller.
Notwithstanding the fall of their brave leader and the whoopings of their enemies, the flagging spirits of the men were for a moment excited by the announcement of the return even of the small force of the axemen, and they defended themselves with a courage and determination worthy of a better result; but when, by the lurid light of the torches now lying burning about the decks, they turned and beheld, not their companions, but a fresh band
of Indians, at whose pouch belts dangled the reeking scalps of their murdered friends, they at once relinquished the combat as hopeless, and gave themselves unresistingly to be bound by their captors.
Meanwhile the cousins experienced a renewal of all those horrors from which their distracted minds had been temporarily relieved, and petrified with alarms as they lay in the solitary berth that contained them both, endured sufferings infinitely more terrible than death itself. The early part of the tumult they had noticed almost without comprehending its cause, and but for the terrific cry of the Indians that had preceded them, would have mistaken the deafening broadsides for the blowing up of the vessel, so tremendous and violent had been the concussion. Nay, there was a moment when Miss De Haldimar felt a pang of deep disappointment and regret at the misconception; for, with the fearful recollection of past events so strongly impressed on her bleeding heart, she could not but acknowledge that to be engulfed in one general and disastrous explosion was mercy compared with the alternative of falling into the hands of those to whom her loathing spirit had been too fatally taught to deny even the commonest attributes of humanity.
As for Clara, she had not the power to think, or to form a conjecture on the subject; she was merely sensible of a repetition of the horrible scenes from which she had so recently been snatched, and with a pale cheek, a fixed eye, and an almost pulseless heart, lay without motion in the inner side of the berth. The piteous spectacle of her cousin's alarm lent a forced activity to the despair of Miss De Haldimar, in whom apprehension produced that strong energy of excitement that sometimes gives to helplessness the character of true courage. With the increasing clamor of appalling conflict on deck, this excitement grew at every moment stronger, until it finally became irrepressible, so that at length, when through the cabin windows there suddenly streamed a flood of yellow light, extinguishing that of the lamp that threw its flickering beams around the cabin, she flung herself impetuously
from the berth, and despite of the aged and trembling female who attempted to detain her, burst open the narrow entrance to the cabin and rushed up the steps communicating with the deck.
The picture that there met her eyes was at once graphic and fearful in the extreme. On either side of the river, lines of streaming torches were waved by dusky warriors high above their heads, reflecting the grim countenances, not only of those who bore them, but of dense groups in their rear, whose numbers were alone concealed by the foliage of the forest in which they stood. From the branches that wove themselves across the centre of the river, and the topmast and rigging of the vessel, the same strong yellow light, produced by the bark of the birch tree steeped in gum, streamed down upon the decks below, rendering each line and block of the schooner as distinctly visible as if it had been noon on the sunniest of those far distant lakes. The deck itself was covered with the bodies of slain men—sailors and savages mixed together; and amid these were to be seen fierce warriors, reclining triumphantly and indolently on their rifles, while others were occupied in securing the arms of their captives with leathern thongs behind their backs.
The silence that now prevailed was strongly in contrast with, and even more fearful than, the horrid shouts by which it had been preceded; and, but for the ghastly countenances of the captives and the quick rolling eyes of the savages, Miss De Haldimar might have imagined herself the sport of some extraordinary and exciting illusion. Her glance over these prominent features in the tragedy had been cursory yet accurate. It now rested on one that had more immediate and terrifying interest for herself. At a few paces in front of the companion ladder, and with their backs turned towards her, stood two individuals, whose attitudes denoted the purpose of men resolved to sell with their lives alone a passage to a tall fierce-looking savage, whose countenance betrayed every mark of triumphant and deadly
passion, while he apparently hesitated whether his uplifted arm should stay the weapon it wielded. These individuals were Captain De Haldimar and Sir Everard Valletort; and to the former of these the attention of the savage was more immediately and exultingly directed; so much so, indeed, that Miss De Haldimar thought she could read in the ferocious expression of his features the death-warrant of her cousin. In the wild terror of the moment she gave a piercing scream that was answered by a hundred yelling voices, and rushing between her lover and his enemy, threw herself wildly and supplicatingly at the feet of the latter. Uttering a savage laugh, the monster spurned her from him with his foot, when, quick as thought, a pistol was discharged within a few inches of his face; but, with a rapidity equal to that of his assailant, he bent aside his head, and the ball passed harmlessly on. The yell that followed was terrific; and while it was yet swelling into fulness, Captain De Haldimar felt an iron hand furiously grappling his throat, and ere the grasp was relinquished he again stood the bound and passive victim of the warrior of the Fleur de Lis.
CHAPTER XXIV.
The interval that succeeded to the last council scene of the Indians was passed by the officers of Detroit in a state of inexpressible anxiety and doubt. The fears entertained for the fate of their companions, who had set out in the perilous and almost forlorn hope of reaching Michilimackinac in time to prevent the consummation of the threatened treachery, had, in some degree, if not wholly, been allayed by the story narrated by the Ottawa chief. It was evident from his statement the party had again met and been engaged in fearful struggle with the gigantic warrior they had all so much reason to recollect; and it was equally apparent that in that struggle they had been successful. But still, so many obstacles were likely to be opposed to their navigation of the several lakes and rivers over which lay their course, it was almost feared, even if they eventually escaped unharmed themselves, they could not possibly reach the fort in time to communicate the danger that awaited their friends. It is true, the time gained by Governor De Haldimar on the first occasion had afforded a considerable interval, of which advantage might be taken; but it was also, on the other hand, uncertain whether Pontiac had commanded the same delay in the council of the chiefs investing Michilimackinac to which he had himself assented. Three days were sufficient to enable an Indian warrior to perform the journey by land, and it was chiefly on this vague and uncertain ground they based whatever little of hope was entertained on the subject.
It had been settled at the departure of the adventurers,
that the instant they effected a communication with the schooner on Lake Huron, Francois should be immediately sent back, with instructions so to contrive the period of his return that his canoe should make its appearance soon after daybreak at the nearest extremity of Hog Island, the position of which has been described in a previous chapter. From this point a certain signal, that could be easily distinguished with the aid of a telescope, was to be made from the canoe, which, without being of a nature to attract the attention of the savages, was yet to be such as could not well be mistaken by the garrison. This was a precaution adopted not only with the view of giving the earliest intimation of the result of the enterprise, but lest the Canadian should be prevented, by any closer investment on the part of the Indians, from communicating personally with the fort in the way he had been accustomed.
It will easily be comprehended, therefore, that as the period approached when they might reasonably look for the return of Francois, if he should return at all, the nervous anxiety of the officers became more and more developed. Upwards of a week had elapsed since the departure of their friends, and already, for the last day or two, their impatience had led them at early dawn and with beating hearts to that quarter of the rampart which overlooked the eastern extremity of Hog Island. Hitherto, however, their eager watching had been in vain. As far as our recollection of the Canadian tradition of this story serves us, it must have been on the fourth night after the final discomfiture of the plans of Pontiac, and the tenth from the departure of the adventurers, that the officers were assembled in the mess-room, partaking of the scanty and frugal supper to which their long confinement had reduced them. The subject of their conversation, as it was ever of their thoughts, was the probable fate of their companions; and many and various, although all equally melancholy, were the conjectures offered as to the result. There was on the countenance of each that deep and fixed expression of gloom which,
if it did not indicate any unmanliness of despair, told at least that hope was nearly extinct; but more especially was this remarkable in the young but sadly altered Charles De Haldimar, who, with a vacant eye and a preoccupied manner, seemed wholly abstracted from the scene before him.
All was silence in the body of the fort. The men off duty had long since retired to rest in their clothes, and only the "All's well!" of the sentinels was heard at intervals of a quarter of an hour, as the cry echoed from mouth to mouth in the line of circuit. Suddenly, however, between two of those intervals, and during a pause in the languid conversation of the officers, the sharp challenge of a sentinel was heard, and then quick steps on the rampart, as of men hastening to the point whence the challenge had been given. The officers, whom this new excitement seemed to arouse into fresh activity, hurriedly quitted the room, and with as little noise as possible gained the spot where the voice had been heard. Several men were bending eagerly over the rampart, and with their muskets at the recover, riveting their gaze on a dark and motionless object that lay on the verge of the ditch immediately beneath them.
"What have you here, Mitchell?" asked Captain Blessington, who was in command of the guard, and who had recognized the gruff voice of the veteran in the challenge just given.
"An American burnt log, your honor," muttered the soldier, "if one was to judge from its stillness; but if it is, it must have been rolled there within the last minute; for I'll take my affidavit it wasn't there when I passed last in my beat."
"An American burnt log, indeed! it's some rascal of a spy, rather," remarked Captain Erskine. "Who knows but it may be our big friend, come to pay us a visit again? And yet he is not half long enough for him, either. Can't you try and tickle him with the bayonet, any of you fellows, and see whether he is made of flesh and blood?"
Although this observation was made almost without
object, it being totally impossible for any musket, even with the addition of its bayonet, to reach more than half way across the ditch, the several sentinels threw themselves on their chests, and stretching over the rampart as far as possible, made the attempt to reach the suspicious looking object that lay beyond. No sooner, however, had their arms been extended in such a manner as to be utterly powerless, when the dark mass was seen to roll away in an opposite direction, and with such rapidity that, before the men could regain their feet and level their muskets, it had entirely disappeared from their view.
"Cleverly managed, to give the redskin his due," half laughingly observed Captain Erskine, while his brother officers continued to fix their eyes in astonishment on the spot so recently occupied by the strange object; "but what the devil could be his motive for lying there so long? Not playing the eavesdropper, surely; and yet, if he meant to have picked off a sentinel what was to have prevented him from doing it sooner?"
"He had evidently no arms," said Ensign Delme.
"No, nor legs either, it would appear," resumed the literal Erskine. "Curse me, if I ever saw anything in the shape of a human form bundled together in that manner."
"I mean he had no firearms—no rifle," pursued Delme.
"And if he had, he certainly would have rifled one of us of a life," continued the Captain, laughing at his own conceit. "But come, the bird is flown, and we have only to thank ourselves for having been so egregiously duped. Had Valletort been here, he would have given a different account of him."
"Hist! listen!" exclaimed Lieutenant Johnstone, calling the attention of the party to a peculiar and low sound in the direction in which the supposed Indian had departed.
It was repeated, and in a plaintive tone, indicating a desire to propitiate. Soon afterwards a human form was seen advancing slowly, but without show either of concealment or hostility in its movements. It finally remained stationary on the spot where the dark and shapeless mass had been first perceived.
"Another Oucanasta for De Haldimar, no doubt," observed Captain Erskine, after a moment's pause. "These Grenadiers carry everything before them as well in love as in war." The error of the good-natured officer was, however, obvious to all but himself. The figure, which was now distinctly traced in outline for that of a warrior, stood boldly and fearlessly on the brink of the ditch, holding up its left arm, in the hand of which dangled something that was visible in the starlight, and pointing energetically to this pendent object with the other. A voice from one of the party now addressed the Indian in two several dialects, but without eliciting a reply. He either understood not, or would not answer the question proposed, but continued pointing significantly to the indistinct object which he still held in an elevated position.
"The governor must be apprised of this," observed Captain Blessington to De Haldimar, who was his subaltern of the guard. "Hasten, Charles, to acquaint your father, and receive his orders."
The young officer willingly obeyed the injunction of his superior. A secret and indefinable hope rushed through his mind, that as the Indian came not in hostility, he might be the bearer of some communication from their friends; and he moved rapidly towards that part of the building occupied by his father.
The light of a lamp suspended over the piazza leading to the governor's rooms reflecting strongly on his regimentals, he passed unchallenged by the sentinels posted there, and uninterruptedly gained a door that opened on a narrow passage, at the further extremity of which was the sitting-room usually occupied by his parent. This again was entered from the same passage by a second door, the upper part of which was of common glass, enabling anyone on the outside to trace with facility every object within when the place was lighted up.
A glance was sufficient to satisfy the youth his father
was not in the room; although there was strong evidence he had not retired for the night. In the middle of the floor stood an oaken table, and on this lay an open writing desk, with a candle on each side, the wicks of which had burnt so long as to throw a partial gloom over the surrounding wainscotting. Scattered about the table and desk were a number of letters that apparently had been just looked at or read; and in the midst of these an open case of red morocco, containing a miniature. The appearance of these letters, thus left scattered about by one who was scrupulously exact in the arrangement of his papers, added to the circumstance of the neglected and burning candles, confirmed the young officer in an impression that his father, overcome by fatigue, had retired into his bedroom and fallen unconsciously asleep. Imagining, therefore, he could not, without difficulty, succeed in making himself heard, and deeming the urgency of the case required it, he determined to waive the usual ceremony of knocking, and penetrate to his father's bedroom unannounced. The glass door, being without fastening within, easily yielded to his pressure of the latch, but as he passed by the table a strong and natural feeling of curiosity induced him to cast his eye upon the miniature. To his infinite surprise—nay, almost terror—he discovered it was that of his mother, the identical portrait which his sister Clara had worn in her bosom from infancy, and which he had seen clasped round her neck on the very deck of the schooner in which she sailed for Michilimackinac. He felt there could be no mistake, for only one miniature of the sort had ever been in possession of the family, and that the one just accounted for.
Almost stupefied at what he saw, and scarcely crediting the evidence of his senses, the young officer glanced his eye hurriedly along one of the open letters that lay around. It was in the well-remembered handwriting of his mother, and commenced, "Dear, dearest Reginald." After this followed expressions of endearment no woman might address except to an affianced lover, or the husband of her choice; and his heart sickened while he read.
Scarcely, however, had he scanned half a dozen lines when it occurred to him he was violating some secret of his parents, and discontinuing the perusal with an effort, he prepared to quit himself of his mission.
On raising his eyes from the paper he was startled by the appearance of his father, who, with a stern brow and a quivering lip, stood a few paces from the table, apparently too much overcome by his indignation to be able to utter a sentence. Charles De Haldimar felt all the awkwardness of his position. Some explanation of his conduct, however, was necessary, and he stammered forth the fact of the portrait having riveted his attention, from its striking resemblance to that in his sister's possession.
"And to what do these letters bear resemblance?" demanded the governor, in a voice that trembled in its attempt to be calm, while he fixed his penetrating eye on that of his son. "They, it appears, were equally objects of attraction with you."
"The letters were in the handwriting of my mother, and I was irresistibly led to glance at one of them," replied the youth, with the humility of conscious wrong. "The action was involuntary, and no sooner committed than repented of. I am here, my father, on a mission of importance, which must account for my presence."
"A mission of importance!" repeated the governor, with more of sorrow than of anger in the tone in which he now spoke. "On what mission are you here, if it be not to intrude unwarrantably on a parent's privacy?"
The young officer's cheek flushed high, as he proudly answered: "I was sent by Captain Blessington, sir, to take your orders in regard to an Indian who is now without the fort under somewhat extraordinary circumstances, yet evidently without intention of hostility. It is supposed he bears some message from my brother."
The tone of candor and offended pride in which this formal announcement of duty was made seemed to banish all suspicion from the mind of the governor; and he remarked, in a voice that had more of the kindness that had latterly distinguished his address to his son, "Was
this, then, Charles, the only motive for your abrupt intrusion at this hour? Are you sure no inducement of private curiosity was mixed up in the discharge of your duty, that you entered thus unannounced? You must admit, at least, I found you employed in a manner different from what the urgency of your mission would seem to justify."
There was lurking irony in this speech; yet the softened accents of his father, in some measure, disarmed the youth of the bitterness he would have flung into his observation, "That no man on earth, his parent excepted, should have dared to insinuate such a doubt with impunity."
For a moment Colonel De Haldimar seemed to regard his son with a surprised but satisfied air, as if he had not expected so much spirit in one whom he had been accustomed to undervalue.
"I believe you, Charles," he at length observed; "forgive the justifiable doubt, and think no more of the subject. Yet, one word," as the youth was preparing to depart; "you have read that letter" (and he pointed to that which had principally arrested the attention of the officer): "what impression has it given you of your mother? answer me sincerely. My name," and his faint smile wore something of the character of triumph, "is not Reginald, you know."
The pallid cheek of the young man flushed at this question. His own undisguised impression was, that his mother had cherished a guilty love for another than her husband. He felt the almost impiety of such a belief, but he could not resist the conviction that forced itself on his mind; the letter in her handwriting spoke for itself; and though the idea was full of wretchedness he was unable to conquer it. Whatever his own inference might be, however, he could not endure the thought of imparting it to his father: he therefore answered evasively.
"Doubtless my mother had some dear relative of the name, and to him was this letter addressed; perhaps a brother or an uncle. But I never knew," he pursued, with a look of appeal to his father, "that a second portrait
of my mother existed. This is the very counterpart of Clara's."
"It may be the same," remarked the governor, but in a tone of indecision that denied his faith in what he uttered.
"Impossible, my father. I accompanied Clara, if you recollect, as far as Lake St. Clair; and when I quitted the deck of the schooner to return, I particularly remarked my sister wore her mother's portrait, as usual, round her neck."
"Well, no matter about the portrait," hurriedly rejoined the governor; "yet, whatever your impression, Charles," and he spoke with a warmth that was far from habitual to him, "dare not to sully the memory of your mother by a doubt of her purity. An accident has given this letter to your inspection, but breathe not its contents to a human creature; above all, respect the being who gave you birth. Go, tell Captain Blessington to detain the Indian; I will join you immediately."
Strongly, yet confusedly, impressed with the singularity of the scene altogether, and more particularly with his father's strange admonition, the young officer quitted the room and hastened to rejoin his companions. On reaching the rampart he found that the Indian, during his long absence, had departed; yet not without depositing, on the outer edge of the ditch, the substance to which he had previously directed their attention. At the moment of De Haldimar's approach, the officers were bounding over the rampart, and, with straining eyes, endeavoring to make out what it was, but in vain; something was just perceptible on the withered turf, but what that something was no one could succeed in discovering.
"Whatever this be, we must possess ourselves of it," said Captain Blessington; "it is evident, from the energetic manner of him who left it, it is of importance. I think I know who is the best swimmer and climber of our party."
Several voices unanimously pronounced the name of "Johnstone."
"Anything for a dash of enterprise," said that officer,
whose slight wound had been perfectly healed. "But what do you propose that the swimmer and climber should do, Blessington?"
"Secure yon parcel without lowering the drawbridge."
"What! and be scalped in the act? Who knows if it be not a trick, after all, and that the rascal who placed it there is not lying within a few feet, ready to pounce upon me the instant I reach the bank?"
"Never mind," said Erskine, laughingly, "we will revenge your death, my boy."
"Besides, consider the nunquam non paratus, Johnstone," slyly remarked Lieutenant Leslie.
"What, again, Leslie?" energetically responded the young Scotsman. "Yet think not I hesitate, for I did but jest; make fast a rope round my loins, and I think I will answer for the result."
Colonel De Haldimar now made his appearance. Having heard a brief statement of the facts, and approving of the suggestion of Captain Blessington, a rope was procured and made fast round the shoulders of the young officer, who had previously stripped himself of his uniform and shoes. He then suffered himself to drop gently over the edge of the rampart, his companions gradually lowering the rope, until a deep and gasping aspiration, such as is usually wrung from one coming suddenly in contact with cold water, announced he had gained the surface of the ditch. The rope was then slackened, to give him the unrestrained command of his limbs; and the next instant he was seen clambering up the opposite elevation.
Although the officers, indulging in a forced levity, in a great degree meant to encourage their companion, had treated his enterprise with indifference, they were far from being without serious anxiety for the result. They had laughed at the idea, suggested by him, of being scalped; whereas, in truth, they entertained the apprehension far more powerfully than he did himself. The artifices resorted to by the savages to secure an isolated victim were so many and so various that suspicion could not
but attach to the mysterious occurrence they had just witnessed. Willing even as they were to believe their present visitor, whoever he was, came not in a spirit of enmity, they could not altogether divest themselves of a fear that it was only a subtle artifice to decoy one of them within the reach of their traitorous weapons. They therefore watched the movements of their companion with quickening pulses; and it was with a lively satisfaction they saw him at length, after a momentary search, descend once more into the ditch, and with a single powerful impulsion of his limbs, urge himself back to the foot of the rampart. Neither feet nor hands were of much service in enabling him to scale the smooth and slanting logs that composed the exterior surface of the works; but a slight jerk of the well-secured rope serving as a signal to his friends, he was soon dragged once more to the summit of the rampart, without other injury than a couple of slight bruises.
"Well, what success?" eagerly asked Leslie and Captain Erskine in the same breath, as the dripping Johnstone buried himself in the folds of a capacious cloak procured during his absence.
"You shall hear," was the reply; "but first, gentlemen, allow me, if you please, to enjoy, with yourselves, the luxury of dry clothes. I have no particular ambition to contract an American ague fit just now; yet, unless you take pity on me and reserve my examination for a future moment, there is every probability I shall not have a tooth left by to-morrow morning."
No one could deny the justice of the remark, for the teeth of the young man were chattering as he spoke. It was not, therefore, until after he had changed his dress, and swallowed a couple of glasses of Captain Erskine's never-failing spirit, that they all repaired once more to the mess-room, when Johnstone anticipated all questions by the production of the mysterious packet.
After removing several wrappers of bark, each of which was secured by a thong of deerskin, Colonel De Haldimar, to whom the successful officer had handed his prize, at length came to a small oval case of red morocco, precisely similar, in size and form, to that which had so lately attracted the notice of his son. For a moment he hesitated, and his cheek was observed to turn pale and his hand to tremble; but quickly subduing his indecision, he hurriedly unfastened the clasp, and disclosed to the astonished view of the officers the portrait of a young and lovely woman, habited in the Highland garb.
Exclamations of various kinds burst from the lips of the group of officers. Several knew it to be the portrait of Mrs. De Haldimar; others recognized it from the striking likeness it bore to Clara and to Charles: all knew it had never been absent from the possession of the former since her mother’s death; and feeling satisfied as they did that its extraordinary appearance among them at the present moment was an announcement of some dreadful disaster, their countenances wore an impress of dismay little inferior to that of the wretched Charles, who, agonized beyond all attempt at description, had thrown himself into a seat in the rear of the group, and sat like one bewildered, with his head buried in his hands.
“Gentlemen,” at length observed Colonel De Haldimar, in a voice that proved how vainly his natural emotion was sought to be subdued by his pride, “this, I fear me, is an unwelcome token. It comes to announce to a father the murder of his child; to us all the destruction of our last remaining friends and comrades.”
“God forbid!” solemnly aspirated Captain Blessington. After a pause of a moment or two he pursued: “I know not why, sir; but my impression is, the appearance of this portrait, which we all recognize for that worn by Miss De Haldimar, bears another interpretation.”
Colonel De Haldimar shook his head. “I have but too much reason to believe,” he observed, smiling in mournful bitterness, “it has been conveyed to us not in mercy but in revenge.”
No one ventured to question why; for notwithstanding all were aware that in the mysterious ravisher of the wife of Halloway Colonel De Haldimar had a fierce and inexorable private enemy, no allusion had ever been made by that officer himself to the subject.
"Will you permit me to examine the portrait and envelopes, Colonel?" resumed Captain Blessington. "I feel almost confident, although I confess I have no other motive for it than what springs from a recollection of the manner of the Indian, that the result will bear me out in my belief the bearer came not in hostility but in friendship."
"By my faith, I quite agree with Blessington," said Captain Erskine; "for, in addition to the manner of the Indian, there is another evidence in favor of his position. Was it merely intended in the light in which you consider it, Colonel, the case or the miniature itself might have been returned, but certainly not the metal in which it is set. The savages are fully aware of the value of gold, and would not so easily let it slip through their fingers."
Meanwhile, Captain Blessington had turned and examined the miniature in fifty different ways, but without succeeding in discovering anything that could confirm him in his original impression. Vexed and disappointed, he at length flung it from him on the table, and sinking into a seat at the side of the unfortunate Charles, pressed the hand of the youth in significant silence.
Finding his worst fears now confirmed, Colonel De Haldimar for the first time cast a glance towards his son, whose drooping head and sorrowing attitude spoke volumes to his heart. For a moment his own cheek blanched, and his eye was seen to glisten with the first tear ever witnessed there by those around him. Subduing his emotion, however, he drew up his person to its lordly height, as if that act reminded him the commander was not to be lost in the father, and quitting the room with a heavy brow and step, recommended to his officers the repose of which they appeared to stand so much in need. But not one was there who felt inclined to court the solitude of his pillow. No sooner were the footsteps of the governor heard dying away in the distance, when fresh lights were ordered, and several logs of wood
heaped on the slackening fire. Around this the officers now grouped, and throwing themselves back in their chairs, assumed the attitudes of men seeking to indulge rather in private reflection than in personal converse.
The grief of the wretched Charles De Haldimar, hitherto restrained by the presence of his father, and encouraged by the touching evidences of interest afforded him by the ever considerate Captain Blessington, now burst forth audibly. No attempt was made by the latter officer to check the emotion of his young friend. Knowing his passionate fondness for his sister, he was not without fear that the sudden shock produced by the appearance of her miniature might destroy his reason, even if it affected not his life; and as the moment was now come when tears might be shed without exciting invidious remark in the only individual who was likely to make it, he sought to promote them as much as possible. Too much occupied in their own mournful reflections to bestow more than a passing notice on the weakness of their friend, the group round the fireplace scarcely seemed to have regarded his emotion.
This violent paroxysm past, De Haldimar breathed more freely; and after listening to several earnest observations of Captain Blessington, who still held out the possibility of something favorable turning up on a re-examination of the portrait by daylight, he was so far composed as to be able to attend to the summons of the sergeant of the guard, who came to say the relief were ready, and waiting to be inspected before they were finally marched off. Clasping the extended hand of his captain between his own, with a pressure indicative of his deep gratitude, De Haldimar now proceeded to the discharge of his duty, and having caught up the portrait, which still lay on the table, and thrust it into the breast of his uniform, he repaired hurriedly to rejoin his guard, from which circumstances alone had induced his unusually long absence.
CHAPTER XXV.
The remainder of that night was passed by the unhappy De Haldimar in a state of indescribable wretchedness. After inspecting the relief he had thrown himself on his rude guard-bed, and drawing his cloak over his eyes, gave full rein to the wanderings of his excited imagination.
Miserable as he felt his position to be, it was not without satisfaction he again heard the voice of his sergeant summoning him to the inspection of another relief. This duty performed, and anxious to avoid the paining presence of his servant, he determined, instead of returning to his guard-room, to consume the hour that remained before day in pacing the ramparts. Leaving word with his subordinate, that in the event of his being required he might be found without difficulty, he ascended to that quarter of the works where the Indian had been first seen who had so mysteriously conveyed the sad token he still retained in his breast. It was on the same side with that particular point whence we have already stated a full view of the bridge with its surrounding scenery, together with the waters of the Detroit, where they were intersected by Hog Island, was distinctly commanded. At either of those points was stationed a sentinel, whose duty it was to extend his beat between the boxes, used now rather as lines of demarcation than as places of temporary shelter, until each gained that of his next comrade, when they again returned to their own, crossing each other about half way; a system of precaution pursued by the whole of the sentinels in the circuit of the rampart.
The ostensible motive of the officer in ascending the works was to visit his several posts, but no sooner had he found himself between the points alluded to, which happened to be the first in his course, than he seemed to be riveted there by a species of fascination.
Reminded for the first time, as he was pursuing his measured but aimless walk, by the fatal portrait which he more than once pressed with feverish energy to his lips, of the singular discovery he had made that night in the apartments of his father, he was naturally led by a chain of consecutive thought into a review of the extraordinary scene. The fact of the existence of a second likeness of his mother was one that did not now fail to reawaken all the unqualified surprise he had experienced at the first discovery. So far from having ever heard his father make the slightest allusion to this memorial of his departed mother, he perfectly recollected his repeatedly recommending to Clara the safe custody of a treasure which, if lost, could never be replaced. What could be the motive for this mystery? and why had he sought to impress him with the belief it was the identical portrait worn by his sister which had so unintentionally been exposed to his view? Why, too, had he evinced so much anxiety to remove from his mind all unfavorable impressions in regard to his mother? Why have been so energetic in his caution not to suffer a taint of impurity to attach to her memory? Why should he have supposed the possibility of such impression, unless there had been sufficient cause for it? In what, moreover, originated his triumphant expression of feature, when on that occasion he reminded him that his name was not Reginald? Who, then, was this Reginald? Then came the recollection of what had been repeated to him of the parting scene between Halloway and his wife. In addressing her ill-fated husband, she had named him Reginald. Could it be possible this was the same being alluded to by his father? But no, his youth forbade the supposition, being but two years older than his brother Frederick; yet might he not, in some way or other, be connected with the
Reginald of the letter? Why, too, had his father shown such unrelenting severity, which had induced more than one remark from his officers that it looked as if he entertained some personal feeling of enmity towards a man who had done so much for his family and stood so high in the esteem of all who knew him.
Then came another thought. At the moment of his execution Halloway had deposited a packet in the hands of Captain Blessington; could these letters, could that portrait be the same? Certain it was, by whatever means obtained, his father could not have had them long in his possession; for it was improbable letters of so old a date should have occupied his attention now, when many years had rolled over the memory of his mother. And then, again, what was the meaning of the language used by the implacable enemy of his father, that uncouth and ferocious warrior of the Fleur de Lis, not only on the occasion of the execution of Halloway, but afterwards to his brother during his short captivity, and subsequently, when, disguised as a black, he penetrated with the band of Pontiac into the fort, and aimed his murderous weapon at his father's head. What had made him the enemy of his family? and where and how had originated his father's connection with so extraordinary and savage a being? Could he in any way be implicated with his mother? But no, there was something revolting, monstrous in the thought; besides, had not his father stood forward the champion of her innocence? had he not declared, with an energy carrying conviction with every word, that she was untainted by guilt? And would he have done this had he had reason to believe in the existence of a criminal love for him who evidently was his mortal foe? Impossible.
Such were the questions and solutions that crowded on and distracted the mind of the unhappy De Haldimar, who, after all, could arrive at no satisfactory conclusion. It was evident there was a secret—yet, whatever its nature, it was one likely to go down with his father to the grave; for, however humiliating the reflection to a
haughty parent, compelled to vindicate the honor of a mother to her son, and in direct opposition to evidence that scarcely bore a shadow of misinterpretation, it was clear he had motives for consigning the circumstance to oblivion which far outweighed any necessity he felt of adducing other proofs of her innocence than those which rested on his own simple yet impressive assertion.
In the midst of these bewildering doubts, De Haldimar heard some one approaching in his rear, whose footsteps he distinguished from the heavy pace of the sentinels. He turned, stopped, and was presently joined by Captain Blessington.
"Why, dearest Charles," almost querulously asked the kind officer, as he passed his arm through that of his subaltern; "why will you persist in feeding this love of solitude? What possible result can it produce but an utter prostration of every moral and physical energy? Come, come, summon a little fortitude; all may not yet be so hopeless as you apprehend. For my own part, I feel convinced the day will dawn upon some satisfactory solution of the mystery of that packet."
"Blessington, my dear Blessington!"—and De Haldimar spoke with mournful energy—"you have known me from my boyhood, and, I believe, have ever loved me; seek not, therefore, to draw me from the present temper of my mind; deprive me not of an indulgence which, melancholy as it is, now constitutes the sole satisfaction I take in existence."
"By heaven! Charles, I will not listen to such language. You absolutely put my patience to the rack."
"Nay, then, I will urge no more," pursued the young officer. "To revert, therefore, to a different subject, answer me one question with sincerity. What were the contents of the packet you received from poor Halloway previous to his execution? and in whose possession are they now?"
Pleased to find the attention of his young friend diverted for the moment from his sister, Captain Blessington quickly rejoined, he believed the packet contained
letters which Halloway had stated to him were of a nature to throw some light on his family connections. He had, however, transferred it with the seal unbroken, as desired by the unhappy man, to Colonel De Haldimar."
An exclamation of surprise burst involuntarily from the lips of the youth. "Has my father ever made any allusion to that packet since?" he asked.
"Never," returned Captain Blessington; "and, I confess, his failing to do so has often excited my astonishment. But why do you ask?"
De Haldimar energetically pressed the arm of his captain, while a heavy sigh burst from his oppressed heart. "This very night, Blessington, on entering my father's apartment to apprise him of what was going on here, I saw—I can scarcely tell you what, but certainly enough to convince me, from what you have now stated, Halloway was, in some degree or other, connected with our family. Tell me," he anxiously pursued, "was there a portrait enclosed with the letters?"
"I cannot state with confidence, Charles," replied his friend; "but if I might judge from the peculiar form and weight of the packet, I should be inclined to say not. Have you seen the letters, then?"
"I have seen certain letters which I have reason to believe are the same," returned De Haldimar. "They were addressed to 'Reginald'; and Halloway, I think you have told me, was so called by his unhappy wife."
"There can be little doubt they are the same," said Captain Blessington; "but what were their contents, and by whom written, that you deem they prove a connection between the unhappy soldier and your family?"
De Haldimar felt the blood rise into his cheek at that natural but unexpected demand. "I am sure, Blessington," he replied, after a pause, "you will not think me capable of unworthy mystery towards yourself, but the contents of these letters are sacred, inasmuch as they relate only to circumstances connected with my father's family."
They soon both prepared to quit the rampart. As they
passed the sentinel stationed at that point where the Indian had been first seen, their attention was directed by him to a fire that now suddenly rose, apparently at a great distance, and rapidly increasing in volume. The singularity of this occurrence riveted the officers for a moment in silent observation; until Captain Blessington at length ventured a remark that, judging from the direction and the deceptive nature of the element at night, he should incline to think it was the hut of the Canadian burning.
"Which is another additional proof, were any such wanting, that everything is lost," mournfully urged the ever apprehensive De Haldimar. "Francois has been detected in rendering aid to our friends; and the Indians, in all probability, after having immolated their victim, are sacrificing his property to their rage."
During this exchange of opinion the officers had again moved to the opposite point of the limited walk of the younger. Scarcely had they reached it, and before Captain Blessington could find time to reply to the fears of his friend, when a loud and distant booming like that of a cannon was heard in the direction of the fire. The alarm was given hastily by the sentinels, and sounds of preparation and arming were audible in the course of a minute or two everywhere throughout the fort. Startled by the report, which they had half inclined to imagine produced by the discharge of one of their own guns, the half-slumbering officers had quitted the chairs in which they had passed the night in the mess-room, and were soon at the side of their more watchful companions, then anxiously listening for a repetition of the sound.
The day was just beginning to dawn, and as the atmosphere cleared gradually away, it was perceived the fire rose not from the hut of the Canadian, but at a point considerably beyond it. Unusual as it was to see a large fire of this description, its appearance became an object of minor consideration, since it might be attributed to some caprice or desire on the part of the Indians to excite apprehension in their enemies. But how was the report which had reached their ears to be accounted for? It evidently could only have been produced by the discharge of a cannon; and if so, where could the Indians have procured it? No such arm had recently been in their possession; and if it were, they were totally unacquainted with the manner of serving it.
As the day became more developed the mystery was resolved. Every telescope in the fort had been called into requisition; and as they were now levelled in the direction of the fire, sweeping the line of horizon around, exclamations of surprise escaped the lips of several.
"It is an unusual hour for the Indians' war-dance," observed Captain Blessington. "My experience furnishes me with no one instance in which it has not been danced previous to their retiring to rest."
"Unless," said Lieutenant Boyce, "they should have been thus engaged all night; in which case the singularity may be explained."
"Look, look!" eagerly remarked Lieutenant Johnstone—"see how they are flying to their canoes, bounding and leaping like so many devils broke loose from their chains. The fire is nearly deserted already."
"The schooner—the schooner!" shouted Captain Erskine. "By heaven! our own gallant schooner! See how beautifully she drives past the island. It was her gun we heard, intended as a signal to prepare us for her appearance."
A thrill of wild and indescribable emotion passed through every heart. Every eye was turned upon the point to which attention was now directed. The graceful vessel, with every stitch of canvas set, was shooting rapidly past the low bushes skirting the sands that still concealed her hull; and in a moment or two she loomed largely and proudly on the bosom of the Detroit, the surface of which was slightly curled with a north-western breeze.
"Safe, by Jupiter!" exclaimed the delighted Erskine, dropping the glass upon the rampart, and rubbing his hands together with every manifestation of joy.
"Indians are in chase," said Lieutenant Boyce; "upwards of fifty canoes are following the schooner's wake. But Danvers will soon give us an account of their Lilliputian fleet."
"Let the troops be held in readiness for a sortie, Mr. Lawson," said the governor, who had joined his officers just as the schooner cleared the island; "we must cover their landing, or, with this host of savages in pursuit, they will never effect it alive."
During the whole of this brief but exciting scene, the heart of Charles De Haldimar beat audibly. A thousand hopes and fears rushed confusedly on his mind, and he was as one bewildered by, and scarcely crediting, what he saw. Could Clara—could his cousin—could his brother—could his friend be on board? He scarcely dared to ask himself these questions; still it was with a fluttering heart, in which hope, however, predominated, that he hastened to execute an order of his captain, that bore immediate reference to his duty as subaltern of the guard.
CHAPTER XXVI.
MEANWHILE the schooner dashed rapidly along, her hull occasionally hid from the view of those assembled on the ramparts by some intervening orchard or cluster of houses, but her tall spars glittering in their cover of white canvas, and marking the direction of her course. At length she came to a point in the river that offered no other interruption to the eye than what arose from the presence of almost all the inhabitants of the village, who, urged by curiosity and surprise, were to be seen crowding the intervening bank. Here the schooner was suddenly put about, and the English colors, hitherto concealed by the folds of the canvas, were at length discovered proudly floating in the breeze.
Immediately over the gateway of the fort there was an elevated platform, approached from the rampart, of which it formed a part, by some half dozen rude steps on either side; and on this platform was placed a long eighteen-pounder, that commanded the whole extent of road leading from the drawbridge to the river. Hither the officers had all repaired while the schooner was in the act of passing the town, and now that, suddenly brought up in the wind's eye, she rode leisurely in the offing, every movement on her decks was plainly discernible with the telescope.
"Where can Danvers have hid all his crew?" first spoke Captain Erskine; "I count but half a dozen hands altogether on deck, and these are barely sufficient to work her."
"Lying concealed, and ready, no doubt, to give the canoes a warm reception," observed Lieutenant Johnstone; "but where can our friends be? Surely, if there, they would show themselves to us."
There was truth in this remark, and each felt discouraged and disappointed that they did not appear.
"There come the whooping hell fiends," said Major Blackwater. "By heaven! the very water is darkened with the shadows of their canoes."
Scarcely had he spoken, when the vessel was suddenly surrounded by a multitude of savages, whose fierce shouts rent the air, while their dripping paddles, gleaming like silver in the rays of the rising sun, were alternately waved aloft in triumph, and then plunged into the troubled element, which they spurned in fury from their blades.
"What can Danvers be about? Why does he not either open his fire or crowd sail and away from them?" exclaimed several voices.
"The detachment is in readiness, sir," said Mr. Lawson, ascending the platform, and addressing Major Blackwater.
"The deck, the deck!" shouted Erskine.
Already the eyes of several were bent in the direction alluded to by the last speaker, while those whose attention had been diverted by the approaching canoes glanced rapidly to the same point. To the surprise and consternation of all, the tall and well-remembered form of the warrior of the Fleur de Lis was seen towering far above the bulwarks of the schooner, and with an expression in the attitude he had assumed which no one could mistake for other than that of triumphant defiance. Presently he drew from the bosom of his hunting-coat a dark parcel, and springing into the rigging of the mainmast, ascended with incredible activity to the point where the English ensign was faintly floating in the breeze. This he tore furiously away, and rending it into many pieces, cast the fragments into the silver element beneath him, on whose bosom they were seen to float among the canoes of the
savages, many of whom possessed themselves with eagerness of the gaudy colored trophies. The dark parcel was now unfolded by the active warrior, who, after having waved it several times round his head, commenced attaching it to the lines whence the English ensign had so recently been torn. It was a large black flag, the purport of which was too readily comprehended by the excited officers.
"Hang the ruffian! can we not manage to make that flag serve as his own winding-sheet?" exclaimed Captain Erskine. "Come, Wentworth, give us a second edition of the sortie firing; I know no man who understands pointing a gun better than yourself, and this eighteen-pounder might do some mischief."
The idea was instantly caught at by the officer of artillery, who read his consent in the eye of Colonel De Haldimar. His companions made way on either side; and several gunners, who were already at their stations, having advanced to work the piece at the command of their captain, it was speedily brought to bear upon the schooner.
"This will do, I think," said Wentworth, as, glancing his experienced eye carefully along the gun, he found it pointed immediately on the gigantic frame of the warrior. "If this chain-shot miss him, it will be through no fault of mine."
Every eye was now riveted on the mainmast of the schooner, where the warrior was still engaged in attaching the portentous flag. The gunner who held the match obeyed the silent signal of his captain, and the massive iron was heard rushing past the officers, bound on its murderous mission. A moment or two of intense anxiety elapsed, and when at length the rolling volumes of smoke gradually floated away, to the dismay and disappointment of all, the fierce warrior was seen standing apparently unharmed on the same spot in the rigging. The shot had, however, been well aimed, for a large rent in the outstretched canvas, close at his side and about mid-height of his person, marked the direction it had
taken. Again he tore away and triumphantly waved the black flag around his head, while from his capacious lungs there burst yells of defiance and scorn that could be distinguished for his own even at that distance. This done, he again secured the death symbol to its place, and gliding to the deck by a single rope, appeared to give orders to the few men of the crew who were to be seen; for every stitch of canvas was again made to fill, and the vessel, bounding forward before the breeze then blowing upon her quarter, shot rapidly behind the town, and was finally seen to cast anchor in the navigable channel that divides Hog Island from the shores of Canada.
At the discharge of the eighteen-pounder the river had been suddenly cleared, as if by magic, of every canoe; while, warned by the same danger, the groups of inhabitants assembled on the bank had rushed for shelter to their respective homes, so that when the schooner disappeared not a vestige of human life was to be seen along that vista so recently peopled with human forms. An order from Colonel De Haldimar to the adjutant, countermanding the sortie, was the first interruption to the silence that had continued to pervade the little band of officers; and two or three of these having hastened to the western front of the rampart, in order to obtain a more distinct view of the movements of the schooner, their example was speedily followed by the remainder, all of whom now quitted the platform and repaired to the same point.
Here, with the aid of their telescopes, they again distinctly commanded a view of the vessel, which lay motionless close under the sandy beach of the island, and exhibiting all the technicalities of skill in the disposition of sails and yards peculiar to the profession. In vain, however, was every eye strained to discover, among the multitudes of savages that kept momentarily leaping to her deck, the forms of those in whom they were most interested. A group of some half dozen men, apparently common sailors, and those, in all probability, whose services had been compelled in the working of the vessel,
were the only evidence that civilized man formed a portion of that grotesque assemblage. These, with their arms evidently bound behind their backs, and placed on one of the gangways, were only visible at intervals, as the band of savages that surrounded them, brandishing their tomahawks around their heads, occasionally left an opening in their circle. The formidable warrior of the Fleur de Lis was no longer to be seen, although the flag which he had hoisted still fluttered in the breeze.
"All is lost, then," ejaculated the governor, with a mournfulness of voice and manner that caused many of his officers to turn and regard him with surprise. "That black flag announces the triumph of my foe in the too certain destruction of my children. Now, indeed," he concluded in a lower tone, "for the first time does the curse of Ellen Halloway sit heavily upon my soul."
A deep sigh burst from one immediately behind him. The governor turned suddenly round, and beheld his son. Never did human countenance wear a character of more poignant misery than that of the unhappy Charles at the moment. Attracted by the report of the cannon, he had flown to the rampart to ascertain the cause, and had reached his companions only to learn the strong hope so recently kindled in his breast was fled forever. His cheek, over which hung his neglected hair, was now pale as marble and his lips bloodless and parted; yet, notwithstanding this intensity of personal sorrow, a tear had started to his eye, apparently wrung from him by this unusual expression of dismay in his father.
"Charles—my son—my only now remaining child," murmured the governor, with emotion, as he remarked and started at the deathlike image of the youth; "look not thus, or you will utterly unman me."
A sudden and involuntary impulse caused him to extend his arms. The young officer sprang forward into the proffered embrace, and sank his head upon the cheek of his father. It was the first time he had enjoyed that privilege since his childhood; and even overwhelmed as he was by his affliction, he felt it deeply.
This short but touching scene was witnessed by their companions without levity in any and with emotion by several. None felt more gratified at this demonstration of parental affection for the sensitive boy than Blessington and Erskine.
"I cannot yet persuade myself," observed the former officer, as the Colonel again assumed that dignity of demeanor which had been momentarily lost sight of in the ebullition of his feelings—"I cannot yet persuade myself things are altogether so bad as they appear. It is true the schooner is in the possession of the enemy, but there is nothing to prove our friends are on board."
"If you had reason to know him into whose hands she has fallen as I do, you would think differently, Captain Blessington," returned the governor. "That mysterious being," he pursued, after a short pause, "would never have made this parade of his conquest had it related merely to a few lives, which to him are of utter insignificance. The very substitution of yon black flag in his insolent triumph was the pledge of redemption of a threat breathed in my ear within this very fort; on what occasion I need not state, since the events connected with that unhappy night are still fresh in the recollection of us all. That he is my personal enemy, gentlemen, it would be in vain to disguise from you; although who he is, or of what nature his enmity, it imports not now to enter upon. Suffice it, I have little doubt my children are in his power; but whether the black flag indicates they are no more, or that the tragedy is only in preparation, I confess I am at a loss to understand."
Deeply affected by the evident despondency that had dictated these unusual admissions on the part of their chief, the officers were forward to combat the inferences he had drawn, several coinciding in the opinion now expressed by Captain Wentworth, that the fact of the schooner having fallen into the hands of the savages by no means implied the capture of the fort whence she came; since it was not at all unlikely she had been chased during a calm by the numerous canoes into the St. Clair,
where, owing to the extreme narrowness of the river, she had fallen an easy prey.
"Moreover," observed Captain Blessington, "it is highly improbable the ferocious warrior could have succeeded in capturing any others than the unfortunate crew of the schooner; for had this been the case, he would not have lost the opportunity of crowning his triumph by exhibiting his victims to our view in some conspicuous part of the vessel."
"This I grant you," rejoined the governor, "to be one solitary circumstance in our favor; but may it not, after all, merely prove that our worst apprehensions are already realized?"
"He is not one, methinks, since vengeance seems his aim, to exercise it in so summary, and therefore merciful, a manner. Depend upon it, Colonel, had any one of those in whom we are more immediately interested fallen into his hands, he would not have failed to insult and agonize us by an exhibition of his prisoners."
"You are right, Blessington," exclaimed Charles De Haldimar, in a voice that his choking feelings rendered almost sepulchral; "he is not one to exercise his vengeance in a summary and merciful manner. The deed is yet unaccomplished, for even now the curse of Ellen Halloway rings again in my ear, and tells me the atoning blood must be spilt on the grave of her husband."
The peculiar tone in which these words were uttered caused everyone present to turn and regard the speaker, for they recalled the prophetic language of the unhappy woman. There was now a wildness of expression in his handsome features, marking the mind utterly dead to hope, yet struggling to work itself up to passive endurance of the worst. Colonel De Haldimar sighed painfully as he bent his eye half reproachfully on the dull and attenuated features of his son; and although he spoke not, his look betrayed the anguish that allusion had called up to his heart.
"Ha! what new movement is that on the part of the savages?" exclaimed Captain Erskine, who had kept his
glass to his eye mechanically, and chiefly with a view to hiding the emotion produced in him by the almost infantine despair of the younger De Haldimar; "surely it is—yet, no, it cannot be—yes, see how they are dragging several prisoners from the wood to the beach. I can distinctly see a man in a blanket coat, and two others considerably taller, and apparently sailors. But look, behind them are two females in European dress. Almighty heaven! there can be no doubt."
A painful pause ensued. Every other glass and eye was levelled in the same direction; and as Erskine had described it, a party of Indians were seen, by those who had telescopes, conducting five prisoners towards a canoe that lay in the channel communicating from the island with the mainland on the Detroit shore. Into the bottom of this they were presently huddled, so that only their heads and shoulders were visible above the gunwale of the frail bark. Presently a tall warrior was seen bounding from the wood towards the beach. The crowd of gesticulating Indians made way, and the warrior was seen to stoop and apply his shoulder to the canoe, one half of which was high and dry upon the sands. The heavily laden vessel obeyed the impetus with a rapidity that proved the muscular power of him who gave it. Like some wild animal, instinct with life, it lashed the foaming waters from its bows, and left a deep and gurgling furrow where it passed. As it quitted the shore the warrior sprang lightly in, taking his station at the stern; and while his tall and remarkable figure bent nimbly to the movement, he dashed his paddle from right to left alternately in the stream, with a quickness that rendered it almost invisible to the eye. Presently the canoe disappeared round an intervening headland and the officers lost sight of it altogether.
"The portrait, Charles; what have you done with the portrait?" exclaimed Captain Blessington, actuated by a sudden recollection, and with a trepidation in his voice and manner that spoke volumes of despair to the younger
De Haldimar. "This is our only hope of solving the mystery. Quick, give me the portrait, if you have it."
The young officer hurriedly tore the miniature from the breast of his uniform, and pitched it through the interval that separated him from his captain, who stood a few feet off; but with so uncertain and trembling an aim, it missed the hand extended to secure it, and fell upon the very stone the youth had formerly pointed out to Blessington as marking the particular spot on which he stood during the execution of Halloway. The violence of the fall separated the back of the frame from the picture itself, when suddenly a piece of white and crumbled paper, apparently part of the back of a letter, yet cut the size and shape of the miniature, was exhibited to the view of all.
"Ha!" resumed the gratified Blessington, as he stooped to possess himself of the prize; "I knew the miniature would be found to contain some intelligence from our friends. It is only this moment it occurred to me to take it to pieces, but accident has anticipated my purpose. May the omen prove a good one! But what have we here?"
With some difficulty the anxious officer now succeeded in making out the characters which, in default of pen or pencil, had been formed by the pricking of a fine pin on the paper. The broken sentences, on which the whole of the group now hung with greedy ear, ran nearly as follows: "All is lost. Michilimackinac is taken. We are prisoners, and doomed to die within eight and forty hours. Alas! Clara and Madeline are of our number. Still there is a hope, if my father deem it prudent to incur the risk. A surprise, well managed, may do much; but it must be to-morrow night; forty-eight hours more, and it will be of no avail. He who will deliver this is our friend and the enemy of my father's enemy. He will be in the spot at the same hour to-morrow night, and will conduct the detachment to wherever we may chance to be. If you fail in your enterprise receive our last prayers for a less disastrous fate. God bless you all!"
The blood ran coldly through every vein during the perusal of these important sentences, but not one word of comment was offered by an individual of the group. No explanation was necessary. The captives in the canoe, the tall warrior in its stern, all sufficiently betrayed the horrible truth. Colonel De Haldimar at length turned an enquiring look at his two captains, and then, addressing the adjutant, asked, "What companies are off duty today, Mr. Lawson?"
"Mine," said Blessington, with an energy that denoted how deeply rejoiced he felt at the fact, without giving the adjutant time to reply.
"And mine," impetuously added Captain Erskine; "and" (with an oath) "I will answer for them; they never embarked on a duty of that sort with greater zeal than they will on this occasion."
"Gentlemen, I thank you," said Colonel De Haldimar, with deep emotion, as he stepped forward and grasped in turn the hands of the generous-hearted officers. "To heaven and to your exertions do I commit my children!"
"Any artillery, Colonel?" enquired the officer of that corps.
"No, Wentworth, no artillery. Whatever remains to be done must be achieved by the bayonet alone, and under favor of the darkness. Gentlemen, again I thank you for this generous interest in my children—this forwardness in an enterprise on which depend the lives of so many dear friends. I am not given to express warm emotion, but I do, indeed, appreciate this conduct deeply." He then moved away, desiring Mr. Lawson, as he quitted the rampart, to cause the men for this service to be got in instant readiness.
Following the example of their colonel, Captains Blessington and Erskine quitted the rampart also, hastening to satisfy themselves, by personal inspection, of the efficiency in all respects of their several companies; and in a few minutes the only individual to be seen in that quarter of the works was the sentinel, who had been a silent and pained witness of all that passed among his officers.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SUFFICIENT has been shown, from the conversations among his officers elsewhere transcribed, to account for the governor's conduct in the case of Halloway. That the recommendations of his son, Captain De Haldimar, had not been attended to arose not from any particular ill-will towards the unhappy man, but simply because he had always been in the habit of making his own selections from the ranks, and that the present recommendation had been warmly urged by one whom he fancied pretended to a discrimination superior to his own, in pointing out merits that had escaped his observation. It might be, too, that there was a latent pride about the manner of Halloway that displeased and dissatisfied one who looked upon his subordinates as things that were amenable to the haughtiness of his glance—not enough of deference in his demeanor, nor of supplicating obsequiousness in his speech, to entitle him to the promotion prayed for. Whatever the motive, there was nothing of personality to influence him in the rejection of the appeal made in favor of one who had never injured him, but who, on the contrary, as the whole of the regiment could attest, had saved the life of his son.
Rigid disciplinarian as he was, and holding himself responsible for the safety of the garrison, it was but natural, when the discovery had been made of the unaccountable unfastening of the gate of the fort, suspicion of no ordinary kind should attach to the sentinel posted there, and that he should steadily refuse all credence to a story wearing so much appearance of improbability. Proud, inflexible, and bigoted to first impressions, his mind
was closed against those palliating circumstances which, adduced by Halloway in his defence, had so mainly contributed to stamp the conviction of his moral innocence on the minds of his judges and the attentive auditory; and could he even have conquered his pride so far as to have admitted the belief of that innocence, still the military crime of which he had been guilty, in infringing a positive order of the garrison, was in itself sufficient to call forth all the unrelenting severity of his nature.
Throughout the whole of the proceedings subsequently instituted the governor had acted and spoken from a perfect conviction of the treason of the unfortunate soldier, and with the fullest impression of the falsehood of all that had been offered in his defence. The consideration that influenced the minds of his officers found no entrance into his proud breast, which was closed against everything but his own dignified sense of superior judgment. Could he, like them, have given credence to the tale of Halloway, or really have believed that Captain De Haldimar, educated under his own military eye, could have been so wanting in subordination as not merely to have infringed a positive order of the garrison, but to have made a private soldier of that garrison accessory to his delinquency, it is more than probable his stern habits of military discipline would have caused him to overlook the offence of the soldier in deeper indignation at the conduct of the infinitely more culpable officer; but not one word did he credit of a statement which, he assumed, had been got up by the prisoner with the mere view of shielding himself from punishment; and when to these suspicions of his fidelity was attached the fact of the introduction of his alarming visitor, it must be confessed his motives for indulging in this belief were not without foundation.
The impatience manifested during the trial of Halloway was not a result of any desire of systematic persecution, but of a sense of wounded dignity. It was a thing unheard of, and unpardonable in his eyes, for a private soldier to assert in his presence his honor and his
respectability in extenuation, even while admitting the justice of a specific charge; and when he remarked the court listening with that profound attention which the peculiar history of the prisoner had excited, he could not repress the manifestation of his anger. In justice to him, however, it must be acknowledged that, in causing the charge to which the unfortunate man pleaded guilty to be framed, he had only acted from the conviction that on the two first there was not sufficient evidence to condemn one whose crime was as clearly established, to his judgment, as if he had been an eye-witness of the treason. It is true he availed himself of Halloway's voluntary confession to effect his condemnation, but estimating him as a traitor, he felt little delicacy was necessary to be observed on that score.
Much of the despotic military character of Colonel De Haldimar had been communicated to his private life; so much, indeed, that his sons—both of whom, it has been seen, were of natures that belied their origin from so stern a stock—were kept at nearly as great a distance from him as any other subordinates of his regiment. But although he seldom indulged in manifestations of parental regard towards those whom he looked upon rather as inferiors in military rank than as beings connected with him by the ties of blood, Colonel De Haldimar was not without that instinctive love for his children which every animal in the creation feels for its offspring. He also valued and took a pride in, because they reflected a certain degree of lustre upon himself, the talents and accomplishments of his eldest son, who, moreover, was a brave, enterprising officer, and only wanted, in his father's estimation, that severity of carriage and hauteur of deportment befitting his son to render him perfect.
As for Charles—the gentle, bland, winning, universally conciliating Charles—he looked upon him as a mere weak boy, who could never hope to arrive at any post of distinction, if only by reason of the extreme delicacy of his physical organization; and to have shown anything like respect for his character, indulged in any expression of
tenderness for one so far below his estimate of what a soldier, a child of his, ought to be, would have been a concession of which his proud nature was incapable. In his daughter Clara, however, the gentleness of sex claimed that warmer affection which was denied to him who resembled her in almost every attribute of mind and person. Colonel De Haldimar doted on his daughter with a tenderness for which few who were familiar with his harsh and unbending nature ever gave him credit. She was the image of one on whom all of love that he had ever known had been centered, and he had continued in Clara an affection that seemed in itself to form a portion distinct and apart of his existence.
We have already seen, as stated by Charles De Haldimar to the unfortunate wife of Halloway, with what little success he had pleaded in the interview he had requested of his father for the preserver of his gallant brother’s life; and we have also seen how equally inefficient was the lowly and supplicating anguish of that wretched being when, on quitting the apartment of his son, Colonel De Haldimar had so unexpectedly found himself clasped in her despairing embrace. There was little to be expected from an intercession on the part of one claiming so little ascendancy over his father’s heart as the universally esteemed young officer; still less from one who, in her shriek of agony, had exposed the haughty chief to the observation both of men and officers, and under circumstances that caused his position to border on the ludicrous. But however these considerations might have failed in effect, there was another which as a soldier he could not wholly overlook. Although he had offered no comment on the extraordinary recommendation to mercy annexed to the sentence of the prisoner, it had a certain weight with him; and he felt, all absolute even as he was, he could not, without exciting strong dissatisfaction among his troops, refuse attention to a document so powerfully worded and bearing the signature and approval of so old and valuable an officer as Captain Blessington. His determination, therefore, had been formed, even before
his visit to his son, to act as circumstances might require, and in the meanwhile he commanded every preparation for the execution to be made.
In causing a strong detachment to be marched to the conspicuous point chosen for his purpose, he had acted from a conviction of the necessity of showing the enemy the treason of the soldier had been detected, reserving to himself the determination of carrying the sentence into full effect, or pardoning the condemned, as the event might warrant. Not one moment, meanwhile, did he doubt the guilt of Halloway, whose description of the person of his enemy was, in itself, to him confirmatory evidence of his treason. It is doubtful whether he would in any way have been influenced by the recommendation of the court had the first charges been substantiated, but as there was nothing but conjecture to bear out these, and as the prisoner had been convicted only on the ground of suffering Captain De Haldimar to quit the fort contrary to orders, he felt he might possibly go too far in carrying the capital punishment into effect in decided opposition to the general feeling of the garrison—both of officers and men.
When the shot was subsequently fired from the hut of the Canadian, and the daring rifleman recognized as the same fearful individual who had gained access to his apartment the preceding night, conviction of the guilt of Halloway came even deeper home to the mind of the governor. It was through Francois alone that a communication was kept up secretly between the garrison and several of the Canadians without the fort, and the very fact of the mysterious warrior having been there so recently after his daring enterprise, bore evidence that whatever treason was in operation had been carried on through the instrumentality of mine host of the Fleur de Lis. In proof, moreover, there was the hat of Donellan, and the very rope Halloway had stated to be that by which the unfortunate officer had effected his exit. Colonel De Haldimar was not one given to indulge in the mysterious or to believe in the romantic. Everything was
plain matter of fact, as it now appeared before him; and he thought it evident as though it had been written in words of fire that if his son and his unfortunate servant had quitted the fort in the manner represented, it was no less certain they had been forced off by a party at the head of whom was his vindictive enemy, and with the connivance of Halloway. We have seen that after the discovery of the sex of the supposed drummer boy, when the prisoners were confronted together, Colonel De Haldimar had closely watched the expression of their countenances, but failed in discovering anything that could be traced into evidence of a guilty recognition. Still he conceived his original impression to have been too forcibly borne out, even by the events of the last half hour, to allow this to have much weight with him; and his determination to carry the thing through all its fearful preliminary stages became more and more confirmed.
In adopting this resolution in the first instance he was not without hope that Halloway, standing, as he must feel himself to be, on the verge of the grave, might be induced to make confession of his guilt, and communicate whatever particulars might prove essential not only to the safety of the garrison generally, but to himself individually, as far as his personal enemy was concerned. With this view he had charged Captain Blessington, in the course of their march from the hut to the fatal bridge, to promise a full pardon provided he should make such confession of his crime as would lead to a just appreciation of the evils likely to result from the treason that had in part been accomplished. Even in making this provision, however, which was met by the prisoner with solemn yet dignified reiteration of his innocence, Colonel De Haldimar had not made the refusal of pardon altogether conclusive in his own mind; still, in adopting this plan, there was a chance of obtaining a confession; and not until there was no longer a prospect of the unhappy man being led into that confession, did he feel it imperative on him to stay the progress of the tragedy.
What the result would have been had not Halloway,
in the strong excitement of his feelings, sprung to his feet upon the coffin, uttering the exclamation of triumph, is scarcely doubtful. However much the governor might have contemned and slighted a credulity in which he in no way participated himself, he had too much discrimination not to perceive that to have persevered in the capital punishment would have been to have rendered himself personally obnoxious to the comrades of the condemned, whose dispirited air and sullen mien, he clearly saw, denounced the punishment as one of unnecessary rigor. The haughty commander was not a man to be intimidated by manifestations of discontent, neither was he one to brook a spirit of insubordination, however forcibly supported; but he had too much experience and military judgment not to determine that this was not a moment, by foregoing an act of compulsory clemency, to instil divisions in the garrison, when the safety of all so much depended on the cheerfulness and unanimity with which they lent themselves to the arduous duties of defence.
However originating in policy the leniency he might have been induced to have shown, all idea of the kind was chased from his mind by the unfortunate action of the prisoner. At the moment when the distant heights resounded with the fierce yells of the savages, and leaping forms came bounding down the slope, the remarkable warrior of the Fleur de Lis—the fearful enemy who had whispered the most demoniac vengeance in his ears the preceding night—was the only one that met and riveted the gaze of the governor. He paused not to observe or to think who the flying man could be of whom the mysterious warrior was in pursuit—neither did it, indeed, occur to him that it was a pursuit at all. But one idea suggested itself to his mind, and that was an attempt at rescue of the condemned on the part of his accomplice; and when at length Halloway, who had at once, as if by instinct, recognized his captain in the fugitive, shouted forth his gratitude to heaven that "he at length approached who alone had the power to save him," every shadow of mercy was banished from the mind of the
governor, who, laboring under a natural misconception of the causes of his exulting shout, felt that justice imperatively demanded her victim, and no longer hesitated in awarding the doom that became the supposed traitor. It was under this impression that he sternly gave and repeated the order to fire; and by this misjudged and severe, although not absolutely cruel act, not only destroyed one of the noblest beings that ever wore a soldier's uniform, but entailed upon himself and family that terrific curse of his maniac wife, which rang like a prophetic warning in the ears of all, and was often heard in the fitful startings of his own ever-after troubled slumbers.
What his feelings were when subsequently he discovered in the wretched fugitive the son whom he already believed to have been numbered with the dead, and heard from his lips a confirmation of all that had been advanced by the unhappy Halloway, we shall leave it to our readers to imagine. Still, even amid his first regret, the rigid disciplinarian was strong within him; and no sooner had the detachment regained the fort, after performing the last offices of interment over their ill-fated comrade, than Captain De Haldimar received an intimation, through the adjutant, to consider himself under close arrest for disobedience of orders. Finally, however, he succeeded in procuring an interview with his father; in the course of which, disclosing the plot of the Indians, and the short period allotted for its being carried into execution, he painted in the most gloomy colors the alarming dangers which threatened them all, and finished by urgently imploring his father to suffer him to make the attempt to reach their unsuspecting friends at Michilimackinac.
Fully impressed with the difficulties attendant on a scheme that offered so few feasible chances of success, Colonel De Haldimar for a period denied his concurrence, but when at length the excited young man dwelt on the horrors that would inevitably await his sister and betrothed cousin, were they to fall into the hands of the savages, these considerations were found to be effective.
An after arrangement included Sir Everard Vallettort, who had expressed a strong desire to share his danger in the enterprise; and the services of the Canadian, who had been brought back a prisoner to the fort, and on whom promises and threats were bestowed in an equally lavish manner, were rendered available. In fact, without the assistance of Francois, there was little chance of their effecting in safety the navigation of the waters through which they were to pass to arrive at the fort. He it was who, when summoned to attend a conference among the officers, bearing on the means to be adopted, suggested the propriety of their disguising themselves as Canadian duck hunters; in which character they might expect to pass unmolested, even if encountered by any outlying parties of the savages.
With the doubts that had previously been entertained of the fidelity of Francois, there was an air of forlorn hope given to the enterprise; still, as the man expressed sincere earnestness of desire to repay the clemency accorded him, by a faithful exercise of his services, and as the object sought was one that justified the risk, there was, notwithstanding, a latent hope cherished by all parties that the event would prove successful. We have already seen to what extent their anticipations were realized.
Whether it was that he secretly acknowledged the too excessive sternness of his justice in regard to Halloway (who still, in the true acceptation of facts, had been guilty of a crime that entailed the penalty he had paid), or that the apprehension that arose to his heart in regard to her on whom he yearned with all a father's fondness governed his conduct, certain it is that, from the hour of the disclosure made by his son, Colonel De Haldimar became an altered man. Without losing anything of that dignity of manner which had hitherto been confounded with the most repellant haughtiness of bearing, his demeanor towards his officers became more courteous; and although, as heretofore, he kept himself entirely aloof, except when occasions of duty brought them together, still when they
did meet there was more of conciliation in his manner and less of austerity in his speech. There was, moreover, a dejection in his eye strongly in contrast with his former imperious glance; and more than one officer remarked that if his days were devoted to the customary practical arrangements for defence, his pallid countenance betokened that his nights were nights rather of vigil than repose.
However natural and deep the alarm entertained for the fate of the sister fort, there could be no apprehension on the mind of Colonel De Haldimar in regard to his own; since, furnished with the means of foiling his enemies with their own weapons of cunning and deceit, a few extraordinary precautions alone were necessary to secure all immunity from danger. Whatever might be the stern peculiarities of his character—and these had originated chiefly in an education purely military—Colonel De Haldimar was an officer well calculated to fulfil the important trust reposed in him; for, combining experience with judgment in all matters relating to the diplomacy of war, and being fully conversant with the character and habits of the enemy opposed to him, he possessed singular aptitude to seize whatever advantages might present themselves.
The prudence and caution of his policy have already been made manifest in the two several council scenes with the chiefs recorded in our previous pages. It may appear singular that, with the opportunity thus afforded him of retaining the formidable Pontiac—the strength and sinew of that long protracted and ferocious war—in his power, he should have waived his advantage; but here Colonel De Haldimar gave evidence of the tact which so eminently distinguished his public conduct throughout. He well knew the noble, fearless character of the chief; and felt, if any hold was to be secured over him, it was by grappling with his generosity, and not by the exercise of intimidation. Even admitting that Pontiac continued his prisoner, and that the troops pouring their destructive fire upon the mass of enemies so suddenly arrested on the
drawbridge had swept away the whole, still they were but as a mite among the numerous nations that were leagued against the English, and to these nations it was evident they must sooner or later succumb.
Colonel De Haldimar knew enough of the proud but generous nature of the Ottawa to deem that the policy he proposed to pursue in the last council scene would not prove altogether without effect on that warrior. It was well known to him much pains had been taken to instil into the minds of the Indians the belief that the English were resolved on their final extirpation, and as certain slights offered to them at various periods had given a coloring of truth to this assertion, the formidable league which had already accomplished the downfall of so many of the forts had been the consequence of these artful representations. Although well aware that the French had numerous emissaries distributed among the fierce tribes, it was not until after the disclosure made by the haughty Pontiac at the close of the first council scene that he became apprised of the alarming influence exercised over the mind of that warrior himself by his own terrible and vindictive enemy. The necessity of counteracting that influence was obvious; and he felt this was only to be done (if at all) by some marked and extraordinary evidence of the peaceful disposition of the English. Hence his determination to suffer the faithless chiefs and their followers to depart unharmed from the fort, even at the moment when the attitude assumed by the prepared garrison fully proved to the assailants their designs had been penetrated and their schemes rendered abortive.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
WITH the general position of the encampment of the investing Indians the reader has been made acquainted through the narrative of Captain De Haldimar. It was, as has been shown, situate in a sort of oasis close within the verge of the forest, and (girt by an intervening underwood which nature in her caprice had fashioned after the manner of a defensive barrier) embraced a space sufficient to contain the tents of the fighting men, together with their women and children. This, however, included the warriors and inferior chiefs. The tents of the leaders were without the belt of underwood, and principally distributed at long intervals on that side of the forest which skirted the open country towards the river; forming, as it were, a chain of external defence, and sweeping in a semicircular direction round the more dense encampment of their followers. At its highest elevation the forest shot out suddenly into a point, naturally enough rendered an object of attraction from whatever part it was commanded.
Darkness was already beginning to spread her mantle over the intervening space, and the night-fires of the Indians were kindling into brightness, glimmering occasionally through the wood with that pale and lambent light peculiar to the fire-fly, of which they offered a not inapt representation, when suddenly a lofty tent, the brilliant whiteness of which was thrown into strong relief by the dark field on which it reposed, was seen to rise at a
few paces from the abrupt point in the forest just described, and on the extreme summit of a ridge beyond which lay only the western horizon in golden perspective.
The opening of this tent looked eastward and towards the fort; and on its extreme summit floated a dark flag, which at intervals spread itself before the slight evening breeze, but oftener hung drooping and heavily over the glittering canvas. One solitary pine, whose trunk exceeded not the ordinary thickness of a man’s waist, and standing out as a landmark on the ridge, rose at the distance of a few feet from the spot on which the tent had been erected; and to this was bound the tall and elegant figure of one dressed in the coarse garb of a sailor. The arms and legs of the individual were perfectly free; but a strong rope, rendered doubly secure after the manner of what is termed “whipping” among seamen, after having been tightly drawn several times around his waist, and then firmly knotted behind, was again passed round the tree, to which the back of the prisoner was closely lashed; thus enabling, or rather compelling, him to be a spectator of every object within the tent.
Layers of bark, over which were spread the dressed skins of the bear and the buffalo, formed the floor and carpet of the latter; and on these, in various parts, and in characteristic attitudes, reposed the forms of three human beings; one, the formidable warrior of the Fleur de Lis. Attired in the garb in which we first introduced him to our readers, and with the same weapons reposing at his side, the haughty savage lay at his lazy length; his feet reaching beyond the opening of the tent, and his head reposing on a rude pillow formed of a closely compressed pack of skins of wild animals, over which was spread a sort of mantle or blanket. One hand was introduced between the pillow and his head, the other grasped the pipe tomahawk he was smoking; and while the mechanical play of his right foot indicated preoccupation of thought, his quick and meaning eye glanced frequently and alternately upon the furthest of his companions, the prisoner without, and the distant fort.
Within a few feet of the warrior lay, extended on a buffalo skin, the delicate figure of a female, whose hair, complexion and hands denoted her European extraction. Her dress was entirely Indian, however; consisting of a machecoti with leggings, moccasins, and shirt of printed cotton studded with silver brooches—all of which were of a quality and texture to mark the wearer as the wife of a chief; and her fair hair, done up in a club behind, reposed on a neck of dazzling whiteness. Her eyes were large, blue, wild and unmeaning, her countenance vacant, and her movements altogether mechanical. A wooden bowl filled with hominy was at her side, and from this she was now in the act of feeding herself with a spoon of the same material, but with a negligence and slovenliness that betrayed her almost utter unconsciousness of the action.
At the further side of the tent there was another woman, even more delicate in appearance than the one last mentioned. She, too, was blue-eyed, and of surpassing fairness of skin. Her attitude denoted a mind too powerfully absorbed in grief to be heedful of appearances; for she sat with her knees drawn up to her chin, and rocking her body to and fro with an undulating motion that seemed to have its origin in no effort of volition of her own. Her long fair hair hung negligently over her shoulders, and a blanket, drawn over the top of her head like a veil, and extending partly over the person, disclosed here and there portions of an apparel which was strictly European, although rent, and exhibiting in various places stains of blood. A bowl similar to that of her companion, and filled with the same food, was at her side; but this was untasted.
"Why does the girl refuse to eat?" asked the warrior of her next him, as he fiercely rolled a volume of smoke from his lips. "Make her eat, for I would speak to her afterwards."
"Why does the girl refuse to eat?" responded the woman in the same tone, dropping her spoon as she spoke, and turning to the object of remark with a vacant look.
"It is good," she pursued, as she rudely shook the arm of the heedless sufferer. "Come, girl, eat."
A shriek burst from the lips of the unhappy girl as, apparently roused from her abstraction, she suffered the blanket to fall from her head, and staring wildly at her questioner, faintly demanded: "Who, in the name of mercy, are you, who address me in this horrid place in my own tongue? Speak; who are you? Surely I should know that voice for that of Ellen, the wife of Frank Halloway!"
A maniac laugh was uttered by the wretched woman. This continued offensively for a moment; and she observed, in an infuriated tone and with a searching eye, "No, I am not the wife of Halloway. It is false. I am the wife of Wacousta. This is my husband!" and as she spoke she sprang nimbly to her feet, and was in the next instant lying prostrate on the form of the warrior; her arms thrown wildly around him, and her lips imprinting kisses on his cheek.
But Wacousta was in no mood to suffer her endearments. He for the first time seemed alive to the presence of her who lay beyond, and to whose whole appearance a character of animation had been imparted by the temporary excitement of her feelings. He gazed at her a moment with the air of one endeavoring to recall the memory of days long gone by; and as he continued to do so, his eye dilated, his chest heaved and his countenance alternately flushed and paled. At length he threw the form that reposed upon his own violently, and even savagely, from him, sprang eagerly to his feet, and clearing the space that divided him from the object of his attention at a single step, bore her from the earth in his arms with as much ease as if she had been an infant, and then returning to his own rude couch, placed his horror-stricken victim at his side.
"Nay, nay," he urged sarcastically, as she vainly struggled to free herself; "let the De Haldimar portion of your blood rise up in anger if it will; but that of Clara Beverley, at least—"
"Gracious Providence! where am I, that I hear the name of my sainted mother thus familiarly pronounced?" interrupted the startled girl; "and who are you," turning her eyes wildly on the swarthy countenance of the warrior, "who are you, I ask, who, with the mien and in the garb of a savage of these forests, appear thus acquainted with her name?"
The warrior passed his hand across his brow for a moment, as if some painful and intolerable reflection had been called up by the question; but he speedily recovered his self-possession, and with an expression of feature that almost petrified his auditor, vehemently observed—
"You ask who I am! One who knew your mother long before the accursed name of De Haldimar had ever been whispered in her ear; and whom love for the one and hatred for the other has rendered the savage you now behold! But," he continued, while a fierce and hideous smile lighted up every feature, "I overlook my past sufferings in my present happiness. The image of Clara Beverley, even such as my soul loved her in its youth, is once more before me in her child; that child shall be my wife!"
"Your wife! monster; never!" shrieked the unhappy girl, vainly attempting to disengage herself from the encircling arm of the savage. "But," she pursued in a tone of supplication, while the tears coursed each other down her cheek, "if you ever loved my mother, as you say you have, restore her children to her home; and if saints may be permitted to look down from heaven in approval of the acts of men, she whom you have loved will bless you for the deed."
A deep groan burst from the vast chest of Wacousta, but for a moment he answered not. At length he observed, pointing at the same time with his finger towards the cloudless vault above their heads: "Do you behold yon blue sky, Clara De Haldimar?"
"I do; what mean you?" demanded the trembling girl, in whom a momentary hope had been excited by the subdued manner of the savage.
"Nothing," he coolly rejoined; "only that were your poor mother to appear there at this moment, clad in all the attributes ascribed to angels, her prayer would not alter the destiny that awaits you. Nay, nay; look not thus sorrowfully," he pursued, as in despite of her efforts to prevent him he imprinted a burning kiss upon her lips. "Even thus was I once wont to linger on the lips of your mother; but hers ever pouted to be pressed by mine, and not with tears but with sunniest smiles did she court them." He paused, bent his head over the face of the shuddering girl, and gazing fixedly for a few minutes on her countenance, while he pressed her struggling form more closely to his own, exultingly pursued, as if to himself: "Even as her mother was, so is she. Ye powers of hell! who would have ever thought a time would come when both my vengeance and my love would be gratified to the utmost? How strange it never should have occurred to me he had a daughter!"
"What mean you, fierce, unpitying man?" exclaimed the terrified Clara, to whom a full sense of the horror of her position had lent unusual energy of character. "Surely you will not detain a poor defenceless woman in your hands—the child of her you say you have loved. But it is false! you never knew her, or you would not reject my prayer."
"Never knew her!" fiercely repeated Wacousta. Again he paused. "Would I had never known her! and I should not now be the outcast wretch I am," he added slowly and impressively. Then once more elevating his voice: "Clara De Haldimar, I have loved your mother as man never loved woman, and I have hated your father" (grinding his teeth with fury as he spoke) "as man never hated man. That love, that hatred are unquenched—unquenchable. Before me I see at once the image of her who, even in death, has lived enshrined in my heart, and the child of him who is my bitterest foe. Clara De Haldimar, do you understand me now?"
"Almighty Providence! is there not one to save me?—can nothing touch your stubborn heart?" exclaimed the
affrighted girl, and she turned her swimming eyes on those of the warrior, in appeal; but his glance caused her own to sink in confusion. "Ellen Halloway," she pursued, after a moment's pause, and in the wild accents of despair, "if you are indeed the wife of this man, as you say you are, oh! plead for me with him; and in the name of that kindness which I once extended to yourself, prevail on him to restore me to my father!"
"Ellen Halloway! who calls Ellen Halloway?" said the wretched woman, who had again resumed her slovenly meal on the rude couch, apparently without consciousness of the scene enacting at her side. "I am not Ellen Halloway; they said so, but it is not true. My husband was Reginald Morton; but he went for a soldier and was killed, and I never saw him more."
"Reginald Morton! What mean you, woman? What know you of Reginald Morton?" demanded Wacousta, with frightful energy, as leaning over the shrinking form of Clara he violently grasped and shook the shoulder of the unhappy maniac.
"Stop; do not hurt me, and I will tell you all, sir," she almost screamed. "Oh, sir, Reginald Morton was my husband once; but he was kinder than you are. He did not look so fiercely at me; nor did he pinch me so."
"What of him? who was he?" furiously repeated Wacousta, as he again impatiently shook the arm of the wretched Ellen. "Where did you know him? Whence came he?"
"Nay, you must not be jealous of poor Reginald;" and as she uttered these words in a softening and conciliating tone, her eye was turned upon those of the warrior with a mingled expression of fear and cunning. "But he was very good, and very handsome and generous; and we lived near each other, and we loved each other at first sight. But his family were very proud, and they quarrelled with him because he married me; and then we became very poor, and Reginald went for a soldier, and——; but I forget the rest, it is so long ago."
She pressed her hand to her brow, and sank her head upon her chest.
"Ellen, woman, again I ask you where he came from, this Reginald Morton that you have named? To what country did he belong?"
"Oh, we were both Cornish," she answered, with a vivacity singularly in contrast with her recent low and monotonous tone; "but, as I said before, he was of a great family, and I only a poor clergyman's daughter."
"Cornish!—Cornish, did you say?" fiercely repeated the dark Wacousta, while an expression of loathing and disgust seemed for a moment to convulse his features; "then is it as I had feared. One word more. Was the family seat called Morton Castle?"
"It was," unhesitatingly returned the poor woman, yet with the air of one wondering to hear a name repeated, long forgotten even by herself. "It was a beautiful castle, too, on a lovely ridge of hills; and it commanded such a nice view of the sea, close to the little port of ——; and the parsonage stood in such a sweet valley, close under the castle; and we were all so happy." She paused, again put her hand to her brow, and pressed it with force, as if endeavoring to pursue the chain of connection in her memory, but evidently without success.
"And your father's name was Clayton?" said the warrior, enquiringly. "Henry Clayton, if I recollect aright?"
"Ha! who names my father!" shrieked the wretched woman. "Yes, sir, it was Clayton—Henry Clayton—the kindest, the noblest of human beings. But the affliction of his child and the persecutions of the Morton family broke his heart. He is dead, sir, and Reginald is dead, too, and I am a poor lone widow in the world, and have no one to love me." Here the tears coursed each other rapidly down her faded cheeks, although her eyes were staring and motionless.
"It is false!" vociferated the warrior, who, now he had gained all that was essential to the elucidation of his doubts, quitted the shoulder he had continued to press with violence in his nervous hand, and once more extended himself at his length; "in me you behold the uncle of your husband. Yes, Ellen Clayton, you have been the wife of two Reginald Mortons. Both," he pursued with unutterable bitterness, while he again started up and shook his tomahawk menacingly in the direction of the fort—"both have been the victims of yon cold-blooded governor; but the hour of reckoning is at hand. Ellen," he fiercely added, "do you recollect the curse you pronounced on the family of that haughty man when he slaughtered your Reginald? By heaven! it shall be fulfilled; but first shall the love I have so long borne the mother be transferred to the child."
Again he sought to encircle the waist of her whom, in the strong excitement of his rage, he had momentarily quitted; but the unutterable disgust and horror produced in the mind of the unhappy Clara lent an almost supernatural activity to her despair. She dexterously eluded his grasp, gained her feet, and with tottering steps and outstretched arms darted through the tent, and piteously exclaiming, "Save me! oh, for God's sake, save me!" sank exhausted and apparently lifeless on the chest of the prisoner without.
To such of our readers as, deceived by the romantic nature of the attachment stated to have been originally entertained by Sir Everard Valletort for the unseen sister of his friend, have been led to expect a tale abounding in manifestations of its progress when the parties had actually met, we at once announce disappointment. Neither the lover of amorous adventure nor the admirer of witty dialogue should dive into these passages. Room for the exercise of the invention might, it is true, be found; but ours is a tale of sad reality, and our heroes and heroines figure under circumstances that would render wit a satire upon the understanding, and love a reflection upon the heart. Within the bounds of probability have we, therefore, confined ourselves.
What the feelings of the young baronet must have been from the first moment when he received from the hands of the unfortunate Captain Baynton (who, although an officer of his own corps, was personally a stranger to him), that cherished sister of his friend, on whose ideal form his excited imagination had so often latterly loved to linger, up to the present hour, we should vainly attempt to paint. There are emotions of the heart it would be mockery in the pen to trace. From the instant of his first contributing to preserve her life on that dreadful day of blood, to that when the schooner fell into the hands of the savages, few words had passed between them, and these had reference merely to the position in which they found themselves, and whenever Sir Everard felt he could without indelicacy or intrusion render himself in the slightest way serviceable to her. The very circumstances under which they had met conduced to the suppression, if not utter extinction, of all passion attached to the sentiment with which he had been inspired. A new feeling had quickened in his breast; and it was with emotions more assimilated to friendship than to love that he now regarded the beautiful but sorrow-stricken sister of his bosom friend. Still there was a softness, a purity, a delicacy and tenderness in this new feeling in which the influence of sex secretly, though unacknowledged, predominated; and even while sensible it would have been a profanation of everything most sacred and delicate in nature to have admitted a thought of love within his breast at such a moment, he also felt he could have entertained a voluptuous joy in making any sacrifice, even to the surrender of life itself, provided the tranquility of that gentle and suffering being could be by it ensured.
Clara in her turn had been in no condition to admit so exclusive a power as that of love within her soul. She had, it is true, even amid the desolation of her shattered spirit, recognized in the young officer the original of a portrait so frequently drawn by her brother and dwelt on by herself. She acknowledged, moreover, the fidelity of the painting; but however she might have felt and acted under different circumstances, absorbed as was her heart and paralysed her imagination by the harrowing
scenes she had gone through, she, too, had room but for one sentiment in her fainting soul, and that was friendship for the friend of her brother, on whom, moreover, she bestowed that woman's gratitude which could not fail to be awakened by a recollection of the risks he had encountered, conjointly with Frederick, to save her from destruction. During their passage across the Huron, Sir Everard had usually taken his seat on the deck, at that respectful distance which he conceived the delicacy of the position of the unfortunate cousins demanded; but in such a manner that, while he seemed wholly abstracted from them, his eye had more than once been detected by Clara fixed on hers, with an affectionateness of interest she could not avoid repaying with a glance of recognition and approval. These, however, were the only indications of regard that had passed between them.
If, however, a momentary and irrepressible flashing of that sentiment which had, at an earlier period, formed a portion of their imaginings, did occasionally steal over their hearts while there was a prospect of reaching their friends in safety, all manifestation of its power was again finally suppressed when the schooner fell into the hands of the savages. Becoming the immediate prisoners of Wacousta they had been surrendered to that ferocious chief to be dealt with as he might think proper, and on disembarking from the canoe in which their transit to the mainland had been described that morning from the fort, had been separated from their equally unfortunate and suffering companions. Captain De Haldimar, Madeline and the Canadian were delivered over to the custody of several choice warriors of the tribe in which Wacousta was adopted, and, bound hand and foot, were at that moment in the war-tent of the fierce savage, which, as Pontiac had once boasted to the governor, was everywhere hung around with human scalps, both of men, of women and of children.
The object of this mysterious man in removing Clara to the spot we have described was one well worthy of his ferocious nature. His vengeance had already devoted
her to destruction, and it was within view of the fort which contained the father whom he loathed he had resolved his purpose should be accomplished. A refinement of cruelty, such as could scarcely have been supposed to enter the breast even of such a remorseless savage as himself, had caused him to convey to the same spot him whom he rather suspected than knew to be the lover of the young girl. It was with the view of harrowing up the soul of one whom he had recognized as the officer who had disabled him on the night of the rencontre on the bridge, that he had bound Sir Everard to the tree, whence, as we have already stated, he was a compelled spectator of everything that passed within the tent; and yet with that free action of limb which only tended to tantalize him the more amid his unavoidable efforts to rid himself of his bonds—a fact that proved not only the dire extent to which the revenge of Wacousta could be carried, but the actual and gratuitous cruelty of his nature.
One must have been similarly circumstanced to understand all the agony of the young man during this odious scene, and particularly at the fierce and repeated declarations of the savage that Clara should be his bride. More than once had he essayed to remove the ligatures which confined his waist, but his unsuccessful attempts only drew an occasional smile of derision from his enemy as he glanced his eye rapidly towards him. Conscious at length of the inutility of efforts which, without benefiting her for whom they were principally prompted, rendered him in some degree ridiculous even in his own eyes, the wretched Valletort desisted altogether, and with his head sunk upon his chest and his eyes closed sought at least to shut out a scene which blasted his sight and harrowed up his very soul.
But when Clara, uttering her wild cry for protection and rushing forth from the tent, sank almost unconsciously in his embrace, a thrill of inexplicable joy ran through each awakened fibre of his frame. Bending eagerly forward he had extended his arms to receive her,
and when he felt her light and graceful form pressing upon his own as its last refuge—when he felt her heart beating against his—when he saw her drooping on his shoulder in the wild recklessness of despair—even amid that scene of desolation and grief he could not help enfolding her in tumultuous ecstasy to his breast. Every horrible danger was for an instant forgotten in the soothing consciousness that he at length encircled the form of her whom in many an hour of solitude he had thus pictured, although under far different circumstances, reposing confidingly on him. There was delight mingled with agony in his sensation of the wild throb of her bosom against his own; and even while his soul fainted within him as he reflected on the fate that awaited her, he felt as if he could himself now die more happily.
Momentary, however, was the duration of this scene. Furious with anger at the evident disgust of his victim, Wacousta no sooner saw her sink into the arms of her lover than with that agility for which he was remarkable he was again on his feet, and stood in the next instant at her side. Uniting to the generous strength of his manhood all that was wrung from his mingled love and despair, the officer clasped his hand round the waist of the drooping Clara, and with clenched teeth and feet firmly set seemed resolved to defy every effort of the warrior to remove her. Not a word was uttered on either side; but in the fierce smile that curled the lip of the savage there spoke a language even more terrible than the words that smile implied. Sir Everard could not suppress an involuntary shudder; and when at length Wacousta, after a short but violent struggle, succeeded in again securing and bearing off his prize, the wretchedness of soul of the former was indescribable.
"You see 'tis vain to struggle against your destiny, Clara De Haldimar," sneered the warrior. "Ours is but a rude nuptial couch, it is true; but the wife of an Indian chief must not expect the luxuries of Europe in the heart of an American wilderness."
"Almighty heaven! where am I?" exclaimed the
wretched girl, again unclosing her eyes to all the horror of her position; for again she lay at the side and within the encircling arm of her enemy. "Oh, Sir Everard Valletort, I thought I was with you, and that you had saved me from this monster. Where is my brother? Where are Frederick and Madeline? Why have they deserted me? Ah! my heart will break. I cannot endure this longer and live."
"Clara, Miss De Haldimar," groaned Sir Everard, in a voice of searching agony; "could I lay down my life for you, I would; but you see these bonds. Oh, God; oh, God! have pity on the innocent; and for once incline the heart of yon fierce monster to the whisperings of mercy." As he uttered the last sentence he attempted to sink on his knees in supplication to Him he addressed, but the tension of the cord prevented him; yet were his hands clasped and his eyes upraised to heaven, while his countenance beamed with an expression of fervent enthusiasm.
"Peace, babbler! or, by heaven! that prayer shall be your last," vociferated Wacousta. "But no," he pursued to himself, dropping at the same time the point of his tomahawk; "these are but the natural writhings of the crushed worm; and the longer protracted they are the more complete will be my vengeance." Then turning to the terrified girl: "You ask, Clara De Haldimar, where you are? In the tent of your mother's lover, I reply; at the side of him who once pressed her to his heart, even as I now press you, and with a fondness that was only equalled by her own. Come, dear Clara," and his voice assumed a tone of tenderness that was even more revolting than his natural ferocity, "let me woo you to the affection she once possessed. It was a heart of fire in which her image stood enshrined; it is a heart of fire still, and well worthy of her child."
"Never, never!" shrieked the agonized girl. "Kill me, murder me, if you will; but oh! if you have pity, pollute not my ear with the avowal of your detested love. But again I repeat, it is false that my mother ever knew
you. She never could have loved so fierce, so vindictive a being as yourself."
"Ha! do you doubt me still?" sternly demanded the savage. Then drawing the shuddering girl still closer to his vast chest—"Come hither, Clara, while to convince you I unfold the sad history of my life, and tell you more of your parents than you have ever known. When," he pursued solemnly, "you have learnt the extent of my love for the one and hatred for the other, and the wrongs I have endured from both, you will no longer wonder at the spirit of mingled love and vengeance that dictates my conduct towards yourself. Listen, girl," he continued fiercely, "and judge whether mine are injuries to be tamely pardoned when a whole life has been devoted to the pursuit of the means of avenging them."
Irresistibly led by a desire to know what possible connection could have existed between her parents and this singular and ferocious man, the wretched girl gave her passive assent. She even hoped that in the course of his narrative some softening reflections would pass over his mind, the effect of which might be to predispose him to mercy. Wacousta buried his face for a few moments in his large hand, as if endeavoring to collect and concentrate the remembrances of past years. His countenance, meanwhile, had undergone a change; for there was now a shade of melancholy mixed with the fierceness of expression usually observable there. This, however, was dispelled in the course of his narrative, and as various opposite passions were in turn powerfully and severally developed.
CHAPTER XXIX.
"It is now four and twenty years," commenced Wacousta, "since your father and myself first met as subalterns in the regiment he now commands, when an intimacy suddenly sprang up between us which, as it was then to our brother officers, has since been a source of utter astonishment to myself. He, all coldness, prudence, obsequiousness and forethought. I all enthusiasm, carelessness, impetuosity and independence. Whether this intimacy sprang from the adventitious circumstance of our being more frequently thrown together as officers of the same company—for we were both attached to the Grenadiers—or that my wild spirit was soothed by the bland amenity of his manners, I know not. The latter, however, is not improbable; for proud and haughty and dignified as the Colonel now is, such was not then the character of the ensign; who seemed thrown out of one of nature's supplest moulds, to fawn, and cringe, and worm his way to favor by the wily speciousness of his manners. Oh, God!" pursued Wacousta, after a momentary pause, and striking his palm against his forehead, "that I ever should have been the dupe of such a cold-blooded hypocrite.
"As you have just learnt, Cornwall is the country of my birth. I was the eldest of the only two surviving children of a large family, and, as heir to the baronetcy of the proud Mortons, was looked up to by lord and vassal as the future perpetuator of the family name. My brother had been designed for the army, but as this was a profession to which I had attached my inclinations, the
point was waived in my favor, and at the age of eighteen I first joined the —— regiment, then quartered in the Highlands of Scotland. During my boyhood I had ever accustomed myself to athletic exercises, and loved to excite myself by encountering danger in its most terrific forms.
"The wild daring by which my boyhood had been marked was powerfully awakened by the bold and romantic scenery of the Scottish Highlands; and as the regiment was at that time quartered in a part of those mountainous districts where, from the disturbed nature of the times, society was difficult of attainment, many of the officers were driven from necessity, as I was from choice, to indulge in the sports of the chase. On one occasion a party of four of us set out early in the morning in pursuit of deer, numbers of which we knew were to be met with in the mountainous tracts of Bute and Argyleshire. The course we happened to take lay through a succession of deep dark glens, and over frowning rocks; the difficulties of access to which only stirred up my dormant spirit of enterprise the more. We had continued in this course for many hours, overcoming one difficulty only to be encountered by another, and yet without meeting a single deer, when at length the faint blast of a horn was heard far above our heads in the distance, and presently a noble stag was seen to ascend a ledge of rocks immediately in front of us. To raise my gun to my shoulder and fire was the work of a moment, after which we all followed in pursuit. On reaching the spot where the deer had first been seen, we observed traces of blood, satisfying us he had been wounded; but the course taken in his flight was one that seemed to defy every human effort to follow in. It was a narrow pointed ledge, ascending boldly towards a huge cliff that projected frowningly from the extreme summit; and on either side lay a dark, deep and apparently fathomless ravine, to look even on which was sufficient to appal the stoutest heart and unnerve the steadiest brain. For me, however, long accustomed to dangers of the sort, it had no terror. I had proceeded about five
hundred yards further, when I came to the termination of the ledge, from the equally narrow transverse extremity of which branched out three others; the whole contributing to form a figure resembling that of a trident. Along the ledge I had quitted I had remarked occasional traces where the stricken deer had passed, and the same blood-spots now directed me at a point where but for these I must have been utterly at fault. The centre of these new ridges and the narrowest was that taken by the animal, and on that I once more renewed my pursuit. I continued my course towards the main body of rock that now rose within a hundred yards. How this was to be gained I knew not; for it shelved out abruptly from the extreme summit, overhanging the abyss, and presenting an appearance which I cannot more properly render than by comparing it to the sounding boards placed over the pulpits of our English churches. Still I was resolved to persevere to the close, and I but too unhappily succeeded.
"It was evident to me that there must be some opening through which the deer had effected his escape to the precipitous heights above; and I felt a wild and fearful triumph in following him to his cover over passes which it was my pleasure to think none of the hardy mountaineers themselves would have dared to venture upon with impunity. I paused not to consider of the difficulty of bearing away my prize, even if I succeeded in overtaking it. At every step my excitement and determination became stronger, and I felt every fibre of my frame to dilate as when, in my more boyish days, I used to brave in my gallant skiff the mingled fury of the warring elements of sea and storm. Suddenly, while my mind was intent only on the dangers I used then to hold in such light estimation, I found my further progress intercepted by a fissure in the crag. It was not the width of this opening that disconcerted me, for it exceeded not ten feet, but I came upon it so unadvisedly that in attempting to check my forward motion I had nearly lost my equipoise and fallen into the abyss that now yawned before
on either side of me. To pause upon the danger would, I felt, be to insure it. Summoning all my dexterity into a single bound, I cleared the chasm, and with one buckskin foot (for my hunting costume was strictly Highland) clung firmly to the ledge, while I secured my balance with the other. At this point the rock became gradually broader, so that I now trod the remainder of the rude path in perfect security, until I at length found myself close to the vast mass of which these ledges were merely ramifications or veins; but still I could discover no outlet by which the wounded deer could have escaped.
"While I lingered, thoughtfully, for a moment, half in disappointment, half in anger, and with my back leaning against the rock, I fancied I heard a rustling as of the leaves and branches of underwood, on that part which projected like a canopy far above the abyss. I bent my eyes eagerly and fixedly on the spot whence the sound proceeded, and presently could distinguish the blue sky appearing through an aperture, to which was the instant afterwards applied what I conceived to be a human face. No sooner, however, was it seen than withdrawn, and then the rustling of leaves was heard again and all was still as before.
"A new direction was now given to my feelings. I felt a presentiment that my adventure, if prosecuted, would terminate in some extraordinary and characteristic manner; and obeying, as I ever did, the first impulse of my heart, I prepared to grapple once more with the difficulties that yet remained to be surmounted. Securing my gun between some twisted roots that grew out of and adhered to the main body of the rock, I commenced the difficult ascent, and after considerable effort, found myself at length immediately under the aperture. My progress along the lower superfices of this projection was like that of a crawling reptile. My back hung suspended over the chasm, into which one false movement of hand or foot, one yielding of the roots entwined in the rock, must inevitably have precipitated me; and, while my toes
wormed themselves into the tortuous fibres of the latter, I passed hand over hand beyond my head, until I had arrived within a foot or two of the point I desired to reach. Here, however, a new difficulty arose. A slight projection of the rock close to the aperture impeded my further progress in the manner hitherto pursued, and to pass this I was compelled to drop my whole weight, suspended by one vigorous arm, while with the other I separated the bushes that concealed the opening. A violent exertion of every muscle now impelled me upward, until at length I had so far succeeded as to introduce my head and shoulders through the aperture, after which my final success was no longer doubtful."
One of those painful pauses with which his narrative was often broken here occurred, and with an energy that terrified her whom he addressed, Wacousta pursued: "Clara De Haldimar, it was here—in this garden—this paradise—this oasis of the rocks in which I now found myself, that I first saw and loved your mother. Ha! you start; you believe me now. Loved her!" he continued, after another pause—"oh, what a feeble word is love to express the concentration of mighty feelings that flowed like burning lava through my veins! Who shall pretend to give a name to the emotion that ran thrillingly, madly through my excited frame when first I gazed on her who, in every attribute of womanly beauty, realized all my fondest fancy ever painted? Listen to me, Clara," he pursued, in a fiercer tone, and with a convulsive pressure of the form he still encircled; "if in my younger days my mind was alive to enterprise, and loved to contemplate danger in its most appalling forms, this was far from being the master passion of my soul; nay, it was the strong necessity I felt of pouring into some devoted bosom the overflowing fullness of my heart, that made me court in solitude those positions of danger with which the image of woman was ever associated.
"I have already said that, on gaining the summit of the rock, I found myself in a sort of oasis of the mountains. It was so. Belted in on every hand by bold and
precipitous crags, that seemed to defy the approach even of the wildest animals, and putting utterly at fault the penetration and curiosity of man, was spread a carpet of verdure, a luxuriance of vegetation that might have put to shame the fertility of the soft breeze-nourished valleys of Italy and Southern France.
"At about twenty yards from the aperture, and on a bank formed of turf, covered with moss, and interspersed with roses and honey-suckles, sat the divinity of the oasis. She, too, was clad in the Highland dress, which gave an air of wildness and elegance to her figure that was in classic harmony with the surrounding scenery. At the moment of my appearance she was in the act of dressing the wounded shoulder of a stag that had recently been shot; and from the broad tartan riband I perceived attached to its neck, added to the fact of the tameness of the animal, I presumed that this stag, evidently a favorite of its mistress, was the same I had fired at and wounded. The rustling I made among the bushes had attracted her attention. She raised her eyes from the deer, and beholding me started to her feet, uttering a cry of terror and surprise. Fearing to speak, as if the sound of my own voice were sufficient to dispel the illusion that fascinated both eye and heart into delicious tension on her form, I stood for some moments as motionless as the rock out of which I appeared to grow, gazing upon her I was destined to love forever.
"It was this utter immobility on my own part that ensured me a continuance of the exquisite happiness I then enjoyed. The first movement of the startled girl had been to fly towards her dwelling, which stood at a short distance, half imbedded in the same clustering roses and honey-suckles that adorned her bank of moss; but when she remarked my utter stillness and apparent absence of purpose, she checked the impulse that would have directed her departure, and stopped, half in curiosity, half in fear, to examine me once more. At that moment all my energies appeared to be restored; I threw myself into an attitude expressive of deep contrition for
the intrusion of which I had been unconsciously guilty, and dropping on one knee and raising my clasped hands, inclined them towards her in token of mingled deprecation of her anger and respectful homage to herself. At first she hesitated, then gradually and timidly retrod her way to the seat she had so abruptly quitted in her alarm. Emboldened by this movement I made a step or two in advance, but no sooner had I done so than she again took to flight. Once more, however, she turned to behold me, and again I had dropped on my knee, and was conjuring her with the same signs to remain and bless me with her presence. Again she returned to her seat, and again I advanced. Scarcely less timid, however, than the deer which followed her every moment, she fled a third time; a third time looked back, and was again induced by my supplicating manner to return. Frequently was this repeated before I finally found myself at the feet, and pressing the hand—(oh, God! what torture in the recollection!)—yes, pressing the hand of her for whose smile I would, even at that moment, have sacrificed my soul. Such was your mother, Clara De Haldimar; yes, even such as I have described her was Clara Beverley.”
Again Wacousta paused, and his pause was longer than usual, as with his large hand again covering his face he seemed endeavoring to master the feelings which these recollections had called up. Clara scarcely breathed. Unmindful of her desolate position, her soul was intent only on a history that related so immediately to her beloved mother, of whom all that she had hitherto known was, that she was a native of Scotland, and that her father had married her while quartered in that country. The deep emotion of the terrible being before her, so often manifested in the course of what he had already given of his recital, added to her knowledge of the facts just named, scarcely left a doubt of the truth of his statement on her mind. Her ear was now bent aching towards him in expectation of a continuance of his history, but he still remained in the same attitude of absorption. An irresistible impulse caused her to extend her hand and
remove his own from his eyes. They were filled with tears; and even while her mind rapidly embraced the hope that this manifestation of tenderness was but the dawning of mercy towards the children of her he had once loved, her kind nature could not avoid sympathizing with him whose uncouthness of appearance and savageness of nature were, in some measure, lost sight of in the fact of the powerful love he yet apparently acknowledged.
But no sooner did Wacousta feel the soft pressure of her hand and meet her eyes turned on his with an expression of interest, than the most rapid transition was effected in his feelings. He drew the form of the weakly resisting girl closer to his heart; again imprinted a kiss upon her lips, and then, while every muscle in his iron frame seemed quivering with emotion, exclaimed: "By heaven! that touch, that glance, were Clara Beverley's. Yes, Clara," he proceeded more deliberately, as he scanned her form with an eye that made her shudder, "such as your mother was, so are you; the same delicacy of proportion; the same graceful curvature of limb, only less rounded, less womanly. But you must be younger by about two years than she then was."
There was a cool license of speech—a startling freedom of manner—in the latter part of his address that disappointed not less than it pained and offended the unhappy Clara. She shuddered, and sighing bitterly, suffered her tears to force themselves through her closed lids upon her pallid cheek. This change in her appearance seemed to act as a check on the temporary excitement of Wacousta. Again obeying one of those rapid transitions of feeling for which he was remarkable, he once more assumed an expression of seriousness, and thus continued his narrative.
CHAPTER XXX.
IT boots not now, Clara, to enter upon all that succeeded to my first introduction to your mother. It would take long to relate; not the gradations of our passion, for that was like the whirlwind of the desert, sudden and devastating from the first; but the burning vow, the plighted faith, the reposing confidence, the unchecked abandonment that flew from the lips and filled the heart of each, sealed as they were with kisses, long, deep, enervating, even such as I had ever pictured that divine pledge of human affection should be. Yes, Clara De Haldimar, your mother was the child of nature then.
"I was not always the rugged being I now appear. Of surpassing strength I had ever been, and fleet of foot; but not then had I attained to my present gigantic stature; neither was my form endowed with the same herculean rudeness, nor did my complexion wear the swarthy hue of the savage, nor had my features been rendered repulsive from the perpetual action of those fierce passions which have since assailed my soul.
"Your mother had been brought up in solitude, and without having seen the face of another man than that of her father. Colonel Beverley, of English name but Scottish connections, was an old gentleman of considerable eccentricity of character. He had taken a part in the rebellion of 1715; but sick and disgusted with an issue by which his fortunes had been affected, and heart-broken by the loss of a beloved wife, whose death had been accelerated by circumstances connected with the disturbed nature of the times, he had resolved to bury himself and child in some wild where the face of man, whom he loathed, might no more offend his sight. This oasis of the mountains was the spot selected for his purpose; for he had discovered it some years previously, on an occasion when, closely pursued by some of the English troops, and separated from his followers, he had only effected his escape by venturing on the ledges of rock I have already described. After minute subsequent search, at the opposite extremity of the oblong belt of rocks that shut it in on every hand, he had discovered an opening through which the transport of such necessaries as were essential to his object might be effected; and causing one of his dwelling houses to be pulled down, he had the materials carried across the rocks on the shoulders of the men employed to re-erect them in his chosen solitude. A few months served to complete these arrangements, which included a garden abounding in every fruit and flower that could possibly live in so elevated a region; and this in time, under his own culture and that of his daughter, became the Eden it first appeared to me.
"Previous to their entering on this employment the workmen had been severally sworn to secrecy; and when all was declared ready for his reception the colonel summoned them a second time to his presence; when, after making a handsome present to each, in addition to his hire, he found no difficulty in prevailing on them to renew their oath that they would preserve the most scrupulous silence in regard to the place of his retreat. He then took advantage of a dark and tempestuous night to execute his project; and attended only by an old woman and her daughter, faithful dependants of the family, set out in quest of his new abode, leaving all his neighbors to discuss and marvel at the singularity of his disappearance. True to his text, however, not even a boy was admitted into his household; and here they had continued to live, unseeing and unseen by man, except when a solitary and distant mountaineer occasionally flitted among the rocks below in pursuit of his game. Fruit and vegetables composed their diet; but once a fortnight the old woman was
despatched through the opening already mentioned, which was at other times so secured by her master that no hand but his own could remove the intricate fastenings. This expedition had for its object the purchase of bread and animal food at the nearest market; and every time she sallied forth an oath was administered to the crone, the purport of which was, not only that she would return, unless prevented by violence or death, but that she would not answer any questions put to her, as to whom she was, whence she came, or for whom the fruits of her marketing were intended.
"Meanwhile, wrapped up in his books, which were chiefly classic authors, or writers on abstruse sciences, the misanthropical colonel paid little or no attention to the cultivation of the intellect of his daughter, whom he had merely instructed in the elementary branches of education; in all of which, however, she evinced an aptitude and perfectibility that indicated quickness of genius and a capability of far higher attainments. Books he principally withheld from her, because they brought the image of man—whom he hated and wished she should also hate—too often in flattering colors before her; and had any work treating of love been found to have crept accidentally into his own collection, it would instantly and indignantly have been committed to the flames.
"Thus left to the action of her own heart—the guidance of her own feelings—it was but natural your mother should have suffered her imagination to repose on an ideal happiness, which, although in some degree destitute of shape and character, was still powerfully felt. What dear acknowledgments (alas! too deceitful!) flowed from her guileless lips, even during our first interview!
"Two long and delicious hours," pursued Wacousta, after another painful pause of some moments, "did we pass together, exchanging thought and speech and heart as if the term of our acquaintance had been coeval with the first dawn of our intellectual life, when suddenly a small silver-toned bell was heard from the direction of the house, hid from the spot on which we sat by the luxuriant
foliage of an intervening laburnum. This sound seemed to dissipate the dreamy calm that had wrapped the soul of your mother into forgetfulness. She started suddenly up and bade me, if I loved her, begone; as that bell announced her required attendance on her father, who, now awakened from the midday slumber in which he ever indulged, was about to take his accustomed walk around the grounds; which was little else, in fact, than a close inspection of the walls of his natural castle. I rose to obey her; our eyes met, and she threw herself into my extended arms. We whispered anew our vows of eternal love. She called me her husband, and I pronounced the endearing name of wife. A burning kiss sealed the compact; and on her archly observing that the sleep of her father continued about two hours at noon, and that the old woman and her daughter were always occupied within doors, I promised to repeat my visit every second day until she finally quitted her retreat to be my own for life.
"One morning I had hastily sketched an outline of your mother's features in pencil, with a view to assist me in the design of a miniature I proposed painting from memory. While occupied the second day in its completion it occurred to me I was in orders on duty for the following, which was that of my promised visit to the oasis; and I despatched my servant with my compliments to your father, and a request that he would be so obliging as to take my guard for me on the to-morrow, and I would perform his duty when next his name appeared on the roster. Some time afterwards I heard the door of the room in which I sat open, and someone enter. Presuming it to be my servant (returned from the execution of the message with which he had just been charged), I paid no attention to the circumstance; but finding, presently, he did not speak, I turned round with a view of demanding what answer he had brought. To my surprise, however, I beheld, not my servant, but your father. He was standing looking over my shoulder at the work on which I was engaged; and notwithstanding
in the instant he resumed the cold, quiet, smirking look that usually distinguished him, I thought I could trace the evidence of some deep emotion which my action had suddenly dispelled. He apologized for his intrusion, although we were on those terms that rendered apology unnecessary, but said he had just received my message, and preferred coming in person to assure me how happy he should feel to take my duty, or to render me any other service in his power. I thought he laid unusual emphasis on the last sentence, yet I thanked him warmly, stating that the only service I should now exact of him would be to take my guard, as I was compelled to be absent nearly the whole of the following morning. He observed with a smile he hoped I was not going to venture my neck on those dangerous precipices a second time after the narrow escape I had had on the preceding day. As he spoke I thought his eye met mine with a sly yet scrutinizing glance; and not wishing to reply immediately to his question, I asked him what he thought of the work with which I was endeavoring to beguile an idle hour. He took it up, and I watched the expression of his handsome countenance with the anxiety of a lover who wishes that all should think his mistress beautiful as he does himself. It betrayed a very indefinite sort of admiration, and yet it struck me there was an eagerness in his dilating eye that contrasted strongly with the calm and unconcern of his other features. At length I asked him, laughingly, what he thought of my Cornish cousin. He replied, cautiously enough, that since it was the likeness of a cousin—and he dwelt emphatically on the word—he could not fail to admire it. Candor, however, compelled him to admit that had I not declared the original to be one so closely connected with me he should have said the talent of so perfect an artist might have been better employed.
"The next day saw me again at the side of your mother, who received me with the same artless demonstrations of affection. After the first full and unreserved interchange of our souls' best feelings, our conversation turned upon lighter topics, and I took an opportunity to
produce the fruit of my application since we parted. Never shall I forget the surprise and delight that animated her beautiful countenance when first she gazed upon the miniature. She expressed a strong desire to retain it, and to this I readily assented, stipulating only to keep it until my next visit in order that I might take an exact copy for myself. She herself, she said, had not been idle. Although her pencil could not call up my image in the same manner, her pen had better repaid her exertions; and in return for the portrait she would give me a letter she had written to beguile her loneliness on the preceding day. As she spoke she drew a sealed packet from the bosom of her dress, and placing it in my hand desired me not to read it until I had returned to my home. But there was an expression of sweet confusion in her lovely countenance, and a trepidation in her manner that, half disclosing the truth, rendered me utterly impatient of the delay imposed, and eagerly breaking the seal I devoured rather than read its contents.
"Accursed madness of recollection!" pursued Wacousta, again striking his brow violently with his hand, "why is it that I ever feel thus unmanned while recurring to those letters? Oh! Clara De Haldimar, never did woman pen to man such declarations of tenderness and attachment as that too dear but faithless letter of your mother contained. All confidingness, she sank her head upon my chest, which heaved scarcely less wildly than her own.
"The hour of parting at length arrived, announced as before by the small bell of her father, and I again tore myself from her arms."
EARLY a month passed away in this manner, and at each interview our affection seemed to increase. One day, while preparing to set out on my customary excursion, a report suddenly reached me that the route had arrived for the regiment, who were to march from —— within three days. This intelligence I received with inconceivable delight; for it had been settled by your mother and myself that this should be the moment chosen for her departure.
"With a glowing cheek and a countenance radiant with happiness did your mother receive my proposal to prepare for her departure on the following day. She was sufficiently aware, even through what I had stated myself, that there were certain ceremonies of the church to be performed in order to give sanctity to our union, and ensure her own personal respectability in the world; and these, I told her, would be solemnized by the chaplain of the regiment. She implicitly confided in me, and she was right, for I had loved her too well to make her my mistress while no barrier existed to her claim to a dearer title.
"The only difficulty that now occurred was the manner of her flight. I had proposed, as the most feasible and rational plan, that the colonel should be compelled to give us egress through the secret passage, when we might command the services of the old woman to guide us through the passes that led to the town; but to this your mother most urgently objected, declaring that she would rather encounter any personal peril that might attend her
escape in a different manner than appear to be a participator in an act of violence against her parent, whose obstinacy of character she moreover knew too well to leave a hope of his being intimidated into the accomplishment of our object, even by a threat of death itself. This plan I was therefore compelled to abandon; and as neither of us was able to discover the passage by which the deer always effected its entrance, I was obliged to fix upon one which it was urged should be put in practice on the following day.
"On my return I occupied myself with preparations for the reception of her who was so speedily to become my wife. Unwilling that she should be seen by any of my companions until the ceremony was finally performed, I engaged apartments in a small retired cottage, distant about half a mile from the furthest extremity of the town, where I proposed she should remain until the regiment finally quitted the station. This point secured, I hastened to the quarters of the chaplain to engage his services for the following evening, but he was from home at the time, and I repaired to my own rooms to prepare the means of escape for your mother. These occupied me until a very late hour, and when at length I retired to rest it was only to indulge in the fondest imaginings that ever filled the heart of a devoted lover. Alas!" (and the dark warrior again sighed heavily) "the day-dream of my happiness was already fast drawing to a close.
"At half an hour before noon I was again in the oasis; your mother was at the wonted spot; and although she received me with her sunniest smiles, there were traces of tears upon her cheek. She implored me to forgive her weakness, but it was the first time she was to be separated from her parent, and conscious as she was that it was to be forever, she could not repress the feeling that rose, despite of herself, to her heart. She had, however, prepared a letter, at my suggestion, to be left on her favorite moss seat, where it was likely she would first be sought by her father, to assure him of her safety and of her prospects of future happiness; and the consciousness that he would
labor under no harrowing uncertainty in regard to her fate seemed at length to soothe and satisfy her heart.
"I now led her to the aperture where I had left the apparatus provided for my purpose; this consisted of a close netting about four feet in depth, with a board for a footstool at the bottom, and furnished at intervals with hoops so as to keep it full and open. The top of this netting was provided with two handles, to which were attached the ends of a cord many fathoms in length; the whole of such durability as to have borne weights equal to those of three ordinary sized men, with which I had proved it prior to my setting out. My first care was to bandage the eyes of your mother (who willingly and fearlessly submitted to all I proposed), that she might not see and become faint with seeing the terrible chasm over which she was about to be suspended. I then placed her within the netting, which, fitting closely to her person and reaching under her arms, completely secured her; and my next urgent request was that she should not, on any account, remove the bandage or make the slightest movement when she found herself stationary below, until I had joined her. I then dropped her gently through the aperture, lowering fathom after fathom of the rope, the ends of which I had firmly secured round the trunk of a tree, as an additional safeguard, until she finally came on a level with that part of the cliff on which I had reposed when first she beheld me. As she still hung immediately over the abyss, it was necessary to give a gradual impetus to her weight to enable her to gain the landing-place. I now, therefore, commenced swinging her to and fro, until she at length came so near the point desired that I clearly saw the principal difficulty was surmounted. The necessary motion having been given to the balance, with one vigorous and final impulsion I dexterously contrived to deposit her several feet from the edge of the lower rock, when, slackening the rope on the instant, I had the inexpressible satisfaction to see that she remained firm and stationary. The waving of her scarf immediately afterward (a signal previously agreed upon) announced she
had sustained no injury in this rather rude collision with the rock, and I in turn commenced my descent.
"Fearing to cast away the ends of the rope, lest their weight should by any chance affect the balance of the footing your mother had obtained, I now secured them around my loins, and accomplishing my descent in the customary manner, speedily found myself once more at the side of my heart's dearest treasure. I prepared to execute the remainder of my task, and again applied the bandage to her eyes, saying that, although the principal danger was over, still there was another I could not bear she should look upon.
"Disengaging the rope from the handles of the netting, I now applied to these a broad leathern belt, and stooping with my back to the cherished burden with which I was about to charge myself, passed the centre of the belt across my chest, much in the manner, as you are aware, Indian women carry their infant children. As an additional precaution I had secured the netting round my waist by a strong lacing of cord, and then raising myself to my full height, and satisfying myself of the perfect freedom of action of my limbs, seized a long balancing pole I had left suspended against the rock at my last visit, and commenced my descent of the sloping ridge. On approaching the horrible chasm, a feeling of faintness came over me, despite of the confidence with which I had previously armed myself. This, however, was but momentary. Sensible that everything depended on rapidity of movement, I paused not in my course, but quickening my pace as I gradually drew nearer, gave the necessary impetus to my motion, and cleared the gap with a facility far exceeding what had distinguished my first passage, and which was the fruit of constant practice alone. Here my balance was sustained by the pole, and at length I had the inexpressible satisfaction to find myself at the very extremity of the ridge, and immediately at the point where I had left my companions in my first memorable pursuit.
"In the deep transports of my joy I once more threw
myself on my knees in speechless thanksgiving to Providence for the complete success of my undertaking. Your mother, whom I had previously released from her confinement, did the same; and at that moment the union of our hearts seemed to be cemented by a divine influence, manifested in the fullness of gratitude of each. Throwing over her shoulders the mantle of a youth, which I had secured near the spot, I enjoined her to follow me closely in the path I was about to pursue.
"I have not hitherto found it necessary to state," continued Wacousta, his brow lowering with fierce and gloomy thought, "that more than once latterly, on my return from the oasis, which was usually at a stated hour, I had observed a hunter hovering near the end of the ledge, yet quickly retreating as I advanced. There was something in the figure of this man that recalled to my recollection the form of your father; but ever on my return to quarters I found him in uniform, and exhibiting anything but the appearance of one who had recently been treading his weary way among rocks and fastnesses. Besides, the improbability of this fact was so great that it occupied not my attention beyond the passing moment. On the present occasion, however, I saw the same hunter, and was more forcibly than ever struck by the resemblance to my friend. Prior to my quitting the point where I had liberated your mother from the netting I had, in addition to the disguise of the cloak, found it necessary to make some alteration in the arrangement of her hair; the redundancy of which, as it floated gracefully over her polished neck, was in itself sufficient to betray her sex. With this view I had removed her plumed bonnet. It was the first time I had seen her without it, and so deeply impressed was I by the angel-like character of the extreme feminine beauty she, more than ever, then exhibited, that I knelt in silent adoration for some moments at her feet, my eyes and countenance alone expressing the fervent and almost holy emotion of my enraptured soul.
"Immediately we pursued our course, and, after an
hour's rather laborious exertion, at length emerged from the succession of glens and rocks that lay in our way; when, skirting the valley in which the town was situated, we finally reached the cottage where I had secured my lodging. Previous to entering it I had told your mother that for the few hours that would intervene before the marriage ceremony could be performed I should, by way of lulling the curiosity of her hostess, introduce her as a near relative of my own. This I did accordingly; and having seen that everything was comfortably arranged for her convenience, and recommending her strongly to the care of the old woman, I set off once more in search of the chaplain of the regiment. Before I could reach his residence, however, I was met by a sergeant of my company, who came running towards me, evidently with some intelligence of moment. He stated that my presence was required without delay. The Grenadiers with the senior subaltern were in orders for detachment for an important service, and considerable displeasure had been manifested by the colonel at my absence, especially as of late I had greatly neglected my military duties. He had been looking for me everywhere, he said, but without success, when Ensign De Haldimar had pointed out to him in what direction it was likely I might be found.
"With a beating heart did I assume a uniform that appeared at that moment hideous in my eyes; yet I was not without a hope I might get off this ill-timed duty. Before I had completed my equipment your father entered my quarters; and when I first glanced my eye full upon his I thought his countenance exhibited evidences of confusion. This immediately reminded me of the unknown hunter, and I asked him if he was not the person I described. His answer was not a positive denial, but a mixture of raillery and surprise that lulled my doubts, enfeebled as they were by the restored calm of his features. I then told him that I had a particular favor to ask of him, which, in consideration of our friendship, I trusted he would not refuse; and that was to take my duty in the expedition about to set forth. His manner
implied concern, and he asked with a look that had much deliberate expression in it, 'if I was aware that it was a duty in which blood was expected to be shed? He could not suppose that any consideration would induce me to resign my duty to another officer when apprised of this fact.' All this was said with the air of one really interested in my honor; but in my increasing impatience I told him I wanted none of his cant; I simply asked him a favor which he would grant or decline as he thought proper. This was a harshness of language I had never indulged in, but my mind was sore under the existing causes of my annoyance, and I could not bear to have my motives reflected on at a moment when my heart was torn with all the agonies attendant on the position in which I found myself placed. His cheek paled and flushed more than once before he replied, 'that in spite of my unkindness his friendship might induce him to do much for me, even as he had hitherto done, but that on the present occasion it rested not with him. In order to justify himself he would no longer disguise the fact from me that the colonel had declared in the presence of the whole regiment I should take my duty regularly in future, and not be suffered to make a convenience of the service any longer. If, however, he could do anything for me during my absence, I had but to command him.'
"While I was yet giving vent, in no measured terms, to the indignation I felt at being made the subject of public censure by the colonel, the same sergeant came into the room announcing that the company were only waiting for me to march, and that the colonel desired my instant presence. In the agitation of my feelings I scarcely knew what I did, putting several portions of my regimental equipment on me so completely awry that your father noticed and rectified the errors I had committed: while again, in the presence of the sergeant, I expressed the deepest regret he could not relieve me from a duty that was hateful to the last degree.
"Torn with agony at the thought of the uncertainty in which I was compelled to leave her whom I so fondly
adored, I had no other alternative than to make a partial confidant of your father. I told him that in the cottage which I pointed out he would find the original of the portrait he had seen me painting on a former occasion—the Cornish cousin whose beauty he professed to hold so cheaply. More he should know of her on my return, but at present I confided her to his honor, and begged he would prove his friendship for me by rendering her whatever attention she might require in her humble abode. With these hurried injunctions he promised to comply; and it has often occurred to me since, although I did not remark it at the time, that while his voice and manner were calm, there was a burning glow upon his handsome cheek and a suppressed exultation in his eye that I had never observed on either before. I then quitted the room, and hastening to my company with a gloom on my brow that indicated the wretchedness of my inward spirit, was soon afterwards on the march from ——.”
CHAPTER XXXII.
If, hitherto, Clara De Haldimar, I have been minute in the detail of all that attended my connection with your mother, it has been with a view to prove to you how deeply I have been injured; but I have now arrived at a part of my history when to linger on the past would goad me into madness and render me unfit for the purpose to which I have devoted myself.
"Will you credit the monstrous truth," he added, in a fierce but composed whisper, while he bent eagerly over the form of the trembling yet attentive girl, "when I tell you that on my return from the fatal expedition, during my continuance on which her image had never once been absent from my mind, I found Clara Beverley the wife of De Haldimar? To what satanic arts so calculating a villain could have recourse to effect his object I know not; but it is not the less true, that she, from whom my previous history must have taught you to expect the purity of intention and conduct of an angel, became his wife—and I, a being accursed among men."
Here the agitation of Wacousta became terrific. The laboring of his chest was like that of one convulsed with some racking agony; and the swollen veins and arteries of his head seemed to threaten the extinction of life in some fearful paroxysm. At length he burst into a violent fit of tears, more appalling in one of his iron nature than the fury which had preceded it—and it was many minutes before he could so far compose himself as to resume.
"Think not, Clara De Haldimar, I speak without the
proof. Her own words confessed, her own lips avowed it, and yet I neither slew her nor her paramour, nor myself. On my return to the regiment I had flown to the cottage on the wings of the most impatient and tender love that ever filled the bosom of man for woman. To my enquiries the landlady replied that my cousin had been married two days previously by the military chaplain to a handsome young officer, who had visited her soon after my departure and was constantly with her from that moment, and that immediately after the ceremony they had left, but she knew not whither. Wild, desperate, almost bereft of reason, and with a heart bounding against my bosom, as if each agonizing throb were to be its last, I ran like a maniac back into the town, nor paused till I found myself in the presence of your father. My mind was a volcano, but still I attempted to be calm, even while I charged him in the most outrageous terms with his villainy. Deny it he could not; but far from excusing it, he boldly avowed and justified the step he had taken, intimating, with a smile full of meaning, there was nothing in connection with the family of De Haldimar to reflect disgrace on the cousin of Sir Reginald Morton; and that the highest compliment he could pay his friend was to attach himself to one whom that friend had declared to be so near a relative of his own. There was a coldness of taunt in these remarks that implied his sense of the deception I had practised on him in regard to the true nature of the relationship; and for a moment, while my hand firmly grasped the hilt of my sword, I hesitated whether I should not cut him down at my feet; I had self-command, however, to abstain from the outrage, and I have often since regretted I had. My own blood could have but been spilt in atonement for my just revenge, and as for the obloquy attached to the memory of the assassin it could not have been more bitter than that which has followed me through life.
"For weeks I was insensible to anything but the dreadful shock my soul had sustained. A heavy stupor weighed me down, and for a period it was supposed my
reason was overthrown; no such mercy was reserved for me. The regiment had quitted the Highlands and were now stationary in ——, whither I had accompanied it in arrest. The restoration of my faculties was the signal for new persecutions. Scarcely had the medical officers reported me fit to sustain the ordeal, when a court-martial was assembled to try me on a variety of charges. Who was my prosecutor? Listen, Clara," and he shook her violently by the arm. "He who had robbed me of all that gave value to life and incentive to honor; he who, under the guise of friendship, had stolen into the Eden of my love and left it barren of affection. In a word, yon detested governor, to whose inhuman cruelty even the son of my brother has, by some strange fatality of coincidence, so recently fallen a second sacrifice. Curses, curses on him!" he pursued, with frightful vehemence, half rising as he spoke, and holding forth his right arm in a menacing attitude; "but the hour of retribution is at hand, and revenge, the exclusive passion of the gods, shall at length be mine. In no other country in the world —under no other circumstances than the present—could I have so secured it.
"What were the charges preferred against me?" he continued, with a violence that almost petrified the unhappy girl. "Hear them and judge whether I have not cause for the inextinguishable hate that rankles at my heart. Every trifling disobedience of orders—every partial neglect of duty that could be raked up—was tortured into a specific charge; and as I have already admitted I had latterly transgressed not a little in this respect, these were numerous enough. Yet they were but preparatory to others of greater magnitude. Will you, can you believe anything half so atrocious as that your father should have called on a petty officer not only to prove some violent and insubordinate language I had used in reference to the commanding officer in my own rooms, but also to substantiate a charge of cowardice, grounded on the unwillingness I had expressed to accompany the expedition, and the extraordinary trepidation
I had evinced while preparing for the duty, manifested, as it was stated to be, by the various errors he had rectified in my equipment with his own hand? Yes, even this pitiful charge was one of the many preferred; but the severest was that which he had the unblushing effrontery to make the subject of public investigation, rather than of private redress—the blow I had struck him in his own apartments. And who was his witness in this monstrous charge? your mother, Clara. Yea, I stood as a criminal in her presence, and yet she came forward to tender an evidence that was to consign me to a disgraceful sentence. My vile prosecutor had, moreover, the encouragement and sanction of his colonel throughout, and by him he was upheld in every contemptible charge his ingenuity could devise. Do you not anticipate the result? I was found guilty and dismissed the service.
"What agonies of mind I endured—what burning tears I nightly shed upon a pillow I was destined to press in freezing loneliness—what hours of solitude I passed, far from the haunts of my fellow-men, and forming plans of vengeance—it would take much longer time to relate than I have actually bestowed on my unhappy history. To comprehend their extent and force you must understand the heart of fire in which the deep sense of injury had taken root; but the night wears away, and briefly told must be the remainder of my tale. The rebellion of 'Forty-five saw me in arms in the Scottish ranks, and in one instance opposed to the regiment from which I had been so ignominiously expelled. Never did revenge glow like a living fire in the heart of a man as it did in mine, for the effect of my long brooding in solitude had been to inspire me with a detestation, not merely for those who had been most rancorous in their enmity, but for everything that wore the uniform, from the commanding officer down to the meanest private. Every blow that I dealt, every life that I sacrificed, was an insult washed away from my attainted honor; but him whom I most sought in the mêlée I never could reach. At length the corps to which I had attached myself was
repulsed, and I saw with rage in my heart that my enemy still lived to triumph in the fruit of his villainy.
"Although I was grown considerably in stature at this period, and was otherwise greatly altered in appearance, I had been recognized in the action by numbers of the regiment, and, indeed, more than once I had in the intoxication of my rage accompanied the blow that slew or maimed one of my former associates with a declaration of the name of him who inflicted it. The consequence was I was denounced as a rebel and an outlaw, and a price was put upon my head. Accustomed, however, as I had ever been to rocks and fastnesses, I had no difficulty in eluding the vigilance of those who were sent in pursuit of me, and thus compelled to live wholly apart from my species, I at length learned to hate them, and to know that man is the only enemy of man upon earth.
"A change now came over the spirit of my vengeance, for about this period your mother died. She was the only being I had ever looked upon with fondness, and deeply even as I had been injured by her, I wept her memory with many a scalding tear. This, however, only increased my hatred for him who had rioted in her beauty and supplanted me in her devotedness. I had the means of learning occasionally all that passed in the regiment, and the same account that brought me the news of your mother's death also gave me the intelligence that three children had been the fruit of her union with De Haldimar. I heard, moreover (and this gave me pleasure), that their father doted on them; and from that moment I resolved to turn his cup of joy into bitterness, even as he had turned mine. I no longer sought his life, for the jealousy that had half impelled that thirst existed no longer; but deeming his cold nature at least accessible through his parental affection, I was resolved that in his children he should suffer a portion of the agonies he had inflicted on me. I waited, however, until they should be grown up to an age when the heart of the parent would
be more likely to mourn their loss, and then I was determined my vengeance should be complete.
"Circumstances singularly favored my design. Many years afterwards the regiment formed one of the expedition against Quebec under General Wolfe. They were commanded by your father, who, in the course of promotion, had obtained the lieutenant-colonelcy, and I observed by the army list that a subaltern of the same name, whom I presumed to be his eldest son, was in the corps. Here was a field for my vengeance beyond any I could have hoped for. I contrived to pass over into Cornwall, the ban of outlawry being still unrepealed; and having procured from my brother a sum sufficient for my necessities, and bade him an eternal farewell, embarked in a fishing boat for the coast of France, whence I subsequently took a passage to this country. At Montreal I found the French general, who gladly received my allegiance as a subject of France and gave me a commission in one of the provincial corps that usually served in concert with our Indian allies. With the general I soon became a favorite, and, as a mark of his confidence, at the attack on Quebec he entrusted me with the command of a detached irregular force, consisting partly of Canadians and partly of Indians, intended to harass the flanks of the British army. This gave me an opportunity of being at whatever point of the field I might think most favorable to my design; and I was too familiar with the detested uniform of the regiment not to be able to distinguish it from afar. In a word, Clara, for I am weary of my own tale, in that engagement I had an opportunity of recognizing your brother. He struck me by his martial appearance as he encouraged his Grenadiers to the attack of the French columns, and as I turned my eye upon him in admiration, I was stung to the soul by his resemblance to his father. Vengeance thrilled throughout every fibre of my frame at that moment. The opportunity I had long sought was at length arrived; and already, in anticipation, I enjoyed the anguish his fall would occasion to my enemy. I rushed within a few
feet of my victim, but the bullet aimed at his heart was received in the breast of a faithful soldier who had flown to intercept it. How I cursed the meddler for his officiousness!"
"Oh, that soldier was your nephew," eagerly interrupted Clara, pointing towards her companion, who had fallen into a profound slumber, "the husband of this unfortunate woman. Frank Halloway (for by that name was he alone known in the regiment) loved my brother as though he had been of the same blood. He it was who flew to receive the ball that was destined for another. But I nursed him on his couch of suffering and with my own hands prepared his food and dressed his wound. Oh, if pity can touch your heart (and I will not believe that a heart that once felt as you say yours has felt can be inaccessible to pity), let the recollection of your nephew's devotedness to my mother's child disarm you of vengeance and induce you to restore us!"
"Never!" thundered Wacousta—"never! The very circumstance you have now named is an additional incentive to my vengeance. My nephew saved the life of your brother at the hazard of his own; and how has he been rewarded for the generous deed? By an ignominious death, inflicted, perhaps, for some offence not more dishonoring than those which have thrown me an outcast upon these wilds, and that at the command and in the presence of the father of him whose life he was fool enough to preserve. Yet, what but ingratitude of the grossest nature could a Morton expect at the hands of the false family of De Haldimar! They were destined to be our bane, and well have they fulfilled the end for which they were created."
"Almighty Providence," aspirated the sinking Clara, as she turned her streaming eyes to heaven; "can it be that the human heart can undergo such change? Can this be the being who once loved my mother with a purity and tenderness of affection that angels themselves might hallow with approval; or is all that I have heard but a bewildering dream?"
"No, Clara," calmly and even solemnly returned the warrior; "it is no dream, but a reality—a sad, dreadful, heartrending reality; yet if I am that altered being, to whom is the change to be ascribed? Who turned the generous current of my blood into a river of overflowing gall? Your father! But these are idle words. What I have been you know; what I now am, and through what agency I have been rendered what I am, you know also. Not more fixed is fate than my purpose. Your brother dies even on the spot on which my nephew died; and you, Clara, shall be my bride; and the first thing your children shall be taught to lisp shall be curses on the vile name of De Haldimar!"
"Once more, in the name of my sainted mother, I implore you to have mercy," shrieked the unhappy Clara. "Oh!" she continued, with vehement supplication, "let the days of your early love be brought back to your memory, that your heart may be softened, and cut yourself not wholly off from your God by the commission of such dreadful outrages. Again, I adjure you, restore us to my father."
"Never!" savagely repeated Wacousta; "I have passed years of torture in the hope of such an hour as this, and now that fruition is within my grasp, may I perish if I forego it! Ha, sir!" turning from the almost fainting Clara to Sir Everard, who had listened with deep attention to the history of this extraordinary man; "for this," and he thrust aside the breast of his hunting-coat, exhibiting the scar of a long but superficial wound, "for this do you owe me a severe reckoning. I would recommend you, however," and he spoke in mockery, "when next you drive a weapon into the chest of an unresisting enemy to be more certain of your aim. Had that been as true as the blow from the butt of your rifle I should not have lived to triumph in this hour. I little deemed," he pursued, still addressing the nearly heartbroken officer in the same insolent strain, "that my intrigue with that dark-eyed daughter of the old Canadian would have been the means of throwing your companion so speedily
into my power; after his first narrow escape. Your disguise was well managed, I confess, and but that there is an instinct about me enabling me to discover a De Haldimar as a hound does the deer by scent, you might have succeeded in passing for what you appeared. But" (and his tone suddenly changed its irony for fierceness) "to the point, sir. That you are the lover of this girl I clearly perceive, and death were preferable to a life embittered by the recollection that she whom we love reposes in the arms of another. No such kindness is meant you, however. To-morrow you shall return to the fort; and when there you may tell your colonel that in exchange for a certain miniature and letters, which in the hurry of departure I dropped in his apartment some ten days since, Sir Reginald Morton, the outlaw, has taken his daughter Clara to wife, but without the solemnization of those tedious forms that bound himself in accursed union with her mother. Oh! what would I not give," he continued, bitterly, "to witness the pang inflicted on his false heart when first the damning truth arrests his ear. Never did I know the triumph of my power until now, for what revenge can be half so sweet as that which attains a loathed enemy through the dishonor of his child? But, hark! what mean those sounds?"
A loud yelling was now heard at some distance in rear of the tent. Presently the bounding of many feet on the turf was distinguishable, and then at intervals the peculiar cry that announces the escape of a prisoner. Wacousta started to his feet, and fiercely grasping his tomahawk, advanced to the front of the tent, where he seemed to listen for a moment attentively, as if endeavoring to catch the direction of the pursuit.
"Ha! by heaven!" he exclaimed, "there must be treachery in this, or yon slippery captain would not so soon be at his flight again bound as I had bound him." Then, uttering a deafening yell and rushing past Sir Everard, near whom he paused an instant, as if undecided whether he should not first dispose of him as a precautionary measure, he flew with the speed of an antelope
in the direction in which he was guided by the gradually receding sounds.
"The knife, Miss De Haldimar," exclaimed Sir Everard, after a few moments of breathless and intense anxiety. "See, there is one in the belt that Ellen Halloway has girt around her loins. Quick, for heaven's sake, quick; our only chance is in this."
With an activity arising from despair the unhappy Clara sprang from the rude couch on which she had been left by Wacousta, and stooping over the form of the maniac, extended her hand to remove the weapon from her side, but Ellen, who had been awakened from her long slumber by the yells just uttered, seemed resolved to prevent it. A struggle for its possession now ensued between these frail and delicate beings, in which Clara, however, had the advantage, not only from the recumbent position of her opponent, but from the greater security of her grasp. At length, with a violent effort, she contrived to disengage it from the sheath, around which Ellen had closely clasped both her hands; but with the quickness of thought the latter were again clenched round the naked blade, and without any other evident motive than what originated in the obstinacy of her madness, the unfortunate woman fiercely attempted to wrest it away. In the act of doing so her hands were dreadfully cut, and Clara, shocked at the sight of the blood she had been the means of shedding, lost all the energy she had summoned, and sunk senseless at the feet of the maniac, who now began to utter the most piteous cries.
"Oh, God, we are lost," exclaimed Sir Everard; "the voice of that wretched woman has alarmed our enemy, and even now I hear him approaching. Quick, Clara, give me the knife. But no; it is now too late—he is here."
At that instant the dark form of a warrior rushed noiselessly to the spot on which he stood. The officer turned his eyes in desperation on his enemy, but a single glance was sufficient to assure him it was not Wacousta. The Indian paused not in his course, but, passing close round the tree to which the baronet was attached, made
a circular movement that brought him in a line with the direction that had been taken by his enemy, and again they were left alone.
A new fear now oppressed the heart of the unfortunate Valletort, even to agony; Clara still lay senseless, speechless, before him; and his impression was that in the struggle Ellen Halloway had murdered her. The latter yet continued her cries, and as she held up her hands he could see by the firelight they were covered with blood. An instinctive impulse caused him to bound forward to the assistance of the motionless Clara, when, to his infinite surprise and joy, he discovered the cord which had bound him to the tree to be severed. The Indian who had just passed had evidently been his deliverer; and a sudden flash of recollection recalled the figure of the warrior that had escaped from the schooner and was supposed to have leaped into the canoe of Oucanasta at the moment when Madeline De Haldimar was removed into that of the Canadian.
In a transport of conflicting feelings, Sir Everard now raised the insensible Clara from the ground, and having satisfied himself she had sustained no serious injury, prepared for a flight which he felt to be desperate, if not altogether hopeless. There was not a moment to be lost, for the cries of the wretched Ellen increased in violence as she seemed sensible she was about to be left utterly alone, and ever and anon, although afar off, yet evidently drawing nearer, was to be heard the fierce denouncing yell of Wacousta. The spot on which the officer stood was not far from that whence his unfortunate friend had commenced his flight on the first memorable occasion, and as the moon shone brightly in the cloudless heavens there could be no mistake in the course he was to pursue. Dashing down the steep, therefore, with all the speed his beloved burden would enable him to attain, he made immediately for the bridge over which his only chance of safety lay.
It unfortunately happened, however, that, induced either by the malice of her insanity or really terrified at the loneliness of her position, the wretched Ellen Halloway had likewise quitted the tent, and now followed close in the rear of the fugitives, still uttering the same piercing cries of anguish. The voice of Wacousta was also again heard in the distance; and Sir Everard had the inexpressible horror to find that, guided by the shrieks of the maniac woman, he was now shaping his course, not to the tent where he had left his prisoners, but in an oblique direction towards the bridge, where he evidently hoped to intercept them. Aware of the extreme disadvantage under which he labored in a competition of speed with his active enemy, the unhappy officer would have terminated the struggle had he not been partially sustained by the hope that the detachment prayed for by De Haldimar, through the friendly young chief to whom he owed his own liberation, might be about this time on its way to attempt their rescue. This thought supported his faltering resolution, although nearly exhausted with his efforts—compelled, as he was, to sustain the motionless form of the slowly reviving Clara; and he again braced himself to the unequal flight. The moon still shone beautifully bright, and he could now distinctly see the bridge over which he was to pass; but notwithstanding he strained his eyes as he advanced, no vestige of a British uniform was to be seen in the open space that lay beyond. Once he turned to regard his pursuers. Ellen was a few yards only in his rear, and considerably beyond her rose, in tall relief against the heavens, the gigantic form of the warrior. The pursuit of the latter was now conducted with a silence that terrified even more than the yells he had previously uttered, and he gained so rapidly on his victims that the tread of his feet was now distinctly audible. Again the officer, with despair in his heart, made the most incredible exertions to reach the bridge, without seeming to reflect that even when there no security was offered him against his enemy. Once, as he drew nearer, he fancied he saw the dark heads of human beings peering from under the part of the arch which had afforded cover to De Haldimar and himself on the memorable
occasion of their departure with the Canadian, and convinced that the warriors of Wacousta had been sent there to lie in ambuscade and intercept his retreat, his hopes were utterly paralyzed, and, although he stopped not, his flight was rather mechanical than the fruit of any systematic plan of escape.
He had now gained the extremity of the bridge, with Ellen Halloway and Wacousta close in his rear, when suddenly the heads of many men were once more distinguishable, even in the shadow of the arch that overhung the sands of the river. Three individuals detached themselves from the group, and leaping upon the further extremity of the bridge, moved rapidly to meet him. Meanwhile the baronet had stopped suddenly, as if in doubt whether to advance or recede. His suspense was but momentary. Although the persons of these men were disguised as Indian warriors, the broad moonlight that beamed full on their countenances disclosed the well remembered features of Blessington, Erskine and Charles De Haldimar. The latter sprang before his companions, and uttering a cry of joy, sank in speechless agony on the neck of his still unconscious sister,
"For God's sake, free me, De Haldimar!" exclaimed the excited baronet, disengaging his charge from the embrace of his friend. "This is no moment for gratulation. Erskine, Blessington, see you not who is behind me? Be upon your guard; defend your lives!" And as he spoke he rushed forward with faint and tottering steps to place his companions between the unhappy girl and the danger that threatened her.
The swords of the officers were drawn, but instead of advancing upon the formidable being, who stood as if paralyzed at this unexpected rencontre, the two seniors contented themselves with assuming a defensive attitude, retiring slowly and gradually towards the other extremity of the bridge.
Overcome by his emotion, Charles De Haldimar had not noticed this action of his companions, and stood apparently riveted to the spot. The voice of Blessington
calling on him by name to retire seemed to arouse the dormant consciousness of the unhappy maniac. She uttered a piercing shriek, and springing forward, sank on her knees at his feet, exclaiming, as she forcibly detained him by his dress:
"Almighty heaven! where am I? surely that was Captain Blessington's kind voice I heard, and you—you are Charles De Haldimar. Oh, save my husband; plead for him with your father!—but no," she continued, wildly—"he is dead—he is murdered! Behold these hands all covered with his blood!"
"Ha! another De Haldimar!" exclaimed Wacousta, recovering his slumbering energies, "this spot seems indeed fated for our meeting. More than thrice have I been baulked of my just revenge, but now will I secure it. Thus, Ellen, do I avenge your husband's and my nephew's death. My own wrongs demand another sacrifice. But, ha! where is she? where is Clara? where is my bride?"
Bounding over the ill-fated De Haldimar, who lay even in death firmly clasped in the embrace of the wretched Ellen, the fierce man dashed furiously forward to renew his pursuit of the fugitives. But suddenly the extremity of the bridge was filled with a column of armed men that kept issuing from the arch beneath. Sensible of his danger, he sought to make good his retreat, but when he turned for the purpose the same formidable array met his view at the opposite extremity, and both parties now rapidly advanced in double quick time, evidently with a view of closing upon and taking him prisoner. In this dilemma his only hope was in the assistance that might be rendered him by his warriors. A yell, so terrific as to be distinctly heard in the fort itself, burst from his vast chest and rolled in prolonged echoes through the forest. It was faintly answered from the encampment and met by deep but noiseless curses from the exasperated soldiery, whom the sight of their murdered officer was momentarily working into frenzy.
"Kill him not, for your lives!—I command you, men,
kill him not!" muttered Captain Blessington, with suppressed passion, as his troops were preparing to immolate him on their clustering bayonets. "Such a death were indeed mercy to such a villain."
"Ha! ha!" laughed Wacousta in bitter scorn; "who is there of all your accursed regiment who will dare to take him alive?" Then brandishing his tomahawk around him to prevent their finally closing, he dealt his blows with such astonishing velocity that no unguarded point was left about his person; and more than one soldier was brought to the earth in the course of the unequal struggle.
"By Heavens!" cried Captain Erskine, "are the two best companies of the regiment to be kept at bay by a single desperado? Shame on ye, fellows! If his hands are too many for you, lay him by the heels."
This ruse was practised with success. In attempting to defend himself from the attack of those who sought to throw him down, the warrior necessarily left his upper person exposed, when advantage was taken to close with him and deprive him of the play of his arms. It was not, however, without considerable difficulty that they succeeded in disarming and binding his hands, after which, a strong cord being fastened round his waist, he was tightly lashed to a gun which, contrary to the original intention of the governor, had been sent out with the expedition. The retreat of the detachment then commenced rapidly, but it was not without being hotly pursued by the band of warriors the yell of Wacousta had summoned in pursuit that they finally gained the fort; under what feelings of sorrow for the fate of an officer so beloved we leave it to our readers to imagine.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The morning of the next day dawned on few who had pressed their customary couches—on none whose feverish pulse and bloodshot eye failed to attest the utter sleeplessness in which the night had been passed. Numerous groups of men were seen assembling after the reveillé in various parts of the barrack square—those who had borne a part in the recent expedition commingling with those who had not, and recounting to the latter with mournful look and voice the circumstances connected with the bereavement of their universally lamented officer. As none, however, had seen the blow struck that deprived him of life, although each had heard the frantic exclamations of a voice that had been recognised for Ellen Halloway's, much of the marvellous was necessarily mixed up with truth in their narrative—some positively affirming Mr. De Haldimar had not once quitted his party, and declaring that nothing short of a supernatural agency could have transported him unnoticed to the fatal spot where, in their advance, they had beheld him murdered. The singular appearance of Ellen Halloway also at that moment, on the very bridge on which she had pronounced her curse on the family of De Haldimar, and in company with the terrible and mysterious being who had borne her off in triumph on that occasion to the forest, and under circumstances calculated to excite the most superstitious impressions, was not without its weight in determining their rude speculations, and all concurred in opinion that the death of the unfortunate young officer was a judgment on their colonel for
the little mercy he had extended to the noble-hearted Halloway.
Then followed allusion to their captive, whose gigantic stature and efforts at escape, tremendous even as the latter were, were duly exaggerated by each, with the very laudable view of claiming a proportionate share of credit for his own individual exertions; and many and various were the opinions expressed as to the manner of death he should be made to suffer. Among the most conspicuous of the orators were those with whom our readers have already made slight acquaintance in our account of the sortie by Captain Erskine's company for the recovery of the supposed body of Frederick De Haldimar. One was for impaling him alive and setting him up to rot on the platform above the gate. Another for blowing him from the muzzle of a twenty-four pounder into the centre of the first band of Indians that approached the fort, that, thus perceiving they had lost the strength and sinew of their cunning war, they might be the more easily induced to propose terms of peace. A third was of opinion he ought to be chained to the top of the flagstaff as a target to be shot at with arrows only, contriving never to touch a mortal part. A fourth would have had him tied naked over the sharp spikes that constituted the chevaux-de-frise garnishing the sides of the drawbridge. Each devised some new death—proposed some new torture; but all were of opinion that simply to be shot, or even to be hanged, was too merciful a punishment for the wretch who had so wantonly and inhumanly butchered the kind-hearted, gentle-mannered officer, whom they had almost all known and loved from his very boyhood, and they looked forward with mingled anxiety and vengeance to the moment when summoned, as it was expected he shortly would be, before the assembled garrison, he would be made to expiate the atrocity with his blood.
While the men thus gave indulgence to their indignation and their grief, their officers were even more painfully affected. The body of the ill-fated Charles had been borne to his apartment, where, divested of its disguise, it had again been inducted in such apparel as was deemed suited to the purpose. Extended on the very bed on which he lay at the moment when she, whose maniac raving and forcible detention had been the immediate cause of his destruction, had preferred her wild but fruitless supplication for mercy, he exhibited even in death the same delicate beauty that had characterized him on that occasion; yet with a mildness and serenity of expression on his still, pale features, strongly in contrast with the agitation and glow of excitement that then distinguished him.
Around the bed were grouped nearly all the officers, standing in attitudes indicative of anxiety and interest, and gazing mournfully on the placid features of their ill-fated friend. All on entering moved noiselessly over the rude floor, as though fearful of disturbing the repose of one who merely slumbered, and the same precaution was extended to the brief but heartfelt expressions of sorrow that passed from one to the other as they gazed on all that remained of the gentle De Haldimar.
Gradually the officers moved away in the same noiseless manner they had approached, either in pursuance of their several duties or to make their toilet of the morning, two only of their number remaining near the couch of death.
"Poor unfortunate De Haldimar!" observed one of these, in a low tone, as if speaking to himself; "too fatally, indeed, have your forebodings been realized, and what I considered as the mere despondency of a mind crushed into feebleness by an accumulation of suffering was, after all, but the first presentiment of a death no human power might avert. By heaven! I would give up half my own being to be able to reanimate that form once more—but the wish is vain."
"Who shall announce the intelligence to his sister?" sighed his companion. "Never will that already nearly heartbroken girl be able to survive the shock of her brother's death. Blessington, you are alone fitted to such
a task, and painful as it is, you must undertake it. Is the colonel apprised of the dreadful truth, do you know?"
"He is. It was told him at the moment of our arrival last night; but from the little outward emotion displayed by him, I should be tempted to infer he had almost anticipated some such catastrophe."
"Poor, poor Charles!" bitterly exclaimed Sir Everard Valletort—for it was he. "What would I not give to recall the rude manner in which I spurned you from me last night. But, alas! what could I do, laden with such a trust, and pursued, without the power of defence, by such an enemy? Little, indeed, did I imagine what was so speedily to be your doom! Blessington," he pursued, with increased emotion, "it grieves me to wretchedness to think that he whom I loved as though he had been my twin brother should have perished with his last thoughts, perhaps, lingering on the seeming unkindness with which I had greeted him after so anxious an absence."
"Nay, if there be blame it must attach to me," sorrowfully observed Captain Blessington. "Had Erskine and myself not retired before the savage as we did, our unfortunate friend would in all probability have been alive at this very hour. But in our anxiety to draw the former into the ambuscade we had prepared for him we utterly overlooked that Charles was not retreating with us."
"How happened it," demanded Sir Everard, his attention naturally directed to the subject by the preceding remarks, "that you lay thus in ambuscade when the object of the expedition, as solicited by Frederick De Haldimar, was an attempt to reach us in the encampment of the Indians?"
"It certainly was under that impression we left the fort, but on coming to the spot where the friendly Indian lay waiting to conduct us, he proposed the plan we subsequently adopted as the most likely, not only to secure the escape of the prisoners, whom he pledged himself to liberate, but to defend ourselves with advantage against Wacousta, and the immediate guard set over them, should they follow in pursuit. Erskine approving, as
well as myself, of the plan, we halted at the bridge and disposed of our men under each extremity; so that if attacked by the Indians in front, we might be enabled to throw them into confusion by taking them in rear as they flung themselves upon the bridge. The event seemed to answer our expectations. The alarm raised in the encampment satisfied us the young Indian had contrived to fulfil his promise, and we momentarily looked for the appearance of those whose flight we naturally supposed would be directed towards the bridge. To our great surprise, however, we remarked that the sounds of pursuit, instead of approaching us, seemed to take an opposite direction, apparently towards the point whence we had seen the prisoners disembarked in the morning. At length, when almost tempted to regret we had not pushed boldly on in conformity with our first intention, we heard the shrill cries of a woman, and soon afterwards the sounds of human feet rushing down the slope. What our sensations were you may imagine, for we all believed it to be either Clara or Madeline De Haldimar fleeing alone and pursued by our ferocious enemies. To show ourselves would, we were sensible, be to ensure the death of the pursued before we could possibly come up, and although it was with difficulty we repressed the desire to rush forward to the rescue, our better judgment prevailed. Finally we saw you approach, followed closely by what appeared to be a mere boy of an Indian, and at a considerable distance by the tall warrior of the Fleur de Lis. We imagined there was time enough for you to gain the bridge, and finding your more formidable pursuer was only accompanied by the youth already alluded to, conceived at that moment the design of making him our prisoner. Still there were half a dozen muskets ready to be levelled on him should he approach too near to his fugitives, or manifest any other design than that of simply recapturing them. How well our plan succeeded you are aware, but alas!" and he glanced sorrowfully at the corpse, "why was our success to be embittered by so great a sacrifice?"
"Ah, would to heaven he, at least, had been spared," sighed Sir Everard, as he took the wan white hand of his friend in his own; "and yet I know not; he looks so calm, so happy in death, it is almost selfish to repine he has escaped the horrors that still await us in this dreadful warfare. But what of Frederick and Madeline De Haldimar? From the statement you have given they must have been liberated by the young Ottawa before he came to me, yet what could have induced them to have taken a course of flight so opposite to that which promised their only chance of safety?"
"Heaven only knows," returned Captain Blessington. "I fear they have again been recaptured by the savages, in which case their doom is scarcely doubtful; unless, indeed, our prisoner of last night be given up in exchange for them."
"Then will our liberty be purchased at a terrible price," remarked the baronet. "Will you believe, Blessington, that that man, whose enmity to our colonel seems almost devilish, was once an officer in this very regiment?"
"You astonish me, Valletort. Impossible! and yet it has always been apparent to me they were once associates."
"I heard him relate his history only last night to Clara, whom he had the audacity to sully with proposals to become his bride," pursued the baronet. "His tale was a most extraordinary one. He narrated it, however, only up to the period when the life of De Haldimar was attempted by him at Quebec. But with his subsequent history we are all well acquainted, through the fame of his bloody atrocities in all the posts that have fallen into the hands of Pontiac. That man, savage and even fiendish as he now is, was once possessed of the noblest qualities. I am sorry to say it, but Colonel De Haldimar has brought this present affliction upon himself. At some future period I shall tell you all."
"Alas!" said Captain Blessington, "poor Charles, then, has been made to pay the penalty of his father's
errors, and certainly the greatest of these was his dooming the unfortunate Halloway to death in the manner he did."
"What think you of the fact of Halloway being the nephew of this extraordinary man, and both of high family?" demanded Sir Everard.
"Indeed! and was the latter, then, aware of the connection?"
"Not until last night," replied Sir Everard. "Some observations made by the wretched wife of Halloway, in the course of which she named his true name (which was that of the warrior also), first indicated the fact to the latter. But what became of that unfortunate creature? Was she brought in?"
"I understand not," said Captain Blessington. "In the confusion and hurry of securing our prisoner, and the apprehension of immediate attack from his warriors, Ellen was entirely overlooked. Some of my men say they left her lying insensible on the spot whence they had raised the body of our unfortunate friend, which they had some difficulty in releasing from her convulsive embrace. But, hark! there is the first drum for parade and I have not yet exchanged my Indian garb."
Captain Blessington now quitted the room, and Sir Everard, relieved from the restraining presence of his companions, gave free vent to his emotion, throwing himself upon the body of his friend and giving utterance to the feelings of anguish that oppressed his heart.
He had continued some minutes in this position when he fancied he felt the warm tears of a human being bedewing a hand that reposed on the neck of his unfortunate friend. He looked up, and to his infinite surprise beheld Clara De Haldimar standing before him at the opposite side of the bed. Her likeness to her brother at that moment was so striking that for a second or two the irrepressible thought passed through the mind of the officer, it was not a living being he gazed upon but the immaterial spirit of his friend. The whole attitude and appearance of the wretched girl, independently of the
fact of her noiseless entrance, tended to favor the delusion. Her features, of an ashy paleness, seemed fixed, even as those of the corpse beneath him; and but for the tears that coursed silently down her cheek, there was scarcely an outward evidence of emotion.
"You are surprised to see me here, mingling my grief with yours, Sir Everard," she at length observed, with the same calm mien, and in tones of touching sweetness. "I came here, with my father's permission, to take a last farewell of him whose death has broken my heart. I expected to be alone; but—nay, do not go," she added, perceiving that the officer was about to depart. "Had you not been here I should have sent for you, for we have both a sacred duty to perform. May I ask your hand?"
Dismayed at her collected manner, the young officer gazed at her with the deepest sorrow depicted in every line of his own countenance. He extended his hand, and Clara, to his surprise, grasped and pressed it firmly.
"It was the wish of this poor boy that his Clara should be the wife of his friend, Sir Everard. Did he ever express such to you?"
"It was the fondest desire of his heart," returned the baronet, unable to restrain the emotion of joy that mingled, despite of himself, with his worst apprehensions.
"I need not ask how you received his proposal," continued Clara, with the same calmness of manner. "Last night," she pursued, solemnly, "I was the bride of the murderer of my brother, of the lover of my mother; tomorrow night I may be the bride of death, but to-night I am the bride of my brother's friend. Yes, here I am come to pledge myself to the fulfilment of his wish. If you deem a heart-broken girl not unworthy of you, I am your wife, Sir Everard; and recollect it is a solemn pledge, that which a sister gives over the lifeless body of her brother, beloved as this has been."
"Oh, Clara—dearest Clara," passionately exclaimed the excited young man, "if a life devoted to your happiness can repay you for this, count upon it as you would upon your eternal salvation. In you will I love both my
friend and the sister he has bequeathed to me. Clara, my betrothed wife, summon all the energies of your nature to sustain this cruel shock, and exert yourself for him who will be to you both a brother and a husband."
As he spoke he drew the unresisting girl towards him, and locking her in his embrace pressed, for the first time, the lips which it had maddened him the preceding night to see polluted by the forcible kisses of Wacousta. But Clara shared not, but merely suffered, his momentary happiness. Her cheek wore not the crimson of excitement, neither were her tears discontinued. She seemed as one who mechanically submitted to what she had no power of resistance to oppose; and even in the embrace of her affianced husband she exhibited the same death-like calm that had startled him at her first appearance. Religion could not hallow a purer feeling than that which had impelled the action of the young officer. The very consciousness of the sacred pledge having been exchanged over the corpse of his friend imparted a holiness of fervor to his mind, and even while he pressed her whom he secretly swore to love with all the affection of a fond brother and a husband united, he felt that if the spirit of him who slept unconscious of the scene were suffered to linger near, it would be to hallow it with approval.
"And now," said Clara, at length, yet without attempting to disengage herself, "now that we are united I would be alone with my brother. My husband, leave me."
Deeply touched at the name of husband, Sir Everard could not refrain from imprinting another kiss on the lips that uttered it. He then gently disengaged himself from his lovely but suffering charge, whom he deposited with her head resting on the bed, and making a significant motion of his hand to the woman, who, as well as Morrison, had been spectators of the whole scene, stole gently from the apartment, under what emotions of joy and grief it would be difficult to describe.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
It was the eighth hour of morning, and both officers and men, quitting their ill-relished meal, were to be seen issuing to the parade, where the monotonous roll of the assemblée now summoned them. Presently the garrison was formed, presenting three equal sides of a square. The vacant space fronted the guardhouse, near one extremity of which was to be seen a flight of steps communicating with the rampart, where the flagstaff was erected. Several men were employed at this staff passing strong ropes through iron pulleys that were suspended from the extreme top, while in the basement of the staff itself, to a height of about twenty feet, were stuck at intervals strong wooden pegs, serving as steps to the artillerymen for greater facility in clearing when foul the lines to which the colors were attached. The latter had been removed, and from the substitution of a cord considerably stronger than that which usually appeared there, it seemed as if some far heavier weight was about to be appended to it. Gradually the men, having completed their usual preparations, quitted the rampart, and the flagstaff, which was of tapering pine, was left totally unguarded.
The "Attention!" of Major Blackwater to the troops, who had been hitherto standing in attitudes of expectancy that rendered the injunction almost superfluous, announced the approach of the governor. Soon afterwards that officer entered the arena, wearing his characteristic dignity of manner, yet exhibiting every evidence of one who had suffered deeply. Preparation for a drumhead court-martial, as in the case of Halloway, had already
been made within the square, and the only actor wanting in the drama was he who was to be tried.
Once Colonel De Haldimar made an effort to command his appearance, but the huskiness of his voice choked his utterance and he was compelled to pause. After the lapse of a few moments he again ordered, but in a voice that was remarked to falter:
"Mr. Lawson, let the prisoner be brought forth."
The feeling of suspense that ensued between the delivery and execution of this command was painful throughout the ranks. All were penetrated with curiosity to behold a man who had several times appeared to them under the most appalling circumstances, and against whom the strongest feeling of indignation had been excited for his barbarous murder of Charles De Haldimar. It was with mingled awe and anger they now awaited his approach. At length the captive was seen advancing from the cell in which he had been confined, his gigantic form towering far above those of the guard of Grenadiers by whom he was surrounded, and with a haughtiness in his air and insolence in his manner that told he came to confront his enemy with a spirit unsubdued by the fate that too probably awaited him.
Many an eye was turned upon the governor at that moment. He was evidently struggling for composure to meet the scene he felt it to be impossible to avoid, and he turned paler and paler as his enemy drew near.
At length the prisoner stood nearly on the same spot where his unfortunate nephew had lingered on a former occasion. He was unchained, but his hands were firmly secured behind his back. He threw himself into an attitude of carelessness, resting on one foot and tapping the earth with the other, riveting his eye at the same time with an expression of the most daring insolence on the governor, while his swarthy cheek was moreover lighted up with a smile of the deepest scorn.
"You are Reginald Morton, the outlaw, I believe," at length observed the governor, in an uncertain tone, that, however, acquired greater firmness as he proceeded;
"one whose life has already been forfeited through his treasonable practices in Europe, and who has, moreover, incurred the penalty of an ignominious death by acting as a spy of the enemies of England. What say you, Reginald Morton, that you should not be convicted in the death that awaits the traitor?"
"Ha! ha! by heaven, such cold, pompous insolence amuses me," vociferated Wacousta. "It reminds me of Ensign De Haldimar of nearly five and twenty years back, who was then as cunning a dissembler as he is now." Suddenly changing his ribald tone to one of scorn and rage: "You believe me, you say, to be Reginald Morton, the outlaw. Well do you know it. I am that Sir Reginald Morton who became an outlaw, not through his crimes, but through your villainy. Ay, frown as you may, I heed it not. You may award me death, but shall not chain my tongue. To your whole regiment do I proclaim you for a false, remorseless villain." Then, turning his flashing eye along the ranks: "I was once an officer in this corps, and long before any of you wore the accursed uniform. That man, that fiend, affected to be my friend, and under the guise of friendship stole into the heart I loved better than my own life. Yes," fervently pursued the excited prisoner, stamping violently with his foot upon the earth, "he robbed me of my affianced wife, and for that I represented an outrage that should have banished him to some lone region where he might never again pollute human nature with his presence, he caused me to be tried by a court-martial and dismissed the service. Then, indeed, I became the outlaw he has described, but not until then. Now, Colonel De Haldimar, that I have proclaimed your infamy, poor and inefficient as the triumph be, do your worst—I ask no mercy. Yesterday I thought that years of toilsome pursuit of the means of vengeance were about to be crowned with success, but fate has turned the tables on me and I yield."
To all but the baronet and Captain Blessington this declaration was productive of the utmost surprise. Every eye was turned upon the colonel. He grew impatient
under the scrutiny and demanded if the court, who meanwhile had been deliberating, satisfied of the guilt of the prisoner, had come to a decision in regard to his punishment. An affirmative answer was given, and Colonel De Haldimar proceeded:
"Reginald Morton, with the private misfortunes of your former life we have nothing to do. It is the decision of this court, who are merely met out of form, that you suffer immediate death by hanging as a just recompense for your double treason to your country. There," and he pointed to the flagstaff, "will you be exhibited to the misguided people whom your wicked artifices have stirred up into hostility against us. When they behold your fate they will take warning from your example, and finding we have heads and arms not to suffer offence with impunity, be more readily brought to obedience."
"I understand your allusion," coolly rejoined Wacousta, glancing earnestly at, and apparently measuring with his eye, the dimensions of the conspicuous scaffold on which he was to suffer. "You had ever a calculating head, De Haldimar, where any secret villainy, anything to promote your own selfish ends, was to be gained by it, but your calculation seems now, methinks, at fault."
Colonel De Haldimar looked at him enquiringly.
"You have still a son left," pursued the prisoner, with the same recklessness of manner, and in a tone denoting allusion to him who was no more that caused an universal shudder throughout the ranks. "He is in the hands of the Ottawa Indians, and I am the friend of their great chief, inferior only in power among the tribe to himself. Think you that he will see me hanged up like a dog, and fail to avenge my disgraceful death?"
"Ha! presumptuous renegade, is this the deep game you have in view? Hope you, then, to stipulate for the preservation of a life every way forfeited to the offended justice of your country? Dare you to cherish the belief that after the horrible threats so often denounced by you, you will again be let loose upon a career of crime and blood?"
"None of your cant, De Haldimar, as I once observed to you before," coolly retorted Wacousta, with bitter sarcasm. "Consult your own heart, and ask if its catalogue of crime be not far greater than my own; yet I ask not my life. I would but have the manner of my fate altered and fain would die the death of the soldier I was before you rendered me the wretch I am. Methinks the boon is not so great if the restoration of your son be the price."
"Do you mean, then," eagerly returned the governor, "that if the mere mode of your death be changed, my son shall be restored?"
"I do," was the calm reply.
"What pledge have we of the fact? What faith can we repose in the word of a fiend whose brutal vengeance has already sacrificed the gentlest life that ever animated human clay?" Here the emotion of the governor almost choked his utterance, and considerable agitation and murmuring were manifested in the ranks.
"Gentle, said you?" replied the prisoner, musingly; "then did he resemble his mother, whom I loved, even as his brother resembles you, whom I have so much reason to hate. Had I known the boy to be what you describe I might have felt some touch of pity even while I delayed not to strike his death blow, but the false moonlight deceived me, and the detested name of De Haldimar pronounced by the lips of my nephew's wife—that wife whom your cold-blooded severity had widowed and driven mad—was in itself sufficient to ensure his doom."
"Inhuman ruffian!" exclaimed the governor, with increasing indignation; "to the point. What pledge have you to offer that my son will be restored?"
"Nay, the pledge is easily given, and without much risk. You have only to defer my death until your messenger return from his interview with Pontiac. If Captain De Haldimar accompany him back, shoot me as I have requested; if he come not, then it is but to hang me, after all."
"Ha! I understand you; this is but a pretext to gain
time, a device to enable your subtle brain to plan some mode of escape."
"As you will, Colonel De Haldimar," calmly retorted Wacousta, and again he sank into silence with the air of one utterly indifferent to results.
"Do you mean," resumed the colonel, "that a request from yourself to the Ottawa chief will obtain the liberation of my son?"
"Unless the Indian be false as yourself, I do."
"And of the lady who is with him?" continued the colonel, coloring with anger.
"Of both."
"How is the message to be conveyed?"
"Ha, sir!" returned the prisoner, drawing himself up to his full height, "now are you arrived at a point that is pertinent. My wampum belt will be the passport and the safeguard of him you send; then for the communication. There are certain figures, as you are aware, that traced on bark answer the same purpose among the Indians with the European language of letters. Let my hands be cut loose," he pursued, but in a tone in which agitation and excitement might be detected, "and if bark be brought me, and a burnt stick or coal, I will give you not only a sample of Indian ingenuity, but a specimen of my own progress in Indian acquirements."
"What, free your hands, and thus afford you a chance of escape?" observed the governor, doubtingly.
Wacousta bent his steadfast gaze on him for a few moments as if he questioned he had heard aright. Then, bursting into a wild and scornful laugh—"By heaven!" he exclaimed, "this is, indeed, a high compliment you pay me at the expense of these fine fellows. What, Colonel De Haldimar afraid to liberate an unarmed prisoner, hemmed in by a forest of bayonets? This is good, gentlemen," and he bent himself in sarcastic reverence to the astonished troops, "I beg to offer my very best congratulations on the high estimation in which you are held by your colonel."
"Peace, sirrah!" exclaimed the governor, enraged beyond measure at the insolence of him who thus held him up to contempt before his men, "or, by heaven, I will have your tongue cut out! Mr. Lawson, let what this fellow requires be procured immediately." Then addressing Lieutenant Boyce, who commanded the immediate guard over the prisoner: "Let his hands be liberated, sir, and enjoin your men to be watchful of the movements of this supple traitor. His activity I know of old to be great, and he seems to have doubled it since he assumed that garb."
The command was executed, and the prisoner stood once more free and unfettered in every muscular limb. A deep and unbroken silence ensued, and the return of the adjutant was momentarily expected. Suddenly a loud scream was heard, and the slight figure of a female clad in white came rushing from the piazza in which the apartment of the deceased De Haldimar was situated. It was Clara. The guard of Wacousta formed the fourth front of the square, but they were drawn up somewhat in the distance, so as to leave an open space of several feet at the angles. Through one of these the excited girl now passed into the arena, with a wildness in her air and appearance that riveted every eye in painful interest upon her. She paused not until she had gained the side of the captive, at whose feet she now sank in an attitude expressive of the most profound despair.
"Tiger!—monster!" she raved, "restore my brother! —give me back the gentle life you have taken, or destroy my own! See, I am a weak, defenceless girl; can you not strike? You have no pity for the innocent. But come," she pursued, mournfully, regaining her feet and grasping his iron hand, "come and see the sweet, calm face of him you have slain; come with me, and behold the image of Clara Beverley; and if you ever loved her as you say you did, let your soul be touched with remorse for your crime."
The excitement and confusion produced by this unexpected interruption was great. Murmurs of compassion for the unhappy Clara and of indignation against the
prisoner were no longer sought to be repressed by the men, while the officers, quitting their places in the ranks, grouped themselves indiscriminately in the foreground. One, more impatient than his companions, sprang forward and forcibly drew away the delicate hand that still grasped that of the captive. It was Sir Everard Valletort.
"Clara, my beloved wife!" he exclaimed, to the astonishment of all who heard him, "pollute not your lips by further communion with such a wretch; his heart is as inaccessible to pity as the rugged rocks on which his spring-life was passed. For heaven's sake—for my sake—linger not within his reach. There is death in his very presence."
"Your wife, sir!" haughtily observed the governor, with irrepressible astonishment and indignation in his voice; "what mean you? Gentlemen, resume your places in the ranks. Clara—Miss De Haldimar, I command you to retire instantly to your apartment. We will discourse of this later, Sir Everard Valletort. I trust you have not dared to offer an indignity to my child."
While he was yet turned to that officer, who had taken his post as commanded in the inner angle of the square and with a countenance that denoted the conflicting emotions of his soul, he was suddenly startled by the confused shout and rushing forward of the whole body, both of officers and men. Before he had time to turn, a loud and well-remembered yell burst upon his ear. The next moment, to his infinite surprise and horror, he beheld the bold warrior rapidly ascending the very staff that had been destined for his scaffold, and with Clara in his arms!
Great was the confusion that ensued. To rush forward and surround the flagstaff was the immediate action of the troops. Many of the men raised their muskets and in the excitement of the moment would have fired had they not been restrained by their officers, who pointed out the certain destruction it would entail on the unfortunate Clara. With the rapidity of thought Wacousta had snatched up his victim while the attention of the troops was directed to the singular conversation passing between the governor and Sir Everard Valletort, and darting through one of the open angles already alluded to, had gained the rampart before they had recovered from the stupor produced by his daring action. Stepping lightly upon the pegs, he had rapidly ascended to the utmost height of these before anyone thought of following him, and then, grasping in his teeth the cord which was to have served for his execution, and holding Clara firmly against his chest while he embraced the smooth staff with knees and feet closely compressed around it, accomplished the difficult ascent with an ease that astonished all who beheld him. Gradually, as he approached the top, the tapering pine waved to and fro, and at each moment it was expected that, yielding to their united weight, it would snap asunder and precipitate both Clara and himself upon the rampart or into the ditch beyond.
More than one officer now attempted to follow the fugitive in his adventurous course; but even Lieutenant Johnstone, the most active and experienced in climbing of the party, was unable to rise more than a few yards above the pegs that afforded a footing, and the enterprise was abandoned as an impossibility. At length Wacousta was seen to gain the extreme summit. For a moment he turned his gaze anxiously beyond the town, in the direction of the bridge, and, after pealing forth one of his terrific yells, exclaimed exultingly, as he turned his eyes upon his enemy:
"Well, Colonel, what think you of this sample of Indian ingenuity? Did I not tell you," he continued, in mockery, "that, if my hands were but free, I would give you a specimen of my progress in Indian acquirements?"
"If you would avoid a death even more terrible than that of hanging," shouted the governor, in a voice of mingled rage and terror, "restore my daughter."
"Ha! ha! ha! excellent!" vociferated the savage. "You threaten largely, my good governor; but your threats are harmless as those of a weak besieging army before an impregnable fortress. It is for the strongest,
however, to propose his terms. If I restore this girl to life, will you pledge yourself to mine?"
"Never!" thundered Colonel De Haldimar, with unusual energy. "Men, procure axes; cut the flagstaff down, since this is the only means left of securing yon insolent traitor! Quick to your work; and mark, who first seizes him shall have promotion on the spot."
Axes were instantly procured, and two of the men now lent themselves vigorously to the task. Wacousta seemed to watch these preparations with evident anxiety, and to all it appeared as if his courage had been paralyzed by this unexpected action. No sooner, however, had the axemen reached the heart of the staff than, holding Clara forth over the edge of the rampart, he shouted:
"One stroke more and she perishes!"
Instantaneously the work was discontinued. A silence of a few moments ensued. Every eye was turned upward—every heart beat with terror to see the delicate girl held by a single arm, and apparently about to be precipitated from that dizzy height. Again Wacousta shouted:
"Life for life, De Haldimar! If I yield her shall I live?"
"No terms shall be dictated to me by a rebel in the heart of my own fort," returned the governor. "Restore my child, and we will then consider what mercy may be extended to you."
"Well do I know what mercy dwells in such a heart as yours," gloomily remarked the prisoner; "but I come."
"Surround the staff, men," ordered the governor, in a low tone. "The instant he descends secure him, lash him in every limb, nor suffer even his insolent tongue to be longer at liberty."
"Boyce, for God's sake open the gate and place men in readiness to lower the drawbridge," implored Sir Everard of the officer of the guard, and in a tone of deep emotion that was not meant to be overheard by the governor. "I fear the boldness of this vengeful man may lead him to some desperate means of escape."
While the officer whom he addressed issued a command, the responsibility of which he fancied he might, under the peculiar circumstances of the moment, take upon himself, Wacousta began his descent, not as before by adhering to the staff, but by the rope, which he held in his left hand, while he still supported the apparently senseless Clara against his right breast with the other.
"Now, Colonel De Haldimar, I hope your heart is at rest," he shouted, as he rapidly glided by the cord; "enjoy your triumph as best may suit your pleasure."
Every eye followed his movement with interest; every heart beat lighter at the certainty of Clara being again restored, and without other injury than the terror she must have experienced in such a scene. Each congratulated himself on the favorable termination of the terrible adventure, yet were all ready to spring upon and secure the desperate author of the wrong. Wacousta had now reached the centre of the flagstaff. Pausing for a moment, he grappled it with his strong and nervous feet, on which he apparently rested to give a momentary relief to the muscles of his left arm. He then abruptly abandoned his hold, swinging himself out a few yards from the staff, and, returning again, dashed his feet against it with a force that caused the weakened mass to vibrate to its very foundation. Impelled by his weight and the violence of his action the creaking pine gave way; its lofty top gradually bending over the exterior rampart until it finally snapped asunder, and fell with a loud crash across the ditch.
"Open the gate, down with the drawbridge!" exclaimed the excited governor.
"Down with the drawbridge," repeated Sir Everard to the men already stationed there ready to let loose at the first order. The heavy chains rattled sullenly through the rusty pulleys, and to each the bridge seemed an hour descending. Before it had reached its level it was covered with the weight of many armed men rushing confusedly to the front; and the foremost of these leaped to the earth before it had sunk into its customary bed. Sir
"Wacousta began his descent, not as before by adhering to the staff, but by the rope."
Everard Valletort and Lieutenant Johnstone were in the front, both armed with their rifles, which had been brought them before Wacousta commenced his descent. Without order or combination, Erskine, Blessington, and nearly half of their respective companies followed as they could; and dispersing as they advanced, sought only which could outstrip his fellows in the pursuit.
Meanwhile the fugitive, assisted in his fall by the gradual rending asunder of the staff, had obeyed the impulsion first given to his active form until, suddenly checking himself by the rope, he dropped with his feet downward into the centre of the ditch. For a moment he disappeared, then came again uninjured to the surface; and in the face of more than fifty men lining the rampart, with their muskets levelled to take him at advantage the instant he should reappear, seemed to laugh their efforts to scorn. Holding Clara before him as a shield, through which the bullets of his enemies must pass before they could attain him, he impelled his gigantic form with a backward movement toward the opposite bank, which he rapidly ascended; and still fronting his enemies, commenced his flight in that manner with a speed which (considering the additional weight of the drenched garments of both) was inconceivable. The course taken by him was not through the town, but circuitously across the common until he arrived on that immediate line whence, as we have before stated, the bridge was distinctly visible from the rampart, on which nearly the whole of the remaining troops, in defiance of the presence of their austere chief, were now eagerly assembling, watching with unspeakable interest the progress of the chase.
Desperate as were the exertions of Wacousta, who evidently continued his mode of flight from a conviction that the instant his person was left exposed the fire-arms of his pursuers would be brought to bear upon him, the two officers in front, animated by the most extraordinary exertions, were rapidly gaining upon him. Already was one within fifty yards of him when a loud yell was heard
from the bridge. This was fiercely answered by the fleeing man, and in a manner that implied his glad sense of coming rescue. In the wild exultation of the moment he raised Clara high above his head, to show her in triumph to the governor, whose person his keen eye could easily distinguish among those crowded upon the rampart. In the gratified vengeance of that hour he seemed utterly to overlook the actions of those who were so near him. During this brief scene Sir Everard had dropped upon one knee, and supporting his elbow on the other, aimed his rifle at the heart of the ravisher of his wife. An exulting shout burst from the pursuing troops. Wacousta bounded a few feet in air, and placing his hand to his side, uttered another yell more appalling than any that had hitherto escaped him. His flight was now uncertain and wavering. He staggered as one who had received a mortal wound, and discontinuing his unequal mode of retreat, turned his back upon his pursuers, and threw all his remaining energies into a final effort at escape.
Inspired by the success of his shot, and expecting momentarily to see him fall weakened with the loss of blood, the excited Valletort redoubled his exertions. To his infinite joy he found that the efforts of the fugitive became feebler at each moment. Johnstone was about twenty paces behind him, and the pursuing party at about the same distance from Johnstone. The baronet had now reached his enemy, and already was the butt of his rifle raised with murderous intent when suddenly Wacousta, every feature distorted with rage and pain, turned like a wounded lion at bay, and eluding the blow, deposited the unconscious form of his victim upon the sward. Springing upon his infinitely weaker pursuer, he grappled him furiously by the throat, exclaiming through his clenched teeth:
"Nay, then, since you will provoke your fate—be it so. Die like a dog and be d——d for having baulked me of my just revenge!"
As he spoke he hurled the gasping officer to the earth with a violence that betrayed the dreadful excitement of
his soul, and again hastened to assure himself of his prize.
Meanwhile, Lieutenant Johnstone had come up, and seeing his companion struggling, as he presumed, with advantage with his severely wounded enemy, made it his first care to secure the unhappy girl for whose recovery the pursuit had been principally instituted. Quitting his rifle he now essayed to raise her in his arms. She was without life or consciousness, and the impression on his mind was that she was dead.
While in the act of raising her the terrible Wacousta stood at his side, his vast chest heaving forth a laugh of mingled rage and contempt. Before the officer could extricate, with a view of defending himself, his arms were pinioned as though in a vice, and ere he could recover from his surprise he felt himself lifted up and thrown to a considerable distance. When he opened his eyes a moment afterwards he was lying amid the moving feet of his own men.
From the instant of the closing of the unfortunate Valletort with his enemy, the Indians, hastening to the assistance of their chief, had come up, and a desultory fire had already commenced, diverting in a great degree the attention of the troops from the pursued. Emboldened by this new aspect of things, Wacousta now deliberately grasped the rifle that had been abandoned by Johnstone, and raising it to his shoulder, fired among the group collected on the ramparts. For a moment he watched the result of his shot, and then, pealing forth another fierce yell, he hurled the now useless weapon into the very heart of his pursuers, and again raising Clara in his arms, once more commenced his retreat, which, under cover of the fire of his party, was easily effected.
"Who has fallen?" demanded the governor of his adjutant, perceiving that someone had been hit at his side, yet without taking his eyes off his terrible enemy.
"Mr. Delme, sir," was the reply. "He has been shot through the heart and his men are bearing him from the rampart."
"This must not be," resumed the governor with energy. "Private feelings must no longer be studied at the expense of the public good. The pursuit is hopeless, and already too many of my officers have fallen. Desire the retreat to be sounded, Mr. Lawson. Captain Wentworth, let one or two covering guns be brought to bear upon the savages. They are gradually increasing in numbers, and if we delay the party will be wholly cut off."
In issuing these orders, Colonel De Haldimar evinced a composedness that astonished all who heard him. But although his voice was calm, despair was upon his brow. Still he continued to gaze fixedly on the retreating form of his enemy, until he finally disappeared behind the orchard of the Canadian of the Fleur de Lis.
Obeying the summons from the fort, the troops without now commenced their retreat, bearing off the bodies of their fallen officers and several of their comrades who had fallen by the Indian fire. There was a show of harassing them on their return, but they were too near the fort to apprehend much danger. Two or three well-directed discharges of artillery effectually checked the onward progress of the savages, and in the course of a minute they had again wholly disappeared.
In gloomy silence and with anger and disappointment in their hearts the detachment now re-entered the fort. Johnstone was only severely bruised; Sir Everard Vallertort not dead. Both were conveyed to the same room, where they were instantly attended by the surgeon, who pronounced the situation of the latter hopeless.
Major Blackwater, Captains Blessington and Erskine, Lieutenants Leslie and Boyce, and Ensigns Fortescue and Summers were now the only regimental officers that remained of thirteen originally comprising the strength of the garrison. The whole of these stood grouped around their colonel, who seemed transfixed to the spot he had first occupied on the rampart, with his arms folded and his gaze bent in the direction in which he had lost sight of Wacousta and his child.
Hitherto the morning had been cold and cheerless, and
objects in the far distance were but indistinctly seen through a humid atmosphere. At about half an hour before mid-day the air became more rarefied, and the murky clouds, gradually disappearing, left the blue autumnal sky without spot or blemish. Presently, as the bells of the fort struck twelve, a yell as of a legion of devils rent the air, and riveting their gaze in that direction all beheld the bridge, hitherto deserted, suddenly covered with a multitude of savages, among whom were several individuals attired in the European garb and evidently prisoners. Each officer had a telescope raised to his eye, and each prepared himself, shudderingly, for some horrid consummation. Presently the bridge was cleared of all but a double line of what appeared to be women, armed with war-clubs and tomahawks. Along the line were now seen to pass in slow succession the prisoners that had previously been observed. At each step they took (and it was evident they had been compelled to run the gauntlet), a blow was inflicted by some one or other of the line, until the wretched victims were successively despatched. A loud yell from the warriors, who, although hidden from view by the intervening orchards, were evidently merely spectators in the bloody drama, announced each death. These yells were repeated at intervals to about the number of thirty, when suddenly the bridge was again deserted as before.
After the lapse of a minute the tall figure of a warrior was seen to advance, holding a female in his arms. No one could mistake, even at that distance, the gigantic proportions of Wacousta as he stood in the extreme centre of the bridge, in imposing relief against the flood that glittered like a sea of glass beyond. From his chest there now burst a single yell, but, although audible, it was fainter than any remembered ever to have been heard from him by the garrison. He then advanced to the extreme edge of the bridge, and raising the form of the female far above his head with his left hand, seemed to wave her in vengeful triumph. A second warrior was seen upon the bridge, and stealing cautiously to the same point. The right hand of the first warrior was now
raised and brandished in the air; in the next instant it descended upon the breast of the female, who fell from his arms into the ravine beneath. Yells of triumph from the Indians and shouts of execration from the soldiers mingled faintly together. At that moment the arm of the second warrior was raised and a blade was seen to glitter in the sunshine. His arm descended, and Wacousta was observed to stagger forward and fall heavily into the abyss into which his victim had the instant before been precipitated. Another loud yell, but of disappointment and anger, was heard drowning that of exultation pealed by the triumphant warrior, who, darting to the open extremity of the bridge, directed his flight along the margin of the river, where a light canoe was ready to receive him. Into this he sprang, and seizing the paddle sent the waters foaming from its sides; and pursuing his way across the river, had nearly gained the shores of Canada before a bark was to be seen following in pursuit.
How felt—how acted Colonel De Haldimar throughout this brief but terrible scene? He uttered not a word. With his arms still folded across his breast he gazed upon the murder of his child, but he heaved not a sigh, he shed not a tear. A momentary triumph seemed to irradiate his pallid features when he saw the blow struck that annihilated his enemy; but it was again instantly shaded by an expression of the most profound despair.
"It is done, gentlemen," he at length remarked. "The tragedy is closed, the curse of Ellen Halloway is fulfilled, and I am—childless! Blackwater," he pursued, endeavoring to stifle the emotion produced by the last reflection, "pay every attention to the security of the garrison; see that the drawbridge is again properly chained up, and direct that the duties of the troops be prosecuted in every way as heretofore."
Leaving his officers to wonder at and pity that apathy of mind that could mingle the mere forms of duty with the most heartrending associations, Colonel De Haldimar now quitted the rampart, and with a head that was remarked for the first time to droop over his chest, paced his way musing to his apartments.
CHAPTER XXXV.
IGHT had long since drawn her circling mantle over the Western Hemisphere, and deeper, far deeper than the gloom of that night, was the despair which filled every bosom of the devoted garrison whose fortunes it has fallen to our lot to record. A silence profound as that of death pervaded the ramparts and exterior defences of the fortress, interrupted only at long intervals by the customary "All's well!" of the several sentinels, which, after the awful events of the day, seemed to many who now heard it as if uttered in mockery of their hopelessness of sorrow.
The lights within the barracks of the men had long since been extinguished, and consigned to a mere repose of limb, in which the eye and heart shared not, the inferior soldiery pressed their rude couches with spirits worn out by a succession of painful excitements and frames debilitated by much abstinence and watching. It was an hour at which sleep was wont to afford them the blessing of a temporary forgetfulness of endurances that weighed the more heavily as they were believed to be endless and without fruit; but sleep had now apparently been banished from all, for the low and confused murmur that met the ear from the several block-houses was continuous and general, betraying at times, and in a louder key, the words that bore reference to the tragic occurrences of the day.
The only lights visible in the fort proceeded from the guard-house and a room adjoining that of the ill-fated Charles De Haldimar. Within the latter were collected, with the exception of the governor, and grouped around
a bed on which lay one of their companions in a nearly expiring state, the officers of the garrison, reduced nearly one-third in numbers since we first offered them to the notice of our readers.
The dying man was Sir Everard Valletort, who, supported by pillows, was concluding a narrative that had chained the earnest attention of his auditory even amid the deep and heartfelt sympathy perceptible in each for the forlorn and hopeless condition of the narrator. At the side of the unhappy baronet, and enveloped in a dressing-gown, as if recently out of bed, sat reclining in a rude elbow chair one whose pallid countenance denoted that, although far less seriously injured, he, too, had suffered severely—it was Lieutenant Johnstone.
The narrative was at length closed, and the officer, exhausted by the effort he had made in his anxiety to communicate every particular to his attentive and surprised companions, had sunk back upon his pillow, when suddenly the loud and unusual "Who comes there?" of the sentinel stationed on the rampart above the gateway arrested every ear.
A moment of pause succeeded, when again was heard the "Stand, friend!" evidently given in reply to the familiar answer to the original challenge. Then were audible rapid movements in the guard-house, as of men aroused from temporary slumber, and hastening to the point whence the voice proceeded.
Silently yet hurriedly the officers now quitted the bedside of the dying man, leaving only the surgeon and the invalid Johnstone behind them, and flying to the rampart, stood in the next minute confounded with the guard, who were already grouped round the challenging sentinel, bending their gaze eagerly in the direction of the road.
"What now, man? Whom have you challenged?" asked Major Blackwater.
"It is I—De Haldimar," hoarsely exclaimed one of four dark figures that, hitherto unnoticed by the officers, stood immediately beyond the ditch, with a burden deposited at their feet. "Quick, Blackwater, let us in, for God's sake! Each succeeding minute may bring a scouting party on our track. Lower the drawbridge!"
"Impossible!" exclaimed the major; "after all that has passed it is more than my commission is worth to lower the bridge without permission. Mr. Lawson, quick, to the governor, and report that Captain De Haldimar is here—with whom shall we say?" again addressing the impatient and almost indignant officer.
"With Miss De Haldimar, Francois the Canadian, and one to whom we all owe our lives," hurriedly returned the officer; "and, you may add," he continued, gloomily, "the corpse of my sister. But while we stand in parley here we are lost; Lawson, fly to my father and tell him we wait for entrance."
With nearly the speed enjoined the adjutant departed. Scarcely a minute elapsed when he again stood upon the rampart, and advancing closely to the major, whispered a few words in his ear.
"Good God! can it be possible? When? How came this? but we will enquire later. Open the gate; down with the bridge, Leslie," addressing the officer of the guard.
The command was instantly obeyed. The officers flew to receive the fugitives, and as the latter crossed the drawbridge the light of a lantern, that had been brought from the guard-room, flashed full upon the harassed countenances of Captain and Miss De Haldimar, Francois the Canadian, and the devoted Oucanasta.
Silent and melancholy was the greeting that took place between the parties; the voice spoke not; the hand alone was eloquent, but it was in the eloquence of sorrow only that it indulged. Pleasure, even in this almost despaired of reunion, could not be expressed; and even the eye shrank from mutual encounter, as if its very glance at such a moment were sacrilege. Recalled to a sense of her situation by the preparation of the men to raise the bridge, the Indian woman was the first to break the silence.
"The Saganaw is safe within his fort, and the girl of the palefaces will lay her head upon his bosom," she remarked, solemnly. "Oucanasta will go to her solitary wigwam among the redskins."
The heart of Madeline De Haldimar was oppressed by the weight of many griefs; yet she could not see the generous preserver of her life and the rescuer of the body of her ill-fated cousin depart without emotion. Drawing a ring of some value and great beauty from her finger, which she had more than once observed the Indian to admire, she placed it on her hand, and then throwing herself on the bosom of the faithful creature, embraced her with deep manifestations of affection, but without uttering a word.
Oucanasta was sensibly gratified; she raised her large eyes to heaven as if in thankfulness, and by the light of the lantern which fell upon her dark but expressive countenance, tears were to be seen starting unbidden from their source.
Released from the embrace of her whose life she had twice preserved at imminent peril to her own, the Indian again prepared to depart; but there was another who, like Madeline, although stricken by many sorrows, could not forego the testimony of his heart's gratitude. Captain De Haldimar, who during this short scene had despatched a messenger to his room for the purpose, now advanced to the poor girl, bearing a short but elegantly mounted dagger, which he begged her to deliver as a token of friendship to the young chief, her brother. He then dropped on one knee at her feet, and raising her hand, pressed it fervently against his heart, an action which, even to the untutored mind of the Indian, bore evidence only of the feeling that prompted it. A heavy sigh escaped her laboring bosom; and as the officer now rose and quitted her hand she turned slowly and with dignity from him, and crossing the drawbridge was in a few minutes lost in the surrounding gloom.
Our readers have doubtless anticipated the communication made to Major Blackwater by the adjutant, Lawson. Bowed down to the dust by the accomplishment of the curse of Ellen Halloway, the inflexibility of Colonel De Haldimar's pride was not proof against the utter annihilation wrought to his hopes as a father by the unrelenting hatred of the enemy his early falsehood and treachery had raised up to him. When the adjutant entered his apartment, the stony coldness of his cheek attested he had been dead for some hours.
We pass over the few days of bitter trial that succeeded the restoration of Captain De Haldimar and his bride to their friends; days during which were consigned to the same grave the bodies of the governor, his lamented children, and the scarcely less regretted Sir Everard Valletort. The funeral service was attempted by Captain Blessington, but the strong affection of that excellent officer for three of the defunct parties at least was not armed against the trial. He had undertaken a task far beyond his strength, and scarcely had commenced ere he was compelled to relinquish the performance of the ritual to the adjutant.
A large grave had been dug close under the rampart, and near the fatal flagstaff, to receive the bodies of their deceased friends, and as they were lowered successively into their last earthly resting place, tears fell unrestrainedly over the bronzed cheeks of the oldest soldiers, while many a female sob blended with and gave touching solemnity to the scene.
On the morning of the third day from this quadruple interment notice was given by one of the sentinels that an Indian was approaching the fort, making signs as if in demand for a parley. The officers, headed by Major Blackwater, now become the commandant of the place, immediately ascended the rampart, when the stranger was at once recognized by Captain De Haldimar for the young Ottawa, the preserver of his life and the avenger of the deaths of those they mourned, in whose girdle was thrust in seeming pride the richly-mounted dagger that officer had caused to be conveyed to him through his no less generous sister.
A long conference ensued, in the language of the Ottawas, between the parties just named, the purport of which was of high moment to the garrison, now nearly reduced to the last extremity. The young chief had come to apprise them that, won by the noble conduct of the English on a late occasion when his warriors were wholly in their power, Pontiac had expressed a generous determination to conclude a peace with the garrison, and henceforth to consider them as his friends. This he had publicly declared in a large council of the chiefs held the preceding night, and the motive of the Ottawa's coming was to assure the English that, on this occasion, their great leader was perfectly sincere in the resolution, at which he had the more readily arrived now that his terrible coadjutor and vindictive adviser was no more. He prepared them for the coming of Pontiac and the principal chiefs of the league to demand a council on the morrow; and with this final communication again withdrew.
The Ottawa was right. Within a week from that period the English were to be seen once more issuing from their fort, and although many months elapsed before the wounds of their suffering hearts were healed, still were they grateful to Providence for their final preservation from a doom that had fallen, without exception, on every fortress on the line of frontier in which they lay.
Time rolled on, and in the course of years Oucanasta might be seen associating with and bearing curious presents, the fruits of Indian ingenuity, to the daughters of De Haldimar, now become the colonel of the —— regiment; while her brother, the chief, instructed his sons in the athletic and active exercises peculiar to his race. As for poor Ellen Halloway, search had been made for her, but she never was heard of again.
The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science:
1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation.
3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them.
5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it can be securely transmitted or stored.
6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values.
7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other.
8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions.
9. Protocol: A set of rules that govern how data is transmitted between two systems.
10. Query: A request for information from a database.
11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction.
12. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do.
13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific task.
14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user.
15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system.
16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser.
17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used to structure and organize data in a web application.
18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols for building software applications.
19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet.
20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques for analysis and management.
21. Machine Learning: A subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed.
22. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A field of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand and generate human language.
23. Robotics: The design, construction, and operation of robots.
24. Internet of Things (IoT): The interconnection of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other items with the internet, allowing them to exchange data and perform actions autonomously.
25. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data.
26. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively.
27. Artificial Intelligence (AI): The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems.
28. Deep Learning: A subset of machine learning that uses neural networks to learn from large amounts of data.
29. Computer Vision: The ability of a computer to interpret and understand visual information from the world around it.
30. Natural Language Generation (NLG): The creation of natural language text by a computer system.
The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science. It is not exhaustive, but rather a selection of key concepts that are essential for understanding the subject matter.
1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program to allow efficient access, modification, and deletion of its elements.
3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system.
4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and using databases.
5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it can be transmitted securely.
6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values.
7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other.
8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions.
9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs.
10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to express computations that can be performed by a computer.
11. Software: A collection of computer programs and associated data that perform specific functions on a computer.
12. System: A set of interacting or interrelated components that form a unified whole.
13. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user.
14. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system.
15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser.
16. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable.
17. API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules and protocols for building software applications.
18. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet.
19. Big Data: A term used to describe datasets that are too large or complex to be processed by traditional data processing tools.
20. Machine Learning: A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on developing algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data.
21. Natural Language Processing (NLP): A subfield of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language.
22. Neural Networks: A type of machine learning model inspired by the structure and function of the human brain.
23. Quantum Computing: A type of computing that uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data.
24. Blockchain: A decentralized digital ledger technology that records transactions across many computers in such a way that the registered transactions cannot be altered retroactively.
25. Internet of Things (IoT): A network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity that enables them to connect and exchange data.
26. Cybersecurity: The protection of computer systems and networks from unauthorized access, damage, or disruption.
27. Digital Forensics: The investigation and analysis of digital evidence to determine the facts of a case.
28. Cybercrime: Criminal activities carried out using computers or the internet.
29. Ethical Hacking: The practice of testing computer systems to identify vulnerabilities and weaknesses.
30. Cybersecurity Incident Response: The process of responding to and recovering from a cybersecurity incident.
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
PS 8435 I34W3 1906 cop.2
Richardson, John Wacousta | <urn:uuid:97be70c1-68bc-4ab6-8d89-dc53349ce1c9> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | http://www.electriccanadian.com/forces/Wacousta.pdf | 2018-07-22T05:15:38Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676593010.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20180722041752-20180722061752-00568.warc.gz | 430,683,036 | 194,390 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997365 | eng_Latn | 0.999004 | [
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",... | true | rolmOCR | [
17,
206,
863,
934,
1306,
1485,
2019,
2031,
3727,
5294,
7358,
9461,
11508,
13566,
15680,
17814,
19485,
20806,
22901,
24994,
27052,
28951,
30998,
32951,
35018,
36977,
39028,
40877,
42703,
44200,
45603,
47560,
49550,
51556,
53531,
55597,
57633,
... | [
1.9453125,
3.765625
] | 4 | 0 |
THE EXPLORATION HISTORY OF THE LINDSEY ISLANDS, ANTARCTICA, 1928-1994
Alton A. Lindsey
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
ABSTRACT: The twelve islands and islets of the Lindsey Group (73°37' S by 103°18' W) were reached on 24 February 1940 by Admiral R.E. Byrd, while he navigated a flight from the Bear to the longest unknown coast of Antarctica. In 1968 and 1975, two topographic engineers of the U.S. Geological Survey worked on one or both of the two largest islands. In 1992, six geologists worked briefly on Island 1 of the northern subgroup, and some of them also worked on Island 2 and on the southwestern subgroup's main island. The base rock is pink megacrystic granite with many quartz diorite and gabbro dikes up to 15 m thick. Adelie penguins and skua gulls breed abundantly, and leopard seals are common. Many elephant seals, but neither Weddell nor crab-eater seals, were reported. The first large-scale map of this island group is published.
KEYWORDS: Antarctic coastal maps, antarctic exploration, antarctic fauna, antarctic ice tongues, antarctic islands, R.E. Byrd, geographic names, Hubert Wilkins.
INTRODUCTION
The last and least known part of the antarctic coast bounds the Amundsen Sea and Bellingshausen Sea divisions of the Pacific Ocean. Until 1940, this area was by far the longest continuous stretch of coast on earth to remain uncharted; it posed a particular challenge to Admiral Byrd during his mid-career. The Lindsey Islands lie off the Canisteo Peninsula within the central third of this coastal segment, where a conspicuous general trend of coastline runs north-south rather than east-west, leading in to Pine Island Glacier and Bay.
The Lindsey Islands (Figure 1) are significant disproportionately to their size. The largest is only 0.2 mile from the adjacent mainland peninsula on which helicopter pilots refused to land. In contrast to the peninsula, this island is extensively ice-free in summer with good landing and camping sites. It is strategically located and accessible in summer for its automatic weather station and permanent triangulation stations for mapping. Three experts in high-tech satellite positioning worked onshore in 1992 to fix the triangulation station locations precisely, tying into the Global Positioning System, a distinction accorded few antarctic locations. The exposed bedrock gives geologists access to the same formations which along the mainland coast are largely hidden under perennial ice. These low islands provide hauling-out spots and rookery sites for marine mammals and oceanic birds at or near the extreme southern limits of their breeding ranges.
Figure 1. The two subgroups of the Lindsey Islands and the Canisteo Peninsula (C) of mainland Antarctica. Each subgroup, the northern and southwestern, has six islands and islets. The largest islands (1 and 2) are in the northern subgroup. Five of the twelve islands are 0.25 mile or more in length. From U.S. Navy airphotos of 23 January 1960.
EARLY APPROACHES, DISCOVERY, AND NAMING
Sir Hubert Wilkins was the first (1930) airborne explorer in Antarctica. He came closer to the Lindsey Islands than anyone else prior to Byrd’s finding them in 1940. On 11 February 1930, Wilkins and two crewmen took off from the sea at the British research vessel *William Scoresby*. Weather conditions were execrable throughout; very little was seen, and Wilkins’ navigation was highly inaccurate. His map incorrectly shows that they followed the meridian of 101° W. Long. in both directions and that they turned back at 73° S. Lat. The first was quite impossible, for all modern maps show that the 101° meridian would have taken them across the full width of the mountainous Thurston Island and many miles farther over the mountainous continent itself. The plane was flying less than 500 feet above the sea, which, together with icebergs, clouds, and snow, was all the men saw.
Wilkins (1930) wrote, “It is probable that in clear weather, from our farthest south, we could have seen land ahead; but we saw no definite indication of it.” At the crucial turning point, “The gray, misty snowstorm had closed us in completely. To make a right turn and steady our compass was not an easy matter.” He makes no comment on the hazards they survived, which were clearly horrendous.
Any close determination of where they were on this flight is clearly impossible, but it was somewhere in the northern part of Greater Pine Island Bay of Amundsen Sea, possibly as far south as the Lindseys but well to the west of them.
Later in the same year as Wilkins' flight, Admiral Richard E. Byrd flew to the South Pole, the last stop this side of the moon.
Byrd, on his second or 1933-35 antarctic expedition (Byrd, 1935) was planner and navigator for several flights from the flagship *Pacific Fir*, seeking the coasts of the Amundsen and Bellinghausen Seas. The present writer served on the Iceberg Watch and as the zoologist during this cruise. The coast was not seen, but the voyage erased vast extents of presumed land from contemporary maps. The ship had approached within 85 miles, we later learned, of the coast and 370 miles of the still unmapped and unnamed Lindsey group before turning back westward toward our Bay of Whales base for the winter.
Byrd's major personal effort during his next expedition (U.S. Antarctic Service) was concentrated on this long coast in a twin-engine Barkley-Grow seaplane carried by the *Bear*. He saw the Lindsey Islands from the air, along with crewmen Ashley Snow and Earl Perce, on 24 February 1940 (Hawthorne, 1945). The flights made about this time revealed 800 miles of new coastline and more than 100,000 square miles of new land.
The twelve Lindsey Islands, located at $73^\circ 37' \text{S}$ by $103^\circ 18' \text{W}$ were officially named in early 1960 (Bertrand, 1971) for Alton A. Lindsey of Byrd's second antarctic trip by the U.S. Board of Geographic Names on the recommendation by its Advisory Board on Antarctic Names. Various other features were also named for certain members of the Ice Parties of Byrd's first (1928-30) and second antarctic trips. In practically all cases, the individual has never seen the feature named for him. Lindsey (1983) first heard of the namings by chance in 1963.
Before assuming the vertebrate zoologist post for BAE II in 1933, Lindsey was a graduate teaching assistant at Cornell University with a Ph.D. Committee consisting of zoology professors Arthur A. Allen, James G. Needham, and A.H. Wright and botanist Arthur J. Eames. During summers, Lindsey was employed by the National Park Service at Mount Rainier as a ranger-naturalist, museum collector, taxidermist, and summit guide. On heading south in October 1933, he was 26, the average age of the 56 Ice Party members. The thirteen months of zoological work at Little America II, 1,010 miles west of the Lindsey Islands, resulted in five journal articles (Lindsey, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940; Siple and Lindsey, 1937).
**POST-DISCOVERY HISTORY**
The information in this section was obtained in 1993-94 from interviews and correspondence with the persons credited herein.
The first humans to set foot on any of the Lindsey Islands were topographic engineers Karl Eissinger and the late Klaus Anderson, who landed on 7 December 1968. They constituted, that summer, one of the two surveying teams of the ongoing Pine Island Bay Project of the U.S. Geological Survey, with tactical support by the Navy. The two men and two assistants established Station Frieda (named for Eissinger's mother) at the highest point (123 feet) on Lindsey 1, sinking a bench-mark into the granite and erecting signal panels at several stations to guide aerial photography.
The 1973-74 summer was an ice-bound one, and a research ice-breaker failed to reach the Lindsey Islands, as did others in 1960, 1982, and 1994. However,
the 1974 aerial photography of the largest island resulted in the issuance that year of J.M. Metzgar’s 1:5000 scale, 2-foot-contour U.S.G.S. map “Lindsey Island No. 1, Antarctica.” The map shows the two unfrozen fresh-water ponds and associated stream systems evident on the airphotos.
In the summer of 1974-75, a helicopter from the Coast Guard ice-breaker *Burton Island* landed surveyors E. George Schirmacher and Tony Malva-Gomes on Lindseys 1 and 2. On 16 February 1975, they worked three hours ashore followed by nine hours the next day. They established, and tied together and with Station Frieda, three stations on Lindseys 1 and 2, which were adequate for photogrammetric compilation. Meanwhile, Coast Guardsmen were setting up on Lindsey 1 a Jamesway hut and an automatic weather station alongside the southern pond.
On 2 March 1992, the South Pacific Rim International Tectonic Expedition (SPRITE) reached the Lindsey Islands by the research vessel *Polar Sea* (SPRITE Group, *et al.*, 1992). Six geologists and a mountaineer studied the ground on Lindseys 1 and 2, and some of them became the first persons to go ashore on the southwestern subgroup. Geologist S.B. Mukasa of the University of Michigan has since studied his crushed rock specimens in the laboratory, paying special attention to the mineral zirconium silicate, ZrSiO₄.
In the early months of 1994, the 309-feet-long research icebreaker *Nathaniel B. Palmer* cruised for 50 days in support of strictly oceanographic studies in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas. Stan Jacobs, aboard for work on icebergs and ocean currents, radioed this writer on 17 March as follows: “A few days ago we broke through a belt of sea ice northwest of Thurston Island and made a round trip to Pine Island Bay past the Lindsey Islands. This is typically a difficult region to get into — the large German icebreaker *Polarstern* was unsuccessful a few weeks ahead of us. The rough and shallow topography along that coast, with few previous soundings and ours obscured by the noise of breaking sea ice, made the going treacherous. I attempted some pictures as we approached your islands, but they were compromised by the ship’s distance, the islands’ low profile and the unfortunate all-hands muster at the critical time. It was...night when we returned past them....”
From an artist aboard, Alan Campbell, came this word-picture dated 13 March, also depicting conditions around the Lindsey Islands: “What a wonderland, cruising in a clear track between pack-ice to starboard and the glacier-covered King Peninsula to port. These are largely uncharted waters, and in addition to many of the landforms being misplaced by as much as 30 miles on the maps, the water’s uncertain depth is also a concern.... We have already come close on several occasions earlier today. When I ask Harry for a fix on our position, he smiles and points to a spot, ‘According to this chart, we are cruising across the top of the peninsula right now! What a ship!’ The Captain has expressed his concern for proceeding into Pine Island Bay under these conditions, and the earlier comment by the second mate regarding a supply of food and fuel sufficient for a year should we get beset, well, let’s just say it has aroused a lot of discussion. Ahead, mirages play across the horizon.... Incredible, absolutely incredible!”
At 6:00 a.m. on 14 March, the ship was finally in [Lesser] Pine Island Bay and completely surrounded by icebergs, many with ice caves and heavily crevassed.
GEOGRAPHY AND MAP CHANGES
The first useful airphotos showing the Lindsey Islands were taken by the U.S. Navy in 1946-47. Others followed in 1960 and in 1974-75 during the extensive Pine Island Bay Project. Mainly due to the latter effort, nine small-scale (1:250,000) maps were produced, which do not satisfactorily depict the small islands. Some icebergs were mapped as islets. The new sketch-map (Figure 1) corrects the number and shape of the islets in the two Lindsey subgroups.
The SPRITE Group, *et al.* (1992) wrote, “The main drainage glacier [Pine Island Glacier] of the Pacific margin of Antarctica flows into Pine Island Bay.” These names, and those of some other coastal features including Canisteo Peninsula, were given to honor support ships. Pine Island Bay as originally named is of the same order of magnitude as the next two bays to the north, Cranton Bay and, just north of the Lindsey Islands, Ferrero Bay. The SPRITE Group, *et al.* (1992) stated: “Strictly speaking, the name ‘Pine Island Bay’ applies only to the small bay at the mouth of Pine Island Glacier. The name is widely used, however, for the major indentation in the coastline of West Antarctica at the eastern end of the Amundsen Sea.” The Lindsey Islands border the latter inclusive embayment, which is here informally called (Figure 2) “Greater Pine Island Bay,” until an official naming agency clears up this confusion.
Comparing various small-scale maps, including whole-continent satellite image maps, brings out the difficulties that beset interpretation of the coast in the Pine Island Bay region. A 1978 map (1:250,000 scale), based on 1966 tricamera airphotos and revised from 1972-73 NASA satellite imagery, shows a prominent “Thwaites Iceberg Tongue” (sic) forming the western edge of Greater Pine Island Bay (Figure 2). The Ice Tongue is shown as a large island instead of as a peninsula (but it is given the same name) on a 1987 whole-continent map prepared by the National Geographic Society. The same feature is shown (indistinguishably from land) on a 1988 U.S. government satellite image Antarctica map (reproduced in the journal *Odyssey* for January 1994) as a prominent peninsula 160 miles long (Figure 2, dashed line).
On the 1989 Oblique Maps of Antarctica by Tau Rho Alpha, Thwaites Ice Tongue is replaced by a short stub without commitment whether land or ice. But the protrusion is entirely omitted (Figure 2, solid line) from the magnificent Satellite Image Map of Antarctica (1991, I-2284), although the far smaller Demas Ice Tongue is shown. Stan Jacobs states, “The 150 mile peninsula . . . is mostly sea ice and icebergs, at the former site of Thwaites Glacier tongue. It broke off in the late 1960s but most of it is grounded nearby as Iceberg B-10.” Whether island, peninsula, or neither or whether it consists, above sea level, only of ice or of both ice and land, it is not navigable by ship. Thus, for practical purposes, the Thwaites Ice Tongue determines the size and form of Greater Pine Island Bay (one of the few major indentations of the antarctic coastline), facts lost by omitting the barricade from maps.
Figure 2. The Greater Pine Island Bay region of the Amundsen Sea and Walgreen Coast. The solid line represents the coastline as given on the 1991 Satellite Image Map of Antarctica. The dashed line depicts the Thwaites Ice Tongue on the preceding (1988) satellite image map of the whole continent. The dotted lines indicate the identically named feature drawn as an ice-island on the National Geographic Society whole continent map of 1987. Without this Thwaites mass, Greater Pine Island Bay appears much larger and indefinitely bounded westward. The original (Lesser) Pine Island Bay is shown differently (lower corner) on the two satellite image maps. The large dot is just seaward of the Lindsey Islands group (see Figure 1).
GEOLOGY
The Lindseys and nearby island groups are emergent portions of a shelf generally less than 600 feet deep. Farther seaward is a long trough more than 3,000 feet deep, believed to bound adjoining major blocks of the earth’s crust which have existed since the Gondwana supercontinent broke apart in the Mesozoic. The geological information here is condensed from the report of the SPRITE Group, et al. (1992).
A pink megacrystic granite, locally rich in garnets, is the base rock of the Lindseys. These massive, coarse-grained biotite-hornblende granitoids contain pink feldspar. The northern subgroup is distinctive in containing conspicuous “black” strips and patches of dark gray granite as much as 15 feet across, clearly evident in airphotos from 4,000 feet.
Massive dikes of gabbro and quartz diorite 15-30 feet thick make up 30 per cent of the exposed rock. They dip very steeply to the north, striking east-west. These dikes weather and erode more readily than the base granite. Under a pocket stereoscope, through the vertical exaggeration of the technique, they give dramatic images of large ridges and troughs, which alternate quite regularly. The effect produced is like that of recurrent soft and hard sedimentary strata, tipped
Figure 3. This U.S. Navy airphoto of Lindsey Island 1, taken on 14 January 1974 with minimal snow and ice cover, shows the ridged topography. The triangle pointing upward to the north encloses the major triangulation station “Frieda” and a point located precisely by the Global Positioning System. The letter “A” marks the northern fresh-water pond. The “S” marks the site of the second pond, where expeditions headquartered, placed an automatic weather station, and erected a Jamesway hut. Pine Island Bay Project airphoto TMA 2421,0115.
up to be seen edgewise, and differentially eroded (Figure 3). Their presence readily shows why the surveyors found hiking cross-country more feasible than driving the small machines carried in the helicopters.
In the southwestern subgroup, a 1.5 foot wide felsic porphyry cuts across both the granite and an east-west basalt dike, which are of equal thickness.
BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
The 1968 observations revealed the first breeding colony of any penguin species reported along the entire stretch of the Eights and Walgreen Coasts.
Adelie rookeries occupy the Lindseys and nearby island groups. The rookery on Lindsey 1 was photographed by Eissinger on 7 December and shows eggs being incubated. Access to the nests was favored by the scarcity of fixed sea-ice along the shore. In the absence of rounded pebbles, the Adelie nests were mounds of angular, walnut-sized fragments of dark granite, which had probably served for centuries. A flying oceanic bird, the South Polar Skua (*Catharacta maccormicki*), was breeding in a rookery adjacent to the penguins and preying on penguin eggs and chicks. On this summer day of scattered clouds, the air temperature was +22° F at Station Frieda, 123 feet above sea level.
The first three expeditions commonly observed leopard seals killing penguins offshore. The men were careful to give these agile carnivores a wide berth.
The 1975 survey team on Lindsey 1 saw a group of southern elephant seals (*Mirounga leonina* L.), and in 1992, the next party ashore (SPRITE Group, *et al.*, 1992) reported “thirteen females” with a well-developed wallow. None of these observers was a biologist. Stray individuals and small groups of young males are commonly reported, some as far south as the continental coast (Readers Digest of Australia, 1985). Females wander much less from the breeding colonies, and the group of thirteen was extraordinarily far south for females, if they were indeed such rather than subadult males.
Strangely, the two common antarctic pinniped species, the Weddell and crab-eater seals, were not reported in the Lindsey group. No plant life has been noted, and none appears in photographs, but in much worse climates on the mountains of Marie Byrd Land at 78° S Lat., foliose lichens up to 6 inches in diameter are found.
**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**
Thanks are extended to the U.S. Department of the Interior, to Elizabeth, David, and Louise Lindsey, and Meredith F. Burrill, Stan Jacobs, Mark Rockmore, and Ruth J. Siple. The author is especially indebted to these members of the three expeditions which went ashore to study the Lindsey Islands: Ian Dalziel, Karl Eissinger, Charles Morrison, Samuel B. Mukasa, and E. George Schirmacher.
**LITERATURE CITED**
Bertrand, Kenneth. 1971. Americans in Antarctica: 1775-1948. Amer. Geogr. Soc., New York, New York, 554 pp.
Byrd, R.E. 1935. Discovery: The story of the second Byrd Antarctic Expedition. G.P. Putnams, New York, 405 pp.
Grierson, John. 1960. Sir Hubert Wilkins: Enigma of exploration. R. Hale, London, 224 pp.
Hawthorne, Roger. 1945. Exploratory flights of Admiral Byrd (1940). Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 89: 398a-398e.
Lindsey, A.A. 1937. The Weddell seal in the Bay of Whales, Antarctica. J. Mammal. 18: 127-144.
__________. 1938. Notes on the crab-eater seal. J. Mammal. 19: 456-461.
__________. 1939. Biology and biogeography of the antarctic and subantarctic Pacific. Proc. Pacific Sci. Congr. 16: 715-721.
__________. 1940. Recent advances in antarctic biogeography. Quart. Rev. Biol. 15: 456-465.
__________. 1983. Naturalist on watch. Merry Lea Environmental Center, Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana, 220 pp.
Readers Digest of Australia. 1985. Antarctica. Sydney, 320 pp.
Siple, P.A. and A.A. Lindsey. 1937. Ornithology of the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition. The Auk 54: 147-159.
SPRITE Group and C.G. Boyer. 1992. The southern rim of the Pacific Ocean: Preliminary geologic report of the Amundsen Sea - Bellingshausen Sea cruise of the *Polar Sea*, 12 February - 21 March 1992. Antarctic J.U.S. 27(2): 11-14.
Wilkins, Hubert. 1930. Further Antarctic explorations. Geogr. Rev. 20(3): 357-388. | <urn:uuid:26b11f21-9678-429e-a63b-368a818d5d69> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/ias/article/download/7384/7375 | 2016-05-03T03:05:52Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118369.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00172-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 157,307,552 | 5,047 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99407 | eng_Latn | 0.995911 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2680,
4580,
7906,
11263,
14559,
16540,
17618,
21214
] | [
2.09375,
2.09375
] | 1 | 0 |
can be seen from your house or a neighbor's.
✓ If machines must be left out for long periods of time, disable them by removing the rotor, distributor, or battery.
**GUARD YOUR CROPS**
✓ Store harvested crops in protected and locked locations.
✓ Consider marking grain, hay, or similar crops with nontoxic confetti that is easily removed by storage or processing facilities.
✓ Keep a record of your valuable timber. Mark each with a paint stripe.
✓ Keep storage areas neat and well-organized so that any theft will be noticed immediately. This also warns potential thieves that the owner is watchful.
*Check employees' references. Before they start, talk about your crime prevention measures.*
**HELP YOUR NEIGHBORS**
✓ Get together with others in the community to start a Neighborhood or Farm Watch group. Involve all ages, and work with law enforcement. Recruit from churches and civic groups. Use CB radios or cellular phones to patrol and report suspicious activities to the sheriff or police.
✓ When you go away, stop delivery of your mail or newspapers or ask a neighbor to pick them up. You want to create the illusion that someone's at home and following everyday routines. Have neighbors check your property, and return the favor when they leave on business or vacation trips.
**TAKE A STAND!**
✓ Ask equipment dealers and farm suppliers to display crime prevention information.
✓ If your school district doesn't have an alcohol, drug, and crime prevention curriculum in place, help start one.
✓ Check out recreational opportunities for teens — work with schools, 4-H, or Future Farmers to fill the gaps, both after school and on weekends.
✓ Educate young people about the hazards of operating farm machinery and being around livestock. For example, tractors are involved in 69% of farm machinery deaths, and young people raised on farms often operate these machines at early ages.
---
**DON'T LET YOUR GUARD DOWN Just Because You Live in the Country**
Crime Prevention Tips from
National Crime Prevention Council
1700 K Street, NW, Second Floor
Washington, DC 20006-3817
and
The National Citizens' Crime Prevention Campaign, sponsored by the Crime Prevention Coalition of America, is substantially funded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice.
Rural communities have their own unique crime problems — like theft of crops, timber, livestock, and expensive farm equipment. Vandals do more than break mailboxes, they can destroy crops and fields. Alcohol and drug abuse problems plague rural youth as well as those in the suburbs and cities. And of course, crimes like burglary, rape, assault, and auto theft happen in rural areas, but less frequently than in cities.
Invest some time and money in prevention now. What's the payoff? Better security around your property, less worry about crime and your family's safety.
Be a good neighbor — when you're out and about, keep an eye on neighbors' homes, livestock, and equipment. Tell them and the sheriff or police about anything that makes you uneasy or suspicious.
**CHECK THE DOORS AND LOCKS**
- Make sure outside doors — in your home and outbuildings — are solid wood or metal and have deadbolt locks.
- Use the locks!
- Secure sliding glass doors with commercially available locks or with a broomstick or wooden dowel in the track to jam the door in case someone tries to pry it open. Insert screws in the upper track going into the fixed frame, to prevent anyone from lifting the door from its track.
**CHECK THE OUTSIDE**
- Keep your house, driveway, barns, and other buildings well-lighted at night. Use timers that automatically turn on outside lights when it gets dark.
- Consider motion sensors that set off lights or alarms.
- Prune back shrubbery that hides doors, windows, lights, and would-be burglars.
- Keep your fences in good repair. Secure all access roads with gates or cables stretched between posts cemented in the ground. Make them visible with flags or streamers.
- Warn thieves that you're on the alert with "No Trespassing," "No Hunting," and other signs around your property.
**MARK EQUIPMENT AND LIVESTOCK**
- Operation Identification — marking tools, guns, and equipment with a permanent identification number such as driver's license or Social Security — has helped reduce theft in many rural areas. Work with law enforcement to determine the best methods, and make it a community project.
- To help stop modern rustlers, tattoo all livestock (usually on the ears). Although it's easier to use cartags or neckchains, these can be removed. Mark young stock soon after birth.
- Take regular counts of all livestock.
**PROTECT YOUR EQUIPMENT**
- Secure gas pumps, gas tanks, storage bins, and grain elevators with sturdy padlocks or deadbolts. Keep small equipment — like mowers, bikes, snowmobiles — locked in a barn or garage. Keep guns locked and unloaded in a secure place away from curious children and would-be thieves.
- Never leave keys in vehicles or farm equipment.
- Always lock your trucks and other vehicles when they're not in use. And don't leave tools in the open back of a pick-up truck or in an unsecured truck bed toolbox.
- Don't leave major equipment in a field overnight. Lock it in a barn or shed near the house, or park where it | <urn:uuid:fba85786-235b-41c1-8a8e-9ac7c166edf9> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.ncpc.org/resources/files/pdf/neighborhood-safety/rural.pdf/at_download/file | 2016-05-03T03:07:55Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118369.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00190-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 692,536,541 | 1,123 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998743 | eng_Latn | 0.998924 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2327,
5320
] | [
2.921875
] | 4 | 2 |
INTRODUCTION
This lesson will introduce students to the heat trapping characteristics of roofs and how the sun’s heat increases the urban “heat island” effect, substantially heating buildings. Students will learn the benefits of green roofs – how they save cooling costs for buildings, provide habitat for wildlife, filter pollutants, and drain rainwater.
Grade Level & Subject: Grades 9-12: Science, Social Studies/Civics
Length: One 45-90 minute class period.
Objectives:
• Understand how a roof traps heat
• Identify the characteristics of the urban heat island effect
• Recognize the environmental benefits of green roofs
• Create a plan to install a green roof at school
National Standards Addressed:
• Content Standard: NSS-G.K-12.5 ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY
As a result of activities in grades K-12, all students should
• Understand how human actions modify the physical environment.
• Understand how physical systems affect human systems.
• Understand the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of resources.
• Content Standard: NS.9-12.6 PERSONAL AND SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop understanding of
• Personal and community health
• Population growth
• Natural resources
• Environmental quality
• Natural and human-induced hazards
• Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges
• Content Standard: NL-ENG.K-12.8 DEVELOPING RESEARCH SKILLS
---
1 Education World (2008) U.S. National Education Standards. Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://www.education-world.com/standards/national/index.shtml.
Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.
- **Content Standard: NT.K-12.2 SOCIAL, ETHICAL, AND HUMAN ISSUES**
- Students understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology.
- Students practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software.
- Students develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity.
**Materials Needed:**
- Copies of Reproducible #1- With Grants and Other Incentives, Chicago Leads the Nation in Installing Green Roofs.
- Copies of Reproducible #2- Article Reflection Questions
- Copies of Reproducible #3- Worksheet for Cool Roofing Research
- Access to computer lab for student research
**Assessment:** Students will be assessed through the following activities:
- Completion of Reproducible #2- Article Reflection Questions
- Completion of Reproducible #3- Worksheet for Cool Roofing Research
- Research and discussion of cool roofing
- Completion of optional extension assignment
**LESSON BACKGROUND**
**Relevant Vocabulary:**
- **Albedo:** *Albedo*, or solar reflectance, is a measure of a material's ability to reflect sunlight (including the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wavelengths) on a scale of 0 to 1. An albedo value of 0.0 indicates that the surface absorbs all solar radiation, and a 1.0 albedo value represents total reflectivity.
- **Green Roof:** *Green roofs* are rooftops planted with vegetation. Intensive green roofs have thick layers of soil (6 to 12 inches or more) that can support a broad variety of plant or even tree species. Extensive roofs are simpler green roofs with a soil layer of 6 inches or less to support turf, grass, or other ground cover.
- **Cool Roof:** The term *cool roof* is used to describe roofing material that has high solar reflectance. This characteristic can reduce heat transfer to the indoors and enhance roof durability. Cool roofs may also be highly emissive, releasing a large percentage of the solar energy they absorb.
- **Urban Heat Island Effect:** The *urban heat island effect* is a measurable increase in ambient urban air temperatures resulting primarily from the replacement of vegetation with buildings, roads, and other heat-absorbing infrastructure. The heat island effect can result in significant temperature differences between rural and urban areas.
**Information:** Cities are showing signs of rising temperatures due to buildings and other
infrastructure that absorb heat instead of reflecting it. This heating is caused by the types of materials and colors used in construction, and leads to an increase in the amount of energy used to control the temperatures of buildings. This causes a greater impact on our natural resources, and can also lead to health hazards due to high temperatures and increased pollution.
Green roofs replace the concrete of pavements and buildings with trees and vegetation. This cooling provides benefits to the environment, as well as the building itself. Green roofs promote clean air by removing pollution and adding oxygen into the atmosphere. They also improve water quality by filtering and reducing runoff, and provide a habitat for animals such as birds and insects. Green roofs improve building conditions by insulating in the winter and shading in the summer. They also help to increase roof life expectancy by reducing the impact of UV rays.
Resources:
- *Green Roofs* Background and Student Action Plan, Earth Day Network, 2009.
- *Heat Island Effect*, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) - http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.htm
- *Glossary*, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) - http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/glossary.htm
LESSON STEPS
Warm-up: *Green Roofs in Chicago*
1. Have students read the article from the *Christian Science Monitor*, Reproducible #1- “With grants and other incentives, Chicago leads the nation in installing green roofs.”
2. Students should read the article and answer the questions listed below and in Reproducible #2- Article Reflection Questions independently. After all students have completely finished reading and answering questions, have them organize themselves in partners or small groups to share answers.
3. Have students share their answers with the class in a general discussion about why green roofs are important and any other issues your students are interested in talking about. Ask the following questions:
a) What are the benefits of green roofs?
b) Are green roofs a modern invention?
c) Why do you think Chicago is subsidizing the cost of green roofs?
d) What are some famous buildings that have green roofs? Have you ever been to any buildings with green roofs? Where?
e) What is the Urban Heat Island Effect?
Activity One: *Urban Heat Island Effect*
1. As the earth is warming, its cities are warming even faster. Tell students that most urban areas have a temperature that is 10°F higher than surrounding areas.\(^2\) Since most of the world’s population lives in cities, we need to be very concerned about this situation.
2. Have your students brainstorm with their partner reasons why cities are warmer than more natural landscapes. Solicit students to share responses to class.
3. Explain that trees and vegetation provide natural shading and cooling by filtering the air. Since urban areas are covered in man-made structures and not green life, the natural air conditioning that plants provide us with is lost. The buildings and pavement in a city automatically absorb more heat than any sort of vegetation because of the materials and colors that we choose to build with. Additionally, waste heat released from engines and machinery (cars, air conditioning, factories, etc) heats up the city even more.
4. Have your students brainstorm on their own why this effect might be harmful to humans and the natural environment. Share with the class that most importantly, the heat island effect amplifies a city’s energy needs. This causes both an economic burden, and a further drain on our earth’s resources. The increased heat also intensifies smog problems and can be a health hazard.
5. Ask your class if they have any examples of how the Urban Heat Island Effect has affected their lives. Green roofs are really necessary in a city not only because they will cool it down, but because they provide green spaces in a place where concrete and metal are unnaturally commonplace. The elevated temperature in the city is yet another reason why urban life can be more difficult than life in the suburbs.
6. Green roofs also have other benefits including providing a habitat for plants, insects and other wildlife, reducing runoff, and filtering pollution from water. Although it seems that environmental activism might make more sense in a place where there are trees and natural spaces, it is really more necessary in cities, where people are less connected with the earth but often more threatened by their environment.
**Activity Two: A Rainbow of Roofs**
1. According to the EPA, 90% of the roofs in the U.S. are dark colored. Your students should know that dark colors absorb heat from the sun. Black, the most common color of a rooftop, absorbs red, yellow, green and blue light and reflects almost no light. This absorbed light is transferred into heat energy, making black rooftop temperatures reach up to 190 degrees Fahrenheit. This increases cooling costs in buildings and contributes to the Urban Heat Island Effect.\(^3\)
---
\(^2\) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) *Heat Island Effect*. Retrieved January 20, 2008 from [http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.htm](http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.htm)
\(^3\) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) *Heat Island Effect*. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from [http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.htm](http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/index.htm)
2. White, on the other hand, reflects all the colors of light that black absorbs, making it a much better color to use if you want things to stay cooler, including the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wavelengths on a scale of 0 to 1.
3. **Albedo**, or solar reflectance, is a measure of a material’s ability to reflect sunlight. An albedo of 0.0 indicates that the surface absorbs all solar radiation, and a 1.0 albedo value represents total reflectivity.\(^4\) Although roofs covered with vegetation are one alternative to a dark rooftop, another solution is to find a material with a higher albedo than a conventional black roof. These are called “cool roofs” and are becoming more popular alternatives. This activity is designed for students to practice their researching skills and get a broader idea about what alternatives there are to conventional roofing.
4. Split your students up into several teams and assign them each one type of “cool roof” to research (besides a conventional green roof). Some options include metal, white paint, tar and gravel, and red/brown tile. Also, one group should research the type of roof that your school has. Have them fill out Reproducible #3- Worksheet for cool roofing research, and then prepare the information for a presentation to the rest of the class. Have the students prepare their topics together, and then have a discussion about which options might be the best for your school, for a home, or for a commercial building.
**Activity Three: Cooling Down YOUR School!**
1. Now that your students are knowledgeable about green roofs, they should begin to consider what type of roof their school has. What benefits could a green roof bring to the educational environment at your school? A green roof on your school would have the same economic and environmental benefits as discussed earlier in this lesson, but could it offer more? The plants and wildlife on the roof could be an outdoor classroom for science lessons and other classes. Lunchtime or school events could be held on the roof, and school clubs could use it for various activities. If an intensive green roof is able to hold produce, then your environmental club could manage the gardens and sell the produce. Furthermore, a green roof would serve as a physical reminder of your school’s commitment to environmental innovation and to a greener future and set the example for other institutions in your area to take action.
2. Public and private high schools, middle schools and universities around the nation have chosen to invest in green roof technologies for these reasons. In May 2005, the **Calhoun School** (a private K-12 school in NYC) installed a Green Roof on the top of their building. The roof has been used as an herb garden for the cafeteria and is also used for biology classes. The space has been used for art installations, receptions, and has earned the school a number of awards. **Mission San Jose High School** replaced their gravel roofs with smooth-tops ones covered with white acrylic elastometric coating. These new “cool roofs”
---
\(^4\) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008) *Glossary*. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from [http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/glossary.htm](http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/glossary.htm)
helped to reduce heating and cooling costs and helped their old building comply with California’s regulations for energy efficient buildings. Carnegie Mellon University has installed green roofs in four locations around campus.
3. If all these places have explored greener roofing options, then yours can too. Have your students brainstorm what type of roofing option might be the best for your school district. Please refer to Earth Day Network’s Green Roofs Student Action Plan. There you can find more information about what green roofs are, why they are good for your school, and how to convince your school to get one.
**Wrap Up: Roof Discussion**
Ask students to name the different types of roofs they have learned about in this lesson, and how their characteristics determine the amount of heat they absorb or reflect. Discuss the importance of green roofs and how they could improve buildings in their communities. Encourage advocacy for green roofs in their neighborhood and at school, and discuss steps that they can take to become involved. Ask your students if they would be interested in pursuing a campaign to get a green rooftop at your school.
**Extension: Raise the Roof! Student Roof Campaign**
For homework, have your students draft a letter to your school principal or the president of the school board explaining why your school should get a green roof. This should be a convincing formal letter that draws together information that was reviewed in this lesson plan and/or Earth Day Network’s Green Roofs Student Action Plan. Students may include outside research if they need statistics for their letter. This assignment should be assessed not only on the accuracy of the content of the letter, but on grammar, style, and fluidity of the letter. Using these letters as a foundation, have the students select the one(s) that best reflects their interests, or draft an official letter from the entire class, and deliver to the principal or school administrators.
**CONCLUSION**
In this lesson, students will learn how roofing options can affect the environment in many ways. In urban areas especially, green roofing and cool roofing choices can have a positive impact on the community. Through these activities the students have learned the importance behind green roofs, and how they can advocate for better roofing options at their schools.
With grants and other incentives, Chicago leads the nation in installing green roofs.\(^5\)
By Amanda Paulson | Staff writer of The Christian Science Monitor
In the center of downtown Chicago lies an oasis of green. Monarch butterflies flit past little bluestem. Bees fly from prairie clover to purple coneflowers. A small hawthorn tree rises from a mound.
The expanse of native plants and grasses isn't a park, but the top of City Hall, the premier green roof in a city that is making green building a civic cornerstone.
Six years ago, when Mayor Richard Daley had the roof installed, it was an oddity. Today, more than 200 green roofs in the city have been constructed or are under way, covering some 2-1/2 million square feet of tar with plants - by far the most of any American city.
Now other cities, hoping to cool and clean their air and help with storm drainage, are beginning to emulate Chicago, and the city is taking key steps to encourage - and in some cases require - private developers to follow City Hall's example.
Chicago's City Council just announced a pilot program that will provide up to $100,000 in matching funds for developers who retrofit existing downtown buildings with green roofs, out of a $500,000 pool of financing. Last year, the city began awarding small $5,000 grants to smaller projects, many residential. A green permitting process is designed to expedite requests. And Chicago has started requiring green roofs on new buildings that receive city financing.
"You look down on the prime real estate areas of this country - downtown Chicago, Manhattan - and so much is unutilized, all these rooftops," says Sadhu Johnston, Chicago's environment commissioner. The green-roof push, he says, is just one piece of a larger plan for the city that has included adding hundreds of thousands of trees, increasing energy efficiency, and replacing some traffic lanes with planted medians. "It's about a comprehensive strategy of making Chicago a better place to live."
Green roofs may be surprising in a city still more known for manufacturing than composting, but they are relatively common in Europe. Germany - the country that gave Mayor Daley the idea - has green roofs on about 20 percent of all flat roofs, according to one estimate. With a history dating back to the hanging gardens of Babylon, green roofs range from simple trays filled with hardy plants like sedum, to complex systems like the City Hall roof, which features some 150 plant species, a small apiary, and two trees.
In Chicago, they sit atop the Apple store, a Target, and a McDonald's. Even Chicago's soon-to-open Wal-Mart will have one - the company's first.
\(^5\) http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0710/p02s02-ussc.html
Nationally, green roofs grace the Gap headquarters in San Bruno, Calif.; a Ford Motor plant in Dearborn, Mich.; and the American Society of Landscape Architects building in Washington.
The idea is simple: bring back some of the organic material displaced by buildings, streets, and parking lots. Advocates tout benefits that range from reducing the urban "heat island" effect - which makes cities several degrees warmer than surrounding areas and can translate into millions of dollars in energy costs - to lengthening the life span of a roof, providing community garden or recreation space, and contributing to a building's energy efficiency.
"Cities are just going to keep getting hotter," says Steven Peck, president of Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. "So you take away hot surfaces and turn them into air conditioners. Green roofs do that very, very well."
On City Hall, for instance, the ambient temperature on the planted, city side of the roof is often 50 to 70 degrees cooler than that on the county side, still traditional black tar. Commissioner Johnston acknowledges that it's hard to know how many such roofs are needed before the effects become felt throughout the city, but he's determined to keep encouraging them until Chicago gets there.
"It's like turning off the water when you brush your teeth," he says. "Every building that does it this way has an effect."
This is why Chicago is doing its best to push private developers to follow City Hall's example. Every new roof in the city is already required to be reflective - another step to minimize urban heat island - but the latest matching-funds initiative is designed to show existing buildings that they, too, can establish green roofs.
"There are certain preconceived notions that it's easier to do it with new construction than with existing construction," says Constance Buscemi, spokeswoman for the city's Office of Planning and Development.
But there can be drawbacks. It's often twice as expensive to install a green roof, though experts say that's usually recouped through the roof's lengthened life span (they can last 40 or 50 years instead of the typical 20 or 25) and energy savings for the building. And some buildings simply aren't designed for the additional load, even when that's just a few inches of lightweight soil.
In a recent survey by Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, Chicago was followed by Washington and Suitland, Md. (home of a huge green-topped National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration building) in green-roof square footage. But the amount of space is increasing rapidly - up 80 percent in the US between 2004 and 2005.
"What we've seen in Europe is that once the technology was understood and people saw that it worked, combined with incentives from the regulatory side, it really blossomed as an idea," says David Yocca, a senior partner at the Conservation Design Forum in Elmhurst, Ill., who has designed a number of green roofs. "It's the sort of idea that makes a lot of sense."
Article Reflection Questions:
1. What are the benefits of green roofs?
2. Are green roofs a modern invention?
3. Why do you think Chicago is subsidizing the cost of green roofs?
4. What are some famous buildings that have green roofs? Have you ever been to any buildings with green roofs? Where?
5. What is the Urban Heat Island Effect?
Worksheet for Cool Roofing Research
Names: ____________________________
Date: ____________________________
Type of Roof: ______________________
DIRECTIONS: Please answer the following questions in two to three (2-3) complete sentences using as much detail as possible.
1. What material is your type of roof made out of? What is its solar reflectance, or albedo?
2. How much does this material cost per square foot? How long will it hold up before it needs to be replaced?
3. What type of building is this roof most suited for? Where has it most often been used?
4. Why is this type of rooftop better than a conventional roof?
5. Would you recommend this type of rooftop for our school? For your home? | <urn:uuid:ee15ef0f-e559-43ab-b2a4-763309d7734b> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.greeneducationfoundation.org/institute/lesson-clearinghouse/download/file.html?fid=19.481 | 2016-05-03T03:08:05Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118369.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00198-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 573,668,899 | 4,554 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99276 | eng_Latn | 0.998238 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
1642,
4278,
6626,
9701,
12975,
15346,
18074,
21075,
21418,
22129
] | [
4.8125,
4.21875
] | 2 | 0 |
Noncredit ESL Level Four Writing Workbook
Title V Gateways Grant
Winter 2012
Note to User: This manual is a work in progress. Please submit your feedback for improvements and corrections via email to email@example.com
Thank you!
# Table of Contents
| Assignment | Page |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| In-class Assignment 1: A Short Bio | 3 |
| In-class Assignment 2: Descriptive Paragraph | 7 |
| In-class Assignment 3: Another Descriptive Paragraph | 8 |
| Optional Take-home Assignment: My Favorite Place | 11-12|
| In-class Assignment 4: Writing a Narrative Paragraph | 13 |
| Correction Symbols List | 15 |
| Take-home Assignment: Narrative Paragraph | 19 |
| In-class Assignment 5: Writing a Paragraph about a Goal | 20 |
| Take-home Assignment (5c): Writing about my Goal | 24 |
| Writing Multi-paragraph Essays | 28 |
| Take-home Writing Assignment: A Three-paragraph Essay | 39 |
| Optional In-Class Essay Test | 40 |
| Optional Essay Writing Check List | 40 |
Assignment: Give a brief description of your educational background and your relevant work experience. First show the incorrect version on the screen
A. Incorrect Version
Howdy, my name is Deborah Parker and I’m a Texan! I finished both high school and college in Houston, Texas. In 1994 I graduated from Rice University with a B.A. in linguistics immediately afterwards I completed a certificate in Teaching English as a Second Language. That same year I began teaching ESL at Beaumont community college. and I also began graduate studies in Applied Linguistics. Two years later I received my M.A. in Applied Linguistics from the University of Houston, after my graduation I was lucky to receive a Fulbright Scholarship as a Junior Lecturer to Paris, France. I lived and worked there from 1994 to 1995. When I first arrived in Paris, I could not speak more than a few sentences of French I learned first-hand how difficult it is to learn a second language! After my return to the U.S. I moved to California. I taught ESL at community colleges in orange and Los Angeles counties In 1996 I joined Cambridge University press as an ESL Specialist I worked for Cambridge for the next ten years until I returned to teaching in 2006. For the past 6 years I have been teaching at L.A. City college and Glendale Community College.
I have been lucky once again I enjoy my classes at both campuses!
( Go to next page for correct version.)
B. Correct Version
Howdy, my name is Deborah Parker and I’m a Texan! I finished both high school and college in Houston, Texas. In 1994 I graduated from Rice University with a B.A. in Linguistics. Immediately afterwards, I completed a certificate in Teaching English as a Second Language. That same year I began teaching ESL at Beaumont Community College, and I also began graduate studies in Applied Linguistics. Two years later I received my M.A. in Applied Linguistics from the University of Houston. After my graduation, I was lucky to receive a Fulbright Scholarship as a Junior Lecturer to Paris, France. I lived and worked there from 1994 to 1995. When I first arrived in Paris, I could not speak more than a few sentences of French. I learned first-hand how difficult it is to learn a second language! After my return to the U.S., I moved to California. I taught ESL at community colleges in Orange and Los Angeles counties. In 1996 I joined Cambridge University Press as an ESL Specialist. I worked for Cambridge for the next ten years, until I returned to teaching in 2006. For the past 6 years, I have been teaching at L.A. City College and Glendale Community College. I have been lucky once again. I enjoy my classes at both campuses!
Class Activity: Instructor has students (Ss) read two versions and has them indicate which one is easier to read. Looking at the correct version class discusses:
1. The use of indentation to signal a body of text as a “paragraph.”
2. The “framing” of text with margins on all sides—to visually organize it.
3. The use of periods and exclamation points to mark the end of sentences.
4. The use of capital letters to signal a new sentence.
5. Having one sentence follow another rather than “list” form (wrap-around text).
6. Extra space between lines of text to facilitate editing (used only for working or school drafts).
Class Activity - Reviewing Paragraph Form and Writing Notes
Directions: Pass out the incorrect version to Ss and answer the following questions together. Have Ss make notes/marks on their papers to indicate errors.
1. Did the writer indent the first line of her paragraph? YES NO
2. Did the writer provide 1-inch margins an all sides of her paragraph? YES NO
3. Does each line of the paragraph follow the next line (wrap-around style)? YES NO
4. Did the writer leave space in between each line of text? Enough to make comments or corrections? YES NO
Task: Compare your corrections with a partner. Do you have the same number of comments and/or corrections? If not, discuss the differences and make any necessary changes. After your discussion, you and your partner’s comments should be the same.
(After activity is finished, the instructor can show the correct version again on the screen to discuss their notes and corrections.)
In-Class Assignment 2
WRITING DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPHS: Punctuation and Capitalization
1. Put periods, commas, and capital letters where necessary. There are 19 mistakes and the title is missing. Add a title for the paragraph. Writing Prompt: Describe how something or someone has changed.
_________(Title)______________
in the U.S., life has gotten complicated both parents often work outside the home the children often go to daycare after school so nobody is home during the day the men help their wives in the kitchen and the wives help their husbands with the bills one person’s job doesn’t pay all the bills the evenings are very busy and the mother and father are both very tired the
kids have homework and they want their parents’ attention and time life at home is not as simple as it used to be
2. Next, copy the paragraph on a piece of loose leaf paper.
Remember to:
- Position your paper with the margin at the top and the holes on the left.
- Put your name, date, and level at the top right corner in three lines.
- Put a title in the center on the title.
- Capitalize each important word in the title, and do not make a sentence. Underline the title.
- Skip a line, indent, and begin copying the paragraph.
- Leave some space for the right margin.
- Your teacher will show you what the corrected version should look like.
In-class Exercise #2 (Correct Version)
A Busier Lifestyle
In the U.S., life has gotten complicated. Both parents often work outside the home. The children often go to daycare after school, so nobody is home during the day. The men help their wives in the kitchen, and the wives help their husbands with the bills. One person’s job doesn’t pay all the bills. The evenings are very busy, and the mother and father are both very tired. The kids have homework, and they want their parents’ attention and time. Life at home is not as simple as it used to be.
Writing Assignment 3: Writing a Descriptive Paragraph
Today we are going to work on writing a descriptive paragraph. Your writing prompt is: *Describe a good friend you know*. If you don’t want to write about a specific friend of yours, you may write about the characteristics all good friends should have. The first thing you need to have is a sentence that addresses the topic—also known as **a topic sentence**.
The sentence, “My friend has many likeable qualities,” works as a topic sentence because it tells the reader what you are going to be writing about and offers an opinion about the topic, which in this case is your friend. Usually the topic sentence in a single paragraph is near the beginning of the paragraph. Notice in the outline below that the topic sentence is followed by **details** that help describe your good friend and explain your opinion, which is why you like him or her. There should also be a **concluding comment** that repeats your points in different words. In our previous lesson about life in the U.S., can you find the topic sentence? What things led you to say it was the first sentence? Notice that it tells us the topic and has an opinion or special focus on the topic.
It’s always a good idea to take a few minutes to write an outline before beginning an assignment. Here’s a good way to outline a response to the writing prompt: Describe a good friend.
**Topic Sentence:** My friend has many likable qualities.
**Detail #1:** He is kind hearted.
A. (Now give examples of his kindheartedness.)
Example: He is very thoughtful and friendly to everyone. He never puts people down and cares about others before himself.
**Detail #2** He is funny.
A. (Now give examples of how he is funny and how he helps one laugh at himself)
Example: Because he is smart, he knows how to use humor to get his point across without hurting anyone’s feelings. He is also familiar with how to use humor to motivate people and how to get people to agree with him.
**Detail #3** He is trustworthy and honest. (Example sentences)
(The third detail is usually the most important and is saved for last because it will be the one the reader reads last and remembers most.)
The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know that he would never turn his back on me or my family. He won’t lie to me. I feel very lucky to have someone like my friend because I can count on him in many ways. If your car broke down far
away from home in the middle of the night, my friend is the kind of person who would get out of bed to pick you up.
**Concluding Comment:** (This is a restatement of your topic in different words that includes the details and words that support your topic.) I feel very lucky to have someone like my friend because I can count on him in many ways. I have learned how to treat other people better through watching him, and he has shown me what it means to be honest and trustworthy.
So, when we put the topic sentence, the details, and concluding comment together, the **rough draft** of the paragraph looks like this:
My friend has many likable qualities. He is kind hearted. He is very thoughtful and friendly to everyone. He never puts people down and cares about others before himself. He is funny and helps me laugh at myself. Because he is smart, he knows how to use humor to get his point across without hurting anyone’s feelings. He is also familiar with how to use humor to motivate people and how to get people to agree with him. He is trustworthy and honest. The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know that he would never turn his back on me or my family. He won’t lie to me. I feel very lucky to have someone like my friend because I can count on him in many ways. If your car broke down far away from home in the middle of the night, my friend is the kind of person who would get out of bed to pick you up. I have learned how to treat other people better through watching him, and he has shown me what it means to be honest and trustworthy.
Notice that too many of the sentences are short and begin with “He.” The **contents** of this paragraph are good, but stylistically it is poor. Now it is time to rewrite the paragraph, or what your teacher might call writing a **second draft**. To improve this rough draft, we need to combine these short sentences into larger ones.
**Combining Short Sentences by Making Lists**
One way to combine sentences is to make a list using commas. Our rough draft has a lot of adjectives. Can you combine the second and third sentences of the rough draft into one by using commas and listing the adjectives?
**Exercise 1**
Work with a partner and combine the second and third sentences of the rough draft into one sentence by using commas and listing the adjectives. Work on a separate sheet of paper and don’t look at the examples below. Try to do this by yourselves.
______________________________
Hopefully your sentence looks like, “He is kind hearted, very thoughtful, and friendly to everyone.”
Combining Sentences by Creating Compound Sentences
Another way to combine short sentences is to write compound sentences. Notice the sentence, “I have learned how to treat other people better through watching him, and he has shown me what it means to be honest and trustworthy” works well because it combines several points into one longer sentence.
Exercise 2
Work with the same partner and combine the two sentences “The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know that he would never turn his back on me or my family. He won’t lie to me.” into one compound sentence on the separate sheet of paper. For this exercise, remember to use a coordinating conjunction (and, but, so, for, nor, yet) to join the two smaller sentences. Don’t peek at the example below.
Like cooking an omelet, there are many possible ways to put these ingredients (two sentences) together. When your teacher tells you to, look at the examples to see possible ways to combine these two sentences. If time permits, try to combine them a second way. Remember to double space so that you can edit your work.
Examples of Possible Compound Sentences
“The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know that he would never turn his back on me or my family. He won’t lie to me.” The simplest way to combine these two shorter sentences would be to add “and” between them to make, *The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know he would never turn his back on me or my family, and he won’t lie to me*. A better way would be to write, *The most important thing I like about my friend is that he won’t lie to me, and I know that he would never turn his back on me or my family*. Another possible route would be to shorten the second sentence into a phrase to create, “*The most important thing I like about my friend is that I know he would never turn his back on me or lie to me or my family*.” The meaning is a little different in the last one, but it improves the style a lot.
Now we are ready to see what our revised paragraph looks like.
My friend Nick has many likable qualities. He is kind hearted, very thoughtful, and friendly to everyone. Because he is smart, he knows how to use humor to get his point across without hurting anyone’s feelings. Nick is also familiar with how to use humor to motivate people and how to get people to agree with him. The most important thing I like about him is that I know he would never turn his back on me or lie to me or my family. I feel very lucky to have someone like my friend because I can count on him in many ways. If your car broke down far away from home in the middle of the night, Nick is the kind of person who would get out of bed to pick you up. I have learned how to treat other people
Concluding Comment: (This is a restatement of her topic in different words that includes the details and words that support her topic. Can you help her? )
Exercise 4
Put the topic sentence, details and their supporting sentences down in paragraph form on a separate sheet of paper. Use the skills you practiced in Exercise 2 and 3 of this guide book to rewrite your second draft. After you finish writing your second draft, share your work with a partner and talk about what you like and what you think could be improved with your partner’s paragraph. Just like with your paper, check your partner’s paper for content, format, and form. Often your instructor will grade on these three criteria. Content refers to the ideas, the format refers to how the paper looks regarding layout (title, indentation, use of margins, etc.), and form refers to grammar, spelling and punctuation. Remember that you don’t have to use every editing skill every time. For example, you might not need to write a list, combine sentences or edit out unnecessary sentences with your rough draft. See what your partner thinks. Be sure to let her see both your rough and second drafts. Your teacher will ask you to write this paragraph on the board in groups, or she may do a group write with you on the screen.
*Exercise 5 (Optional In-class or take-home writing assignment)
Now it is your turn to write about one of your favorite places. No fair writing about the park, because we’ve already done that together. Fill out the outline below and show it to a partner. Check each other’s outline for: 1) a good topic sentence with a main idea or opinion, 2) at least three supporting details, and 3) and good concluding sentence. Your teacher might wait to give you this assignment until after you do the next exercise on narrative paragraphs, which also introduces how to work with correction symbols.
Writing Prompt: Describe Your Favorite Place
Topic Sentence: ____________________________
Detail #1: ________.
C. (Give example sentences _______.)
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Detail #2
C. (Give example sentences of ________)
Detail #3
B. (Give example sentences of __________)
Concluding Comment: (This is a restatement of your topic in different words that includes the details and words that support your topic. Can you help her?)
Writing Assignment 4: Writing a Narrative Paragraph
In the first lesson we looked at writing about our educational background and work experience. In the second we looked at describing how something or someone has changed. In our last paragraphs we describe someone and then something we liked. Our next assignment is to write a narrative paragraph, which describes a situation that has a beginning, middle and end. In the chart below there are lists of reasons why you might need to write a narrative paragraph.
| To get an academic degree: |
|---------------------------|
| • to describe a historical event |
| • to describe a scientific phenomenon like a volcano erupting |
| • to explain your educational history to an academic counselor |
| • to write a biography |
| To get a job: |
|---------------|
| • to explain your work experience in a letter, interview, or to a job counselor |
| • to describe an event or a problem at work |
| To be comfortable in American society: |
|--------------------------------------|
| • to participate in conversations about children, marriage, life history and experiences |
| • to describe a problem or complaint (landlord, store manager, billing departments, etc) |
| • to describe your health history to a doctor |
| • to report a crime or accident |
| To teach: |
|----------|
| • to tell a fable or life experience to a child |
| • to tell an American to appreciate or realize something about your country (leadership, politics, history, culture, genocide, life experience). |
Exercise 4a: Note to teacher: Using the overhead projector, show and read to them the correct version of AMELIA. Before reading it with them, ask them the following pre-reading questions. Remember not to give them a copy of this version until they complete the next three exercises.
Pre-reading questions: (5 min.)
- by looking at the title, can students guess who this is about?
- do they know anything about Amelia Earhart?
- can they name any other famous American women outside of the arts?
- looking at the chart above, which category does AMELIA fall into?
- what is some vocabulary necessary to read about flying?
fly/flew, flight, pilot, navigator, aviation, aerial
AMELIA (Correct Version)
She took off one morning for one of the most famous flights in aviation history, and then she never returned. Her name was Amelia Earhart. She was born in Atchison, Kansas on July 24, 1897. Her grandparents were leading citizens of their community and her father was a lawyer. Amelia and her younger sister went to private schools. She was a tomboy, good at sports, and a risk-taker. When she was in her teens, her father developed a drinking problem and the family separated for some years. During this time, Amelia trained as a nurse’s aide and served in a military hospital during World War I. In 1920, her parents reunited and Amelia moved to California to be with them. It was here, in Long Beach, California that she attended her first aerial show and took flying lessons from a female pilot. Soon after, Amelia was flying and setting new records. In 1926 she became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic, but she was only a passenger on that famous flight. Six years later she made that transatlantic trip again, but this time she flew solo. When she returned to New York, she was cheered in parades and given a medal by President Hoover. In 1935 she decided to fly around the world and circle the globe at the equator. Two years later she departed on that flight with her navigator, Fred Noonan. It was a long and difficult trip. She and Noonan were nearly at the end of their journey when Amelia made her last radio contact on July 2, 1937. Then her plane seemed to vanish somewhere over the South Pacific Ocean. No remains of her, or Noonan, or the plane were ever found. Amelia Earhart flew out of space and into myth on that final flight.
“A ghost of aviation
she was swallowed by the sky
or by the sea, like me she had a dream to fly”
2. After reading they discuss things they learned about Amelia Earhart (5 min.)
- instructor can ask for the events at the beginning, middle, and end of the story
- why did the writer add the song lyrics? Is A.E. still present in our imagination?
Class Activity:
Pass out the Correction Symbols handout and focus on the highlighted symbols. These are the only symbols the Ss will work with for this activity.
Correction Symbols*
1. art = article needed/ or wrong article (a, an, the)
2. cap/uc = should be a capital letter
3. conj = conjunction (and, but, so, or)
4. cs = comma splice: your sentence is not correct with only a comma
5. f = fragment (not a complete sentence) needs a subject or verb
6. lc = should be a small (lower case) letter
7. pos = possessive ('s or s')
8. prep = preposition (in, on, at, about, etc.)
9. pron = pronoun needed/ or wrong pronoun (he-him etc.)
10. s = singular noun
11. pl = plural noun
12. non = non-count noun
13. sp = spelling
14. vb t = wrong verb tense (ex. go-went or eats-is eating)
15. vb f = wrong form of the verb (ex: have-has)
16. wc = word choice (use another word)
17. wf = word form (ex: happy-happiness or boring-bored)
18. wm/mw = word missing/ missing word (you need to add a word)
19. wo = word order is incorrect (ex: the coat black instead of the black coat)
20. incomp = incomplete sentence
21. [ awk] = awkward structure or expression
22. subverb = subject verb agreement errors
23. ger = gerund
24. infin = infinitive
25. comp = comparative
* Colored boxes indicate symbols used in this lesson (Amelia).
She took off one morning for one of most famous flights in aviation history, and then she never returned. Her name is Amelia Earhart. She was born in Atchison, Kansas in July 24, 1897. Her grandparents were leading citizens of their community and her father was a lawyer, Amelia and her younger sister went to private schools. She was a tomboy, was good at sport, and a risk-taker. When she was in her teens, her father was developing a drinking problem and family separated for some years. During this time Amelia trained as a nurse’s aide and served at a military hospital during World War I. In 1920, her parents reunited and Amelia moved to California to be with them. It was here in California, Long Beach that she attended her first aerial show and took [lessons for flying] from a female pilot, soon after Amelia was flying and set new records. In 1926 she became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic. But she was only a passenger on that famous flight. Six years later she made that transatlantic trip again, but this time she flew solo. When returned to New York, she was cheered in parades and given a medal by President Hoover. In 1935 she decided to fly around the world circle the globe at the equator, two years later she departed on that flight with his navigator, Fred Noonan. Was a long and difficult trip. [She and Noonan they] were nearly at the end of their journey, when Amelia made her last radio contact on 2 July 1937. Then her plane seemed to vanish somewhere over the South Pacific ocean. No remains of her, or Noonan, or the plane were ever found. Amelia Earhart flew out of space and into myth on that final flight.
“A ghost of aviation
she was swallowed by the sky
or by the sea, like me she had a dream to fly”
Lyrics to *Amelia* by Joni Mitchell
Exercise 4c: Individual Activity: Ss re-write the paragraphs and put both their edited copy and their corrected draft into their portfolios.
Exercise 4d: Individual Activity: Fill in the chart and answer the questions.
Now it is your turn to write a narrative paragraph. Don’t worry; it doesn’t have to be as long as AMELIA. Using one of the reasons listed on the chart on page 13 and 14, answer the questions and fill out the chart below with the key points of the narrative before you write your paragraph.
| BEGINNING | MIDDLE | END |
|-----------|--------|-----|
What is the TOPIC: ____________________________________________
Topic Sentence: What is the main idea about the topic? For example, if your topic is about your family coming to the U.S., what is your opinion about your family coming here? A topic sentence can also let the reader know the focus of the paragraph and what the paragraph is going to be about. The sentence “My family came to America”, is not a good topic sentence. Who can tell the class why? What is it missing? “Coming to the U.S. has been both difficult and very rewarding for my family” is a good topic sentence because it focuses on the main idea of your narrative paragraph.
Concluding Sentence: A concluding sentence reviews the information in your topic sentence and supporting details. Try writing a concluding sentence on the line below.
*Exercise 4e: Read the checklist before you begin writing.*
Writing Prompt: Using the outline you filled out above, write your narrative paragraph. Make sure you have all the necessary features of a well-written paragraph.
Your paragraph must have the following features:
Content:
1. The paragraph tells a story with a beginning, middle, and end.
Paragraph:
2. A topic sentence that states your topic and your main idea about the topic
3. Supporting details that list the beginning, middle, and the end
4. A concluding sentence that restates the topic and closes your paragraph
Sentences:
1. Subject and Verb for every sentence
2. Period at the end of every sentence
3. Capital letters after every period
Grammar
4. Correct use of tenses including simple past and past progressive
5. Correct use of time words
Format:
6. Correct use of paper with holes on the left side and writing inside the margins
7. Name, date, and class in the upper right hand corner
8. Indent the first line
9. Correct title (Not a sentence, main words capitalized, underlined)
Writing Assignment 5: Writing a Paragraph about a Goal
Today we are going to learn how to write a descriptive paragraph about your goals: But first, a review. Identify the subordinating conjunction (S.C.) and subject (S) and verb (V) of every sentence and clause below. Label each one as a SENTENCE or a CLAUSE.
Ex. I am writing a paragraph about my goal sentence
S V
Ex. When I reach my goal clause
S.C. S V
1. My goal is to start taking credit classes in Fall 2011
2. Because I want to work as an accountant as soon as possible
3. I have to take several steps in order to reach my goal
4. First, I have to learn about the requirements for entering the GCC credit program
5. If I don’t have my residency
6. I will have to pay very high tuition
7. I need to know what documents are necessary to show that I am a resident
8. Second, I need to speak to an academic counselor
9. As soon as I get the name and number of a counselor
10. I will make an appointment
11. I will be sure to know exactly which classes to take
12. If I get the advice of a counselor
13. Last, I would like to meet an accounting teacher or some accounting students
14. If I get permission
15. Maybe I can visit an accounting class to see what it is like
16. I can talk to some of the students and look at the book
17. I will make a plan to follow these steps so that I have a clear and direct pathway to getting my degree in accounting
18. I will ask my noncredit ESL teacher
19. If I need any advice along the way
Next, copy the paragraph on a piece of loose leaf paper using correct punctuation.
Remember to:
- Position your paper with the margin at the top and the holes on the left.
- Put your name, date, and class at the top right corner.
- Put the title in the center on the title line.
- Capitalize each important word in the title, and do not make a sentence.
- Skip a line, indent, and begin copying the paragraph.
- Leave some space for the right margin.
- Do not write the clauses alone. They must connect to a sentence.
- Remember the capital, period, and commas.
DO NOT LOOK BELOW UNTIL YOU ARE FINISHED!
My Future in Accounting
My goal is to start taking credit classes in Fall 2011 because I want to work as an accountant as soon as possible. I have to take several steps in order to reach my goal. First, I have to learn about the requirements for entering the GCC credit program. If I don’t have my residency, I will have to pay very high tuition. I need to know what documents are necessary to show that I am a resident. Second, I need to speak to an academic counselor. As soon as I get the name and number of a counselor, I will make an appointment. I will be sure to know exactly which classes to take if I get the advice of a counselor. Last, I would like to meet an accounting teacher or some accounting students. If I get permission, maybe I can visit an accounting class to see what it is like. I can talk to some of the students and look at the book. I will make a plan to follow these steps so that I have a clear and direct pathway to getting my degree in accounting. I will ask my noncredit ESL teacher if I need any advice along the way.
1. What is the topic sentence?
2. How many supporting details are there?
3. Circle the transition words. What is the comma rule for transition words?
4. What is the concluding sentence?
Exercise 5b: Flow Chart
Writing Prompt: Write a paragraph about one of your goals.
PREWRITING #2 (Teacher may use welcome packets)
NAME: ________________________________
MY GOAL: ____________________________ DATE: ____________________________
What are you going to do?
☐ Academic ☐ Professional ☐ Personal
Last Step
Fourth Step
Third Step
Second Step
First Step
Making a Paragraph Outline
Circle the goal for each list, and number the steps in the correct order.
1. Join a club, talk to strangers, make friends, take a fun class
2. Do things on your own, take a conversation class, talk to strangers, be more confident
3. Make an appointment with an academic counselor, enter the credit program, talk to credit students, visit a credit class
4. Take a computer class at Garfield, get a job, visit the Career Center, make an appointment with a job counselor
Now write out your goal and the steps on the outline below. Use your Arrow Paper above if necessary:
I. My Goal: ________________________________
A. First Step: _____________________________
B. Second Step: ___________________________
C. Third Step: _____________________________
D. (Last Step): _____________________________
Share your outline with another student. Do you have a goal that is general? Is each step specific, and does it lead to the goal?
*Exercise 5c: Writing Assignment
Writing Prompt: What is a goal you’d like to accomplish within the next two to six years? What steps do you need to take to reach your goal?
Using your listing outline above, write your paragraph. Make sure it includes the features on the next page.
Content:
1. The paragraph completely answers the question that the assignment asks.
2. The paragraph matches your outline.
Paragraph:
1. A topic sentence that states your goal
2. Supporting detail that lists each step to reach your goal.
3. A transition connector for each step (with a comma)
4. A concluding sentence that closes your paragraph
Sentences:
10. Subject and Verb for every sentence
11. Subordinate Conjunction and S + V for every clause
12. Period at the end of every sentence
13. Capital letters after every period
14. Commas for complex sentences
Grammar
1. Correct use of simple present, present progressive, and future tense
2. Correct use of action and non-action verbs
Format:
1. Correct use of paper with holes on the left side and writing inside the margins
2. Indent the first line
3. Correct title (Not a sentence, main words capitalized, underlined)
Exercise 5d: Before you turn your paragraph in to your teacher, share your paragraph with a partner and fill out the following check lists.
Your Name: __________________________
1. I answer the question that the assignment asks.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
2. I put the holes of the paper on the left and the margin on the top.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
3. I indented the first sentence.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
4. I have a title that is not a sentence, that has capitals letters for the main words, and that is underlined.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
5. I use present progressive, simple present, and future verbs correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
6. I put a subject and a verb in every sentence
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
7. I put a period at the end of every sentence.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
8. I put a capital letter for the first word of every sentence and for proper nouns.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
9. I use clauses correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
10. I use transition words correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
11. I use commas correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
Partner’s Name: ____________________________
1. She answers the question that the assignment asks.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
2. She puts the holes of the paper on the left and the margin on the top.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
3. She indented the first sentence.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
4. She has a title that is not a sentence, that has capitals letters for the main words, and that is underlined.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
5. She uses present progressive, simple present, and future verbs correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
6. She puts a subject and a verb in every sentence
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
7. She puts a period at the end of every sentence.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
8. She puts a capital letter for the first word of every sentence and for proper nouns.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
9. She uses clauses correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
10. I use transition words correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
11. She uses commas correctly.
YES NO I DON’T KNOW
A. Now let’s take a look at the corrected version of the paragraph, “Amelia.” A reader might be able to understand the long paragraph better if you separated it into three shorter paragraphs at appropriate places. Since this is a narrative (a biography) you can separate it chronologically or some would say according to the different periods of her life.
1. She took off one morning for one of the most famous flights in aviation history, and then she never returned.
2. Her name was Amelia Earhart. She was born in Atchison, Kansas on July 24, 1897. Her grandparents were leading citizens of their community and her father was a lawyer. Amelia and her younger sister went to private schools. She was a tomboy, good at sports, and a risk-taker. When she was in her teens, her father developed a drinking problem and the family separated for some years. During this time, Amelia trained as a nurse’s aide and served in a military hospital during World War I. In 1920, her parents reunited and Amelia moved to California to be with them. It was here, in Long Beach, California that she attended her first aerial show and took flying lessons from a female pilot. Soon after, Amelia was flying and setting new records.
3. In 1926 she became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic, but she was only a passenger on that famous flight. Six years later she made that transatlantic trip again, but this time she flew solo. When she returned to New York, she was cheered in parades and given a medal by President Hoover. In 1935 she decided to fly around the world and circle the globe at the equator. Two years later she departed on that flight with her navigator, Fred Noonan. It was a long and difficult trip. She and Noonan were nearly at the end of their journey when Amelia made her last radio contact on July 2, 1937. Then her plane seemed to vanish somewhere over the South Pacific Ocean. No remains of her, or Noonan, or the plane were ever found. 4. Amelia Earhart flew out of space and into myth on that final flight.
1. What would you call underlined sentence #1 in the writing?
2. What period of her life does the underlined sentence #2 describe?
3. What period of her life does the underlined sentence #3 describe?
4. What would you call underlined sentence #4?
B. In the same way, you can separate the (two or three) main supporting ideas in your paragraphs, develop supporting details for each of them, and create a short composition that makes it easier to understand your ideas. Let’s look at how you can develop a short composition out of a paragraph this way.
I. PARTS OF A SHORT COMPOSITION
Teens and Drugs
Today, when people talk about teenagers taking drugs, they often talk about what the drugs do. However, we should also take a look at why teenagers start taking drugs in the first place; there are two main reasons.
First of all, it is all too easy for many young people to get their hands on drugs. Drugs are available almost anywhere: at a school yard, in line for a movie, or at a football game. To find drugs, teens do not have to risk going to the seedy parts of town or deal with shady characters on street corners. Often times, they are offered free drugs by their friends. Also, because many teens have parents who work, they have too much free time. They tell their parents that they are at the library in the afternoon, when they are really at their friend’s house or at the park. Thus, while their parents are busy and hard at work, their children are becoming addicted as well.
Most importantly, teenagers have enormous pressure to conform—to behave the same way their peers behave. Teenagers often have close friends or best buddies with whom they share everything, including drugs. They also tend to go to a lot of parties and other social events where it is most important to be one of the crowd, to be “cool.” Even the most mature teen may be tempted to do drugs at a party rather than risk being called names and treated as an outsider. For all these reasons, getting involved with drugs is a growing problem for teenagers.
1. What is the topic sentence of the composition? What is the main idea?
2. How many supporting ideas are there? What are they?
3. How are the supporting ideas introduced? What transitions connect them?
4. What is the concluding statement?
____________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 6b
II. THE FIRST STEP: PREPARING TO WRITE THE FIRST DRAFT
A. The Topic Sentence and Main Idea
A strong main idea sentence has a topic and a comment. The comment is the writer’s opinion about the topic. Sometimes, the comment lists and summarizes the main supporting points.
Topic: Learning to write in English
Comment: It can be a frustrating experience for many international students.
Main Idea: Learning to write in English can be a frustrating experience for many ESL students.
Topic: Disadvantages of living in a big city
Comment: It can be crowded, polluted, noisy, and expensive.
Main Idea: It can be crowded, polluted, noisy, and expensive to live in a big city.
Write three main supporting ideas for the following topics or main ideas.
1. Three popular kinds of weekend entertainment:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Benefits of living in a small town:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
3. My ideal job:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Three goals/plans for the future:
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. My favorite city or place/My hometown (reasons):
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
6. Three of my interests:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
7. Reasons for living in southern California:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
8. My favorite ____________ (friend or family member):
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
9. An excellent/terrible _________________ (restaurant or store name):
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
10. An awful/a wonderful vacation:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
11. Two of my pet peeves:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 6c: Your Turn: The simple outline
a. Choose one of the topics above, and write your main idea (thesis statement) here.
____________________________________________________________________________________
b. Now, write topic sentences for your two paragraphs that will support your main idea.
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
B. Transition Signals
Transition signals introduce supporting ideas and other points. They tell the reader how your ideas are connected and prepare him/her for what is coming next.
The first ............ is .............. First, ..................
First of all, ............... To begin with, ...........
The second........... is ............. Second, .............
Third, ................. Next, ....................
Another ............... is .............. To make it worse, ............
The main ............. is .............. The worst part is .............
The most important .......... is .......... Finally, .............
a. First, put the transition signals in the box in the correct places in each paragraph. Sometimes you will need to change the punctuation.
1. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Traveling by Train
We get around using many different forms of transportation. In places with good public transportation, taking the train is common and offers many advantages and disadvantages.
First of all,
Also,
for example,
On the other hand,
_______________________traveling by train has its advantages. There are no rush-hour traffic jams to deal with, and trains are usually fast and comfortable. While on the train, you can use your time freely, not stressing out over driving. You can just sit and read, or look out the window while the world passes by. You can do some of your office or paperwork, so the train becomes your office!
However,
First,
Second,
For example,
In spite of the disadvantages,
.....because.....
______________________, traveling by train also has some disadvantages. Getting on the train is not cheap, and sometimes they are crowded, or have technical problems and are delayed. You have to go by the train schedule, and unlike a car, they cannot take you to your door. You will have to find a way to get to and from the train station: take a bus, subway, or taxi, or get a ride. I would rather take the train than drive anytime. When I get to where I want to go, I am not as stressed out. I am calm and relaxed.
Class Activity: Introducing the parts of a three-paragraph composition
1. What two elements are in the first paragraph.
2. Why do you think the main idea follows the first part.
3. What is the purpose of the first part of the first paragraph?
4. What are the two parts of the main idea (topic sentence)?
b. Now, looking at the chart above use the correct transition to introduce each main supporting idea or point. Also, underline the other kinds of transition signals.
2. The Worst Neighbors
A few months ago, some new neighbors moved in next door. Since then, my home is no longer quiet and peaceful. In fact, life at home has become an unbearable nightmare.
_________________________ they have this pack of dogs, and they do not control them at all. I used to have beautiful plants and flowers in my yard but no more. At first, I did not know what was happening. Then, one day I heard all this noise in my yard, so I looked out the window. I saw the dogs digging holes and rolling around in my garden. My neighbor’s dogs really need dog training before they destroy more valuable property and get them sued!
_________________________ is that they have loud parties almost every night. They must be really popular or have many friends and relatives. To make it worse, they turn up the music, and my bedroom window faces their house, so it is impossible to fall asleep. Then, after having drunk all evening, they begin arguing. A few nights ago, another neighbor could not take it anymore and called the police on them because they were fighting in front of his house. My neighborhood was a calm and peaceful one before these people arrived. I hope that enough neighbors complain, so they change or move out, and we can have our quiet neighborhood back.
Exercise 6d: Your Turn: The simple outline with transition words
Your Turn: Continuing the simple outline
a. Choose one of the topics above, and write your main idea (thesis statement) here. Before the thesis, put some background information that will catch the readers’ interest. You can look at some of essays on the following pages to get some ideas.
(Background information) + Main Idea
_____________________________________________________
(Thesis) ________________________________________________
Even though deciding to come to the U.S. was not easy, I am glad because my family has a better future now. We can look forward to having more opportunities in this country.
2. Reckless Driving
In southern California, we usually have to drive a lot to get anywhere, and it is amazing that we get home safely every day, given the millions of cars on the road. Most people go by the rules or try not to get caught, but some are just downright dangerous drivers.
For example,
Another example is___________________________. As one of the millions of drivers on the road every day, knowing that there are these reckless drivers on the road has made me a more careful driver. Indeed, I drive defensively these days.
Exercise 6e: Your Turn: Add details to your outline to support paragraphs 2 and 3. You use the essay “Why Attend a Community College” as a guide.
Your Turn: Continuing the simple outline
a. Background + your main idea (thesis statement) here.
b. Now, add details that support your topic sentence for each paragraph.
PH2. transitional,
______________________+support __________________________
PH3. transitional,
______________________+support __________________________
D. The Concluding Statement(s)
The conclusion gives closure to the composition in many ways:
- A restatement of the topic sentence
- A summary of the supporting ideas
- A look to the future: recommendations or predictions
- An opinion or feelings about the topic
Exercise 6f: Write conclusions for the following compositions. Discuss with a partner the possibilities.
Use a transition to signal your conclusion:
Indeed, ............ All in all, .............. As you can see, ............
To sum up, ............ In summary, ............
To conclude, ......... In conclusion, ............
1. Why Attend a Community College
In this country, students have a few choices of school when they are ready to get some higher education. A lot of them, however, choose to attend a community college before they transfer to a university for several good reasons.
First, there are more community colleges than four-year colleges and universities. This means that most people can easily find a community college near where they live. When the school is closer to home, students can save on transportation and housing. They can avoid wasting time commuting to school. Also, they do not have the added stress of being away from home for the first time, especially for the younger students who are fresh out of high school.
Second, fees or tuition is generally lower at a community college than at a university. For example, a student may have to pay at least five or six times more the amount they pay to attend a four-year college or university. Thus, there is more of a possibility that a student can afford to go to a community college than a university. When they are not burdened by the cost of attending college like Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple Computers, was, students feel freer to stay in school longer to explore subjects and discover interests they might not even have thought of.
2. Hawai‘i: A Dream Come True
A lot of people dream of going to Hawai‘i at least once in their lifetime. This dream of taking a trip to Hawai‘i finally came true for me almost twenty years ago when my sister got a job on one of the islands. It was just as I had imagined it to be.
First of all, my sister’s place was in the heart of Honolulu, so places I wanted to get to were very conveniently accessible. I could explore the famous Waikiki Beach even though it was very touristic, or the less crowded, Ala Moana Beach next to it, used more by the locals. The grocery store was literally in her backyard. Moreover, the movie theater was a mere five-minute walk from her apartment block. If I felt like a little more “culture,” I could hop on a bus and be at the Bishop Museum in twenty minutes in non-rush hour traffic. Downtown, I could also view King Kamehameha’s statue, which was always draped with lei’s, and the palace where the Queen was imprisoned after Hawai‘i became the 50th state.
However, the most lasting impression of Hawai‘i is the clear, deep blue Pacific Ocean water around the islands. Everywhere I went I could see this panoramic view of blue ocean water: Hanauma
Bay, once the crater of a volcano; Hawai’i Kai, the home of multi-million dollar beachfront properties; the mountains of Crouching Lion meeting the ocean; and Chinaman Hat island. When it is summer and not surfing season, the north shore waters of the infamous pipeline, Sunset Beach, and Waimea are “flat” and perfect for swimming for miles. Swimming and lying on the clear, warm Hawai’ian waters was heaven on earth for me.
*Exercise 6e: Your Turn
Look at your outline again, and add a concluding sentence to it. Use the correct transition signal.
Now, take a look at your simple outline again with the topic sentence, main supporting ideas and details, and the concluding statement. Put these sentences together in a three-paragraph format composition using the correct transitions. Think of a suitable title for your composition.
(Transitional),
(Transitional),
Exercise 6f: In-Class Test
Take out a piece of paper, choose a topic from the list on pages 30-31, and write a three-paragraph essay response. You have thirty minutes and you may not use a dictionary.
(Optional) Essay Writing Check List
☐ I have brainstormed and categorized my ideas and put them into the outline that my instructor has provided me in the Writing guide.
☐ My partner and I have gone over each other’s outlines before the weekend.
☐ I’ve written my essay in either black or blue ink and remembered to double space each line.
☐ My partner and I have corrected and signed each other’s papers and turned them in.
☐ My partner and I have corrected our own mistakes in a different color ink (blue on black or visa versa). We have looked at each other’s papers and have commented on the corrections each of us has made.
☐ I have tried to correct each mistake that has a correction symbol nearby.
☐ My partner and I have looked at each other’s paper (yet again), paying special attention to the corrections our instructor has written in each square. | <urn:uuid:40cb7664-5848-4eb5-b958-14aa2269a071> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://glendale.cc.ca.us/Modules/ShowDocument.aspx?documentid=14900 | 2016-05-03T03:16:44Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118369.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00212-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 126,802,010 | 11,537 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.965982 | eng_Latn | 0.999708 | [
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | false | rolmOCR | [
233,
1535,
2969,
4840,
6468,
7674,
10145,
12721,
15484,
17670,
17933,
19462,
21921,
23497,
25283,
25919,
27383,
27734,
29184,
29873,
31115,
31489,
32748,
33633,
34784,
35773,
38357,
40056,
42489,
44892,
46969,
49239,
49954,
51292,
53513,
54367,
... | [
4.125,
4.5625
] | 7 | 0 |
Activities that require limited supplies for daytime or lighted areas
— Crumble up a wad of paper and play a ball game (basketball, baseball, blowing the ball across a table into a “goal”).
— Play marbles. If no marbles are available, use rocks or pebbles (draw a circle and see who can knock the rocks out of the circle).
— Play “Hang-man.” Make up a word in your mind. Draw the number of lines that correspond to the letters in that word. Draw an upside down L. If you would like you could give them a hint such as “animal, vegetable, or mineral. The other players guess a letter and if it’s correct, you put it in the correct blank. If it’s incorrect you put a head on the upside down L. Draw another body part for each subsequent wrong guess. The object is to guess the word before you complete the body. Whoever wins gets to pick a word next.
— Make paper airplanes, origami, or paper boats.
— Trace a child’s hand or draw a random shape, and see what animals they can make out of it.
— Write letters to friends or family.
— Play “Tic Tac Toe.” Make a three by three grid on a piece of paper. One person is “X” and one is “O.” The player who succeeds in placing three respective marks in a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal row wins the game.
— Play “Hidden Words.” Have everyone agree on a key word, which must be at least seven letters long. Then, players try to find as many smaller words as possible within the key word, by rearranging letters or keeping them in the same order. For instance, “kitchen” would have the hidden words “it,” “itch,” “kit,” and “etch” in it.
— Play “Find a word.” Make a grid of random letters interspersed with horizontal, vertical, and diagonal words and have the child circle the words when they find them.
— Play “Five questions.” Write down five questions such as:
a.) What is your favorite color?
b.) What is (or was) your favorite subject in school?
c.) What is your favorite song?
d.) What is your favorite food?
e.) What is your favorite book?
Each person has to answer them. Once the first set of five questions are answered, let each individual come up with their own set of questions to ask.
Play “House or Tower of Cards / Blocks / Coins.” Using a deck of cards, blocks, or coins choose a flat surface and each person builds a house or tower. Whichever house or tower falls down first loses the game.
___ Play “Funny Fashion Show” and other dress up games.
___ Play card games, board games, or dominoes.
___ Play musical instruments.
___ Perform simple magic tricks.
___ Play “Tug of War.” Find a level, grassy area to play on, and make a “center line” on the ground. Mark a long rope at the center and make two more lines some distance from the center in each direction (depending on the length of the rope). Make one more set of marks a little distance further from these lines which shows how far each team is allowed to get to the center of the rope. Form two equal teams with the largest person on each team placed at the far end of the rope. At a signal to start, each team pulls the rope as hard as they can until one side’s tape crosses the line. When this line crosses the line on the ground, the team on that end has lost.
___ If a ball is available, play toss, softball, soccer, dodgeball, kickball, or some other ball game.
___ Have a treasure hunt where you write down clues on slips of paper that lead children to a “treasure.”
___ Have a scavenger hunt where you make a list and have children compete to collect the most items.
___ Have an impromptu “camp out” using sheets and blankets to make tents over furniture.
___ Play “Guess the Object.” Select an object and hand it to a child under a cloth, or with his/her eyes blindfolded or closed. He/she feels the object with his/her hands to determine what she's holding. When the child guesses correctly offer another object to guess. If he/she has difficulty, give clues or ask what he/she feels and help him/her figure out what the object could be.
___ Play “Guess the Person.” Give one word to describe a family member or friend. Allow the child to guess who it is. If the child guesses wrong, provide another word to describe the person and then allow another guess. Continue this process until the child guesses the person correctly. Play again but switch roles, have the child provide clues and you guess.
___ Play battery-powered games. | <urn:uuid:ecc59734-b2dc-4a04-8955-67f59b1959d6> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/assets/pdfs/simple_evacuation_activities_for_children_and_adolescents_limited_supplies_daytime.pdf | 2016-05-03T05:13:11Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118790.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00023-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 708,440,855 | 994 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997547 | eng_Latn | 0.997775 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2160,
4391
] | [
4.4375
] | 2 | 12 |
1978:
DROUGHT IN THE EAST
FLOODS OUT WEST
ADVANCING COOLER AIR
WARMER AIR
A CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW
OF HIGHLIGHTS OF TEXAS WEATHER
DURING THE YEAR
LP-89
TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
1978:
DROUGHT IN THE EAST--FLOODS OUT WEST
Written and prepared by
George W. Bomar
Weather Modification & Technology Section
Texas Department of Water Resources
January 1979
LP-89
TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
Harvey Davis, Executive Director
TEXAS WATER DEVELOPMENT BOARD
A. L. Black, Chairman
Milton Potts
George W. McCleskey
John H. Garrett, Vice Chairman
Glen E. Roney
W. O. Bankston
TEXAS WATER COMMISSION
Felix McDonald, Chairman
Joe R. Carroll, Commissioner
Dorsey B. Hardeman, Commissioner
Authorization for use or reproduction of any original material contained in this publication, i.e., not obtained from other sources, is freely granted. The Department would appreciate acknowledgement.
Published and distributed by the
Texas Department of Water Resources
Post Office Box 13087
Austin, Texas 78711
The Rio Grande swelled to the highest levels in 74 years in late September when unusually heavy rains from Tropical Storm Paul struck Texas' Trans-Pecos region and Mexico's Rio Conchos Valley. (Above) Upstream near Heath Canyon, where the river peaked at over 30 feet; extensive lowland flooding occurred all along the Rio Grande from the Presidio Valley to Amistad Reservoir. (Below) The Presidio Valley inundated by the second-highest flood level of the Rio Grande in recorded history; a railroad bridge was washed away, and more than 7000 acres of farmland were damaged.
# TABLE OF CONTENTS
| Section | Page |
|----------------------------------------------|------|
| LIST OF TABLES | iv |
| LIST OF FIGURES | v |
| THE YEAR 1978 IN REVIEW | |
| Introduction | 1 |
| Rainfall | 3 |
| Drought | 10 |
| Snowstorms and Snowfall | 16 |
| Temperatures | 19 |
| Hurricanes and Tropical Storms | 29 |
| Tornadoes and Other Unusual Events | 33 |
| Number | Title | Page |
|--------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| 1 | Precipitation totals (in inches) for selected Texas cities | 6 |
| 2 | Mean and extreme temperatures ($^{\circ}F$) for selected cities in Texas during 1978 | 22 |
| 3 | The number of 100-degree days during June-August 1978 as compared with the recent past (1940-1977) | 25 |
| 4 | Number of incidences of tornadoes, funnel clouds, and waterspouts in Texas during the first 10 months of 1978 | 33 |
| 5 | Tornadoes of significance in Texas in 1978 | 34 |
| Number | Title | Page |
|--------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| 1 | Total precipitation in 1978 expressed as a percentage of the normal annual amount | 4 |
| 2 | Total precipitation (in inches) in 1978 | 5 |
| 3 | The status of drought and wet weather conditions for each season of 1978 (based on the Palmer Drought Index) | 11 |
| 4 | Monthly variation in the Palmer Index for each of the ten climatic regions of Texas | 12 |
| 5 | Snowfall totals (in inches) for the winter and spring (January-May) of 1978 | 17 |
| 6 | Departure ($^o$F) of mean annual temperature from normal | 20 |
| 7 | Mean annual temperature ($^o$F) | 21 |
| 8 | Lowest temperature ($^o$F) observed during the winter (January-March) of 1978 | 24 |
| 9 | Highest temperature ($^o$F) observed during 1978 | 27 |
| 10 | Tracks of tropical cyclones which affected Texas weather during 1978: Hurricane Rosa and Tropical Storms Deborah, Amelia, and Paul | 30 |
| 11 | Phenominal weather events of 1978 | 37 |
The ten climatic regions of Texas.
Texas' weather is frequently recognized for its everchanging nature. Sudden and drastic changes in the State's weather in virtually every month of any year lend support to the popular adage that "if anyone is dissatisfied with the current state of the weather, just wait around a short while and it will change." As in most every other year, 1978 contained at least its share of sharp variations in the weather pattern. But the year is distinguished more for the large number of occurrences of rare weather extremes. A severe drought in the normally verdant northeastern corner of the State and excessive rains that caused numerous floods in the western half of the State are two of many unusual features of the weather pattern that marks 1978 as one of the most bizarre years weatherwise of this century.
Many Texas residents, especially those in the central third of the State, surely will never forget the impact of Tropical Storm Amelia. The storm's remnants had more of an effect on the lives of a sizable segment of the State's populace than any other single weather event of 1978. In fact, the 25 deaths and property losses in the hundreds of millions of dollars attributable to Amelia rank the storm in the same category as the great rainstorm of September 1921.*
Although Amelia's flash-flooding rains serve as the most prominent highlight of the Texas weather scene during 1978, numerous other highly unusual weather events garnered a considerable amount of attention:
- The most severe drought since the infamous extreme drought of the 1950's that gripped northern North Central and East Texas for almost all of the year;
*Regarded by many climatologists as probably the greatest rainstorm in Texas history, the residue of a hurricane that struck the eastern Mexican coast in early September 1921 dumped torrential rains on a 5-county area of central Texas, killing 215, causing property losses of over $19 million, and providing the town of Thrall with 36 inches of rain in an 18-hour period--the greatest rainfall amount ever recorded in the United States.
● The most severe flooding along the Upper Rio Grande since 1904, caused in part by near-record rains in the Trans-Pecos region of the State;
● The coldest weather ever observed in parts of Texas during the year's first two months, when temperatures averaged as much as 13 degrees below normal in some areas;
● One of the longest and most intense summer heat spells of the 20th century, which sent temperatures over 100 degrees for a 3-week period in July and contributed, according to medical authorities, to 24 deaths in the Dallas-Fort Worth area;
● The snowiest winter in Texas weather annals in northern North Central and East Texas, where five snowstorms in January and February gave the area 2-month totals of 10 to 30 inches of snow;
● An extraordinarily late snowstorm that left up to one foot of snow in early May in the Panhandle portion of the High Plains; and
● The absence of disastrous tornadoes, although well over 100 "twisters" were sighted by Texans during the year.
RAINFALL
The year 1978 was noticeably drier-than-usual in nearly two-thirds of the State (Figure 1). Significantly lesser rainfall than normal was common in practically all of North Central and East Texas and the Low Rolling Plains, while sizeable portions of the High Plains, Edwards Plateau, South Central Texas, and the Upper Coast also experienced appreciable rainfall deficits. The driest weather statewide extended from the eastern Upper Coast region into East Texas, where annual totals were barely two-thirds of normal. In these sections total amounts for the year ranged from 30 to 40 inches (Figure 2). Though Beaumont-Port Arthur's total of 34.78 inches would be plenty for the needs of most Texans, the year was the driest there in 14 years and the second driest since the drought of the 1950's.
Most areas within 150 miles of the Rio Grande fared much better. In fact, the Trans Pecos witnessed 1978 as one of the wettest years of this century. In many areas of that westernmost region, annual rainfall totals were more than double the usual yearly amounts. The 15 to 25 inches of rain collected in many localities was the most in any year since 1941. The northern and southern thirds of the High Plains also received greater-than-usual rainfall, although not to the degree as in the Trans-Pecos. Most of South Central and Southern Texas, as well as the Lower Valley, had a slightly wetter-than-usual year. A sizeable portion of the Edwards Plateau, and very small parts of North Central and East Texas, also sustained slight rainfall surpluses.
The winter (January-March) of 1978 was exceptionally dry in most of Texas' ten climatic regions. Monthly rainfall totals less than half of the usual amounts were common during each month at numerous observation points. March was the driest month of the year for many Texas cities (Table 1).
Figure 1. Total precipitation in 1978 expressed as a percentage of the normal annual amount.
NOTE: This analysis is based upon official NWS precipitation data for January-October and unofficial data for November-December for 82 evenly-spaced stations in Texas.
NOTE: This analysis is based upon official NWS precipitation data for January-October and unofficial data for November-December for 82 evenly-spaced weather-observing stations in Texas.
Figure 2. Total precipitation (in inches) in 1978.
Table 1. Precipitation totals (in inches) for selected Texas cities.
| Metropolitan Areas | Total for 1978 | Monthly Extremes |
|-----------------------------|----------------|------------------|
| | Amount | Percent of Normal| Driest Month: Amount | Wettest Month: Amount |
| Abilene | 18.28 | 77 | Mar: 0.17 | Aug: 6.70 |
| Amarillo | 22.01 | 108 | Mar: 0.21 | Jun: 6.50 |
| Austin | 30.97 | 95 | Mar: 0.84 | May: 5.78 |
| Beaumont-Port Arthur | 37.68 | 68 | Oct: Trace | Jun: 7.47 |
| Bryan-College Station | 31.76 | 81 | Jul: 0.53 | Nov: 6.15 |
| Brownsville | 26.88 | 107 | May: Trace | Sep: 8.28 |
| Corpus Christi | 39.14 | 137 | Mar: 0.03 | Jun: 12.04 |
| Dallas-Fort Worth | 24.37 | 75 | Jul: 0.33 | May: 8.01 |
| Del Rio | 19.26 | 114 | Jan: 0.07 | May: 3.46 |
| El Paso | 12.57 | 161 | Apr: 0.00 | Sep: 4.14 |
| Galveston | 29.23 | 69 | May: Trace | Jan: 8.88 |
| Houston | 44.93 | 93 | Oct: 0.05 | Jun: 9.37 |
| Lubbock | 13.70 | 74 | Jul: 0.15 | Sep: 3.29 |
| Midland-Odessa | 17.29 | 127 | Mar: Trace | Sep: 5.02 |
| San Angelo | 14.67 | 83 | Dec: 0.25 | Aug: 2.93 |
| San Antonio | 35.80 | 129 | Oct: 0.55 | Sep: 8.86 |
| Victoria | 43.08 | 125 | Mar: 0.54 | Sep: 19.05 |
| Waco | 23.77 | 76 | Jul: 0.26 | Nov: 4.57 |
| Wichita Falls | 23.57 | 86 | Jul: 0.27 | Aug: 4.16 |
Exceptions to this were an unusually wet January in the Upper Coast region, where monthly totals were double the amounts typical for that month. Galveston's total of 8.11 inches was the most in January in 34 years in that coastal city.
Spring (April-June) began on an ominous note for many Texans plagued by a persistent and worsening drought. While April typically signals the beginning of the "wet" season for many parts of the State, 1978's first full month of Spring elapsed as one of the driest in several decades. Beaumont-Port Arthur measured only 0.36 inch--or less than one-tenth of the usual amount--during April, making the month the second driest April since record-keeping was begun there 67 years ago; Houston's total of 0.57 inch was the least in April in that city since 1937. Areas to the north fared no better; Wichita Falls witnessed the driest April since 1933, while Dallas-Fort Worth received the least rainfall for any April in the past 30 years.
May brought substantial rains to most sections; in fact, too much rain fell too quickly in parts of the High and Low Rolling Plains regions, where 4 to 10 inches were common measurements. A 10-inch rain in 90 minutes sent a 12-foot wall of water surging through scenic Palo Duro Canyon, and flooding was also widespread elsewhere in Randall County, where 4 persons drowned, 15 others were injured, and $8 million to $10 million in damages were incurred as a result of the raging flood waters. But at the other end of the State, rainfall was scarce. For the first time in 26 years, not enough rain fell in Galveston during May to be measured, and Beaumont-Port Arthur's monthly total of 0.10 inch constituted only 2 percent of the normal amount for that area. Fortunately, June brought relief to the Upper Coast with rains totaling 5 to 10 inches at most points, while the High Plains fared better than usual with rains generally 3 inches or greater.
The Texas summer (July-September) began on a dry note, but tropical influences intervened to give some areas of the State more rain than they could handle. July was much drier than usual in most sections, particularly in North Central Texas, the Low Rolling Plains, and northern East Texas, where monthly totals of less than half the usual amount were common. In early August, however, the scene changed drastically as Tropical Storm Amelia and her remnants traced a broad swath of flood-related destruction from South Central Texas through the Edwards Plateau into the Low Rolling Plains and western North Central Texas, yielding general rains of at least 5 inches (and more than 10 inches at numerous points) in two days' time (for more on Amelia, see the section "Hurricanes and Tropical Storms"). Four weeks later, Tropical Storm Debra gave much of the Upper Coast and East Texas appreciable rains of 2 to 5 inches although in northern East Texas, where severe drought was widespread, the rains were insufficient to effect a reversal in the moisture situation. Then, in late September, Tropical Storm Paul survived long enough after crashing into western Mexico to yield 5 to 9 inches of rain--and phenomenal flooding--in the Trans Pecos.
Early autumn mercifully brought a respite to some of those areas of Texas plagued by too much rain during the late summer. October was sufficiently dry in the Low Rolling Plains and Edwards Plateau to allow those areas to return almost to near-normal moisture conditions. But November unleashed more heavy rains on most sections, especially in the Trans Pecos and Edwards Plateau, where monthly totals were typically 5 to 10 times the usual late-in-the-year amounts. Del Rio observed the wettest November in 55 years, and Waco's 4.57 inches was the most collected there in any month since April 1977. The year ended much as it began; December was a dry month in most sections, with more than half of the State receiving less than half of the usual amount.
Among the extremes in daily rainfall amounts measured during 1978, Albany collected on August 4 the most rainfall--29.05 inches--of any of Texas' 598 National Weather Service cooperative observing stations when Tropical Storm Amelia's remains dumped incessant torrents of rain on the western North Central Texas community. As one would expect, Albany also possessed the distinction of having the greatest monthly total rainfall--31.19 inches--of any Texas station. Much of Guadalupe Mountain National Park was washed by rains of 12 to 15 inches in late September when Tropical Storm Paul moved inland into Mexico. Among other heavy rains over short time periods were: 1-day rains of 10 to 15 inches in areas that lay within Amelia's path across central portions of the State, including 15.20 inches at World's End Ranch (Edwards Plateau), 14.29 inches at Haskell (Low Rolling Plains), and 11.60 inches at Kerrville (Edwards Plateau); nearly 16 inches of rain at Victoria during a 3-day period in mid-September as a result of a tropical depression that moved inland from the Gulf of Mexico; and 10.79 inches at Refugio (South Central) on June 1. By contrast, from February 13 to May 20--or a period of 97 consecutive days--no measurable rain fell at Presidio (Trans Pecos); Imperial (Trans-Pecos) was not far behind with the second longest string of dry-weather days--96.
While she is likely to be remembered as a killer storm that wrought unparalleled destruction in parts of central Texas, Tropical Storm Amelia played a significant role in reversing the drought situation in much of the State. By spilling torrents of rain on a broad area of parched plateau in the first few days of August, the storm's remnants singlehandedly terminated a lengthy spell of severe drought that had plagued the region since the late summer of 1977. However, the storm expired before it could bestow enough rain to alleviate severe drought in the Red River Valley of North Central and East Texas. It remained Tropical Storm Debra's task to lessen the drought in that area. Still another storm of tropical origin--named Paul--deluged the Trans-Pecos in late September with rains substantial enough to provide wetter-than-normal conditions for the rest of the year.
The status of drought in Texas shifted dramatically with the passing of the seasons (Figure 3). Whereas a broad swath of Texas was in the throes of a moderate to severe drought during the first few weeks of the year, by the year's end that prolonged moisture deficiency had been supplanted by conditions ranging from near-normal to considerably wetter than usual. Drought was a mainstay in much of the Texas weather picture for the first seven months of 1978 until Amelia arrived on the scene. Pockets of severe drought developed, shifted slightly during the spring and summer, then vanished almost entirely with the advent of autumn.
The Palmer Drought Index for the ten climatic regions of Texas for each month of 1978 shows that mild to severe drought was common in most sections for much of the year (Figure 4). Although most areas within 100 miles of
Figure 3. The status of drought and wet weather conditions for each season of 1978 (based on the Palmer Drought Index).
NOTE: Index values for November and December were estimated by the author using preliminary rainfall data for those two months.
INDEX CHARACTER OF THE WEATHER
4 Very much wetter than normal
3 Much wetter than normal
2 Moderately wetter than normal
1 Slightly wetter than normal
0-1 Incipient wet spell
-1-0 Incipient drought
-1 Mild drought
-2 Moderate drought
-3 Severe drought
-4 Extreme drought
Figure 4. Monthly variation in the Palmer Index for each of the ten climatic regions of Texas.
NOTE: Index values for November and December were estimated by the author using preliminary rainfall data for those two months.
INDEX CHARACTER OF THE WEATHER
4 Very much wetter than normal
3 Much wetter than normal
2 Moderately wetter than normal
1 Slightly wetter than normal
0-1 Incipient wet spell
-1-0 Incipient drought
-1 Mild drought
-2 Moderate drought
-3 Severe drought
-4 Extreme drought
Figure 4. Monthly variation in the Palmer Index for each of the ten climatic regions of Texas--Continued
the coastline started the year with a moisture surplus, 1978 began with most of Texas' climate regions in dire need of moisture. A sizeable portion of North Central Texas was already in the throes of a severe drought when the year unfolded. Reversal of the moisture situation in several regions due to heavy rains from tropical storms was marked. Yet, much of Texas reported moisture deficits throughout the year.
The moderate to severe drought that prevailed in North Central and East Texas for most of 1978 was the longest and most intense of any drought since the memorable severe-to-extreme drought of the early and mid-1950's. Its origin traces back to the early summer of 1977. Whereas the drought in East Texas was not as severe as that which gripped North Central Texas during the first six months of 1978, both regions for the most part suffered to the same degree in the latter half of the year. The extreme northeastern portion of East Texas was seized by extreme drought for a 2-week period in late October.
The Trans-Pecos region of Texas sustained the most dramatic shift in moisture conditions during 1978. Substantial rains on several occasions in August totalling 3 to 8 inches soaked many areas and abruptly terminated mild to moderate drought that had prevailed in the region since August 1977. Termination of the drought in this region was ensured when Tropical Storm Paul delivered flood-producing rains in late September, at which time the index rose above the "much wetter than normal" level.
Southern Texas experienced a reversal similar in suddenness. A mild drought that began in the early autumn of 1977 had been aggravated by rainfall amounts of 15 to 20 percent of normal during the last few months of 1977 such that, as the year 1978 got underway, the region was suffering from moderate drought. Matters worsened further before they improved. The virtual absence
of rainfall in Webb, Zapata, and Duval Counties during the period February-April caused most surface water for livestock to disappear; more than 8000 head of cattle died in those three counties alone, while in Kinney and Val Verde Counties, 58,000 sheep and 33,000 goats were lost to the drought. The wild deer population suffered greatly as well. Rains of 2 to 5 inches softened the blow somewhat in May, but the torrential downpours from Tropical Storm Amelia in early August were needed to completely stop the drought.
The Edwards Plateau and Low Rolling Plains were the regions which bore the brunt of Amelia's torrential downpours, and hence, benefitted greatly from the drought-killing rains. Drought of at least 12 months duration was abruptly terminated in the two regions when Amelia deposited from 5 to 20 inches of rain at many points during a 3-day spell in early August. Almost overnight, moderate-to-severe drought gave way to wetter than normal moisture conditions. Indeed, the rains were so substantial that some parts of the Edwards Plateau near the Rio Grande experienced "much wetter than normal" moisture conditions--the antithesis of the worst degree of drought--during the first few weeks of autumn (Figure 4).
It was the frequency of snowstorm occurrence as well as the amount of snow that marked 1978 as one of the snowiest ever in the northern third of Texas. Too, a heavy snow fell in the northern High Plains as late as the first week of May. In fact, the winter of 1978 was the snowiest ever in recorded weather history for most of northern North Central and East Texas. A total of five snowstorms lashed the region during January and February, leaving at least several inches of snow on the ground on each occasion. The Dallas-Fort Worth area measured more than 13 inches in February and experienced the most snowfall--17.6 inches--in any single winter since at least 1898. Snowfall was heavy in the High and Low Rolling Plains too, but these regions usually receive the greatest number of snowstorms and the heaviest amounts of any area of the State. The most unusual feature of the snow season there was the lateness of the last significant snowfall--the first week of May. The winter was typical in the southern third of the State, where no snow of consequence fell.
Up to ten times the normal amount of snow fell in northern North Central Texas during January and February. Cumulative snowfall totals amounted to at least 15 inches in many areas, while numerous points near the Red River measured from 20 to 25 inches (Figure 5). At least two-thirds of the total seasonal snowfall resulted from two snowstorms that struck the region during February. Still, the 5 to 10 inches that accumulated during January was enough to mark that month as one of the snowiest ever. Snowfall was unusually heavy--from two to three times the usual--in much of the Low Rolling Plains region too. The winter passed with that area collecting at least one foot of snow.
Note: "T" denotes a "trace"
of snow observed.
Figure 5. Snowfall totals (in inches) for the winter and spring (January-May) of 1978.
The northern half of the Edwards Plateau shared in the phenomenally heavy winter snowfall. Up to 5 inches fell in the northernmost counties of the region from one snowstorm in January. San Angelo saw 9 inches of snow fall on January 20 and 21, making the month the snowiest since January 1926, when 13 inches accumulated in that plateau city.
Nearly double the normal amount of snow--or up to 30 inches--fell in the Panhandle portion of the High Plains. Almost one-quarter of the total came from the phenomenally late snowstorm of early May, when one-half foot of snow fell in the two northernmost tiers of Panhandle counties. Even the northeastern portion of the Trans-Pecos received somewhat heavier snowfall totals during the winter. Yet most of the Trans-Pecos failed to collect its usual 2 to 4 inches of snow.
The snowline--the southern boundary of snowfall accumulations on any one day of at least one inch--extended as far south as near Junction (Edwards Plateau), Lampasas (Edwards Plateau), and Centerville (East). Traces of snow were observed as far south as Chisos Basin (Trans Pecos), Pandale (Edwards Plateau), San Antonio and Runge (South Central), Corpus Christi, Galveston, and Port Arthur.
The first significant snowstorm of the autumn gave modest amounts of 3 to 4 inches of snow to the central and northern parts of the High and Low Rolling Plains. Later in November, at least a couple of inches of snow accumulated in some of the mountainous areas of the western Trans-Pecos. More snow--2 to 5 inches--fell in the High and Low Rolling Plains during the first week of December. The year ended on an icy note when 1 to 3 inches of snow combined with an ice storm to glaze all of the High and Low Rolling Plains on December 30 and 31.
Although 1978 brought some of the coldest and hottest weather ever seen by many Texas residents, the year on the whole was neither appreciably cooler or warmer than usual. While temperatures averaged over the whole of the year for most locations were below normal, departures were for the most part within 2 degrees of normal (Figure 6). Greatest negative deviations from normal occurred in the Edwards Plateau, where numerous points measured mean annual temperatures of more than 2 degrees --but less than 3--below normal. Only the western and eastern extremities of the State observed warmer-than-usual weather for the year. Mean annual temperatures for some Trans-Pecos localities were nearly 2 degrees above normal, while a few points in the eastern Upper Coast registered average readings of less than 1 degree above normal. True to form, coolest mean annual temperatures--in the low 50's--occurred in the northern High Plains, while warmest readings--in the low 70's--were common in the Lower-Valley (Figure 7).
Texas traditionally registers coldest temperatures of the year during either January or February. The year 1978 was exceptional, however, in that a blast of Arctic air on December 9 and 10 dropped temperatures in much of Texas at least several degrees below readings measured earlier in the year. During this spell morning temperatures dipped well below zero in the northern High Plains and into the teens in northern South Central and southern East Texas (Table 2). Earlier in the year, seiges of cold Arctic air during the periods January 17-22 and February 17-18 dropped temperatures into the 20's over the southern half of Texas. Below-zero readings occurred in the High Plains on February 17 and 18, while readings in the teens were common in the northern Low Rolling Plains and North Central
NOTE: This analysis is based upon official NWS temperature data for January-October and unofficial data for November and December for 30 temperature-observing stations in Texas.
Figure 6. Departure (°F) of mean annual temperature from normal
NOTE: This analysis is based upon official NWS temperature data for January-October and unofficial data for November-December for 30 temperature-observing stations in Texas.
Figure 7. Mean annual temperature (°F)
Table 2. Mean and extreme temperatures (°F) for selected cities in Texas during 1978.
| LOCALE | ANNUAL AVERAGE | DEPARTURE FROM NORMAL (1941-70) | EXTREMES |
|----------------------|----------------|---------------------------------|----------|
| | | | LOW | HIGH |
| HIGH PLAINS | | | | |
| Amarillo | 56.1 | -1.3 | -4 | 105 |
| Dalhart | 54.4 | -0.8 | -7 | 104 |
| Lubbock | 59.6 | -0.1 | -2 | 106 |
| Midland-Odessa | 62.2 | -1.7 | 13 | 103 |
| LOW ROLLING PLAINS | | | | |
| Abilene | 64.3 | -0.2 | 12 | 110 |
| Childress | 61.1 | -0.7 | 5 | 108 |
| Wichita Falls | 62.2 | -1.9 | 4 | 114 |
| NORTH CENTRAL | | | | |
| Dallas-Fort Worth | 64.4 | -1.1 | 9 | 107 |
| Waco | 66.4 | -0.7 | 18 | 107 |
| EAST | | | | |
| Longview | 64.4 | -1.1 | 17 | 106 |
| Lufkin | 64.8 | -1.9 | 16 | 100 |
| TRANS PECOS | | | | |
| El Paso | 64.8 | 1.4 | 13 | 111 |
| EDWARDS PLATEAU | | | | |
| Del Rio | 69.2 | -0.8 | 25 | 104 |
| San Angelo | 64.1 | -2.1 | 14 | 106 |
| SOUTH CENTRAL | | | | |
| Austin | 67.1 | -1.0 | 19 | 105 |
| Corpus Christi | 71.3 | -0.6 | 21 | 101 |
| San Antonio | 67.4 | -1.4 | 18 | 101 |
| UPPER COAST | | | | |
| Beaumont-Port Arthur | 69.2 | 0.7 | 24 | 97 |
| Galveston | 68.4 | -1.4 | 28 | 93 |
| Houston | 67.2 | -1.7 | 20 | 102 |
| Victoria | 68.8 | -1.3 | 22 | 99 |
| SOUTHERN | | | | |
| Cotulla | 70.7 | -1.1 | 21 | 105 |
| LOWER VALLEY | | | | |
| Brownsville | 73.7 | -0.1 | 31 | 100 |
| McAllen | 73.5 | -0.2 | 30 | 101 |
NOTE: Annual average temperatures and departures from normal as given above may vary slightly (a few tenths of a degree) from the official data, since the computations in this report are based upon unofficial data for the months of November and December.
Although some sections of the Lower Valley escaped a freeze during the winter (January-March) of 1978, the surge of arctic air in early December led to subfreezing weather in all areas of the State. Morning readings hovered around 30 degrees in the Low Valley on December 10. Areas within 30 miles of the Rio Grande in the Lower Valley avoided a freeze when the coldest January spell struck, but some of those areas sustained a mild freeze on February 22 (Figure 8). Another oddity of the cold weather season of 1978 was that the longest string of freeze days occurred not in the High Plains but in the northern Low Rolling Plains; Wellington sustained freezing temperatures on 65 consecutive mornings during the first three months of the year. The High Plains city of Dimmitt recorded the most number of freeze days during the winter and spring of 1978 with a total of 86. The last spring freeze occurred at Pampa (30 degrees), Dimmitt (32 degrees) and Dumas (31 degrees) on May 5, while freezing weather was first observed in the autumn at Lipscomb (High Plains) with a morning low temperature of 30 degrees on October 14.
The torrid Texas summer was one of the longest and most intense of this century. Many localities from the Trans-Pecos to North Central and Southern Texas sustained from 2 to 3 times the usual number of afternoons when temperatures climb to at least 100 degrees (Table 3). The stifling heat was most intense in July, when mean monthly temperatures in much of the northern half of the State were from 2 to 4 degrees above normal; some points in the Low Rolling Plains and North Central Texas suffered from mean monthly temperatures of 90 degrees or more! June was a near-normal month temperature-wise, while August on the whole was a slightly cooler-than-usual month statewide.
The first significant spell of 100-degree weather struck virtually all
Figure 8. Lowest temperature (°F) observed during the winter (January-March) of 1978.
Table 3. The number of 100-degree days during June-August 1978 as compared with the recent past (1940-1977).
| Metropolitan Area | Number of 100-degree Days |
|-------------------------|----------------------------|
| | 1978 | Mean | Greatest Number |
| | (Jun-Aug) | (1940-77) | Prior to 1978 |
| Abilene | 37 | 14 | 44 (1943) |
| Austin | 6 | 10 | 32 (1963) |
| Dallas-Fort Worth | 35 | 17 | 47 (1956) |
| Del Rio | 32 | 19 | 68 (1953) |
| El Paso | 31 | 14 | 33 (1969) |
| Longview | 17 | 8 | 39 (1954) |
| Lubbock | 16 | 7 | 21 (1940) |
| San Angelo | 7 | 18 | 60 (1969) |
| Waco | 46 | 17 | 57 (1969) |
| Wichita Falls | 48 | 29 | 52 (1956) |
| Metropolitan Area | Greatest Number of Consecutive 100-degree Days |
|-------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| | 1978 | Mean | Longest String |
| | (Jun-Aug) | (1940-77) | Prior to 1978 |
| Abilene | 21 | 3 | 29 (1952) |
| Austin | 5 | 2 | 16 (1951) |
| Dallas-Fort Worth | 18 | 4 | 25 (1952) |
| Del Rio | 22 | 5 | 28 (1952) |
| El Paso | 14 | 3 | 10 (1944/1957)|
| Longview | 5 | 2 | 15 (1951/1954)|
| Lubbock | 6 | 2 | 6 (1944) |
| San Angelo | 4 | 4 | 18 (1943/1969)|
| Waco | 20 | 4 | 30 (1969) |
| Wichita Falls | 25 | 6 | 26 (1969) |
of the western half of Texas in mid-May. But the longest spell of oppressive heat hit much of the State in late June and continued uninterruptedly for nearly one month. During this period afternoon readings soared to 110 degrees or above in a sizeable portion of the Low Rolling Plains and North Central Texas (Figure 9). An 18-day span during which temperatures reached 100 degrees every afternoon in the Dallas-Fort Worth area took 21 lives and sickened 53 other residents. Zapata (Southern) captured the distinction of having experienced the most lengthy spell of 100-degree days--33--from June 21 to July 23. Candelaria (Trans-Pecos) measured the greatest total of 100-degree days during the year with 74. Lajitas (Trans-Pecos) and Pecos observed the first 100-degree readings of the year on April 1 with afternoon highs of 101 degrees and 100 degrees, respectively. The 103-degree high of September 19 at Pecos was the latest 100-degree reading to occur during the year.
Numerous temperature records were broken during both the winter and summer. For the 3-month period of December 1977-February 1978, Houston and Galveston both sustained the coldest weather ever observed in those two locales with mean monthly temperatures of 46.6 and 50.0 degrees, respectively. The year's first month will long be remembered as the coldest January of this century in Dallas-Fort Worth, Houston, and Wichita Falls. At least another half-dozen major cities in the State observed the coldest January in 38 years. February brought little relief, as Houston sustained the coldest second month of the year in its weather history, and Galveston and Amarillo witnessed the coldest February in 73 years. However, the weather pattern had shifted so abruptly by early summer that extremes at the opposite end of the temperature spectrum were commonly observed. El Paso endured the hottest temperature ever observed--111 degrees on June 24--during the month of June. The next month Abilene and
Figure 9. Highest temperature (°F) observed during 1978.
A → above
B → below
Beaumont-Port Arthur suffered the hottest July of the 20th century for those two areas, and Wichita Falls mean temperature for the month of July of 89.9 degrees tied 1934 for the hottest July of this century in that Red River city.
As in 1976 and 1977, the hurricane-tropical storm season passed with the Texas Coastline escaping major damage from wind and high water. That is not to say that the 1978 season was an inactive one for Texans. The catastrophic effects of the remnants of Tropical Amelia qualify the 1978 season as another in a large number of years when tropical cyclones dealt the Lone Star State a devastating blow. Tropical Storm Deborah bestowed much-needed rain to portions of East Texas wracked by moderate-to-severe drought. And, as in the two previous years, tropical storm systems from the Pacific Ocean affected western sections of the State.
Tropical Storm Amelia gained infamy not for the substantial rains and 50 mile-hour winds that she gave to the coastlines of Southern and South Central Texas. Rather, the storm will long be remembered for her persistence as a storm system--and for some of the worst flooding of the 20th century in the "Texas Hill Country" and the Low Rolling Plains. In addition to her perseverance, Amelia traversed a path that is virtually unique in the history of Texas' weather (Figure 10).* Flash floods produced by the tropical storm killed 25 persons, injured 150 others, and caused an estimated $50 million in the three federally-declared disaster counties of Bandera, Kerr, and Kendall. One day later another 6 persons died in Shackelford County as the storm's residue wandered into the extreme western portion of North Central Texas.
*How Tropical Storm Amelia thrived for so long once on shore and produced devastating flash floods is the subject of the report, "An Analysis of Weather Conditions Relative to Occurrence of Flash Flooding Rains in Central Texas," from the Texas Department of Water Resources.
Figure 10. Tracks of tropical cyclones which affected Texas weather during 1978: Hurricane Rosa and Tropical Storms Deborah, Amelia, and Paul
| Date | Time* | Date | Time* |
|--------|-------|--------|-------|
| 1 Jul | 30 | 21 Sep | 25 |
| 2 Jul | 30 | 22 Sep | 25 |
| 3 Jul | 31 | 23 Sep | 26 |
| 4 Jul | 31 | 24 Sep | 26 |
| 5 Aug | 1 | 25 Sep | 27 |
| 6 Aug | 1 | | |
| 7 Aug | 1 | | |
| 8 Aug | 2 | | |
| 9 Aug | 2 | | |
| 10 Aug | 4 | 26 Oct | 3 |
| 11 Aug | 4 | 27 Oct | 3 |
| DEBORAH| 29 Oct| 6 | 7 AM |
| | 30 Oct| 6 | 1 PM |
| | 31 Oct| 7 | 1 PM |
*Daylight Savings Time (CDT)
Amelia suddenly developed at mid-afternoon on July 30 less than 50 miles off the extreme lower Texas coast, moved north-northwestward and struck the Texas coastline midway between Brownsville and Port Isabel just before midnight on that day. Three to 5-inch rains fell along the coast northward to Corpus Christi, while wind damage was minimal. Once over land, the storm began disintegrating as it continued moving northwestward deeper into the State on the following morning. However, the storm revived and spilled torrents of rain along the Balcones Escarpment, soaking the watersheds of the Guadalupe, Median, and Sabinal rivers and filling those rivers and numerous other streams and creeks in the region to overflowing. By dawn of August 2, the raging floodwaters had taken the lives of 25 unsuspecting riverfront residents and campers.
The first tropical storm of the 1978 season was not finished, however. The well-defined extratropical storm moved northward across the Edwards Plateau unto the southern Low Rolling Plains, dumping 4 to 8 inches of rain on an area parched by moderate to severe drought. Again, it became reinvigorated while in the vicinity of Abilene and yielded flood-producing rains in a 6-county area of western North Central Texas. Rivers and streams burst out of their banks, floodwaters roared through communities, reservoirs filled and overflowed, and 6 more Texans were drowned. At last, the irrespressible storm waned and died over North Central Texas but not before it bestowed welcome rains on parts of drought-ridden North Central and East Texas.
Deborah began as a concentrated mass of rain showers in a low-pressure trough in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico on August 26, then organized itself into a tropical depression early on August 27 as it drifted westward about 250 miles east of Brownsville. The storm spared most of the Texas coastline
when it veered northward and struck land near the mouth of the Sabine River before midnight on August 28. Packing sustained winds of 55 miles per hour when she made landfall, Deborah spread considerable moisture into the Upper Coast and East Texas. Although she spawned several tornadoes in the eastern Upper Coast region, Deborah was benevolent in that rains of 1 to 3 inches fell in an area of Texas in need of substantive rain to eradicate an increasingly bothersome drought.
Tropical Storm Paul was the fourth Pacific tropical cyclone to affect Texas' weather in the last 3 years, and the storm's contribution to the Trans Pecos is sure to stand as a major highlight of that region's weather during the 20th century. Paul struck the Mexican coast near Culiacan early in the afternoon of September 24 and drifted eastward into northern Mexico, pumping copious amounts of Pacific moisture into the westernmost region of the State of Texas. The Rio Grande in the Presidio Valley filled to the highest level since 1904, not only from 4 to 8-inch rains in the western and southern Trans Pecos but from much heavier rains that deluged northern Mexico for several days and filled reservoirs there to levels that mandated record releases down the Rio Conchos into the Rio Grande at Presidio.
The upper Rio Grande was not the only conduit in Texas' Trans-Pecos region to swell from rains in association with Tropical Storm Paul. A disturbance in the upper atmosphere related to Paul (as the storm spun in the southern Gulf of California) produced torrential rains of up to 15 inches in and around Guadalupe National Park on September 25. The excessive rains flooded campgrounds and highways and sent the Pecos River over its banks at Mentone, which had to be evacuated, and at Pecos, where water stood several feet deep in the downtown area.
Fortunately for rain-weary residents of the Trans-Pecos, the last tropical system to affect Texas--Hurricane Rosa--generated only a cloud cover and a few patches of light rain along the upper Rio Grande. Rosa had been of hurricane strength until she crossed cooler water in the Gulf of California on October 6. The dying storm made landfall near Los Mochis on October 7 and was too weak to generate any weather of substance on the Texas side of the Rio Grande.
TORNADOES AND OTHER UNUSUAL EVENTS
Texans were extremely fortuitous in 1978 in that, while more than 125 tornadoes were observed to have occurred, damage or destruction of disastrous proportions was avoided. More than a score of communities were struck by twisters, but none suffered to any great degree. Even loss of life was held to a virtual minimum; only one death in the State during the year could be attributed directly to tornadoes.
Three of every four tornadoes which occurred in Texas in 1978 struck either during April or May (Table 4). Nearly all of the cyclones of these two months
Table 4. Number of incidences of tornadoes, funnel clouds, and waterspouts in Texas during the first 10 months of 1978.
| TYPE/Location | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct |
|---------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
| TORNADOES | | | | | | | | | | |
| North | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 32 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| West | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 32 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| South | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 7 | 3 | 4 | 1 |
| FUNNEL CLOUDS | | | | | | | | | | |
| North | 0 | 0 | 2 | 10 | 21 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| West | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 24 | 13 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
| South | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 20 | 17 | 8 | 14 | 3 |
| WATERSPOUTS | | | | | | | | | | |
| South | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 10 | 2 | 1 |
hit either in the western or northern thirds of the State. Only a tenth of all sighted tornadoes occurred in the south, and most of those struck in the summer. Funnel clouds--or tornadoes that develop but never touch land--were observed most often in May, June, and July. Waterspouts--or tornadoes which occur over open water--were most numerous off the coastline of the Upper Coast region in August.
Tornadoes struck no earlier in 1978 than April 3, and the first large outbreak of tornadoes--as well as the most extensive of the year--occurred nearly three weeks later, lashing parts of northern North Central and East Texas on May 11 (Table 5). This siege began at mid-afternoon in Ellis and
Table 5. Tornadoes of significance in Texas in 1978.
| Location | Date | Time | Deaths | Injuries | Path | Significance |
|---------------------------|----------|--------|--------|----------|------|--------------------------------------------------|
| | | | | | | : length width: |
| | | | | | | : (mi) (ft): |
| 15 miles NE of Childress | Apr 3 | 5:20pm | 0 | 0 | 5 | 300 First tornado of the year |
| northern North Central Texas | Apr 22 | 3:50-4:40pm | 0 | 0 | - | - First large outbreak |
| near Darrouzett | May 3 | 4:30pm | 0 | 0 | 7 | 1200 Most destructive |
| northern North Central & East Texas | May 11 | 4:10-10:42pm | 0 | 0 | - | - Day with greatest number (11) |
| near Memphis | May 26 | 10:19pm| 1 | 0 | 3 | 180 First killer tornado |
Hill Counties of North Central Texas and ended about six hours later in Smith County of East Texas. One tornado destroyed four homes, damaged several automobiles, and flattened power lines in Midlothian. Straight-line winds
of 89 to 100 miles per hour associated with one severe thunderstorm in this storm system caused extensive window damage in Longview, where ten people were injured, and considerable tree damage in Tyler.
Hail easily surpassed tornadoes in terms of crop and property damage. The most devastating hailstorm of 1978 in Texas pounded Texarkana on April 22, inflicting $10 million in damage to residences and another $5.4 million to vehicles. One of the year's earliest hailstorms caused $2 million in damages to automobiles, residential roofs, and windows in Gainesville (North Central) on March 20. More than a million dollars in damages was sustained in the Johnson County communities of Joshua, Burleson, and Lillian on April 24; pieces of hail up to 4 inches long tore through metal roofs and outbuildings, and severe roof and window damage occurred at many residences. Joshua and Burleson suffered extensive damage--almost $500 thousand worth--a month earlier when thunderstorms ravaged the same area on March 20. What is apparently the largest observed hailstones--4-1/2 inches in diameter--observed in the State during the year fell at Aledo (North Central) on April 22 from a slow-moving thunderstorm. Tennis-ball-size hailstones covered the ground to a depth of 5 inches at the Gillespie County community of Doss (Edwards Plateau) on May 1.
Lightning occasionally posed problems for a few Texas residents. At least two people died in Texas after having been struck by lightning; a picnicker was killed while standing under a tree at Fabens on May 19, while a 15-year-old youth succumbed while hauling hay near Dubina in Fayette County (South Central) on August 3. On June 5 lightning struck an oil tank near Muenster in Cooke County (North Central), causing a fire that enveloped several oil-storage tanks.
In addition to the ravaging floods attributable to Tropical Storms Amelia and Paul and the flash floods that struck Canyon in May, numerous
other localized floods plagued parts of the State during the year. One man was drowned and several other people injured when flash floods struck San Antonio on September 13. More than 100 homes and automobiles were damaged by water when heavy thunderstorms caused sudden rises on creeks and streets in the city. The next day up to 16 inches of rain poured down on Center (East), isolating the city for several hours and forcing evacuation of homes; flooding also occurred in nearby San Augustine and Nacogdoches Counties. Water from heavy thunderstorms accumulated on the roof of a church building in Garland (North Central), causing it to collapse during a worship service and killing a small girl and injuring 57 other people. A flash flood produced in minutes by a massive thunderstorm drowned a camper in his sleeping bag at Boquillas (Trans Pecos) on June 1. On the same day, torrential rains flooded the courthouse and an auditorium and hospital in Corpus Christi and closed streets and highways in Refugio.
Figure 11. Phenomenal weather events of 1978.
UNUSUALLY LATE SNOWSTORM
May 2-3
LONGEST SPELL OF FREEZE DAYS
65 Wellington
FLASH FLOODS
May 26 Canyon Jan 1 - Mar 6
GREATEST MONTHLY SNOWFALL
26.1 inches Valley View February
COLDEST WINTER TEMPERATURE
11-6 Floydada February 18
HOTTEST SUMMER TEMPERATURE
116 Munday/Otney July 15
SEVERE DROUGHT
July - August
HEAVY RAINS
16 inches Guadalupe MNP September 25
HEAVY SNOW
9 inches San Angelo January 20-21
GREATEST NUMBER OF 100-DEGREE DAYS
74 Candelaria
WORST FLOODING IN 74 YEARS
September 25 - October 4
LONGEST DRY SPELL
97 days Presidio
February 13 - May 20
GREATEST DAILY RAINFALL
29.05 inches Albany August 4
HEAVY RAINS
5 inches September 13
HEAVY RAINS
16 inches Victoria
TROPICAL STORM DEBORAH
August 28-29
AMELIA'S FLOODS
August 1-4
LONGEST SPELL OF 100-DEGREE DAYS
33 Zapata
June 21 - July 23 | 0affbabe-4f2a-48a6-a5b0-9dbc4d7db4d2 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | http://www.twdb.texas.gov/publications/reports/limited_printing/doc/LP-089.pdf | 2022-12-08T22:28:29+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711368.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20221208215156-20221209005156-00747.warc.gz | 97,322,577 | 12,401 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.9567 | eng_Latn | 0.997967 | [
"nld_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
... | true | rolmOCR | [
190,
377,
1023,
1598,
2292,
3006,
4316,
4352,
6427,
7419,
9273,
9536,
9775,
11851,
13774,
15775,
17147,
18882,
19003,
19501,
20009,
21906,
23141,
24892,
25027,
26784,
28602,
28846,
29061,
32974,
34849,
34936,
36739,
38715,
38794,
39027,
40768,
... | [
2.21875,
2.609375
] | 2 | 0 |
U8/U10
Practice Plan
WASA thanks the Gurnee Park District, Gurnee, IL for this information. These plans were obtained from the Gurnee Park District website upon the recommendation of a former resident. The document title has been changed from the original to reflect WASA age group designations.
# Table of Contents
- Common Practice Problems ................................................................. 3
- Stretching Exercises ........................................................................... 4
- Goalkeeper Training .......................................................................... 5-6
- Basic Practice Plan ............................................................................ 7
- Practice #1 – Dribbling ....................................................................... 8-9
- Practice #2 – Positions on the Field and Formations ..................... 10-11
- Practice #3 – Passing and Trapping .................................................. 12-13
- Practice #4 – Shooting ........................................................................ 14-15
- Practice #5 – Defense ........................................................................ 16-17
- Practice #6 – Juggling and Heading .................................................. 18-19
- Practice #7 – Dribbling, Passing, Shooting ...................................... 20-21
- Practice #8 – Miscellaneous ............................................................. 22
- Practice #9 – Player’s Practice! ....................................................... 23
COMMON PRACTICE PROBLEMS
#1 Having an odd number of players at practice
- If you have an assistant or a spare parent, have them work with a goalkeeper
- When doing pair activities, make a triangle instead
- In small group activities, add a shadow defender with no tackling allowed
- Scrimmage 5v4 and have team with less players loaded with stronger players
- Scrimmage 5v4 and have team with more players attacking small goal
- Scrimmage 5v4 and have team with less players with goalie, other team without
- Use assistant, parent, brother/sister to even teams out
- Play yourself
#2 Picking teams for scrimmages
- Use your knowledge and judgment to evenly match up individuals
- Random Teams
- Choose one player to give everyone a number. Turn away and pick random numbers for teams
- Choose players by birthday month or day
#3 Increasing competition for more advance players
- In pairs, match up players according to ability
- If one exceptional player, match up against assistant or parent
- Reduce the space
- Limit number of touches
#4 In eliminating games players sit out for long periods of time
- In games like knockout players should do a skill activity that allows them back into the game. Rather than a single winner, count number of times required to do the skill activity. Least number wins. Skill activities could include dribbling to a distant cone and back, juggle the ball x times, do x jumping jacks, etc.
#5 Defenders always win the ball without offense gaining experience
- Have defense play as a shadow
- Restrict movement of defense by playing as a crab on all 4’s
- Increase the playing area
*TIP: Change games so that the players are competing against the coaches. Kids love this challenge!*
STRETCHING EXERCISES
1. Arms/Neck
- Roll arms around in a ‘windmill type’ action. First rotate right arm forward 10 times, then switch to left arm. This can be done using both arms at the same time. Then, change to rotating arms backwards using the same sequence.
- Move head up and down holding each position for 8-10 seconds. Move head from side to side holding each position for 8-10 seconds.
2. Quadriceps
- These muscles are the big muscles that cover the front of your thigh. Use a goal post, a wall, or a teammate to balance. Stand straight. Bend one leg and hold your ankle or the top of your foot. Pull your bent leg until your heel is close to your bottom. Hold for 10 seconds. Switch legs. (Diagram 1)
3. Hamstrings
- These are the muscles at the back of your thigh. In a sitting position with your left leg straight, place the sole of your right foot against the inside of your left thigh. Bend your trunk toward your extended leg, keeping your knee straight and foot in a relaxed position. Hold for 10 seconds. Switch legs. (Diagram 2)
4. Groin (Butterfly stretch)
- In a sitting position with your back straight, bend your knees and place the bottoms of your feet together. Pull your feet towards your groin. Place your elbows on your knees and gently push the knees toward the floor. Hold for 10 seconds and repeat. (Diagram 3)
5. Calves
- In a sitting position with legs straight, place right heel on top of left toes. Pull right toes towards body with hands. Hold for 10 seconds. Switch legs.
GOALKEEPER TRAINING
Ready Position:
- Shoulders squared to ball with feet shoulder-width apart
- Hands at waist level with palms forward and fingers pointing upward
- Head steady and eyes focused on the ball
Narrowing the Shooting Angle:
- Come off goal line toward the ball, as opponent is getting ready to shoot. This cuts down on the amount of goal the shooter has to score.
Gathering Ground Balls:
- Keep legs straight, with feet a few inches apart, and bend forward at the waist
- Reach arms down with palms forward and slightly cupped
- Allow the ball to roll up onto wrists and forearms
Gathering Air Balls:
(between ankles and waist)
- Bend forward at the waist
- Extend arms down with palms facing forward
- Receive the ball on the wrists and forearms and secure it against your chest
- For waist-height balls, jump backward a few inches to absorb the impact
(chest or head-high)
- As ball arrives, position hands in a diamond position with fingers spread and thumbs almost touching
- Extend arms, slightly flexed at the elbows
- Catch the ball with fingertips
- Withdraw arms to cushion the impact and secure the ball to chest
Diving to Save Shots:
- Step and push off the foot nearest to the ball in the direction you are going to dive (push off right foot to dive to right)
- Extend arms and hands toward ball
- Receive the ball on your fingertips and palms
- Pin the ball to the ground with upper hand
- Contact the ground with your side, not stomach
Distributing the Ball:
- Rolling the ball-release the ball with a bowling-type motion at ground level so it doesn’t bounce
- Throwing the ball-hold the ball in the palm of the hand, step toward target and use overhand throw similar to baseball
- Kicking the ball-hold the ball in the palm of the hand opposite the kicking foot. Step forward with non-kicking foot, release the ball and kick with instep.
GOALKEEPING GAMES
Over the Top (to distribute the ball)
Play 3v3 in a 20x60 yard area. Use cones to mark three 20-yard zones within the length of the field (distances can be changed according to ability). Three players on offense attack the goal. The three on defense including goalkeeper defend the goal. The defense scores in this manner
- 1 point for a shot stopped and successfully distributed by goalie by rolling ball into first zone
- 2 points for a shot stopped and successfully distributed by goalie by throwing ball into second zone
- 3 points for a shot stopped and successfully distributed by goalie by punting ball into third zone
- 1 additional point for any ball controlled by one of the goalie’s teammates
Once defense controls the ball from the goalkeeper, play begins with the offense.
Shoot and Save (goalie training for entire team)
Bring goals 30 yards apart with goalie in each goal. Other players should be in line outside of left posts of each goal. Balls in both goals. Player takes ball, dribbles towards goal and shoots. He then goes to end of other line. Goalie now becomes forward and dribbles and shoots at other goal. Front of the line replaces in goal each time. Players in line can assist collecting balls. Continue repeating rotation.
*Any shooting game or game that goes to goal can be used for goalie training as well.*
BASIC PRACTICE PLAN
- Warm-up/Stretch…5-10 minutes
- This section will get the players moving (with or without the ball) to warm up their muscles prior to stretching. This warm-up may be as simple as tag or a review game from prior practices.
- Be sure to stretch every practice…the earlier in life the players get in the habit of stretching, the better! One idea is to have a different player lead stretching each practice. See attached sheet on major stretches to be done.
- Skill of the Day Instruction…10-15 minutes
- This section will be where you teach the players different skills and concepts of the game. It will also include a short drill to practice that particular skill. Take this time to give one-on-one instruction and to correct any mistakes.
- Practice Activities/Games…15-20 minutes
- This section will involve games that will further develop the skill of the day.
- Water Break/Recap/Game Prep…5 minutes
- Use this time to give the players a rest, recap the practice and organize for the scrimmage.
- Small/Full-Sided Scrimmages…15-20 minutes
- This is often the most fun part of practice, for players and coaches! Small-sided scrimmages (teams of 2-4 each) are great because each player gets plenty of touches on the ball and less aggressive players are more involved. Large scrimmages present good opportunities to teach field positions and formations, team defense, and proper decision-making.
*Times are approximate and should be adjusted according to your team’s needs.*
PRACTICE #1 SKILL: Dribbling
10 Minutes: Warm-up
1. **Box Drill**-Mark off a 25x25 yard box (or a suitable size for number of kids). All players start in the box with a ball dribbling at a jogging pace.
Key Points:
1. Head up-eyes on the field
2. Use both feet
3. Dribbling into space away from other players
*Variations:
1. Dribble with left foot only
2. Dribble with right foot only
3. Dribble outside of foot only
2. Stretch: *SEE ATTACHED SHEET
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: Dribbling
Key Points:
1. Use all parts of feet; inside, outside, laces, sole
2. Keep the ball close to your feet. If it is too far ahead, other players can steal it
3. Head up-eyes on the field
4. Introduce Moves:
a. **Roll**-roll ball backwards with sole of shoe
b. **Cut**-cut across body with inside of foot; can use outside as well
c. **Cryuff** (pronounced “croif”)—put standing leg alongside ball. Look to shoot, then turn foot inwards and drag ball back behind standing foot with inside of other foot.
Skill Drill: Set players up in the Box Drill again. This time allow a few minutes of freedom to work on new tricks and moves. Encourage players to create their own move!
20 Minutes: Dribbling Games
1. **Sharks and Minnows** (see diagram next page)—Cone off a rectangular area. Designate two Sharks to be in the middle of the “ocean” without a ball. All other players (the Minnows) have a ball at one end. On the coach’s signal the Minnows attempt to cross the “ocean” by dribbling without losing their ball. The Sharks try to kick everyone’s balls out of the “ocean.” If a Minnow loses his/her ball then he/she becomes a shark. Minnows cross on coach’s signal each time. The last two Minnows surviving become Sharks in a new game.
2. **Relay Race** - Set up cones as shown below. One ball at starting line and one ball in Box #2. Divide team in half. Players must:
a. Dribble the ball and stop it in Box #1
b. Run to Box #2, collect the ball and dribble it through the cones up and back (slalom-style)
c. Stop the ball in Box #2 on the way back
d. Run to Box #1, collect the ball and dribble through the start/finish line
The first team to sit down after all players have gone wins.
```
△ △ △ △
Box #1 Box #2
△ △ △
Start/Finish 10 yds 10 yds 5yds
```
**Water Break/Recap**
20 Minutes: Small-Sided Scrimmage - Make teams of three or four and play a couple of mini-games.
PRACTICE #2 SKILL: Positions on the field and Formations
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. **Tap Dance**-The ball should not move in this drill. Each player has a ball and they start with one foot on the ball and one foot on the ground. On the coach’s signal, they start switching feet, “tapping” the top of the ball with each foot. Coach can hold up fingers and the players have to yell out the number he is holding up.
2. **Happy Feet**-The player puts the ball between their feet. The ball is knocked back and forth from the left to right in a continuous motion. The knees should be slightly bent and the ball should be hitting the area above the ball of the foot.
*These two drills are used for fast footwork and to get the players comfortable with the ball. The goal is for each player to stay under control and be comfortable *not staring* at the ball.*
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: Positions on the field and Formations
1. Forward- Primarily an attacking player whose responsibility is to create and score goals.
2. Midfielder-Both and offensive and defensive player who is primarily responsible for linking forwards and the defenders.
3. Defender-Primarily a defensive player who assists the goalkeeper in protecting the goal.
4. Goalkeeper-The last line of defense. The only player who can use his/her hands within the field of play. The goalkeeper is limited to using his/her hands within the penalty area.
*NOTE: May need to introduce positions to those players who have not played before. At this level, formations can be introduced. For example, a 3-3-3 (3 Defenders-3 Midfielders-3 Forwards) and a 4-3-2 (4 Defenders-3 Midfielders-2 Forwards) are both good options. The most difficult concept to teach against is *swarming*, where all the players flood to the ball. One goal throughout the season is to make the players aware of their field position in relation to other’s positions.*
Skill Drill: Begin by lining the players on the field in a 3-3-3 formation. Explain where each position should be in relation to others and their responsibilities. Now line the players in a 4-3-2 formation. Point the differences out to the players.
20 Minutes: Positional Game
1. **Alley Cat**-Set up cones in 3 “alleys” (horizontally and vertically) on the field (see diagram). Set a player in each zone (one forward, one midfielder and one defender). Ball starts with the defender. They must
pass one ball to each other down the field and shoot a goal. Players may not crossover into each other’s alley.
Variations:
1. Relay race between “alleys”. Most goals in set amount of time or fastest alley to get all their balls in the goal.
2. Have only one goal and everyone on the same team. Set number of passes that must be made before a shot can be taken.
3. Add two or three defenders who can roam anywhere and/or goalkeepers to increase difficulty
This set-up is a great place to introduce the concepts of *support* and *width* offensively and defensively. Offensively, the wing players should stay *wide* to spread out your attack. Defensively, players should provide *support* for each other by playing behind and pinched in relation to the defender on the ball.
**Water Break/Recap**
20 Minutes: 2-Goal Scrimmage-Set up 2 goals at *each* end of the field, closer to the sideline than to each other. Attackers need to look up and decide which goal to attack (which one is more open).
*Bunching may still be apparent at this age. When defenders are bunched-stop the play and explain why everyone can’t race to the ball. Point out where the open space is. This concept may take a while to catch on but pretty soon they will know immediately why you stopped the play.*
PRACTICE #3 SKILL: Passing and Trapping
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. Tap Dance/Happy Feet
2. Dribble Knock-Out-Cone off an area large enough for all players to fit in. Each player has a ball and must dribble in the area. When the coach yells “KNOCK OUT!” each player tries to knock out another player’s ball from the area while keeping his own ball under control. If a player’s ball leaves the area, that player is out. Play until one player is left.
*See “Common Practice Problems” for alternatives in elimination games.
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: Passing and Trapping
Passing Key Points:
1. Use inside of feet
2. Strike through the middle of the ball
3. Plant non-kicking foot next to the ball, pointing towards target
Trapping Key Points:
1. Cushion the ball as it comes to you (like catching an egg)
2. Keep body loose-the ball should not bounce off of you
3. Can use all body parts (except hands and arms), but the feet and thigh are the most common
Skill Drill: 3-Person Trap-Divide players into groups of three. Players 1 and 2 are spread about 30 yards apart with balls in their hands while the Player 3 is in the middle without a ball. Player 3 will run to Player 1 who tosses them the ball to either their thigh or foot. Player 3 will trap the ball and pass it back. Then Player 3 will run to Player 2 and do the same. Switch players each minute. Emphasize using both legs to trap and pass.
20 Minutes: Passing Games
1. Soccer Golf-Set up a series of cones 2 yards apart around the field. Players have to pass the ball through the cones with the least amount of touches possible. Can play in singles, doubles or teams. Keep track of touches. Lowest number wins.
2. **Storm the Castle** - Divide team in half. Each team lines up 20 yards apart facing each other (distance may be increased for more difficulty). Set cones up in a centerline between teams (10 yards away from each team). Each player tries to knock down the cones by passing the ball into them. When cone is knocked over, that player runs into middle zone and tries to bring cone to own end line before other team hits player with a passed ball (waist or lower).
- Each team must stay behind own line, unless retrieving a cone.
- Only one player allowed to retrieve a cone at a time.
- First team with all the cones wins OR team with most cones at end of time limit.
*Variation: Set cones on each team’s end line, not the centerline. This requires greater passing accuracy and retrieving cones is more challenging.*
**Water Break/Recap**
10 Minutes: Small Sided Scrimmage. Encourage passing!
10 Minutes: Full Scrimmage. Add restrictions. For example, must pass 3 times before allowed to shoot, or maximum number of individual touches is 5 (to encourage passing).
PRACTICE #4 SKILL: Shooting
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. **Chain Tag** - 2 players are IT and begin chase after the free players. A free player who is tagged must join hands with the person who tagged him or her and form a chain. Chains cannot split into smaller chains. The longest chain at the end of the game wins.
2. Stretch the legs well today for shooting!
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: Shooting
Key Points:
1. Plant non-kicking foot next to ball
2. Point toe down, lock ankle, strike with shoelaces
3. Lean slightly forward
4. Head down
5. Follow-through; land on shooting foot
6. No Toe-balls!
Skill Drill: Have coach or another adult anchor ball with foot while each player slowly walks up to the ball going through the shooting motion. Start with player walking to ball and getting their shooting foot in position. Advance to a jog up to the ball. Focus on technique; the ball should not be kicked loose from coach’s foot.
20 Minutes: Shooting Games
1. Line players 15-20 yards away from goal. The coach will pass the ball from spot #1 to first player in line for a shot. Each player should retrieve own ball after shot and go back in line. After a few rounds for each player, switch to spot #2 and then #3.
2. **Shooting Wars** - This is a fast paced game that works on shooting off the dribble and quick thinking. Divide into two teams with each player having a ball. Place goals about 30 yards apart facing each other. Each team lines up on right side of their goal. Mark a ‘shooting zone’ (see diagram) in the center. First player dribbles into zone and shoots. Immediately he retreats to play goalie as the first player on
opposing team dribbles and shoots. This cycle continues for set amount of time. The key rules are:
a. Begin dribble as soon as opponents shoot
b. As soon as you shoot, you become goalie
c. After being goalie, go to end of line
Each team keeps track of goals scored. Most goals in set amount of time wins.
Water Break/Recap
20 Minutes: Scrimmage-Large or Small…Your Call! Make the goals bigger today to encourage goal scoring and taking shots.
PRACTICE #5 SKILL: Defense
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. **Review Footwork:** Tap Dance/Happy Feet
a. Introduce movement with Happy Feet—Move slightly forward each touch. Take it width of field and back. Small, quick touches.
2. **Dribble Knock-Out**
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: Defense
**Key Points:**
1. Get between opponent and goal as quickly as possible
2. Keep body low—eyes on the ball
3. Clear balls out of goal mouth to the outside as quickly as possible
4. Provide help and support by pinching behind defender who is marking the ball
Skill Drill: Divide players into two lines. Offense line starts 5 yards ahead with the ball. On Coach’s signal, offense dribbles towards goal while defense tries to get between offense and the goal as quickly as possible.
**Key Points:**
1. Focus on the defense—emphasize getting between the ball and the goal first, then clearing the ball to the outside
2. Don’t allow offense to shoot on goal—make them dribble into the goal
20 Minutes: Defense Games
1. **1v1**—Set up a 15x15 yard square(s) with one pair of players per side, 1 ball per pair. A and B face each other about one yard apart. A has ball and B is shadow. B is not allowed to steal ball. A must try and stop ball by one of the cones while ‘losing’ B. Coach can have players start without ball to get the idea of body movement. Emphasize upper body movement, change of direction and speed.
2. **Run the Gauntlet** - Mark off a 20x40 yard grid. Divide into four 10-yard zones. Place one defender into each zone. Rest of team lines up at one end line and tries to dribble to the other without losing their ball. All players leave at once. Defenders score 1-4 points depending on which zone the tackle is made. Attackers score 3 points for reaching the other side.
```
X D D D
X ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3 ZONE 4
10yds 10yds 10yds 10yds
```
**Water Break/Recap**
20 Minutes: Small-Sided Scrimmage (3v3 or 4v4). Encourage good defense! Feel free to stop the play to compliment and/or correct defensive positioning.
PRACTICE #6 SKILL: Juggling/Heading
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. **Shadow Tag**-Pair off players, 1 ball per pair, playing shadow ball (one player with ball, the other being his shadow). On coach’s command, the Shadow has 3 seconds to get away. Player has to pass ball at his shadow. Point is scored for a hit. Switch and repeat.
10 Minutes: Skill of the Day Instruction: **Juggling/Heading**
**Juggling Key Points:**
1. Focus on ball
2. Keep ankle solid (don’t flick)
3. Bend knee to strike
Skill Drill: Have players hold ball in hands. Drop ball onto laces and try to catch. Repeat with other foot. Then kick, let it bounce, and kick again. Increase number of kicks. Move onto thigh. Emphasize using the meaty part of the leg, not the knee.
**Heading Key Points:**
1. Eyes open-mouths closed
2. Top of forehead (hairline)
3. Offensive headers-strike down to score
4. Defensive headers-strike up and away to clear the ball over oncoming attackers
Skill Drill: Simply have a coach or adult hold the ball at head level of the kids. Line players up and have them walk up and head the ball gently using the proper technique. They shouldn’t try and knock it out of coach’s hands. Coach should be looking for open eyes and closed mouths and what part of the head they are hitting the ball with. Next, raise the ball so player must jump. Same technique should be enforced.
*NOTE:* If this is new for players start with a foam ball or even a beach ball to build up their confidence. The first goal is get them comfortable with hitting the ball with their head.
10 Minutes: Juggling Game
1. **Juggle Race**-Using the method of “drop-juggle-catch”, start all players on one end line and have them progress to the other side on the following conditions:
- 1 step for each successful thigh juggle and catch. (For example, Player 1 drops, juggles ball 2 times with thigh and catches it. Player 1 moves 2 steps forward.)
2 steps for each successful foot juggle and catch. (Player 2 drops, juggles ball 2 times with foot and catches it. Player 2 moves 4 steps forward.)
10 Minutes: Heading Game
1. **Head Catch** - Arrange all the players in a tight circle around the coach who holds the ball. Coach tosses ball in air to a player and yells either “Head” or “Catch”. Player must follow instruction. Once they get this down, reverse the rules. When coach yells “Head”, players must catch the ball and when coach yells “Catch” players must head the ball.
**Water Break/Recap**
20 Minutes: Scrimmage
PRACTICE #7 SKILLS:
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. Tap Dance/Happy Feet
2. Juggling
10 Minutes: Review Dribbling, Passing, Shooting Key Points
Skill Drill: Divide players into two lines. Set up a line of 3-4 cones for each line leading to the goal. Players must dribble through cones (slalom-style) and then take a shot on goal. Retrieve ball and return to line.
20 Minutes: Dribbling, Passing, and Shooting Games
1. Pass and Shoot - Set up two lines of players facing the goal in line with goal posts. The goal is divided into thirds by cones. Players pass to coach who passes to the side or slightly forward. Player runs and shoots on goal. Limit number of touches to 1 or 2, depending on skill level. 10 points for corners, 5 points for center.
2. Steal the Bacon - Divide team in half and position each team on opposite sides of the area. Give each player on both teams a number (Each team will have a player #1, 2, 3, etc.). Coach rolls a ball into the middle of the area and calls out a number. Player from each team with the called number runs out to the ball and tries to score on goal. Play continues until a goal is scored or ball goes out of play. Coach may call more than one number at a time.
Water Break/Recap
20 Minutes: **Soccer Baseball**-Arrange a field with home-plate, bases, and out-of-bounds lines. Divide teams evenly and “play ball!” Have pitchers roll the ball to batters (or Coach pitches for quicker play). Batters kick the ball and attempt to reach first base before being touched by the ball, before the ball reaches the base or before the ball gets passed back to the pitcher. Fielders must play the ball with their feet (no hands!). Keep players interested by not keeping track of outs. Have each team “bat” until each player kicks.
PRACTICE #8 SKILLS: Miscellaneous
*As the season is winding down, you will know what skills your team needs to work on. This practice is a mix of everything. You can pick and choose what you think would be best for your team.
10 Minutes: Warm-up/Stretch
1. Tap Dance/Happy Feet
2. Dribble Knock-Out
3. Juggling
30 Minutes: Games
1. **Red Light-Green Light**-All players on end line with a ball. Coach at finish line with back turned. Coach yells “Green Light!” All players dribble forward. Coach then yells “Red Light!” and turns around. All players must stop themselves and their balls immediately. If coach sees a moving player, he/she sends them back to the start. First player to reach the coach wins and becomes the next leader.
2. **Beat the Clock**-Divide players into two teams. Team 1 is inside grid dribbling. Team 2 is waiting outside of grid. On coach’s signal Team 2 invades Team 1 and tries to knock all the balls out. Once a player on Team 1 loses his/her ball, they can help a teammate by receiving passes and playing keep-a-way. Team 2 has a set amount of time determined by coach to clear all the balls out.
3. **Sitting Duck**-Cone off a 30x40 yard playing field. On the end lines place 4-5 balls, evenly spread out. Divide players into two teams. Start scrimmaging with another ball inside the area. The object is to hit one of the balls on the end line of your opponent. A goal is scored by hitting one of the other team’s balls. Use same rules as scrimmage.
Water Break/Recap
20 Minutes: Small-Sided Scrimmage and/or Two-Goal Scrimmage
PRACTICE #9 Player's Practice!
Let the players run the practice! Pick their favorite drills, activities and games. | <urn:uuid:a0123a84-04b2-4a2a-a376-b189b89ab0f4> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://nebula.wsimg.com/762160c0474116872ef1c6bebfc6053e?AccessKeyId=0A6A5198C09D5B078F66&disposition=0&alloworigin=1 | 2016-05-03T04:59:58Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118790.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00038-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 201,347,439 | 6,745 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.956806 | eng_Latn | 0.998626 | [
"eng_Latn",
"pol_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | false | rolmOCR | [
297,
1575,
3302,
4836,
6711,
8073,
9587,
11363,
12019,
14437,
15720,
17467,
18536,
20200,
20648,
22093,
22716,
24641,
25221,
26448,
27008,
28615,
28733
] | [
3.515625,
4.21875
] | 5 | 12 |
Educator Resource Guide
www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org
www.doneVIDAcalifornia.org
Dedicated to Educating Communities about Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation
Why teach about organ, eye and tissue donation?
Each year thousands of California high school students apply for their first driver license or identification (ID) card. When they do, they are presented with the opportunity to join the Donate Life California Organ & Tissue Donor Registry. Many students are unaware of what being a donor means and how they can save lives within their communities by checking “YES!” to donation. Providing information to students prior to going to the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) allows them to make an informed decision.
The subject of organ, eye and tissue donation is intrinsically interesting, easy to understand, and appeals to youthful altruism. Transplantation and donation issues will be included in the health and science frameworks, following passage of Assembly Bill 1967 (Pérez, 2012). Learning the facts about donation and the miracle of transplantation can encourage students to share their decision with their family and friends. By educating our youth in the importance of joining the Donate Life California Registry, we can help narrow the ever-widening gap between the escalating number of transplant candidates on the waiting list and life-saving donations.
October 2013
Dear Educators:
I am pleased to share with you this important resource developed by Donate Life California (DLC) as part of their Classroom Education Initiative.
This resource is designed to educate teens on the lifesaving importance of organ and tissue donation. California law requires that health and science frameworks adopted by the State Board of Education in the next submission cycle include information about transplantation and donation as part of the health and science curricula (AB 1967, 2012).
Within these pages, you will find engaging content and helpful lesson plans for students. By checking “Yes” to donation when applying for their first driver license or identification card, teens can potentially save lives within their communities. Since the state of California now requires this question to be answered on all driver license and ID card applications (SB 1395, 2010), I believe it is important to educate our teens so that they may be able to make an informed decision.
To that end, DLC is dedicated to providing accurate, culturally sensitive, and age appropriate information at no cost to schools. DLC provides the following resources:
- A user-friendly educational 11-minute video with three story capsules involving teens – a recipient, donor family member, and transplant candidate
- The “Decision to Donate” video, as well as educator and student resource pages, are available online at http://www.donatelifecalifornia.org.
- English and Spanish brochures for students and their families
- DLC-trained speakers are available for classroom presentations and school-wide projects
DLC’s curriculum contains a variety of specialty lesson plans suitable for use in driver’s education, health education, biology, social studies, English, and mathematics classes.
I encourage you to use the Educators Resource Guide and DVD and access more materials online at http://www.donatelifecalifornia.org or email email@example.com for free brochures and other materials. You may also request trained speakers to complement the program by calling 866-797-2366.
Sincerely,
Tom Torlakson
# Table of Contents
| Section | Page |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------|
| About Donate Life California | 4 |
| California’s Health Education Content Standards | 5 |
| Recommended Lesson Plans | 6 |
| List of Materials Provided in This Guide | 7 |
| Lesson Plan #1 – What Do You Know About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation?| 8 |
| Student Worksheet | 9 |
| True/False Answers | 10 |
| Lesson Plans #2 and #3 – High School DVD and Guest Classroom Speaker | 11 |
| Lesson Plan #4 – The “5 Ws” of Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation | 12 |
| The Organ Donation Process | 13 |
| Understanding Brain Death | 14 |
| Transplantable Organs | 15 |
| Transplantable Tissues | 17 |
| Lesson Plan #5 – Stories of Hope: The Faces of Organ Donation | 19 |
| Stories of Hope Response Questions | 20 |
| Stories of Hope | 21 |
| Lesson Plan #6 – Letter to My Family | 23 |
| Letter to My Family | 24 |
| Lesson Plan #7 – Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation in the Public Arena | 25 |
| Careers Associated with Transplantation | 26 |
| Frequently Asked Questions | 27 |
| Donation Resources | 29 |
| Your “Decision to Donate” DVD | 30 |
About the Donate Life California Organ & Tissue Donor Registry
Prior to 2004, no registry existed for Californians who wished to give consent for organ, eye and tissue donation. In April 2005, California launched an online donor registry, the Donate Life California Organ & Tissue Donor Registry, providing a confidential database which allows Californians to officially record their donation wishes.
In July 2006, the Donate Life California Registry took a giant step forward, launching its partnership with the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV), replacing pink dot stickers and donor cards with an electronic database of registered donors.
By checking “YES!” on the DMV driver license/ID card application form, the applicant’s license or ID card is imprinted with a Pink DONOR Dot indicating that the cardholder is a registered organ and tissue donor and that the applicant’s name has been added to the secure, confidential database.
For the first time since its inception more than 30 years ago, the pink dot now represents a legally binding record of a person’s wish to save lives through organ, eye and tissue donation.
About Donate Life California
Donate Life California is a nonprofit organization formed in 2004 after being authorized through state legislation. Donate Life California is supported by the state’s four federally-designated nonprofit organ procurement organizations (OPOs).
Donate Life California is dedicated to maintaining a safe and secure registry of donation wishes online and through its partnership with the DMV. For more information on the Donate Life California Registry or to register as an organ, eye and tissue donor, please visit our website at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org.
Authorizing Legislation
SB 108 (Speier, 2001) and SB 112 (Speier, 2003) authorized the state’s four nonprofit OPOs to establish and maintain a computerized state donor registry. SB 689 (Speier, 2005) authorized the DMV to enroll donors when they apply for or renew a driver license or ID card.
Connection to California’s Health Education Content Standards
The recommended lesson plans included in this guide meet the following Health Education Content Standards for California Public Schools:
**Standard 1: Essential Health Concepts**
All students will comprehend essential concepts related to enhancing health.
**Standard 2: Analyzing Health Influences**
All students will demonstrate the ability to analyze internal and external influences that affect health.
**Standard 3: Accessing Valid Health Information**
All students will demonstrate the ability to access and analyze health information, products and services.
**Standard 4: Interpersonal Communication**
All students will demonstrate the ability to use interpersonal communication skills to enhance health.
**Standard 5: Decision Making**
All students will demonstrate the ability to use decision-making skills to enhance health.
**Standard 6: Goal Setting**
All students will demonstrate the ability to use goal-setting skills to enhance health.
**Standard 7: Practicing Health-Enhancing Behaviors**
All students will demonstrate the ability to practice behaviors that reduce risk and promote health.
**Standard 8: Health Promotion**
All students will demonstrate the ability to promote and support personal, family and community health.
**Health Standards for Grades 7-12:**
**Mental, Emotional and Social Health**
1.5.M Describe how social environments affect health and well-being. **
7.5.M Participate in clubs, organizations and activities in the school and community that offer opportunities for student and family involvement. **
**Personal and Community Health**
2.4.P Analyze the influence of culture, media and technology on health decisions. *
5.3.P Analyze the characteristics of informed health choices. *
8.2.P Demonstrate the ability to be a positive peer role model in the school and community. *
5.1.P Apply a decision-making process to a personal health issue or problem. **
5.2.P Explain how decisions regarding health behaviors have consequences for oneself and others. **
5.3.P Apply a decision-making process to a community or environmental health issue. **
* Grades 7–8
** Grades 9–12
The recommended lesson plans included in this guide are aligned with the California CCSS Reading Standards for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects:
| Grades 9-10 Students | Grades 11-12 Students |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions. | 1. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps or inconsistencies in the account. |
| 2. Determine the central ideas or conclusion of a text; trace the text’s explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon or concept; provide an accurate summary of the text. | 2. Determine the central ideas or conclusion of a text; summarize complex concepts, processes or information presented in a text by paraphrasing them in simpler but still accurate terms. |
| 3. Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, attending to special cases or exceptions defined in the text. | 3. Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks, and analyze the specific results based on explanations in the text. |
**Recommended Lesson Plans**
The following lessons have been designed to educate students about the facts of organ, eye and tissue donation so they can make their own decision.
**Overview of Recommended Lesson Plans:**
1. What Do You Know About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation? (15 minutes)
2. DVD Presentation: “Your Decision to Donate” (Abridged: 8.5 minutes; Full: 11 minutes)
3. Guest Classroom Speaker (varies)
4. The “5Ws” of Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation (30-40 minutes)
5. Stories of Hope: The Faces of Organ Donation (15-30 minutes)
6. Letter to My Family: Homework Assignment (10 minutes class time)
**Optional Lesson for Advanced Students:**
7. Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation in the Public Arena
*See materials list for each lesson plan on the following page. All lessons are designed for grades 9-12.*
Lesson Materials Provided in this Guide:
Documents may be photocopied from this booklet for use in the classroom.
Lesson 1 – What Do You Know About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation?
- Facts About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation True/False Worksheet
- Facts About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation True/False Answers
Lesson 2 – High School DVD Presentation
- DVD: “Your Decision to Donate”
Lesson 3 – Guest Classroom Speaker
- How to schedule a guest classroom speaker with a connection to organ, eye or tissue donation (such as a recipient, donor family member, etc.)
Lesson 4 – The “5 Ws” of Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation
- The Organ Donation Process
- Understanding Brain Death
- Transplantable Organs and Tissues (2 documents)
Lesson 5 – Stories of Hope: The Faces of Organ Donation
- Stories of Hope Response Questions
- Stories of Hope
Lesson 6 – Letter to My Family (Homework Assignment)
- Letter to My Family
Optional Lesson for Advanced Students
Lesson 7 – Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation in the Public Arena
- Public Figures with a Connection to Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation
Supplementary Lessons Available Online
• Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation Word Search
- downloadable at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/wordsearch
• Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation Crossword Puzzle
- downloadable at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/crossword
Lesson Plan #1
What Do You Know About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation?
This assignment is most effective as the first lesson about organ, eye and tissue donation. This lesson may be completed in class or assigned as homework.
Objective
Following this lesson, students will have a general understanding of organ, eye and tissue donation, and knowledge about common misconceptions, a few statistics and accurate facts. Any remaining misconceptions will be addressed in the “Your Decision to Donate” DVD, by the classroom speaker and/or through the following lessons.
Time: 15 minutes
Materials Needed (also available online at donateLIFEcalifornia.org/teachers)
- Print-out of Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation Facts True/False (Worksheet and Answers versions)
Lesson Plan
- **Small Group Option** – Arrange class into small groups or pairs and have one student “quiz” the others with the true/false questions, providing correct answers when needed.
- **Whole Group Option** – Instructor reads true/false statements about organ and tissue donation to whole class and asks individuals to respond (or offer their “best guess”). Provide correct answers when needed.
- **Homework Option** – Send print-out of Organ, Eye and Donation True/False home with students as homework before the first lesson. Review correct answers in class in small groups or with the whole group.
SCHEDULE AN ORGAN DONATION PRESENTATION
Donate Life California offers informational presentations for high school students and community groups (subject to availability of presenters). Students and community members will learn about organ, eye and tissue donation, ask questions, and hear personal stories of individuals whose lives were directly impacted by donation and transplantation.
Schedule a presentation by visiting www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/presentation.
What Do You Know About Organ and Tissue Donation?
Student Worksheet:
Directions: Review each statement about organ, eye and tissue donation below. Circle “true” if you think the statement is accurate or “false” if all or part of the answer is incorrect. Be prepared to explain your answers.
1. True or False: When I get my California driver license, I am automatically registered as an organ, eye and tissue donor.
2. True or False: Anyone can sign up as an organ, eye and tissue donor regardless of medical history or age.
3. True or False: One organ donor can save up to eight lives and one tissue donor can enhance the lives of up to 50 people.
4. True or False: Most major religions do not permit organ, eye and tissue donation.
5. True or False: When you are admitted to the hospital, the number one priority is to save your life.
6. True or False: Celebrities and wealthy people on the waiting list receive priority for receiving an organ.
7. True or False: It is against federal law to sell organs, eyes and tissues.
8. True or False: The donor family must pay for organ, eye and/or tissue donation.
9. True or False: An open casket funeral is possible for organ, eye and tissue donors.
10. True or False: Organs, eyes and tissues cannot be given to different ethnic groups or the opposite sex.
FAST FACTS ABOUT ORGAN DONATION
Learn more about the common myths and misconceptions involving organ, eye and tissue donation by visiting www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/fastfacts.
Lesson 1 - True/False Answers
What Do You Know About Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation?
1. When I get my California driver license, I am automatically registered as an organ, eye and tissue donor.
**False.** The United States has an “opt-in” system in which those who wish to be an organ, eye and tissue donor need to register. To register, check “YES!” when you apply for your driver license or ID card at the DMV. You can also register online at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org.
2. Anyone can sign up as an organ, eye and tissue donor regardless of medical history or age.
**True.** Anyone can decide to become a donor regardless of medical history, age or race. Your medical condition at the time of death determines what organs and tissues can be donated.
3. One organ donor can save up to eight lives and one tissue donor can enhance the lives of up to 50 people.
**True.** An organ donor can donate a heart, liver, lungs, kidneys, pancreas and intestines. The kidneys and lungs can each save the lives of two people. One tissue donor can donate skin, veins, bone, connective tissue (such as tendons, ligaments and cartilage), corneas from the eyes, and heart valves.
4. Most major religions do not permit organ, eye and tissue donation.
**False.** All major religions support or permit organ, eye and tissue donation.
5. When you are admitted to the hospital the number one priority is to save your life.
**True.** Whether in a hospital or at the scene of an accident, emergency medical personnel immediately begin life-saving procedures. Every effort is made to save the life of patient.
6. Celebrities and wealthy people on the waiting list receive priority for receiving an organ.
**False.** Organs are allocated according to medical need, blood and tissue type, height and weight. Celebrity status and wealth are not considered.
7. It is against federal law to sell organs, eye and tissues.
**True.** Under the National Organ Transplant Act of 1984, it is illegal to receive money or gifts in exchange for organ, eye and tissue donations.
8. The donor family must pay for organ, eye and/or tissue donation.
**False.** There is no cost to the donor’s family for organ, eye and tissue donation. All costs related to donation are paid by the recovery organization.
9. An open casket funeral is possible for organ, eye and tissue donors.
**True.** The decision to donate does not affect the option of an open casket and families can proceed with regular funeral arrangements. The body is treated with dignity, care and respect throughout the entire donation process.
10. Organs, eyes and tissues cannot be given to different ethnic groups or the opposite sex.
**False.** Gender does not influence the allocation of donated organs, eyes or tissues. Although it is possible for a candidate to match a donor from another ethnic group, often transplant success rates increase when organs are matched between members of the same ethnic background.
Lesson Plan #2 and #3
DVD/Speaker
An important part of enabling students to make an educated decision to be an organ, eye and tissue donor is providing opportunities for them to connect with people touched by donation or transplantation. Hearing first-hand from someone who has been saved by an organ transplant, or from a donor family member who has lost a loved one and chose to save another’s life through organ donation, can bring the story home.
To bring these personal stories to your classroom, Donate Life California offers the following teaching tools to you:
**Lesson 2. High School DVD: “Your Decision to Donate”**
Introduction to Video: When you apply for your driver license, you are presented with the opportunity to join the organ, eye and tissue donor registry. This short video which is presented in high schools throughout California, gives the facts about organ, eye and tissue donation, describes how you can save lives, and shares personal stories of individuals whose lives were directly impacted by donation and transplantation.
**Time:** 8.5 minutes (abridged version); 11 minutes (full-length version). Allow additional time for Q&A following DVD presentation.
**Materials Needed** (also available online at donateLIFEcalifornia.org/teachers)
- DVD: “Your Decision to Donate”
**Lesson Plan**
- Show the “Your Decision to Donate” DVD to the students.
- Following the DVD, provide an opportunity to ask questions.
- Answers to common questions not addressed in the DVD can be found at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/FAQS.
**Lesson 3. Guest Classroom Speaker – Individual with Personal Connection to Transplant Community**
Scheduling a classroom speaker from Donate Life California is encouraged and offers students an engaging perspective about the importance of organ, eye and tissue donation. Volunteer speakers are trained to tell their personal story about donation or transplantation and how it has positively affected their life.
To schedule a speaker, visit [www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/presentation](http://www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/presentation).
Lesson Plan #4
The “5 Ws” of Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation
The “5 Ws” - Who, What, Where, When and Why
Objective
Following this lesson, students will have an understanding of how organ, eye and tissue donation works, including the definition of brain death, how organ donation happens, and what organs and tissues can be transplanted.
Time: 30-40 minutes
Materials Needed (also available online at donateLIFEcalifornia.org/teachers)
• The Organ Donation Process (page 13)
• Understanding Brain Death (page 14)
• Transplantable Organs and Tissues (page 15-18)*
Lesson Plan
• Whole Group Option – Teacher can read materials to the class, or assign students to do so, and have an open question/answer period following each section. Materials can be displayed on a screen for visual aid.
• Small Group Option – Divide class into small groups to learn about each section and have them share with the whole class. Students may be allowed 5-10 minutes to review pages 14-19 of this guide and determine the best way to present the information to their classmates. (Classes of a larger size can assign more students to Groups 3 and 4 and each share what information they learned by selecting one or two different organs and/or tissues.)
Group 1: The Organ Donation Process
Group 2: Understanding Brain Death
Group 3: Transplantable Organs
Group 4: Transplantable Tissues
Community Service Opportunities
For information about ways to help educate your community about organ, eye and tissue donation, visit www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/volunteer.
* Available for download or print in multiple sizes at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/posters.
The Organ Donation Process
The 5 Steps of the Organ Donation Process
1. **Trauma and Death** - Whether in a hospital or at the scene of an accident, emergency medical personnel immediately begin life-saving procedures. Every effort is made to save the patient’s life.
2. **Referral** - Once it is determined a patient may not survive, the hospital must refer the patient to the local organ procurement organization.
3. **Evaluation** - The organ procurement organization evaluates if organ donation may be an option.
4. **Approach** - If the patient is eligible to donate, the organ procurement organization will speak to the family. The family will be notified if their loved one registered as an organ donor.
5. **Organ Recovery** - Once consent is granted, either through the Donate Life California Registry or the family, the organs are recovered and used to help save the lives of those on the organ transplant waiting list.
6. **Funeral Arrangements** - The family can proceed with regular funeral arrangements. The decision to donate does not affect the option of an open casket.
Time is critical when it comes to organ transplants. Please refer to the graph below to see the time each organ has between recovery and transplant to still be a viable organ.
---
**Organ Preservation Times**
- **Heart**: 4-6 hrs
- **Lungs**: 4-8 hrs
- **Intestines**: 6-10 hrs
- **Liver**: 12-15 hrs
- **Pancreas**: 12-24 hrs
- **Kidneys**: 24-48 hrs
Understanding Brain Death
What is Brain Death?
- The complete and irreversible loss of brain and brain stem function.
- An established medical and legal definition of death.
- Brain death is death.
- When the brain is injured, it swells. However, the brain is confined in the skull and has no room to swell, which leads to brain death.
The above image shows the blood flow inside a normal, active brain. When someone severely injures their brain, the blood flow is cut off or restricted by pressure from the swelling brain.
Brain death occurs when the blood flow to the brain is entirely lost. The photo above is of a brain dead brain.
(Images courtesy of Gift of a Lifetime)
How Tissue Donation Differs From Organ Donation
While less than one percent of hospital deaths meet the criteria for organ donation (usually the patient must be brain dead), eye and tissue donation are open to nearly everyone. Hospitals are required to report all deaths to the recovery organization. If the tissue donor meets donor eligibility, the registry is checked. Once authorization is verified, or consent is given by the potential donor’s family, a medical team is dispatched by the eye and/or tissue bank for recovery. Each tissue donor can enhance up to 50 lives.
Transplantable Organs
Pancreas
• The pancreas produces insulin, a hormone that helps the body use glucose (sugar) for energy, and enzymes that break down fat, protein and carbohydrates during digestion.
• The pancreas controls the level of glucose in the blood. It is often transplanted with a kidney because diabetes affects both organs.
• The pancreas can be preserved for 12–24 hours.
Intestines
• The intestines digest food and absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.
• Most intestinal transplants are performed on infants and children.
• Some conditions that could make a transplant necessary are twisted or blocked intestines or short-gut syndrome.
• Intestines can be preserved for 6–10 hours.
TAKE THE INTERACTIVE BODY TOUR
Step inside the interactive body tour to learn more about the body and the organs and tissues that can be donated to help others at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/bodytour.
Kidneys
• The kidneys filter wastes and excess water from the blood and balance the body’s fluids.
• While waiting for a kidney transplant, many patients undergo dialysis to remove toxins out of their blood.
• Some conditions that could make a kidney transplant necessary are high blood pressure, diabetes and cystic kidney disease.
• Ethnic minorities are four times more likely to develop kidney failure.
• Kidneys are the most commonly transplanted organs and most needed.
• Kidneys can be preserved up to 24–48 hours.
Lungs
• The trachea or windpipe carries air to the lungs. The alveoli - tiny air sacs similar to folded balloons - extract oxygen and exchange it for carbon dioxide.
• A single lung can save a life. One donor can be the source of two lung transplants.
• Some conditions that could necessitate a lung transplant are cystic fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, emphysema and pulmonary edema.
• Lungs have a preservation time of up to 4–8 hours.
Liver
• The liver is a complex organ that has more than 500 known functions. It breaks down harmful substances in the blood, produces bile that aids in digestion and stores vitamins, sugars and fats.
• A donated liver can sometimes be split between two recipients, so one donor can be the source of two liver transplants.
• Some conditions that could necessitate a liver transplant are birth defects of the liver or bile duct, chronic liver infections such as hepatitis, or drug and alcohol damage.
• Livers have a preservation time of up to 12–15 hours.
Heart
• The body’s hardest working muscle, the heart beats 60–80 times each minute as it pumps blood throughout the body.
• Some conditions that can make a transplant necessary are cardiomyopathy, heart failure, myocarditis and heart disease.
• Hearts can be preserved up to 4–6 hours before they must be transplanted.
Transplantable Tissues
Skin
• About 21 square feet of skin, weighing up to 15 pounds, cover the average adult. Not only is skin the body’s first line of defense against microbes, but it also regulates heat and fluids in the body.
• Skin can be used to aid in the healing process for severe burn victims and people who suffer from a disfiguring injury or disease.
• Donated skin grafts will protect recipients from infection while promoting regeneration of their own skin.
• Skin from donors is removed from all parts of the body and can be used to repair large hernias or for tissue reconstruction.
• Donation of skin does not affect the appearance of a donor nor viewing at funeral services.
Veins
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and veins bring the deoxygenated blood back.
• Many people lose circulation in their legs, or even in their heart, due to disease or trauma.
• Donated veins are used to restore circulation in heart bypass surgeries and to avoid leg amputation for people suffering poor circulation.
Bone & Connective Tissue
• The gift of bone and connective tissues helps individuals with various orthopedic and neurological conditions.
• Tissue include tendons, ligaments and cartilage that will be used in a variety of back, joint and leg surgeries, such as hip replacement, knee reconstruction and spinal fusion.
• After the bone and soft tissues are recovered, trained professionals replace the bone with prosthetics for funeral viewing arrangements.
DOWNLOADABLE POSTERS
Transplantable organ, eye and tissue posters are available for download and formatted for printing at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/posters.
Upper Body Bone
- Bones consist of living protein fibers that constantly rebuild themselves.
- The humerus, radius and ulna are the bones in the arm that can be recovered.
- Bones can be transplanted in order to prevent amputation, promote healing, maintain mobility and structure.
- After the bone and soft tissues are recovered, trained professionals replace the bone with prosthetics for funeral viewing services.
Cornea
- Corneas are needed to restore the sight to those that have lost their vision.
- The cornea is the small clear, dome-shaped window covering the front of the eye.
- Traumatic accidents to the eye, infections and inherited eye diseases like Keratoconus are just a few reasons why cornea donation is needed.
- Almost anyone, regardless of age or medical condition, can donate their whole eyes or corneas for transplant and/or research.
Heart Valves
- Blood is pumped through the heart’s four chambers aided by four heart valves that open and close and prevent blood from flowing backward.
- Infections and age-related diseases can damage heart valves. Some children are born with malformed valves.
- Heart valves can be recovered when the whole heart is determined not viable for transplant.
- Donated human vessels and valves are used as replacements that can mean the difference between life and death to recipients.
Whole Eye
- After the cornea has been recovered, the whole eye as well as the sclera can be utilized for reconstructive or cosmetic surgery.
- Whole eyes are valuable for research and medical procedure training.
Lesson Plan #5
Stories of Hope: The Faces of Organ Donation
Objective
Following this lesson, students will have an understanding that organ donation affects people of all ages, ethnicities and walks of life. They will also develop a level of compassion for people affected by organ donation. This lesson may be completed in class or as homework.
Time: 15-30 minutes
Materials Needed (also available online at donateLIFEcalifornia.org/teachers)
• Stories of Hope Response Questions
• Student access to Internet and search engine (e.g. Google or Yahoo!) OR
• Stories of Hope, on page 21-22 or at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/storiesofhope
If students are researching independently, they can find stories of organ, eye and tissue donors and recipients via a general search and/or on the following sites:
• www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org
• www.CTDN.org
• www.OneLegacy.org
• www.Lifesharing.org
• www.SierraDonor.org
• www.organdonor.gov
• www.transplantliving.org
Lesson Plan
• In-Class Option - Direct individual students to use the Internet to research stories of organ donors and/or organ transplant recipients and select one story OR provide Stories of Hope on pages 21-22.
• Homework Option - At home, direct individual students use the Internet to research stories of organ donors and/or organ transplant recipients and select one story OR provide Stories of Hope on pages 21-22.
– Option 1: Students respond in writing to the Stories of Hope Response Questions.
– Option 2: Ask students to select one story to share aloud. Arrange students into small groups or pairs. Have students read or summarize the story to their classmate(s) and respond to the Stories of Hope Response Questions verbally.
Stories of Hope Response Questions
Student Worksheet:
Directions: Read one or more stories of a person who has been touched by organ donation. It may be someone young or old who is an organ, eye or tissue donor recipient. After reading his or her story, respond to the questions below.
1. In your own words, summarize the story you selected.
2. Why did you choose this story to share? What did you like about this story and/or person?
3. How are you like this person? How are you different from this person?
4. Does this person make you think of anyone in your life (grandparent, sibling, family friend, etc.)?
5. How do you think this person (or this person’s family) feels about organ donation and transplantation after their experience?
6. What are your thoughts after reading this story? What did you learn? Did it cause you to think differently about organ, eye or tissue donation?
Vicky Nguyen, Liver Recipient
Shortly after Vicky was born, she was diagnosed with biliary atresia, a potentially fatal liver condition. Just before she turned two, Vicky received her first liver transplant at UCLA Medical Center. Vicky received a second liver transplant in July 2000 at age 16. The difficult experiences Vicky has overcome have shown her how strong she is. “Believe it or not, having two transplants was a huge blessing in my life,” said Vicky. “I don’t take for granted that I’ve been a liver transplant survivor for more than 26 years. I’m able to turn my challenges into greater opportunities.”
Geary McKoy, Kidney Recipient
In April 2000, following a physical to qualify for life insurance, Geary McKoy was diagnosed with kidney disease. For the next several years, his kidney function deteriorated and his quality of life changed dramatically.
“My health had an impact on my professional and personal life. As a sales manager for a Fortune 100 Company, I was required to travel and work long hours.” The many toxins in his bloodstream caused extreme fatigue and on most days left him exhausted and ready to retreat for a nap by mid-afternoon.
With his failing health, Geary was forced to go on dialysis and, over time, his quality of life diminished because of the frequency and the time required for the treatments. Finally, after nine months on dialysis, Geary received the news he’d been waiting for - a kidney had become available!
Alfonso Garcia, Liver Recipient
As the youngest of three brothers, Alfonso Garcia always thought he’d follow in their footsteps by boxing at the amateur level and perhaps joining the military.
But following a workout in the ring in January 2010, Alfonso grew sick. The whites in his eyes and his skin changed to a mustard yellow color. Not knowing what was wrong Alfonso went to the doctor and discovered that he had a rare genetic disorder that caused his liver to suddenly shut down.
After his transplant Alfonzo is living the life he once might never have had. “I was on the edge of dying and, through a miracle, I am alive today.”
Melanie Miers, Four Organ Donor
Melanie Miers attended San Bernardino High School and was very active in sports. She was on the water polo, swim and cross country teams. Melanie was also involved with her church, Our Lady of the Rosary Cathedral, and was to be the narrator of a play that the youth were putting on for their parents. Unfortunately, on the day of the play she was in the hospital.
It was Melanie’s choice to donate. In November 2005, Melanie turned sixteen and was excited about getting her driver license. Melanie and her sister, Michelle, informed their mother that they would like to put the pink donor dot on their driver license when they received it.
Melanie had the opportunity of donating her heart, liver, kidneys and pancreas. She gave the gift of life to four recipients, one of whom was her age at the time of her donation.
ADDITIONAL STORIES OF HOPE
For more inspirational Stories of Hope from around the state and print-ready stories, visit www.donatelIFEcalifornia.org/stories.
Lesson Plan #6
Letter to My Family: Homework Assignment
Objective
Students will have an opportunity to have a dialogue with their parent(s) or guardian(s) to discuss what they learned about organ, eye and tissue donation and ask any questions they may have.
Time: 10 minutes in class
Materials Needed (to be sent home with students)
- Letter to My Family (page 24)
Lesson Plan
Provide students with the worksheet, “Letter to My Family”, and discuss that this is a tool to help them to begin a dialogue with their family about organ, eye and tissue donation. Have them complete the letter in class and take it home to share with their family.
Based on the lessons covered in class, students may have made a decision and be ready to share their wishes with their parents. Or, students may have further questions to ask their parents. In some cases, students may be educating their families about organ, eye and tissue donation. Answers to remaining questions may be found at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org or by emailing firstname.lastname@example.org
Because the decision to be an organ donor is a personal one, it is not required that students return the letter to their classroom teacher.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND RELIGIOUS VIEWS ON DONATION
For answers to frequently asked questions, turn to page 27 of this guide or visit www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/FAQS. For information on various religious perspectives on organ donation, visit www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/religion.
Dear Student,
In class you have been learning facts about donation and transplantation so that you can make a decision about being an organ, eye and tissue donor. It is a good idea to share what you learned with your parent(s) or guardian(s) and ask them any questions you may have.
It may be a little strange or awkward to start this discussion with your family, but talking about it now could someday make the decision easier for your family.
The below statements are provided to help you begin the conversation with your family. You may have questions to ask them or information you want to research more. Or you may be surprised to find yourself teaching your family about organ, eye and tissue donation and transplantation!
Dear ________________,
During _________________________class, we have been learning about organ, eye and tissue donation and transplantation so that we can make a decision about being an organ, eye and tissue donor. I will be asked about this at the DMV when I get my driver license and each time I renew it.
• Some of the things I learned about this topic surprised or interested me, such as ___________________________ ___________________________________________________________.
• Some questions I still have about organ, eye and tissue donation are: ___________________________ ___________________________________________________________.
• Do you know anyone who has been an organ donor, received a transplant, or is waiting for a transplant? ___________________________ ___________________________________________________________.
• When I get my driver license at the DMV, I will be asked if I would like to register to be an organ, eye and tissue donor. I am leaning towards saying ___________________________. What do you think? Know that as my legal guardian, the final decision is yours until I turn 18 years old.
Signed,
________________________________________
Still have questions? Find answers at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org.
Lesson Plan #7
Organ, Eye and Tissue Donation in the Public Arena
Objective
Directions: Review the names of the athletes, celebrities and politicians below and research their personal connection to organ, eye and tissue donation or transplantation. Do any of these names and/or their stories surprise you?
Time: 15-30 minutes
Lesson Plan
More than 28,000 people in the United States receive an organ transplant each year, and more than 1 million receive tissue transplants each year in the form of hip replacements, knee reconstructions and valve replacements. Countless others have been touched by donation when their loved ones gave the gift of life as an organ donor. Still others are living kidney donors, having donated one of their two kidneys to another person.
Research the following individuals and learn about their connection to donation.
Dick Cheney, former U.S. Vice President
Natalie Cole, singer songwriter
Erik Compton, professional golfer
Sean Elliott, retired NBA player for San Antonio Spurs and Detroit Pistons
Joey Gase, stock car racing driver
Katherine Heigl, actress
Sarah Hyland, actress
Steve Jobs, cofounder and CEO of Apple, and former CEO of Pixar
Chris Klug, professional snowboarder and bronze medal winner in 2002 Olympics
Ashton Kutcher, actor
Ann Lopez, actor/director
Alonzo Mourning, retired NBA Player for Charlotte Hornets, Miami Heat and New Jersey Nets
Carson Palmer, NFL player for Arizona Cardinals
Mandy Patinkin, actor
START AN eCAMPAIGN
The Donate Life California eCampaign is a free, simple tool designed to inspire your community to save lives by signing up on the statewide registry to become organ, eye and tissue donors through a unique URL customized with your story and picture. All you need to submit to Donate Life California is a picture to be added to your unique URL and a short paragraph about your connection to donation. To start an eCampaign, visit www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/eCampaign.
Career opportunities in medicine are on the rise and the donation and transplantation field is no exception. Anyone who chooses a career in this field will enter one of the most challenging and rapidly changing areas of medicine and also one where they can expect to help save the lives of countless people. Below are just some of the careers in the organ donation and transplantation field.
**Procurement Coordinators** are members of organ recovery organizations, typically a nurse, who is responsible for evaluating potential donors, discussing donation with family members, and managing the donor prior to the organ recovery process.
**Physicians** diagnose and treat diseases that may result in organ failure, provide treatment and prescribe medication for individuals who are waiting for an organ transplant or have undergone transplantation.
**Dialysis Technicians** oversee the process of safely administering dialysis to kidney patients. Patients with failing kidneys who are waiting for a transplant must have dialysis to keep their bodies cleansed of impurities that healthy kidneys would normally eliminate.
**Operating Room Nurses** treat organ transplant recipients and donors, as well as assist in surgery during organ, eye and tissue transplantation.
**Lab Technicians** are trained in the life sciences that help catalog, store and test tissues, blood samples and other important information.
**Immunologists** are research scientists who study the body’s immune system and help develop ways for the body to more effectively accept a transplanted organ with fewer side effects.
**Researchers** in the field of medicine - chemists, biologists, radiologists, and others with training and/or experience in the life sciences - help develop new drug treatments, methods of transplantation and ways of treating organ recipients.
**Pharmacists** accurately and safely counsel patients on the proper use and adverse effects of prescription medicines and their interactions.
**Transplant Coordinators** are members of the transplant center staff responsible for managing the care and progress of potential transplant recipients before, during and after the transplantation.
**Physical Therapists** develop and help administer exercise programs that enable organ recipients to recover their physical strength and resume their normal activities.
**Radiologists** are medical doctors who specialize in diagnosing and treating disease and injuries using medical imaging techniques such as x-rays and ultrasounds.
**Transplant Surgeons** specialize in the recovery and transplantation of organs.
Frequently Asked Questions
Does organ, eye and tissue donation really help people?
- Organ transplants are life-saving operations. People on the transplant waiting list are suffering organ failure from conditions such as heart failure and kidney disease. Without the help of a generous gift of life from an organ donor they will die.
- Tissue transplants are life-saving and/or life-enhancing operations. They save the lives of recovering burn victims, help blind people to see and allow people to walk again.
- Post-transplant organ, eye and tissue recipients can live healthy, active lives that weren’t possible when they were ill. Most recipients make such an amazing recovery, you would not know that they received a transplant unless they told you.
Who can be a registered organ, eye and tissue donor?
- Anyone can be considered for organ, eye and tissue donation.
- Trained and experienced medical professionals make decisions about medical suitability of organs at the time of death.
- Everyone, regardless of age or medical history, is encouraged to sign up as a donor.
How do I become a registered organ, eye and tissue donor?
- Simply check “YES! I want to be an organ and tissue donor” when you renew or apply for your driver license or ID card through the DMV.
OR
- Anyone age 13 or older can sign up online anytime or learn more about organ, eye and tissue donation by visiting www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org.
Can I set limitations on the organs, eyes and tissues I would like to donate?
- Saying “YES!” to donation on your driver license indicates your consent for all organs, eyes and tissues for transplant and research.
- If you would like to specify which organs and tissues you would like to donate, visit www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org.
What if I change my mind?
- You can remove your registration anytime at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org or by calling us at 866-797-2366.
Does the donor’s family incur the cost of donation?
- There is no cost to the donor’s family for organ, eye and tissue donation.
- All costs related to donation are paid by the organ procurement organization (OPO).
- By law, expenses related to saving the individual’s life and funeral expenses remain the responsibility of the donor’s family.
What if an individual registered to be a donor but their family is opposed to donation?
- If an individual 18 years or older has recorded his/her personal decision, it must be honored if medically possible.
- State and federal laws support the donor’s right to make the decision and have it carried out.
- Information about the individual’s decision will be communicated to the family members before donation occurs. They will be emotionally supported throughout the donation process.
Can the donor family meet the recipient(s)?
- Organ, eye and tissue donation is a confidential process. No pressure is placed on donor families or transplant recipients to meet or make contact with one another.
- Shortly after donation, the donor family and recipient(s) will receive general information about one another. No identifying details are shared unless consent has been given by both parties. Organ recovery organizations and the transplant centers can arrange contact if the desire is mutual.
How is the organ allocation process determined?
- If someone needs an organ transplant, his or her name is added to the national transplant waiting list. The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) is the organization in charge of the waiting list.
- UNOS works with organ procurement organizations to match available organs to recipients in need.
- Through extensive testing, information about blood type and genetic make-up for each transplantable organ is obtained. This information is utilized to develop a list of suitable recipients prioritized by considering factors such as medical urgency, tissue type, length of time on the waiting list, blood type, and body size.
- Geographic location is also considered in placement. Organs are offered in accordance to proximity to the donor.
- There is no discrimination due to age, sex, ethnicity, occupation, or social/financial status when determining who receives an organ.
Will doctors still work hard to save a patient who is a registered donor?
- It is only after every attempt has been made to save a patient’s life and death has been declared that the donation process begins.
- The doctors who work to save your life are not the same doctors involved in the recovery and transplantation of your donated organs.
Will funeral arrangements be possible after donation?
- Funeral arrangements, including an open casket, will not be affected by the decision to donate.
Can organs, eyes and tissues be given to different ethnic groups or individuals of the opposite sex?
- Gender does not influence the allocation of donated organs, eyes or tissues.
- Although it is possible for a candidate to match a donor from another ethnic group, often transplant success rates increase (due to tissue compatibility) when organs are matched between members of the same ethnic background.
- In California, ethnic minorities make up more than 70 percent of the people on the National Transplant Waiting List.
Make sure your family is aware of your donation decision. Knowing your intentions will provide comfort to your family.
Most families want to follow through on their loved ones’ final life-giving wishes.
The next of kin of registered donors under the age of 18 still must consent to donation before it can be carried out.
Local Donation Resources
Donate Life California
3465 Camino Del Rio South, Suite 410
San Diego, CA 92108
866-797-2366
www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org
www.doneVIDAcalifornia.org
Lifesharing
3465 Camino del Rio South, Suite 410
San Diego, CA 92108
619-521-1983 | www.lifesharing.org
Serving the Following Counties:
Imperial, San Diego
Nonprofit Regional Organ and Tissue Recovery Organizations
California Transplant Donor Network
1000 Broadway, Suite 600
Oakland, CA 94607
888-570-9400 | www.ctdn.org
Serving the Following Counties:
Alameda, Alpine, Butte, Contra Costa, Del Norte, Fresno, Glenn, Humboldt, Inyo, Kings, Lake, Lassen, Madera, Marin, Mariposa, Mendocino, Merced, Modoc, Mono, Monterey, Napa, Plumas, San Benito, San Francisco, San Joaquin, San Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Shasta, Siskiyou, Solano, Sonoma, Stanislaus, Tehama, Trinity, Tulare, Tuolumne
OneLegacy
221 South Figueroa Street, Suite 500
Los Angeles, CA 90012
800-786-4077 | www.onelegacy.org
Serving the Following Counties:
Kern, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, Santa Barbara, Ventura
Sierra Donor Services
1760 Creekside Oaks Drive, Suite 220
Sacramento, CA 95833
877-401-2546 | www.sierradonor.org
Serving the Following Counties:
Amador, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, Sierra, Sutter, Yolo, Yuba
Other Donation Resources
Donate Life America
www.donatelife.net / www.donevida.org
United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS)
www.unos.org
Department of Health and Human Services
www.organdonor.gov
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
www.fda.gov
Gift of a Lifetime
www.organtransplants.org
Transplant Living
www.transplantliving.org
National Marrow Donor Program
www.bethematch.org
Blood Centers of California
www.bloodcentersofcalifornia.org
American Association of Tissue Banks
www.aatb.org
Eye Bank Association of America
www.restore sight.org
National Kidney Registry
www.kidneyregistry.org
Made possible by the generosity of:
www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org
www.doneVIDAcalifornia.org
We’d like your feedback!
Please share your thoughts and best practices with us to make the next update to the education guide and online content more useful. We welcome any suggestions or comments regarding our High School Education program and resource guide.
Please share your thoughts at www.donateLIFEcalifornia.org/feedback. | <urn:uuid:b793eb53-cfd0-4b2c-8d32-11e95a714846> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://donatelifecalifornia.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Donate-Life-California-Education-Resource-Guide.pdf | 2017-03-23T06:18:17Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218186780.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212946-00107-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 105,174,990 | 11,127 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.920751 | eng_Latn | 0.997158 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
153,
1383,
3519,
5580,
7607,
9806,
12263,
13609,
15455,
16949,
19945,
22040,
23704,
25155,
26414,
27320,
29164,
30840,
32401,
34113,
35009,
36474,
38128,
39618,
41601,
43562,
46174,
48917,
51711,
53655,
53749,
54082
] | [
3.96875,
1.3984375
] | 1 | 0 |
English II Reading
Single Selection Scoring Guide
April 2013
Copyright © 2013, Texas Education Agency. All rights reserved. Reproduction of all or portions of this work is prohibited without express written permission from Texas Education Agency.
In the great high-ceilinged library of a private hôtel\(^1\) overlooking one of the new quarters of Paris, Paul Marvell stood listlessly gazing out into the twilight.
The trees were budding symmetrically along the avenue below; and Paul, looking down, saw, between windows and tree-tops, the pair of tall iron gates with gilt ornaments, the marble curb of a semi-circular drive, and bands of spring flowers set in turf. He was now a big boy of nearly nine, who went to a fashionable private school, and he had come home that day for the Easter holidays. He had not been back since Christmas, and it was the first time he had seen the new hôtel which his step-father had bought, and in which Mr. and Mrs. Moffatt had hastily established themselves, a few weeks earlier, on their return from a flying trip to America. They were always coming and going; during the two years since their marriage they had been perpetually dashing over to New York and back, or rushing down to Rome or up to the Engadine: Paul never knew where they were except when a telegram announced that they were going somewhere else. He did not even know that there was any method of communication between mothers and sons less laconic than that of the electric wire; and once, when a boy at school asked him if his mother often wrote, he had answered in all sincerity: “Oh yes—I got a telegram last week.”
He had been almost sure—as sure as he ever was of anything—that he should find her at home when he arrived; but a message (for she hadn’t had time to telegraph) apprised him that she and Mr. Moffatt had run down to Deauville to look at a house they thought of hiring for the summer; they were taking an early train back, and would be at home for dinner—were in fact having a lot of people to dine.
It was just what he ought to have expected, and had been used to ever since he could remember; and generally he didn’t mind much, especially since his mother had become Mrs. Moffatt, and the father he had been most used to, and liked best, had abruptly disappeared from his life. But the new hôtel was big and strange, and his own room, in which there was not a toy or a book, or one of his dear battered relics (none of the new servants—they were always new—could find his things, or think where they had been put), seemed the loneliest spot in the whole house. He had gone up there after his solitary luncheon, served in the immense marble dining room by a footman on the same scale, and had tried to occupy himself with pasting postcards into his album; but the newness and sumptuousness of the room
---
\(^1\)A hôtel is a city mansion of a person of rank or wealth.
embarrassed him—the white fur rugs and brocade chairs seemed maliciously on the watch for smears and ink-spots—and after a while he pushed the album aside and began to roam through the house.
He went to all the rooms in turn: his mother’s first, the wonderful lacy bedroom, all pale silks and velvets, artful mirrors and veiled lamps, and the boudoir as big as a drawing-room, with pictures he would have liked to know about, and tables and cabinets holding things he was afraid to touch. Mr. Moffatt’s rooms came next. They were soberer and darker, but as big and splendid; and in the bedroom, on the brown wall, hung a single picture—the portrait of a boy in grey velvet—that interested Paul most of all. The boy’s hand rested on the head of a big dog, and he looked infinitely noble and charming, and yet (in spite of the dog) so sad and lonely that he too might have come home that very day to a strange house in which none of his old things could be found.
From these rooms Paul wandered downstairs again. The library attracted him most: there were rows and rows of books, bound in dim browns and golds, and old faded reds as rich as velvet: they all looked as if they might have had stories in them as splendid as their bindings. But the bookcases were closed with gilt trellising, and when Paul reached up to open one, a servant told him that Mr. Moffatt’s secretary kept them locked because the books were too valuable to be taken down. This seemed to make the library as strange as the rest of the house, and he passed on to the ballroom at the back. Through its closed doors he heard a sound of hammering, and when he tried the door-handle a servant passing with a tray-full of glasses told him that “they” hadn’t finished, and wouldn’t let anybody in.
The mysterious pronoun somehow increased Paul’s sense of isolation, and he went on to the drawing rooms, steering his way prudently between the gold armchairs and shining tables, and wondering whether the wigged and corseleted heroes on the walls represented Mr. Moffatt’s ancestors, and why, if they did, he looked so little like them. The dining room beyond was more amusing, because busy servants were already laying the long table. It was too early for the florist, and the center of the table was empty, but down the sides were gold baskets heaped with pulpy summer fruits—figs, strawberries and big blushing nectarines. Between them stood crystal decanters with red and yellow wine, and little dishes full of sweets; and against the walls were sideboards with great pieces of gold and silver, ewers and urns and branching candelabra, which sprinkled the green marble walls with starlike reflections.
After a while he grew tired of watching the coming and going of white-sleeved footmen, and of listening to the butler’s vociferated orders, and strayed back into the library. The habit of solitude had given him a passion for the printed page, and if he could have found a book anywhere—any kind of a book—he would have forgotten the long hours and the empty house. But the tables in the library held only massive unused inkstands and immense immaculate blotters: not a single volume had slipped its golden prison.
Public domain. From *The Custom of the Country* by Edith Wharton. Copyright © 1913 by Charles Scribner’s Sons. Published by Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.
How would you describe Paul in the excerpt from *The Custom of the Country*? Support your answer with evidence from the selection.
Score Point 0 — Insufficient Response to the Question
Insufficient responses indicate a very limited reading performance.
These responses have one of the following problems.
- The idea is not an answer to the question asked.
- The idea is incorrect because it is not based on the text.
- The idea is too general, vague, or unclear to determine whether it is reasonable.
- No idea is present. Sometimes the response contains only text evidence. At other times there appears to be an idea; however, this idea cannot be considered an answer to the question because it merely repeats verbatim, or “echoes,” the text evidence.
The main character in from the Custom of the country "Paul". To me his is a person that travels a lot. He goes to Rome, New York & Engadine. He's a business man. He owns a hotel/s.
"He had not been back since Christmas; and it was the first time he had seen the new hotel which his step-father had bought."
Score Point 0
The student presents an idea that is incorrect because it is not based on the selection.
In the custom of the country, "the mysterious pronoun somehow increased Paul's sense of isolation and he went on to the drawing rooms, steering his way proudly the gold armchairs."
Score Point 0
The student provides textual evidence that could support a reasonable idea; however, the student does not present an idea. Therefore, this response indicates a very limited reading performance.
It talks about the culture and the custom country in the story and it's about culture. And I think that's why some countries have culture on them because they need some kind of legacy or something.
Score Point 0
The student offers an idea that does not answer the question asked. Therefore, this response indicates a very limited reading performance.
Paul is a nine year old who goes to a private school. "He was now a big boy of nine, who went to a fashionable private school."
Score Point 0
This response is insufficient because no idea is present. Although there appears to be an idea, it cannot be considered an answer to the question asked because the presented idea merely “echoes” the text evidence provided.
Score Point 1 — Partially Sufficient Response to the Question
Partially sufficient responses indicate a basic reading performance.
These responses have one of the following characteristics.
- The idea is reasonable, but the response contains no text evidence.
- The idea is reasonable, but the text evidence is flawed and does not adequately support the idea. Text evidence is considered inadequate when it is
- only a general reference to the text,
- too partial to support the idea,
- weakly linked to the idea, or
- used inappropriately because it wrongly manipulates the meaning of the text.
- The idea needs more explanation or specificity even though it is supported with text evidence.
- The idea represents only a literal reading of the text, with or without text evidence.
Paul is a nine year old boy, that just wants to see his mom and spend time with her on his Easter break as it says in paragraph 2.
Score Point 1
The student presents the reasonable idea that Paul wants to spend Easter with his mother. However, the student does not provide any textual evidence to support the idea. Therefore, this response is only partially sufficient.
I would describe Paul from the excerpt of "The Custom of the Country" as lonely, because he was by himself in a huge place. He wandered around looking for something to do, but basically everything was off-limits. I also think he is lonely because there is no one in his life whom he is superbly close with, because he has never known anything else, though, he tolerates his loneliness.
Score Point 1
The student offers the reasonable idea that Paul is lonely because there is no one in his life with whom he is truly close. Although the student attempts to provide textual evidence, it is flawed because it is only a general reference to the text.
Paul was a good kid. He went to all the rooms in turn: his mother’s first, the wonderful lacy bedroom, all pale silks and velvets, awful mirrors and veiled lamps, and the boudoir as big as a drawing-room, with pictures he would liked to know about, and tables and cabinets holding things he was afraid to touch.
Score Point 1
The student offers the somewhat vague idea that Paul is a good kid. Although textual evidence is provided, the idea needs more explanation or specificity. Therefore, this response is only partially sufficient.
He was a boy that was sent away to a school when his mother had remarried. They really never worried about him. He was lonely, probably even sad that nothing was ready for his return. “So sad and lonely.”
Score Point 1
The student offers the reasonable idea that Paul is lonely because nothing was ready for his return. However, the textual evidence is flawed because it is used inappropriately and wrongly manipulates the meaning of the text. The student provides a direct quotation from paragraph 5; however, this quotation refers to the boy in the painting, not Paul.
Score Point 2 — Sufficient Response to the Question
Sufficient responses indicate a satisfactory reading performance.
These responses have the following characteristics.
- The idea is reasonable and goes beyond a literal reading of the text. It is explained specifically enough to show that the student can make appropriate connections across the text and draw valid conclusions.
- The text evidence used to support the idea is accurate and relevant.
- The idea and text evidence used to support it are clearly linked.
- The combination of the idea and the text evidence demonstrates a good understanding of the text.
Paul from "The Custom of the Country" seemed very lonely and melancholic. He feels like the boy in the painting, "So sad and lonely that he too might have come home that very day to a strange house in which none of his old things could be found."
Score Point 2
The student offers the reasonable idea that Paul seems lonely and full of melancholy and further explains it by comparing Paul's circumstances to that of the boy in the painting. She supports this idea with relevant textual evidence from paragraph 5. This response represents a satisfactory reading performance.
I would describe Paul as curious. "He went to all the rooms in turn... wondering whether the... heroes on the walls represented Mr. Moffat's ancestors, and why, if they did, he looked so little like them."
Score Point 2
The student offers the reasonable idea that Paul is curious. Direct quotations are provided to support the idea, making this a sufficient response.
I would describe Paul in the excerpt from "The Custom of the Country" that he loves books and likes to read in the story "The library attracted him the most; there were rows and rows of books."
Score Point 2
The student presents the reasonable idea that Paul loves books and likes to read. A direct quotation is provided to support the idea, indicating a satisfactory reading performance.
I would describe Paul as neglected. "Mr. and Mrs. Moffatt... were always coming and going... Paul never knew where they were except when a telegram announced that they were going somewhere else." Paul's parents are always taking trips without him and almost never contact him.
Score Point 2
In this sufficient response the student offers the reasonable idea that Paul is neglected by his mother and stepfather. The student provides accurate and relevant text evidence to support the idea, making this a sufficient response.
Score Point 3 — Exemplary Response to the Question
Exemplary responses indicate an accomplished reading performance.
These responses have the following characteristics.
- The idea is perceptive and reflects an awareness of the complexities of the text. The student is able to develop a coherent explanation of the idea by making discerning connections across the text.
- The text evidence used to support the idea is specific and well chosen. Overall, the evidence strongly supports the validity of the idea.
- The combination of the idea and the text evidence demonstrates a deep understanding of the text.
In "The Custom of the Country", Paul can be described as lonely, and neglected. He does not get to see his family much ("Paul never knew where they were going except when a telegram announced that they were going somewhere else") and does not have a constant father figure in his life ("the father he had been most used to, and liked best, had abruptly disappeared from his life"). He finds the mansion isolating and lonely ("...the new hotel was big and strange, and his own room... seemed the loneliest spot in the house").
Score Point 3
The student presents the idea that Paul is lonely and neglected and does not get to see his family much. The idea is strengthened by a perceptive explanation of how he is affected by these circumstances. Well-chosen text evidence strongly supports the idea; therefore, this response indicates an accomplished reading performance.
Paul can be described as an observing person. That is because whenever he sees something like a picture or just a scene in general, he would look at it closely and figure something out of it that can relate to him."So sad and lonely that he too might have come home that very day to a strange house in which none of his old things could be found" Paul related the picture to his own life here. By that you can tell Paul is very observing person.
Score Point 3
The student presents the perceptive idea that Paul is an observant person because he relates the things he sees to himself. Well-chosen textual evidence is provided to strongly support the validity of the idea. Overall, the combination of the idea and the text evidence demonstrates a deep understanding of the text.
Paul from "The Custom of the Country" is a very matured 9-year-old who has little or no love and care from his mother. He doesn't live at home with his mom because he goes to "...a fashionable private school..." and "...had not been back since Christmas..." They communicate by a "...telegram..." and they didn't communicate often. Paul is very lonely that his "...habit of solitude had given him a passion for..." reading.
Score Point 3
In this exemplary response the student offers an idea that reflects an awareness of the complexities of the selection. Overall, the direct quotations strongly support why Paul feels so lonely, demonstrating an accomplished reading performance.
Paul is a boy who has grown accustomed to the lonely life he lives, but does not conform to high society's unreasonable opinions. He feels "embarrassed" by the "sumptuousness" of the "white fur rugs and brocade chairs." He thinks books that are "too valuable to be taken down" useless. His "sense of isolation" is not muted by the beauty of "gold baskets... crystal decanters... little dishes full of sweets... and branching candelabra." The only comfort he finds from his "habit of solitude" is his "passion for the printed page." Paul sadly realizes material things are no substitute for the love and affection every child needs.
Score Point 3
The student offers a perceptive idea and develops a coherent explanation of how Paul has become accustomed to a lonely life. Overall, the text evidence strongly supports the validity of the idea, and the student shows a deep understanding of the text in this accomplished reading performance. | 305afe0d-fd68-4185-b626-667452fb3ae4 | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://teadev.tea.texas.gov/sites/default/files/staar-EOC-E2-Read-SingleSelect-ScorGde-Apr13.pdf | 2022-12-04T04:29:46+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710962.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20221204040114-20221204070114-00181.warc.gz | 592,506,361 | 3,744 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997324 | eng_Latn | 0.999272 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | true | rolmOCR | [
248,
2898,
5571,
6246,
6378,
7007,
7811,
8531,
9328,
10350,
11461,
12086,
13031,
13948,
14562,
16213,
17838
] | [
3.609375
] | 1 | 0 |
Unit 1: Introduction:
- Defining Communication
- Process of Communication
- Communication Situation
- Communication Models
- Objectives of Communication
- Principles of Effective Communication
- Importance of Business Communication
- Importance of Feedback
1. Attempt a suitable definition of Communication and elaborate your definition.
2. “The single most significant characteristic of human race is the ability to communicate”. Discuss.
3. Write a note on the need and importance of Communication.
4. What is meant by Communication Situation?
5. What are the various steps in Communication Cycle?
6. Draw Five Models of Communication
7. What is brain drain? How does Brain Drain occur?
8. What are the major objectives of Communication?
9. What is the importance of Advice in Communication?
10. What is the significance of Feedback in an organization?
11. Differentiate between Counseling and Advice?
12. Write short note on various kinds of Orders.
13. How can an Order be made effective?
14. Differentiate between Order and Instruction.
15. Write a short note on the art of Persuasion?
16. What are the steps in Persuasion?
17. What factors are responsible for low morale of employees in an organization?
18. How can the morale of the employees be kept high in an organization?
19. How can the employees in an organization be motivated?
20. Understanding and response are the basic characteristics of Communication. Discuss.
21. Discuss the general Principles of communication.
Unit 2: Factors affecting Communication:
- Barriers to Communication
- Wrong Choice of Medium
- Physical Barriers
- Different comprehension of Reality
- Socio-Psychological Barriers
- Effective Listening:
- Steps of Listening
- Importance of Listening
- Blocks to Effective Listening
- Improving Listening Skills
1. What are the main Barriers to Communication?
2. Discuss the Psychological Barriers to effective Communication.
3. Discuss the Semantic Barriers to effective Communication.
4. Discuss the Physical Barriers to effective Communication.
5. How do personal opinions and prejudices act as barrier in an organization?
6. How does language act as barrier to effective communication?
7. Comment critically on the remark that fear act as barrier to communication.
8. There is no such thing as perfect communication. Discuss.
9. What do you understand by Listening?
10. Listening is imperative to all communication. Discuss.
11. How is Listening different from Reading, Writing and Speaking?
12. Outline the steps to Listening.
13. Outline the major advantages of Listening.
14. What are the hurdles to effective Listening? Explain.
15. How Noise and Emotions act as barrier to effective Listening?
16. How excessive note taking act as barrier to effective Listening?
17. How self centeredness act as barrier to effective Listening?
18. How emotional blocks act as barrier to effective Listening?
19. How personal biasness act as barrier to effective Listening?
20. How can Listening to Grapevine be helpful in an Organization?
21. How does Listening help to make better policies?
22. Discuss some ways in which a person can learn the art of Listening.
Unit 3: Types, Channels and Forms of Communication:
- Formal and Informal Communication
- Upward Communication (Objectives, Merits and Demerits)
Downward Communication (Objectives, Merits and Demerits)
Horizontal Communication, Grapevine,
Consensus (Process, Advantages, Disadvantages)
Verbal Communication, Nonverbal Communication
1. What are the various channels of Formal and Informal Communication? Describe in brief.
2. What are the main objectives of Upward Communication?
3. What are the main merits of Upward Communication?
4. What are the main demerits of Upward Communication?
5. What are the main objectives of Downward Communication?
6. What are the main merits of Downward Communication?
7. What are the main demerits of Downward Communication?
8. Write a brief note on the essentials of Upward Communication and Downward Communication.
9. What do you mean by Open Door Policy?
10. How Complains and Suggestion Boxes are used in an organization?
11. Upward Communication is very useful but difficult. Explain the ways to improve its effectiveness.
12. Discuss the relative merits and importance of Horizontal and Vertical channels of Communication.
13. What do you understand by Grapevine? What is its importance in an organization?
14. How does grapevine operate in an organization?
15. How can the harmful effects of Grapevine be controlled?
16. “One should feed, water and cultivate the grapevine rather than try to curb its growth”. Discuss
17. Distinguish between formal and informal channels of Communication.
18. Why an organization needs multiple channels of Communication?
Unit 4: Designing for Effective Communication:
- Understanding the composition Process
- Defining the purpose
- Analyzing the audience
- Establishing the main idea
- Transaction Analysis
1. “The writer of a business letter must understand the audience first.” Discuss.
2. “The writer of a business letter must define the purpose of the letter and must divide his ideas into major and minor details.” Explain.
3. The writer of a letter must focus on the Composition of the message.
4. “Organization of business letter is significant to communication”. Discuss.
5. Why it is important to adapt the message to the needs of the reader. Give illustrations in support of the statement.
6. Explain the concept of Transaction Analysis.
7. How Transaction Analysis is applicable in an organization for good communication?
Unit 5: Fundamentals of Business writing:
- Adaptation and Selection of Words
- Construction of clear sentences and paragraphs
- Directness in Good News Letter and Neutral Situations
- Indirectness in Bad News Letter
- Persuasive Messages
1. “Clarity of thought and Clarity of expressions are important in communication process”. Discuss.
2. What is meant by integrity as principles of communication?
3. “In Business communication, Courtesy and Clarity are Important”. Discuss.
4. “In Business communication, Conciseness and Completeness are vital”. Discuss.
5. “The writer of a Business Letter must place his correspondent first and see things from his point of view.” Discuss.
6. What do you understand by directness in good news letter?
7. “Indirectness in bad news letter is imperative to maintain goodwill.” Discuss.
8. Suggest simple words for the following:
- Anticipate
- Ascertain
- Endeavor
- Procure
- Terminate
- Accelerate
- Allegation
- Discrepancy
- Contemplate
- Enormous
Unit 6: Employment Messages:
- Application Letters
- Writing the Opening Paragraph,
- Summarizing the key Selling Points
- Writing the closing paragraph
- Writing a perfect Resume - Format, Style, Contents
1. Write a letter asking the applicant to appear for interview for the post of a typist.
2. Write a letter asking the applicant to appear for interview for the post of assistant accountant.
3. Write a letter asking the applicant to appear for general interview.
4. Write a letter asking for a favor.
5. Write a letter thanking for a favor received.
6. What are the important characteristics of writing a perfect Resume?
7. How should be the Format, Style, Contents of an ideal report?
Unit 7: Reports and Proposals:
- What is a Report?
- Importance of a Report
- Oral and Written Reports
- Types of Business Reports
- Characteristics of a Good Report
- Sample Reports
1. How would you define a Report?
2. Why is Written Report preferred than Oral Report?
3. Distinguish between Informal Report and Informative Report?
4. What is Performance Report?
5. Mention the Characteristics of a good Report.
6. Explain the importance of making a good Report.
7. Outline the steps while making a good Report.
8. What special care should be taken while preparing a Report?
9. In how many ways a Report be organized?
10. What is a Letter Report?
11. What is a Memo Report?
12. What information is contained in the Introduction of a Report?
13. Draft a representative’s periodic report.
14. Draft a sample informative report
Unit 8: Negotiation Skills:
- Negotiation Skills:
- What is Negotiation?
- Nature of Negotiation
- Need to Negotiate
- Factors affecting Negotiation
1. What is negotiation?
2. What is the need of negotiation?
3. Describe the nature of negotiation?
4. What are the factors which affect to negotiation?
5. Write the difference between integrative and distributive negotiation approach.
6. Why are negotiation skills important for a manager in an organization? | <urn:uuid:9923aec9-7c61-4ed9-b658-fad71b19ac1f> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://pioneerinstitute.net/files.php?force&file=questionbank/Business_Communication_541592458.pdf | 2016-05-03T04:55:07Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118790.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00058-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 222,102,692 | 1,814 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.98612 | eng_Latn | 0.988398 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
1484,
3309,
5173,
6599,
8120,
8589
] | [
3.703125
] | 3 | 2 |
# Key Stage 3 Home Learning Pack – Old and New
## English
In English, we would like you to:
- Write about the past using the correct verb tense
- Recognise nouns and practice making them plural
- Explore prepositions and alliteration
- Read and answer questions about a story and finally write a film or book review
## Maths
In Maths, we would like you to work on:
- Telling the time (analogue and digital time)
- Exploring capacity and volume
- Practice your fractions (halves and quarters) including writing them
## Other learning
### Creative Arts:
In this lesson you will do two different styles of drawings from more older line drawings to modern Pop art.
### Independence:
You will be able to make apple crumble and chicken pasta bake whilst learning about using a sharp knife and germs. You will also practice budgeting and opening a bank account.
### Science:
Learn about metals and alloys then try some experiments to see how substances change states!
### Understanding the World:
In this lesson you will look at extinct animals such as dinosaurs and current endangered animals.
### PSHE:
You will explore the great fire of London and Victorian remedies for illness and then compare this to modern day times.
### Physical Development:
Time to try some activities from an old sport (Rugby) and a new sport (Ultimate Frisbee).
### Technology:
Can you recognise old computer game characters? Then its time to think about innovations in things like cars and communication systems
---
Don’t forget to send some work to your tutor on Weduc!
Lesson 1 - Line art
Equipment: Worksheets, pencil, rubber, sharpener and paper.
Instructions:
In this lesson you will continue to develop your skills in using lines to create art!
Activity 1
To get you ready to focus on your art have a go at the two warm-ups. See if you can copy the images and then have a go at doing some shading using ‘Hatching’ and ‘Cross-hatching’.
To create a hatched texture, you will need to use thin parallel lines. The further apart they are the lighter the area on the drawing will be. The closer the lines are to each other, the darker the area on the drawing will be.
Hatching and cross hatching
You will practice hatching and cross-hatching, from light to medium to dark tone using your pencil, in the boxes below. Try to match the examples above.
Hatching
Light
Medium
Dark
Use a pencil
Cross-Hatching
Light
Medium
Dark
Use a pencil
Activity 2
Listen to some music whilst you draw some lines. Do you draw different lines to different music? Think about how the music makes you feel.
You can also add different colours to your lines to make an impact:
Activity 3
Now read about one of the most famous line pictures done by Albrecht Durer of a Rhinoceros. Why not then try to re-create a similar image yourself on the template.
**Knowledge**
- **Dürer was known for his skilful use of line. From the exquisitely thin to the incredibly intricate, his lexicon of lines was of infinite variety.**
- **This woodcut by Albrecht Dürer is one of the most important animal pictures of all time. Clearly not an accurate representation of a rhinoceros, Dürer has drawn the animal with hard plates that cover its body like sheets of armour.**
- **Despite its anatomical inaccuracies, this image became very popular in Europe and was regarded as a true representation of a rhinoceros into the late 18th century.**
- **Why do you think people at this time thought that this is what a rhinoceros really looked like?**
**Creativity**
1. Use the outline below to draw out a rhino (or try using a different animal), make it as big as the page you are working on.
2. Using a variety of types of marks, lines & patterns - fill in your outline to make your own brilliantly inaccurate rhino design!
3. Try to convince people your animal actually exists!
\[\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414\]
Lesson 2 - Pop Art
Equipment:
Pens, paper, colours
Instructions:
Unlike traditional artists, Pop Art was a new type of art which focused on everyday items and they didn’t just paint people, they often used very different colours and mediums such as photos and prints.
Andy Warhol’s famous Campbell’s Soup Cans 1962, was just a picture of 32 soup cans!
Activity 1
Have a go at colouring in the items. Why not try some unusual bright colours for some of the items?
Activity 2
Find some ordinary objects around the house and have a go at drawing them or even taking a photo of them.
Activity 3
Choose one of the images you have drawn or photographed and use it to create a Warhol style picture. Use the pictures on here for inspiration.
Activity 1
HEINZ
Cream of Tomato soup
57 VARIETIES
Coca-Cola Classic
Lesson 1 – Bank accounts
Equipment:
Worksheets, pens
Instructions:
A bank account is the safest place to keep your money and organise your finances. You can pay for things online or with your bank card or through your phone. If you want actual cash you can get this via an ATM or cash machine.
Some banks do everything online whereas others you will recognise from the high street. You can have different types of accounts and children’s accounts usually offer better rates as you do not pay tax.
Activity 1
Write down as many names of banks that you can remember. Why not look some banks up online or go for a walk near a city or town centre to see how many you recognise?
Activity 2
When you apply for a bank account you will need to fill in a form with your details, including which account do you want. Have a go at completing the form with your details.
- A **Saver** account is for people who are saving for something and want to see their money grow.
- A **Current** account is for people who will be using the money they have in their bank account regularly.
Activity 3
Banks provide you with regular statements with information about what has come in and out of your account. Do you know what the different payments are? E.g. What is a direct debit? Complete the statement by adding the missing values.
Bank account opening form
Full Name ___________________________
Address _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Postcode ________________
Telephone number ________________
Type of account
(Please Tick)
Savings □
Current □
Signed ___________________________
Date ___________________________
Activity 3
Bank Statement
Fill in the missing information on this bank statement.
Account Details
Name: Miss J. Twinkl
Sort code: 85 - 92 - 00
Date: June 2018
Account No: 011 526 8192
DD = Direct Debit DC = Debit Card
CR = Credit CQ = Cheque
SO = Standing Order ATM = Cash Withdrawal
Transactions
| Date | Code | Details | Out (£) | In (£) | Balance (£) |
|--------|------|--------------------|---------|--------|-------------|
| | | Balance brought forward | - | - | 100.00 |
| 1 Jun | DD | Water Company | 20.00 | - | 80.00 |
| 5 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | |
| 14 Jun | CQ | Cheque paid in | - | 20.00 | |
| 15 Jun | DD | Broadband | 25.00 | - | 65.00 |
| 17 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | | - | 55.00 |
| 19 Jun | DD | Mobile phone | 15.00 | - | |
| 23 Jun | SO | Savings | | - | 20.00 |
| 26 Jun | CR | Salary | - | 300.00 | |
| 26 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 30.00 | - | 290.00 |
| 26 Jun | DD | Gym | 20.00 | - | |
| 26 Jun | CR | Refund from supermarket | - | | 300.00 |
| 26 Jun | DC | Petrol | 20.00 | - | |
| 26 Jun | DC | Restaurant | | - | 250.00 |
| 30 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | |
Account Summary
Total paid in (£): ____________________ Total paid out (£): 210.00
Opening balance (£): 100.00 Closing balance (£): _________________
Activity 3 – more challenging
Bank Statement
Fill in the missing information on this bank statement.
Account Details
Name: Miss J Twinkl
Sort code: 05 - 92 - 00
Date: June 2018
Account No: 011 526 0192
DD = Direct Debit CR = Credit
CH = Charges DC = Debit Card
CQ = Cheque ATM = Cash
SO = Standing Withdrawal
Order
Transactions
| Date | Code | Details | Out (£) | In (£) | Balance (£) |
|--------|------|--------------------------|---------|--------|-------------|
| | | Balance brought forward | | | 455.00 |
| 1 Jun | DD | Water Company | 35.00 | | |
| 5 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | | | 380.00 |
| 14 Jun | CQ | Cheque paid in | | 22.00 | |
| 15 Jun | DD | Broadband | 40.00 | | 362.00 |
| 17 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | | | 212.00 |
| 19 Jun | DD | Mobile phone | 18.00 | | |
| 23 Jun | SO | Savings | 50.00 | | 144.00 |
| 26 Jun | CR | Salary | | 1130.00| |
| 26 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | | | 1154.00 |
| 26 Jun | DD | Gym | 32.00 | | 1122.00 |
| 26 Jun | CR | Refund from supermarket | | | 1145.00 |
| 26 Jun | DC | Petrol | 35.00 | | |
| 26 Jun | DC | Restaurant | 60.00 | | 1050.00 |
| 30 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 180.00 | | |
Account Summary
Total paid in (£): ____________________ Total paid out (£): ____________________
Opening balance (£): ____________________ Closing balance (£): ____________________
## Bank Statement Answers
| Date | Code | Details | Out (£) | In (£) | Balance (£) |
|--------|------|--------------------------------|---------|--------|-------------|
| 1 Jun | DD | Balance brought forward | - | - | 452.00 |
| 1 Jun | DD | Water Company | 35.00 | - | 427.00 |
| 5 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 40.00 | - | 387.00 |
| 14 Jun | CD | Cheque paid in | 22.00 | - | 409.00 |
| 16 Jun | DD | Broadband | 40.00 | - | 369.00 |
| 17 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 150.00 | - | 219.00 |
| 19 Jun | DD | Mobile phone | 18.00 | - | 194.00 |
| 23 Jun | SO | Savings | 50.00 | - | 144.00 |
| 25 Jun | CR | Salary | 1120.00 | - | 1274.00 |
| 26 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 124.00 | - | 1150.00 |
| 28 Jun | DD | Gym | 12.00 | - | 1138.00 |
| 28 Jun | CR | Refund from supermarket | 23.00 | - | 1115.00 |
| 28 Jun | DC | Petrol | 15.00 | - | 1100.00 |
| 28 Jun | DC | Restaurant | 80.00 | - | 1020.00 |
| 30 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 160.00 | - | 870.00 |
### Account Summary
- **Total paid in (£):** 1175.00
- **Total paid out (£):** 677.00
- **Opening balance (£):** 452.00
- **Closing balance (£):** 870.00
### Transactions
| Date | Code | Details | Out (£) | In (£) | Balance (£) |
|--------|------|--------------------------------|---------|--------|-------------|
| 1 Jun | DD | Balance brought forward | - | - | 100.00 |
| 1 Jun | DD | Water Company | 20.00 | - | 80.00 |
| 5 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | 70.00 |
| 14 Jun | CD | Cheque paid in | - | - | 90.00 |
| 16 Jun | DD | Broadband | 25.00 | - | 65.00 |
| 17 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | 55.00 |
| 19 Jun | DD | Mobile phone | 15.00 | - | 40.00 |
| 23 Jun | SO | Savings | 20.00 | - | 20.00 |
| 25 Jun | CR | Salary | - | - | 120.00 |
| 26 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | 110.00 |
| 28 Jun | DD | Gym | 20.00 | - | 90.00 |
| 28 Jun | CD | Refund from supermarket | - | - | 110.00 |
| 28 Jun | CR | Petrol | 20.00 | - | 90.00 |
| 28 Jun | DC | Restaurant | 20.00 | - | 70.00 |
| 30 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 30.00 | - | 250.00 |
| 30 Jun | ATM | Cash withdrawal | 10.00 | - | 240.00 |
### Account Summary
- **Total paid in (£):** 350.00
- **Total paid out (£):** 210.00
- **Opening balance (£):** 100.00
- **Closing balance (£):** 240.00
Lesson 2 - Working with a budget
Equipment:
Pens, worksheets
Instruction:
This lesson is about learning to budget and make choices about what we want and what we can afford.
The first activity introduces us to Tara, a little girl who wants everything! The next activity involves making a shopping list of items for three meals, but careful you will have a budget to stick to!
The final activity involves you making some tough choices about the things you might want to spend your money on as well as those things you have to spend money on. It all adds up!
Activity 1
With an adult, read the story of Tara together. When you have finished, you could talk about some of the things that you would like to buy. Is there anything you could try to save for? Use the table to write down three things you would want to buy and why. The things don’t have to be expensive – they could be a new book, a toy car etc.
Activity 2
You have a budget of ten pounds (£10.00). Can you buy enough food for three meals? Make a list of the items you would buy, but remember to stay under budget.
Activity 3
There are some things you have to buy. These are your essentials. Food is essential but you could shop at different shops or you could get a cheaper phone. Luxuries are things we don’t need but would like to have.
Decide upon a budget and then complete the worksheet and see how much money you are likely to spend or save. Was your budget realistic? Will you change your budget or how much you spend?
Activity 1
This is Tara Naidoo’s family.
Tara and her mum liked to go to the shops to look around.
They went to the toy shop. It was full of exciting things.
“Look at the bear,” said Tara. “I want it!”.
Mum pretended she couldn’t hear.
They went to the bookshop. “Look at this book,” said Tara. “I want it!”.
Mum pretended she was busy.
They went to the pet shop. “Look at hamster” said Tara. “I want it!”.
Mum said, “Oh Tara, you can’t just have EVERYTHING you want!”
“Why?” asked Tara. “But I want things.”
“I can’t afford to buy things, just like that, whenever you want them,” said mum.
They went to the cafe. Tara had a milkshake and mum had a cup of tea.
Mum had a look on her face that usually meant they were going to have a ‘serious talk’.
“Did I do something wrong?” asked Tara.
“You could start saving up for that hamster yourself,” said mum.
“Oh, how long will that take?” asked Tara. “We could work it out together,” said mum.
Things I would like to buy
## Shopping Items
| Food shopping | Household Products |
|---------------|--------------------|
| **Aldi** | Bleach £1 |
| £30 | Deodorant £2 |
| **Morrisons** | Toothpaste £2 |
| £45 | Washing up liquid £2 |
| **M&S** | |
| £60 | |
| Mobile Phone | Toilet roll £3 |
|---------------|--------------------|
| **Lumia 550** | Scented candles £3 |
| £3 | Washing powder £5 |
| **iPhone 6S** | Window cleaner £1 |
| £10 | |
| Internet connection on mobile phone | Transport |
|------------------------------------|-----------|
| **Yes** | Bus £12 |
| add £5 to cost of phone | Bicycle FREE |
| **No! (I’ll just connect to wifi when I can)** | Car £45 |
| **FREE** | |
| Socialising with friends and family | Luxury items |
|------------------------------------|-------------|
| Cinema Ticket £6 | Netflix £3 |
| Meal at Akbars £15 | |
| Meal at Dixy Chicken £3 | |
| Ice skating £8 | |
| Cooking a meal for friends or family at your house FREE | New clothes £30 |
| Meal at McDonalds £6 | Nail varnish £3 |
| Dominos Pizza £10 | |
| Making a picnic and going to the park FREE | Tickets to see a famous band £45 |
| Going to watch a football match £18 | Tickets to see a local band £10 |
| Make up £7 | |
| Console Game £25 | |
Activity 3
**FOOD**
Where are you going to get your food from? Why did you choose this supermarket?
**Cost:** £
**HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS**
Write a shopping list of household products that you will need along with their prices.
**Cost:** £
**TRANSPORT**
How are you going to get around? What transport are you going to choose? Why?
**Cost:** £
**SOCIALISING**
Write down the things that you will do this week. Remember, you can only go if it’s within budget!
**Cost:** £
**PHONE**
Are you going to get a phone? Which one? Why? Are you going to pay for internet use on your phone?
**Cost:** £
**SAVINGS**
Are you going to save any money? Why or why not?
**Cost:** £
**LUXURIES**
Write down the luxury goods that you are going to get. Remember, you can only get them if they’re within budget!
**Cost:** £
**Total spent:** £
**Total saved:** £
Lesson 3 - Using a Sharp Knife/Apple Crumble
Introduction: In this lesson we will be looking at how to use a sharp knife safely and also making an apple crumble.
Equipment:
- Paper
- Pencil
- Colouring pencils or pens
- Ingredients and equipment for apple crumble
Instructions:
Using a Sharp Knife
When preparing food and cooking we often have to use a sharp knife. This can be very dangerous. There are rules to follow to make sure you use and carry a sharp knife safely.
- Concentrate on what you are doing when using a knife,
- Always hold the food you are cutting with one hand, while the other hand uses the knife. The holding hand should be shaped like a claw, with the fingers tucked under, so they keep out of the way of the knife.
- Always use a cutting board, and it’s good if the board is nice and large, so you don’t feel cramped while cutting.
- Keep the tip of the knife on the cutting board, and lower and lift the handle to do the cutting.
- If cutting round vegetables or fruit, I always cut them in half first then lay the flat side down on the cutting board before continuing to cut smaller rows and then swivel the item to cut across my first set of cuts.
- If the knife slips out of your hand, do not, under any circumstances, attempt to grab it mid-air. While your first instinct might be to try and catch it, you should always let it fall.
- If you are carrying a knife, make sure to point the tip towards the floor.
Choosing three of the rules, make a poster to be put in the food room. Remember the best posters are bright, colourful and often use pictures.
Make the most of the fruit in season and enjoy making this delicious pudding. You will also get to practice using a sharp knife safely - remember the safety rules.
This recipe could be made independently or with adult help.
Apple Crumble
Equipment
- Chopping board
- Vegetable knife
- Vegetable peeler
- Sieve
- Bowl
- Skewer/fork/ sharp knife
- heat proof dish
- 1 x Baking tray
Ingredients
- 200g cooking apples
- 25g Sultanas (optional)
- 50g granulated sugar
Topping
- 100g plain flour
- 50g butter or margarine
- 25g caster sugar
Method:-
1. Turn the oven on to 180oC.
2. Sieve the flour and into a bowl and rub in the butter or margarine.
3. Add the sugar and toss the ingredients lightly together to mix.
4. Prepare the cooking apples- wash, peel, slice and chop.
5. Place the fruit in a heatproof dish in layers with the granulated sugar.
6. Sprinkle the crumble topping thickly over the fruit. Press down lightly. Set the dish on a baking tray.
7. Place in pre-heated oven until the fruit is soft when tested with a skewer and the top is golden brown. (approximately 15-30 minutes).
8. Serve with pouring custard, whipped cream, ice-cream or natural Greek yoghurt.
9. Don’t forget to wash up afterwards.
Alternative fruit filling-
Rhubarb, plums, pears, blackberry and apple can replace the cooking apples.
Write down here fruits you would like to make a crumble out of:
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Lesson 4 - Food Hygiene, Hazards and Chicken Pasta Bake
Introduction: In this lesson we will learn about food hygiene and make a cottage pie.
Equipment:
- Hazard sheet
- Cross contamination sheet
- Pencil
- Ingredients for Cottage Pie
Instructions:
Activity 1
Look at the Picture of the food room. What hazards can you see?
Circle any hazards you can see in the food room.
Write down 3 of the hazards and why they are a hazard
1...............................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
2...............................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
3...............................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
Activity 2 – Cross Contamination
When working with food, it is really easy to pass bacteria from raw food to work surfaces, equipment and your hands. Bacteria are then easily transferred onto other food – this is called cross-contamination. Below are the 4 main ways to prevent cross-contamination. Draw a mini illustration for each statement
| When preparing raw meat, keep the knives and the chopping boards separate from anything else you are preparing | Always wash your hands thoroughly after handling raw meat. |
|---|---|
| Never put raw meat and cooked meat together and don’t let the blood and juices from raw meat drip on to other food. | Keep your work surfaces and equipment clean at all times. |
You are going to do some cooking in the kitchen! When should you wash your hands?
Write down 3 times when you should wash your hands
1,
2,
3,
Activity 3
This recipe should feed four people. You will also get to practice using a sharp knife safely—remember the safety rules.
This recipe could be made independently or with adult help.
Chicken Pasta bake
Equipment
- Chopping board
- Sharp knife
- Garlic crusher (optional)
- 2 saucepans
- Wooden spoon
- Frying pan
- Oven proof dish
- Tin opener.
- Grater
Ingredients
4 tbsp olive oil
1 onion, finely chopped
2 garlic cloves, crushed (or 1 tsp garlic paste)
¼ tsp chilli flakes
2 x 400g cans chopped tomatoes
1 tsp caster sugar
6 tbsp mascarpone
4 skinless chicken breasts, sliced into strips
300g penne
70g mature cheddar, grated
Method
1, Heat the oven to 220C/200C fan/gas 7
2, On a chopping board, chop the onions into small pieces and crush the garlic using a garlic crusher
3, Heat 2 tbsp of the oil in a pan over a medium heat and fry the onion gently for 10-12 mins. Add the garlic and chilli flakes and cook for 1 min. Tip in the tomatoes and sugar and season to taste. Simmer uncovered for 20 mins or until thickened, then stir through the mascarpone.
4, Heat 1 tbsp of oil in a non-stick frying pan. Season the chicken and fry for 5-7 mins or until the chicken is cooked through.
5, In a saucepan, cook the penne following pack instructions. While waiting for the pasta to cook, grate the cheddar.
6, Drain the pasta in a colander. Tip the pasta into a medium sized ovenproof dish.
7, Stir in the chicken and pour over the sauce. Top with the cheddar. Bake for 20 mins or until golden brown and bubbling.
8, Once cooked, serve with a green salad.
Don’t forget to wash up.
Alternatives. You could swap the chicken for Quorn pieces.
Lesson 1 - Novel Materials
Introduction:
In this lesson, we will be looking at a range of different materials, and considering their properties and uses. This first lesson looks at why we choose materials for certain jobs.
Equipment:
Pen, Pencil, Paper, Ruler, Internet access (if you have it)
Activity 1
Do a survey around your house and see how many different types of material you can find. Write them down in a mind map style like this (an example below is wood):
Activity 2
We use different materials for different jobs according to their properties. In this table, match the correct material to the properties that make it useful for that job. Fill in the table.
| Material | Object/use | Why it is a useful material for this job |
|----------------|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Jewellery | Shiny/unreactive |
| | | Looks good |
| | | Expensive |
| | Saucepan handles| Does not conduct heat |
| | | Light |
| | | Strong |
| | Water pipes | Does not react with water |
| | | Strong |
| | | Can be bent into shape |
| | Car bodies | Very strong |
| | | Cheap |
| | | Will not rust easily |
Choose the correct material for each one from this list:
plastic copper gold steel
Activity 3
Draw a table of your own like the one above. This time, put in the materials that you found at the start of this lesson, and think about the properties that material has that makes it suitable for its job. Would you use fabric to have as table, or would you like to sleep on a wooden table?
If you have internet access, you could do some research into each material to find out some of its key properties.
Steel has the following properties:
- High strength
- Low weight
- Very durable
- Can be welded together into structures
Answers
For the mind map, a range of any materials found e.g. steel/plastic/glass/gold/fabric/copper/silver etc.
| Material | Object/use | Why it is a useful material for this job |
|----------|----------------|------------------------------------------|
| Gold | Jewellery | Shiny/unreactive |
| | | Looks good |
| | | Expensive |
| plastic | Saucepan handles | Does not conduct heat |
| | | Light |
| | | Strong |
| copper | Water pipes | Does not react with water |
| | | Strong |
| | | Can be bent into shape |
| steel | Car bodies | Very strong |
| | | Cheap |
| | | Will not rust easily |
If you completed a table of your own, uses and properties should be relevant: e.g. cotton for bedding – soft and flexible; plastic for gaming controllers, strong, does not conduct electricity etc.
Lesson 2 - Alloys
Equipment:
Pen, Pencil, Paper, Ruler, Internet access (if you have it)
Introduction:
This lesson is focussed on looking at how we improve the properties of some metals by making alloys. We will look at some different alloys and their uses.
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with something else (metal or non-metal).
Alloys have different properties from the things they are made from. Alloying a metal may make it stronger, harder or less likely to rust.
Activity 1
Think about the materials you found around your house last week. Can you put them into 2 groups: metals and non-metals? Talk to someone at home about your ideas and why you think each material is metal or non-metal.
Metals are usually:
- Shiny
- Solid at room temperature
- Good heat conductors
- Good electrical conductors
- Easily hammered into shape
Activity 2
Now you have sorted out metals and non-metals have a look at the table of alloys. Then see if you can answer the questions.
The table shows what different alloys are made from and what they are used for.
| Alloy | Contains | Use |
|-------------|---------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| solder | 60% tin, 40% lead | joining electrical wiring |
| steel | 99% iron, 1% carbon | bridges, ships, knives and forks |
| aluminium alloy | 92% aluminium, 8% magnesium | aircraft bodies and wings |
| brass | 67% copper, 33% zinc | musical instruments, door handles, statues, money |
Which alloy:
a) contains magnesium? __________________________
b) would be best to make spoons? _________________
c) is used because it is very shiny? _______________
d) contains a non-metal? _________________________
**Activity 3**
Here are the names of some metal alloys. Can you describe a use for each of them? *If you have internet access, look up each one to get more ideas*.
**Steel – a mixture of iron and carbon**
Steel is used for ..................................................................
**Solder – a mixture of tin and lead**
Solder is used for..................................................................
**Brass – a mixture of copper and zinc**
Brass is used for..................................................................
Find out the properties of each of these alloys and then say why they are useful for the jobs you have stated.
Answers
Example of how table might look (it should include materials previously mentioned):
| Metals | Non-metals |
|--------------|------------|
| steel | wood |
| copper | plastic |
| silver | glass |
Which alloy:
A – contains magnesium – aluminium alloy
B Would be best to make spoons? Steel
C – Is used because it is shiny? Brass
D – Contains a non-metal? Steel
Example answers:
Steel: Used as structural supports like table or chair legs/saucepans. Properties relevant are: Very strong, can support a lot of weight/good conductor of heat
Solder: used to join pieces of metal together in small areas such as circuits and jewellery. Properties relevant are: low melting point, good conductor of electricity.
Brass: used to make decorative items and statues, used in musical instruments. Properties relevant are: very shiny/attractive, quite hard, so does not dent easily, will not corrode.
Lesson 3 – Change of State
Equipment:
Worksheets, pens, paper and chocolate
Instructions:
As substances heat or cool they change their state from a solid to a liquid and finally to a gas. As more energy is given to the molecules this means they can start to vibrate and move faster and faster.
As an example here are the three states of water.
The states that water are in are reversible. This means that as we heat or cool water it can change states. However, sometimes when we cool or heat a material the results are irreversible. As an example if we burn a piece of wood we cannot get it back.
Activity 1
In the first activity let’s do a little experiment to see how a substance may change state. The activity uses chocolate!
Activity 2
Cut out and stick the different states of a gas, liquid and solid into the right boxes. You can always create your own table for this. See if you can find other examples around the home.
Activity 3
Some things are reversible and other things are not! See if you can answer the questions. Why not ask an adult to try similar experiments in the home to test your answers to see if they are correct!
Changing State Chocolate Experiment
The Experiment
1. Place a piece of chocolate in your hand.
2. Keep your hand closed and count to 100 or say the alphabet five times.
3. When you have finished counting to 100 or saying the alphabet, open your hand.
What has happened to the chocolate?
Why do you think this happened?
Activity 2
Solid, Liquid or Gas?
Carefully cut out the cards on the other pages and sort them into the correct categories.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
| lemonade | glass |
|----------|-------|
| sugar | tea |
| hot air | clay |
metal
pebble
fabric
cola
water
clouds
For each of the changes below fill in the empty box to show how the change can be reversed if possible. If the change can be reversed by heating use a H, if the change can be reversed by cooling use a C and if the change can never be reversed use an N.
| Change | H | C | N |
|---------------------------------------------|---|---|---|
| Water turned to ice in the freezer | | | |
| Flour, eggs, sugar and butter made into a cake | | | |
| Bread made into toast | | | |
| Chocolate melted in a pan | | | |
| Butter melted in the sun | | | |
| Jelly hardened in the fridge | | | |
| Wood burnt on the fire | | | |
| Ice cubes melted | | | |
Lesson 1 - Extinct Animals
Equipment:
Pens, worksheets, internet, colouring pens
Instructions:
In this lesson we are looking at animals which no longer exist because they are extinct. We explore what they were like and the reasons why they became extinct.
Activity 1
To start the lesson why not read about what extinct means, and also what animals that have become extinct. Can you write down the names of other animals that have become extinct? Perhaps you can remember the names of some of the dinosaurs from films you have seen or books you have read.
Activity 2
The Dodo is one of the most famous of all extinct creatures. Have a go colouring him in and trying to bring it back to life a bit!
Activity 3
Your task is to collect some information on an extinct animal or plant and create a fact file about it. You could look at the ones we have studied or you could even research a different one!
Activity 4
Based on what we have read so far in this lesson, why do some things become extinct? Can you think of three possible reasons? Lastly, what animals do you know of at the moment are at risk of becoming extinct?
Activity 1
What Does Extinct Mean?
The word extinct is used to describe a living thing that doesn’t exist anymore. It might be a plant or an animal.
Why do some living things become extinct?
Others become extinct because the food they eat has run out.
Sabre-Toothed Cat
Their habitat (where they lived) was in grasslands and pine forests where they could drink from lakes and rivers.
The sabre-toothed cat became extinct around 10 000 years ago. They had big strong teeth to catch their food. They ate mammoths and mastadons. The sabre-toothed cat died out when mastadons became extinct.
These cats were excellent hunters and they had very long canine teeth.
They had a body a bit like a bear.
Woolly Mammoth
Mammoths became extinct 4000 years ago. They were hunted by people for their meat and fur. The woolly mammoth ate leaves and plants. They died out when their habitat disappeared because of climate change.
They had long tusks.
Their bodies were covered in long hair to keep them warm.
Dodo
The dodo could grow up to 1 metre tall. It lived in Mauritius and was hunted for its meat by sailors. The last dodo was seen nearly 400 years ago. It is thought to have lived in woods and ate seeds, roots and fruits.
They had a strong, green beak.
The dodo was a bird with short wings. It couldn’t fly.
Dodo Bird
Extinct since 1681. Dodos were big birds, weighing up to 50lbs, and lived on the island Mauritius.
Activity 3
Extinct Animals
Fact File
Use the internet and non-fiction books to research an extinct animal. Complete the table below once you have found all the information.
| Animal: | Approximate date of Extinction: |
|---------|---------------------------------|
| | |
| What it looked like: |
|----------------------|
| Height: | Weight: |
|---------|---------|
| | |
| Diet: | Habitat: |
|-------|----------|
| | |
| Reason for Extinction: |
|------------------------|
Animals at risk of extinction are called **endangered**. This lesson looks at some examples of endangered species, why they are endangered and some of the things that we can do to help those species recover.
**Activity 1**
Read the handouts with an adult and then choose an endangered species to colour in. Can you find a picture of a real one?
**Activity 2**
Create a fact file about two endangered species. The Galapagos Penguin and the Black Rhino are two examples of animals which are endangered.
**Activity 3**
Thankfully, there are things we can do to help animal populations recover. Choose an animal that has recovered from being an endangered species, like the Giant Panda, and find out this has happened.
How Might a Species Become Endangered?
- **Habitat loss**: As forests and wild areas are cleared to make way for humans, many habitats are destroyed, leaving animals and plants homeless.
- **Hunting**: Some animals are hunted because they damage crops or homes. Others are hunted as ‘sport’. Poachers hunt animals illegally. Rhinos are killed because people want their horn.
- **Disease**: Introduced by humans or invading species, new diseases can attack plants and animals.
- **Climate change**: Weather becomes more extreme, unpredictable and varied with climate change and this can affect habitats.
What Is Being Done to Protect Endangered Animals?
**Protect**
- Breed more animals in captivity and release them back into the wild.
- Create nature reserves.
- Make laws to make hunting illegal.
Activity 2
Bengal Tiger
Population: 2500 left in the wild
Galapagos Penguin
Population: 1200 left in the wild
Activity 3
Endangered Animals
Use the Internet and non-fiction books to research the below endangered animals.
| Animal: | Status: |
|---------|---------|
| Galapagos Penguin | |
What it looks like:
Distribution:
Shade the map to represent where the endangered animal can be found.
Approximate numbers remaining in the wild:
| Numbers Remaining |
|-------------------|
| 10000 |
| 9000 |
| 8000 |
| 7000 |
| 6000 |
| 5000 |
| 4000 |
| 3000 |
| 2000 |
| 1000 |
| 0 |
Shade the graph to represent the numbers remaining in the wild.
Diet:
Factors which have led to the animal becoming endangered:
| Animal: | Status: |
|---------|---------|
| Black Rhino | |
**What it looks like:**
Stick a photograph or draw the endangered animal here.
**Distribution:**
Shade the map to represent where the endangered animal can be found.
**Approximate numbers remaining in the wild:**
- 10,000
- 9,000
- 8,000
- 7,000
- 6,000
- 5,000
- 4,000
- 3,000
- 2,000
- 1,000
- 0
Shade the graph to represent the numbers remaining in the wild.
**Diet:**
**Factors which have led to the animal becoming endangered:**
Recovering Species
Many living creatures have become endangered in recent years. Thankfully, many species have been saved from endangerment because of community efforts and education. Research a species that has been saved from near extinction. Record your learning below.
Animal name: ____________________________
Natural habitat: ____________________________
Natural habitat identified on the world map:
Year when the species became endangered: _________
Why the species became endangered:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How the species was saved from endangerment:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Year when the species was removed from the Endangered Species list: _______________________
Challenge: What do you think still needs to be done in order to protect this species?
Lesson 1 - Fire Safety
Equipment:
Pens, worksheets, scissors
Instructions:
In this lesson you will be learning about fire safety. It is really important that you know what to do in case of a fire.
The most famous fire of all was the Great Fire of London in 1666. Read the cards which will tell you what happened. You could even cut them out and try to put them back in the correct order!
Activity 1
If you are in the kitchen or anywhere else and your clothes catch fire, the key is to STOP, DROP and ROLL. This will help to put out any flames. Cut the cards out and put them in the right place. You could even practice it so you know what to do!
Activity 2
Do you know what to do at school if the fire alarm goes off? Complete the worksheet to show you know what the drill is. Remember that we leave through the nearest exit and wait at the back of the school. Why do you think we then take a register of all staff and pupils? Why not discuss why with a member of your family?
Activity 3
What would you do at home if there was a fire? YOU NEED TO GET OUT IMMEDIATELY. Which way would you go to be safe?
Complete an escape plan for your home and then fill out the details on the second sheet so you know who to ring and what to say once you have left the building.
In your house you should have a fire alarm so that you are warned if there is a fire in your house. Can you find your fire alarm?
Great Fire of London sequence cards
Sunday morning
The fire starts at Thomas Farriner’s bakery on Pudding lane.
Early Sunday morning
As news of the fire spreads, people run to escape from its path.
Mid Sunday morning
Samuel Pepys starts to record the unfolding events in his diary.
Sunday evening
Houses are pulled down in an attempt to stop the fire spreading.
Early Monday morning
People carry their possessions to safety using boats on the River Thames.
Late Monday morning
Carts are banned from going near the fire.
Monday evening
The fire spreads very close to the Tower of London.
Tuesday
St Paul’s Cathedral is destroyed by the fire.
Wednesday
The fire starts to burn more slowly as the wind dies down.
Thursday
The fire is finally under control and put out.
Activity 1
Fire Safety Stop, Drop, and Roll Sequencing
Cut and paste the pictures in the correct order.
Stop
Drop
Roll
Activity 3
Making an Escape Plan
Use the space below to create a diagram of your house. You should label each space in the house.
On your diagram use arrows to show how you would get to the nearest exit from each room that you use.
Guidelines
Use a thick line for a wall:
Use a line and a curve for a door:
Use a rectangle for a window:
Making an Emergency Call
What are the three emergency services?
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
What number do you call in an emergency?
___ ___ _____
To make sure that you are prepared in case you ever need to call the Emergency Services write down:
your address
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
the name and address of school
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
the address of one more place you visit each week
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Lesson 2 - Medicine in Victorian times and now
Equipment:
Pens, worksheets, scissors
Instructions:
In Victorian times, people didn’t really understand what made us ill so they came up with some very odd ideas about how to cure people! If you follow the link there is a video about some of the things the Victorians used as medicine.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p011lc53
Most people couldn’t afford to go to a doctor but even if they did their treatment wouldn’t always work!
Activity 1
Read the information about where you went in Victorian times for a cure. Many of the cures were very strange such as putting leaches on the body to suck out the blood and remove the bad ‘humours’ which was causing the sickness. Talk to an adult about what you would feel like to be treated with leeches!
Activity 2
Today we have lots of modern medicines. Cut out the modern pictures and put them in the right bag. Some are medicines. Some are not!
Activity 3
The Victorians had some very funny ideas about medicine. Can you work out which treatment they used for which ailment? Can you sort out the correct treatment for the different ailments? There are two worksheets to try. The second one you may need help with. Once you have done that, try and come up with your own Victorian herbal remedy to cure sickness. You can include anything you want. The Victorians did!
Seeing a doctor or going to hospital, unlike today, was not free. Most poor people would not have been able to afford to get treated unless they were very sick. Often when poor Victorians were sick they went to the local chemist where they could buy medicine. One popular treatment for both rich and poor people was the use of leeches. The leeches were supposed to suck toxins from the blood of a sick person and make them better.
Activity 1
A selection of medical jars and a leech bowl.
Copyright Beamish Museum.
Activity 2
Medicine or Not?
I Can Identify Medicines
Cut out the pictures below and stick them in the right place.
medicine
not medicine
Visit twinkl.scot
Medicine or Not?
I Can Identify Medicines
Cut out the pictures below and stick them in the right place.
| Problem | Cure (present day) | Cure (Victorian times) |
|-------------|--------------------------------------------------------|------------------------|
| Dry hands | Rub moisturiser into hands. | |
| Head ache | Take pain killers | |
| Warts | Use creams and sprays | |
| Sore throat | Take pain killers | |
Victorian natural cures
You can either cut out the cures and stick them on the worksheet above or you can write next to the Victorian cure what you think it was trying to cure.
Brown paper soaked in vinegar and placed on the forehead is good for a sick headache.
Wash your mouth out using salt and vinegar, with a little pepper.
Apply 3 or 4 drops of cinnamon essential oil to warts 3 or 4 times a day.
Wash hands with honey.
| Problem | Cure (present day) | Cure (Victorian times) |
|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|
| Dry hands | Rub moisturiser into hands. | Wash hands with honey. |
| Head ache | Take pain killers | Brown paper soaked in vinegar and placed on the forehead is good for a sick headache. |
| Warts | Use creams and sprays | Apply 3 or 4 drops of cinnamon essential oil to warts 3 or 4 times a day. |
| Sore throat | Take pain killers | Wash your mouth out using salt and vinegar, with a little pepper. |
| Problem | Cure (present day) | Cure (Victorian times) - cut and stick cure here |
|------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|
| Nose bleed | Pinch your nose just above your nostrils for 10 minutes. Leaning forward and breathing through your mouth will drain blood down your nose instead of down the back of your throat. | |
| Dry hands | Rub moisturiser into hands. | |
| Head ache | Pain killers | |
| Tooth ache | See your dentist
Use painkillers to reduce pain | |
| Burns/ scalds | Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm water for 10–30 minutes. Keep yourself or the person warm. Cover the burn with cling film. **Treat the pain from a burn with paracetamol or ibuprofen**. | |
| Warts | Creams and sprays | |
| Sore throat | Pain killers | |
| Sprained ankle | Use a support bandage.
Ice. Rest. Elevate (lift up)
Painkillers to reduce pain | |
| Victorian natural cures |
|-------------------------|
| The bark of the willow tree, burnt to ashes, applied to the parts, will remove all warts on any part of the body. |
| Wash hands with honey. Rub honey onto the hands when the skin is dry. |
| Apply water to the sprain. On a hot day, use cool or cold water. Then wrap up the parts in cloths wet with cold water, and keep quiet. |
| A drop of oil of peppermint applied to the cavity of an aching tooth with a pellet of cotton, will help reduce the pain. |
| Put vinegar or ice water up the nose. |
| Coarse brown paper soaked in vinegar and placed on the forehead is good for a sick headache. |
| Pour the white of an egg over the wound or use common baking powder. |
| Have a gargle of salt and vinegar, with a little pepper. |
| Problem | Cure (present day) | Cure (Victorian times) |
|------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Nose bleed | Pinch your nose just above your nostrils for 10 minutes. Leaning forward and breathing through your mouth will drain blood down your nose instead of down the back of your throat. | Put vinegar or ice water up the nose. |
| Dry hands | Rub moisturiser into hands. | Wash hands with honey. Rub honey onto the hands when the skin is dry. |
| Head ache | Pain killers | Coarse brown paper soaked in vinegar and placed on the forehead is good for a sick headache. |
| Tooth ache | See your dentist Use painkillers to reduce pain | A drop of oil of peppermint applied to the cavity of an aching tooth with a pellet of cotton, will help reduce the pain. |
| Burns/ scalds | Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm water for 10-30 minutes. Keep yourself or the person warm. Cover the burn with cling film. Treat the pain from a burn with paracetamol or ibuprofen. | Pour the white of an egg over the wound or use common baking powder. |
| Warts | Creams and sprays | The bark of the willow tree, burnt to ashes, applied to the parts, will remove all warts on any part of the body. |
| Sore throat | Pain killers | Have a gargle of salt and vinegar, with a little pepper. |
| Sprained ankle | Use a support bandage. Ice. Rest. Elevate (lift up) Painkillers to reduce pain | Apply water to the sprain. On a hot day, use cool or cold water. Then wrap up the parts in cloths wet with cold water, and keep quiet. |
Activity 3 continued
LO: I CAN create my own Victorian herbal remedy to cure sickness
Lesson 3 - Changing Bodies
Equipment:
Pens, worksheets, scissors
Instructions:
As we get older, our bodies grow and change. Once we reach puberty our bodies change a lot and we start to grow into adults.
Sometimes these changes can be a little bit confusing and worrying but it is completely normal. If we know what changes are going to happen we don’t need to be worried about it. This lesson will look at some of the changes we go through as we get older.
Activity 1
As we get older our bodies change over time. This includes how we look. Cut out the pictures and put them in the right order from youngest to oldest. Ask your parents to see if they have photos of you as a child. See if you can put them in the right order. You can also ask to see if they have pictures of other members of your family. See if you can put these in order of youngest to oldest.
Activity 2
Think about what changes have happened and will happen as you grow up. As we grow we learn to do new things. This includes walking, talking, being able to feed ourselves etc. As we get older their may be other things in the future that we would like to do which we can’t do now. Complete the worksheet with your ideas.
Activity 3
Puberty is when we start to transition to becoming an adult. Our bodies change a lot during puberty. It’s important you understand about these changes. It is entirely normal. Can you fill in the worksheet showing how our bodies change?
Activity 1
Human Growth
Cut out the pictures from the bottom half and place them in the right order to show human growth from the beginning.
teenager
child
elderly
toddler
baby
adult
Human Growth
Answers
How the Body Changes
pubic hair
broader shoulders
mature genital organs
more muscular body
increased body hair
facial hair
How the Body Changes
pubic hair
underarm hair
broader hips
increased body hair
mature breasts
height
Lesson 4 - Equal rights
Equipment:
Pens, worksheet, scissors, pens and paper
Instructions:
The law says everybody should be treated equally, but this has not always been the case. In the past if you or your family had come from another country, you were a woman or you were gay, many people would treat you very differently. It would be harder to get jobs, women weren’t able to vote and homosexuality was actually illegal.
This lesson looks at some of these changes and what life was like in the past and what it is like now.
Activity 1
Look at the timeline and imagine you had to live during one of these periods. Which one would you choose and why. Which ones would you really not like to live during.
Activity 2
The law has gradually changed over time to give people greater protection and make sure we are all treated equally and fairly. Cut up the cards and put them in the correct order. Which law do you think is the most important and why?
Activity 3
Complete the timeline and for each new change in the law say what type of discrimination it was trying to address. You might want to use the internet to help you answer this part of the question.
Activity 4
Create your own poster which celebrates equality.
Here are two examples. Talk to an adult about what you think they are trying to say about being treated equally.
Imagine you have to travel back in time to live in a different era.
Circle a point in time, when you would most rather live.
Review the timeline below.
When would you rather live?
Activity 1
Equal Rights, Equal Respect
Why have you selected this time?
Equality timeline cards
Arrange these equality laws into a timeline. You can cut them out or use worksheet 29.
| Slavery Abolition Act 1833 | The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006 |
|---------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Sex Discrimination Act 1975 | 1918 Representation of the People Act |
| Disability Discrimination Act 1995 | The Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007 |
| Equal Pay Act 1970 | The Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 |
| The Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003 | Race Relations Act 1976 |
Equality law timeline worksheet
- Review the equality laws on worksheet 28.
- Complete the timeline below, by writing the equality laws in the boxes in the correct order.
- Identify what type of discrimination the law is aiming to tackle e.g. discrimination on grounds of race, sex or disability.
| Law: | Law: | Law: | Law: | Law: |
|------|------|------|------|------|
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| Type of discrimination | Type of discrimination | Type of discrimination | Type of discrimination | Type of discrimination | Type of discrimination |
|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
Equal Rights, Equal Respect
Activity 3
Slavery Abolition Act 1833
1918 Representation of the People Act
Equal Pay Act 1970
Sex Discrimination Act 1975
Race Relations Act 1976
Disability Discrimination Act 1995
The Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007
The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006
The Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003
The Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003
Lesson 1 – Rugby
Understanding the History of the game and using some of the skills
Equipment:
Rugby Ball, Bean Bag, Empty Plastic bottle (2 litre pop bottle)
Instructions: In this lesson you will be working on the history of Rugby and the differences between Rugby Union and Rugby League in Great Britain. You will then be putting into practice some rugby skills to see whether you enjoy the sport.
Activity 1: You will research information from the internet around rugby and how it has evolved since first being played in 1823. You will create a simple table explaining the timescale of Rugby from 1823 to the modern day showing the split of Rugby Union and Rugby League and the differences in each code. You will also be able to find the major differences between Rugby Union and Rugby League.
Activity 2: In rugby you are only allowed to pass the ball backwards so we are going to practice our passing skills. With another person in your household you are going to try passing the ball (or whatever you can use) to one another.
Simply pass one handed to the other person who catches it and passes it back. Start facing one another then turn facing ahead and pass sideways.
When facing forward ensure that the ball is passed across your body.
**Activity 3:** The game of rugby is all about passing backward so we are now going to practice passing backwards on the move. This is a simple drill where the person with the ball jogs forwards and passes back to the other person, they then run slightly faster than the non-ball carrier so they can pass behind to the other player.
You can make this slightly harder by crossing behind the ball carrier so that we pass down an imaginary line.
Activity 4: In this activity we will practice short (pop) and long passes.
Again, you will need another player who will help to receive and pass the ball. If you can have extra players join in it would make the activity more exciting.
You need to distance yourselves about 1m apart to start with and practice passing the ball to one another along a line. Build up your confidence and then move to a greater distance. Start by standing still then incorporate jogging and passing. **Always remember to pass the ball backwards.**
A short(pop) pass is for when we are closer together and needs to be a delicate movement. You will practice this short pass next to one another and see how fast you can pass to one another. Then jog around doing short little passes not dropping the ball.
Now incorporate both passes by doing a long pass then a short pass whilst jogging around and try to not drop the ball or throw it forward.
Activity 5:
Kicking is another skill used in rugby so we will try to kick the ball to one another using various means.
The punt
Firstly, we will kick out of hand to our partner who will attempt to catch it. We must keep our eye on the ball and have our hands out ready to meet it.
This is the way to kick in the first drill.
The grubber kick
We will then attempt what is called a Grubber kick to our partner………watch how the ball moves.
This is where we are trying to kick it on the floor in a straight line to our partner.
The drop-kick
We will now attempt a drop kick, which is where we let the ball hit the floor before kicking it. This kick can be quite difficult so practice is needed to perfect it.
Activity 6:
Over the year’s sports such as American Football and Aussie Rules Football use the same shaped ball as rugby but they have slight differences to their rules. In both of these sports you are able to pass the ball forward. We will try some simple forward passes that they use in American Football.
Throw to another person over a short distance and then try over longer distances. This need to be as accurate as possible so it goes straight to your partner. For further skills from these sports maybe found if you look on the internet and watch parts of games.
Lesson 2 – Frisbee - Understanding the history of and how we play Frisbee
**Equipment:** Frisbee, empty pie tins, plastic picnic plate, strong paper plate, local park, cardboard boxes.
**Instructions:** You are going to understand the origins of Frisbee and develop your skills to enable you to play Ultimate Frisbee, Frisbee Golf and Freestyle Frisbee.
**Activity 1:**
On January 23rd 1957 the Wham-O toy company produced an aerodynamic plastic disc which over time would become known as a frisbee. The story of frisbee started in 1871 when William Frisbee opened a pie factory in Connecticut USA and students at the nearby university would throw the empty pie tins yelling ‘Frisbee!’ Use the internet to watch frisbee flying being performed.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HhUays2ehyl
**Activity 2:**
You will need to use your frisbee or strong plastic plate to practice passing to a partner over a short distance and also try to catch it when thrown. For each complete pass and catch give yourselves 1 point.
**Activity 3:**
‘Ultimate Frisbee’ is a cross between American Football, Football and Basketball. You will be attempting to recreate some ‘Ultimate Frisbee’ skills, firstly you will practice running to catch the frisbee thrown towards you. You will then throw it back to your partner who runs into space to catch it.
There are lots of different throwing skills that need to be mastered if you want to be play ‘Ultimate Frisbee’. You will need to learn how to throw with an open hand.
Try to throw the frisbee similar to the diagram on the left. Practice this with your partner and see if you can catch it similar to the picture above right. Practice these moves whilst running around and see how successful you are. For every successful throw and catch Made While running around using various throwing techniques earn 5 points if the frisbee doesn’t touch the floor.
**Activity 4:**
We are going to play Frisbee golf. This involves tossing your frisbee into a metal basket. We are going to use empty cardboard boxes as our metal baskets, so we need to set up the boxes around your garden or park. You will label each box with a number and then play Frisbee Golf.
Create a course thinking about obstacles that need to be avoided, gradient of the boxes and how many throws between each box from the start point. See how well you can do in meeting the Par score for each hole.
**Activity 5:**
We are looking at Freestyle Frisbee, which is throwing the Frisbee with choreographed routines set to music.
Look at some of these YouTube clips:
- [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOuV_hi0HC8](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOuV_hi0HC8)
- [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3uvoG461OU](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3uvoG461OU)
- [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32QyhqVkgrY](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=32QyhqVkgrY)
Now try and create your own Frisbee Freestyle moves to music. Practice your tricks before trying to put them into a routine.
Lesson 1 - Changing Technology
Equipment:
Worksheets, pens, scissors, internet
Instructions:
Every year new technology gets developed. Sometimes people invent something entirely new and other times existing things change and get better. Someone had to invent the first car or video game but since then new and better ones come along every year.
Activity 1
Have a look at the worksheet. There are different cars – some are a lot older than others! Can you sort the cars out between old and new? How can you tell?
Activity 2
The cards show the evolution of computer games. Cut out the cards and place them in the order in which they were invented. We call this chronological order which means the order in which it happened. Some of the games are now thought of as ‘classics’ - can you name the three characters from old computer games!
Have you played any of these games yourself? Why don’t you have a go at playing some online! Remember to stay SMART online.
Activity 3
Now it’s your turn. You need to choose an invention and do some research. It could be a car, computer games, a washing machine, anything you want in fact.
You need to find answers to all the questions on the worksheet. You might want to draw some examples or you could find some pictures.
Activity 1
Sort into old and new then draw your favourite
Activity 2
“Tennis for Two”
Played on an Oscilloscope
William Higginbotham: 1958
The first video arcade game
“Computer Space”
Nolan Bushnell & Ted Dabney: 1971
The First Computer Game
A S Douglas: 1952
“Space wars”
Steve Russell: 1961
The First Game to Track and Display High-Scores
“Space Invaders” 1978
The first game to have an animated character with its own name!
“Pac Man” 1980
The first portable game system
Nintendo GAMEBOY 1989
Playstation PSP
2005
| Event | Date |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------|
| 20 Millionth Playstation is sold! | 1997 |
| The first game to store initials on the high-score table | “Asteroids” 1979 |
| “Tetris” | Alex Pajitnov: 1985 |
| Xbox (Microsoft) & GameCube (Nintendo) | 2001 |
| Playstation 2 is released | 2000 |
| NES (Nintendo) and Master System (Sega) | 1986 |
| Playstation (Sony) N64 (Nintendo) | 1995 |
| Touch screen portable game console | Nintendo DS: 2004 |
Changing over time – then and now
Invention ___________________________
When was it invented?
Who invented it and what country were they in?
What did the first one look like?
What do they look like now?
Changing over time – then and now
How have they changed? Give at least three ways.
1)
2)
3)
Why have they changed?
Lesson 2 - Past and Present Communication
Equipment:
Worksheet, pens, internet
Instructions:
One of the biggest changes in technology has been the changes in the way we communicate. From cave paintings to Tik Tok, humans have always found new ways to communicate with each other. Technology has been at the heart of this and this lesson looks at what some of those changes have been.
Activity 1
Can you match up each of the pictures to their description. Do you know what each one is and how it works?
Activity 2
Think of five inventions that have made our lives easier. Can you explain what they do and how they make things better? Perhaps have a look around your home or go for a walk and have a look at things in your area such as bank machines etc.
Have a look at the worksheets and see if you can answer the questions. Then talk to an adult or family member about what you have written.
Activity 3
Carry out some research on your chosen form of communication by answering the questions on the sheet.
There is an example for you to look at which may help you present your information.
Activity 1
Past and Present Communication
Join the pictures of communication tools to their correct name.
| Satellites | ![Satellite Image] |
|------------|-------------------|
| Sign Language | ![Sign Language Image] |
| Cave Paintings | ![Cave Painting Image] |
| Press Printing Machine | ![Press Printing Machine Image] |
| Carrier Pigeons | ![Carrier Pigeon Image] |
Past and Present Communication
Join the pictures of communication tools to their correct name.
| Communication Tool | Picture |
|--------------------|---------|
| Television | |
| Smoke Signals | |
| Braille | |
| Type Writer | |
| Tribal Dance | |
| Radio | |
Design Technology - Technological Devices
The purpose of designing, inventing and creating new technology devices is often to make an everyday task easier and simpler for the user. They often replace devices relying on older technologies.
Name 5 technological devices that have been invented that make life easier:
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________
Put these 5 inventions into the table below. Describe their main function and how they make life easier for their user.
| Device | Function | How does it make life easier? |
|--------|----------|------------------------------|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Activity 3
Past and Present Communication
Choose a form of communication from the list below, then use classroom resources and a computer to research the kind of communication. Fill in the table using the questions below to guide you.
Tools for Communication
- smoke signals
- tribal dance
- cave paintings
- carrier pigeons
- papyrus
- heliograph
- sign language
- printing press machine
- electrical telegraph (Morse code)
- radio
- television
- computers and the Internet
- books
- newspapers
- satellites
- type writer
- braille
An example is done for you.
| Communication tool: | telephone |
|---------------------|-----------|
| When was it used/invented? | 1876 |
| What country was it used/invented in? | Scotland |
| Who invented it? | Alexander Graham Bell |
| What does it do? | The telephone transmits voices over a wire and now over airwaves so that people who live long distances away can talk to each other. |
| Write a short paragraph about the changes made to this invention and how or if it is used today and why. | Early telephones needed to be fixed with wires but with modern technology, telephone calls can be sent through radio waves or satellites, which makes them cordless. Modern mobile phones can not only make phone calls but they can be used for text messaging, taking photos, playing games and accessing the Internet. Over the years, phones have also become smaller and lighter to carry. These days, people can not only hear each other talking, but they have a small screen that allows people to see each other as well. |
|---|---|
| Picture of this type of communication: |  | | 42b2be11-7c89-4856-a724-06ebc0d589d4 | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://ellesmerecollege.org.uk/images/Covid-19/Home_Learning_Packs/KS3/Old_and_New/KS3_Overview_-_Old_and_New.pdf | 2021-05-06T16:26:07+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988758.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20210506144716-20210506174716-00507.warc.gz | 247,136,278 | 16,252 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.942462 | eng_Latn | 0.99942 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"hau_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown",
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
... | true | rolmOCR | [
1566,
2450,
2671,
3857,
3885,
4628,
4681,
4700,
6020,
6462,
8154,
10003,
13301,
14801,
15043,
15605,
15786,
16676,
17448,
18301,
20118,
20433,
21509,
21889,
23466,
23982,
25281,
25755,
27691,
29029,
30093,
31509,
32453,
33603,
33929,
34075,
341... | [
4.53125,
4.65625
] | 1 | 0 |
Child-to-Child and Children Living in Camps
A Child-to-Child Publication
Edited by Clare Hanbury
THE CHILD-TO-CHILD TRUST
The Institute of Education
20 Bedford Way
London WC1H 0AL
Tel: 0171-612 6648 Fax: 0171-612 6645
Child-to-Child and Children Living in Camps
Edited by Clare Hanbury
The Child-to-Child Trust
You are welcome to adapt, translate and modify any part of this book without requesting permission from the authors or publishers. We would be grateful if you could send us a copy of your work or let us have any suggestions which might help us improve our publications.
© The Child-to-Child Trust
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Hanbury, Clare
Child-to-Child and Children Living in Camps
I. Title II. Gifford, David
613.07
ISBN 0-946182-04-3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Child-to-Child Trust would like to thank Comic Relief, Save The Children Fund (UK) and The Network For Social Change for their contributions to the costs of this publication.
We would also like to acknowledge the support of those who have contributed their ideas and experience. In particular we would like to thank staff of Oxfam’s Health Unit.
Illustrations: David Gifford
Design and setting: Kevin McGeoghegan MCSD
CHILD-TO-CHILD AND CHILDREN IN CAMPS can be purchased from:
Teaching-aids At Low Cost (TALC),
P.O. Box 49, St Albans, Herts AL1 4AX, UK
Telephone: 0727-853869 Fax: 0727-846852
The Child-to-Child Trust,
The Institute of Education, 20, Bedford Way, London WC1H OAL
Tel: 071-612 6650 Fax: 071-612 6645
Registered charity number 327654
This book is designed to introduce teachers, health workers, group leaders and others, to ways in which the Child-to-Child approach and activities can improve the health and well-being of children and their families who live in camps.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
An introduction to using the Child-to-Child approach with children living in camps ................................................................. 1
CHAPTER TWO
The development of babies and young children ........................................... 21
Clean safe water .................................................................................. 31
Children’s stools and hygiene ............................................................... 40
Worms .............................................................................................. 47
Caring for children with diarrhoea .......................................................... 54
CHAPTER THREE
Immunisation ..................................................................................... 66
Malaria ............................................................................................ 75
Coughs, colds, pneumonia ................................................................. 88
Preventing accidents .......................................................................... 94
Caring for children who are sick .......................................................... 105
At the end of each section, in chapters two and three, there is a box called ‘Making Connections’. This contains ideas for helping children link new knowledge and information gained in the camp with previous experiences at home.
CHAPTER FOUR: SPECIAL NEEDS
Understanding children’s feelings .......................................................... 114
Children with disabilities .................................................................... 122
Helping children whose friends or relatives die ................................. 132
Helping children who experience war, disaster or conflict ............... 139
APPENDIX: SELECTED CHILD-TO-CHILD PUBLICATIONS 151
Places where people settle for a temporary period may be called different things, for example, settlements, camps or villages. In this book, the place where people are living temporarily will be called camps. The shelter provided for groups or families may be described as huts, tents, shelters. In this book, shelter will be called ‘the house’ or ‘houses’.
INTRODUCTION
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CAMPS
There are many different kinds of refugee camps and camps for displaced people. Listed below are some of the factors which may affect the nature of assistance programmes in a camp:
- the population of the camp may be stable or it may change every day
- the population may have much in common or they may have many differences such as religion, language, and social/economic background
- the camp may be safe from outside attack or people may feel threatened
- the camp administration might be run largely by the people living in the camp community or it may be shared between the community and representatives of the host government. The administration may enforce strict control of the camp population or it may be more flexible
- outside organisations may play an important part in camp life
- there may or may not be adequate food, water, shelter
- people may fear that their basic needs are not going to be met in the future; a pressure that might cause internal hostility among people in the camp population
Camps range from places where people live in extreme difficulties, barely managing to survive, to places which offer a relatively 'normal' existence with access to good educational resources such as school buildings, books and stationery.
Children living in camps
Bontu, a ten year old Oromo child lived in the Damazine children’s camp in the Sudan. Here she tells us her story.
**BONTU’S STORY**
I have lived in this camp for three years. I had brothers and a sister who died in the camp. I came here with them and with my mother. My family were farmers. My family had connections with the leaders and fighters. Soldiers were attacking our village and shooting. My father ran away. We have not seen him for a long time. We left and came to live in a camp. It took us three months to reach the camp. First we lived in another camp and then we came here.
About the camp. Here we get all the necessary things. I have clothes, I like the food. I enjoy school best. I like playing volleyball and I have many friends here. I have not had much illness here. There are new buildings for us to live in. Last year our house broke in the rains. The mud and water flowed around our knees. It was not possible to play or go to the latrine.
---
I WANT PEACE FOR MY HOMELAND
When I was a little boy, I used to play with paper boats at the river near my house. I remember one day when I asked my mother, ‘If I float this paper boat down the river, where will it arrive?’ She replied, ‘Water flows as the time. It has gone by and never comes back again.’ Her answer put me in deep thought for a long time. Up to now, several times, I wondered to myself whether the peace which has left my homeland will ever come back again.
As I grew up, I began to understand how meaningful the word ‘Homeland’ was and knew what the value of freedom was. In this camp we have no freedom. I cannot describe how much I love my country, I think it seems like everyone in the world loves his country.
I hope that some day soon, the peace will return to Vietnam, the oppression will leave and I will go for a walk back in my country with all my close friends. I will live a simple life with my whole family.
Many children throughout the world are forced to live away from their homes. Most leave their home with members of their family. If they go across a national border these children become refugees; otherwise they are described as ‘displaced’ within their own country. Displaced people often get less help than refugees.
Refugees or displaced people establish temporary communities:
- where they are allowed to settle
- where they feel safer
- where they can find assistance from others
- where there is food and water
Usually children make up over half the population of the camp community. In some parts of the world, unaccompanied children are making up the majority of camp populations.
**Children's health**
Children are not just small adults. They grow and develop rapidly and they are more likely to get ill. They can die easily from things such us malnutrition, diarrhoea, pneumonia, measles, malaria and accidents. Children also suffer the social and emotional consequences of things such as leaving home and school, being separated from friends or family members or seeing people doing acts of violence to those close to them.
**CHILD-TO-CHILD**
Child-to-Child is a way of teaching about health which gets children to participate actively in the learning process, to put into practice what they have learnt and to help others do the same.
It is now known what causes most diseases and how they can be prevented. Children can be involved in helping to prevent disease; they are good at passing on information to other children; they enjoy responsibilities which make them feel valued and important. It helps develop their confidence. Children find practical activities interesting and fun. Happy, busy children will help improve the morale of everyone living in the camp.
Child-to-Child activities all over the world have proved that children can:
- Care for younger children (brothers and sisters and others)
- Care for children their own age
Child-to-Child activities for children living in camps
Child-to-Child activities promote a fun, informal approach to health education.
Child-to-Child activities help children take responsibility for each other. Children learn about decision-making and problem-solving. This is particularly important in a population where people's power to make everyday decisions has often been taken out of their hands.
REMEMBER – that children need time to play too
Child-to-Child activities help children to discuss their existing knowledge and experience about a topic. This helps to strengthen and value the children's knowledge and understanding of their own culture and traditions.
The organisation and content of health education activities for children will depend upon the set of specific circumstances affecting the camp population. In many cases, it may be easier to start up Child-to-Child activities in a camp than it would be in their home area. In a camp children usually have lots of spare time and places where they gather each day such as a feeding centre. A less formal approach to education may be more acceptable to parents when they live in unusual circumstances than if they were living at home.
New Child-to-Child projects can be set up in a camp, or Child-to-Child activities can become a part of existing educational projects for children who live in the camp.
Children in especially difficult circumstances
Many of the children in camps have had distressing experiences. These may be because of: drought, floods, famine, disease, violence, the
experience of flight, loss, kidnaps, family separation or disability.
These experiences will affect children in many different ways. They may be confused, unhappy, aggressive or withdrawn or they may behave in a normal way.
**Children need:** – lots of things to do; affection and security; positive and interesting new experiences and plenty of attention.
They need:
- time (and energy) to play with friends
- group activities such as games and discussions
- a daily routine such as meals, lessons and tasks
- something they can call their own such as a mat, a box, a task
- opportunities to do important things for others
- people they can trust
Child-to-Child activities can help children feel important and useful. This helps to meet children’s social and emotional needs.
A health worker who was organising a food distribution programme found that Child-to-Child activities developed spontaneously:
---
**CHILDREN PLAY A KEY ROLE IN AN EAST AFRICAN REFUGEE CAMP**
When the dry rations had been collected, small groups of people gathered together to eat. 10-14 year old children helped the younger children by teaching them how to wash their hands and making sure each child had enough food and was eating from their own plate or bowl.
Once the food was very late to arrive and the little ones became restless. The older children played games with them and taught them songs. Singing then became part of the everyday routine at meal times and was enjoyed by everyone.
The older children noticed those children who were not eating well. They encouraged them and told an adult who could help.
‘Habiba does not want her food today. She is very hot.’
‘Ahmed has diarrhoea and will not drink his milk.’
The health worker taught the children simple messages of hygiene and nutrition such as:
- feed young children a little and often
- wash the hands after passing a stool and before eating
- breast is best
- bury babies’ stools
The children spread the health messages in a variety of ways: discussions, songs, poems, drama and ‘health marches’ in the camp. The children were also a source of comfort and support to each other and to younger children. The children enjoyed the activities and felt proud that they were doing something useful and important.
In some camps children have taken part in community health activities by:
- finding out which children were eating less than others
- doing a simple survey to find out the children who need to be immunised
- finding out if children need to return to the health clinic for further treatment
- making a safe and stimulating play area for young children
- organising games and storytelling for young children
- spreading the message about the need to give lots of liquid to someone with diarrhoea
- reporting to the health committee about families needing assistance
The Abbe Hassam family are all so weak that nobody in the family can bring the children to the feeding centre. Can you come with me to see them?
Please note that in this book the adult organisers of health activities are called teachers, health workers or group leaders.
**Planning the project**
The idea to start Child-to-Child activities in a camp may be brought by someone who does not live in the camp or who does not share the same culture and background as those living in the camp. These ‘outside workers’ have a useful role in bringing support to the project but it is important that they plan the project with community members such as parents, teachers, group leaders, social workers, health workers, religious leaders. These are the people who know the needs of the community best. If the community understand and approve of the project, it will be much easier for children to practise what they have learned and to help others.
One way to achieve this is to invite different people from the community to join a special children’s health committee. **Remember to include children on the committee!** You may be surprised at how much children know and at how many good suggestions they make.
Planning a specific project
The organiser and/or the children’s health committee might begin the planning process by doing these things:
List health topics which adults and children feel:
- are important to them, their siblings, or their families
- that they can do something about
- are fun!
It is vital that children enjoy the activities. If there is a health problem which you want the children to help with but which they may not enjoy – think again. The task may not be suitable for children. Always ask the children what they would like to do and what they feel they can do. They will often know best.
Discuss the education and health projects that already exist in the camp. Are there already school-based clubs, religious groups or children’s groups which organise health activities, such as scouts? Are there any school subjects which include health topics? How can Child-to-Child activities fit in to these?
Decide which topic(s) to offer groups of children. It is much better if the children are involved in the decision making from the beginning. Will all the children involved be doing the same thing? Or will some groups do some activities while other groups do others? How will the children help to decide?
Check if the topics and activities chosen are appropriate to the children and the people in the camp. Can the children do practical activities related to the topic? For themselves and for others?
The topics in chapters 2, 3 and 4 give suggestions for activities but it is MUCH more important to consider the needs of the community living in the camp.
An activity which is seen to meet the needs of the community will be valued more by them and will have a greater chance of succeeding.
Starting the project
1. Gathering the children
Projects using the Child-to-Child approach can happen wherever children can get together easily and frequently. This may be a school, a health clinic or another kind of meeting place. Any special place agreed by the community would do – this might even be a feeding centre, at the water collecting point, or under a shady tree.
2. Choosing activities
Choosing health topics and activities might be done by the planning committee, the project organiser, the children or a combination of these. Remember that Child-to-Child activities should be:
- important for the health of children and their community
- easy enough for children to understand
- simple for children to do well
- interesting and fun!
‘Caring for children with diarrhoea’ is the topic given in the examples on pages 14 and 15. Please see pages 54–64 for further details on this topic.
3. Getting going
Experience has shown that the Child-to-Child activities work best if they are introduced in a series of steps, as shown on the following pages.
Introducing the health topic and helping children to understand it better:
- use practical activities to reinforce the ideas
- use role play, puppets, storytelling and games to understand how people feel and react
For example:
- the children describe their experiences of diarrhoea, the words used to describe it in their family and the treatment that has been used
- an explanation and discussion of: the main causes of diarrhoea and dehydration, why dehydration kills, why it should be prevented, how to recognise it early
Getting the children to find out more:
- the children can find out things among other children, among parents and among others in the camp
For example:
- the number of children (in the group, the family) who have had diarrhoea and how it affected them
- how people treat it
Discussing what the children found out and planning activities that will help:
- discuss possible action
- discuss who else can help the children with the practical action such as mothers, teachers, health workers, camp officials
- make a plan of action
For example:
- what can 'I' do to prevent diarrhoea?
- what can 'we' do if another child is affected?
- what can we do to teach others about the dangers of dehydration - a song, a play?
Taking action:
- do practical activities at home
- share new ideas and messages with members of the family and friends
- do activities in the camp community
For example:
- making, mixing and tasting a special rehydration drink
- giving the special drink to children who have diarrhoea
- checking that people know about dehydration from diarrhoea and teaching them to make a rehydration drink (use poems, songs and drama)
NOTE: When a child recognises the early signs of dehydration, they need to tell someone and get help.
Discussing the results of the activities and asking, 'how did we do?'
- test knowledge and skills (of children in the group, of others in the camp community)
- observe peoples attitudes and practices (adults and children)
For example:
- how many of us now know how to make the special drink?
- how many have passed on the ideas to others?
- how can we make sure that we carry on improving our own and others' knowledge about this health topic while we do other activities?
- how many of us enjoyed ourselves? feel that we have achieved something?
Doing the activities better next time!
A checklist for the organiser
It may help to make a checklist of the main points to consider before, during or after a new project. Here are some guidelines:
**Organisation**
- Have the camp authorities given approval for the project?
- Have members of the community had an opportunity to give their advice?
- Has a health committee been formed?
- Has a suitable gathering place for the children been located and agreed by the community?
- Has a suitable time been chosen to hold the activities?
- Are all the resources needed for the activities readily available?
Add other questions...
**Content**
- How have the health topics been identified?
- Have the objectives been worked out?
- What knowledge, skills and attitudes are the children being expected to learn and pass onto others?
- Are the activities valuable and appropriate?
- Are all those working with the children familiar with the health messages?
- How do the activities build on what the children may already be doing? (in or out of school or in a special group)
- Are the activities fun to do?
- Will the children easily see the benefit of their action to others?
Add other questions...
**Implementation**
- Are there enough helpers to work with the children?
- What methods will be used to help children learn to ask questions, discuss and solve problems for themselves?
- Will the project be organised so that it can be changed if the children have ideas about follow up activities which they would like to do and which the organiser might not have thought of?
- How will the activities be organised?
Add other questions...
**Evaluation**
- What aspects of the project are important to consider? Such as: the confidence of the children involved; their understanding of the health topics chosen; the involvement of children in helping to improve life in the camp; relationships among children and adults; the effect on the health of children, and many more.
- What methods will be used to check that the project is going well by the organisers, children, parents and others involved?
- Will there be ways in which children will be helped to measure the effectiveness and value what they are doing?
- At which stage will the children and others affected by the project, discuss its successes and problems?
- How will the experience gained from one project help children do the activities better next time?
Add other questions...
Do not judge the success of a project only by its impact on health statistics. There will be many other benefits both to children and to others.
SUMMARY
Child-to-Child activities work best when they are chosen and adapted to meet the needs of the community. Children themselves can provide many good ideas. There are NO Child-to-Child EXPERTS.
YOU are the expert in the camp if you know the community, its problems and the great potential of its children.
Don’t be afraid to adapt the ideas, not everything will be useful or relevant to you.
Let the Child-to-Child Trust know about activities you have tried – what worked best, what problems you had. Send us any new ideas you may have or translations/adaptations of the activity sheets. We can pass your ideas on to others.
Contact us at:
The Child-to-Child Trust
Institute of Education
20, Bedford Way
London WC1H 0AL
Tel: 071-612 6650/6647
Fax: 071-612 6645
A list of the Child-to-Child activity sheets available from the Child-to-Child Trust 20
FIVE HEALTH TOPICS ADAPTED FROM CHILD-TO-CHILD ACTIVITY SHEETS
The development of babies and young children 21
Clean safe water 31
Children’s stools and hygiene 40
Worms 47
Caring for children with diarrhoea 54
At the end of each section, the box called ‘Making Connections’ contains ideas to link activities children can do in the camp with activities they may have done at home.
The Child-to-Child Trust have developed a set of 36 activity sheets which cover many health topics. Some of these have been adapted and included in chapters 2, 3 and 4 of this book. See the list below of all current activity sheets which are available from the Child-to-Child Trust or from Teaching aids At Low Cost (TALC).
1.0 CHILD GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
1.1. Playing with younger children
1.2. Toys and games for young children
1.3. Understanding children’s feelings
1.4. Helping children who do not go to school
1.5. A place to play
1.6. Playing with babies
1.7. See how they grow
2.0 NUTRITION
2.1. Feeding young children healthy food
2.2. Feeding young children: how do we know if they have enough to eat
2.3. Growing vegetables
2.4. Breast feeding
3.0 PERSONAL AND COMMUNITY HYGIENE
3.1. Our teeth
3.2. Looking after our eyes
3.3. Children’s stools and hygiene
3.4. Clean, safe water
3.5. Our neighbourhood
4.0 SAFETY
4.1. Preventing accidents
4.2. Road safety
4.3. First aid
5.0 RECOGNISING AND HELPING THE DISABLED
5.1. Children with disabilities
5.2. Helping children who do not see or hear well
6.0 PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASE
6.1. Caring for children with diarrhoea
6.2. Caring for children who are sick
6.3. Worms
6.4. Immunisation
6.5. Polio
6.6. Cholera
6.7. Coughs, colds, pneumonia
6.8. Malaria
7.0 SAFE LIFE STYLES
7.1. Smoking – think for yourself
7.2. Medicines – when and how they can help us
7.3. AIDS
8.0 CHILDREN IN DIFFICULT CIRCUMSTANCES
8.1. Children who live or work on the streets
8.2. Children who live in institutions
8.3. Helping children whose friends or relatives die
8.4. Helping children who have experienced war, conflict or disaster
All over the world, families love and care for their children, but unless they play with them and stimulate them something will be missing in their development. Older children can play an important part in helping with this development. They need to know how babies and young children develop, how to help them and play with them in different ways at different ages. In camps, normal family relationships may have been disrupted. Caring for babies and young children help other children and adults to rebuild these relationships.
The first five years – healthy bodies, healthy minds
The first five years are vital to later development. Children learn more quickly than at any other time. They learn a whole language, how to understand the world around them and how to relate to other people.
Learning depends on the ‘world’ in which the child lives. In a ‘small world’ the learning will be limited. Learning depends on the help they get from the people closest to them such as parents or brothers and sisters. Learning also depends on the physical health of the child.
Children growing up in camps – what is special?
Camps are often restricted places where the health of the population is poor and where there is much sadness. Babies and young children are vulnerable both to disease and to neglect. But in camps, people often have lots of time and older children need plenty of fun, purposeful things to do. They need to be able to help their parents and other adults as they would in normal community life.
Older children can help in three ways:
- caring directly for the younger ones
- influencing parents
- working together as a group to promote awareness of the needs of babies and young children in the camp community.
A refugee camp for the Afghan people living in Pakistan has a ‘children’s centre’ where older children help the staff. The children teach younger children about health. They make toys and play with them. Toy-making has become a major activity for the children in the camp. The toys range from elaborate metal trucks to cloth dolls. Through this they develop their design and craft skills. These activities have made the older children aware of the developmental needs and appropriate care of young children.
The centre also enables the older children to have a special time for their own play – away from the responsibility of looking after the younger ones.
The centre is a place where all the children can play and express themselves freely and experience some of the normalities of childhood often missing in war and refugee environments.
Better play
Older children may ask, ‘Don’t all children play? Why do we need to learn about better play?’
Better play helps babies and young children to:
- use their bodies
- use sounds and develop language
- look at and explore things around them
- experiment
- use their imagination
- think and solve problems
- listen and talk
Children are often told what NOT to do when they are looking after the baby: ‘Don’t go near to the fire’, ‘Don’t let her hurt herself’. They are seldom told what they CAN do to make play better.
At every stage older children have an important part to play, either one-to-one with the young child or with a group of friends.
Caring for babies
Babies' minds and bodies develop fast. They like to watch things moving. They like to move their bodies and to use their senses.
When they are very small, babies learn by being touched. They need to be cuddled and held by those who love them. Babies like to look at shiny, coloured things that move, like a mobile hung above them.
Observing babies
Older children can watch how babies and young children play. What can they do at different ages? What makes them smile or laugh? What makes them move their hands, their eyes, their legs? What do they do when they hear loud noises? When someone talks to them? When someone holds their hand?
Play from birth to 3 months
During this time the baby develops quickly. Watch the baby. Ask the mother if you can play with it. Hold the baby. Talk to it. Sing to it. Gently rub its cheek. It will turn its head towards you. Put your finger in its hand. The baby will hold it. After about 6 weeks it may begin to smile. If you move a bright object like a flower or a spoon it may turn its head to look at it.
Older children can have more and more contact with their younger brothers and sisters. Here are some useful ideas. There are many others.
REMEMBER – Babies love to hear your voice. Talk and sing to the baby when it’s awake.
Play between 3 months and 6 months
- Hang a mobile made of circles cut out of cardboard on which are drawn faces and bright patterns near where it lies. If this is difficult to make, use any small, light moving objects.
- Tie or hang objects like spoons close to where it lies so that it can reach and hold on to them.
- Make a sound with a tin or clap your hands so that it will look to see where the sound comes from.
- Cut a smooth ring out of bamboo, let the baby reach for it and take it to its mouth; be sure it is clean.
WARNING – All babies put things in their mouths. Be careful what you give them.
Find or make a smooth object and give it to the baby to hold. You will see that the baby drops it when you offer it a second one.
Find games that make it smile and coo. These baby sounds are the beginnings of speech. When you carry the baby about tell it the names of objects.
Play between 6 months and 9 months
- Help the baby to sit up for games. Support it if needed. Talk to it while you play. Call its name or sing a song from different places in the room and see if it can turn its head to find you.
- Begin to teach the baby to drink from a clean cup.
- Give the baby objects to bang together.
- Hang some of its toys on pieces of string near where it lies so that it can just reach them.
- Give the baby two, then three and four smooth objects. Encourage it to pass or give them to you or pass them from one hand to another.
- Give it a block or a tin and it will enjoy throwing it on the floor and then looking for it. It will do this again and again.
Play between 9 months and 12 months
- Play games to encourage the baby to crawl, stand and walk. For example, pretend you are a mother animal and it is a small one. Hold its hand. Take it for a walk. Show it things and talk about them.
- Get the baby to give you a hug, clap its hands, or wave ‘Good-bye’, and so practise all the skills it has learnt. Hand it objects that it can hold between its finger and thumb. Watch out! By now it loves throwing things, not just dropping them. Make a soft ball out of grass or cloth to throw.
- Give it two objects and you hold two more. Bang yours together. Can it copy you? Make clay or mud animals for it to hold. Get the baby to imitate their noises.
- Give it a box and things of different sizes to put in and take out of it.
- Hide something under a cup or piece of cloth as it watches. See if it can find it.
- Tell it stories and sing songs with actions. Sing songs you learnt when you were small.
- Make a doll and tell stories about it.
Songs and stories
Songs and stories teach children how to use language well. Older children can collect traditional songs and stories from adults and they can teach these to the younger ones. Find opportunities to get the young children to talk. Make playing introduce ideas and phrases like – bigger than, smaller than, the same as, rougher than, smoother than, heavier and other phrases.
Caring for young children
Young children like to explore the world around them, discover shapes, learn to use their bodies, learn to talk and play games.
Observing young children
Older children can observe and discuss what young children like to do by themselves and with others. What games do they like to play? What new games can we teach them?
Everyday activities
Encourage children to feed themselves well. Talk to them as much as you can. Encourage them to name things.
Toy making
There are usually scrap materials that children can collect to make toys. Make a toy on wheels that the child can push while it walks, like a box with a wheel and a handle.
Water, sand and mud
Children will play for hours in water, sand or mud. Give them a few materials like different sized tins, gourds and calabashes with holes in. Try making boats from tins, seed pods or pieces of wood (make sure that the tins do not have sharp points or edges). Thin bamboo, pawpaw or banana stems make good pipes which can be used for bubbles with soap and water. Clay models can be made from mud with leaves and sticks to make model houses and animals.
Building games
Put one object on top of another see if the young child will copy you. Let them build things with various objects. Wrap objects in paper or cloth. Let them unwrap it. Maize cobs, matchboxes, scraps of wood and cardboard can be used by children for making things or for building.
Pretend games
Children love to pretend that they are other people or animals. Help them in their make believe.
Adventure games
Young children will like to run and play chasing games. Simple swings can be made with rope and tyres which are good to roll and climb through. Stilts can be made with large tins and string. Large stones can be placed for children to jump from one to another.
Learning what adults do
Small children enjoy seeing work being done by the adults in their community. In the camp, there may be activities or workshops which young children can visit. Adults can also take time to talk to them about the work they did before they came to live in the camp.
Music
Young children can sing and dance to music. Music can be a strong connection to their home. Musical games can teach young children to listen well.
Other games
Children can learn from other games like flying kites, playing with tops and hoops, clapping, counting and singing games. Hop-scotch and other skipping and running games. Children can make drawing in the mud with stick and fingers.
Helping and comforting young children
When young children are frightened or angry, older children can help by holding them, comforting them, telling them stories and making them laugh. This will help the young child feel happy and secure.
Organising play
In the house – older children can help by talking to the adults about what the young child does and enjoys. A special place for a young child’s play or playthings can be made in the house.
A special play area – older children can help look for suitable places which would be safe and suitable for children’s play. Older children can help adults organise nursery group. They can help make toys and play with the young children.
In school or learning groups – older children can set up special play areas and help care for younger brothers and sisters.
School time can be made available for children to make play materials.
- Arts and crafts – toys like cars, dolls and models; games equipment like balls, hoops and ropes; paints and brushes for making pictures; puppets and building blocks.
- The language lessons – books with stories and pictures; reading cards with pictures and words; posters and charts.
- The mathematics or science lesson – puzzles, and playing cards.
- The music lesson – instruments like drums, rattles and flutes, collections of songs and singing games.
At the health clinic – often babies and young children need toys and games to play while they are waiting. Older children can help by making toys for the clinic and by organising play activities at the clinics.
Influencing the community – with the agreement and help of community members, children can construct and organise a safe play area for babies and young children in a camp. Adults can then help by being nearby while older children play games with the young children.
Older children can make up plays and songs about the younger child growing and developing.
Follow-up
Find out and test how far older children understand the development of babies and how they can help. Can children compare the development of babies and young children of the same age? of different ages?
What toys are available for babies in the camp? Can children help to make toys for babies or young children?
Making Connections
Ask the children to describe the toys and games which they enjoyed when they were little. Have they tried playing these games with other young children in the camp?
CLEAN SAFE WATER
The idea
Every living thing needs water to live, but dirty water can make us ill. We must be careful to keep water clean and safe – where it is found, when we carry it home, and when we store and use it.
Water is our friend
Water is our best friend. Without it, animals and humans become weak and die. In many countries where there is not enough rain, there is not enough water and people suffer. Water is always precious. We must use it carefully and keep it clean.
Even where there is enough water, if it is not clean and safe, it can be our worst enemy. Babies and young children especially need clean drinking water because dirty water which has germs in it makes them ill. Some of the illnesses caused by dirty water are diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid, jaundice, worms, and in some countries, bilharzia.
Germs and dirt which cause disease can get into the water:
- at the source
- when we collect it and carry it to the house
- when we store and use it in the house
Sometimes water looks clean, but it is not good to drink, because it has germs in it. IF THE GERMS ARE IN THE WATER, THE WATER IS NOT SAFE.
Keeping water clean and safe
We get water from many sources. Water comes from springs, rivers, ponds, wells and tanks. It is collected from these places as well as from tanks or taps. There are many things that we can do to keep water clean and safe where we find it. It is also important to keep it clean when we carry it to the house and when we store it.
Where water is found
Don't
- let people or animals bathe, urinate or pass stools in or near water
- let people wash clothes
- let people throw rubbish into the water
- let people use a dirty container to draw water
Do
- where there is more than one place to get water, try and keep the cleanest one for drinking water
- where there are taps and wells with safe water, try to use these
Where water is stored
Don't
- let flies, dust, dirt and other objects fall in
- put dirty cups, hands or ladies into it
- let a sick person share the family drinking cup, or put left-over water back into the storage container
Do
- use a clean container for storing water – clean on the inside and on the outside – for drinking water
- keep the storage container covered so that nothing can fall in
- use a clean container (like a cup or gourd) for taking water out of the storage container, do not put your hand in the water
- keep a separate water storage container and cup or gourd for people who are ill
Storing water
If possible use a clean cloth and place it over the empty storage container. Tie it in place if necessary. Pour water carried from the well or stream through the cloth to remove dirt, dust and insects. If the water is allowed to stand for a while, many impurities will sink to the bottom. Strong sunlight will also destroy many germs in water stored in a transparent container. Some earthenware jars help reduce germs when the water is left to stand by attracting the germs to the surface of the jar.
Drinking Water
If the water has been kept clean, it is probably safe for drinking. If you know that the water has been made safe by chemicals, you can certainly drink it safely.
If you are not sure that it is safe, the water can be made safe by boiling. It is especially important to use boiled water for babies, very young children and sick people. Remember to put it in a clean container and to keep it covered. You can also use a filter which removes some of the dangerous substances from the water. Ask the health workers about using filters.
Try to use a clean glass, cup or gourd for taking drinking water.
Activities
Children can discuss
Why is water important? List all the things you can do with water, in the house, in the camp, in the health clinic, in the country. For which of these do we like to have clean water?
Is water which is clear or which has a good taste always safe, clean drinking water? (The answer is no. Why?) How do germs get into water?
In what ways can water help us? In what ways can water harm us? Do some of the children often have an upset stomach or diarrhoea? Are there others who do? What about the babies? What do you think might have caused this illness?
How often are older children left in charge of the younger ones? Do they give them water to drink? Is the water they give clean and safe?
Children can find out
In the community – in small groups, go to see the sources of water in the camp. Make a map to show where they are.
Find out which sources are clean and well looked after, and which are dirty. If the source is dirty, what is making it dirty? Watch how people draw water and how they carry it back to the house. Is the water kept clean and safe? Discuss what you have seen with the other children.
Find out from the health worker if germs can get from the latrines to the water source in the camp.
At a meeting place or in a group – make a list of illnesses that can be spread through unsafe water, and find out about them. Find out more about water in the camp. Where does the water come from? How often is the water container cleaned? Are cups or gourds used to take the water from the container? Are drinking vessels washed before and after use? Is there somewhere to wash hands before eating and drinking?
At the house – make a list of all the containers used to store or carry water. Make a list of people you live with who had an illness which comes from dirty water. Who collects the water for the house? Can you help them? Who keeps the water clean and protected? Is the water container covered? Is there a ladle?
Find out from the health worker what is the best way to get clean drinking water in the camp.
Children can help
Children can help to keep water clean and to take care of it. They can discover activities which are suitable for their age, and can do them alone or in teams or pairs. Here are some examples of the kinds of things they can do.
At the source of the water – help to keep the water supply clean. Explain to little children that they must not urinate in the water, or pass stools around the edge of the water. Collect up rubbish and other objects, and take them away.
Children can take younger ones to safe areas where they can pass their stools.
Where there is a tap help people to use it. This may mean helping old people to fetch and carry water.
Where there is a well, the surroundings must always be kept clean. If there are stones, help to build a small wall around the well.
Check to see if the rope and the container at the well are clean. Help to make a support to hang them up so that they do not lie on the ground. If there is no cover for the well, help to make one if possible.
When people collect water and take it back to the house. Explain that the containers they use must be clean. If the water at the source is not clean, explain to people that there are ways to make the water safer such as storing the water for 24 hours; letting the water stand in the sunlight in a transparent container for several hours; filtering the water or boiling it.
In the house – explain to younger children that they should not put their hands or dirty objects into the water. Help to keep the container where the water is stored clean and covered. Help younger ones to use a separate container such as a cup, gourd or ladle, to get water out of the storage container and teach them to put the cover back on the water when they have finished.
Children can make up stories
Here are some ideas:
THE CHILD WHO GREW SMALL
A child goes down to the river to fetch water and falls asleep on the river bank. While he is asleep he dreams he has become tiny. Then all the dirt in or near the water becomes very frightening to him. He battles his way through it and at last wakes up ... and decides to try and stop the pollution of his water supply.
The children can be asked to think what would happen if they were very small and the dirty things were very big. What would become big? How would they feel?
THE WATER DIRTIERS
Some powerful and selfish people in the camp make the water source dirty with their animals, or by throwing rubbish into it. What can children do? How can they get help from older people in the village?
THE END OF A HAPPY LIFE
This is the story told by the germ family about their very happy life in and around the water source. Life becomes less and less comfortable when children begin to keep their water clean. In the end, the germ family is forced to move to a new and dirtier place.
Children can show what they can do to make the germ family’s life more difficult.
Children can make pictures or a series of pictures (a frieze)
All these stories are good subjects for pictures or friezes which the children can make in groups. Some children can paint the background and others can add different things onto the pictures by sticking them on. Use cloth or leaves or stones or any other kind of material to make the pictures more interesting. If there is no paper or paint, children will enjoy drawing in the sand or the mud.
A frieze is a series of pictures which tell a story. Different children can draw the pictures and others can write the story underneath. A group picture or frieze can tell a story, or it could be about a topic or sequence like ‘safe water’, or ‘collecting clean, safe water and bringing it back to the house’.
Children can make up plays, mimes, dances, or puppet plays. These stories and others can also be dramatised. Children can be animals, insects, even things, as well as people. In the Water Dirtiers story, for instance, children can be Grown-Up People, Cows, Flies, Children, Germs, a Fence the villagers put up around the water supply, and even the Water Supply itself.
If suitable materials are available children can make posters and games. Here are some simple ideas that can be used for posters, but there are many others. These pictures and others like them can be used to make:
- cards for matching (picture with text)
- dominoes
- fit-together puzzles
Children can pass the message
Children can pass the message about clean safe water to other children in the camp, to their family and others. They can sing songs, tell stories, make plays, posters and games for playing with younger children.
Follow-up
After several months, children can be asked to discuss with the other children what they have remembered, what they have done to make water cleaner and safer, what more they can do.
Is the place where water is collected cleaner? Has all the rubbish been taken away? Are water containers always clean, especially on the outside? Do more children wash their hands after defecating and before eating? How many people are still getting illnesses from unsafe water?
Making Connections
Children can discuss the water sources they used at home; the differences between those sources and the ones used at home – which are better? Why? Children can draw pictures to show how people collected water at home. They can tell stories or make up plays about someone at home who they remember became ill because of dirty water.
Diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, polio and some other diseases are caused by germs present in stools. These germs can pass from one person to another on the hands, in dust, in food and drinks, and on flies. Getting rid of stools in a safe way, and washing after defecation and before eating can help prevent the spread of these diseases.
Diarrhoea is dangerous
Children have diarrhoea when they pass frequent, watery stools. They may also vomit and have a swollen belly with cramps. Diarrhoea is caused by germs which live in dust, stale food, dirty water, and human stools. Through the diarrhoea, the body tries to ‘wash out’ the bad germs.
Diarrhoea is a frequent cause of death in young children. They die from dehydration when they lose large amounts of fluid (water and salts) from their bodies because of the diarrhoea, and this is not replaced.
The most important way we can help to prevent diarrhoea and other dangerous diseases is by keeping ourselves, and the places where we live and play, clean.
Stools are dangerous
Many people know that stools are dirty, but they may not know that the germs in stools can cause diseases.
Diarrhoea, worms, cholera, typhoid and polio are spread when germs are passed from our stools to hands and clothes, to the water we drink and the food we eat, making us ill.
By being careful when we pass stools, by keeping our hands and bodies clean after a bowel movement, and by cleaning up any stools which are dropped in places where we live and play, we can help to prevent the germs that cause these diseases from spreading. Animal stools are also dangerous.
Why children’s hygiene is important
Many people think that children’s stools are harmless, but this is wrong. A child’s stool has perhaps five or six times as many germs as the stool of an adult. When the small child has diarrhoea, the stool is especially dangerous for all those who look after the young child.
Babies have no control over their bowels and may pass their stools in many different places both inside and outside the house. This is not only dirty but dangerous because germs from these stools can spread easily to others.
When they are older (about 2-3 years) and have learned control of their bowels, children will copy what they see others doing. If they see others defecate in the open they will copy them because all children want to grow up and be like the others.
Young children spend a lot of time crawling and sitting on the ground. They often put things into their mouths. And so they pick up germs in the dust from any stools that are lying on the ground around them.
It is easy for anyone taking care of a young child to spread germs from the stools. Germs can be spread on our hands from wiping a child’s bottom, to food, cooking dishes, clothing or the hands of other people. These germs can end up by getting into the mouth of another child or adult, and making them ill.
What can we do to stop the spread of germs?
Children can learn good hygiene habits which prevent the spread of germs causing diarrhoea and other illnesses. Older children can discuss effective preventive measures.
Use a latrine
Whenever possible, use a latrine for defecating. Help younger children to use latrines properly. Keep latrines clean. When a latrine is not available, stools should be buried to keep off flies.
Keep hands and bodies clean
Use water and ashes or soap, if available, to wash hands after using the latrine. If leaves have been used for wiping the bottom, bury them or throw them in the latrine. Clean a child’s bottom and hands if they are dirty.
Keep the place clean
Clean up and bury stools dropped on the floor or in the yard. As often as possible (even four times a day) check to see that the places where young children play, crawl and sit are clean. Wash spoons, dishes and things that young children have played with.
REMEMBER – KEEP CLEAN AND USE A LATRINE
How can we improve small children’s hygiene?
Older children can help small children to learn good, clean bowel habits.
Teach younger ones to use a latrine
Where there is a latrine, the older child can encourage the small one to say when he needs to go. The older child can then take the younger one to the latrine.
If there is no latrine, older children can help young ones learn to pass their stools in the place agreed by people in the camp.
Encourage good hygiene habits such as:
- cleaning the bottom
- washing hands after using the latrine, using soap if possible
- covering the latrine hole to keep flies away, if it is a VIP latrine the hole must not be covered.
Provide a suitable latrine
When camps have latrines, they are often made for adults. They may be some distance from the houses; the foot plates may be far apart; the hole too large, too dark, and too deep for a small child. It may be a frightening place for small children, even if an older child goes with them. They would rather pass their stools in a corner of the house or just outside the door, where there is light and the security of having someone older nearby.
It is best for young children to have a latrine built specially for them. It should have a small foot plate, with a small hole, and be near the house. If this is not possible, a special cover can be provided.
If possible, a basin and soap should be used to clean the children after they use the latrine, or to show them how to wash their hands after cleaning themselves.
But even if a child's latrine is not built there are ways of helping to keep children's stools safe. Children can be taught to pass their stools on a leaf, a cloth or something which can be used immediately to transport the child's stool to the adult latrine.
Older children can discuss some things which help the germs to spread. Examples would be:
- taking a piece of cloth, wiping the bottom, and leaving the cloth lying around
- simply holding the child out bare-bottomed over the floor or the ground.
Practise good hygiene.
Practise good habits as a group: use the latrine, keep it clean, keep hands clean after using the latrine, wash hands before taking food.
Why do some children not use a latrine? Ask them to explain. Discuss these reasons and agree on ways of encouraging the use of latrines.
Older children can help to build child-size latrines or special covers to put over the large hole in adult latrines so that young children are not so frightened to use it.
If there are no taps outside the latrines, children can make leaky tins and put them outside latrines. They can take it in turns to make sure the leaky tin contains water.
Children will enjoy inventing songs and poems about the importance of good hygiene.
Follow-up
Ask the children questions:
- What causes diarrhoea?
- How can diarrhoea be prevented?
- Why is it important to be especially careful about younger children’s stools?
- What are some of the good hygiene habits which can help to stop the spread of germs?
- What more can we do to improve our own hygiene habits and those of our friends and family?
Are there latrines in the camp which children can use easily? Is there a place to wash hands? What about in the house? How many families have a special latrine or a special place for little children to defecate? Have the children helped to make a special latrine? Have the children helped younger brothers or sisters to learn better hygiene? Ask them to describe what they did.
Making Connections
Children can describe the latrines they used at home. They can discuss how they kept (or did not keep!) the hygiene rules. They can exchange stories about how they helped their younger brothers and sisters keep clean. They can make up new songs about health and hygiene using tunes from traditional songs.
Worms and parasites
Millions of people have worms and other parasites in their body. They get into the body in different ways. There are many different kinds of worms, some large and some so small that we cannot see them. Sometimes the ones that we cannot see are worse than the bigger ones. Children get even more worms than adults.
How do they make us ill?
Some people think worms in the body are not dangerous. This is wrong. Worms are dangerous because they live by feeding from our bodies. They suck the food or the blood inside us. They make us weak because they...
eat our food. Children with worms can be bad tempered and tired. Worms stop children from growing properly. They make it easy for other diseases to attack children. Children with worms do not get better from other illnesses quickly. Sometimes worms even kill children.
Children who have worms may show the following signs: scratching the anus, sleeping badly, restless, bad-tempered, pale, stomach ache, not hungry, or the presence of worms in the stools.
**How do we get worms?**
Worms can multiply rapidly: one worm can lay thousands of tiny eggs which we cannot see. When a worm is inside the body, it lays thousands of eggs which pass out of the body in the stools.
If the stools are left where we sit, walk and eat, the eggs in the stools can get onto things that we touch: furniture, water, soil, dust etc. Flies can move from the stools and carry the eggs onto our plates and cups, or onto the food we eat. We swallow the eggs without knowing, and they grow into worms inside us. Then they travel through the different parts of our body until they find a good place to grow, usually in our intestines where they eat our food.
**How can we prevent worms?**
Good hygiene is the best way to prevent worms. Enough water helps to improve hygiene. In a camp situation it is usually more important to increase the quantity of water available to people rather than to improve its quality.
**Get rid of stools safely**
- if there are latrines - use them
- wash hands and bottoms
- keep fingernails short
- keep clothes and bedclothes clean
- if possible, wear shoes
- if possible use plenty of water for cleaning
- think of ways to reduce flies such as building VIP latrines
- make a clean safe place where babies and young children can play and crawl
**REMEMBER** – the health clinic can give simple, cheap treatment for worms. It is often a ‘once only’ treatment.
**Activities**
Children and others in the camp can help to prevent worms from spreading by:
- killing flies
- burying stools
- cutting nails
- wearing shoes
- washing hands
REMEMBER – every person in the camp must help. Only one person who does not have good hygiene habits can spread worms to HUNDREDS of other people.
Discuss
How can you tell if a small child has worms such as scratching anus, sleeping badly, restless, bad-tempered, pale, stomach ache, not hungry, or the presence of worms in the stools. Do you know people at home who have had worms? Have you seen worms? Where? Do your younger brothers and sisters get more worms than you? If so – why?
Latrines
Where are the latrines in the camp? Who looks after them and keeps them clean? Make a map to show the latrines you know. Are there any special children’s latrines or child covers for the latrines? (See the section on children’s stools and hygiene.) Do the children who are newly arrived in the camp know where the latrines are? Do they use them? Why/why not?
Water
Where do people get their drinking water? Is the source of drinking water clean? Where can people wash their hands before they eat or after they have been to the latrine?
How can children get rid of worms?
Make up stories and songs about worms. There is a song on the next page about the guinea worm. The song was made up in Nigeria.
The Guinea Worm Song
Chorus
Guinea worm, guinea worm
Guinea worm gonna make you burn
A young boy one day did wake
Looked at his foot, and it made him shake
There on his heel, big and sore
A mean blister that pained him sore
The young boy he went off one day
To fetch water in the same old way
In the pond his leg he put
And baby guinea worm came out of his foot
Chorus
Young girl one day did wake
To fetch water from the pond she’d take
She got the water and there inside
Little guinea worm were swimming fine
Little guinea worm now its so small
You can’t see it with your eyes at all
If the family drinks the water they’ll find
They take the guinea worm deep down inside
Chorus
Little guinea worm, there inside
Its very happy now, its growing fine
Time will pass but there’s no doubt
That guinea worm is going to come out
This guinea worm its sure not fine
You can’t go farm, can’t go in time
You’ll lie on the bed, it’ll make you weep
Cause that guinea worm it will steal your sleep
Chorus
The children won’t be able to go to school
Because the guinea worm is just too cruel
Listen to the song now and you will know
How you can make that guinea worm go
If you get guinea worm on your foot
Clean it everyday and bandage it up
Keep your foot out of the water source
Then it won’t come again of course
Chorus
Don’t step in the water when you go to fetch
Bring it home, but your not finished yet
Pour it through filter, into a drinking pot
Then the guinea worm is sure to be caught
Tell your neighbour now to do the same
So for guinea worm he can’t be blamed
And if the village digs wells, when they’re done
That guinea worm will do no more
Chorus (repeat chorus)
Draw and discuss a map of the camp which shows dangerous places where the worms are spread. Show how flies spread germs and worms. Watch the flies and see where they go. Then draw a plan of their journey on the map. Some good maps can be drawn in sand or clay. Children can explain these maps to others.
Make sure that the group’s meeting place is clean and free from worms.
Make sure that adults and other children understand about worms. Teach younger children to use latrines or safe areas to pass stools. Make latrine covers. Keep a water-saving tin to wash the hands after using the latrine. Make fly swats. Keep flies away from the eyes, mouths and food of young children.
Give puppet shows, songs, dances to show the messages of good hygiene.
**Follow-up**
How many children have done something to prevent worms? What did they do? Are there more latrines, latrine covers or safe areas to pass stools? Are there more children wearing shoes? Who has gone to the health clinic for treatment?
Have the older children helped the younger ones by getting rid of their stools, showing them how to use the latrine, talking about worms at home? How else did they help?
**Making Connections**
*Children can tell stories or act out plays about the life cycle of a worm. They can imagine that they are the worm. They can act one play where the worm lives in the camp and another where the worm lives in their home area. Are there any differences? Was the home area or is the camp a place where children are more likely to get worms? Why?*
Diarrhoea is dangerous
Children who have diarrhoea lose a lot of water, especially if they are vomiting and have a fever. Children may die of diarrhoea, usually because they have lost too much water and salts from their bodies and nobody helps them to drink. This loss of water and salts is called dehydration. The family should understand that the water lost in diarrhoea needs to be quickly replaced.
What to do when a child has diarrhoea
Act immediately! Do not wait for signs of dehydration. We can prevent serious dehydration occurring by:
- giving the child plenty to drink to replace the water that is lost, as soon as the diarrhoea starts
- giving the child enough food to keep him/her strong
What are the signs of dehydration?
The child is thirsty or may appear irritable, restless or half asleep. The mouth and tongue may become dry and there are few tears when the child cries. Eyes appear sunken and when the skin is pinched, it returns to normal slowly.
These signs appear if the child is very dehydrated from diarrhoea. A child with these signs is in danger.
Take the child to a health worker if any of these danger signs of dehydration begin or if the diarrhoea lasts for more than two days. Keep giving the child liquids (the special drinks are best) while going to the health clinic.
How can diarrhoea be prevented?
Diarrhoea can be prevented by:
- eating properly, so the child grows well
- using clean water
- keeping ourselves and our surroundings clean.
By keeping clean diarrhoea can be prevented
Dirt, rubbish, stools and urine contain germs which can cause diarrhoea. These germs can be carried by flies as well as on dirty hands. Keep these germs away from food and drinking water.
Wash your hands:
- after passing stools
- after cleaning children who have urinated or defecated
- before cooking or eating
- before feeding children
Remember to wash the children’s hands too. The children can discuss why this is necessary.
Use a latrine, or where there is none, make sure that the place for passing stools is far from homes and far from water sources. Stools passed near houses should be taken away and buried.
REMEMBER – small children’s stools are more dangerous than adults.
Healthy food
Breast milk is the best food for babies and helps to prevent infections, including diarrhoea. Babies need to be breast fed for as long as possible. Dirty feeding bottles cause diarrhoea.
When they are about four to six months old, all babies should begin to take other foods, as well as breast milk. Soft mashed foods like porridge and fruits, given frequently, are best.
The food we eat should be fresh and prepared in a clean place, using clean pots and utensils. Cooked food should be eaten while hot or within two hours. If it needs reheating, it should be well heated before eating.
Keep flies away from foods, and always wash hands carefully before handling and eating food. Wash uncooked food in clean water before eating it.
Clean water
Make sure water for drinking is clean. Take it from the cleanest possible source, keep it in a clean, covered container, and use this water for drinking and cooking only.
Keep the source of water clean. Keep animals away. People should not wash themselves or their clothes, or spit or throw rubbish into the place where people get their drinking water. Never urinate or defecate in or near water.
Treating diarrhoea
1. Plenty of fluids
The most important thing is to be sure that the child drinks as much liquid as he loses, from the moment that the diarrhoea starts. Rehydration is putting back into the child's body the water that he has lost because of the diarrhoea and vomiting.
Giving lots of liquid to a child with diarrhoea may seem to increase the amount of diarrhoea at first. This is all right. The dirty water must come out of the child. A child with diarrhoea needs one cup of liquid each time he has a loose stool.
2. Continue feeding
Sometimes mothers stop giving food to a child who has diarrhoea. This is a mistake. The sick child needs extra food so that he has enough strength to fight the illness. Breast milk is the best food for babies. Encourage older children to take their usual food several times each day. Be patient. Sick children need to be encouraged to eat.
3. Medicines
Medicines are not important for most cases of children with diarrhoea and in all cases they are less important than fluids and food. NEVER give medicine without the advice of a health worker. Anything that puts water back into the child helps to fight dehydration such as:
- many of the herbal teas and soups that mothers give to children
- mother’s breast milk which gives the child not only water, but also food. It is important to keep breast-feeding a baby with diarrhoea (milk in a bottle is different, and it is never as good as breast milk)
- rice water (the water in which rice has been boiled) or any other liquid in which food has been cooked, is a good liquid for preventing dehydration
- any other liquid e.g. coconut water, lime or lemon water, diluted fruit juice, or weak tea
The special drink
The best liquid is a special drink, called Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS). This drink can be made from packets of oral rehydration salts (which may be available from the health clinic in the camp). However children can make the special drink themselves using salt, sugar and clean water. They can help to give liquids to children with diarrhoea.
Making the special drink
The special drink is quite simple to make. The first step is to find ways of measuring one litre (the camp authorities may be able to help). Step two is to mix together SUGAR + SALT + WATER.
from the cup or from a spoon. Even if the child doesn’t want it, or spits or vomits, gently insist, and persuade him to drink it all a little at a time. The amount he vomits will be less than you have given him. Let the child rest after every five sips if he wants to. This may take some time, day and night, and older children can help their mother by taking turns during the night.
**How much?**
The drink should be given each time a stool is passed. A child under two should have half a cup each time. An older child requires a full cup each time. An adult needs two cups each time. Continue giving the special drink as long as the stools are even a bit watery, until both stools and urine are normal. This may take 12 to 24 hours or even longer.
**Activities**
Children can collect information about diarrhoea and how common and how dangerous diarrhoea is. How many times have their younger brothers and sisters had diarrhoea in the last year? Or during the last rainy season, or since they arrived at the camp? Find out at which ages it is most common, by counting how many times children of different ages had diarrhoea.
Count how many times breast fed babies get diarrhoea, and how many times bottle fed babies get diarrhoea. Which get diarrhoea the most? Why?
How many children in the camp have died from diarrhoea? This information can be used later to decide if different health activities have made a difference to children’s health.
**How to give the special drink**
The special drink must be given as soon as the diarrhoea begins, that is as soon as the stools are watery and smell bad. Give a little at a time in sips.
3. Mark a line on the hollow gourd (or whatever was used). Water should never fall below the line, or else the gourd will be empty. For a person that means dehydration and death. As long as just as much water is put back as that which is lost, the water level will not go down (so the child will not get dehydrated). A child with diarrhoea needs one glass of liquid each time he has a loose stool.
Children can learn to make the special drink
The children can prepare the special drink and then drink some of it to check that it is no saltier than tears.
Children can help in the camp
Children can demonstrate their 'diarrhoea dolls'. They can make up plays or puppet dramas about the theme of diarrhoea, and how to care for a child with diarrhoea. They can also invent songs and stories, and make posters showing how to prepare the special drink. They can discuss where to show them to help others learn how to make and use the special drink.
Follow-up
Discuss with the children how much they have learned:
- do they think they have been able to help people in the camp?
- have other people in the camp learned some of the information?
- have many of the children used what they know in the home and in the camp?
- do fewer babies and children suffer and die from diarrhoea as a result of this activity?
Counts can be made each month, after a month, six months or a year to see, for example:
- how many children – or their mothers – have made the special drink for those with diarrhoea?
- how many cases of diarrhoea there have been in the children’s families?
- have any children in the camp have died of diarrhoea?
- is there a difference between babies who are bottle fed and those who are breast fed?
Ask children who have helped another child with diarrhoea, to tell the story to their friends, explaining how they helped. If they made a drink how did they make and use it? How long did they give it? Did it seem to help? Did they have any difficulties? What were the results?
**Making Connections**
*Children can discuss what different people in their community did about diarrhoea when they were living at home, such as members of their family, traditional healers, and health workers. Was it easier to prevent diarrhoea at home or in the camp? Why? How much did we do to help other children when we were living at home?*
FIVE HEALTH TOPICS ADAPTED FROM CHILD-TO-CHILD ACTIVITY SHEETS
| Topic | Page |
|--------------------------------------------|------|
| Immunisation | 66 |
| Malaria | 75 |
| Coughs, colds, pneumonia | 88 |
| Preventing accidents | 94 |
| Caring for children who are sick | 105 |
At the end of each section, the box called ‘Making Connections’ contains ideas to link activities children can do in the camp with activities they may have done at home.
Every year, five million children die and five million are disabled from diseases which can be prevented by immunisation against the germs which cause them.
Children can understand the diseases which can be prevented by immunisation, how immunisation works, and the correct immunisation programmes for themselves, their friends and their families. In camps where diseases can be spread easily and where people’s health is often poor, immunisation is even more important. Measles is the most important disease to prevent in camps.
People say, our children are not sick, so why should we take them to the clinic?
The answer is, because we want to have them immunised to protect them against some serious diseases.
Immunisation means making the body strong and well prepared to fight particular diseases.
Each year some babies and young children die from diseases like measles and whooping cough. Others are disabled for life by diseases like polio. These can all be avoided by immunisation.
We can first look at the diseases which can be prevented by immunisation, and then we can look at how immunisation works.
MEASLES – Ahmed has had a high fever for six days, with red eyes, a runny nose, noisy breathing, a cough and a rash all over. He keeps his eyes shut because he finds it difficult to look at the light. He has measles and is very ill. If he gets better he will be weak for a long time and may catch other diseases.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
TUBERCULOSIS (TB) – Musa’s uncle had a cough for a long time with blood in his spit. He coughed up the TB germs which Musa and his baby sister breathed. The germs settled in Musa’s lungs. He began to cough, lost weight, and became very weak. His baby sister died.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
DIPHTHERIA – Rosa breathed in some diphtheria germs which settled in her throat and made it sore; her neck swelled. Her breathing became noisy and difficult. Then her breathing stopped and she died.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
WHOOPING COUGH – Four-year-old Amin caught whooping cough from his friends and gave it to his sister Fatima and baby Myriam. They have all been coughing, vomiting, losing weight and becoming weak. The baby goes blue with the cough and may die.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
TETANUS – Joseph cut his foot in his field. Tetanus got in with the dirt. A week later all his muscles became tight so he could hardly breathe. He could not open his mouth to eat. They took him to hospital, but we do not know if they can save him.
When Vimia had her baby, they cut the cord with a dirty knife, and germs got in. A week later the baby became stiff and stopped sucking; he later had convulsions and died.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
POLIO – Odongo, Opio and Akello caught polio when there was an epidemic some years ago. They and a lot of other children were ill with it. They were left with a weak limb and will always be disabled.
THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PREVENTED BY IMMUNISATION
Find out about the immunisation programme in the camp from the health workers. The programme may be different to the one carried out in the home area. It is important to carry out the full course of immunisations.
Immunisation builds protection in the body against the germs which cause these diseases. How does it do this?
When we are ill, it is because a tiny germ that can only be seen under a microscope has entered the body. The body protects and defends itself by making special 'soldiers' for killing those particular germs. These soldiers, which are specially armed to fight a certain kind of germ, are called antibodies.
Sometimes, when a disease enters the body, the body *has not made enough* 'soldiers', or antibodies, in advance, or the antibodies *are made too late* to prevent or fight the disease.
If the disease is serious, or if the child is weak – perhaps he has been ill before, or is malnourished – there is a risk that he will die before the body can make enough antibodies to fight the disease.
**Immunisation is a way of encouraging the body to make enough of the right kind of antibodies in advance of the disease. Then, when the disease comes, the body is ready to fight it.**
For diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough and polio, immunisation must be given at least three times before enough antibodies are produced and protection is complete. For these diseases, it is important for children to be taken back for their second and third injections (or doses) at the right times. For some diseases like polio and tetanus, the antibodies made in the body by the immunisation will not last for an entire lifetime, and so we need a second immunisation five or ten years after the first, to remind our body to make more antibodies.
When a child is immunised, the immunisation will sometimes make a small swelling, or make the child feel unwell. This is the body's way of learning to fight the disease and there is nothing to worry about.
**The immunisation programme**
Make sure that all families with children know about the programme. Immunisation should be given by qualified health workers who are part of the programme. If possible, talk to the health worker in the camp to learn about the immunisation programme.
What is the right time for immunisation? Programmes change with new and local knowledge.
---
**REMEMBER** – *Immunisation still helps to prevent disease even if the spaces between the immunisations are longer than they should be. Also remember that even some immunisation is better than none.*
*IN ORDER TO STAY HEALTHY, WE MUST ALL BE IMMUNISED*
---
**Activities**
Children can find out about the immunisation programme in the camp. Where is immunisation given? Are there certain days and hours for immunisation? What sort of injections are being given? Teachers or camp workers can help children find out this important information and make sure that others know.
If there is no immunisation programme, children can work with adults to get camp authorities to organise it. All children have a right to immunisations. Many governments and major international organisations have promised to help achieve this.
Three 17 year-old boys, Mohammed, Ali and Fie, lived in a refugee camp. They knew how frightening a disease like measles could be and how many children it can kill. They asked the camp leaders to help them persuade the local Ministry of Health to come to the camp (only 2 kilometres from the camp), and provide immunisation for the children, even if it was just against one disease – MEASLES! The government responded to the boys’ plea and most children in the camp were immunised against measles and other diseases.
Children can find out who needs to be immunised
Which illnesses have they had or have members of their families had? Do they know other children who have been ill? What diseases did they have? How did it make them feel?
Children can help to identify the babies and young children who have not been immunised. Get children to check with their mothers and report back. If growth charts or other records are used, show the children where immunisation comes on the growth chart. Children can help remind adults when to take the children to the clinic. Children can help keep immunisation cards safe, and always have them when they go to the health centre. Children can persuade others not to fear immunisation. They can comfort young children who have been immunised and tell them stories of how they are defeating the 'enemy diseases'.
If any young child in the class or group, or any baby in their families, has not been immunised, children can check with health workers to see how it can be done.
Children can keep records
Children and their teachers can support the clinic by keeping records for all the families of the children in their group, and other families.
Children can help in the family
Older children can make a special card for a new baby in the family or camp. They can hang it on the wall of the house to remind families about the immunisation programme. Children can help to design a card which shows dates when immunisations are given.
When the time comes, children can help to take babies to the clinic. This is especially important if the mother has other children to feed or look after.
During the day after immunisation, help to look after babies and comfort them if they feel unwell and cry.
Children can help in the camp
Children can pass the message. They can make cards for babies. They can make posters, and make up songs and dances.
Children can make up plays and puppet and mime shows, such as one about a family where the children are immunised and another where they are not. Or about what happens when someone in the family who is not immunised gets one of the diseases which can be prevented.
Another play might show the unpleasant and crafty germs who wait around for those who have not been immunised. They include Measles Germ (with red spots), Polio Germ (who limps), Whooping Cough Germ and TB Germ (who cough). Some children can take the part of the Germs; others can be the antibodies.
Children can help with immunisation campaigns in the camp. They can show their posters and plays, and make sure that everyone in the camp knows about the immunisation programme.
New children may come into the camp. Children can adopt a new family or families so that each family in the
camp has a child health 'scout' who reminds them of immunisation times. Some camp populations may not know much about immunisations.
**Follow-up**
Children can discuss among themselves to make sure that they all remember about the immunisation message. Have they understood it properly? Have all the children in the class, the group, the camp been properly immunised? What about their brothers and sisters? Their parents? That pregnant women know they should have anti-tetanus to protect their baby?
Children can count how many people disabled by polio there are in their age group; how many there are among people who are ten years older or twenty years older. Is there a difference? Why? Children can ask elderly people what happened before immunisation.
**Making Connections**
*Children can find out about the immunisation programme in their home area. Is it different to the programme in the camp? How many people would take their children for immunisation at home? What did children do in their home area to spread the message of immunisation? How did the children care for children who were disabled as a result of not being immunised, such as children with polio? Children can discuss these questions, tell stories or make up plays and songs to share their experiences.*
---
**The idea**
Malaria is a killer disease. Millions of people die of it and many others are left weak and unable to work or study properly. Malaria is spread by *Anopheles* mosquitoes and affects people in many countries. It is even coming back into countries where it had been driven out before.
*Children can help by preventing mosquitoes from breeding and biting people, and by knowing what to do when someone has malaria.*
---
**Joseph and Flora's Story**
Joseph had a sister called Flora. She was ten months old. One day she had a very high fever. She was shivering. She was very ill. Joseph and his mother took Flora to see the nurse. The nurse said Flora had malaria. She had been bitten by mosquitoes.
Joseph did not understand. He had been bitten but he had not caught malaria. The nurse said that only some mosquitoes gave children malaria.
The nurse gave Flora's mother medicine and told her exactly how much to give and when. The medicine was bitter so it was not easy to get Flora to take it. But the nurse said it was important that Flora should finish all the medicine.
So Joseph and his mother gave Flora the medicine. They kept her cool. They gave her drinks. Flora was better. She did not like the medicine. But Joseph and his mother remembered what the nurse had said. Now Flora is well again, but she always sleeps under a net now to stop mosquitoes biting her at night.
**Malaria: some important facts**
What causes us to become ill? The germ which causes malaria is called *Plasmodium* and it is carried by the female *Anopheles* mosquito. Other mosquitoes do not carry malaria, but they are a nuisance and may carry other diseases.
*Anopheles* mosquitoes can pick up the *Plasmodium* germ by biting people who have malaria. The germ develops inside the mosquitoes and then they can pass it on to another person.
When the female *Anopheles* mosquito bites a person, the malaria germ enters the person’s blood. It travels to the liver and then back into the blood. This takes about 12 days. Then the person begins to feel unwell and gets fever, often with sweating, shivering, headache and diarrhoea. This fever passes but keeps coming back and may get worse unless it is treated with the correct medicine. It is dangerous for young children.
Health workers can test for malaria. They take some blood from the sick person, spread it on a glass slide, and look at it through a microscope. If there are *Plasmodium* germs in the blood, the health worker will be able to see them.
The more bites you have, the more chance there is that one of them will be by a female *Anopheles* mosquito which is carrying the *Plasmodium* germ.
**The life of the *Anopheles* mosquito**
Female *Anopheles* mosquitoes lay their eggs in still water, such as puddles, ditches and ponds. After the rainy season, there are many more mosquito breeding places and therefore more malaria. Other mosquitoes breed in places like latrines, cesspits and even water pots. The *Anopheles* mosquitoes don’t usually breed in these places.
Mosquito eggs are small and black and float on the water. They hatch into larvae which grow into mosquitos quickly.
The adult *Anopheles* mosquito hides in cool dark places during the day. The female bites during the night and sucks up blood to mature her eggs.
**How we can prevent malaria**
To prevent malaria we must stop *Anopheles* mosquitoes from biting people.
Keeping mosquitoes away
If possible, the windows, doors and other openings in a house should be screened, so that mosquitoes can't get into the house. The best way to prevent mosquitoes from biting at night is by sleeping under nets. These nets must be:
- put over the bed before dark
- tucked in well after you get into bed
- kept in good repair by sewing up any holes or tears
We can try to stop Anopheles mosquitoes from breeding by:
- filling up puddles of still water around the house with earth and stones
- putting small fish which eat larvae into ditches and ponds
- putting oil on the surface of small ponds to stop the larvae from breathing
- covering water pots and containers with cloth or by putting oil or special chemicals into latrines
If a child has malaria
A child with malaria needs to be treated or the disease may get worse and the child could even die.
The usual medicine for treating malaria is called Chloroquine. (The medicine may have different names like Malariaquin, Nivaquine or Resoquin.) There are other medicines which may be available and which may work better than chloroquine in some places.
It is important to take the full recommended course of the medicine to make sure that all the Plasmodium germs are killed. Since the medicine tastes bitter, children sometimes want to stop taking it once they begin to feel better but before they have finished the course. They must be helped to take the full course.
A child with fever caused by malaria needs to be kept cool but not cold. Sponge the child's body with cool water. Sometimes the child will be shivering. But putting too many clothes or blankets on a child with a high fever or at the shivering stage of an attack of malaria is dangerous. Medicines like paracetamol can reduce the temperature.
When children sweat, they lose liquid. They should be given plenty to drink. As soon as they can eat again, they should be given food to build up their strength.
REMEMBER
- Mosquitoes bite through the net if you sleep close to it
- Mosquitoes go on biting until it is light
- Stay under the net until it gets light
In some countries nets are now being treated with a chemical called permethrin. This helps to keep the mosquitoes away and can kill them.
In the evening, at night and until the first light of day, as long as the mosquitoes are active, clothes which cover the arms and legs will protect against mosquito bites. In places where there are no nets or screens, a blanket or thick cloth can help protect the body.
Mosquitoes can also be driven away by putting a repellent on the skin or on clothes (especially around the ankles), by using mosquito coils or even smoke from grass or leaves.
Killing mosquitoes
Spraying programmes help kill mosquitoes. If the walls of the house are sprayed, the insecticide should be allowed to remain on the walls. Mosquitoes resting on the walls will then die.
Activities
Finding out about malaria
Where is malaria common?
Some government programmes have managed to control malaria in some places, but in others malaria is spreading. Find out where malaria is most common:
- in the world
- in your host country
Ask teachers, health workers or camp administrators. Is malaria spreading or is it getting less common? Are fewer people getting ill, or more? Why?
Find out from other children in the group:
- how many children or others they know have had malaria in the last year?
- how often did they have it?
- in which months did they fall ill?
Use this information to keep records, or make simple graphs to show:
- the months of the year in which people get malaria (mostly in the rainy season)
- the months in the year when it rained and there were many puddles
- the age of those with malaria
- who went for treatment
Children can plan and keep records.
Discuss how such information could be useful to children, their families and the health workers.
Where do mosquitoes breed?
In the rainy season, make a map of the area of the camp (or a part of the camp), and mark on it the places where mosquitoes might breed. Then check those places, to see if there are larvae in them. Can you get rid of the water in which the mosquitoes are breeding? How?
What do people know about malaria?
Using the information given here, write down the important facts about malaria. With the help of teachers or group leaders, children can then make up a simple questionnaire to find out what families believe about malaria, and what they do about it. What can children do once they have collected this information?
Observing the mosquitoes
In the environment
Find out where mosquitoes are most plentiful. Which kind of mosquitoes are they? Where are larvae found? What kind of larvae are they?
In the group or class
Collect larvae. Put them in a covered jar or other container with water, grass and some mud in it. Observe them. You should put a little food or flour on the water for them to feed on.
Children can draw and write about what they see.
Preventing malaria
Children can help prevent malaria in many different ways:
- make sure that nets are properly used. It is most important to cover sleeping places of very young children. Older children can make sure that younger ones stay under the nets until first light and that nets are well tucked in
- check for holes and tears in nets regularly and sew them up
- kill mosquitoes in the house
- when the spray teams come, help carry food and other things out of the house
- destroy breeding places. Fill puddles with earth and stones. Put oil on shallow ponds (old engine oil from cars and lorries works well)
- make and fit covers for water pots and containers. This helps to prevent other mosquitoes from breeding there
Group leaders or teachers, children, parents and health workers need to work together to prevent malaria. Find out what others are doing.
Helping children who are sick
When young children get malaria they need help quickly, or they may die. Older children can watch for the signs of malaria and tell adults when the young ones need treatment. Children with malaria feel very ill. Older children can help to comfort them, keep them cool, and give them drinks.
It is important that children take the right course of medicine at the right time. (Children’s doses vary according to the age and size of the child.) After the first dose they may feel better, but all the germs are not yet killed. Older children must help others to understand how important it is to finish the medicine.
Passing the message
Children can help spread the important messages about preventing and treating malaria to parents and other adults, as well as to other children.
They can do this in many ways. Make up a play or dance. The children can mime the *Plasmodium* germs and the medicine. The medicine (like a policeman) comes in several times. The first time the medicine catches most of the malaria germs but some germs hide. It takes three more times before all the germs are caught.
Children can act, mime or dance:
- the life cycle of a mosquito
- careless and careful families and villages (some can act the part of clever mosquitoes)
- germs and medicine
- ... and many more topics
Children can make posters showing:
- how malaria is spread
- how it can be controlled (particularly in ‘danger periods’ like after it rains)
- that pregnant women need to visit the health clinic
- why children need to take the full dose of medicine
Be sure to put the posters where they can be seen by many people.
Children can write and illustrate stories like ‘Joseph and Flora’ on page 75 and share them with others. Some titles might be:
- Mrs Mosquito and her Friends
- The Day the Spray Team Came to Our Village
- Careless Moses (who didn’t take the full course of medicine)
Children can sing songs
Children can make up ‘Prevent Malaria’ songs and teach them to families, friends and to other children.
Follow-up
Children can test themselves and others on the facts about malaria.
In their group, they can keep records. Look at them after some months. Have cases of malaria increased or fallen? Are some months worse than others? Why? Are more people using nets and protecting their houses? What have the children done to help in the house? in their group? at school? in the camp? Let them describe their experiences.
Children can and must continue to be aware of the dangers from mosquitoes and continue to take action such as filling puddles. This is especially important after the rains.
REMEMBER – MALARIA IS A KILLER DISEASE
MOSQUITOES ARE QUICK AND CLEVER
DON'T GET BITTEN
AVOID MALARIA
Making Connections
Children can find out about and discuss what the malaria was like in their home area. Did more people get malaria at home or in the camp? Is the rainy season the same or different in the camp as it is in the home area? Does this affect the numbers of people getting malaria?
Coughs and colds
Throughout the world people get coughs and colds. They are very common in overcrowded camps. Young children get more colds than older children, between three and eight every year. In colds the infection is only in the nose and throat. The signs and symptoms of a cold are:
- a runny nose
- a blocked nose
- a cough
- sometimes a sore throat
- sometimes children feel ill and tired and do not want to eat
Coughs and colds are caused by viruses. They are made worse by smoke. Tobacco smoke and cooking smoke make a cold more likely to turn to pneumonia.
Most coughs and colds do not need special medicine. Antibiotic medicine does not help to cure colds. Babies and children will usually get better in a few days.
We can help babies and children if we:
- keep them comfortable – keep them warm if they are cold, or cool if they are hot
- give them plenty of soothing drinks
- encourage them to eat, by giving small quantities of food often
- clean their noses (especially babies before feeds)
- keep the air round the child clean and smoke-free
**Pneumonia**
Pneumonia can:
- start on its own
- follow from a cold
- follow from measles or whooping cough
All children can get pneumonia but babies under one year are more likely to get it than older children.
In developing countries pneumonia is usually caused by bacteria. Therefore, special antibiotic medicine can help save lives.
**Recognising pneumonia**
The clearest and surest sign of pneumonia is **quick breathing**. A healthy baby, lying still and not crying, takes about 30 breaths a minute. But a baby with pneumonia, lying quietly, takes more than 50, sometimes 70 or 80, breaths a minute. Quick breathing, more than 50 breaths a minute, could mean pneumonia.
**How to count breaths**
We all breathe quickly sometimes, especially when we run, cry or move about a lot. This quick breathing is not pneumonia. We must not count a child’s breaths when he has been restless, crying or struggling. Count the breaths of a child who is sleeping or resting quietly. Watch the child’s chest without disturbing it. Count the number of breathing movements for one minute. Fifty breaths or more can mean pneumonia.
Mothers usually know when their babies are breathing too fast even without a watch. If you have no watch look carefully and decide whether the breathing is too quick.
**What to do**
If you are sure the breathing is too quick (50 or more) or if you think it may be, the child must be seen immediately by a doctor or health worker. Special antibiotic medicine can cure pneumonia if started early and given by the health worker’s instructions. Their instructions must be followed carefully and correctly.
**Can pneumonia be prevented?**
Children who are well fed are less likely to get pneumonia. Babies who are breastfed are less likely to get pneumonia.
Measles and whooping cough can cause pneumonia; both can be prevented by immunisation.
Activities
Finding out about ARI
The children can interview each other and find out:
- How many of them were ill in the last six months?
- How many had coughs and/or colds?
- What were the symptoms?
- What did they feel like?
- Did the colds get better soon? Or did they get worse and lead to fever? How many children developed fever? How many did not?
Learning the signs
Children can test each other to make sure that they know the signs or symptoms of pneumonia. They can ask each other questions:
Question: I am lying quietly. I have a runny nose. I am breathing very quickly, about 50 breaths a minute. Do I have pneumonia?
Answer: You could have. You should see a health worker as soon as soon as possible.
Question: I have a runny nose. I have a cough. I have fever. Do I have pneumonia?
Answer: No! Your breathing is normal so you do not have pneumonia.
I have a cough But your breathing is
I have a runny nose normal. You do not
I have fever have pneumonia
If the children have a watch or clock, they can learn to recognise the quick breathing (50 breaths each minute) which is a sign of pneumonia. Working in pairs, start by counting each other’s breaths for one minute. Write down the number of breaths. Then one child does one of the activities in List A on page 90, the other an activity from List B. Let them count each other’s breaths after each activity, then change over and continue. Each time write down the result.
If they do not have a watch, a third child can act as timekeeper, counting up to 100 at a steady speed, or walking up and down at the same pace. Children can compare the rate of breathing for different activities even if they cannot measure accurately.
They should notice that the shortest pendulum takes the least time to swing from side to side and that the longest pendulum takes the most time to swing from side to side. In fact the longest pendulum swings from one side to the other and returns to its original position in the same length of time as a normal adult takes to breathe in and out again. A normal baby breathes in and out again in the same time as the middle pendulum takes to swing from one side to the other and return to its original position.
If the baby is breathing at the same rate as the short pendulum, it is breathing very fast and should see a health worker straight away.
**Preventing pneumonia**
Children can find out how many children in the group:
- have been immunised
- need immunisation
- need to complete the immunisation process
Children can make cards to remind their family about immunisation.
Children can make posters which show how pneumonia can be prevented. They can help each other or their families can help.
If families help, they may also learn. Display the posters outside the health clinic, in the houses, places where people gather, for example food and water distribution points.
They can identify smoky areas. Cooking areas? Fires? How can they make sure babies are kept away from smoke?
**Passing the message**
Children can:
- display their posters showing the signs of pneumonia and colds, in the house, or in public places like the clinic or the camp administration areas
Follow-up
Ask the children:
- how many remember the signs of pneumonia
- how many remember what to do when a child gets pneumonia
- how many can tell how to prevent pneumonia
- how many have taken action on what they have learned
Share the information and write a survey report. Make charts showing the information and display it.
If a child or an adult remembers having pneumonia, they can talk to the children about it. How did it start? How did they feel? What did they do to get better?
Making Connections
The children can interview each other and find out:
- how many of them were ill before they came to the camp?
- how many had coughs and/or colds?
- what were the symptoms? What did they feel like?
- did the colds get better soon? Or did they get worse and lead to fever? How many children developed fever? How many did not?
- what did they do to make themselves better?
- what helped to make them better?
Teach the song to families, other children, other people in the camp.
Many children die each year because of accidents. In overcrowded places such as camps accidents often occur and many children will be injured. These accidents need not happen. Children can help to reduce the number and seriousness of accidents by practising safety in the house, out-of-doors, and on the road. Children can learn to spot the most common dangers, and understand how these dangers can be avoided or prevented. They should always watch out for the safety of others, particularly smaller children. Children can also be prepared to help when an accident happens. Children can talk about accidents which they have seen most often in the camp.
Where accidents happen
In the house
- **burns** from cooking pots or lamps, electrical things, hot food, boiling water, steam, hot fat (scalds), strong acids or corrosives (like battery acid) which damage the skin
- **cuts** from broken glass, rusty pins, rough wood or sharp knives and axes
- **the blockage of breathing** from swallowing small objects like coins, buttons and nuts
- **poisoning** from eating or drinking harmful things
- **internal (inside) bleeding** from swallowing sharp objects like razor blades
- **electric shock** from touching a broken electrical appliance or electrical wire
- **injuries** from falling from platforms or bunk beds that are too high or falling from trees
On a track or road
- death, or injuries like heavy bleeding, broken bones and damage to main organs of the body (liver, lungs, brain).
Playing outside
- **burns, cuts and broken bones**
- **poisoning** from eating certain plants and berries
- **bites** from animals and snakes and stings from bees and other insects
- **drowning** in open water or wells.
Preventing accidents from happening
In the house
Danger from burns
Accidents in the house often involve fire, and children can be badly burned. If their hands are burned they may never be able to hold a pencil or a tool; if their feet are burned they may not be able to walk properly. There are many ways to prevent burns in the house:
- watch babies and young children carefully. Do not let them go near the fire
- raise the cooking stove, or make an open cooking fire on a raised mound of clay instead of directly on the ground
- use a thick cloth when touching hot pots
- be careful that the handles of cooking pots are out of reach of babies, and turned so that they are not easily knocked over
- put petrol, petrol lamps and matches out of reach of small children
Danger from sharp things.
Many cuts can be easily prevented. Keep the floor clear of broken glass and nails. Get rid of nails or splinters which stick out.
Keep sharp knives and razors out of the reach of young children.
Older children can identify other common accidents which happen in the house. How can they be prevented?
In the camp
Danger from snakes
Children can protect themselves from snake bites:
- recognise which snakes are dangerous and where they live
- learn to remain very still if they are close to a snake
- wait for it to go away
- clear grass and weeds from the paths most commonly used by children
Young children are also often injured or even killed when they eat or drink dangerous things.
Never put dangerous products (e.g. bleach, plant poison, paraffin or kerosene) in a coca-cola or other soft drink bottle. Children can drink them by mistake.
Keep all medicine and poisons out of reach of children (lock them in a cupboard or box, or put them on a high shelf).
Label all poisons and medicine carefully. Medicines are particularly dangerous because little children often eat tablets thinking they are sweets.
Teach young children not to drink out of strange bottles or eat strange fruits and plants which may not be safe.
Danger when playing
Children are active and need safe places to play.
Know the camp environment, and avoid dangerous places where there may be machinery, animals, snakes, glass or sharp metal.
Make wells safe so no one can fall in.
On the road
Many children in camps run towards vehicles. This causes many injuries and even deaths. Older children must help younger ones when walking along the road, or when they are trying to cross the road.
Activities
Be aware of danger
Children who are used to the camp environment can talk to children who are new about the danger spots in the camp. Together children can make three lists or graphs of accidents which happened in the house, on the road, out-of-doors. Decide which kind of accidents happen most often in the camp.
Children can discuss why they think these accidents happen. By discovering how they happen, children can also find out how to prevent them from happening so often.
Discuss which accidents are most common for children at different ages (and why) – under 2 years, from 2-6 years, to 6 years.
Contact the health clinic and ask if children can be given details of all accidents to children over the last 6 months. Make charts or graphs of the accidents that are reported.
Make pictures which show different dangers in the house, and outside. Put the good ones on a wall. Let the other children discuss them.
Make a series of drawings to show how an accident might happen in the camp.
First aid if an accident happens
Children can learn and practice first aid. Here are some simple measures to practise and remember.
Get help quickly
If someone has a bad fall from a tree, or gets badly hurt in a car accident, do not move them. Cover them with a blanket to keep warm and get help quickly.
If someone gets a poisonous bite, do not move the limb which has been bitten. That will only spread the poison around the body.
Carry the child and get help quickly. Do not try to treat the bite yourself. It must be done by a health worker.
Cuts and wounds
With clean hands, wash the wound with soap and boiled water, or hot salt water. Clean out all the dirt because wounds that are left dirty can become bad ulcers.
Most small wounds do not need bandages. It is better to leave them to dry in the air so they heal more quickly. If you do use a bandage make sure it is clean. Keeping the wound clean is better than using things like mud or iodine.
If the wound is really deep, take the person to the health clinic for treatment.
Burns
Put the burned part at once into cool, clean water for at least ten minutes. If the burn is small probably no other treatment will be needed.
If the burn is deep or covers a large part of the body, loosely cover it using a clean cloth with a little Vaseline on it and get medical help as soon as possible.
- Don't break the blisters
- Don't remove any clothing sticking to the burned area
- Don't put grease, oil, herbs or faeces on the burn
REMEMBER – if a person's clothes are on fire, you can put out the flames by rolling them in a mat or throwing a blanket over them. Then treat for burns.
Preventing and avoiding accidents
Group activities
Look around the group's meeting place and play areas. Look for dangers which might cause accidents. Make a list of anything that is not safe, or which might cause an injury.
Have a safety competition or campaign. Organise a project to remove or correct the dangers on the list.
The children can help to:
- mend broken furniture
- clear the ground of nails, glass and other sharp objects
- cut down tall grass and weeds
- explain to younger children the rules of safe play
- special groups can be responsible for looking after parts of the camp where children play. Elect a 'Safety Scout' who will lead these groups
- make up safety rules.
**In the house**
- Watch over younger children to make sure they understand simple safety rules. Keep them away from fires. Prevent them from putting things in their mouths, ears or noses.
- Teach them not to touch medicines or poisons. What else should they know about?
**On the road**
Children can draw a map. Make it simple. Show the main tracks and roads and the footpaths which children use most often. Children can discuss:
- where they cross roads
- why they cross the roads (is it really necessary?)
- where accidents have happened
- which places have most accidents and why
- which places need extra care.
**General**
- Organise safety campaigns at school, in the group, or in the camp. For example have a campaign for two weeks against burns, then later have a campaign about safety at play, or road safety
- Use a variety of different ways to pass the safety message to others, especially younger children
- Write and act plays, or make a puppet play about why accidents happen, and what can be done to reduce them
- Make posters which show hazards in different places, and warn of the accidents which might result
- Make up a song about road safety and teach the song to younger brothers and sisters.
**Follow-up**
Have the children carried out a safety campaign? Compare the number of accidents before and after the campaign.
Check to find out if the children remember and practise road safety rules.
Is the camp a safe place for children?
Making Connections
The children living in the camp may come from different parts of the country. Discuss the different sorts of accidents that happen to children who live in different places – in towns, in villages, in rural areas.
Discuss accidents which happened to the children before they come to the camp – at home, on the road, anywhere out-of-doors and discuss why they happened. Children can make up plays or tell stories about incidents that they remember.
Get the children to think about and discuss family rules or school rules which helped to prevent accidents or injury.
Caring for Children Who Are Sick
When young children are ill, they need someone with them most of the time, to comfort them, to care for them, to wash them, to give them food and drinks, and, as they get better, to play with them and to keep them occupied and happy. Other children can help.
There are a number of ways an older child can help a younger child who is ill:
- by sitting with the sick child and keeping him company
- by comforting and caring for him
- by keeping the sick child clean
- by playing with him
and by knowing what to do for particular symptoms, such as fever, difficult breathing, vomiting and diarrhoea.
Companionship
Young children who are sick need someone with them, all the time, if possible, to provide reassurance and to help every time they need anything.
Comfort
A sick child is unhappy, sometimes because he or she is in pain, or because she is frightened, often without really knowing why. A caring brother, sister or friend, will be able to find out what the sick child needs and comfort him or her. You may be able to make the child comfortable in bed, keep her warm, or cool, protect her from bright light, keep off flies or just keep quiet so she can sleep.
Drinks
A sick child needs to drink a lot, about two pints of liquid a day. This can be cold water, milk, weak tea, fruit juice or soup. If there is diarrhoea, the special drink is best (see the section, ‘Caring for children with diarrhoea’). Small drinks offered often may be the best way to persuade a child to drink the amount she needs.
Food
Although sick children usually do not want to eat, they need food just as much as when they are well. Encourage them to eat by offering them things they like, and can easily swallow. It will be easier if you give them small amounts more often. Soft foods like mashed bananas, rice or porridge, which do not need to be chewed, are best. Patient, regular spoon-feeding will give the sick child strength through the illness.
Cleanliness
Sick children are more comfortable if you wash them regularly with soap and water, or just wipe them with a damp cloth, and put clean clothes on. Every time they vomit or have diarrhoea they need to be thoroughly cleaned and comforted.
Play
As sick children begin to recover, they need to be kept interested and happy. An older brother or sister can read or tell stories, sing songs and play games with them.
Particular symptoms
Fever
A child with fever needs to be kept cool by being uncovered, fanned and wiped with a damp cloth. As she cools down, she needs to be lightly covered again.
Difficult breathing
Young children often get ill with colds and coughs which get better after a few days. If the breathing becomes difficult, noisy or quick, this is a sign of a more serious illness, and you must get help without delay from a doctor or health worker.
Vomiting
Children often vomit when they are ill. Sometimes coughing makes them vomit. When they vomit, clean them, and change their clothes if necessary. Then give a small drink. If a child goes on vomiting, put her to lie on her side to reduce the risk of her choking on the vomit. A child who vomits again and again should be taken to a health worker.
Asking for help
Whenever you are looking after a sick child, you must be sure to get help if the illness seems to get worse. Watch especially for fever, vomiting, bad
diarrhoea, quick breathing or increasing drowsiness. Find out where to go for help.
**Diarrhoea**
Any child who is ill may have some diarrhoea with loose stools. This needs no special diet, only the regular food and drinks already described. More serious diarrhoea with frequent watery stools must have immediate treatment with the special drink and the child should be taken to a doctor or health worker.
**Activities**
Ask children how it feels to be sick: When were you ill? How did you feel? What did others do for you? What did you want most of all when you were sick? What made you feel good when you were sick?
**Children can experiment and observe**
One of the children can run around until she is hot. Then she can be wrapped up tightly in a cloth or blanket for some time, including the back of her head. Ask the child how she feels now. Then uncover her so that the body heat can escape.
It is not good for a child with a fever to be wrapped up tightly in too many blankets or clothes.
Food can be mashed and passed down a tube of bamboo or through a narrow-necked bottle. Let the children see how soft food goes down easily, whereas hard and lumpy food sticks.
A child who is sick can swallow soft food without working hard to chew it, the soft food goes down more readily.
Let them discuss the illnesses of younger brothers and sisters. Who looked after the sick child? Were the older children able to help in any way? What do you think they could have done to care for the younger child? Is the mother happy to have help from the older children?
If the children have already discussed the signs or symptoms of illness, they can ask each other questions to see how much they remember. They can discuss the various symptoms, and tell how they can help a young child who has those symptoms to feel more comfortable.
**Children can practise**
A child who is hot from running can be wiped with a damp cloth, to show how it cools the hot body. Children can be shown the correct way to wash a sick child, perhaps by the health worker. They can be encouraged to practise on a doll, or even each other.
Children can show how they would prepare food for a child who is ill, and how they would give it to the child. Would they just leave it beside the child in a bowl? How often would they offer food to a sick child? Let one child play the part of the sick child, and be given drinks and soft food on a spoon.
If the children have already learned how to make the special drink which must be given to children with diarrhoea, they can talk about how to do it, and make some in class.
**Children can find out**
- who takes care of sick people in the camp?
- how do they do it?
- what are the most important things they do for the sick person?
**Children can make cartoons**
Children can make strip cartoons (such as the one below), or posters, or cards to show the different stages of an illness and the care that must be given at each stage.
**Follow-up**
Children can keep diaries or medical cards to record how they help.
Ask the children questions to see how much they remember about the importance of:
- proper food and drink
- comfort and care
- cleanliness
**Making Connections**
Find out how many of the children cared for a sick child when they were living at home. What did they do? What could they have done better?
Did any of them stay up in the night to help their mother give liquids to a child with diarrhoea or vomiting, or high fever?
Please tell us
Which ideas worked, why?
Which ideas did not work, why?
Have you developed any new ideas?
We need your help to improve this and other Child-to-Child Publications.
FOUR TOPICS ADAPTED FROM CHILD-TO-CHILD ACTIVITY SHEETS
Understanding children’s feelings 114
Children with disabilities 122
Helping children whose friends or relatives die 132
Children who experience war, disaster or conflict 139
Appendix: Selected Child-to-Child publications 151
UNDERSTANDING CHILDREN’S FEELINGS
The idea
Children need healthy bodies. But they have other different needs. Their other needs are to do with their feelings. Often these are difficult to understand because we cannot see and hear them, and children sometimes do not talk about them. Children in camps are living under difficult circumstances, they will have suffered loss; perhaps a home, a friend or a member of their family. If children can begin to understand some of these feelings, they can grow up better and help others to do the same both within and outside their families.
A STORY ABOUT FEELINGS
Naagaasa was ten years old. He had lived in the camp for several months. He came there without anyone from his family. At night he shared a room with many other boys who like himself had come to the camp alone. His bed was always messy, his clothes were scruffy and his hair uncombed.
When the children were having lessons, Naagaasa would shout things out and laugh at other children. Nobody liked him, he was always on his own. One day the teacher became angry with Naagaasa and scolded him in front of the other children. His face crumpled and he began to cry.
After class, one of the boys in the class went to the teacher and said, ‘I come from the same village as Naagaasa. You know every night he has dreams and cries out. We saw our village burning down and he saw his father and mother killed. His three brothers ran in another direction and he doesn’t know where they are.’
The teacher was pleased to know more about Naagaasa. She talked with a social worker in the camp. The teacher and social worker asked some of the children to help. Many children wanted to help him. They encouraged and comforted him and told him stories to make him laugh. They helped him catch up with his school work. It was often difficult because he shouted at them and was easily upset.
After a while Naagaasa started to play more happily with the other children and work harder in school. He enjoyed doing well. Soon it was Naagaasa who was helping other children who were having difficulties.
This story helps to show:
- feelings themselves, like love, fear, happiness
- signs of feelings, like laughing (happiness), crying (fear), shouting (anger)
- causes of feelings, like cruelty, love
- how children can understand and help, and make other children forget their fear or unhappiness
**Our feelings**
*Many different feelings*
All children experience feelings. Even when they are very young, children have many different feelings. Of course these feelings grow as the child grows. At first, a child feels content and secure close to those who care for him. Sometimes he is happy, contented and trusting. Other times he is unhappy, afraid or angry. As he grows older, his feelings are shared with other people. He can learn to recognise and understand feelings that he and other children experience.
*Different situations, different feelings*
Sometimes children experience feelings when they are alone. For example, when a child is alone in a strange place, he could be afraid, or he might just be curious. At other times, children experience feelings when they are with other people. For example, when an adult is annoyed with children for fighting or shouting, children can be afraid or unhappy, guilty or resentful.
*Different children, different feelings*
Different children can have different feelings. The same event or the same thing can make each child show different feelings or emotions. For example, when they see animals some children want to play with them because they feel love and affection. Other children, may run away and scream, because they are afraid, or don’t like animals. Other children will take no notice of the animals.
**Signs of feelings**
Often children cannot tell us what they feel. But we must try to understand the feelings by the signs that children show. The way a child behaves can show us what he is feeling. For example, a child who seems selfish, angry and unfriendly, may be unhappy because he does not get enough attention or because he needs affection.
Sometimes one sign can mean many things. For example, a child who laughs may be happy. Or he can be embarrassed or nervous or surprised. A child who cries may be angry. Or he may be afraid, or even frustrated.
Children can be helped to notice signs of feelings in themselves and other children and begin to understand feelings so that they can help and comfort their brothers and sisters, or their friends.
**What causes these feelings?**
Everything in everyday life causes some feeling. Sometimes children can tell what causes their feelings. For example, a child can say he is happy because he has been given something nice to eat.
But often, children do not know what makes them have their feelings. For example, if you ask children why they are crying, sometimes they will tell you that it is because something they like has been taken by another child or because their mother has scolded them. Children can be destructive, for example, breaking plants, throwing stones, killing small animals. If you ask them why, they will not be able to tell you. Perhaps it is because they are unhappy because their mother has sent them out of the house. Perhaps they are hurting something because someone has hurt them. Perhaps they are afraid. Perhaps they are remembering some sad or disturbing event.
**Understanding and helping**
If children begin to notice feelings and take an interest in them, they may learn about them in themselves and in other people. This will help them to develop as individuals and as members of a community. Children learn to understand themselves and others through living with families. They imitate and copy people around them before they even know what they are doing. For example, children are more likely to shout at her brother if they see adults often shouting at each other.
**Giving comfort**
In some situations, children can help one another even better than grown-ups. If a child understands that another child who seems 'naughty' or 'bad' may have feelings like fear and pain, or may need affection or company, he can sympathise or understand his feelings. He can give the child comfort and friendship.
Children often pick up their brother or sister, or come near to them, and put their arms around them to carry and talk to them. These are different ways of comforting, of showing understanding and of helping. Comfort can also be given with words of kindness, praise and affection.
Another way to comfort is to make younger children forget their anxiety (unhappiness, worry) by showing them something different.
In this way the younger child will think of something else. If a child is crying, the older child can say, 'Look at that bird over there' or 'Come with me and I'll show you a new game'.
It can be helpful if a grown up tries to explain to older children what some of the possible causes of different feelings are. In this way, children may begin to understand feelings in themselves and in other people and help by giving attention and comfort.
**Understanding differences**
Children can also try to understand differences in people's feelings. People and children are not all the same and all do not have the same feelings. Each person, each child, is different.
If a child has a different feeling, it does not mean that he or she is wrong or bad, but only that they are different. Children should be encouraged to understand and accept differences. For example, if a little girl is afraid of the dark, an older child who is not must not laugh at her, or tease her, or make her more frightened. He must try to understand, and help her to understand why she does not need to be afraid.
**Activities**
**Make up stories**
Make a story like the one at the beginning of this sheet, to explain feelings, possible causes and the signs of the different feelings. What help can be given in each case? Ask the children to find other feelings within their own experience when they lived at home, at school, or in the camp.
Talk about feelings
Ask questions like ‘What makes you laugh?’ ‘Why do you cry?’ ‘What makes you most angry?’ Compare the responses of the children, they have different feelings about different situations.
Follow-up
Have the children understood that it is important to be aware of their own feelings and the feelings of others? Discuss an event which has taken place in the group or in the camp when people have shown different feelings. What were those feelings? How did different children react? Did any of them try to help?
Ask the children to describe what they would do if they saw another child who was:
- angry and destructive
- crying and afraid
- quiet and alone, apparently unhappy
Can the children think of ways of helping others to feel better:
- in their house
- in the group or at school
- in the camp?
Guessing the feelings
Children could use a sentence like ‘What are you doing?’ Each child, or the teacher or group leader, could say the sentence in different ways. The others have to guess what different feelings are shown in the way the sentence is said such as anger, fear or surprise.
Or children can make pictures of situations where different feelings are shown, and the others can try to guess. Pictures could show, for example, a dog running away from a stone (fear); a child with a puppet laughing (fun, joy); a chicken running and flapping its wings with a child chasing it. Can the children talk about the difference between the feelings themselves, and the causes of those feelings?
Children can be asked to mime a simple situation and show feelings. For example, a boy is lost. How does he feel? Or a little girl has torn her dress. What does she do? Or a child snatches something from another. How does the loser react? The other children can watch and try to guess and talk about the feelings. Then they can also say how they can help.
Different kinds of disability
For some children the disability is slight. For others it is severe and gives them difficulty with doing the same things as children their age. They can often do other things just as well or better.
Children can be disabled in several ways
Physically disabled children often have difficulty moving about. If their legs are weak, they may have trouble walking or sitting, and may need to lie down. Others whose arms and hands are weak may find it difficult to hold things like a cup or a pencil.
Some disabled children may be deaf or blind or have difficulty in seeing clearly or hearing well. Because deaf children cannot hear well they may also have difficulty in learning to speak. If they are encouraged to do so they will learn to communicate with hearing children in many ways. Signs are a good way.
Some children may find it difficult to learn and understand things. It may take longer for them to learn.
Some children may have fits, perhaps staring into space without seeing anything. Others may fall to the ground and shake. It can be frightening to see someone with a fit, but the fit will end soon. The child is not in pain and will not die. Keep calm, and make sure that the person having the fit is safe and does not harm himself. Fits cannot spread from one person to another.
Disabilities need not prevent people living a full life and accomplishing great things. There are many people – teachers, politicians, religious leaders, scientists, writers and many others - who have disabilities. Some artists cannot paint with their hands but use their feet or their mouths instead. Disabled people can lead happy family lives and can make good parents.
**Did you know?**
- There are Olympic Games for people with disabilities
- An Irish boy who cannot speak has won international prizes for writing books and poetry
- Franklin Roosevelt, who was President of the USA, had polio and could not stand without help
- Stevie Wonder, a famous singer, is blind
**Causes of disability**
Some people are superstitious about disabilities and think that they are caused by some kind of magic. This is not true. They are not caused by witchcraft nor are they a punishment for the child or parents for wrongdoing.
*There are several main causes of disability*
- Children can be born deaf, blind or physically or mentally disabled because they did not develop properly at birth.
- Sometimes the birth of a baby is difficult and an injury may occur during the birth.
- A child can be disabled by disease, e.g. polio, measles, leprosy, whooping cough. Polio can cause paralysis, and measles can make
children blind, deaf, and mentally disabled. Most of the diseases which cause disability can be prevented.
- Children are sometimes disabled by accidents. Children may fall out of trees, burn themselves, or injure their eyes. Accidents can happen on the roads and damage a child’s body forever.
- Young children may become disabled if they have a poor diet so that they do not get enough food or the right kind of food. In severe cases, they may become blind, or their brain may not develop properly, so they become mentally disabled.
- Some children may be caught in a conflict and become injured by gunfire, mines or bombs.
**Helping the disabled**
If we understand the different kinds of disability, and know how they are caused, it may be easier to work with children who have a disability and learn how to work and play with them.
*Some important things to remember about children with disabilities:*
- **Give them equal chances.** Treat them the same as other children. Help them to have the same chances in the camp, in the group, at school and in play. Children together can discover that life is exciting and fun.
- **Help them gain confidence.** Let them take risks like other children. If they are too protected, they will always be afraid.
- **Make them feel wanted.** Concentrate on what the child *can do*, not on what he cannot. For example, a blind child may be good at singing and a physically disabled child may be good at maths.
- **When help is needed let the disabled child help too** with things that they can do and feel proud to achieve. Disabled children should have responsibilities just like other children.
- **Help them to help themselves.** Don’t help them with a certain job unless help is really needed. Let them do the things they can do, even if they do them slowly or not well.
- **Include them in play activities:** children always learn faster if they are helped by the group and if the exercises are made into games. All children learn and develop through play.
**Activities**
If there is a disabled child in the group, explain to this child what you are doing and why. This child has a lot of practical experience of disability. Involve the disabled child in sharing information and experience with the group. By respecting the child’s knowledge and opinion, the group can do much to build the child’s confidence and self esteem.
**Understanding disabilities**
**Experiencing disability**
Organise a game of football or tag. Before starting, tie sticks to some of the children’s legs so that their legs cannot be bent. Some children can try using one leg only (hopping).
Get children to work in pairs. One child ties a cloth over the other child’s eyes. The other guides the blindfolded child around. Ask these questions:
- can the blindfolded children recognise voices?
- can they recognise people by feeling their faces?
- what does it feel like to be blindfolded?
While these games are being played, other children can behave in different ways towards those who are ‘disabled’. Some help, others laugh; some are friendly, but others ignore them.
The children can think of other ways to behave. They can take it in turns to 'be disabled'. How do they feel about 'the disability and about the way in which other children treat them?
Can they think of other ways of finding out what it feels like to be disabled?
**Discussing disability**
Talk about disabled children, or older people, in the camp. Here are some ideas for discussions.
- Who runs the fastest in the group? Who jumps furthest? Why can the others jump as far or run as fast? Everyone has limitations. Children can think about some of the limitations they have and ways they can try to overcome them. Children will find out that everyone in the group is good at some things and not at others.
- Do you know someone who cannot run or walk like you? Why can't he run or walk properly? Maybe you know someone else with another kind of disability. What kind?
- Do other children play with this child? If not, why not? Do you? Is the child able to play some of the games, or not? Why not?
- Do other children laugh at this child? Why? What is it like when other children laugh at you?
- Do you like having friends? Do you like playing with other children? How would you feel if you were disabled and had no friends? Or if you were alone in the house all day by yourself?
- What can disabled children do better than you can? Can you think of a disabled person with strong arms, or good hearing, or a good memory, or who can write, read or draw well?
- How can you make life better for children with disabilities? Make a list of things you can do.
- Do you know of any disabled people who have done important things in the camp?
- What does it feel like to have a disability?
**Taking action**
**Making a plan**
Sometimes there is a health worker or a social worker in the camp who has a disability or who has looked after people with disabilities. Invite him or her to speak with the children.
Children can discuss ways to help a disabled child to be happier and more independent. They can list the disabled children they know, and think of ways in which they could help each one of those children. Perhaps they knew disabled children when they lived at home. They can discuss the kind of life that child had and how other children helped. They can make a plan and then form action groups. Whenever possible, disabled children should be members and parents and teachers can help to guide these groups.
**REMEMBER** – It is important not to forget the disabled child after a little time, or he will be even more unhappy. If a friend becomes disabled your friendship is even more important.
Here are some ideas for helping:
- If there are disabled children in the camp, other children can visit the child and the family regularly in the house, to talk and play with him or her. They can get to know the family and find out ways of helping.
- Find a way of getting disabled children around the camp.
- Disabled children need play and adventure like all children. Think of games they can play. Children who cannot walk can still play guessing games, cards, or singing and clapping games. Children who can see can read to children who are blind (sometimes children can read braille and can read to children who are sighted). Stronger children can take children whose legs are weak, swimming. They may also enjoy creating a puppet theatre together.
- Make toys or equipment which disabled children can use, and play with them to help them get stronger. A tyre and rope, tied to a strong branch, make a good swing.
- Find ways of making exercises to strengthen muscles, to improve hearing, to improve learning and memory into games. Play is the best way of learning and disabled children will learn faster if the exercises they must do are made into games or useful tasks which can be done in the house.
- Give disabled children plenty of encouragement. Listen to them. Give them time to do their tasks. They must learn to help themselves.
Helping children with severe disabilities
Some children have severe disabilities. They cannot move around or take part in games. But they can sometimes learn simple guessing games, cards, or singing games. They may like to hear stories, or just have someone touch them and hold their hands. Remember that when children cannot speak or think well, it may be difficult to know what they are feeling. They may be lonely and unhappy and need friends who will visit, laugh with them, talk and play. Severely disabled children may be intelligent but this will not develop unless they are stimulated and given the opportunity from an early age. Try and find out what they want by looking at them and taking notice of them. Find ways of helping them go to lessons. This could completely change their lives.
Young children with problems
A young child may have a weak back or legs and find it difficult to sit, walk or crawl. Older children can help the child to learn through play. For example, if a child cannot crawl, two children can help support the child's weight while he crawls by putting a cloth under him.
Another child can encourage the young child to crawl by holding out a toy or fruit. Play the game each day, so that the child's arm and leg muscles get stronger and perhaps one day the child will crawl without any help.
Follow-up
If children have started a project to help disabled children, plenty of time is needed. Once each month, or every two months, the children can discuss:
- what they are trying to do to help a disabled child
- what things have worked well
- what difficulties they have found
- how they are trying to solve those difficulties
If they are not doing a special project, they can discuss how they are trying to change the way they think and act towards children with disabilities in the camp. Disabled children should join in the group discussions.
If you want more information on any disability write to:
CBR Resource Unit, Institute of Child Health,
30, Guilford Street, London WC1N 1EH, UK.
HELPING CHILDREN WHOSE FRIENDS OR RELATIVES DIE
At some time, we all have a close friend or relative who dies. Losing someone dear to us is a sad thing and we feel unhappy. In a camp there may be many children who are separated from their friends or relatives or whose friends or relatives have died.
The loss of a loved one is just as painful to children as it is to adults. Children may also be distressed by the grief of their parents or other adults close to them. Adults should try to listen to children’s thoughts and fears. This may sometimes be difficult because adults will have to face their own feelings and memories.
Children may not always show signs that they are grieving but they will always need affection and security. Adults and other children can help to give them this, to listen to them and take account of their feelings.
Talking about death
If a child loses someone they love other children and adults close to them need to give them opportunities to talk about their feelings.
Death means different things in different cultures and religions. It may be frightening. We may think that it is a natural part of a political struggle, we may believe it is God’s will, or destiny. We will explain death to children in different ways, depending on our own beliefs, culture and situation.
What happens in our community when someone dies?
Adults can help children to share what they already know about local customs when someone dies, and understand better why these take place.
Start off with children’s own experience
- What do our families do when someone dies? Does it depend on the age of the person or whether they are a woman or man? Is there a feast or a ceremony? Who takes part in it? Are children included? Do people wear special clothing? For how long? How do these customs help? Are there some customs followed in the camp?
Encourage the children to find out more
- Children may be able to ask older members of their family to tell them about customs following the death of someone in the family, community and camp. Old people have many memories of death. Children can ask others what the different death ceremonies following death mean. Is it difficult to carry out these ceremonies in the camp? If so – why?
Tell others
- Children can tell others what they have found out. They can create plays, songs and stories based on what they have discovered, and perform them in their group. In this way children share what they have learnt about death within their own culture.
Learning from stories about death
- Children can find out if there are stories about death in their culture. In small groups children can tell these stories to each other, and their friends can draw a picture about the story.
This story from the Winnebago people of North America tells of helplessness in the face of death:
**HARE'S STORY**
*Hare for the first time hears of death. He starts to cry and runs towards his home. As he runs he is attacked by the thought that everything will die. He casts his thoughts everywhere, upon the rocks, the mountains, under the earth, towards the skies. Wherever he casts his thoughts all becomes shattered and stiffened up in death. When he reaches home, he wraps a blanket around him and lies down crying. There he lies in his corner, silent.*
In this story Hare is overcome by his sadness and helplessness. Recognising and sharing feelings like these can help children (and adults) feel stronger in the face of death. Traditional stories in many cultures help people in this way.
- Stories from children's and teachers' own lives, from newspapers or from radio broadcasts can provide starting points for discussion, and for children to think about ways of helping others.
After the story, the teacher can ask the children, 'If that person was in our group, how could we help him?'.
Children helping each other
A friend is someone who stands by us in good times and bad. The children can tell each other tell about a time when they:
- needed a friend and had one
- were a good friend to somebody else
- needed a good friend and did not have one
When a child is unhappy after a death, their friends need to be very gentle, good listeners and patient. The child must be allowed to show sadness by tears and other ways.
Children should not be surprised if their friend takes a long time to get over this sadness. Other children can help by just being with them, hugging or holding hands, playing a game with them or doing something simple to show they care for them such as giving them a small gift like a sweet or a favourite toy.
- Children have different feelings after a death, not only sadness. Children can often feel guilty about the death of a family member. They can also feel angry, frightened, confused, and unable to accept that someone they love has died. They may feel that they have been abandoned. Children may have some of these feelings for a long time after the death, even for many years. The feelings will be strong and difficult to cope with. When children show these feelings, people may think that they are behaving badly.
Other adults and children can help by understanding these feelings. There may be one person that the child likes and trusts more than others. It can help the child to talk to that person, as long as they really listen and accept what the child says.
Later on, children are likely to experience other losses, for instance if a good friend leaves the camp. At that time, all the feelings connected with the death of their loved one can return, with great force.
Showing feelings through creative activities
- It may be too difficult for children to talk about their feelings when someone they love has died. Teachers can encourage children to express feelings in other ways, such as drawings and poems. Here are extracts from poems by primary school children in Uganda who live in a community where there have been many deaths of friends and family members:
AIDS! AIDS!
Who created you?
You are finishing us all
You kill the young and the old
You are finishing our lives
What is your mission?
AIDS!
You are a threat to the population
Why do you rob man of his good life?
Last week you killed our father
The other month you killed our mother
Now you are killing our brother
Leaving us orphans
We wish we knew where you live
Where are you AIDS?
'Who of you wouldn't want to see God?
To sit with the Creator?
But who of us wants to die?
The young and the old have died
The poor and the rich have vanished
The handsome, the beautiful, the ugly
Have disappeared
Because of Aids, the killer!'
When children have lost someone they love, remember to:
Talk to children and be friendly. When we ignore them or the death this adds to their sadness and painful feelings.
Listen to them. It does not help to say we know how they feel – it is difficult to know how someone else feels.
Be patient – we should not make them think they should get over their feelings quickly.
Encourage children to join in play and other activities but do not force them to do so.
REMEMBER – Don’t say things like, ‘You’ll soon get over it’, ‘Just think of all the good things you have’, or ‘Everything will be all right’. This suggests that the child should deny their feelings.
Children in camps will have experienced war, disaster or conflict. This may cause them to have learning problems or difficulties in their relationships with others. A secure environment, caring families or understanding adults and friends, help these children to develop better.
Understanding children’s needs
Besides the basic needs for survival, children also need
AFFECTION – SECURITY – ATTENTION – PLAY
Children need help to recognise their own value and their rights.
WAR, DISASTER AND CONFLICT BREAK UP AND DISRUPT A NORMAL HEALTHY PATTERN OF LIFE
Basic needs: when children are cold, hungry and without shelter they do not develop well and become ill quickly.
Affection: when parents are frightened and trying to survive, they cannot give their children the affection and security they need for proper physical, mental and emotional development.
Security: when violence and catastrophe happen daily, children lose their knowledge of normal, good behaviour. Children lose their trust in adults who act violently.
Attention: when people, places and other things that matter to children are threatened or destroyed, and when adults are too worried or unhappy to notice them, children may feel unimportant or useless.
Play: when children have to care for themselves they have little time for play and fun.
The effects of war, disaster or conflict can leave children:
- burdened with knowledge of hardship and violence
- worried and insecure
- unwilling to trust people, even those who want to help them
- in poor health and with low spirits. This can make children uninterested and slow to learn
- angry, restless, over-excited or behaving in surprising ways. Children may appear to be coping well on the surface but still have fears and problems which they will need to sort out.
DAN'S STORY
Twelve year old, Dan, lives in a refugee camp. He has seen many people killed and wounded, including his uncle whom he loved very much. Although in the daytime, he is polite, helpful and caring towards his family, during the night he cries, screams out and talks in his sleep as he remembers the frightening things he has seen. His older brother tries to help him by talking to him and reading to him each night before he goes to sleep.
How to help
REMEMBER – CHILDREN NEED HELP FROM ADULTS AND OTHER CHILDREN
CHILDREN NEED A SECURE ENVIRONMENT
In the family, parents (or other adults caring for the children) need to understand the importance of listening to the children, discussing and explaining things to them, being honest and truthful to them, planning things together, and giving children a second chance when they make mistakes.
To provide a caring environment, adults will also need help and support from others in the community.
Teachers or organisers can encourage discussion with children about things which worry or frighten them.
It is important for parents and other adults such as community leaders to understand and discuss children’s fears and worries. Teachers or organisers can encourage them to do so.
Children may find it difficult to talk directly about their problems. We must listen carefully to what children are saying and watch what they do; this often explains how children feel.
Activities such as meetings, clubs, campaigns, can help develop a child’s sense of belonging. Sports, making toys and games, drawing or play acting can help restore children’s interest in things around them and build up their self respect.
**ADULTS**
**LISTEN TO CHILDREN**
**WATCH HOW THEY BEHAVE**
**OBSERVE WHAT THEY DO NOT OR CANNOT SAY**
**CHILDREN**
**NOTICE WHEN FRIENDS ARE SAD OR WORRIED**
**TALK AND PLAY TOGETHER**
**HELP SOLVE OTHER CHILDREN’S PROBLEMS**
**Activities**
There are many activities that are fun and at the same time help children gain confidence, give them power to express themselves and enable them to make a contribution and help others.
Activities such as meetings, clubs and campaigns can help to develop a child’s sense of belonging. Sports, making toys and games, drawing or play-acting can help restore children’s interest in things around them and build up their self respect.
Working with children who have difficulties is not easy. The children can often be uncooperative, destructive or aggressive. Try to find out what is behind it and give them interesting things to do. Children often respond well if they have responsibility. This helps them earn the respect of others.
**Working together as a group**
Talking and working things out in small groups can be a good way to develop children’s self confidence and help them to express their problems and fears. Many children will not find it easy.
When children work together in groups they will need plenty of encouragement. At first, they may find working together frustrating but as the activities progress children will become more open with their feelings and opinions. In the end children should be participating and cooperating well.
Children enjoy making up and keeping to rules which help the group work well. For example:
- raise your hand if you want to speak
- only one person speaks at a time
- only criticise in a nice way
- limit the number of times one person can speak
- in some cases, choose a chair person or someone to take notes
**Helping children feel more secure**
Children who have had bad experiences are sometimes easily frightened and suspicious of others. These activities (among many others) may help.
---
**The trust circle**
A small group stands in a close circle with one in the centre who closes his eyes. He lets himself fall towards the circle of children. Those closest to him catch him and push him gently towards another part of the circle – and so on until the one in the centre wants to stop.
**The blind walk**
Do this in pairs. One is blindfolded (or keeps her eyes shut). The other one guides her around the room, or outside, explaining the obstacles. Try this with and without talking.
**Cat and Mouse**
The group forms a circle. One person stands in the centre of a circle. This is ‘the mouse’. One person stands outside the circle. This person is ‘the cat’. The cat has to try to catch the mouse. The group tries to stop the cat reaching the mouse.
**Relaxation**
With their eyes shut children can:
- listen to music or sounds outside
- squeeze and relax each part of their body in turn
- listen to the rhythm of their breathing
- listen to a story or a ‘picture’ being painted in their minds by the organiser or by another child such as a beach scene, a mountain scene, or somewhere peaceful and beautiful
**Helping children to listen and express themselves**
**A role play about listening**
Divide into small groups. One person is the speaker and talks about any subject they like for about three minutes. Another person is the listener and must show the speaker that they are listening carefully. The third person is an observer to observe how ‘well’ the listener was listening and to report on this to the rest of the group. After a ‘feedback’ session, speakers, listeners and observers can exchange roles.
A listening activity
Decide on a place in the group where a ‘speaker’ can be seen by everyone. Call this the ‘speaking’ place, it might be on a chair in front of a group, sitting on a desk, or under a tree. The leader announces a ‘speaking topic’ such as ‘Accidents’. Children come out in turn and tell a story related to the topic, e.g. ‘when I was very small, I climbed this tree and...’
Other ideas for topics:
– If I was a rich person, I would...
– What makes me feel good
– What makes me angry
The children will have many more ideas. When they get more confident, this time can be used more freely, to share experiences and problems.
Story telling
There will be many story tellers in the camp. Invite them to tell stories to the group. They can teach and encourage children to tell stories of their own. Children can act out stories. They can make up new stories or tell traditional stories.
Older people can read or tell stories to children.
“These are the stories I was told when I was a child. They are the stories of our people.”
Problem solving
Children in groups can work together to solve problems. Here are two examples:
1. An older child wants to get some extra food for his younger sister who is ill. The health centre staff have told him to get some extra food from the storekeeper. The storekeeper does not believe the boy and refuses to give him the extra food.
2. One family has obtained a large number of water containers. Others get angry when they see the members of this family at the water standpipe collecting more water than they are supposed to.
These problems are just examples. Children can make up others or discuss problems which are relevant to their lives in the camp.
Drawing
Drawing can be used to help children express their feelings and individuality. Children can illustrate stories people tell them or their own stories; children can draw on the ground, on paper, on walls, with paints, with pencils, chalks, sand etc; they can draw while listening to music. Drawing can be used as a starting point for story telling, drama or music.
Plays, puppets and masks
Plays are fun and a good way to start discussions, storytelling and other drama activities. Puppets can help children explore sensitive subjects such as missing family or friends, or violent events that children have seen or participated in.
Writing
Writing can help children to express their feelings. This poem was written in a part of Uganda which was affected by war. The guns of destruction have been transformed into the weapons of knowledge which free people from disease.
Ah, Mother, Father
death and terrible tears
tears were everywhere in our village
On those six great killers
whooping cough, measles, TB
tetanus, polio, diphtheria
They are very close friends
they are powerful fighters
and their only desire is to kill
Those six great diseases are related
whooping cough is the brother of T.B.
tetanus, the cousin of diphtheria
measles, grandfather of polio
These six relatives move easily
they have special vehicles for travelling
they have germs as their comfortable cars
these cars travel from person to person
When they enter a person's body
they organise guerrilla warfare
a person who is not immunised
will be killed in this war
But clever mothers take their children for vaccination
they become strong, they don't get diseases
Vaccines are the enemies of these great fighters
they organise a special resistance army
and fight the killers
Immunise your children
and fight the great killers
whooping cough and TB
diphtheria and tetanus
measles and polio
and be free
Children enjoy writing poems and stories for their friends.
Dancing
Older children can teach traditional dances to younger ones. Children can invent and perform dances.
Helping children to make a difference
The older child as a helper
If a child has problems, other children can help. Often children are better at finding the right way to help. Older children can comfort younger ones; make toys for them; tell or read them stories; teach them songs and dances and help them with school work.
Children as health messengers
Children involved with Child-to-Child health activities feel that they are doing something useful and important. Children spread health messages and teach others about good health.
In a camp, children face one of life’s most difficult circumstances, but children living in camps have other children around them.
Recognise and build on children’s natural ability to share, to learn, to experience and have fun together.
The Child-to-Child Trust produces many different activity-based health education materials. These include:
- **Activity sheets** – 36 health education sheets in 8 categories:
1. Child growth and development
2. Nutrition
3. Personal and community hygiene
4. Safety
5. Recognising and helping the disabled
6. Prevention and cure of disease
7. Safe lifestyles
8. Helping children in difficult circumstances
(A full list of activity sheets can be found on page 20).
- **Story books** – 10 books at three reading levels
**Level 1**
- Dirty Water
- Accidents
- Not Just a Cold
**Level 2**
- A Simple Cure
- Teaching Thomas
- Down With Fever
- Diseases Defeated
- Flies
- I Can do it Too
**Level 3**
- Deadly Habits
The Child-to-Child Resource Book
The resource book contains all the most important Child-to-Child publications to date, collected in a single volume for easy reference. It includes examples of Child-to-Child around the world and all the activity sheets. Other sections are:
– Approaches to learning and teaching
– Doing it better – a simple guide to evaluation
– How to run a workshop – and similar occasions
For a list of Child-to-Child and TALC publications and an order form please contact:
TALC,
P.O. Box 49, St Albans, Herts, AL1 4AX, UK
Tel: 0727-853869 Fax: 0727-846852
Some Child-to-Child materials are available in other languages. There is a sister office in Paris which can be contacted at the following address:
L’Enfant pour L’Enfant,
Institut Santé et Développement,
15 Rue de L’ecolé de Médecine, 75270 Paris – Cedex 06, France.
Arabic materials are available from:
The Arab Resource Collective, P.O. Box 7380, Nicosia, Cyprus. | 8933a8f4-f4b1-4549-b840-989491861e1d | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://www.childtochild.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Child-to-Child-and-Children-Living-in-Camps.pdf | 2021-05-09T05:17:58+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988955.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20210509032519-20210509062519-00080.warc.gz | 721,016,792 | 35,008 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.988356 | eng_Latn | 0.998264 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Lat... | true | rolmOCR | [
220,
316,
1554,
4011,
5309,
7252,
9214,
10779,
13050,
14823,
17608,
19973,
22382,
23778,
26098,
28805,
31677,
34494,
37488,
39144,
41023,
43301,
46629,
49131,
51526,
53720,
55806,
57448,
59499,
62380,
63922,
64896,
66895,
69597,
71239,
72552,
7... | [
3.421875,
4.5
] | 1 | 1 |
CITYWIDE TREE STRATEGY
2016 - 2026
PART ONE
How to use this document electronically
This document contains interactive functions which allow for ease of navigation, however, some older web browsers and PDF viewing software may not support the use of these additional functions, this will not prevent the user from accessing any of the information contained within this document, only the use of the buttons and tabs as described below.
The buttons which are displayed below are available on each page of this document, the tabs on each right hand page, they are here to make navigation easier. Hovering over any button or tab will provide a description of its action.
Throughout the text in this document you will see text highlighted like this; these are links to the Glossary.
## CONTENTS
- **OUR VISION** | P.7
- **ONE | INTRODUCTION** | P.9
- **TWO | BACKGROUND** | P.11
- **THREE | CONTEXT** | P.19
- **FOUR | KEY CHALLENGES** | P.25
- **FIVE | AIMS & OBJECTIVES** | P.31
- **SIX | POLICIES** | P.33
- **SEVEN | BIBLIOGRAPHY** | P.45
- **EIGHT | GLOSSARY** | P.49
- **APPENDIX A** | P.55
- **APPENDIX B** | P.59
- **APPENDIX C** | P.65
OUR VISION
“To manage our City’s trees so as to maximise the benefits they offer, whilst ensuring that the trees we leave for future generations, and the character they bring to our City, are better than those we have inherited.”
The City of Cambridge’s tree population contributes greatly to the City’s character and is integral to providing cleaner air, filtered storm water and lower city temperatures. Trees, shrubs and other plants create an important habitat for birds and insects and make the City beautiful. Streets, parks and gardens filled with trees can also have psychological benefits in reducing stress and providing spaces for relaxation and contact with nature.
The Council will work to ensure a resilient tree population that respects Cambridge’s unique character, responds to climate change and urban expansion and underpins the health, liveability and well-being of the City and its inhabitants by taking an integrated approach to the management of the City’s trees, regardless of ownership.
This integrated management approach to achieving the Council’s long term vision has the following aims:
- To sustainably manage the Council’s own trees and those it manages by agreement.
- To foster a resilient tree population that responds to the impacts of climate change and urban expansion.
- To raise awareness of trees being a vital community asset, through promoting continued research, through education via the provision of advice and through partnership working.
- To make efficient and strategic use of the Council’s regulatory powers for the protection of trees of current and future value.
How the strategy works
1.1 The strategy takes three approaches to the delivery of the Council’s vision and aims, namely:
- To protect – existing trees, where appropriate, through the Council’s regulatory responsibilities; and through the provision of tree management advice.
- To enhance – tree cover, through the Council’s regulatory responsibilities; through education; through public engagement; and through new tree planting.
- To manage – sustainably, the Council’s tree stock and those we maintain by agreement, in accordance with current best practice and within the resource allocated.
1.2 The strategy is divided into three parts:
**Part 1 – Tree protection and enhancement**
This part sets out the Council’s overall strategic vision and background to the strategy. It also set out policies that will inform how the Council will protect the City’s tree population, as a whole, with specific reference to tree preservation orders, development control and tree canopy cover enhancement through public and partnership engagement.
**Part 2 – Tree management policies**
This part sets out the background and policy as to how the Council’s own tree stock should be sustainably and responsibly managed. It also provides guidance on how to inform the public on tree-related matters and on their rights and responsibilities.
**Part 3 – Action plan**
This part sets out actions, timescales and responsibilities with regard to implementing the Council’s tree policy.
1.3 This document is Part 1 of the strategy.
1.4 This strategy replaces:
- Cambridge City Council. Citywide Arboricultural Strategy. 1996;
- Cambridge City Council. (7/11/2000). The Citywide Arboricultural Strategy: 2000-2007;
- Cambridge City Council. (13/7/2004). Mid-period review of the Citywide Arboricultural Strategy: 2004-2007. Unpublished report to Environment Scrutiny Committee; and
- Protocol for the consultation and determination of tree work operations to trees on City Council owned land. June 2009.
1.5 This strategy builds and expands upon the above documents, such that some of the background historical context is not revisited within this strategy.
1.6 It is intended that the strategy should be reviewed every five years and it is hoped that it will continue to develop with each review.
1.7 The strategy seeks to establish a point of reference for the public, councillors, officers and professionally interested people to enable informed discussion and to establish a clearer and more structured approach to the issues affecting trees in Cambridge.
2. Why do we need a strategy?
2.1 Trees play a vital role in the health, social framework and economic sustainability of a city. An abundance of research shows that trees improve our air, soil and water quality; they improve mental health and well-being; provide a sense of place and enhance property values. Increasing canopy cover over paved surfaces is a cost-effective means of mitigating urban heat islands, controlling storm water run-off, and increasing pavement longevity (see Appendix 1, The benefits of trees, for more details).
2.2 In view of the multi-benefits that we receive from trees, it is appropriate for the Council to set out its approach to tree management and protection. By moving towards a more integrated or ‘urban forestry’ approach to tree management, the Council will extend the scope of its policies beyond that which relates to solely the management of its own asset and statutory responsibilities, so as to include policies that recognise and enhance the overall environmental benefits of all urban trees.
3. What is our management approach?
3.1 The Council will take an integrated, urban forestry approach to the management of the City’s trees. Urban forestry is practised more in Europe and the U.S rather than the UK. It can be defined as the science and art of managing trees regardless of ownership, in and around urban areas, so as to maximise the social, environmental and economic benefits that trees provide.
3.2 Urban forestry is distinct from arboriculture in that it considers the cumulative benefits of an entire tree population across a town or city. Looking holistically at the urban forest and its associated benefits allows for consideration of the broader issues of climate change and population growth that can be influenced by, and that can affect, an urban forest.
| Traditional Tree Management | Urban Forest Model |
|-----------------------------|--------------------|
| Trees seen as ornament | Trees considered as infrastructure |
| Trees seen as individuals | Overall canopy cover is important |
| Trees have low priority | Trees have equal priority to other urban infrastructure such as roads and services |
| Trees have no monetary value| Urban forest is seen as a valuable asset |
| Small and ornamental trees | Large canopy trees |
| Tree maintenance | Canopy cover management |
| Aesthetics-based design | Ecological-based design |
| Legal boundaries determine management | Urban forest as a continuous resource regardless of ownership |
Table 1. Traditional management Vs urban forest model comparison (Adapted from - North Sydney Council 2011)
3.3 The guidance from Government is that integrated management of the urban forest is a local government function\(^1\). It should fulfil this function by working in partnership with external organisations and groups, whilst developing the integrated approach within the authority itself. A major aspect of any integrated approach to management is the involvement of the local community. Local communities, schools, community groups, developers, business, industry and householders all have important roles to play. Every part of the city contributes in some way to the urban forest as a whole.
3.4 As with all local authorities, the City Council is continuing to face significant budgetary pressures due to a reduction in Government funding associated with the global economic downturn and public sector austerity agenda. Over the period 2010-15, the Council has already delivered £11 million in annual revenue savings. In October 2014, the Council published its Mid-year Financial Review which identified a further budget requirement of –£6 million in net revenue savings across the Council up to 2020. This equates to a total net budget reduction across the Council of around 35%. At the same time as the Council is experiencing financial pressures, Cambridge is experiencing significant growth, with 33,000 new homes and 22,000 new jobs to be provided in and around the city by 2031. As a consequence of this growth, the Council is adopting and taking on the management of additional public realm assets whilst continuing to ensure it maintains the quality of its existing infrastructure, including the city’s historic streets, parks and open spaces.
3.5 The challenge for this strategic approach is to raise the general awareness of trees as a valuable community asset with multiple benefits, as opposed to them being viewed as either a problem, a drain on resources, or of limited value at a time when the Council is experiencing considerable pressure on its resources.
4. **The City’s trees – where are we now?**
4.1 Cambridge’s tree population consists of a mixture of deciduous native and exotic trees which include many cultivars. There are a few evergreen species, most notably in Newnham, Trumpington and Queen Edith’s wards. These trees naturally have different sizes, ages and levels of significance in the landscape. The Council has developed a detailed knowledge of the public tree population located in the City’s streets, parks and open spaces. These trees are assessed triennially and all necessary maintenance is then performed, in an effort to maintain good health and condition. Details of all of the Council’s trees are held on a database that is regularly updated, which records the tree location, species, and all maintenance works performed on the tree. See Appendix 2 (for more details of Cambridge’s urban forest).
4.2 The information the Council has on the private tree population, is on the other hand more limited, as the City is not responsible for their maintenance.
4.3 A recent tree audit\(^2\), based on an analysis of 2008 aerial photographs, was completed in 2013. The data was checked for accuracy by carrying out a tree survey on the ground in a representative number of sample plots across the City, in 2012. The audit provides a useful baseline from which to measure change.
A summary of the key findings is provided below:
a. The canopy cover in the City averaged 17%, ranging from 12% in Cherry Hinton ward to 22% in Newnham ward. Generally, canopy cover in each ward was proportional to the land area that the ward occupies. Those notable exceptions were Abbey ward, where canopy cover was lower than expected in relation to its land area, and Newnham, which had a higher canopy cover than expected.
b. How land is used is probably the greatest determining factor in how many trees it can support. For the purpose of the audit, land in the City was classified as one of nine different categories:
1. Town Centre and Commercial (TC)
---
\(^1\) Britz, C. & Johnston, M (eds); Trees in Towns II: A new survey of urban trees in England and their condition and management. February 2008; Department for Communities and Local Government. London.
\(^2\) ADAS (2013) Analysis and Interpretation of Tree Audit Data For Cambridge City Council. Final Report.
2. Residential – Low Density (LDR)
3. Residential – Medium Density (MDR)
4. Residential – High Density (HDR)
5. Industrial (I)
6. Open Space 1 (Formal and informal/amenity land) (OS1)
7. Open Space 2 (Institutional) (OS2)
8. Open Space 3 (Derelict/neglected/abandoned) (OS3)
9. Open Space 4 (Remnant countryside) (OS4)
c. The proportion of the canopy cover in Medium Density Residential areas (~38% of the total canopy cover) was more similar to the proportion of the land area occupied by Medium Density Residential land (~31% of the total land area). The results show that despite the areas covered by High and Low Density Residential land being similar (~4% of the total), the Low Density Residential areas have a greater proportion of canopy cover (~10% compared to ~4% of the total canopy cover). This is to be expected, since Low Density Residential areas consist of detached houses with large front and back gardens, which have space for large trees. Typically these houses tend to be older, with mature trees characterised by a large canopy area. High Density Residential areas typically consist of small terraced houses with, at most, a small back garden or yard. The gardens have little potential for any significant canopy cover.
d. The Town Centre and Commercial and, in particular, Industrial land use classes have a disproportionately smaller canopy cover compared to the size of the areas they occupy. This is to be expected, especially for the industrial areas, in which the land area has a purely functional purpose with little planting.
e. Institutional Open Space covers a relatively large proportion of the Cambridge area and has the second greatest proportion of canopy cover after Medium Density Residential land. This land use class includes the University colleges with grounds which typically contain mature trees with large canopy areas.
f. Despite ~25% of the total land area of the Cambridge area being classified as Remnant Countryside, it contains only ~14% of the total canopy cover. This is because this land use class consists largely of big open arable fields, which often only have trees and shrubs at their boundaries.
g. The majority (77%) of land area in Cambridge was found to be privately owned: City Council land comprised 13.5%, with Highways comprising the remainder. Canopy cover was split in similar proportions, both at a City and ward level. Exceptions included Abbey and Cherry Hinton wards, where canopy cover in the City Council and Highways categories was higher than expected based on land area.
| Ownership | Canopy cover (%) | Land Area (%) |
|-----------------|------------------|---------------|
| City Council | 16.3 | 13.5 |
| Highway | 9.6 | 9.5 |
| Private/other | 74.1 | 77 |
Table 2. Canopy cover and land area comparisons by ownership
h. Almost three-quarters of the trees in Cambridge were between 2.5 and 10m high. Fewer than 2% were over 20m tall. Institutional Open Space had the greatest proportion of trees over 15m tall, which probably reflects the abundance of large mature specimens on college-owned land. Over three-quarters of trees had a canopy spread between 2 and 10m.
Less than 2% had a canopy spread under 2m or over 20m. Open Space categories had the greatest abundance of trees with canopies over 15m. Medium Density Residential land use had the greatest proportion of trees with canopies of under 5m. Castle, Newnham, Market and Trumpington wards had the highest proportions of taller trees.
k. The most common tree family for trees regardless of ownership was Rosaceae family (28%), followed by Olacaceae (ash) family (21%) with these two families making up almost half of the surveyed tree stock. The most common genus was Fraxinus (ash) (>20%) followed by Prunus (>15%). The next most common of the surveyed trees were lime species, followed by apple/pear species and then Leyland cypress. Of the surveyed trees, 71% were found to be in good condition and only 2% in poor condition or dead. The majority (38%) of surveyed trees had a stem diameter of 10-20cm. Forty percent of surveyed trees were estimated to be 5-10 years old and 32% between 25 and 50.
i. Overall, 25% of the canopy in the City was in private ownership in conservation areas. There was great variation between wards, with four having no private conservation areas. On average across the City, 4% of the canopy cover was within Tree Preservation Order (TPO) areas and 9% was associated with trees with individual TPOs. There were a number of wards in which the majority of the canopy cover had a protection status (see Table 4). Within privately owned land in conservation areas, 75% of trees were over 5m high c.f. ~60% in the City as a whole. Of the City trees over 20m high, 56% were in privately owned land in conservation areas. Of the City trees with a canopy spread of over 20m, 31% were in privately owned conservation areas.
j. The most common tree family in the council-owned stock was Rosaceae (cherry, apple, pear, and rowan) family (33%), followed by Betulaceae (birch) family (14%) and Aceraceae (maple) family (12%). The most common genus was Prunus (cherry) (14%). The majority of the council-owned stock with a condition assessment was in good (58%) or fair (38%) condition. Condition varied with land ownership, for example County Highway and City Council other categories had a greater proportion of trees in good condition than City public open space.
5. What is the strategic context?
5.1 National Policy Background
5.1.1 The Department for Communities and Local Government report Trees in Towns II in 2008 acknowledged the beneficial role that the urban forest plays and carried out a national survey with the aim of obtaining a robust estimate of the urban tree stock and its management by local authorities in towns and cities in England. The study concluded that whilst the integrated management of the urban forest is primarily a local government function, local authorities should undertake the required work in partnership with other organisations. The study also identified a need for all tree-related activities to be incorporated in a coherent and coordinated management plan.
5.1.2 In 2009, an independent assessment (Read, 2009) was commissioned by the Forestry Commission to examine the potential role that the UK’s trees and woodlands can play in mitigating and adapting to a changing climate. In relation to urban trees, the assessment concluded that trees play an important role in helping society adapt to climate change in the urban context through the provision of shelter, cooling, shade and control of run-off. It recommended that tree planting should occur in places where people live and gather, particularly those that currently have low tree cover.
5.1.3 The Government published the Natural Environment White Paper in 2011. This paper recognises the importance of trees and woodlands in providing valuable ecosystem services. It identifies that the health of trees is essential for societal wellbeing and highlights the ambition for a major increase in the area of woodland in England, as well as better management of existing woodland. As a step towards attaining this ambition, the authors highlighted a need to create more opportunities for planting trees in our towns, cities and villages, helping mitigate and adapt to future climate change and increase resilience. The Government welcomed the case that Read (2009) set out with respect to tree planting rates, and asked the Independent Panel on Forestry to provide advice on the appropriate level of ambition for woodland creation and management. The Panel’s report was published in July 2012, and the creation of opportunities for woodland and tree planting within the urban environment was reported as particularly important in order to improve the quality of towns and cities.
5.1.4 In 2013, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs published the Government’s Forestry and Woodlands Policy Statement incorporating a response to the Independent Panel on Forestry’s report. It particularly wanted to see more trees and woodlands in and around our towns and cities where they can safeguard clean water, help manage flood risk and improve biodiversity.
5.1.5 The National Planning Policy Framework was published by the Department for Communities and Local Government in March 2012. It sets out the Government’s planning policies for England and how these should be applied. It identifies three dimensions to sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. One of the roles of the planning system in the social dimension is to create a high quality built environment that supports the health, social and cultural wellbeing of its inhabitants. In the environmental dimension, the planning system needs to help improve biodiversity and mitigate and adapt to climate change. Green infrastructure is a key element of sustainable development and urban forests are a key component of green infrastructure. A large body of research and policy supports the social, environmental and economic roles of trees, for example, references to the economic benefits of trees are incorporated in the National Ecosystem Assessment and the Natural Environment White Paper.
5.2 Regional Policy Background
5.2.1 The Green Infrastructure Strategy for Cambridgeshire (2011)
The Green Infrastructure Strategy for Cambridgeshire was designed to help shape and coordinate the delivery of green infrastructure in the county to provide social, environmental and economic benefits. Cambridge City is one of the target areas in the strategy and the importance of taking opportunities to enhance the green infrastructure in development localities is stressed. The importance of green space as part of the City’s historic character is also noted as well as the promotion of the health, education, recreation and biodiversity benefits of such areas.
5.3 Local Policy Background
5.3.1 Cambridge Local Plan 2014 – Draft Submission Plan
The Cambridge Local Plan sets out the way in which the development needs of Cambridge will be met up to 2031. In this time it is anticipated that the city will grow significantly. The Draft Submission Plan contains policies that will influence the management of trees in future years.
Strategic Objective 6 of this local plan requires all new development in Cambridge to protect and enhance the landscape setting of the city, which comprises the Cambridge Green Belt, the green corridors penetrating the urban area, the established network of multi-functional green spaces, and tree canopy cover in the city.
The Local Plan sets out policies and proposals for future development and spatial planning requirements to 2031. When approved, a number of policies will relate to the management of trees including:
Development will be permitted; which avoids felling, significant surgery (either now or in the foreseeable future) and potential root damage to trees of amenity or other value, unless there are demonstrable public benefits accruing from the proposal which outweigh the current and future amenity value of the trees.
Development proposals should:
a. preserve, protect and enhance existing trees and hedges that have amenity value as perceived from the public realm
b. provide appropriate replacement planting, where felling is proved necessary; and
c. provide sufficient space for trees and other vegetation to mature.
Particular consideration should be given to veteran or ancient trees, as defined by Natural England, in order to preserve their historic, ecological and amenity value.
5.3.2 Climate change Strategy 2016-2021
This strategy establishes objectives and actions by which the City Council can address the causes and consequences of climate change.
5.3.3 Cambridge Nature Conservation Strategy (2006)
The vision of this strategy is to see a “net gain” in biodiversity, both within the city and its immediate hinterland, including the extent and quality of priority habitats and populations of priority species. Wildlife habitats will be protected, enhanced and, where possible, expanded and linked. The very best wildlife habitats will form part of a much wider ecological network that will permeate the whole of the city and beyond.
The following objectives within the strategy relate to trees:
- Increase the area of native woodland and scrub habitats within Cambridge
- Increase the length of hedgerow within the City
- Identify and protect all veteran trees, and potential future veteran trees.
5.3.4 Open Space and Recreation Strategy (2011)
The strategy covers many open spaces within the city, from major tracts of green space to small pockets of open space. It includes land which is available for use by the public, but also private land which contributes to the character, environmental quality or recreational resources of the city. The strategy seeks to ensure that open space supports the development of sustainable communities, and the enhancement of the health and well-being of residents and the biodiversity of the city.
5.3.5 Cambridge Landscape Character Assessment (2003)
The Landscape Assessment identified areas or features in the Cambridge area that should be conserved. It also categorised different landscape types and areas as either ‘Supporting or Defining Character’ to inform the process of choice of location for new development and ensure that new development takes existing character into account in the design and execution of proposals.
It found that Cambridge is essentially a well-treed City and the tree belts and avenues that are characteristic of many streets are an important part of the City’s character but are not in themselves Defining Character, but that their summed contribution to the City’s environment is immeasurable. They are classed as Supporting Character. Where they coincide with major green spaces, settings or views for instance they become by association the Defining Character.
5.3.6 Conservation Area Appraisals
Part of the Council’s remit is to identify areas of ‘special architectural or historic interest’ that makes them worth protecting and improving. What makes these areas special might be the buildings, open spaces, trees, or a mixture of these and other features. Cambridge has eleven conservation areas at present each with its own area appraisal document containing guidance to protect the best features of the area, and to improve the less attractive parts.
1. Brooklands Conservation Area
2. Central Conservation Area
i. Castle and Victoria Road Area
ii. The Kite Conservation Area
iii. Mill Road Conservation Area
iv. New Town and Glisson Road Conservation Area
v. Riverside and Stourbridge Common Conservation Area
vi. Station Area
vii. Historic Core
3. Chesterton Conservation area
4. Conduit Head Road Conservation Area
5. De Freville Conservation Area
6. Ferry Lane Conservation Area
7. Newnham Croft Conservation Area
8. Southacre Conservation Area
9. Storey’s Way Conservation Area
10. Trumpington Conservation Area
11. West Cambridge Conservation Area
6. What are the key challenges
6.1 The key challenges are:
- The problems facing trees from a changing climate, pest and disease, an ageing tree stock, population increase and urban intensification;
- The problems caused by trees.
6.2 Climate change
Research suggests that trees within cities can help the city to adapt to some of the adverse effects of climate change. These adaptation benefits include direct and indirect cooling effects, reduction of the urban heat island effect; shelter from harmful radiation; improvement of urban air quality; reduction of energy consumption from urban buildings; increasing soil water storage, absorption of atmospheric carbon, and storm water management for example.
The changing climate presents both benefits and risks to the trees themselves. Increases in carbon dioxide and warmer temperatures will lead to improved growth rates and longer growing seasons. Conversely, increased storm frequencies and summer drought will lead to tree losses.
Diversifying tree species and age structure will help to mitigate these adverse effects.
Cambridge’s tree population consists of a mixture of deciduous and evergreen native and exotic trees, which include many cultivars. The Rosaceae family (cherry, apple, rowan) followed by Olacaceae family (ash) of trees make up almost half the trees in Cambridge. The most common genus is Fraxinus (ash) (>20%) followed by Prunus (cherry) (>15%). The next most common trees are lime species, followed by apple/pear species and then Leyland cypress. 94% of trees are under 50 years old with only 1% over 100 years.
Achieving an appropriate diversity of tree species is one important factor in achieving a sustainable urban forest. Trees in Cambridge do not generally occur as a monoculture to the extent found in agricultural crops or forest plantations; nor would a monoculture be suitable over the range of conditions encountered.
There are guidelines that aim to set target levels for tree diversity within a street tree population. It has been suggested that there should be no more than 30% of any one family,
20% of any one genus, or 10% of one species in an urban tree population\(^3\). Whilst Cambridge does not reach these criteria, both the Olacaceae (ash) and Rosaceae (cherry, apple, pear, rowan) families come close and the devastating effect on the character of Cambridge of serious pest and disease in these two taxa is clear.
Good structural diversity is essential for future population stability. Inadequate replacement of the large tree species is a threat to future stability of the urban forest.
It has been suggested that a good age distribution for population stability would be about 40% trees under 20cm diameter, 30% 20 to 40cm trees in the early functional stage, 20% 40 to 60cm functionally mature trees, and 10% older trees with most of their functional life behind them\(^4\). The table below shows a comparison between this suggested distribution and that from a statistically valid sampling in Cambridge\(^5\), indicating that Cambridge is under-represented in the larger, older tree brackets.
### 6.3 Pest and disease
It is likely that climate change will adversely affect the impact of existing pests and diseases on trees. Hotter, drier summers for example, may stress individual trees making them more susceptible to infection.
Some of the most damaging pests and diseases have come from abroad often causing little trouble in their native habitats. Some of these organisms can be virulent, fast-spreading and unstable when introduced to the UK, which has few of the environmental or biological controls that keep them in check in their native habitats.
Chalara dieback of ash for example was first found in the UK in 2012. Chalara has potential to cause significant damage to the UK’s ash population. Since its initial identification in the UK it has been found widespread across the country. It has caused widespread damage to ash populations in continental Europe, where experience indicates that it can kill young ash trees quite quickly, while older trees can resist it for some time until prolonged exposure, or another pest or pathogen attacking them in their weakened state, eventually causes them to succumb. It has yet to be confirmed in Cambridge, however, but as a substantial proportion of Cambridge’s trees are ash, should the impact of this disease be similar to continental Europe it will have a significant effect on the character of Cambridge, possibly similar to that of Dutch Elm Disease in the 1970’s.
Government strategy to control exotic pests and diseases is founded on three basic principles:
1. To keep it out if we can;
2. If we can’t, to eradicate it before it spreads and becomes endemic;
3. If eradication is impossible, to control and manage it to keep it below epidemiologically significant levels.
The Council will follow Government advice about the control of current and future outbreaks. Past outbreaks suggest that control of a pest or disease is extremely difficult.
### 6.4 Population increase and urban intensification
In the short term, Cambridge is likely to experience significant population growth. The projections indicate that the population of ~132,000 in 2014 will carry on rising for at least the next decade, adding about another 20,000 people in that time to ~155,000 by 2036, with the projections suggesting that the City’s population may start to fall slightly in about 12 years’ time.
---
\(^3\) Santamour, Jr. F. S. (1990). Trees for Urban Planting: Diversity, Uniformity, and Common Sense. Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance.
\(^4\) Richards, N.A., (1988). Diversity and stability in a street tree population. Urban Ecology. 7: 159. 171.
\(^5\) ADAS (2013) Analysis and Interpretation of Tree Audit Data For Cambridge City Council. Final Report.
Population analysis by ward indicates that the bulk of the population growth over the next few years is expected in Castle and Trumpington wards, associated with major housing developments in these two areas.
The number of dwellings was estimated at ~49,000 in 2013 with a forecast of ~63,000 by 2036. Dwelling analysis by ward show that the bulk of new housing will be in Trumpington and Castle, with significant numbers in Coleridge and Queen Edith’s.
In addition to the growth in Cambridge’s population and associated dwelling houses, the numbers of jobs (and hence commuters visiting the city) is forecast to increase; as are business’ and industries’ requirements for new floor space; as well as tourism.
The increase in development densities often results in greater site coverage by buildings and pavements, resulting in a reduction in the extent of vegetation on private land, especially large canopy trees.
An increase in population, both permanent and non-permanent, will increase pressures on public spaces to accommodate more uses – whether for recreation in parks or for more parking in streets – which can result in direct competition with plantings for space as well as making growing conditions more demanding, due to more extensive hard or compacted surfaces.
### Ageing tree stock
Larger, older trees are underrepresented in Cambridge (ref. paragraph 6.2) with fewer than 2% of trees being in the over 20m height or canopy spread or 60cm+ diameter classes. These are Cambridge’s largest trees, and many will be over 100 years old and approaching the end of their useful life. They add disproportionately to the character of Cambridge and have performed remarkably well in faring against droughts, storms, urbanisation and changing cultural trends. However, the older a tree becomes, the less tolerant it is to change.
The distribution of the larger, older trees is found disproportionately to the west side of Cambridge, where it significantly contributes to the character of those areas (see Figure 5). Both large deciduous and coniferous species are represented including beech, oak, ash, lime, horse chestnut, plane, pine and redwood.
---
6 [http://www.cambridgeshireinsight.org.uk/population-and-demographics/population-forecasts](http://www.cambridgeshireinsight.org.uk/population-and-demographics/population-forecasts)
7 [http://www.cambridgeshireinsight.org.uk/population-and-demographics/dwelling-forecasts](http://www.cambridgeshireinsight.org.uk/population-and-demographics/dwelling-forecasts) (last accessed 18/9/2015).
prior to 1970 are likely to be increasingly at risk, particularly where soils are prone to frequent occurrences of shrinking and swelling. As a result, consideration should be given to the location and species of trees prior to planting, with the aim of minimising future damage. Aesthetically suitable species can still be identified for planting prior to considering their potential for future damage, since the benefits of planting urban trees greatly outweigh the potential negative consequences. A tree’s suitability in the urban landscape can be reviewed on an ongoing basis with trees not necessarily being grown to maturity in order for communities to reap their benefits.
**Figure 5.** Map of showing the distribution of trees over 20m in height (the tree canopies are not to scale)
---
**AIMS & OBJECTIVES**
**How are we going to achieve our vision?**
7.1 Government policy acknowledges – and research supports – the vital role that trees can play in the health, liveability and well-being of the urban environment and its inhabitants. The Council can only directly manage those trees growing in the public realm, a small but significant part of the Cambridge’s tree stock. To maximise the benefits trees can bring to a city, Government advocates an integrated or **urban forestry** approach be taken to their management and declares this to be essentially a local authority function.
7.2 Cambridge City Council’s long term vision recognises the value of the City’s trees as a vital community asset. It also recognises that the benefits they bring support – and are supported by – a number of its other key plans, strategies and policies.
7.3 This strategy sets out four aims that are the broad, long-term goals that define the accomplishment of the vision. These aims address the key challenges and day-to-day management issues facing the Council. The tables 3a and 3b below set out the Council’s objectives or targets in relation to these issues and challenges. Specific policies as to how the Council intends to meet these objectives are set out in Part 1 and 2 of the strategy. Part 3 will set out actions, timescales and responsibilities with regard to implementing the Council’s tree policies.
7.4 The strategy’s policies come in two categories that can be broadly described as:
- Operational – those activities that the Council will or won’t do.
- Aspirational – those activities the Council will seek or endeavour should its resources allow.
| Protection | Aims | Issues and Challenges | Objectives | Part |
|------------|------|-----------------------|------------|------|
| | “To make efficient and strategic use of the Council’s regulatory powers for the protection of trees of current and future value.” | Tree Preservation Orders | To review old tree preservation orders
To review TPO serving procedures
To use TPOs strategically
To clarify the procedures for assessing amenity
To reduce the numbers of unsolicited consultations
To Review the scrutiny procedures for notifications
To produce supplementary planning documentation with regard to trees and development | 1/2 |
**Table 3a.** Objectives – Protection
In 2015 the Council sought the views of residents to help shape this strategy*. It found that there was support for enforcement, promoting tree coverage and community engagement and involvement through creating partnerships, voluntary tree schemes and information and guidance for homeowners.
### Protection
The Council’s statutory responsibilities regarding the protection of trees fall into the following broad categories:
- Dealing with applications to carry out works to trees protected by Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs);
- Dealing with notifications to carry out works to trees in Conservation Areas;
- Serving TPOs;
- Providing advice to Development Control on the implications of development on trees and opportunities for new planting; and
- Monitoring and taking action against unauthorised works to trees.
The City currently has 11 Conservation Areas and over 600 active TPOs.
There are a number of key issues facing this statutory service:
- The consultation process associated with tree work application/notification;
- Maintaining the accuracy of TPOs; and
- Delegated powers
#### Serving TPOs
The Town and Country Planning Act 1991 and associated regulations give Councils powers to make TPOs where it appears to be expedient in the interests of amenity. The Act does not define amenity or prescribe when it may be in the interests of amenity to make a TPO. Government guidance emphasises visual benefits (present or future), suitability to site and landscape and cultural, historic or species value but suggests that other factors, such as ‘response to climate change’ may be taken into account without necessarily being the sole reason for serving a TPO.
---
* Trees in Cambridge – Issues and Options, July 2015 by Phil Back Associates.
The 2013 audit of Cambridge City’s trees found that the percentage of protected canopy is at disproportionately lower levels in the north and east of the City – those areas of the City which have low levels of canopy cover.
| Ward | % of canopy cover associated with individual TPOs | % of canopy cover associated with individual TPO group or area designations | Proportion of canopy cover by Ward (%) |
|---------------|---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|
| Abbey | 5.4 | 0.3 | 7.3 |
| Arbury | 3.6 | 2.1 | 3.7 |
| Castle | 10.4 | 3.2 | 10.1 |
| Cherry Hinton | 3.1 | 1.9 | 6.8 |
| Coleridge | 2.1 | 0.9 | 4 |
| East Chesterton | 5.7 | 3.8 | 6.3 |
| King's Hedges | 2.4 | 1.8 | 3.8 |
| Market | 7 | 0.2 | 3.6 |
| Newnham | 11.4 | 3.1 | 14.4 |
| Petersfield | 30.4 | 4.6 | 2.5 |
| Queen Edith's | 21.2 | 9.8 | 11.6 |
| Ramsey | 11.1 | 0.5 | 3.2 |
| Trumpington | 6.7 | 9.6 | 18.8 |
| West Chesterton | 6.2 | 0.3 | 3.9 |
| **Total Area** | **9.3** | **4.4** | **17.2** |
*Table 4.* Percentage of tree canopy protected by TPO by ward
As part of a response to climate change the Council will look to proactively target these areas to protect; where appropriate, those trees that will develop into or have developed into, the larger canopy categories (i.e. circa 15m or more).
**POLICY P1:** The Council will consider a response to climate change as a contributing factor in serving TPOs and will seek, where appropriate, to increase statutory protection in areas of low canopy cover.
### 8.2 Amenity assessment
When considering whether trees should be protected by an Order, the Government advises that authorities develop ways of assessing the amenity value of trees in a structured and consistent way, taking into account the following criteria:
- Visibility
- Individual, collective and wider impact
Where a tree is being considered for protection, the criteria of the tree being visible from a place accessible to the public should normally be met but alone is insufficient reason for serving a TPO or refusing an application.
In addition to being seen from a publically accessible place, authorities are advised to consider trees and/or groups of trees for their suitability to site, their contribution to and relationship with the landscape and/or character and appearance of a Conservation Area and any rarity, cultural or historic value.
Where relevant to an assessment of the amenity value of trees or woodlands, the Government advises that authorities may consider taking into account other factors, such as such as importance to nature conservation or response to climate change. These factors alone would not warrant making an Order.
**POLICY P2:** Where a TPO is challenged its provision will be considered against the following amenity criteria.
1. Visual
- Trees visible from a public place.
- Trees which provide significant screening between land uses.
- Trees on private land which may not be visible to the general public but significantly enhance the appearance and character internal to a site.
- Trees which are significant to the defined landscape character of an area or are of defined value to the community.
2. Individual, collective and wider impact
- The trees size and form and suitability to its immediate location.
- The trees future potential as an amenity.
- The trees contribution to, and relationship with, the landscape.
3. Atmospheric
- Trees which are in the immediate vicinity of congested roads, abutting railways or industrial premises with gaseous emissions.
- Trees in high density residential areas where opportunities to grow trees are very limited.
4. Climate change
- Large trees or those with the potential to grow into large trees which have the greater impact with regard to climate change adaptation.
- Trees which cast a level of shade that can be reasonably managed in relation to the use of the site.
5. Biodiversity
- Trees which are a known habitat of a protected species.
- Trees which could be managed as veterans.
- Trees which extend or are an integral part of a city or county wildlife site.
- Trees or areas of trees which it would be appropriate to manage specifically to encourage colonisation by wildlife.
6. Historic or cultural
- Trees which commemorate and event or notable person.
- Trees which are historically part of the setting of a listed building.
7. Botanical
- Trees which are in themselves botanically rare or part of a locally significant botanical collection.
8.3 TPO review
TPOs are only useful if they are accurate and reflect the current situation with the trees involved. For these reasons the management of TPOs and their files should be from an active rather than an archival approach.
A very brief look at some TPOs showed that resurveying subsequent to development has mostly not been achieved and the updating of orders as trees have been lost is limited. The need to actively manage TPOs must now be given some priority, especially since they relate to what could be considered to be the best trees within the City.
The graph below shows the cumulative total of TPOs served by year. The oldest was served in 1955 and is still extant. Circa 230 TPOs are 25 years old or older. These should be given priority.
**Figure 6.** Cumulative number of TPO 1955 - 2013
The Government has discouraged the use of the ‘area’ designations within the TPO schedule for long term protection as they have proved unenforceable. Many of the Council’s larger and older TPOs still contain area designations. TPOs containing these types of designation should also be reviewed.
Reviewing TPOs is extremely resource hungry. Whilst some of the smaller orders could be reviewed in-house without a significant drain on resources, some of the larger more complex orders should be out-sourced.
**POLICY P3:** The Council will seek to review its TPOs using the following priorities:
1. By age, over 25 years.
2. Where the order no longer accurately reflects what is on the ground
3. Containing area designations.
4. By age over 10 years old.
8.4 Consultation
The current procedure for consulting the general public and ward Councillors is comprehensive and requires substantial officer time, consumes significant amounts of paper and incurs postage costs.
In 2014 the Council processed 613 Tree Works Applications (TWAs), sending out 8,193 consultation packs to the public. It received 105 responses.
Of these TWAs, 461 (75%) were Conservation Area notifications (a.k.a Section 211 notices). The number of consultations sent out were 6,224 (76%). The number of responses received was 74; or 1 response for every 84 consultations, a ~1% response rate. The remainder relate to works to TPO’d trees.
The Council maintains a public register of TWAs and asks applicants to display a site notice viewable from a position of public access. The site notice is erected by the applicant, and there is no statutory enforcement, so to this extent the system is voluntary but appears to work. One hidden benefit which might be occurring with the current level of public consultation is that the public in the close vicinity are informed and therefore forewarned of the proposed works.
The Council does not propose to change its consultation procedures for applications to works to trees protected by TPO.
The Council does propose to streamline the consultative process for Conservation Area notifications, particularly as the Council has no statutory duty in this respect. Government advice on this matter is as follows:
‘A section 211 notice does not need to be publicised. However the authority can consider publicising a section 211 notice in order to seek the views of local residents, groups or authorities, particularly where there is likely to be public interest.’\(^9\)
Consideration has been given to reducing the extent and incidence of unsolicited written consultations with the public and planning it on a more selective level seems to be warranted. The guidance from the Government suggests that the need to publicise applications beyond an entry in the public register and displaying of a site notice should be selective to accord with the impact of the proposal.
Councillors will still be notified of any proposed activity in their ward. The public will still be able to solicit information about tree works in their area by registering with the Council’s on-line planning application system. Where it is considered that a notification of tree works may be of significant public interest or they are works to a neighbouring tree, the Council will still consult.
**POLICY P4:** The Council will no longer send out unsolicited consultation letters for notifications of tree works in conservation areas except in the following circumstances:
- The owner of a tree will be informed where works are proposed by a neighbour.
- Where the works proposed are likely to generate significant public interest.
8.5 Review statutory processes
To broaden the level of protection for the City’s trees, the Council will undertake a further review of its statutory processes. It will:
- Review delegated powers relating to the serving of TPOs
- Review delegated powers relating to the determination of Tree Works Applications.
- Review consultation processes relating to TWAs for tree works to protected trees.
- Draft enforcement protocols relating to protected trees.
- Draft a Supplementary Planning Document relating to tree and development sites.
---
\(^9\) [http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/tree-preservation-orders/protecting-trees-in-conservation-areas/section-211-notices/](http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/tree-preservation-orders/protecting-trees-in-conservation-areas/section-211-notices/) (last accessed 22/9/2015).
Enhancement
The urban forest would be very sparse indeed if Council-managed streets and parks were the only places where trees grew. The Council’s regulatory responsibilities affecting private property cannot cover the gap because they deal largely with preservation and planting and not long term maintenance. Ultimately an urban forest approach relies on the support of homeowners, business, volunteers and large land owners.
9.1 Enhancement – resilience
9.1.1 Large trees
Research has shown that the greatest benefits are provided by large trees. Large trees can be defined as those that grow to over 15m. They typically:
- Create more shade per tree due to a larger and wider canopy spread.
- Create better shade to buildings as they are taller and can cast shadow over roofs and walls of buildings.
- Intercept larger amounts of particulate pollutant and rainfall due to significantly larger leaf areas.
- Absorb more gaseous pollutants.
- Can provide larger canopy cover with potentially less intrusion at the ground from stems, trunks and lower branches.
- Are less susceptible to careless or malicious vandalism by passers-by once established.
- Can be pruned to provide higher canopy clearance over roadways, parking bays and pedestrian footpaths.
- Contribute more to calming and slowing traffic on local streets than small trees.
Large trees can cost more to maintain and remove towards the end of their life. However, when one considers the cost to establishment, to install a tree and look after it in the first few years, the associated costs are essentially the same regardless of whether the tree is a large or small growing tree. Though large trees require larger soil volumes and more physical space above and below ground than small trees, the ultimate benefits to the community are exponentially increased over their lifetime.
The Council will seek to protect and encourage the planting of large species trees on both its own lands and private property.
POLICY E1: The Council will encourage and continue to seek new opportunities for the planting of large canopy trees in appropriate locations.
9.1.2 Species & age diversity
The Council recognises that all trees regardless of their place of origin, contribute to the environment. Whilst native species may be well suited to local environmental conditions, the growing conditions in an urban setting, particularly a street situation, are very different from natural conditions (e.g. soil compaction, altered drainage patterns, etc) and often native species cannot cope with these limitations. Many exotic species have been in cultivation for hundreds of years and over that time they have been carefully bred for superior performance. They have been selected for their vigour in difficult urban growing conditions and many of them are propagated from cutting or grafting, ensuring uniformity of size, shape and growing habit.
A certain level of species diversity will also evolve as a matter of course, as a result of the continuing removal and replacement of trees based on natural attrition, as well as changing social, aesthetic, design, environmental and economic factors.
Good age diversity is essential to maximise the benefits of urban trees. Inadequate replacement of the large dominant tree species that are proven adept in the older age classes is a more certain threat to maintaining the future landscape character of Cambridge than is species diversity. Diversity of age also provides a greater ability to normalise budgetary requirements. By maintaining a mixture of age classes, tree removal and replacement programmes become a more evenly paced process. Extremes, such as those associated with the loss of large number of even aged trees over a short period, are minimised, allowing for budgets to be more easily managed and regulated.
A healthy mixture of young, medium, and old trees provides a near-constant turnover of generations over time, as new trees replace the old. In addition, trees of different sizes provide a more complex habitat for wildlife and can support a greater number of species.
POLICY E2: The Council will continue to ensure and encourage a diversity of tree species and ages.
---
Armour, T., Job, M. and Caravan, R. (2012) The benefits of large species trees in the urban landscape: a costing, design and management guide. London: CIRIA.
9.1.3 **Canopy cover**
A recent independent study\(^{11}\) of trees in Cambridge was completed in 2013. The aim of the project was to provide an evidence base that can be used to enhance the benefits that urban trees in Cambridge can bring in helping the City and its residents adapt to the worst effects of climate change.
It found that that the level of canopy cover in Cambridge was ~17% and concluded that research by Gill et al. (2007) identified that increasing canopy cover by 10% in locations with limited vegetation could decrease urban temperatures by up to 2.5 degrees based on urban temperature predictions up to 2080. This research relates specifically to urban areas with limited canopy cover, yet as the study area (Cambridge City) comprises numerous non-urban land use classes, targets should be set accordingly to take this factor into account. A percentage increase of 2% could be achieved by increasing canopy cover within wards to the City average.\(^{12}\)
Cambridge City has a significant amount of land owned privately (~77%); land owners within this audience will be encouraged to plant trees if targets are to be met. (See Appendix 3 – Case Study)
**POLICY E3:** The City of Cambridge’s canopy cover target will be to achieve 19% coverage by 2050
9.2 **Enhancement – awareness**
9.2.1 Valuation project
Quantifying the benefits the urban forest delivers and estimating the value of those benefits to urban communities is a critical element of urban forest management and promotion. Valuation provides an ideal opportunity for the training and motivation of volunteers from the community and for generating a real understanding of the importance of the urban forest. Tools such as i-Tree Eco\(^{13}\), exist for this purpose.
Results from valuation could be used to support a wide range of activities, including:
- Strategic planning – to clarify the key services delivered by the trees and see how these compare to local priorities and expectations.
- Financial planning – asset management best practices recommend that the amount spent in management and maintenance is commensurate to the asset value.
- Risk management – to balance risks and benefits.
- Compensation issues for damage to public trees – for example when NJUG guidelines\(^{14}\) haven’t been followed.
- Subsidence cases – to contribute to evidence levels as recommended by the Joint Mitigation Protocol\(^{14}\).
**POLICY E4:** The Council will seek to quantify the benefits of Cambridge’s urban forest, whilst creating real opportunities for community participation in the process of valuation.
The ultimate aim of any valuation project would be to raise awareness that trees are not merely amenities but assets that pay dividends in terms of their social, environmental and economic benefits when well managed.
9.2.2 Education
Educating the wider community involves not only informing them about the importance and benefits of trees but also how and where they can make their own contribution by planting trees on their own land. As such, the Council is committed to broadening the range of information and advice it gives via its web site.
The Council will also continue to fund its ‘free tree scheme’ for babies. It will explore extending the principle of a ‘free tree scheme’ into areas of low canopy cover and schools and use these schemes to raise awareness of the value of planting trees for the benefit of future generations.
Active participation is an important element of education therefore the Council will explore setting up a Tree Warden Scheme.
**POLICY E5:** The Council will educate and encourage the community to participate in promoting and maintaining Cambridge’s urban forest.
9.2.3 Partnership working
The vast majority of land in Cambridge is privately owned, which has implications for...
enhancing tree cover in Cambridge. Creating partnerships with institutions such as the University and other large land owners would be one way of effectively achieving canopy cover targets; another would be with local business to sponsor and support tree planting and raising awareness of the benefits of tree cover at a private residential level.
Business partners can be a very useful contributor to the enhancement of the urban forest through financial support, for planting and maintaining trees on commercial property. Some businesses, such as nurseries, garden centres and tree surgery companies, have a direct stake in the urban forest, whilst others may be interested in offsetting their environmental impacts.
**POLICY E6:** The Council will seek to encourage joined up approaches to tree management through partnerships with managers of private trees and by working with local communities and businesses to provide opportunities for donations and sponsorship.
Combating climate change – a role for UK forests. An assessment of the potential of the UK’s trees and woodlands to mitigate and adapt to climate change. The synthesis report. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh.
Santamour, Jr. F.S. (1990). Trees for Urban Planting: Diversity, Uniformity, and Common Sense. Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance
Schwab, J.C. (ed) (2009) Planning the Urban Forest. American Planning Association. PAS Report Number 555.
Town and Country Planning Act (1990) Chapter 1 Trees. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1990/8/part/VIII/chapter/1 (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Treelogic Species diversity April 17 2015. http://treelogic.com.au/facts/species-diversity/ (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Tree Preservation Orders and trees in conservation areas. Web guidance which explains the legislation governing Tree Preservation Orders and tree protection in conservation areas. http://planningguidance.planningportal.gov.uk/blog/guidance/tree-preservation-orders/ (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Trees and Design Action Group (2010) No Trees No Future
UK National Ecosystem Assessment. http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/ (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Wilson, Philip. A-Z of Tree Terms: A Companion to British Arboriculture. http://www.treeterms.co.uk/ (web page last accessed 15/1/2016)
Cambridge City Council reference documents
ADAS (2013) Analysis and Interpretation of Tree Audit Data For Cambridge City Council. Final Report
Cambridge Climate Change Strategy 2016-2021
Cambridge Local Plan 2014 Proposed Submission
Cambridge Nature Conservation Strategy 2006 https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/nature-conservation-strategy (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Conservation area appraisals https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/conservation-areas (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Open Space and Recreation Strategy 2011. https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/open-space-strategy (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
The Cambridge Landscape Character assessment adopted in January 2003 by Cambridge City Council
The Green Infrastructure Strategy for Cambridgeshire (2011) https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/cambridgeshire-green-infrastructure-strategy (web page last accessed 23/9/2015).
Trees in Cambridge – Issues and Options, July 2015 by Phil Back Associates
**Amenity criteria:** When considering whether trees should be protected by an Tree Preservation Order, the Government advises that authorities develop ways of assessing the amenity value of trees in a structured and consistent way, taking into account the following criteria: Visibility; individual, collective and wider impact including, size and form; future potential as an amenity; rarity; cultural or historic value; contribution to, and relationship with, the landscape; and contribution to the character or appearance of a conservation area; other factors such as importance to nature conservation or response to climate change.
**Arboriculture:** The culture of trees singly or in small groups (cf. urban forestry), sometimes called amenity arboriculture to distinguish the main part of the discipline from the special area of utility arboriculture.
**Atmospheric carbon:** Refers to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide from the air and release oxygen.
**Biodiversity:** Refers to the wide variety of ecosystems and living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, their habitats and their genes, and the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity also refers to the degree of variation of life forms within a given species or ecosystem, and is a measure of the health of ecosystems.
**Botanical:** Of or relating to plants.
**Canopy:** Of a single tree, its crown, emphasizing its spreading and enclosing character. Of the urban forest, the crowns of all the trees considered collectively.
**Canopy cover:** In an area, the area of the canopy (in plan view) as a proportion of total area.
**Chalara:** A fungal disease of ashes (*Fraxinus spp.*) discovered in Britain in June 2012. In Europe the disease was first noted in Poland in 1992 and has since caused serious losses, for instance killing up to 90% of Denmark’s ash trees. Chalara fraxinea is the asexual stage of the Ascomycete fungus *Hymenoscyphus pseudobalsidius*, which inhabits ash leaf litter. North American species are more or less susceptible while Asian *Fraxinus* spp. have high resistance, suggesting that the disease originated from Asia. Die-back in ash has several causes.
**City Council:** Refers to Cambridge City Council.
**Climate change:** A change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.
**Conservation area:** An area recognized in the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 as being ‘of special architectural or historic interest, the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance’. Trees may make a significant contribution to the character of a conservation area. Six weeks’ prior notice (Section 211 notice) has to be given to the local authority for any works proposed to trees in a conservation area.
**County Highway:** Refers to Cambridgeshire County Council’s Highway Department and the land and trees owned by them.
**Cultivar:** A plant selected for specific characteristics (whether useful or ornamental) that are distinct, uniform and stable, and are retained when the plant is propagated by appropriate means.
**Dutch Elm Disease:** (Ophiostoma spp.) A fungal wilt disease imported in elm timber from Canada that is fatal to European elms (not just Dutch elm), and largely wiped them out in the 1970s.
**Early functional stage:** The stage in the life cycle of a tree between youth and maturity when its desired benefits are approaching their maximum value.
**Endemic:** Native exclusively to a defined area.
**Epidemiology:** The study of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations.
**Evergreen species:** Species that are foliated throughout the year, although there is a gradual turnover of leaves (often with a peak in leaf fall at the onset of growth in spring); cf. deciduous (a plant that sheds its leaves annually).
**Exotic trees:** A species that is not native, more commonly applied to plants than to animals. Most exotic plants in Britain were introduced in the first instance for cultivation in gardens including botanic gardens.
**Functionally mature:** The stage in the life cycle of a tree when its desired benefits (social, environmental or financial) are at their maximum value.
**Gaseous pollutant:** Gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) that are known to cause social, environmental or financial problems. Trees absorb these gases through their leaves.
**Genus:** A taxonomic group consisting of related species that resemble each other more closely than they resemble other groups. Genus is subordinate to family and ranked above species. The genus name forms the first part of a scientific name (e.g., *Prunus avium*) and is written in Latin with the first letter capitalized. Collections of similar genera are grouped into families.
**Green Belt:** A land-use designation around towns and cities to check urban sprawl, to stop nearby towns from merging, to preserve the character of historic towns and to assist in urban regeneration.
**Green corridors:** A green corridor is an area of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities or structures (such as roads or development).
**Green infrastructure:** The network of natural landscape assets which underpin the economic, socio-cultural and environmental functionality of our cities and towns; i.e. the green spaces, water systems and built environment landscapes which interperse and increase connectivity, multi-functionality and landscape performance in urban environments. Individual components of this network can be referred to as ‘green infrastructure assets’, and these occur across a range of landscape scales from residential gardens to local parks and housing estates, streetscapes and highway verges, services and communications corridors, waterways and regional recreation areas. Green infrastructure comprises an important innovation in the integrative planning of forests and other green space, and has become frequently used in reference to urban renaissance and green space regeneration. It can be defined as creating networks of multifunctional green spaces that are carefully planned to meet the environmental, social and economic needs of a community.
**Hedgerow:** The line of a hedge, often with trees, commonly seen separating properties. The hedgerow still marks a boundary but does not necessarily fulfil any of the other purposes of a hedge.
**Monoculture:** The cultivation of a single crop in a given area.
**Native tree:** One which has been present in a defined region for a certain amount of time without having been brought in by humans (cf. exotic), for instance in Britain since the English Channel was flooded in the early part of the present interglacial about 6,000 years ago.
**Native woodland:** Native woodland consists mainly of native trees, that is those that have grown here naturally since the last Ice Age and have not been introduced by humans.
**Non-native tree:** A species that is not native, more commonly applied to plants than to animals. Most exotic plants in Britain were introduced in the first instance for cultivation in gardens, including botanic gardens.
**Particulate pollutant:** Small pieces of solid material such as smoke particles in diesel exhaust gases, smoke particles from fires or ash from industrial plants dispersed into the atmosphere.
**Pathogen:** A kind of parasite that causes disease.
**Public open space:** Open green space which is accessible to the general public.
**Scrub:** A vegetation type dominated by shrubs and saplings, whose abundance varies from scattered to closed-canopy, usually less than 5m tall but sometimes with scattered trees. The definition excludes heathland with dwarf shrubs, planted stands of young trees and coppice regrowth. The National vegetation classification recognizes six kinds of scrub, two of which are underscrub. The nature conservation value of scrub is poorly recognized. It forms a significant component of 11 priority habitats.
**Semi-maturity:** Depending on species, trees would be classed as semi-mature if assessed to be between 20 and 60 years old.
**Spatial planning:** An approach that outlines the vision for an area, what type of development is needed and where that development should best be located.
**Storm water:** Surface water in abnormal quantity resulting from heavy falls of rain or snow.
**Subsidence:** Broadly, the downward movement of ground and an affected foundation influenced by soil properties, weather, foundation depth and nearby vegetation.
**Sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS):** SUDS are designed to manage storm water using ‘soft’ infrastructure including trees, swales (shallow ditches or depressions in the ground), permeable surfaces such as permeable paving etc. to increase interception, infiltration and storage of storm water, and reduce peak flows.
**Tree family:** A taxonomic group composed of one or more genera. The names of most botanical families end in ‘aceae’ (e.g. Olacaceae, Ulmaceae, Plantanaceae etc.), although there are some exceptions. Groups of similar families are placed in orders.
**Tree pit:** The hole in the ground in which a tree is planted. In an urban context, the pit may represent the whole of the root volume available to the tree when mature.
**Tree Preservation Order (TPO):** An order made by a local authority or other planning authority to protect a tree, group of trees, area of (scattered) trees or woodland under Part VIII of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990. There have been several amendments, the latest being the Town and Country Planning (Tree Preservation) (England) Regulations 2012. An order is generally made on the grounds of amenity and expediency. Anyone proposing works to a TPO tree must seek prior consent from the authority using the form IAPP. With the advent of the 2012 regulations, some of the detail in existing TPOs in England has been revoked.
**Urban forestry:** A planned and programmatic approach to the development and maintenance of an urban forest, including all elements of green infrastructure within the community. In its broadest sense, this is a multidisciplinary process that takes account of wildlife habitats, outdoor recreation opportunities, design, and care of trees and cultivated landscapes.
**Urban heat islands:** The urban heat island is common worldwide, as cities become warmer than nearby suburban and regional areas, particularly at night. After a hot day parts of the city can be four to seven degrees hotter than surrounding rural areas. This phenomenon occurs all year round, but it becomes a problem during hot weather.
**Urban temperature:** The temperature in man-made urban areas as opposed to rural areas. Urban areas are usually significantly warmer due to human activities.
**Ward:** An administrative division of the city that elects and is represented by councillors. There are 14 wards in Cambridge City.
Benefits of Urban Trees
Why urban trees are so important (Source: Trees and Design Action Group (2010) No Trees No Future)
There is a growing body of evidence that trees in urban areas bring a wide range of benefits.
Economic benefits of urban trees:
- Trees can increase property values by 7-15 per cent \(^{1,2,3}\).
- As trees grow larger, the lift they give to property values grows proportionately \(^{4}\).
- They can improve the environmental performance of buildings by reducing heating and cooling costs, thereby cutting bills \(^{5}\).
- Mature landscapes with trees can be worth more as development sites \(^{6}\).
- Trees create a positive perception of a place for potential property buyers.
- Urban trees improve the health of local populations, reducing healthcare costs \(^{6}\).
- Trees can enhance the prospect of securing planning permission.
- They can provide a potential long-term renewable energy resource \(^{7}\).
Social benefits of urban trees:
- Trees help create a sense of place and local identity.
- They benefit communities by increasing pride in the local area \(^{8,9,10}\).
- They create focal points and landmarks.
- They have a positive impact on people’s physical and mental health \(^{8,9,10}\).
- They have a positive impact on crime reduction \(^{11,12}\).
Environmental benefits of urban trees:
- Urban trees reduce the ‘urban heat island effect’ of localised temperature extremes \(^{13}\).
- They provide shade, making streets and buildings cooler in summer \(^{14,15}\).
- They help remove dust and particulates from the air \(^{14,15,16}\).
- They help to reduce traffic noise by absorbing and deflecting sound.
- They help to reduce wind speeds.
By providing food and shelter for wildlife they help increase biodiversity.
They reduce the effects of flash flooding by slowing the rate at which rainfall reaches the ground.
When planted on polluted ground they help improve its quality.
Trees and climate change
As the effects of climate change become better understood, it is becoming increasingly clear that one of the best ways in which we can make our towns and cities more hospitable over the next few decades is to increase the number, and size, of trees in urban areas. Trees have been identified as being a key element of any urban climate change adaptation strategy.
In England, climate change is likely to bring higher average temperatures and increasing incidents of sudden, heavy rain. Already, our cities have higher temperatures than the rest of the country due to the urban heat island effect. As the effects of climate change increase, the temperatures in our cities are likely to become more difficult to live with. In addition, sudden heavy rainfall on built-up areas will be increasingly likely to overwhelm drainage systems resulting in flooding.
Trees, however, can help with both problems. By providing shade for buildings and streets, and allowing water to evaporate through their leaves, they reduce the local environmental temperature. When it rains, tree canopies slow the rate at which water reaches the ground.
This slows the rate at which the water enters the drains, giving them more time to carry away the water and so reducing the likelihood of flooding. This can be particularly effective as part of a sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS).
Consequently, it is becoming increasingly understood that trees are an important ingredient in the creation of successful towns and cities of the future. This is now starting to influence urban development policy at both national and local levels.
1. Influence of trees on residential property values in Athens, Georgia: a survey based on actual sales prices, Anderson LM and Cordel HK, Landscape and urban planning, 1988
2. The contribution of trees to residential property value, Morales DJ, Journal of Arboriculture 6, 1980
3. Does money grow on trees? CABE, 2005
4. The London climate change adaptation strategy, Greater London Authority, 2008
5. The potential of vegetation in reducing summer cooling loads in residential buildings, Huang YJ, Akbari H, Taha H and Rosenfeld AH, Journal of climate and applied meteorology 26, 1987
6. Ecotherapy, MIND, 2008 www.mind.org.uk/ecothermids
7. A woodfuel strategy for England, Forestry Commission, 2007
8. Trees and healthy living, National Urban Forestry Unit conference, Wolverhampton, 1999
9. Green releaf, Mudrak LY, Environmental benefits of vegetation at a global, local and personal level: a review of the literature, Horticultural Trades Association and Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, 1982
10. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments, Ulrich RS, Simmons RF, Losito BD, Fiority E, Milies MA and Zeison M, Journal of environmental psychology 11, 1991
11. A prison environment's effect on healthcare demands, Moore EO, Journal of environmental systems 11, 1981-82
12. Environment and crime in the inner-city: does vegetation reduce crime? Kuo FE and Sullivan WC, Environment and behavior Vol 33 No.3, 2001
13. Adapting cities for climate change: the role of the green infrastructure, Gill SE, Handley JF, Ennos AR, and Pauleit, S, Built Environment 33, 2007
14. Particulate pollution, Forest research, 2007
15. Trees and sustainable urban air quality: using trees to improve air quality in cities, Stewart H, Owen S, Donovan R, Mackenzie R, Hewitt N, Skiba U and Fowler D, Lancaster University 2003
16. Urban woodland and the benefits for local air quality, Broadmeadow MSJ and Freer-Smith PH, Amenity trees 5, HMSO, 1996
17. The number of species of insect associated with British trees: a re-analysis, Kennedy CJ and Southwood TRE, Journal of animal ecology 53, 1984
18. Bird life of woodland and forest, Fuller RJ, Cambridge University Press, 1995
19. Dead wood matters: the ecology and conservation of saproxylic invertebrates in Britain, Kirby KJ and Duke CM, English Nature Science 7, 1993
20. Saproxylic invertebrates and their conservation, Speight MCD, Nature and environment series 42, Council of Europe, 1993
21. Handbook of British mammals, Corbet GB and Harris S (eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1991
22. The city as habitat for wildlife and man, Stearns F, in Urbanisation and environment, Detwyler R and Marcus MG (eds), Duxbury Press, 1972
23. Avian guild structure and habitat associations in suburban bird communities, De Graaf RM and Wentworth JM, *Urban ecology* 9, 1986
24. Cities as environments, Botkin DB and Beverage CE, in *Urban ecosystems* 1, 1997
25. Loss of trees increases storm water runoff in Atlanta, Soltis D, *Water engineering and management* 144, 1997
26. A strategy for England’s trees, woods and forests, Defra, 2007
---
**APPENDIX B**
**Cambridge’s Urban Forest**
The following maps present a visual representation of the City’s urban forest characteristics, showing:
- Distribution of Cambridge’s urban forest by ownership – Figure 8
- Distribution of Cambridge’s urban forest by height class – Figure 9
- Protected canopy cover – Figure 10
- Canopy cover by ward, overlaid by canopy cover distribution by ownership – Figure 11
Figure 8. Distribution of Cambridge’s urban forest by ownership (tree canopies are not to scale).
Figure 9. Distribution of Cambridge’s urban forest by height classes.
Tree Height In Metres
- 1.00 - 4.99
- 5.00 - 9.99
- 10.00 - 14.99
- 15.00 - 19.99
- 20.00 - 40.00
Figure 10. Protected canopy cover.
Figure 11. Canopy cover by ward overlaid by canopy cover distribution by ownership.
Case Study – Romsey Ward
Canopy cover is the layer of leaves, branches, and stems of trees and woody shrubs that cover the ground when viewed from above. Canopy cover provides many benefits to communities by improving water quality, saving energy, lowering city temperatures, reducing air pollution, enhancing property values, providing wildlife habitat, facilitating social and educational opportunities and providing aesthetic benefits. Establishing a canopy cover goal is beneficial for communities seeking to improve their green infrastructure and environmental quality. A canopy cover assessment is the first step in this goal-setting process, providing estimates for the amount of canopy cover currently present in a city as well as the amount of canopy cover that could theoretically be established.
This first step was completed by independent consultants in 2013, who found a 17% canopy cover for Cambridge as a whole. They advised a 19% canopy cover target was achievable by the 2050s. This case study looks at how the ward of Romsey might contribute to achieving this target.
- The majority of land (69%) in Romsey is in private ownership.
- Over 60% of land in Romsey was classified as medium density residential (MDR) which falls across ownerships, private/City Council.
- Average tree canopy cover for the City for MDR is ~20% as compared to Romsey where MDR is ~17%.
- Romsey has a low canopy cover at ~14%, compared to 17% for the City as a whole.
- Canopy cover is amongst the lowest for wards in the City, for both City Council and County Highway ownerships.
- For all ownerships, canopy cover is significantly lower than the maximum tree canopy cover achieved by a City ward.
Romsey has also has a relatively low average canopy size as compared to other wards in the City. This is probably as a result of the predominance of MDR characterised by small garden areas. Large trees are present predominantly in public open spaces and institutional open space such as Romsey Recreation Ground and Brookfields Hospital respectively. Where it is outside of Council control, this resource should be protected.
**Open Space**
- Large open space in Romsey can be found on the Common, the allotments, the recreation ground, play areas, and at the old cement pits.
- All these sites have specific uses and characteristics that limit tree cover but there may be opportunities for additional planting that should be encouraged and explored.
- In particular, large canopied species, i.e. those species over 15m in height at maturity should be favoured where space allows.
- There are 3 allotment sites in Romsey, covering ~6.5 hectares of land. Trees in these spaces can compete for light and nutrients with other food plants and as such are generally low in number. However there may be opportunities for encouraging the planting of small orchards or individual fruit and nut trees that are compatible with the primary purpose of these spaces.
*Figure 14.* Open Space.
**Street Trees**
- Romsey is characterised by its narrow streets and houses with small or no front gardens. There are a few but very limited opportunities to create new street tree pits in these types of situation.
- Coldham’s Lane is a larger and busier through road with limited tree cover. Four new tree pits where installed in 2013 to replace existing trees that were removed. Additional planting would enhance this road.
- Existing tree pits should be replanted where vacant.
- Where properties have front gardens, householders should be encouraged to plant trees of an ultimate size and scale appropriate to the space available to enhance the street scene.
*Figure 15.* Street trees.
Housing
- Medium density residential housing (MDR) covers the majority of the land area (69%) in Romsey and may provide the greatest opportunity for raising tree canopy levels.
- Rear garden areas are generally more substantial and therefore more amenable to tree planting.
- MDR consists of both private and Council owned housing.
- Average tree canopy cover for the City for MDR is ~20% compared to Romsey MDR at ~17%.
- Opportunities exist for encouraging the planting of small to medium canopy species in gardens to raise tree canopy levels to the City average for this land use type.
**Figure 16.** Housing. | d599d46d-a16f-434a-84a1-f3e81a6f3aae | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/media/3260/tree-strategy-2016-part-1.pdf | 2021-05-08T18:27:27+00:00 | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988923.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20210508181551-20210508211551-00395.warc.gz | 684,918,650 | 17,684 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.954436 | eng_Latn | 0.996825 | [
"unknown",
"eng_Latn",
"mlt_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn... | true | rolmOCR | [
43,
782,
1146,
2766,
4765,
7967,
12328,
15569,
17852,
20655,
24953,
27518,
29618,
33471,
36031,
39201,
40966,
46999,
49445,
53279,
57646,
61473,
62446,
64783,
67366,
72244,
76025,
77726,
82329,
83152,
83422,
83543,
85242,
87218,
87838
] | [
1.578125,
2.140625
] | 1 | 0 |
This document contains the Social Science subject matter requirements arranged according to the domains covered by Subtest II of CSET: Social Science. In parentheses after each named domain is the CCTC-assigned domain code from the Social Science subject matter requirements.
U.S. HISTORY (SMR Domain 2)
Candidates demonstrate knowledge of the foundations and contexts of the United States history contained in the *History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools* (1998) as outlined in the *History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools* (2001) at a post secondary level of rigor. Candidates have both broad and deep conceptual understanding of the subject matter. Candidates study the people and major events and issues of U. S. history from the colonization of North America to the present. In their study of U.S. history, they apply higher level thinking skills. These skills include, but are not limited to, the ability to analyze, interpret, compare and contrast, and synthesize information about significant historical issues in both written and oral presentation. Candidates utilize appropriate research skills and primary and secondary sources. They engage in historiographic thinking, and are aware of multiple historical and geographic perspectives. Candidates appreciate the fundamental role geography plays in historical inquiry, and they understand and apply the principles of political science and economics to historical analysis of U.S. history.
0001 Pre-Revolutionary Era and the War for Independence (SMR 2.1)
Candidates describe the pre-Revolutionary era from early European exploration and settlement through the War for Independence. Candidates:
a. Describe the major American Indian cultural groups and their contributions to early American society.
b. Explain and analyze the struggle for the control of North America among European powers and the emergence of the 13 colonies under English rule.
c. Analyze the effects of English, French, Dutch, and Spanish colonial rule on social, economic, and governmental structures in North America, and the relationships of these colonies with American Indian societies.
d. Describe the institutionalization of African slavery in the Western Hemisphere and analyze its consequences in sub-Saharan Africa.
e. Analyze the causes for the War for Independence, the conduct of the war, and its impact on Americans.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 8.1, 8.2, 8.7, 11.1, 5.1, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6)
0002 The Development of the Constitution and the Early Republic (SMR 2.2)
Candidates describe and analyze the development of the political system of the United States and the ways that citizens participate in it through executive, legislative and judicial processes. Candidates:
a. Describe and evaluate the impact of the Enlightenment and the unique colonial experiences on the writing of the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, the Federalist Papers, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights.
b. Examine the issues regarding ratification of the Constitution, and compare and contrast the positions of the Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 8.1, 8.2, 11.1, 12.1)
0003 The Emergence of a New Nation (SMR 2.3)
Candidates describe the social, political, and economic developments of the American people between the ratification of the Constitution and the Civil War. Candidates:
a. Describe the differing visions of the early political parties and explain the reasons for the respective successes and failures of those parties.
b. Compare the significant political and socioeconomic ideas and issues during the Jeffersonian and Jacksonian periods and contrast how they were implemented in policy and practice.
c. Describe American foreign policy prior to the Civil War.
d. Identify and describe the political, social, religious, economic, and geographic factors that led to the formation of distinct regional and sectional identities and cultures.
e. Describe the purpose, challenges, and economic incentives associated with settlements of the West, including the concept of Manifest Destiny.
f. Map and analyze the expansion of U.S. borders and the settlement of the West, and describe how geographic features influenced this expansion.
g. Analyze the evolution of American Indian policy up to the Civil War.
h. Describe and analyze the impact of slavery on American society, government, and economy, and the contributions of enslaved Africans to America, and trace the attempts to abolish slavery in the first half of the 19th century.
i. Describe and compare and contrast early 19th-Century social and reform movements and their impact on antebellum American society (e.g., the Second Great Awakening, the temperance movement, the early women’s movement, utopianism).
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 11.1, 11.3)
0004 Civil War and Reconstruction (SMR 2.4)
Candidates explain and analyze the political, economic, geographic, and social causes and consequences of the Civil War. Candidates:
a. Interpret the debates over the doctrines of nullification and state secession.
b. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of the Union and Confederacy.
c. Describe the major military and political turning points of the war.
d. Describe and analyze the physical, social, political, and economic impact of the war on combatants, civilians, communities, states, and the nation.
e. Compare and contrast plans for Reconstruction with its actual implementation.
f. Explain and assess the development and adoption of segregation laws, the influence of social mores on the passage and implementation of these laws, and the rise of white supremacist organizations.
g. Analyze the relationship of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to Reconstruction, and compare and contrast their initial and later interpretations.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 8.10, 8.11, 11.1)
0005 The “Gilded Age” (SMR 2.5)
Candidates examine the relationship among post-Civil War economic development and political, social, and geographic issues and events in the second half of the 19th century. Candidates:
a. Describe and analyze the role of entrepreneurs and industrialists and their impact on the United States economy.
b. Describe and analyze the effects of industrialization on the American economy and society, including increased immigration, changing working conditions, and the growth of early labor organizations.
c. Explain and analyze the causes for, and the impact of, Populism and Progressivism.
d. Explain the development of federal Indian policy – including the environmental consequences of forced migration into marginal regions – and its consequences for American Indians.
e. Analyze the impact of industrialism and urbanization on the physical and social environments of the United States.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 8.12, 11.2)
0006 The U.S. as a World Power (SMR 2.6)
Candidates trace and evaluate the emergence of the U.S. as an economic, diplomatic, and military world power in the early 20th century. Candidates:
a. Evaluate the debate about American imperialistic policies before, during and following the Spanish-American War.
b. Analyze the political, economic, and geographic significance of the Panama Canal, the “Open Door” policy with China, Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Diplomacy, William Howard Taft’s “Dollar” Diplomacy, and Woodrow Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy.
c. Evaluate the political, economic, social, and geographic consequences of World War I in terms of American foreign policy and the war’s impact on the American home front.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.4)
0007 The 1920s (SMR 2.7)
Candidates analyze the political, social, economic, technological, cultural, and geographic developments of the 1920s. Candidates:
a. Analyze domestic events that resulted in, or contributed to, the Red Scare, Marcus Garvey’s Back to Africa movement, the Ku Klux Klan, the American Civil Liberties Union, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and the Anti-Defamation League.
b. Analyze the significance of the passage of the 18th and 19th Amendments as they related to the changing political and economic roles of women in society.
c. Assess changes in American immigration policy in the 1920s.
d. Describe new trends in literature, music, and art, including the Harlem Renaissance and the Jazz Age.
e. Assess the impact of radio, mass production techniques, and the growth of cities on American society.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.5)
0008 The Great Depression and the New Deal (SMR 2.8)
Candidates analyze the social, political, economic, and geographic effects of the Great Depression and its impact on the changing role of government in economy and society. Candidates:
a. Analyze the differing explanations for the 1929 stock market crash, Herbert Hoover’s and Congress’ responses to the crisis, and the implementation of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.
b. Describe and assess the human toll of the Great Depression, including the impact of natural disasters and agricultural practices on the migration from rural Southern and Eastern regions to urban and Western areas.
c. Analyze the effects of, and controversies arising from, New Deal policies, including the social and physical consequences of regional programs (e.g., the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Central Valley Project).
d. Trace and evaluate the gains and losses of organized labor in the 1930s.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.6)
0009 World War II (SMR 2.9)
Candidates analyze U.S. participation in World War II. Candidates:
a. Explain the origins of American involvement in World War II, including reactions to events in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
b. Analyze American foreign policy before and during World War II.
c. Evaluate and analyze significant events, issues, and experiences during World War II, including:
- Internment of people of Japanese ancestry
- Allied response to the Holocaust
- The experiences and contributions of American fighting forces, including the role of minorities (e.g., the Tuskegee Airmen, the 442nd Regimental Combat Unit, Navajo Code Talkers)
- The role of women and minority groups at home
- Major developments in aviation, weaponry, communications, and medicine
- The significance and ramifications of the decision to drop the atomic bomb
d. Assess American foreign policy in the aftermath of World War II, using geographic, political, and economic perspectives.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.7)
0010 Post-World War II America (SMR 2.10)
Candidates analyze the major issues in post-World War II America. Candidates:
a. Describe and evaluate the significance of changes in international migration patterns and their impact on society and the economy.
b. Describe the increased role of the federal government in response to World War II and the Cold War and assess the impact of this increased role on regional economic structures, society, and the political system.
c. Describe the effects of technological developments on society, politics, and the economy since 1945.
d. Analyze the major domestic policies of presidential administrations from Harry S Truman to the present.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.8)
0011 Post-World War II U.S. Foreign Policy (SMR 2.11)
Candidates analyze U.S. foreign policy since World War II and its impact on the world. Candidates:
a. Trace the origins of the Cold War.
b. Analyze the roles of the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and military alliances, including the North American Treaty Organization (NATO), the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO), and the Warsaw Pact.
c. Trace the origins and consequences of the Korean War.
d. Explain and analyze the relationship between domestic and foreign policy during the Cold War, including McCarthyism.
e. Analyze the foreign policies of post-World War II presidential administrations and their effect on the Cold War.
f. Trace the causes, controversies, and consequences of the Vietnam War, its effects on American combatants and civilians, and its continued impact on American society.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.8, 11.9, 11.11)
0012 Civil Rights Movement (SMR 2.12)
Candidates trace the reasons for and the development of civil rights from World War II to the present. Candidates:
a. Examine and analyze the key people, events, policies, and court cases in the field of civil rights from varying perspectives.
b. Describe the civil rights movements of African Americans and other minority groups and their impacts on government, society, and the economy.
c. Analyze the development of the women’s rights movement and its connections to other social and political movements.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.10, 11.3)
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY (SMR Domain 6)
Candidates demonstrate knowledge of the foundations and contexts of the geography contained in the History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools (1998) as outlined in the History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools (2001) at a post secondary level of rigor. Candidates have both broad and deep conceptual understanding of the subject matter. Candidates study the principles of geography and their application to the study of history, political science, and economics. In their study of geography, they apply higher level thinking skills. These skills include (but are not limited to) the ability to analyze, interpret, compare and contrast, and synthesize information regarding the geographic character of landscapes, societies, and ecosystems across the earth. They know the five basic themes of geography as stated in the 2000 History-Social Science Framework: location; place; human and environmental interaction; movement; and regions. Candidates use basic map and globe skills, such as latitude/longitude, relative location, distance/direction, scale, legend, map projections, and distortion categories to describe and analyze the world from a geographic perspective.
0013 Tools and Perspectives of Geographic Study (SMR 6.1)
Candidates use the tools, theories, and methodologies of geography to analyze the history and current issues of the world’s peoples and places. Candidates:
a. Describe the criteria for defining regions and identify why places and regions are important.
b. Explain the nature of map projections and use maps, as well as other geographic representations and technologies (including remote sensing and geographic information systems) to acquire, process, and report information from a spatial perspective.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools, Grades 6-12, Historical and Social Science Analysis Skills, Chronological and Spatial Thinking, #3)
0014 Geographic Diversity of Natural Landscapes and Human Societies (SMR 6.2)
Candidates make inter- and intra-regional comparisons and analyze the geographic diversity of human societies, using such concepts as density, distribution, growth, demographic transition, culture, and place identification. Candidates:
a. Analyze how unique ecologic settings are encouraged by various combinations of natural and social phenomena, including bio-geographic relationships with climate, soil, and terrain.
b. Analyze the patterns and networks of economic interdependence across the earth’s surface during the agricultural, industrial, and post-industrial revolutions, including the production and processing of raw materials, marketing, consumption, transportation, and other measures of economic development.
c. Describe the processes, patterns, and functions of human settlements from subsistence agriculture to industrial metropolis.
d. Analyze the forces of cooperation and conflict among peoples and societies that influence the division and control of the earth’s surface (e.g., boundaries and frontiers, the control of resources, centripetal vs. centrifugal forces, spheres of influence).
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 11.6.3, 10.5.2, 12.2.6, 7.2.1, 8.12.1, 10.5.2, 11.2.6)
0015 Culture and the Physical Environment (SMR 6.3)
Candidates describe and analyze and discuss the geographic interactions between human activities and the physical environment in the past and present, and plan for the future. Candidates:
a. Describe and analyze ways in which human societies and settlement patterns develop in response to the physical environment, and explain the social, political, economic, and physical processes that have resulted in today’s urban and rural landscapes.
b. Recognize the interrelationship of environmental and social policy.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.4.1, 6.5.1, 6.6.1, 6.6.7, 6.7.3, 7.3.2, 7.3.4, 7.4.2, 7.4.4, 7.6.1, 7.6.3, 7.7.1, 7.8.2, 7.8.3, 7.11.3, 8.6.1, 8.6.2, 8.7.1, 8.8.5, 8.12.1, 8.12.5, 10.3.5, 10.4.1, 10.4.2, 10.10.1, 11.1, 11.2.2, 11.2.6, 11.4, 11.5.7, 11.6.3, 11.8.6, 11.11.5, 6.2.8, 6.6.2, 6.7.1, 7.4.1, 10.10, 6.4.6, 6.5.2, 6.5.6, 7.1.2, 7.2.4, 7.7.3, 8.3.5, 8.5.2, 8.8.6, 8.10.2, 8.10.7, 10.5.2, 10.6.2, 10.8.3, 11.4.2, 11.7.2, 11.9.3)
Throughout their course of study, candidates for a teaching credential have opportunities to demonstrate their ability to apply higher-level thinking, writing, and presentation skills to their study of the social sciences. These skills include (but are not limited to) the ability to analyze, interpret, compare and contrast, and synthesize information about significant social, political, economic, and geographic issues in written, oral, and visual form. Candidates understand, critically assess, and use the different types of information found on the internet and in archives, libraries, museums, and other repositories. They utilize chronological, spatial, interdisciplinary, and thematic thinking. They consider the impact of cultural, political, and ethical perspectives on issues and their interpretation.
Candidates understand the nature of historiography and the necessity of historical revision. They are able to distinguish valid arguments from fallacious arguments in historical interpretations. They identify bias and prejudice in historical interpretations, and evaluate major debates among historians concerning alternative interpretations of the past. Within this evaluation, candidates analyze authors' use of evidence and the distinctions between sound generalizations and misleading oversimplifications. They construct and test hypotheses; collect, evaluate, and employ data from multiple primary and secondary sources; and present it in oral, written, and visual forms.
Candidates demonstrate the connections, causal and otherwise, between particular historical events and larger social, cultural, economic, political, and technological trends. They recognize the complexity of historical causes and effects, including the limitations on determining historical causation. They interpret past events and issues within their historical context rather than solely in terms of present-day norms and values, while understanding that the past and its interpretations can have contemporary relevance. They understand the contingent nature of historical events and recognize that events could have taken other directions.
Candidates draw upon and apply methodologies and approaches of the social sciences to inform their study of history. With regard to methodology, candidates are familiar with issues of hypothesis generation and testing. They are also familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of different methods for gathering data, such as observation, archival research, content analysis, in-depth interviewing, surveys, and experimentation. Candidates understand both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis and their respective strengths and weaknesses.
Candidates are aware of the analytical perspectives characteristic of the social sciences as a whole. The social sciences all regard certain issues as fundamental, but address them quite differently. Key points of divergence include how to understand the relationship between the individual and society and whether to focus on culture and language or social structure and behavior. Candidates are able to address the ethical questions raised by social analysis, including such fundamental debates as relativism vs. universalism and individualism vs. collectivism.
(History-Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools: Grades 6-8 and 9-12: Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills) | <urn:uuid:124dd8a3-5067-4eb9-900c-f77519d2c027> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.ctcexams.nesinc.com/content/docs/CSET_Prep/CS_115subtestdescription.pdf | 2019-10-19T13:17:58Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00302.warc.gz | 232,193,196 | 4,479 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.962508 | eng_Latn | 0.977856 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
275,
2538,
5295,
7940,
10200,
12446,
14915,
17733,
21136
] | [
2.828125,
3.015625
] | 1 | 0 |
Planning for Sustainability
Taking aim at sustainability
Your expanded school improvement effort will benefit greatly from thinking through strategically the limitations within traditional school reform initiatives, particularly in relationship to sustainability, long-term commitments and overall vision. Essentially, countless studies of school reform have yielded five major findings:
1. Schools change constantly, especially as they implement reform plans and add new programs and services;
2. Many times changes occurring in response to school improvement efforts do not necessarily improve results;
3. Reform initiatives often are incoherent, fragmented and even competing, sometimes causing as many problems as they may solve;
4. School reform initiatives often fail to penetrate the center of the school – namely, life in classrooms for teachers and students and, by extension, the school’s climate for learning and healthy development; and
5. Teachers and other school staff become cynical about future changes. For example, teachers’ cynicism is evident when they refer to proposed changes as “this year’s new thing.”
Such is the context for the topic at hand – the sustainability of the OCCMSI. Like the foundation for a building, sustainability-related processes and mechanisms will influence and determine the future viability and success of this new school improvement model.
Essentially, comprehensive school improvement systems cannot be maintained without attention to management, stewardship, ongoing funding support and focused agendas. In this chapter we discuss the important topic of planning for the sustainability of your efforts. We discuss the importance of sustainability plans with strategic visions. Key design principles and strategies for sustainability are provided. We overview the various types of funding that support school and community efforts, as well as discuss creative financing strategies designed to maximize resources and overall results. Finally, we will re-emphasize the importance of collaboration and collaborative leadership, particularly in relation to sustainability and creating long-term investments.
What do we mean by sustainability?
Sustainable initiatives are built to last. In other words, they have “staying power” because they are strategic – aimed at the right priorities – and solid – built on a strong foundation. They also have “sticking power.” They are connected to other school improvement processes and structures because they are integral components of school improvement. They are not “tacked on” temporarily causing incoherence, competition, duplication and fragmentation.
While some initiatives may begin as special projects, including those that are created with the support of short-term grants, leaders aiming for sustainability recognize from the beginning that they must complete six crucial tasks. We have had all six in mind as we developed this implementation guide and prepared this chapter.
- Leaders must convince everyone that the new initiative (e.g., a parent/family engagement and support program, an after school program) is a missing piece in the school improvement puzzle; and furthermore, that this new piece is one of the only sure ways to improve results and realize other related benefits. We have had this need in mind as we developed this implementation guide for you. We emphasized how each component in the model contributes to a coherent, comprehensive and more effective school improvement approach, one that helps eliminate and prevent fragmentation, duplication and unhealthy competition among people, programs and organizations. We emphasized these key points with sustainability in mind, and we have been especially mindful of the history of failed and flawed school improvement efforts.
- Leaders must develop “a critical mass” of other leaders, especially leaders representing key organizational partners. This critical mass guards against one of the most important threats to sustainability – key people leave or retire, and no one is able to pick up the slack and maintain the direction and momentum.
- Leaders must develop an infrastructure for school improvement. This infrastructure is vital to sustainability. For example, we emphasized the necessity for collaborative leadership, and we indicated how important this team approach is for key priorities involving leadership (making sure the right things are done), management (making sure things are done right) and governance (oversight and steering toward the future).
- Leaders must figure out how to develop, implement and evaluate training, technical assistance and capacity-building programs. This work is vital because the Community Collaboration Model asks people to learn and do new things. More specifically, it changes job descriptions and responsibilities, making them different AND better. For example, it requires teachers to work in new, better ways with families, youth development leaders, after school program coordinators and social-health service providers. Teachers benefit because they gain much-needed resources, supports and assistance; they no longer have to work alone. It also recasts the roles of principals, benefiting them to be sure, but also requiring new orientations and behaviors. Once again, we wrote this guide with these needs in mind. It is a resource for training, technical assistance and capacity building – and when it is used, sustainability is enhanced.
Leaders must figure out how to work with school district leaders, state governmental leaders, and in turn, federal governmental leaders to get the policies right. Existing policies may need to be amended and new ones developed. While we have not addressed this aspect of sustainability in this guide, it is on the drawing board for future work.
Leaders of new programs must figure out how to finance and run the new initiative over the long haul, especially when special, short-term funding from a grant or another special source ends.
You will find that the following pages are designed with this final point in mind. We provide you with special language, design principles and strategies, and examples of how you can plan for sustainability.
**Design principles and strategies for sustainability**
We provide you an overview here of several design principles and strategies aimed to support the overall financing and sustainability of your school improvement efforts. These concepts will be helpful as you plan over the long-haul, engaging partners and resources in relation to your school improvement vision. Table 11.1 presents these important design principles.
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|---------------------|
| **Planning** | |
| Focus and direction | • Financing strategies are driven by well-conceived and focused policies and agendas focused on school improvement priorities
• Resources are tied to outcomes and, in turn, the programs and services for achieving them
• Leaders ensure that work aimed at implementing the new school improvement model is not presented as a “special project” or a “trial pilot”
• A sustainability plan is created and acted upon at early stages of program design and implementation |
| Priority | • Funding sources and financing strategies are designed to address needs and conditions (i.e., data-informed financing strategies)
• Leaders emphasize going to scale and replication from the outset
• Funding sources and financing strategies are designed to leverage untapped opportunities and resources
• A working group is created that specifically addresses funding and financing strategies |
| **Efficiency and effectiveness** | |
| Cost-effective | • Resources contribute to a positive return in relation to investment
• Financing strategies support the prevention and promotion of positive behaviors
• Financing strategies take into account “the costs of failure” – i.e., the costs associated with expensive, specialized interventions and treatments (school drop outs, etc.)
• Resources are redeployed by shifting costs from higher cost effective programs to lower cost effective programs
• Costs are cut by doing the work more efficiently
• Leaders ensure they are offering the right programs and services; |
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|----------------------|
| Cost-effective continued | and they cease offering programs that do not work and reallocate their resources
• Leaders ensure they have eliminated unnecessary duplication |
| Results-oriented | • Financing strategies are prioritized in support of key targeted outcomes
• Funding sources and financing strategies support research-supported practices, programs and services, thus ensuring the most “bang for the buck” |
| Minimal overhead | • Administrative costs are minimized
• De-centralize decision making so control is in the hands of those most likely to produce positive results (and then hold them accountable for them) |
**Diversified**
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|----------------------|
| Multiple sources to maximize resources | • Funding sources and financing strategies are tapped from all different levels, such as local, federal, state, public, private, etc.
• Multiple sources of human and fiscal resources support implementation
• Financing strategies cut across services and programs, as opposed to being compartmentalized in separate areas
• Funding and financing strategies include supports for volunteers’ and parents’ part-time jobs
• In-kind resources are integrated (i.e., contributed space, donated equipment, technical assistance)
• Resources are maximized through efficient strategic planning and implementation |
| Efficiency | • Funding sources are redirected or reallocated from less to more effective programs
• Partners make better use of existing resources by reallocating funds in support of identified plans and priorities
• Revenues are maximized through federal, state and local avenues
• Reinvestments are made as funds are “saved” through redeployment or reductions in spending to new or alternative supports and services |
| Flexibility and adaptability | • More flexibility is created in funding categories
• Categorical funding streams are coordinated and aligned across agencies
• Resources are pooled from multiple sources to support the program or service strategy
• Financing strategies take into account changing programmatic and fiscal needs (i.e., short- and long-term funding needs)
• Refinancing strategies are used where other sources of money pay for activities already provided, thereby freeing up money for a new programs and services |
**Collaboration and partnership**
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|----------------------|
| Shared ownership | • Multiple people and organizational partners contribute resources
• Resource sharing is the norm
• Partners have a mutual commitment to help ensure the success and sustainability of the program or collaboration
• Non-traditional private partners contribute resources to the |
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|---------------------|
| Shared ownership continued | collaboration and/or program and services
• Funding sources and financing strategies include in-kind donations from a variety of sources |
| Interdependence | • Individuals and organizations realize their successes are mutually dependent upon those of others, thus creating buy-in and the willingness to share resources, etc.
• Create ways to share knowledge and technical assistance across the partnership (shared training and professional development, etc.) |
| Enlightened self-interest | • Multiple funders, partners and stakeholders feed their own or their organization’s self-interests and missions as they provide funding, align financing strategies and access new funding streams |
| Coordinated services | • Organizations, programs and services are coordinated and integrated to maximize resources, accessibility, etc. |
**Generating additional resources**
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|---------------------|
| Leveraging new resources | • Funding sources and financing strategies are used to leverage, or attract, other public and private sector resources
• Revenue is maximized as local, state and private funding is leveraged to bring down additional federal revenues
• New partnerships are created that bring additional resources to the collaboration or program and expand the fiscal base
• Past successes and achievements attract additional resources to your collaboration or program
• Partners incorporate the school improvement vision into their own programs or services as part of their overall mission and accountabilities |
| Generating income | • Charge fees for services or sliding scale fees to cover some or all program and service costs
• Medicaid, TANF and other dollars are used to support programs and services
• Unrelated business income is generated by creating revenue streams (i.e., lease space, parking, etc.)
• Fundraising events bring in additional resources
• Grant writing teams share opportunities to gain new and expanded resources |
**Social marketing**
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|---------------------|
| Communication | • Strategies are in place to effectively communicate achievements and successes (i.e., “to tell your story”)
• Individuals in leadership positions help guide the process and dynamics of working with the media
• The public opinion endorses and supports the collaboration and its programs and services
• Marketing and public relations activities positively communicate messages about the school improvement efforts |
| Power and influence | • Relationships are built with key stakeholders in order to support ongoing efforts
• Individuals with power and influence are committed to the collaboration and its programs and services |
Table 11.1: Design principles and/or strategies for sustainability
| Principle and strategy | What this looks like |
|------------------------|----------------------|
| Power and influence continued | • Individuals with power and influence are educated about what the priorities are and how they relate to their interests, needs and priorities
• Individuals in leadership positions help work the right political channels and networks |
From: Afterschool Alliance, 2003; Carmela, Cloud, Byrne, & Wheeler, 2003; Hayes, 2002; Walter, 2001; Wright, 2003.
**Other considerations in sustainability**
We created these multiple design principles and strategies to assist you in your sustainability efforts. In this section, we provide you with an overview of the various types of funding available to support your school improvement efforts. Please note, it is not an exhaustive list. However, it does identify the key funding streams that might serve as a starting place when planning for sustainability. We also provide you with strategies related to creating sustainable partnerships, particularly in relationship to the creation of a resource and financing team that focuses on maximizing resources and generating new funding streams in support of your school improvement efforts.
**Sources of funding**
Multiple types of funding are available to support the implementation of the Ohio Community Collaboration Model for School Improvement. Finance experts call these types of funding “funding streams.” They use this language because they analyze how money will flow from its sources to the programs, services and activities it supports.
There are multiple funding streams that may be used to support schools, community organizations, and their programs and services (Afterschool Alliance, 2004; Hayes, 2002; Halpern, Deich, & Cohen, 2000). Public funds may be found at the federal, state and local levels. Private funds exist from independent foundations, faith-based organizations, businesses and their sponsored foundations, and hospitals.
The priorities related to each type of funding opportunity, as well as the processes for tapping into each type of each resource, often are quite different. For example, many sources of funds are based upon eligibility requirements, only targeting certain families and children who match certain requirements (i.e., age of children, family income, employment status, etc.). Some funds flow directly from federal agencies to local grantees (i.e., Head Start), while others are administered by state agencies (i.e., TANF). To complicate things further, certain funds mandate how and when services may be offered. For instance, licensing standards regulate various program qualities such as staff/child ratios and staff qualifications. Some funds are disbursed as subsidies and involve reimbursement after the delivery of services.
Here we will provide a brief description of each type of funding stream, providing you with some initial guidance in relation to the multiple sources of funding that are available to your school community.
Public and private funds
Entitlement programs are public sector programs – meaning they are available to everyone who meets their eligibility criteria. Federal dollars (and policies) support these special programs and their state counterparts. These federal dollars are uncapped appropriations, are open-ended, and no competition exists for these funds. Example entitlement programs include Medicaid, Medicare, and Title IV-E of the Social Security Act (child welfare).
Block or formula programs provide a fixed amount of federal funds to states based on formulas that are established on population characteristics such as income status, geographic residence or disabilities. They involve capped appropriations that provide a fixed amount of funding to states or localities based on pre-established formulas. Example block or formula programs include Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and the Child Care Development Block Grant. Similarly, Title I is distributed based on the number of low income families served within a school.
Discretionary programs offer federal funds for certain types of programs and services based upon a competitive process. These programs involve capped appropriations for specific project grants which are awarded based on competitive applications (i.e., AmeriCorps, Safe Schools/Healthy Students, Youthbuild; Head Start; 21st Century Community Learning Centers, GEAR UP). These dollars can be accessed by applying directly to the federal government; but many times the federal government passes these dollars to state agencies who then allocate these discretionary funds. Table 11.2 presents various federal and state funding sources.
Table 11.2: Select federal entitlement and state block grant programs
| Program | Description |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) | This program promotes job preparation and work through education, training, professional development and work-related career planning. States have the option of spending TANF funds directly on various forms of assistance, including after-school programs or social services |
| Medicaid | Medicaid provides financial assistance to states for medical assistance payments and administrative expenses made on behalf of low-income children and adults who meet income, resource and categorical eligibility requirements. States have flexibility in designing and operating their programs within federal guidelines |
| Social Services Block Grants | This block grant is to be used on a range of social services such as child care, substance abuse prevention, information and referral services, counseling, and other related services |
| The Child and Adult Care Food Program | This federal program provides funding for meals, snacks and nutrition education within childcare programs and after-school programs operating in low-income neighborhoods |
| The Child Care and Development Fund (also known as the Child Care and Development Block Grant) | Most of this money provides subsidies to help low-income working families access childcare. Subsidies are distributed through vouchers to families or slots funded by contract with licensed providers |
| Title I Grants to Local Education Agencies | This program helps local education agencies and schools meet state academic standards by providing funds to address various needs evident among children who are disadvantaged and at risk of failing |
| Safe and Drug Free Schools | This program provides funding for drug and violence prevention activities |
Table 11.2: Select federal entitlement and state block grant programs
and other offerings that promote the health and well being of students
Community Development Block Grants. This program provides states and localities funding for a wide variety of activities such as neighborhood revitalization, economic development or provision of improved community facilities and services (i.e., child care)
Community Services Block Grants. This program helps states provide services and activities that alleviate poverty, assist with self-sufficiency, address needs of low-income youth and improve social service systems
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention – (Title V) Block Grants. This program provides grants to states to improve their juvenile delinquency prevention, treatment and rehabilitation programs and justice systems
Child Welfare Services. Title IV-B. This program provides states with a range of child welfare activities that enable children to remain in their own homes or provide alternative placement for them (i.e., family preservation, kinship care, etc)
Title IV-E Foster Care. This program provides funds to states to assist with the costs of foster care, which may include child care and other goods and services for eligible children. It also pays for program administrative and training costs
Title IV-E Independent Living. Grants under this program help states assist youth in foster care to successfully transition to independent living
Adapted From: Halpern et al., 2000.
Direct payments also provide direct financial assistance to individuals who satisfy certain federal eligibility requirements. These involve capped appropriations such as Supplemental Security Income, Section 8 Housing Assistance, and Refugee and Entrant Assistance.
Furthermore, state and local governments often disburse funds through human service departments that are passed down from the federal government or generated from local taxes. For instance, state departments in Ohio often provide grants related to specific targeted program areas (i.e., alternative education, prevention and community youth development, truancy interventions). Table 13 overviews competitive funding opportunities offered through the Ohio Department of Education.
Table 11.3: Ohio Department of Education competitive funding opportunities
| Program | Purpose |
|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 21st Century Community Learning Centers | • Provides opportunities for academic enrichment, particularly those who attend low-performing schools, to meet state and local student performance standards in the core academic areas of reading and mathematics
| | • Offers students a broad array of additional services, programs and activities, such as youth development activities, that are designed to reinforce and complement the regular academic program of participating students
| | • Offers families of students who are served by community learning centers the opportunities for literacy and related educational |
| Program | Purpose |
|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Alternative Education Challenge | • Allows local school districts to work with community partners to develop alternative education strategies for at-risk children and youth
• Serves children and youth who: have been suspended or expelled; have dropped out of school or are at risk of dropping out; are habitually or chronically truant; are disruptive in class; are on probation from the juvenile court; and/or are on parole after having spent time in an Ohio Department of Youth Services facility |
| Homeless Education Program—McKinney-Vento Act | • Assures that each homeless child, and homeless youth of a homeless individual, shall have access to a free, appropriate public education
• Provides educational activities and services to homeless children and youth that enable them to enroll in, attend and achieve in school
• Develops and implement programs for school personnel and the general public to heighten awareness of specific problems related to the education of homeless children and youth |
| Even Start Family Literacy | • Helps break the cycle of poverty and low literacy by improving the educational opportunities of low-income families through a cooperative learning effort
• Creates interactive literacy activities between parents and their children (PACT)
• Trains parents regarding how to be the primary teacher for their children and full partners in the education of their children (Parenting Education)
• Teaches parent literacy preparation that leads to economic self-sufficiency (Adult Education)
• Creates an age-appropriate education to prepare children for success in school and life experiences (Early Childhood Education) |
| Learn and Serve America | • Creates high-quality service-learning programs that provide youth with opportunities to learn and develop by bringing together classroom instruction and community service
• Expands the awareness of the value of engaging young people in service to their community
• Transitions service-learning programs and activities from being primarily supported by the Ohio Department of Education to local support |
| Public Preschool | • Serves children between the ages of three and five that are not age eligible for kindergarten whose families earn no more than 185 percent of the federal poverty level
• Provides an age appropriate education to all children enrolled in the public preschool program |
| Reading First | • Supports teachers and students in low-performing, high-poverty schools and targets children in kindergarten through grade three
• Helps states, school districts and schools use scientifically based reading research and proven instructional strategies and tests to ensure that all children can read at or above grade level by third grade
• Helps teachers learn to identify and monitor the progress of students' reading abilities
• Helps schools align reading instruction with Ohio's academic content |
Table 11.3: Ohio Department of Education competitive funding opportunities
| Program | Purpose |
|----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | • Standards in reading
| | - Allows schools and districts to develop teacher expertise to make sound decisions about materials, programs and interventions |
| Title II-D Special Education—ACCESS | • Ensures students with disabilities have access to the general curriculum aligned with Ohio’s academic content standards, regardless of the educational setting(s) in which they receive special education services
| | • Identifies and supports evidence-based strategies for increased student achievement
| | • Assists schools in building the capacity to include children with disabilities in standards-based reform efforts designed to improve the academic performance of all children |
| Title II-D Special Education—ASD | • Identifies and supports current resources and programs that show evidence of increased student achievement for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
| | • Builds the capacity of principal-led building-level teams to provide services and supports to students with ASD
| | • Grants under this program priority must be used to improve results for students with ASD by increasing knowledge in educational assessment and instructional strategies of building-level teams providing services and supports
| | • Project activities may include strategies that increase students’ time in the general education environment and focus on increased academic performance and effective data management |
| Title II-D Special Education—Positive Behavior Support | • Implements school-wide positive behavior support for students based on the model provided in the Ohio Department of Education’s “Positive Behavior Support Toolkit”
| | • Will improve results for students by aligning instructional goals with Ohio’s academic content standards |
| OhioReads | • Help schools purchase books and other materials
| | • Funds schools reading programs
| | • Provides teachers with professional development opportunities in the area of reading |
From: NCLB, 2001.
In addition, children’s trust funds have a designated account in the public treasury (i.e., certain taxes flow directly to these trusts). City and county municipalities provide local funding through park districts, city school districts, youth service bureaus, or the police department. Special taxing districts create independent units of government with taxing authority; and special tax levies are passed through local ballots and add to existing taxes with earmarked revenues for certain types of programs and services. Finally, taxes also may be applied to specific economic activities such as the purchase of cigarettes, marriage licenses, and licenses to practice in certain professional occupations. These funds are often directed toward certain program and service priorities established at the local level.
There also are multiple sources of *private funds* that exist within communities. To name a few, businesses and company-sponsored foundations often provide funding to address certain program areas and geographical locations. Independent and community foundations (i.e., United Ways) establish priority areas that target certain population groups and service delivery arenas. Resources from faith-based organizations, civic organizations, police athletic leagues, chambers of commerce, hospitals and universities also might be tapped.
Many times these entities offer *in-kind resources*. For instance, programs may be able to use space for free, or rent space at below-market rates. Services for low income children and families are sometimes subsidized by other paying participants. Also, many organizations or businesses provide reduced cost or free activities for certain special populations (i.e., free or reduced cost tickets, etc.). In addition, never underestimate the value of human in-kind resources through volunteerism, service learning and community service opportunities.
Finally, schools and organizations also *generate revenue* through varying strategies. Some charge fees for services and generate resources through unrelated business income (i.e., leasing fees, etc.). Lottery and gaming systems generate funding for certain services. And organizations often create their own fundraising campaigns that solicit donations and support from various community entities and individuals.
**Financing strategies**
To build upon these design principles and strategies, here we overview five primary financing strategies that aim to support your school improvement efforts (Flynn & Hayes, 2003; Hayes, 2002; Walter, 2003).
**Making better use of existing resources**
One way to maximize funding involves making better use of existing resources allocated towards your efforts. The most basic example of this strategy is presented in the academic learning chapter, as strategies are provided that focus on maximizing academic learning time in schools, homes and in the community. *Efficiency* is central to this idea and involves activities such as streamlining management, sharing professional development and training opportunities, joining together on benefit plans, co-locating programs and services, and providing effective linkages between schools and community organizations.
*Effectiveness* also is important, as few results are found when resources are allocated to poorly implemented programs and services. As such, professional development efforts must be created that support quality teaching and instruction strategies, as well as the implementation of efficient, effective and research-supported programs and services. We also need strong evaluation processes that provide continuous feedback to school leaders and others, allowing for the critical examination of key data that informs planning and program implementation.
Two additional strategies aimed at making better use of existing resources are helpful. First, *redeployment strategies* shift funding from higher to lower cost programs and services. Second, entities may use *reinvestment strategies* involving the transfer of “saved” funds into new or alternative programs and services. In either case, intervention-related dollars are reallocated or invested to support prevention and related health promotion activities.
Creating new revenue streams
Funds also are generated by the *creation of new revenue streams*. One way in which local entities can maximize revenues is by applying for and receiving discretionary and other types of grants. In addition, organizations may create financing plans that charge fees for services. Others may generate resources through unrelated business income (i.e., charging parking fees, leasing fees, or generate income through the sale of various goods and services). Fundraising campaigns also are extremely successful in some school communities, generating flexible funding streams that may be used for a multitude of purposes.
Maximizing federal and state revenues
In addition, oftentimes federal revenues are allocated contingent upon state, local and private funding levels (i.e., TANF). In other words, the better able a local entity can demonstrate investments and expenditures (i.e., state or local, public or private), the more federal funding is able to be drawn down to match these local efforts. This financing strategy, called *leveraging*, allows for the maximization of federal revenue allocated to the local level.
You also might consider using *refinancing strategies* that use certain sources of funding to pay for activities already provided within your programs and services. For instance, schools might substitute federal and state entitlement funding (i.e., Federal Child and Adult Food Care Program) for discretionary funding, thus freeing up additional resources for new program and service areas. This is particularly helpful as entities claim for the *coverage of administrative costs* through federal approved programs such as Medicaid and Title IV-E (i.e., child welfare).
Creating more flexibility
A primary way to create more flexibility within funding streams is through the pooling of resources. *Pooling* involves combining funds from several agencies and programs into one funding stream. It is most often used by state agencies, where a portion of state program funding across systems can be “pooled” to support comprehensive programming.
*Coordinating*, or “braiding” separate categorical streams together to support the seamless delivery of services is another effective funding strategy. There is often reduced duplication as services are integrated to support comprehensive programs and services. On a more macro level, *decategorizing* involves the removal of narrow eligibility requirements from existing funding streams. This strategy involves state-level policy changes that promote more flexibility in relation to the delivery of programs and services.
For instance, ODE utilizes a tool known as the Comprehensive Continuous Improvement Plan (CCIP) to categorize and create ease of use in their funding. In Table 11.4, you will see all of the funding streams in the consolidated application on the CCIP. These are funds allocated to districts based on a number of formularies, but due to their similar nature they share one common application at ODE.
Many of these funding streams can be blended or braided to create large amounts of money for a particular purpose. For example, Title I, Title III, Title IV-A, Title V and ECSE all require programs and services focused on family engagement and support. If the dollars across these various funding streams were blended, school districts would have a large pool of money for parent engagement and support activities. Likewise, these dollars can and should be complemented by community-based funding streams that also support family and parent involvement strategies (i.e., local settlement house programs, victims advocate funding through police departments, etc.).
Finally, *devolution* involves the delegation of authority for the allocation of funds from higher to lower levels of authority (i.e., federal to state, state to local county, etc.). The assumption here is the decentralized decision-making will more likely produce outcomes, as those that are directly responsible for creating outcomes are influencing decisions about programs and services.
**Building public-private partnerships**
Partnerships are at the core of our school improvement model. Essentially, new funding streams and resources are created and leveraged as new and expanded partnerships are developed and nurtured. These partnerships are strengthened as leaders develop strategic infrastructures centered on school improvement efforts.
This infrastructure is vital to sustainability. For example, we emphasized the necessity for collaborative leadership in our toolkit, and we indicated how important this team approach is for key priorities involving leadership (making sure the right things are done), management (making sure things are done right), and governance (oversight and steering toward the future). In the end, these collaborative leadership structures ultimately influence resource generation and utilization.
We propose here that you work with your core school improvement team members and primary community partners to determine the types of partnerships you want and need. Candidates for your collaborative leadership team might include individuals such as the Title 1 coordinator, a special education coordinator, a representative from Ohio’s Children and Family First Council, and a local school board member. Each of these persons has access to resources. Each, therefore, is a key to sustainability. The linkage between collaborative leadership and sustainability is further described in the following.
Collaborative leadership and sustainability
In several of the preceding chapters, we emphasized the need to complete these four related tasks:
- Identifying and capitalizing on school-owned and operated and community-owned and operated resources;
- Identifying needs and gaps in school and community offerings, and then planning programs, services, strategies and activities that you will initiate at your school or that will be linked to it;
- Developing the connective mechanisms and people for your partnership, including people and mechanisms for communications, referral and boundary crossing; and
- Ensuring that all of it fits together, i.e., that what results is a comprehensive, coherent and integrated system that yields the maximum number of benefits to the greatest number of people, including the achievement of your school’s mission.
But there’s more. While educators will come to appreciate the need and importance of reaching out – expanding walled-in school improvement models – most of the school staff will expect someone else must handle everything external to “the regular school.” For example, if you are an after-school program director, they will expect you to run the after school program, make connections to community social and health service providers, develop solid working relationships with youth development organizations, engage local community residents, and recruit, organize and mobilize parents and entire families, getting them more involved in the school and their children’s education.
They are right; all are essential functions, and all require someone to look after them. But you can not do them all. You and they need to develop an infrastructure around these essential functions.
For example, and as indicated in the collaboration and collaborative leadership chapter, principals delegate responsibilities to key persons. To reiterate, they appoint a part-time or full-time parent and family coordinator. They appoint a part-time or full-time social and health services coordinator. They appoint a part-time, or full-time, after-school coordinator.
Some of these special positions usually are funded jointly by schools and their community partners. For example, schools contribute Title 1 dollars (federal funds earmarked for schools serving lots of kids eligible for free and reduced lunch programs) and special education dollars (called Title XI dollars because of the federal funding stream for this money). Child welfare agencies contribute child welfare dollars (called Title IV-E funds). Youth development agencies contribute some money. In short, they braid existing funds to create the full- and part-time positions they need.
As you know by now, these special people who fill them also perform the roles of boundary crosser, intermediary and linkage agent. They give life to partnerships.
The point is you do not have to perform all of these functions. You need to know they are vital; and that someone needs to do them. This means that you will need to find out what is already in place; what is missing and needed; and work with your partners to bridge the gaps you identify.
**Recruiting key people to support sustainability and financing plans**
Work with your core partners to determine key leaders who can support your sustainability and financing efforts. Where other organizations are concerned, you will want to tap their managers and top level leaders. For example, invite your local superintendent to serve. Invite a member of the school board to serve. Invite a local city or town council member. Invite two or more key parents. Invite someone who understands state government. Invite two or more persons from the business community. Invite at least one higher education faculty member.
Here are other potential candidates for service on your collaborative leadership team:
- The school district’s Title 1 coordinator
- The school district’s special education coordinator
- The school district’s student support (social-health services) coordinator
- The school’s athletic director
- A representative from the juvenile justice system
- Student services personnel (i.e., school social workers, counselors, etc)
- Top level officials from the County Department of Job and Family Services
- Representatives from Partnerships for Success and Ohio’s Children and Family First Councils
- Representatives from Communities that Care and other collaboratives designed to foster positive youth development
- Others…
Each of these persons has access to resources. Each, therefore, is a key to sustainability.
When you convene these important officials, make sure you educate them about what you are going to accomplish and how it relates to their interests, needs, and priorities. Above all, make sure you tap and use their expertise. More specifically:
- Do not give them the impression you are going through the motions, asking for them to “rubber stamp” what you have done and plan to do, and, all in all, wasting their time;
- Seek their help in planning and getting resources, supports and assistance that will make your partnerships, programs and services sustainable;
- Get their help in working the right political channels and networks; and
- Have them guide you and your leadership team through the process and dynamics of working with the media. The media may prove to be the most important resource-generating and sustainability mechanism of all.
You also will want to think through strategically the creation of your financing and sustainability plans. The following checklist shown in Table 11.5 will help guide your efforts.
Table 11.5: Steps in creating strategic sustainability plans
- Clarify what it is you need financing for (i.e., clear vision)
- Articulate a common vision that drives the types of funding sources you solicit
- Create a working group to focus on financing and funding
- Create a funding and sustainability plan that focuses your financing priorities
- Decide what types of programs you want to implement or sustain (i.e., a certain program administration, collaboration efforts, etc.)
- Number of clients
- Number of sites
- Target population
- Range of programs and services
- Level of quality of the programs and services
- Number of years funding is needed
- Align your financing strategies with the needs, programs and services they are intended to support
- Estimate your fiscal needs (how much money do you need and for what)
- Conduct a needs and resources assessment
- Identify present and potential partners who might help you achieve your vision
- Build upon past history and achievements related to partnership and collaboration
- Examine your gap analysis and identify current resources needs
- Identify potential funding sources and financing strategies
- Determine what you need to sustain the work over time
- Explore ways to maximize existing resources in support of the vision
- Maximize the use of resources already in the system (non-monetary, in-kind, volunteer, contributed space, donated equipment, technical support, etc.)
- Assign responsibility to someone to identify and pursue other potential funding streams
- Engage partners in pursuing additional funding opportunities
- Create communication and outreach efforts to publicize your successes and achievements
- Identify important stakeholders with power and influence who can advocate for your programs and services
- Create new funding sources with your community partners
From: The Finance Project, 2003; Flynn & Hayes, 2003; Hayes, 2002.
Final thoughts
As you can see here, local, state and federal governments, as well as private funding sources, have long histories of funding special, often single-issue programs and services. For example, separate funding streams exist for school reform, after-school programs, youth development programs, teen pregnancy programs and juvenile delinquency prevention programs. These special programs and the special funding streams that support them are called “categorical programs and funding streams.” They are sector-, need-, and problem-specific.
You and other school leaders implementing this new school improvement model have the opportunity to work together, indeed genuinely collaborate, as you figure out which categorical funding streams are available to you. In some cases, you will stop competing for the same funds. In other cases, you will develop new strategies for working together to get new funds from untapped categorical funding streams.
As you gain skill in working together, and as you develop more trust with each other, you will be able to move to a higher level of funding-related work. For example, you will share existing resources. You will gain net new resources as you eliminate duplication and unnecessary competition.
Above all, you will have the opportunity to pool and braid existing resources. You and other school leaders will be able to extract dollars from existing funding sources and streams and use the newly-created “pool” of funds to support new programs and services. Ideally, you will braid these funds to the point where they are interwoven and integrated.
References
Carmela M. F., Cloud, J.P., Byrne, J., & Wheeler, K. (2003). *Kindergarten through twelfth-grade education for sustainability*. Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute.
Cloud, J.P. (1997). *A survey of leadership qualities distilled from sustainable community initiatives*. New York: American Forum for Global Education.
Flynn, M., & Hayes, C.D. (2003). *Blending and braiding funds to support early care and childhood initiatives*. Washington, DC: The Finance Project.
Halpern, R… Deich, S., & Cohen, C. (2000). *Financing after-school programs*. Washington, DC: The Finance Project.
Hayes, C.D., (2002). *Thinking broadly: Finance strategies for comprehensive child and family initiatives*. Washington, D.C.: Finance Project
The Afterschool Alliance. (2003). *The road to sustainability*. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved on November 11, 2004 from [http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/sustain.pdf](http://www.afterschoolalliance.org/sustain.pdf)
The Finance Project. (2003). *Creating a strategic financing plan: Module III of the sustainability planning workbook*. Washington, DC: Author.
Walter, F. (2001) *District leaders guide to reallocating resources*. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
Wright, E. (February, 2003). *Finding resources to support rural out-of-school time initiatives: Strategy brief*. Washington, D.C.: The Finance Project. | <urn:uuid:d3af1886-ae2f-4611-af2f-b50cfd6a8e73> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Other-Resources/Family-and-Community-Engagement/Models-for-Family-and-Community-Engagement/Planning-for-Sustainability.pdf.aspx | 2016-05-03T03:02:25Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118369.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00189-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 91,605,158 | 8,891 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.984793 | eng_Latn | 0.997039 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2163,
5477,
8656,
11569,
14518,
17604,
21895,
25444,
28987,
32879,
36289,
39310,
41816,
44668,
47429,
50324,
50971,
52367
] | [
1.359375,
2
] | 11 | 8 |
What you can do at home to help:
• Continue to hear your child read at home, asking questions like:
What do you think will happen to this character later on in the story?
How do you think the story will end?
Have you read a book like this before?
Which words are new to you? Why do you think the author chose that word?
• Continue to work on times tables (all times tables up to $12 \times 12$), including division facts.
• Keep on asking your child to add and take away numbers in his/her head.
• Teach your child the compass points up to 8 points (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW)
• Play turn taking games.
• Visit your dentist for a check up in the first half term.
• Take a good look at your child’s toothbrush with him/her and discuss how s/he needs to brush his/her teeth.
• Visit the library and borrow books on journeys.
• Talk about journeys they have made, either here in the UK or abroad.
• Look at maps, atlases, show the route of a journey on your sat nav.
• Talk about what you eat during the day and the healthy choices that you make for a balanced diet.
• If you have a pet, show your child what your pet eats, and how much food you have to buy for it each week. Ask your child to feed and look after the pet for a week.
• Look at electricity in the home. Show children that there are mains operated and battery operated items. Why both?
Burps, Bottoms and Bile will, we are certain, keep the children highly entertained! It is a science based topic and includes thinking about everything from dentistry and teeth to the ins-and-outs of the digestive system.
For the second half of the Spring term we will be immersing ourselves in the geographical topic entitled ‘Road Trip USA’ where children will have the opportunity to refine their map skills and to plan an imaginary road trip. They will also be researching NYC and watching video clips and documentaries in order to give them an impression of the atmosphere of the city.
Literacy
Through our ‘Burps, Bottoms and Bile’ topic we will be focussing on fact files and posters, explanatory texts, imaginary narrative, slogans and persuasive texts. Then after half term and in conjunction with ‘Road Trip USA’ we will be writing postcards, diary entries, myths and legends and poetry as well as learning to construct e-mails. All of our literacy will be taught through links to our current topic in the same way that we have done for the Autumn term.
Maths
In maths during the Spring term we will be looking at measurement and statistics—looking at food labels and their ingredients as well as looking at the contents. We will continue learning number and place value; solving problems; perimeter and area; geometry and fractions. The children will be weighing and comparing bags representing the stomach capacities of humans and other animals.
Science
We will be asking the children to think about electricity and the devices and equipment that require electricity for power. The children will be constructing circuits using a range of components and switches. They will also be learning to sort and classify materials into those that are conductors and those that are insulators. As part of the ‘Burps, Bottoms and Bile’ topic the children will be thinking about different teeth types, the causes of tooth decay and how we can maintain healthy teeth as well as what good tooth hygiene is. There will be an opportunity for us to learn about the digestive system and make comparisons between the digestive systems of a human and that of other animals.
Other curriculum areas
In ICT children will be thinking about digital images, databases, spreadsheets, and online research. As part of history we will be learning about Native Americans and for geography we will be considering using World and US maps as well as thinking about the human and physical geography of USA. In art and design we will be making Native American Dream catchers, having a go at weaving and in D&T the children will be focussing on healthy foods as well as making a working model of the digestive system. For PHSE the children will be thinking about expressing opinions, stereotypes and discrimination and healthy bodies. For music the children will be continuing their lessons with the Hounslow Music Trust.
Building Learning Power
Next term we will be continuing our learning on what makes us better learners and how we can evaluate how well we are learning.
From the BLP website: Revising: Pupils need to learn how to deal with change, emotionally and practically. With an inflexible frame of mind they are unlikely to recognise the need to change their ideas or the way they do something. They also need to know what ‘good’ looks like; how to keep an eye on how things are going and evaluate how things went against external standards. | <urn:uuid:46cacec1-81e3-4173-8c4c-4d55ca46e639> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/jotter2.files/8138863?response-content-type=application%2Fpdf&response-content-disposition=attachment%3Bfilename%3Dcurriculum-newsletter---year-4.pdf&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIH4MJHC24RK4EHAA%2F20191019%2Feu-west-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20191019T120326Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=3000&X-Amz-Signature=53d84d7046999ee52dd4ff058c8c3c9aed7a863b82fa5d3cdf8a1c413d0f9c64 | 2019-10-19T12:03:27Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00302.warc.gz | 682,979,813 | 1,000 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99856 | eng_Latn | 0.998604 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
1369,
4808
] | [
3.875
] | 1 | 2 |
Summer term is almost here. We are very excited because we will have two super new topics… Predators and Urban Pioneers. During the past two terms all the children have developed a range of skills and have become much more independent in their approach to their learning. Now, through computer-based and book research, and class discussion the children will explore the world of animal and plant predators, from sharks in the oceans, to piranha fish in rivers, the big cats in Africa to insect-eating plants! The Urban Pioneer topic will investigate maps, our local area and how improvements can be made to the urban environment.
**Literacy**
During Literacy lessons this term we will be developing our knowledge and expertise at writing letters, stories and poetry. We will also be creating explanations, autobiographies and fact files. Finally, we will be assessing how well the children have been using their new skills in spelling, grammar and punctuation activities.
**Numeracy**
In the coming months we will look at data handling, including bar charts, pictograms and tally charts whilst continuing the development of skills in column addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. Furthermore, the children will be improving their speed at recalling number facts related to the times tables. We will also be continuing to develop problem solving skills. The children will have more opportunities to solve word problems that link to all four operations as well as measure, time and fractions.
**Attendance Reminder**
The Government sets a minimum target of 96% attendance for every child. All absences have to be explained. Unauthorised absence must be reported to Hounslow. Fines of up to £100 are imposed for taking holidays in school time.
**Science**
Our Predator topic gives us the opportunity of studying food chains, skeletons, plants and animals. We will be looking at similarities and differences in the animal and plant kingdoms and in other countries. The second focus will be on Light and Dark, Shadows, Sun Safety, Colour and How to Work Scientifically.
**P.S.H.C.E.**
This term we will continue to focus on our whole school BLP objectives developing our children’s resilience and perseverance in the face of challenge. We will be embedding this into all our lessons.
**Art/Design Technology**
For Predators we will be creating a piece of collage and charcoal drawings based on different predators. For our Urban Pioneer project, we will focus upon photography, graffiti art and observational drawing.
**Music and Dance**
All Year 3 children will continue to learn the recorder. Practicing these skills is very important. Please could you encourage your child to practice at home.
Reading at Home is so important and enjoyable! Please find some time every day to hear your children read aloud and then sign their home learning journals. Don’t forget to ask your child questions about the book they are reading. | <urn:uuid:9521829d-fe15-4a72-83c8-ab80f128c457> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/jotter2.files/10061760?response-content-type=application%2Fpdf&response-content-disposition=attachment%3Bfilename%3Dyr-3-curriculum-letter.pdf&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIH4MJHC24RK4EHAA%2F20191019%2Feu-west-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20191019T131908Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=3000&X-Amz-Signature=78f55d1df60b09c27f36be71f59fed57e606a4922f63b66128675f8d3fba4654 | 2019-10-19T13:19:09Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00317.warc.gz | 686,902,130 | 569 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998695 | eng_Latn | 0.998695 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2942
] | [
3.21875
] | 1 | 0 |
Instructions for hiking in Oulanka National Park:
You may:
- walk, ski, row and canoe
- pick berries and edible mushrooms
- angle and go ice-fishing on lakes and ponds; fishing in the river requires a separate permit
- light a campfire at designated campfire sites, except when a forest fire warning is in effect
- camp at designated sites
You may not:
- leave any litter
- let pets run free
- enter restricted areas or the frontier zone without permission
- take with you or damage plants, the soil or the bedrock
- catch, collect or kill animals, or destroy their nests
- drive a motor vehicle beyond the designated roads
- hunt (only allowed for local people, Hunting Act, Section 8)
- damage any structures
Oulanka National Park has adopted the principle of litter-free hiking, so please take all your litter away with you.
Metsähallitus 12/2007 • 2nd edition, 8,000 copies • Printed by: Koulutusmaan Kirjapaino, Kuusamo • Text by: Kai Laiti, Elina Koivupää • Text edited by: Sanna-Kaisa Juvonen, Minna Koramo
Photos: Päavo Ilmavuori, Minna Koramo, Mika Lehto, Mika Linnemäki • Layout: Minna Koramo, Mika Linnemäki
PIENI KARHUNKIERROS TRAIL
The Pieni Karhunkierros (Little Bear’s Trail) hiking trail takes the visitor amidst the rugged scenery and swiftly flowing streams of Oulanka National Park. For most of the way, the trail follows the River Kittajoki, whose waters flow between steep cliffs, accelerated by the force of strong currents and rapids. Kittajoki is fast and, in places, wild river, but similar to the River Ouinkajoki, it calms down after the largest rapids.
Issuing from Lake Kitaajärvi, the River Kittajoki meets the River Ouinkajoki near the frontier zone. Together they flow towards Russia and into Paanajärvi, a deep and long lake situated in a national park carrying the same name.
The best thing about the trail is the spectacular views, which make it an excellent scenic trail. Furthermore, those who know a thing or two about nature can expect to encounter some unique species. In May and early June a sharp-eyed hiker can admire the emblem plant of Oulanka National Park, the protected calypso, along the trail. The area is also home to such rarities as the mountain avens, alpine saxifrage, alpine mouse-ear and green spleenwort. There may even be strawberries in the forest to enjoy!
HIKING TRAIL INFORMATION
Trail markings: green paint marks
Length of the trail: 12 km
Time required: one day (4 to 9 hours)
Facilities: open wilderness and day-trip hut, lean-to shelter, campfire and camping sites
Please note: there are hanging bridges and steps along the trail
Getting there: by bus from the centre of Kuusamo to Juuma, a parking area
TRAIL GUIDE
An ideal day-trip destination, Pieni Karhunkierros starts at the village of Juuma, 45 km north of the centre of Kuusamo. An information board at the starting point introduces the trail on a map and provides practical advice for hikers. The beginning and end of the trail are the same, but the rest of the way is a circle trail. The facilities along the trail offer a great setting for resting and eating. The differences in altitude and various land forms make the trail a challenge, but earth steps, bridges and duckboards have been constructed to assist you.
Starting point • Niskakoski Rapids • Myllykoski Rapids 1,5 km
The first section of the trail is characterised by undulating, part-rocky and dryish pine-dominated heath forest. The first hanging bridge crosses the Niskakoski Rapids. The section ends at the thunder of the Myllykoski Rapids. There is a renovated mill building by the rapids.
1. Myllykoski Rapids
The almost one-kilometre-long Aalokkokoski Rapids consist of a series of successive rapids where the water flows swiftly downwards. The drop and the structure of the river bottom create foam, waves and swirls in the rapids. No wonder then that the wildly gushing Aalokkokoski Rapids are favoured by river-rafting enthusiasts.
3. Jyrävä Falls
The Jyrävä Falls are the most impressive rapids along the trail. The River Kittajoki is squeezed between two rock walls and drops down as a majestic 9-metre waterfall with a loud roar. River rafting is not allowed here – it would be too dangerous.
4. Sillastupa Wilderness Hut
Sillastupa was constructed in 1940 as a fishing hut for General Hjalmar Fridolf Sillasvuo, who had distinguished himself in the Winter War between Finland and Russia. His comrades in arms squared the logs on the Russian side during the period of peace between the Winter War and the Continuation War. However, General Sillasvuo never got to see the hut, which is situated in the rugged landscape of the Jyrävä Falls. The hut has been repaired over the years after it began to be used more often for tourism purposes. Most of it has been retained in its original condition. It currently serves as an open wilderness hut for 12 people.
• Myllykoski Rapids • Aalokkokoski Rapids • Jyrävä Falls 2 km
By the mill cottage there are steepish steps leading to the trail that branches off at the Myllykoski hanging bridge. Don’t cross the bridge yet; head for the Aalokkokoski Rapids instead. At this point the terrain changes to undulating, esker-like, sparsely wooded pine heath. The wide trail is easy to walk on. At the start of the duckboards you can admire the long, foaming Aalokkokoski Rapids. The trail closely follows the river, taking you to the majestic Jyrävä Falls.
National Park
Restricted area where one is allowed to wander only on the marked trails.
- 80 km Karhunkierros Trail
- 12 km Pieni Karhunkierros Trail
Road
Path
Information
Parking Area
Sight
Campfire Place
Camping Area
Tent Area
Wilderness Hut
Hanging Bridge
Recycling Point
Lean-to Shelter
© Metsähallitus 2007 © NLS of Finland 1/MYY/07
• Jyrävä Falls • Kalliosaari Island • Harrisuvanto Pool • Kallioportti
4,5 km
From the Sillastupa hut the trail follows the riverside on a pine heath-dominated ridge, with stunning cliff scenery guiding your way. As you descend all the way to the river’s surface, to Harrisuvanto Pool, the scenery takes on a new appearance. After the hanging bridge – past the lean-to shelter – you dive into a more sheltered forest, and once on the duckboards even the climate changes. Little past Harrisuvanto Pool the Pieni Karhunkierros Trail is joined by the Karhunkierros Trail.
The Kallioportti area is almost visible, but the most physically challenging section is still ahead: a nearly 100-metre climb up the steps to the cliff top. After the climb you’ll be rewarded with spectacular views.
5. Kalliosaari Island
Sitting in the middle of the river, Kalliosaari Island is the result of long-term erosion. Originally, the island was much larger. Over the course of tens of thousands of years, rain and flowing water have worn down the parts made up of softer rock material. What remains today is a mass of rock consisting of harder material leaving more room for the river to flow. In this part of the trail you have a view of the up to 80-metre-deep Kitkaajoki Canyon. The walls of the canyon are made livelier by talus, i.e. the accumulation of rock fragments. As a result of temperature fluctuations, the boulders break off the walls and tumble down the slopes. The water inside the rock wall expands when it freezes, thereby breaking pieces off the wall.
6. Harrisuvanto Pool
Arriving at Harrisuvanto Pool, the River Kitkaajoki calms down. The grayling, which is a salmonoid fish, has lent its name to the place (‘hari’ = grayling). The pool has been known as a breeding ground of graylings since the early days. The calm surface of the water may also be broken by jumping trout. You cross the river using a nearly 50-metre-long hanging bridge. Even though these bridges seem rickety, their structure makes them safe – they are the strongest bridges in the world.
7. Kallioportti Lookout Point
The stunning views from Kallioportti open up from the edge of a cliff. The Juuma gorges with their valuable and unique vegetation extend below you. The various surface forms of the cliff and the habitats facing in different directions provide a rich environment for plants. Birds nest in the holes and cracks of the cliff. The area is home to a large number of species. There are rare relic species that have survived in the favourable conditions of the gorges as remnants of an earlier population with wider distribution. Oulanka National Park is thus a real treasure trove of various species. When exploring this area, please remember to keep to the marked trails to ensure the survival of the rare species and their habitats.
• Kallioportti • Lake Pyöreälampi • Myllykoski Rapids
25 km
From Kallioportti the trail continues through paludified ponds – at times along duckboards and at times on dry land. By Lake Pyöreälampi there is a campfire site and an opportunity for camping. The terrain in this section of the trail is varied, but never steep. Here the trail passes through the restricted area of the Juuma gorges, so it is very important that you stay on the marked trail. Finally you arrive at the Myllykoski hanging bridge via Putansari – and this time you should cross the bridge. The way back to where you started is already familiar. | <urn:uuid:9919962b-0735-4922-9e11-658aadf27004> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://julkaisut.metsa.fi/assets/pdf/lp/Esitteet/pienikarhunkierros-eng.pdf | 2019-10-19T13:17:47Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00318.warc.gz | 551,351,544 | 2,212 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.931453 | eng_Latn | 0.995981 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
1123,
5417,
5761,
9212
] | [
2.484375
] | 1 | 0 |
THIRTIETH SUNDAY IN ORDINARY TIME
YEAR A
PRAYER OF THE DAY:
O God, we cannot see you yet you call on us to love you, even as we know you love us. Make us understand that everybody without exception is precious to you, and that to love them is to love you. Let us not be bothered about what we like and do not like but be awake to the needs of all the people we meet, just as Jesus did and who is now living with you, forever and ever.
FOCUS OF THE READINGS:
Our readings focus on love of neighbor. In cycle C the commandment found in today's Gospel is coupled with a reading from Deuteronomy which puts the Sunday focus on love of God and neighbor. Here in cycle A, our first reading gives us a list of commandments relating to the treatment of others. The list includes foreigners, widows, orphans, the poor. In short, we are commanded to love everyone and to take special care of those in need.
The Gospel is a simple, straightforward presentation of the "greatest commandment." The focus is clear. Love of God and neighbor is not merely an option but the definition of what it means to be Christian.
FIRST READING: Exodus 22:21-27
This is a reading from the book of Exodus.
Our God says:
"When there are foreigners and strangers living among you, you must never do anything to hurt them. Remember that you used to be strangers in the country of Egypt. And don't do anything to hurt widows and orphans. If you do hurt them, and they cry out to me, I will listen to them, and I will help them. But I will punish you.
"When you lend money to people who are poor, don't make them pay back more than they owe you. And if you take their coat as a promise that they will pay you back, don't keep it overnight because they will need it to keep warm. If they cry out to me, I will help them, for I love the poor and will take care of them."
The Word of the Lord.
RESPONSE: Psalm 113
RESPONSE:
1. You love the poor, you love the needy.
2. Teach us to love the poor and needy,
1. You give them help, you care for them.
2. To give them help, to care for them.
GOSPEL ACCLAMATION:
Leader:
1. Love God with all your heart;
2. Love your neighbor as yourself;
Alt: (sing and clap)
Alleluia, alleluia!
GOSPEL: Matthew 22:34-39
This is a reading from the Gospel of Matthew.
One day, a lawyer, who belonged to a group called the Pharisees, asked Jesus this question:
“Teacher, what is the greatest commandment in the law?”
Jesus said,
“You must love God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the first and most important commandment. And the second one is like it: you must love your neighbor just as you love yourself.”
The Gospel of the Lord.
REFLECTING ON THE READINGS WITH CHILDREN:
At first glance this may seem a simple Gospel to reflect on with children. But, remembering that children take our words very seriously and often literally, we will want to exercise caution. I recall a vivid experience with this very text. After hearing Sister say that we “must love God more than anyone,” one little first grade child went home crying. Finally that evening, she told her parents that she thought God didn’t love her because she loved them (her parents) more than she loved God. And quite naturally so! Fortunately, the parents were very understanding and had the kindness to tell Sister what happened. When she shared this with the rest of the faculty, it was a learning experience for all of us!
With this caution in mind, let us proceed to our reflection on the Gospel. Rather than dwelling on how much we love God, we might explore with the children ways which we show our love for God:
- in our prayer,
- at mass,
- at home,
- with others, by telling them about the good things that happen (instead of the bad),
- by having a joyful disposition,
- by showing gratitude for God’s gifts,
- by showing respect for the things God created and using them respectfully.
We might also explore how we show our love for our neighbor. The children will be able to make many suggestions.
The minister of the Word will want to keep the children focused on ways they can show love of neighbor which are truly possible for them. For example, they cannot feed the hungry of the world, but they can share their “goodies” generously with others.
They cannot make global peace, but they can work for peace in their families and with their playmates. What is important is that the children realize that when they show love for others, they are also showing love for God. | <urn:uuid:d9154e39-b69d-4df6-a6a9-70c87029b768> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://parish.rcdow.org.uk/hitchin/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2017/10/LG-30th-Sunday-A.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:01:01Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00319.warc.gz | 653,477,455 | 1,033 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998038 | eng_Latn | 0.99835 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2066,
4521
] | [
2.4375
] | 1 | 0 |
VIRTUAL ASSISTIVE ROBOTS FOR PLAY, LEARNING, AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Mengliao Wang\textsuperscript{1}, Kim Adams\textsuperscript{2,3}, Pedro Encarnação\textsuperscript{4}, Albert Cook\textsuperscript{2}
1) Department of Computing Science, University of Alberta, 2) Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta, 3) Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital, Edmonton, Alberta, 4) Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal
ABSTRACT
Previous studies have demonstrated that Lego robots can be used to enable children with motor impairments to actively participate in play and academic activities. Additionally, by appropriately designing the activities and observing children’s performance, it is possible to assess children’s cognitive skills. In this work we developed physical and virtual robot scenarios as a first step towards the evaluation if the same benefits for children could be obtained using virtual robots in a simulated environment. Our study with ten adult participants without disabilities showed that the virtual robot was easier to control than the physical one.
INTRODUCTION
Children who have movement disorders such as cerebral palsy may have difficulty in manipulating objects, and this can compromise the quality of play and learning of skills [1]. Consequently these children may be perceived as being more developmentally delayed than they actually are, leading to reduced expectations on the part of teachers, clinicians and parents. Using robots controlled by the children provides an opportunity to manipulate real objects and engage in play activities, thus increasing the opportunities to learn cognitive, social, motor and linguistic skills [2].
Poletz, Encarnação, Adams, and Cook [3] evaluated the ages when typically developing children demonstrate basic skills necessary to control robots and other assistive technology, such as scanning access methods to augmentative and alternative communication devices. Eighteen children in the age ranges 3 years ± 3 months, 4 years ± 3 months and 5 years ± 3 months participated in the study. They controlled the Lego(TM) Mindstorms RCX 2.0 robot using 3 switches and a switch adapted infrared controller. The children were observed performing different play activities with the robot from which it was possible to see if they demonstrated cause and effect, negation, binary choice, and sequencing skills. The study showed that children demonstrate skills according to their age level. These robot skills may be used as a proxy measure of cognitive skills for children who are “untestable” with standardized tests. However, cost and hardware availability may be limitations for widespread use of the robots so the purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using a virtual assistive robot. The objective was to develop simulated and real scenarios in which children could control the virtual and physical robots using switches and then test whether the virtual robot provided the same control experience compared to the physical one. If the answer is yes, then future studies should investigate if a virtual robot has the same performance in helping children with disabilities to play, learn, and develop their cognitive ability as in previous studies.
PHYSICAL AND SIMULATED SCENARIO DESIGN
The scenarios in the original study consisted of four tasks [3]:
- Task 1, Causality: Children were expected to press and hold the switch to drive the robot until it hits the blocks at the end of the path (see Fig 1, left).
- Task 2, Negation: Children were required to stop midway down the path (i.e., releasing is an action) so blocks could be loaded onto the robot, and then they had to stop at the end so the blocks could be unloaded (see Fig 1, middle).
• Task 3a, Binary Logic: The robot was placed between two stacks of blocks. Children were asked which stack they wanted to knock over, and then were expected to turn the robot in the appropriate direction using the two new switches. The robot turned left or right by 90 degrees with a press and release switch hit (see Fig. 1, right).
• Task 3b, Sequencing: After turning, children were expected to subsequently press the switch for forward movement until the robot hit the blocks.
**Robot control**
A set of three switches was used to control the physical and the virtual robots. These switches were connected to a computer via a switch interface device (Intelliswitch, from Madentec) and mapped to the functions of the arrow keys on the computer keyboard. The robot control programs for the tasks were developed using Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio (MS-RDS), a Visual Programming Language in a Windows-based environment [4]. The switch actions were programmed to be as follows, using the “Differential Driver” MS-RDS service:
“Up switch” (move straight forward): when the “up switch” was pressed, the robot moved forward. It stopped when the switch was released. Thus, to make the robot continuously move forward, the user needed to press and hold the switch.
“Left or right switch” (turn 90 degrees): when the “Left or Right switch” was pressed, the robot turned accordingly by exactly 90 degrees. The children did not need to hold these switches down to make the robot turn.
**Physical Robot**
A Lego NXT Mindstorms robot was used for the physical robot. MS-RDS provides a service called Lego NXT brick to control this robot. After the robot is connected to the computer via bluetooth, this service can be used to send commands to the robot according to the user switch actions.
**Virtual Robot and Simulation Environment**
The simulated scenario was designed using DSS Manifest Editor and run using Microsoft Visual Simulation Environment, which enables real-world physics simulation for robot and environment models (both software are included in MS-RDS). The entities needed for the above mentioned scenarios were:
Lego NXT Robot: Available in the sample set provided by DSS Manifest Editor.
Blocks: The “SingleShape” entity class provided by DSS Manifest Editor was used. This “SingleShape” class allows creation of an object with certain shapes, such as a box, sphere, capsule and so on. In the scenarios in this project the box shape was used in several ways:
- Cube blocks: items to be knocked down.
- Sheet: In the previous study, an orange sheet marked with the robot and blocks positions was used to facilitate replication of the experimental set up. The height of box shape was adjusted to be flat like a sheet, and colored orange. The friction parameters were set to be similar to the physical world (dynamic and static friction of 0.5 and restitution parameter of 0.2).
- White marks: White marks along the path were used to measure how close to given points the children managed to stop the robot. They were set to be thin enough not to disrupt robot movement (0.003 in).
The three simulation worlds designed corresponding to Tasks 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Figure 2. The position and object size were set according to the ratio of the physical world objects.
Loading and unloading the blocks in Task 2
(negation) was not implemented in the simulation environment. Instead, speech feedback through the “Text to speech” service was used to indicate children successfully stopped at the correct location.
Figure 2: Designed simulation environment: (a) is the environment for Causality, (b) is for Negation and (c) is for Binary Logic and Sequencing
USER STUDY
Ten adult participants without disabilities, four females and six males, participated in the user trials. A new simulation environment and a different task were created to have a more complicated task for the adult users to complete. The simulation environment used in this experiment is shown in Figure 3. The physical scenario matched the virtual one. The participants were required to drive the robot to the first white mark, then turn left and forward to the next mark, then turn left and proceed to knock down both sets of blocks. This protocol encompasses all robot maneuvers required to perform Tasks 1 to 3 above.
Figure 3: Simulation environment used in the user study
All participants did the task with both the physical and virtual robots. Five of the participants were randomly selected to begin with driving the physical robot (Group A) and the other five started with the virtual robot (Group B). They were given some warm-up time to get familiar with the switch controls. The time to complete the task was recorded by an observer with a stop watch.
T-tests ($p$-value < 0.05) were performed to see whether the mean time to complete the task with the virtual robot was less than the mean time to complete the task with the physical robot.
Five subjective evaluation questions regarding robot control and scenario perception were administered (shown in Table 3). Participants rated if they strongly disagreed to strongly agreed on a five point scale.
RESULTS
Table 1: Time to complete the task with the physical and virtual robots.
| | Group A - physical robot first (seconds) | Group B - virtual robot first (seconds) |
|----------------|------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|
| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| Virtual Robot | 50 | 31 | 40 | 58 | 18 | 83 | 45 | 32 | 51 | 49 |
| Physical Robot | 97 | 69 | 84 | 70 | 45 | 58 | 62 | 43 | 119| 43 |
Table 2: Mean value of the time to complete the task with the physical and virtual robots
| | GroupA (seconds) | Group B (seconds) | All Participants (seconds) |
|----------------|------------------|-------------------|----------------------------|
| Virtual Robot | 39.4 | 51.4 | 45.4 |
| Physical Robot | 73.0 | 65.0 | 69.0 |
T-tests assuming a Normal distribution of the times were calculated for the means for all three cases: Group A, Group B and the combined groups. The $p$-value was 0.00313 for Group A, 0.2166 for Group B, and 0.01151 for the combined groups. Thus, for participants in Group A, the mean time to complete the task using the virtual robot was significantly lower than the mean time to complete the task using the physical robot. That was not the case for the participants in Group B. Combining the data from all participants, again one can conclude that the virtual robot was significantly faster to complete the task than the physical one.
The subjective evaluation ratings from all of the participants are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Answers to the subjective questions. SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neutral, A=Agree, SA=Strongly
| Question | SD | D | N | A | SA |
|----------|----|---|---|---|----|
| **Question 1:** Do you agree that the physical robot is easier to control the [perceived] speed than the virtual one? | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| **Question 2:** Do you agree that the physical robot is easier to turn 90 degrees than the virtual one? | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| **Question 3:** Do you agree that the camera view of the virtual robot makes it more difficult to drive the robot? | 2 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| **Question 4:** Do you agree that the objects in the simulation are unrealistic? | 1 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 0 |
| **Question 5:** Do you agree that the moving and colliding effects in the simulation are the same as in the physical world? | 1 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 1 |
**DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION**
In this project, we designed a virtual assistive robot using Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio. After having implemented causation, negation, binary, and sequencing task scenarios in both a virtual and physical assistive robot environment, we conducted an evaluation with 10 adult participants without disabilities. The evaluation was based on a timed task which included all of the aforementioned tasks and a subjective evaluation. The time for participants to complete the task with the virtual robot was significantly faster than the time to complete the task with the physical robot. Looking at individual data, eight participants performed the task faster with the virtual robot. The two participants who were slower with the virtual robot used it first, so they may have had some problems getting used to the switch controls.
Most participants chose Disagree or Strongly Disagree in Question 1. The speed of the physical and virtual robots was set to be the same, but the acceleration of the physical robot seemed to cause problems for participants, and no parameters in MS-RDS were found to adjust it. Most participants also chose Disagree or Strongly Disagree for Question 2. However, this result is influenced by a hardware issue where the physical robot did not always turn exactly 90 degrees due to the position of the back wheel. Question 3 and Question 5 which concern the camera view and colliding effects in the virtual environment were ambiguous, participant responses were distributed between Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. For question 4 only two participants chose Agree, which indicates only a small portion of participants felt the virtual objects and robots were not similar to the physical ones.
Our results established that the virtual robot was easily controlled, especially in driving smoothly and turning. However, there are improvements required for the virtual robot. For example, the virtual robot must be able to automatically manipulate virtual objects (e.g., pick up a block for the negation task). Also, objects need to be modified to make them more closely resemble the physical counterparts.
It is important to stress that this study only evaluated the ease of controlling the virtual robot for non-disabled adults. Further investigation is needed in order to determine if children with and without disabilities have the same experiences using the virtual and the physical robot. If virtual robots can give similar benefits, then the virtual robot has the advantage that parents only need to download the free MS-RDS software express edition and do not need to buy a physical robot.
**REFERENCES**
[1] Musselwhite CR. “Adaptive Play for Special Needs Children,” San Diego, CA: College-Hill Press; 1986.
[2] Cook AM, Bentz B, Harbottle N, Lynch C, and Miller B. “School-Based Use of a Robotic Arm System by Children with Disabilities,” IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehab Eng; 13(4):452-460, 2005.
[3] L. Poletz, P. Encarnação, K. Adams and A.M. Cook, “Robot Skills and Cognitive Performance of Preschool Children,” Technology and Disability, 22(3):117–126, 2010.
[4] Microsoft Robotics Developer Studio (msdn). http://msdn.microsoft.com | <urn:uuid:c6fa3c78-67fa-413c-8b2f-787a5d369ad9> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | https://era.library.ualberta.ca/downloads/hx11xg59v | 2016-05-03T05:14:47Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860118790.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161518-00027-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | 970,377,240 | 3,180 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997585 | eng_Latn | 0.998051 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
3779,
7270,
10673,
14860
] | [
2.875
] | 3 | 12 |
Thirty-third Sunday of the Year
Believe in me
INTRODUCTION
Jesus expects each one of us to share his message and the gift of our faith with other people. He will send the Holy Spirit to give us strength and courage, and will remember our goodness when he returns at the end of time.
SIGN OF THE CROSS
LIGHT THE CANDLES
Light the candles and read (cf John 8:12):
Jesus said, ‘I am the light of the world. Whoever follows me will have the light of life and will never walk in darkness.’
SORRY
Jesus taught us how we should lead our lives and treat other people. In this reading from St Luke, he reminds us that God will forgive us as easily as we forgive others. (cf Luke 6:37-38):
Do not always believe that you are right and others are wrong, but treat people the way you would want to be treated. If you are full of forgiveness for others, then God will be full of forgiveness for you.
(Sit quietly for a few moments of reflection.)
GLORIA
GOSPEL ACCLAMATION
To welcome today’s Gospel sing Acclamation 6: Jesus here we are.
GOSPEL (cf Luke 21:5-7, 12-19)
Jesus was at the temple in Jerusalem when he overheard some of the crowd talking.
‘This temple was built to last forever!’ they said.
But Jesus told them, ‘One day, everything, including this temple will be destroyed.’
‘When will this happen?’ they asked him.
‘Do not be afraid,’ said Jesus, ‘the time for all this to happen is still a long way off. Before then many will suffer because they are my followers. I will give them courage and strength, and they will be rewarded for their faith and goodness by my heavenly Father.’
DISCUSSION
What did Jesus mean when he said that one day everything, including the temple would be destroyed? – Jesus was talking about the end of the world, when he will return in power and glory. Buildings and possessions will not last forever, but love and goodness can never be destroyed.
Did Jesus tell the people when this would happen? – Jesus did not tell them an exact day or time, but that the end of the world would not come until many people had suffered because they believed in him.
Why is being a Christian not always easy? – As Christians we believe in Jesus and everything he taught us. We share one faith which is a gift from God. Jesus expects us to share that faith with others, through our words and by the lives we lead. Many of the early Christians suffered and died for their faith, because others would not believe in Jesus. Today it is not always easy to follow Christ’s way of love, and to build our lives around his teachings, but Jesus promised to give us the strength and courage that we need.
How will Christians be rewarded for their faith? – If we choose to follow Jesus and to live as he taught us, then we will be rewarded for our goodness by sharing everlasting happiness with God at the end of time.
ACTIVITY
Cut an oval shape from card for each child, and punch two holes opposite each other at the ends of the oval. Write ‘Believe in’ on the top half of one side above the holes. Turn the oval over so that the words are upside down and face down. Write ‘Jesus’ above the holes as before. Loop elastic bands or pieces of wool through the holes. After colouring in the letters and decorating the ovals, the children can wind the ovals to twist the bands. Then pull apart and see the message they have written.
CREED
CLOSING PRAYER
Heavenly Father,
thank you for the gift of faith
which each of us has been given.
Help us to share it
with whoever we meet.
GOSPEL ACCLAMATION:
Jesus said for all to hear: "Young man, get up, I tell you."
Alleluia, praise the Lord, alleluia, praise the Lord!
GOSPEL: Luke 7:11-17
A reading from the Gospel of Luke.
Jesus went to a town called Nain.
His disciples and a large group of people were with him.
As they were coming into the town,
they saw some people carrying a stretcher with the body of a young man who had died.
This man was an only child,
and his mother was a widow.
Many people from the town had come to be with her.
When Jesus saw the young man’s mother, he felt very sorry for her, and he said to her,
"Don’t cry."
Then he went over and touched the stretcher. The people carrying it stopped. Jesus said,
"Young man, I say to you, get up!"
And the dead man sat up and began to speak. Jesus took the boy over to his mother.
All the people were amazed and began to praise God, saying,
"This man is a great prophet!
God has truly come to us!"
Soon people all over Judea and all the neighboring countries heard about this wonderful thing that Jesus did.
The Gospel of the Lord.
REFLECTING ON THE READINGS WITH CHILDREN:
Both of these stories will appeal to children.
After the first reading, ask the children to recall what they heard. Ask them then to retell the story. Two aspects should be highlighted:
1) The power of God acting through Elijah.
2) Gratitude for life that leads to the psalm refrain.
The psalm prayer is truly ours as well because God has given us life, continually gives us life, and promises us life forever. After the Gospel, ask the children to recall the story. Take time to be aware of the feelings of the boy’s mother and how Jesus treats her. What did Jesus do and say? And again we highlight:
1) The power of God in Jesus, “I say to you, get up.”
2) Gratitude for life, “Soon people all over . . . heard about this wonderful thing Jesus did.” | <urn:uuid:a366e8ac-8dde-4ec0-a861-406196478fbe> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://parish.rcdow.org.uk/hitchin/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2016/06/LG-10th-Sunday-C.pdf | 2019-10-19T13:19:45Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00343.warc.gz | 641,217,162 | 1,245 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997379 | eng_Latn | 0.99729 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
3491,
5373
] | [
3.90625
] | 1 | 0 |
Diving petrels are small stocky seabirds with short broad wings, short wide bill and paired nostrils opening upwards; blue legs. Sexes alike. Fast whirring flight close to the surface. Generally coastal. Do not follow ships or trawlers. Noisy at night over and at breeding colonies.
**COMMON DIVING PETREL (Kuaka) Pelecanoides urinatrix**
Abundant native
20 cm, 130 g. Upperparts black; sides of face, neck and throat mottled grey; underparts white but underwings smoky grey. Bill stubby (16 x 8 mm), black; blue legs and feet. Like South Georgian Diving Petrel at sea but underwing darker. In hand, underwing coverts greyish brown, inner webs of 3 outer primaries dusky brown, and septal process near base of nostril. **Habitat:** Breeds circumpolar subantarctic. Main NZ sites off eastern North I, Cook and Foveaux Straits, Chatham Is, The Snares, Antipodes and Auckland Is. **Breeding:** Aug–Feb.
---
**SHEARWATERS, FULMARS, PRIONS and PETRELS**
Procellariidae
The Procellariidae is the largest and most diverse family of seabirds, with about 72 species. In the New Zealand region, 49 species have been recorded, including 11 endemic species and 23 other breeding species.
The Procellariidae includes a wide variety of seabirds from the giant petrels to the diving petrels. All have distinctive external nostrils encased in a tube on the top or sides of the bill. They have 11 primaries. The 11th (outermost) is minute, but the 10th is at least as long as the 9th, giving the wing a pointed tip. All seabirds have webbed feet with three forward-pointing toes of about the same length.
Most species nest in burrows or crevices, normally clumped into colonies. Birds return to their colony months before egg-laying to claim their nest sites (usually the same site is used year after year) and to court. After copulation, females leave the colony for one to six weeks on a ‘pre-laying exodus’ to form the egg. Males also leave but often make occasional visits to the nest site.
All species lay one white egg, which is very large relative to the female’s size. The few instances of two eggs in a nest are from two females using the same site. A long incubation period is typically split up into several incubation stints lasting from several days to several weeks between changeovers. Occasionally the changeovers do not coincide and the egg is left unattended for several days; however, eggs have hatched successfully after being chilled for six days. Incubation stints shorten as incubation proceeds, and when the egg hatches the downy chick is brooded and guarded for only a few days in hole-nesting species, but for several weeks in surface-nesting species, until it is able to maintain body temperature.
Throughout its development, the chick is fed large meals at irregular intervals. It gains weight rapidly, becoming much heavier than its parents, but this declines towards adult weight before it fedges. Chicks normally spend some time on the surface exercising their wings before they eventually leave the colony. Once they have flown, they are completely independent of their parents. Young birds usually return to their home colony at 2–7 years old, and spend several years visiting the colony, especially when breeders are incubating or feeding chicks, before attempting to breed. The Procellariidae are typically long-lived, with several species known to live over 25 years.
Most species now breed only on offshore and outlying islands because mainland colonies have been ravaged by introduced mammalian predators. They generally return to their colonies at night, and once on land they are clumsy and unable to take flight rapidly; their only defence is by biting or by spitting stomach oil. The nestling is particularly vulnerable to predators because it is often left unattended for long periods while the parents feed at sea and it emerges from the nest at night to exercise its wings in the week or two before it can fly.
The Procellariidae feed on a wide variety of sea life, ranging from some of the prions, which sieve zooplankton on comb-like lamellae along the edge of their bills, to the giant petrels, which scavenge on dead marine mammals and occasionally kill small seabirds. Most species feed within a few metres of the sea surface, but some shearwaters dive to at least 20 m. These seabirds have well-developed nasal glands for extracting salt from their blood and exuding it out of the prominent nostrils.
The shearwaters (*Calonectris, Puffinus*) include about 15 medium to large species with long slender bills and flat nasal tubes. They are usually brown to black above and white or brown below. Some have large sternums and dive well for fish and squid, using their wings for propulsion, while others have small sternums and feed on, or close to, the surface.
The four species of diving petrel (*Pelecanoides*) are small, stocky black and white seabirds with short wings adapted for propulsion under water. They have a fast, direct, whirring flight and readily dive for small krill and copepods.
The four species of *Pelecaria* are large, stocky seabirds with large, heavily hooked pale bills with dark markings and prominent nostrils. They feed mainly at night on bioluminescent squid but also now take offal discarded from fishing boats.
The three species of *Pseudobulweria* are medium-sized seabirds with exceptionally large feet and a notch on the cutting edge of the upper bill caused by the latericorns having blunt ends.
The fulmarine petrels (*Lugensa, Pagodroma, Daption, Thalassarche, Fulmarus and Macronectes*) are a diverse group of 8 species, all of which have robust bills with prominent joined nasal tubes, rising from the base.
The six species of prion (*Pachyptila*) are small seabirds pale blue above and white below with a prominent M-shaped mark across the upperwings and a dark-tipped tail. Comb-like lamellae on the inside of the bill are used to filter zooplankton.
The single *Halobaena* species looks like the prions but has a white-tipped tail and the upper bill has small tooth-like serrations at the base.
The gadfly petrels (*Pterodroma*) consist of 29 species of highly agile seabirds with long wings and short, laterally compressed black bills with a strongly hooked nail. They feed mainly on squid and small fish.
**Reading:** Harrison, P. 1987. *Seabirds of the World: a photographic guide*. London: Christopher Helm. Harrison, P. 1988. *Seabirds: an identification guide*. London: Christopher Helm. Imber, M.J. 1985. *Ibis* 127: 197–229. Murphy, R.C. 1936. *Oceanic Birds of South America*. New York: MacMillan. Serventy, D.L. et al. 1971. *The Handbook of Australian Seabirds*. Sydney: Reed. Warham, J. 1990. *The Petrels: their ecology and breeding systems*. London: Academic Press.
---
**29. COMMON DIVING PETREL**
*Pelecanoides urinatrix*
Plate 9
**Other name:** Kuaka
**Size:** 20 cm, 130 g
**Geographical variation:** Four subspecies, two of which breed in the New Zealand region: Richdale’s Diving Petrel *urinatrix*, and the Subantarctic Diving Petrel *exsul*.
**Distribution:** Circumpolar, breeding on islands between 34 and 55°S and staying mainly in adjacent seas. Richdale’s Diving Petrels breed on islands off Tasmania and in Bass Strait; and on many islands from the Three Kings to the Bay of Plenty, off Taranaki, in the Marlborough Sounds, on islands in Foveaux Strait and around Stewart Island, on the Solander Islands, The Snares and small islands in the Chathams. Subantarctic Diving Petrels are circumpolar, breeding mainly in the subantarctic zone, including the Antipodes and Auckland Islands and on islets off Campbell Island.
Both subspecies are quite sedentary, remaining mainly in seas near the breeding colonies, which they visit occasionally during the non-breeding season. Common Diving Petrels are quite often wrecked on beaches close to breeding colonies with peaks of recoveries in winter and again in early summer, when young have just left the nest.
**Population:** 1 million+ pairs. Large colonies are on scattered islands off Northland and in the Bay of Plenty, on Sugarloaf Island near New Plymouth, Brothers and Trios Islands in Cook Strait, on South East Island in the Chathams, on Little Solander Island, at The Snares, and on the Antipodes.
**Conservation:** Protected native. Common Diving Petrels are vulnerable to predation by introduced mammals and survive best on islands without mammalian predators. They have become extinct or rare on islands with rats or cats, or where grazing mammals accidentally destroy burrows. Recent efforts to eradicate rats from offshore islands will probably benefit Common Diving Petrels.
**Breeding:** The breeding season is a couple of months earlier in northern New Zealand than in Foveaux Strait. On Green Island in the Mercury group, Common Diving Petrels return to their colonies from March onwards, with a peak of activity around the end of May to prepare their burrows.
Eggs are laid in August in northern New Zealand, but from late September to early October in Foveaux Strait. They lay 1 white egg (38 x 30 mm) in a burrow 0.25–1.5 m long. Eggs hatch after c. 53 days. Chicks are brooded for 10–15 days and fledge at 45–52–59 days old in late November–December in northern New Zealand, and in January–February in Foveaux Strait. Some young birds return to their natal colony as yearlings but do not start breeding until 2–3 years old.
**Behaviour:** Breed in small groups, and they are noisy at their breeding colonies with a variety of calls given in the air, on the ground and from their burrows. The main calls are a harsh ‘kuakadid-a-did’ and ‘kuaka’ given by females only; ‘koo-oo-ah’, given by males only.
**Feeding:** Diet is mostly small krill and copepods, taken mainly by diving into the sea from a metre or two above the surface, then swimming underwater using their wings for propulsion.
**In the hand:** The two species of diving petrel can be reliably separated only in the hand. The Common Diving Petrel has dusky-brown inner webs on its three outer primaries, not white or very pale grey as in the South Georgian; the septal process is near the base of the nostril rather than near the centre and the underwing coverts vary from heavily smudged brown-grey to pale grey, but never white as in the South Georgian, which usually also has a black line on the rear of the tarsus. Richdale’s Diving Petrel is larger than the Subantarctic subspecies, but measurements overlap. *urinatrix*: bill 15–16.7–18.5 mm, wing 113–127–137 mm; *exsul*: bill 16.1 mm, wing 119 mm.
**Reading:** Payne, M.R. & Prince, P.A. 1979. *NZ J Zool* 6: 299–318. Powlesland, R.G. *et al.* 1992. *Notornis* 39: 101–111. Richdale, L.E. 1943. *Emu* 43: 24–48; 97: 31–107. Richdale, L.E. 1965. *Trans Zool Soc (Lond)* 31: 1–86. Thoresen, C.E. 1969. *Notornis* 16: 241–260. | <urn:uuid:da222f4a-9ac8-4012-8fae-9114cece776d> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/PELURI_FG.pdf | 2019-10-19T11:47:31Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00338.warc.gz | 306,584,956 | 2,645 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.996919 | eng_Latn | 0.996919 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
10847
] | [
3.3125
] | 2 | 0 |
Module 2 Review
The same equation has been represented in many different ways below. For questions 1-4 decide if each representation is:
a) Slope-Intercept form
b) Standard form
c) Neither
1. \( y = \frac{1}{3}x - 6 \)
2. \( y - \frac{1}{3}x = -6 \)
3. \(-3y + x = 18\)
4. \( y = \frac{1}{3}(x - 3) + 5 \)
5. What is the x- and y-intercept of the equation from questions 1 - 4?
6. Which graph best represents the equation from questions 1 - 4?
a) 
b) 
c) 
d) 
7. Find the x-intercept and y-intercept to the equation: \( 6x - 2y = 12 \)
x-intercept: _______________
y-intercept: _______________
8. Graph all of the solutions to the inequality \( 4x - 2y \leq 14 \)
9. Solve the following system of equations using substitution, and then check your work by graphing the system of equations
\[
\begin{align*}
y &= -2x - 3 \\
4y + x &= 16
\end{align*}
\]
Match each system on the left with the corresponding graph on the right.
10. \[
\begin{cases}
x + 2y = 8 \\
-4x - 2y = 4
\end{cases}
\]
11. \[
\begin{cases}
x + 2y \leq 8 \\
-4x - 2y \leq 4
\end{cases}
\]
12. \[
\begin{cases}
x + 2y \leq 8 \\
-4x - 2y \geq 4
\end{cases}
\]
13. \[
\begin{cases}
x + 2y \geq 8 \\
-4x - 2y \leq 4
\end{cases}
\]
14. \[
\begin{cases}
x + 2y \geq 8 \\
-4x - 2y \geq 4
\end{cases}
\]
15. Explain how the solutions to the equation \( y = 4x - 5 \) and the inequality \( y > 4x - 5 \) are different. Be specific and use examples as well as graphs in order to receive full points.
16. Solve using elimination:
\[2x - 3y = 4\]
\[3x - 4y = 5\]
17. Solve the following system of equations using 3 different methods:
\[-x + y = 5\]
\[3x + y = 1\]
**Graphing:**
**Substitution:**
**Elimination:**
18. The school that Stefan goes to is selling tickets to a choral performance. On the first day of ticket sales the school sold 3 senior citizen tickets and 1 child ticket for a total of $38. The school took in $52 on the second day by selling 3 senior citizen tickets and 2 child tickets. Find the price of a senior citizen ticket and the price of a child ticket.
**Module 8 Review**
Quiz scores: 22, 54, 32, 18, 20, 31, 43, 48, 40, 60, 58, 21, 36, 8, 30, 36, 48, 52, 20
1. Create a histogram that shows the class’ quiz scores. The intervals should be 10 wide. Then describe the center, shape and spread of the histogram.
2.
| Points Scored | Frequency |
|---------------|-----------|
| 1-10 | |
| 11-20 | |
| 21-30 | |
| 31-40 | |
| 41-50 | |
| 51-60 | |
3. Estimate the correlation coefficient for the following graphs.
4.
Describe the data:
Shape:
Spread:
Center:
Final Review Questions from Module 6
For questions 1-2, use the diagram below.
1. Which of the following describes the transformation from $\Delta ABC \rightarrow \Delta A'B'C'$.
2. Which of the following describes the transformation from $\Delta A'B'C' \rightarrow \Delta A''B''C''$.
For questions 3-4, use the diagram below.
3. Which of the following describes the transformation from $\Delta ABC \rightarrow \Delta A'B'C'$.
4. Which of the following describes the transformation from $\Delta A'B'C' \rightarrow \Delta A''B''C''$.
5. Find the value of \( x \).
6. Which quadrant will \( \overline{AB} \) be in after the following transformation?
\[
(x, y) \rightarrow (x + 2, y - 4)
\]
7. The point \( P(-6, 3) \) is reflected across the line \( y = -x \). What are the coordinates of \( P' \)?
8. Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a 17-gon.
9. Given the points \((-2, 9)\) and \((-5, 2)\) find the slope.
For 10-13, use the diagram below.
10. What is the name of the regular polygon above?
11. How many diagonals are there on the shape to the polygon?
12. How many lines of symmetry are there on the polygon?
13. List all angles of rotational symmetry?
14. Given the points \((-2, -3)\) and \((5, 1)\) find distance between them.
15. If the point \( K = (-2, 6) \) and is rotated 90° clockwise about the point \((0,0)\), then \( K' = \)
16. List two capital letters that have a vertical line of symmetry.
Module 7 Review
1. Explain what \( g(x) = f(x) + k \) means.
2. If \( f(x) = 5x - 3 \) and \( g(x) = f(x) + 9 \), then \( g(x) = \)
3. If \( f(x) = 9(4)^x \) and \( g(x) = f(x) - 6 \), then \( g(x) = \) and then find \( g(3) \).
4. Complete table: \( g(x) = f(x) + 2 \), if \( f(x) = 4x - 5 \)
| x | f(x) | g(x) |
|---|------|------|
| 0 | | |
| 1 | | |
| 2 | | |
| 3 | | |
5. What do you have to prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram?
6. What do you have to prove that a quadrilateral is a rhombus?
7. What do you have to prove that a quadrilateral is a rectangle?
8. What do you have to prove that a quadrilateral is a square?
9. Use the graph above to fill out the table below
Translation Form Equation
\( f(x) = \)
\( g(x) = \)
Slope intercept form equation
\( f(x) = \)
\( g(x) = \)
10. What is the slope between the points (4, -6) and (-8, -12)?
11. What is the distance between the points (4, -4) and (-2, 6)?
1. Write an equation for the graph shown.
2. Rewrite the equation $20x - 5y = 15$ in slope-intercept form.
3. State whether the sequence is arithmetic, geometric or neither.
\[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, \ldots\]
4. State whether the sequence is arithmetic, geometric or neither.
\[2, 4, 8, 16, 32, \ldots\]
5. Identify the next two terms in the sequence.
\[2, 4, 8, 16, 32, \ldots\]
6. Identify the next two terms in the sequence.
\[32, 16, 8, 4, 2, \ldots\]
7. Find $f(20)$ for $f(n) = -2n + 6$
8. Write the recursive formula for the sequence.
\[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, \ldots\]
9. Write the recursive formula for the sequence.
\[2, 4, 8, 16, 32, \ldots\]
10. Write the explicit formula for the sequence.
\[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, \ldots\]
11. Write the explicit formula for the sequence.
\[2, 4, 8, 16, 32, \ldots\]
12. Identify the rate of change.
\[
\begin{array}{|c|c|}
\hline
x & y \\
\hline
2 & 2 \\
4 & 12 \\
7 & 27 \\
11 & 47 \\
\hline
\end{array}
\]
13. Describe the graph
14. Describe the graph | <urn:uuid:58be3933-177b-4dd5-8a5f-ce537fa46f1e> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://www.murrieta.k12.ca.us/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=33286&dataid=62869&FileName=Second%20Semester%20Math%201%20Review.pdf | 2019-10-19T13:03:55Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00329.warc.gz | 991,010,039 | 2,131 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.906264 | eng_Latn | 0.967074 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
968,
1591,
2763,
3348,
4258,
5264,
6331
] | [
4
] | 1 | 0 |
Are You Ready for a Flood or a Flash Flood?
Here's what you can do to prepare for such emergencies
Know what to expect
- Know your area's flood risk—if unsure, call your local Red Cross chapter, emergency management office, or planning and zoning department.
- If it has been raining hard for several hours, or steadily raining for several days, be alert to the possibility of a flood.
- Listen to local radio or TV stations for flood information.
Reduce potential flood damage by—
- Raising your furnace, water heater, and electric panel if they are in areas of your home that may be flooded.
- Consult with a professional for further information if this and other damage reduction measures can be taken.
Floods can take several hours to days to develop—
- A flood WATCH means a flood is possible in your area.
- A flood WARNING means flooding is already occurring or will occur soon in your area.
Flash floods can take only a few minutes to a few hours to develop—
- A flash flood WATCH means flash flooding is possible in your area.
- A flash flood WARNING means a flash flood is occurring or will occur very soon.
Prepare a Family Disaster Plan
- Check to see if you have insurance that covers flooding. If not, find out how to get flood insurance.
- Keep insurance policies, documents, and other valuables in a safe-deposit box.
Assemble a Disaster Supplies Kit containing—
- First aid kit and essential medications.
- Canned food and can opener.
- At least three gallons of water per person.
- Protective clothing, rainwear, and bedding or sleeping bags.
- Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
- Special items for infant, elderly, or disabled family members.
- Written instructions for how to turn off electricity, gas, and water if authorities advise you to do so. (Remember, you'll need a professional to turn natural gas service back on.)
Identify where you could go if told to evacuate. Choose several places . . . a friend's home in another town, a motel, or a shelter.
When a flood WATCH is issued—
- Move your furniture and valuables to higher floors of your home.
- Fill your car's gas tank, in case an evacuation notice is issued.
When a flood WARNING is issued—
- Listen to local radio and TV stations for information and advice. If told to evacuate, do so as soon as possible.
When a flash flood WATCH is issued—
- Be alert to signs of flash flooding and be ready to evacuate on a moment's notice.
When a flash flood WARNING is issued—
- Or if you think it has already started, evacuate immediately. You may have only seconds to escape. Act quickly!
- Move to higher ground away from rivers, streams, creeks, and storm drains. Do not drive around barricades . . . they are there for your safety.
- If your car stalls in rapidly rising waters, abandon it immediately and climb to higher ground.
Your local contact is:
MORTON GROVE EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
(847) 965-1502 | <urn:uuid:e3d7d80b-c2c0-4d15-97ae-086a16404a47> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.mortongroveil.org/assets/1/6/Flood_preparedness_brochure.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:06:09Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00333.warc.gz | 298,393,153 | 645 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.999118 | eng_Latn | 0.999118 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2922
] | [
3.03125
] | 2 | 0 |
1. What is an ecosystem? [Delhi 2017, CBSE 2014]
Ans: Ecosystem is an interaction of physical and biotic factors present in an area among each other.
2. Why is forest/lake considered a natural ecosystem?
Ans: Forests and lakes have both biotic and abiotic components which are present naturally and are interacting without man’s interference.
3. If in the following food chain, 100 J of energy is available to the lion, how much energy was available to the producer? Plants Deer -> Lion
Ans: 10,000 J.
4. In a food chain of frog, grass, insect and snake, assign trophic level to frog.
Ans: Grass $\rightarrow$ Insect $\rightarrow$ Frog $\rightarrow$ Snake
Frog is in 3rd trophic level i.e., secondary consumer.
5. In a food chain of rabbit, grass and fox, assign trophic level to rabbit. [Delhi 2016]
Ans: Grass $\rightarrow$ rabbit $\rightarrow$ fox
Rabbit is a primary consumer or a herbivore or 1st trophic level.
6. Give one protective function of forests. [CBSE 2016]
Ans: Forests reduce atmospheric pollution.
7. The first trophic level in a food chain is always a green plant. Why? [CBSE 2016]
Ans: Plants can only utilize the radiant energy of the sun and transform it to chemical form during photosynthesis.
8. Which of the following are always at the second trophic level of food chains? Carnivores, Autotrophs, Herbivores.
Ans: Herbivores.
9. What is the function of ozone in the upper atmosphere? [Delhi 2015]
Ans: Ozone shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet rays from the Sun.
10. The following organisms form a food chain. Which of this will have the highest concentration of non-biodegradable chemicals? Name the phenomenon associated with it.
Insects, Hawk, Grass, Snake, Frog
Ans: (i) Hawk (ii) Biomagnification
11. What will be the amount of energy available to the organisms of the 2nd trophic level of a food chain, if the energy available at the first trophic level is 10,000 joules?
Ans: 1000 joules.
12. In an ecosystem, rats feed on grains. Name the trophic level to which the rats belong.
Ans: Second trophic level.
13. What is the physical environment of an ecosystem called? Give one example. [CBSE 2015]
Ans: Physical environment of an ecosystem is called as the abiotic or non-living component of an ecosystem. This includes physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals. (any one)
14. How does concentration of a pesticide change once it enters a food chain? [CBSE 2015]
Ans:
Concentration of pesticide gets accumulated progressively at each trophic level once it enters a food chain.
15. Draw the conclusion if all the herbivores are removed from the grassland. [CBSE 2015]
Ans:
If all the herbivores are removed from the grassland, carnivores will not be able to survive and the autotrophs will increase in number.
16. Write the appropriate names of the trophic levels Z and X in the figure given below:
Ans: [CBSE 2015]
Tertiary consumers, X : Primary consumers.
17. What is meant by biological magnification? [CBSE 2015]
Accumulation of non-biodegradable chemicals progressively at each trophic level in a food chain is called biological magnification.
18. Give one example each from your daily life where the domestic waste can be reused and recycled. [All India 2014]
Waste paper, boxes, envelopes, plastic and glass bottles.
19. Select one item which is made up of biodegradable material - plastic bag, leather bag, nylon rope, kettle
Ans: [All India 2014-15]
Leather bag.
20. In the food chain given below identify the trophic level in which the number of organisms available would be minimum?
Grass $\rightarrow$ grasshopper $\rightarrow$ Frog $\rightarrow$ Snake $\rightarrow$ Peacock
Ans: [All India 2014-15]
Peacock.
21. Identify the biodegradable pollutant from the following:
Sewage, agricultural waste, fertilizers and pesticide.
Ans: [All India 2014-15]
Sewage.
22. List two items that can be easily recycled but we throw them in the dustbin.
Ans: [All India 2014]
Glass and plastic items can be easily recycled.
23. State a way to prevent accumulation of harmful chemicals in our bodies. [CBSE 2014]
Ans:
To minimize use of pesticides in agriculture.
24. During heavy rain in a village the rainwater carried excessive fertilizers to a pond. How will it affect the fish population in the pond in the long run? [CBSE 2014]
The growth of fish will decrease as water gets polluted due to excessive algae growth.
25. “Flow of energy is unidirectional.” Name the first two components of the environment involved in this flow of energy from the sun. [CBSE 2014]
Ans:
Producers and primary consumers.
NO NEED TO PURCHASE ANY BOOKS
For session 2019-2020 free pdf will be available at www.cbse.online for
1. Previous 15 Years Exams Chapter-wise Question Bank
2. Previous Ten Years Exam Paper (Paper-wise).
3. 20 Model Paper (All Solved).
4. NCERT Solutions
All material will be solved and free pdf. It will be provided by 30 September and will be updated regularly.
Disclaimer: www.cbse.online is not affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi in any manner. www.cbse.online is a private organization which provide free study material pdfs to students. At www.cbse.online CBSE stands for Cbse Books For School Education
26. Mention one negative effect of our affluent lifestyle on the environment. [CBSE 2014]
Ans:
Our activities to maintain an affluent lifestyle pollute the environment.
27. Name two gases which have replaced CFCs. [CBSE 2014]
(i) Isobutane (ii) Perfluorocarbon (PFC)
28. Write any two consequences if decomposers are removed from the ecosystem. [CBSE 2014]
Ans:
(i) Dead organisms will pile up.
(ii) There will be no replenishment of soil.
29. State 10 percent law. [All India 2013]
Ans:
The energy available at any trophic level is only 10% of energy from previous trophic level.
30. What will be the impact on ecosystems if bacteria, fungi/microorganism are removed from the environment? [All India 2013]
Complex organic molecules will not breakdown into simple inorganic substances, preventing replenishment of soil.
31. Give one example from your daily life where the household wastes can be effectively reused and recycled respectively.
**Ans:** [All India 2013]
To reuse paper envelope To recycle-plastic mug.
32. Why did United Nations act to reduce the levels of chlorofluorocarbons used in refrigerators?
**Ans:** [All India 2012]
UN wanted to check the depletion of ozone layer.
33. How is ozone layer important for human kind?
**Ans:** [All India 2012]
Ozone layer checks the entry of ultra violet rays of sun from reaching the earth. These rays otherwise can cause skin and blood cancer as well as defects in vision in human beings.
34. A primary consumer in the food chain has 10000 J energy available. How much energy will be provided for tertiary consumer in this food chain?
**Ans:** [All India 2012]
100 J.
35. Name the two components of an ecosystem.
**Ans:** [Delhi 2012]
Biotic and abiotic are two components of an ecosystem.
36. Name two decomposers operating in our ecosystem.
**Ans:** [Delhi 2012]
Bacteria and fungi.
37. How do bacteria and fungi able to decompose some of the wastes in our ecosystem? [Delhi 2012]
**Ans:**
Bacteria and fungi have enzymes to break down complex organic substances to simple and smaller ones.
38. Which chemical is used in fire extinguishers? How is it harmful?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Fire extinguishers use Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It depletes ozone layer.
39. What are the two main components of our environment?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012,13]
Two main components of our environment are:
a. Biotic (e.g., plants, animals etc.)
b. Abiotic (e.g., soil, air, water etc.)
40. Why are green plants called ‘producers’?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
‘Producers’ are the organisms which prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Therefore green plants are called producers as they prepare their own food.
41. Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Compounds which depletes ozone layer are:
(i) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and fluorocarbons.
(ii) Free chlorine.
(iii) Aerosols.
42. Draw a food chain which operates in a forest ecosystem.
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012,13]
Grass $\rightarrow$ Deer $\rightarrow$ Tiger.
43. Give the full form of CFC.
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012,13]
CFC stands for Chlorofluorocarbon compounds.
44. In a certain study conducted on occurrence of DDT along food chains in an ecosystem, the concentration of DDT in grass was found to be 0.5 ppm (parts per million), in sheep it was 2 ppm and in man it was 10 ppm. Why was the concentration of DDT maximum in case of man?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012,13]
DDT is non-biodegradable substance which accumulates at each trophic level. Since man is at the highest trophic level, there is maximum accumulation of DDT in him (biological magnification).
45. Ozone is deadly poisonous, still it performs an essential function. How?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Ozone layer shields the surface of the earth and blocks the entry of UV rays from the sun.
46. What is depicted in the below mentioned scheme?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Food chain/10% law.
47. List two man-made ecosystems.
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Aquarium, crop land, park are man made ecosystem.
48. “Save the Tiger” campaign is being over-emphasised these days by our government. What may be the possible reason?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Tiger stands at the top trophic level. To maintain ecological balance in nature and to preserve gene pool. Tiger is a threatened species. To help its survival, the ‘Save the Tiger’ campaign is emphasized.
49. Why are plastics non-biodegradable substances?
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
Plastics cannot be broken down by the action of enzymes/bacteria/saprophyte.
50. Mention the role of microorganisms like bacteria and fungi in the ecosystem.
**Ans:** [CBSE 2012]
To breakdown the dead remains and waste product of organisms.
51. In the following food chain, grass provides 4000 J of energy to the grasshopper. How much energy will be
available to snake and frog?
Grass, Grasshopper, Frog, Snake.
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
Grass $\rightarrow$ Grasshopper $\rightarrow$ Frog $\rightarrow$ Snake
(4000 J) (400 J) (40 J) (4 J)
So, for snake and frog, 4 J and 40 J energy will be available by 10% law respectively.
52. What is meant ‘non-biodegradable’ waste? Identify biodegradable waste from the following:
Empty packet of chips, empty plastic bottle of mineral water, empty paper box of sweets, empty tin of a cold drink.
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
Substances that do not break down by biological process are called non-biodegradable waste. Empty paper box of sweets.
53. Consider a food chain consisting of:
wheat, rat, snakes, peacock:
What will happen if all the snakes are killed?
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
If all snakes of food chain are killed the peacocks belonging to the next level will also die. Also the population of rats in the preceding level will highly increase.
54. Choose one consumer each that belongs to the second and third trophic levels from the organisms given below:
Eagle, frog, tiger, rabbit, fox
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
(i) Second trophic level $\rightarrow$ Rabbit
(ii) Third trophic level $\rightarrow$ Frog and fox.
55. What happens during the first step of ozone formation in the atmosphere?
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
Oxygen in the presence of UV rays splits oxygen molecule into 2 oxygen atoms.
$$O_2 \xrightarrow{UV} O + O$$
$$O + O_2 \rightarrow O_3 \text{ Ozone}$$
56. Why are non-biodegradable substances not broken down by microbes?
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2012]
Microbes are highly specific enzymes which can breakdown natural materials.
57. If the energy available in phytoplankton is 10,000 KJ, how much energy would a whale get on consuming them?
**Ans:**
[Delhi 2011]
1000 J.
58. When plants are eaten by primary consumers, a great deal of energy is lost as heat to the environment and some amount goes in carrying out various life processes. State the average percentage of energy lost in this manner.
**Ans:**
[Sample Paper 2010]
59. Why should use of Chlorofluorocarbons be reduced?
**Ans:**
[CBSE 2010]
Chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs] are responsible for depletion of ozone layer.
60. Mention two ways to make our environment clean of garbage?
**Ans:**
[Delhi 2008]
a. Reduce the use of plastics
b. Recycle waste paper, plastic, glass and metal items.
**NO NEED TO PURCHASE ANY BOOKS**
For session 2019-2020 free pdf will be available at www.cbse.online for
1. Previous 15 Years Exams Chapter-wise Question Bank
2. Previous Ten Years Exam Paper (Paper-wise).
3. 20 Model Paper (All Solved).
4. NCERT Solutions
All material will be solved and free pdf. It will be provided by 30 September and will be updated regularly.
Disclaimer: www.cbse.online is not affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi in any manner. www.cbse.online is a private organization which provide free study material pdfs to students. At www.cbse.online CBSE stands for Carny Books For School Education
**TWO MARKS QUESTIONS**
61. State two advantages of conserving
(i) forests
(ii) wild life
**Ans:**
[All India 2017]
(i) Advantages of conserving forest are termed as “biodiversity hotspots”. They have large number of species of plants and animals.
(a) They purify air, help in recharging groundwater, bring rains and maintain the fertility of soil.
(b) They are also a source of income for tribal people.
(ii) Wild life is important
(a) To preserve bio-diversity.
(b) As each species has a position in the food chain so wildlife helps in balancing the nature.
62. What are ozone holes? How do they form?
**Ans:**
[Delhi 2016]
The coolants of Refrigerators and A/Cs use CFCs which release fluorine which react with ozone gas and break it into oxygen and a very reactive form of atomic oxygen which in turn can break another ozone molecule. Thus a chain reaction starts and layer of ozone becomes thinner at some places in upper atmosphere. These are called ozone holes.
63. In cities garbage disposal is a major problem. How can we deal with this problem? List any two ways.
**Ans:**
[All India 2016]
Two methods of garbage disposal are:
a. Converting organic wastes into biogas or compost. Organic wastes like cow dung, leaves etc can be decomposed and converted into useful substance like biogas and manure.
b. Recycling plastics, glass and metals.
64. Compare the advantages of cloth bags over polythene bags. [CBSE 2016]
Ans: Cloth bags being biodegradable are broken down by the action of bacteria or other saprophytes, whereas polythene bags being non-biodegradable persist in the environment for a long time, causing harm to the ecosystem.
65. Pesticides like DDT which are sprayed to kill pests on crops are found to be present in the soil, groundwater, water bodies etc. Explain how do they reach these places? [CBSE 2016]
a. Soil: Pesticides are sprayed to protect plants from insects and they, consequently, get settled into soil particles, when used on plants.
b. Groundwater: Through irrigation in the fields, these pesticides present in soil pass into lower layers of soil and reaches groundwater.
c. Water bodies: When the waste water or other agricultural waste is thrown in water bodies like river, canals, ponds, etc., the pesticides affect water bodies.
66. Aquariums need to be cleaned once in a while, whereas ponds or lakes do not require any cleaning. Explain. [CBSE 2016]
Ans: A aquarium is not a ‘self-sustained’ ecosystem. Waste in aquarium cannot be decomposed as microorganisms in it are not active.
Whereas ponds and lakes are natural, and self-sustained ecosystem in which microorganisms help in decomposing the waste matters.
67. What is ozone? How does it form? [All India 2015]
Ans: Ozone layer forms due to combination of molecular and elemental form of oxygen in the presence of UV rays. $O_3$ or ozone is a deadly poison formed from oxygen $O_2$, due to the effect of UV rays of sun.
68. Accumulation of harmful chemicals in our body can be avoided. Explain how this can be achieved. [CBSE 2015]
Ans: Accumulation of chemicals in our body can be avoided by:
a. Washing vegetables and fruits properly with water.
b. Soak vegetables and fruits in salt water for few minutes before cooking.
c. Most vegetables should be boiled.
d. ‘Organic substances’ should be used for cultivation.
69. What will happen if all the deers are removed in the given food chain?
Plants $\rightarrow$ Deers $\rightarrow$ Tigers
Ans: [CBSE 2015]
If all deers are removed from the given food chain, then
a. Tigers will not survive.
b. Plants will increase in number.
70. Food web increases the stability of an ecosystem. Justify. [CBSE 2015]
Ans: Food web depicts feeding connection in an ecological community. It consists of many food chains. Thus, if any of the organism becomes endangered or extinct, the one who is dependent on it has an alternative option available to him for its survival. In this way, food web increases stability in an ecosystem.
NO NEED TO PURCHASE ANY BOOKS
For session 2019-2020 free pdf will be available at www.cbse.online for
1. Previous 15 Years Exams Chapter-wise Question Bank
2. Previous Ten Years Exam Paper (Paper-wise).
3. 20 Model Paper (All Solved).
4. NCERT Solutions
All material will be solved and free pdf. It will be provided by 30 September and will be updated regularly.
Disclaimer: www.cbse.online is not affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi in any manner. www.cbse.online is a private organization which provide free study material pdfs to students. At www.cbse.online CBSE stands for Carry Books For School Education
71. State with reason any two possible consequences of elimination of decomposers from the earth. [CBSE 2015]
Ans: Two possible consequences of elimination of decomposers from the earth are:
a. Increase of complex organic substances causes land, water and air pollution.
b. It may disturb ecosystem as without decomposition, soil will not be replenished, which is essential for plants’, which forms the basis of an ecosystem.
72. Differentiate between the food habits I of organisms belonging to the first and second trophic level. [All India 2014-15]
First trophic level : Producer/autotroph Second trophic level: Primary consumer/ herbivore.
73. State two methods to get rid of non-biodegradable wastes. [CBSE 2014]
Ans: a. Paper bags or cloth bags should be used to carry things instead of plastic bags.
b. Non-biodegradable wastes should be sent in factories for recycling.
74. Define food web. State its significance for ecosystem. [CBSE 2014]
Ans: A system of interconnected food chains between various organisms is called a food web.
A food web maintains ecological balance by maintaining the interdependence of different organisms.
75. Why Amrita Devi Bishnoi national award for wildlife conservation has been instituted? [Foreign 2013]
Ans:
Amrita Devi Bishnoi gave her life while saving wildlife and forest trees in her locality. This award is given for those who show major contribution in conservation and protection of wild life.
76. Government of India is imposing ban on the use of polythene bags for shopping. List four advantages of using cloth or jute bag over polythene bags. [Foreign 2013]
Four advantages of using jute/cloth bag over polythene bags:
a. It is biodegradable.
b. Does not add to the garbage and land pollution.
c. Made from renewable resources.
d. Does not block the flow of water in the drains.
e. Can be washed and reused many times.
77. State the meaning of ‘biodiversity’. List two advantages of conserving forest and wildlife. [Foreign 2013]
Ans:
Biodiversity consists of various species of plants and animals. Wild life means our flora and fauna. Two advantages of conserving forest and wildlife are:
a. To preserve bio-diversity.
b. As each species has a position in the food chain so wildlife helps in balancing the nature.
78. We often observe domestic waste decomposing in the by lanes of residential colonies. Suggest ways to make people realise that the improper disposal of waste is harmful to the environment. [Delhi 2013]
Ans:
a. Provide separate dustbins - green for wet waste and blue for recyclable dry waste at public places.
b. Resident welfare associations should insist on segregation of household waste before their disposal to outside.
c. Awareness campaigns like Swachh Bharat to disseminate the knowledge about consequences of improper disposal of wastes.
79. What would happen if number of carnivores decreases in an ecosystem? [CBSE 2013]
Ans:
a. Population of herbivores will increase beyond control.
b. Autotrophs will disappear from earth due to overgrazing done by herbivores.
c. Both these factors may disturb food chains thus affecting the ecosystem.
80. State the direction of flow of energy in food chain. Can food and energy from a trophic level move back to the previous level? Give reason for your answer. [CBSE 2013]
Ans:
a. Energy flows from producer to top carnivores.
b. No, because flow of energy is unidirectional. It is from lower to higher level.
81. How will food chain be affected if we hunt all the tigers in a forest? [All India 2012]
Ans:
Tiger is the top Consumer or Top Carnivore. Eliminating it from food chain through hunting would lead to leaving the organism at trophic level below it to multiply without control. Since there are large herbivores like deer, they will eat up the producers (grass, plants) and make the soil without vegetation.
No vegetation in soil would cause desertification, soil erosion, floods, drought etc. Less vegetation means less rainfall and disruption of water cycle. It will be a vicious cycle.
Thus this act can lead to ecological balance as well as climatic problems.
82. Mention the differences between food habits of organisms belonging to the first and third trophic level. Give one example of each of them. [CBSE 2012,13]
| First Trophic Level | Third Trophic Level |
|---------------------|---------------------|
| 1. The organisms of this trophic level are plants and are also called producers. | The organisms of this trophic level are animals and are also called secondary. |
| 2. They transform solar energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis. e.g., grass (all green plants) | They obtain chemical energy by eating other animals. e.g., all carnivores (like lion). |
83. List two causes of depletion of ozone layer. Mention any two harmful effects of depletion of this layer. [CBSE 2012]
Two causes of depletion of ozone layer are:
i. Use of CFs (Chlorofluorocarbons) in refrigerator.
ii. Use of CFCs in fire extinguishers and aerosol sprayers.
The harmful effects of depletion of ozone layer are:
a. Due to depletion of ozone layer, UV radiations reach the earth. These UV radiations cause skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
b. This depletion of ozone layer may also lead to variations.
84. What will happen if we kill all the organism in a trophic level? [All India 2011]
The food chain will get disrupted if we kill all the organism in a trophic level. The organism at the lower level will increase in number as there is no one to eat them and those at higher level will die of starvation. This will cause ecological imbalance.
85. Students in a school listened to the news read in the morning assembly that the mountain of garbage in Delhi, suddenly exploded and various vehicles got buried under it. Several people were also injured and there was traffic jam all around. In the brain storming session, the teacher also discussed this issue and asked the students to find out a solution to the problem of garbage. Finally they arrived at two main points - one is self management of the garbage we produce and the second is to generate less garbage at individual level.
a. Suggest two measures to manage the garbage we produce.
b. As an individual, what can we do to generate the least garbage? Give two points.
c. List two values the teacher instilled in his students in this episode.
Ans: [All India 2018]
a. Segregation and safe disposal. Encouraging use of recycled paper, plastic and glass items.
b. Following the strategy of 3Rs:
(i) Reducing the use of packing, buying only whatever is required, taking small serving at a time.
(ii) Reusing envelops, boxes, bottles and cans. Old clothes can be converted into dusters, bags etc
(c) (i) Scientific attitude (ii) concern for environment.
86. You have been selected to talk on “ozone layer and its protection” in the school assembly on ‘Environment Day’.
a. Why should ozone layer be protected to save the environment?
b. List any two ways you will stress in your talk to bring the awareness amongst your fellow students that would protect the ozone layer as well as the environment. [Delhi 2017]
or
How is depletion of ozone layer a matter of concern? What steps should be taken to check their formation?
Ans: [2008 Panchkula]
Depletion of Ozone Layer due to release of CFCs. It will result in UV radiation reaching the earth, causing skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
a. Two steps which can be taken are alternate technology and chemicals should be used to make these appliances where CFCs and CFs are being used.
b. In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels. Many countries have banned the use of CFCs.
87. The activities of man has adverse effect on all forms of living organisms in the biosphere. Unlimited exploitation of nature by man disturbed the delicate ecological balance between the living and non-living components of the biosphere. The unfavourable conditions created by man himself threatened the survival of not only of himself but also of the entire living organisms on the mother earth. One of your classmate is an active member of ‘Eco Club’ of your school which is creating environmental awareness amongst the school students, spreading the same in society and working hard for preventing environmental degradation of the surroundings.
a. Why is it necessary to conserve our environment?
b. State the importance of green and blue dustbins in the safe disposal of the household waste.
c. List two values exhibited by your classmate who is an active member of the Eco-club of your school.
Ans: [All India 2016]
a. Conservation of our environment is necessary to leave it in good condition for our future generations.
b. Green and blue dustbins should be used to segregate wet and dry waste so that according to their nature they can be sent for the safe disposal to compost pits/ biogas plant and recycling in factories.
c. Two values: He is concerned about environment, problem solving attitude.
88. Monika was observing a lizard on the wall which chased an insect and ate it. She felt that lizard is cruel and ugly. Suddenly the lizard fell and was eaten by a cat. She started thinking, how organisms are connected to each other for their food?
a. What is a food chain? Will the world be a better place without lizards?
b. Make a food chain of five organisms.
c. Do you think lizard is cruel and ugly?
d. To which trophic level does the lizard belong?
Ans: [All India 2017]
a. Food chain is a sequence of ‘who eats whom’ in an ecosystem. No, lizards are a part of many food chains. Without them food chain will be disrupted.
b. Grass $\rightarrow$ grass hopper $\rightarrow$ frog $\rightarrow$ snake $\rightarrow$ peacock.
c. No, it is only obtaining food for its survival like all other organisms.
d. Third trophic level/ secondary consumer/ small carnivore.
89. a. What is the height of ozone from the equator?
b. Name the rays against which ozone layer provides protection.
c. Name one effect of depletion of ozone.
Ans: [CBSE 2016]
i. 10 to 16 km.
ii. UV rays.
iii. Global warming.
90. Differentiate between autotrophs, heterotrophs and decomposers and give one example of each.
Ans: [CBSE 2016]
a. Autotrophs are the organisms that can make their own food from carbon dioxide and water under the action of sunlight and in the presence of chlorophyll. Example: All green plants.
b. Heterotrophs are the organisms which cannot make their own food by the process of photosynthesis and are dependent on others for food. Example: All animals.
c. Decomposers are the organisms that decompose the complex molecules present in the dead remains of plants and animals. Example: Bacteria, Fungi.
91. a. What is an ecosystem? List its two main components.
b. We do not clean ponds or lakes, but an aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly. Explain.
Ans: [CBSE 2016, Delhi 2013, CBSE 2008]
a. A self-sustaining functional unit consisting of living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components, is called an ecosystem.
1. Biotic components: Plants and animals.
2. Abiotic components: Light, soil, temperature, humidity, wind, air, etc.
b. An aquarium is an artificial and incomplete ecosystem in contrast to a pond or lake which is natural, self-sustaining and complete ecosystem. In natural ecosystem, decomposers help in recycling waste. So, an aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly.
92. What is ozone? How and where is it formed in the atmosphere? Explain how it affects an ecosystem?
Ans: [Foreign 2015]
Ozone is a molecule containing three atoms of oxygen \((O_3)\), a highly poisonous gas present in the upper layers of the atmosphere.
Formation of ozone - The UV radiations split some molecular oxygen \((O_2)\) apart into free oxygen atoms \((O + O)\). These atoms then combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone.
Affects of an ecosystems are:
i. Due to depletion of ozone layer, UV radiations reach the earth. These UV radiations cause skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
ii. This depletion of ozone layer may also lead to variations.
93. Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances with the help of one example each. List two changes in habit that people must adopt to dispose non-biodegradable waste, for saving the environment.
Ans: [All India 2015]
a. Biodegradable substances can be broken down into simpler substances by nature or decomposers or bacteria or saprophytes. Example: Human excreta, Vegetable peels, etc.
b. Non-biodegradable substances cannot be broken down into simpler substances by nature or decomposers. Example: Plastic/glass.
Habits which people must inculcate are:
c. Use of separate dustbins for biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste.
d. Reuse of things such as poly-bags, etc.
e. Recycle of waste.
f. Use of cotton/jute bags for carrying vegetables etc.
94. After the examination Rakesh with his friends went on a picnic to a nearby park. All friends carried cooled food packed in plastic bags or plastic cans. After eating the food some friends collected the leftover food and plastic bags etc and planned to dispose them off by burning. Rakesh immediately checked them and suggested to segregate the leftover food and peels of fruits from the plastic materials and respectively dispose them off separately in the green and red dustbins placed in the corner of the park.
a. In your opinion, is burning plastic an eco-friendly method of waste disposal? Why? State the advantage of method suggested by Rakesh.
b. How can we contribute in maintain the parks and roads neat and clean?
Ans: [Delhi 2015]
a. No, it pollutes air.
Advantage: Segregation of wastes into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes at the initial stage of disposal saves time and energy.
b. By putting wastes in proper dustbins.
95. “Energy flow in a food chain is unidirectional.” Justify this statement. Explain how the pesticides enter a food chain and subsequently get into our body.
Ans: [CBSE 2015, All India 2014]
a. Energy moves progressively through the various trophic levels and is no longer available to the previous trophic level. The energy captured by autotrophs does not revert back to the solar input. Therefore flow of energy is unidirectional.
b. Pesticides, used for crop rotation when washed down into the soil/water body, are absorbed by the plant/producer along with water and minerals. Being non-biodegradable these chemicals get accumulated progressively in the food chain and enter our body.
NO NEED TO PURCHASE ANY BOOKS
For session 2019-2020 free pdf will be available at www.cbse.online for
1. Previous 15 Years Exams Chapter-wise Question Bank
2. Previous Ten Years Exam Paper (Paper-wise).
3. 20 Model Paper (All Solved).
4. NCERT Solutions
All material will be solved and free pdf. It will be provided by 30 September and will be updated regularly.
Disclaimer : www.cbse.online is not affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi in any manner. www.cbse.online is a private organization which provide free study material pdfs to students. At www.cbse.online CBSE stands for Carry Books For School Education
96. Larger animals kill the smaller animals in the forest, eat whatever they can, leave the rest in the forest but the forest is never found full of dead animals. What happens to the bodies of these dead animals?
Ans: [All India 2015, Delhi 2012]
Bacteria and fungi have enzymes to break down complex organic substances to simple and smaller ones. They decompose them returning the nutrients back to soil/humus.
97. Within the school premises while playing some students observed that some people are burning dry leaves. They knew that it would cause harm to the environment. They immediately went and to these
people requested them to stop it.
(i) How can the above activity be changed to make it environment friendly?
(ii) "Students took initiative to stop the practice". What values are displayed by them in this situation?
(iii) How can we spread awareness among people about being environment friendly?
**Ans:**
(i) Dry leaves can be put in the compost pit to make manure.
(ii) Concern for environment, scientific temperament.
(iii) Counselling, posters, print and audio visual media.
98. What is wild life? How is it important? How is it being protected by government of India?
**Ans:**
Wild life means our flora and fauna. It is important:
a. to preserve bio-diversity.
b. as each species has a position in the food chain so wildlife helps in balancing the nature.
Various species of plants and animals are preserved in botanical gardens, national parks, zoological parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
99. List three environmental friendly practices which you would like to form a part of your daily habits giving justification for each.
**Ans:**
Three environmental friendly activities are:
a. Should walk short distance to reduce use of vehicle running on fossil fuels.
b. Use both sides of papers to reduce its use. Less trees will be cut to make more paper.
c. Packing the gifts should not be practiced. It will reduce the use of shiny but non-biodegradable packing paper. Instead use the boxes and envelopes in which the gifts was received.
100. State one important function of ozone layer in the atmosphere. How is it formed there? Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer? How do these compounds enter into the atmosphere?
**Ans:**
Ozone present in the upper regions of the atmosphere protects us from dangerous UV radiations.
**Formation of ozone layer:**
Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiations acting on oxygen (O₂) molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O₂) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form ozone as shown:
\[
O_2 \xrightarrow{UV} O + O \\
O + O_2 \longrightarrow O_3 \text{ Ozon}
\]
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer. These compounds enter the atmosphere.
101. Distinguish between biodegradable, and non-biodegradable substances. List two effects of each of them on our environment.
**Ans:**
| | Biodegradable | Non-biodegradable |
|---|---------------|-------------------|
| 1. | Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said to be biodegradable. | Substances that are not broken down by biological processes are said to be non-biodegradable. |
| 2. | These substances get recycled and, therefore, do not require any dumping sites. | These substances require a lot of space for dumping which causes wastage of land. |
**Effects of biodegradable substances:**
a. They release harmful gases like methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc., during decomposition process.
b. They release foul smell only during decomposition process but they do not cause any type of soil pollution.
**Effects of non-biodegradable substances:**
a. They persist in the environment for a long time and, thus, harm the various members of the ecosystem.
b. They release very harmful gases when they are acted upon by physical processes like heat and pressure.
c. They cause pollution of air, soil and water.
102. Make an aquatic food chain up to tertiary consumer level. State the trophic level at which concentration of pesticide is maximum and why? [Sample Paper 2010]
**Ans:**
Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Small fish → Bird.
Tertiary consumer, E.g., Bird.
Pesticides are not degradable and get progressively accumulated at each trophic level.
103. Write the aquatic organisms in order of who eats whom starting from producer and form a chain of at least three steps. What name is given to such a chain in an ecosystem and what name is given to each stage. [Sample Paper 2010]
**Ans:**
a. Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Fish,
b. Aquatic food chain.
c. Producer, herbivore, carnivore/Producer, Primary consumer, Secondary consumer.
104. How is depletion of ozone layer a matter of concern? What steps should be taken to check their formation? [Panchkula 2008]
or
How is ozone formed in the upper atmosphere? Why is damage to ozone layer a cause of concern to us? What causes this damage?
**Ans:**
[All India 2008 2008C]
Depletion of Ozone layer occurs due to release of CFCs. This will result in UV radiation reaching the earth, thereby causing skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.
Two steps which can be taken are alternate technology and chemicals should be used to make these appliances where CFs and CFCs are being used.
In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels. Many countries have banned the use of CFCs.
**FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS**
105. Some wastes in nature persist for a long time while others get decomposed in a shorter period. Explain their difference. State in brief two ways each in which they affect the environment.
**Ans:** [All India 2013]
All wastes generated are not of the same nature.
Biodegradable wastes such as plant and animal can be acted upon by decomposers in nature and broken down easily in simpler substances as they possess enzymes to do so. Example: animal excreta, fruit peels, leftover food, crop refuge and so on.
Some other wastes or materials especially the ones produced by man cannot be broken down by decomposers as they do not possess enzymes to do so. They are non-biodegradable wastes such as some pesticide-DDT, detergents, plastics, radioactive wastes, metals etc. These substances may be broken down by chemical and physical processes in nature such as rusting of iron but not by biological processes.
Two ways each in which biodegradable wastes affect the environment:
a. The beauty of a place and it stinks.
b. It attracts flies, cockroaches and germs which spread diseases.
Biodegradable pollutants are agricultural waste and sewage.
Non-biodegradable wastes affect our environment by entering the food chain and accumulating in the body of organisms (biomagnification).
Nitrates and phosphates entering the water bodies can result in eutrophication. Some pesticide-DDT, detergents, plastics, radioactive wastes, metals etc.
106. Give one instance where people’s participation helped to save this natural resource? Why should forests be conserved?
**Ans:** [All India 2009] [Delhi 2017]
Chipko movement i.e., “hug the trees movement” is one of the movements in India to conserve biodiversity and to end the alienation of people from their forests which started in March 1973 by Sunder Lal Bahuguna in hilly areas like Himachal Pradesh.
Two benefits are:
(i) Existing forest cover was protected reducing landslides, land erosion. It actually protected environment and maintained ecological balance.
(ii) Forest wealth could be utilized for food, fodder, fuel, fertilizers and fibers keeping in mind its conservation.
We should conserve forests as:
(i) Forests purify the air and also prevent pollution of air and regulate the climate by maintaining the level of rainfall necessary for their own existence.
(ii) Forests are a storehouse of biodiversity (hotspots of biodiversity). | <urn:uuid:3db1f2fb-457e-4d1b-9473-ad597d2eae54> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.cbse.online/pdf/je/sc/cq/cbjesccq15.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:53:41Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00338.warc.gz | 234,477,340 | 9,515 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.993938 | eng_Latn | 0.99516 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2510,
6120,
10097,
14199,
18757,
23319,
28363,
33570,
38050,
40975
] | [
4.03125,
3.734375
] | 1 | 0 |
**Epstein's Framework of Six Types of Involvement**
(Including: Sample Practices, Challenges, Redefinitions, and Expected Results)
| TYPE 1 | PARENTING |
|--------|-----------|
| Help all families establish home environments to support children as students. |
### Sample Practices
- Suggestions for home conditions that support learning at each grade level.
- Workshops, videotapes, computerized phone messages on parenting and child rearing at each age and grade level.
- Parent education and other courses or training for parents (e.g., GED, college credit, family literacy.)
- Family support programs to assist families with health, nutrition, and other services.
- Home visits at transition points to pre-school, elementary, middle, and high school. Neighborhood meetings to help families understand schools and to help schools understand families.
### Challenges
- Provide information to *all* families who want it or who need it, not just to the few who can attend workshops or meetings at the school building.
- Enable families to share information with schools about culture, background, children's talents and needs.
- Make sure that all information for and from families is clear, usable, and linked to children's success in school.
### Redefinitions
- "Workshop" to mean more than a meeting about a topic held at the school building at a particular time. "Workshop" may also mean making information about a topic available in a variety of forms that can be viewed, heard, or read anywhere, any time, in varied forms.
### Results for Students
- Awareness of family supervision; respect for parents.
- Positive personal qualities, habits, beliefs, and values, as taught by family.
- Balance between time spent on chores, on other activities, and on homework.
- Good or improved attendance.
- Awareness of importance of school.
### Results for Parents
- Understanding of and confidence about parenting, child and adolescent development, and changes in home conditions for learning as children proceed through school.
- Awareness of own and others' challenges in parents.
- Feeling of support from school and other parents.
### Results for Teachers
- Understanding families' background, cultures, concerns, goals, needs, and views of their children.
- Respect for families' strengths and efforts.
- Understanding of student diversity.
- Awareness of own skills to share information on child development.
**TYPE 2**
**COMMUNICATING**
Design effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications about school programs and children's progress.
### Sample Practices
- Conferences with every parent at least once a year, with follow-ups as needed.
- Language translators to assist families as needed.
- Weekly or monthly folders of student work sent home for review and comments.
- Parent/student pickup of report card, with conferences on improving grades.
- Regular schedule of useful notices, memos, phone calls, newsletters, and other communications.
- Clear information on choosing schools or courses, programs, and activities within schools.
- Clear information on all school policies, programs, reforms, and transitions.
### Challenges
- Review the readability, clarity, form, and frequency of all memos, notices, and other print and nonprint communications.
- Consider parents who do not speak English well, do not read well, or need large type.
- Review the quality of major communications (newsletters, report cards, conference schedules, and so on).
- Establish clear two-way channels for communications from home to school and from school to home.
### Redefinitions
"Communications about school programs and student progress" to mean two-way, three-way, and many-way channels of communication that connect schools, families, students, and the community.
### Results for Students
- Awareness of own progress and of actions needed to maintain or improve grades.
- Understanding of school policies on behavior, attendance, and other areas of student conduct.
- Informed decisions about courses and programs.
- Awareness of own role in partnerships, serving as courier and communicator.
### Results for Parents
- Understanding school programs and policies.
- Monitoring and awareness of child's progress.
- Responding effectively to students' problems.
- Interactions with teachers and ease of communication with school and teachers.
### Results for Teachers
- Increased diversity and use of communications with families and awareness of own ability to communicate clearly.
- Appreciation for and use of parent network for communications.
- Increased ability to elicit and understand family views on children's programs and progress.
**TYPE 3**
**VOLUNTEERING**
Recruit and organize parent help and support.
### Sample Practices
- School and classroom volunteer program to help teachers, administrators, students, and other parents.
- Parent room or family center for volunteer work, meetings, resources for families.
- Annual postcard survey to identify all available talents, times, and locations of volunteers.
- Class parent, telephone tree, or other structures to provide all families with needed information.
- Parent patrols or other activities to aid safety and operation of school programs.
### Challenges
- Recruit volunteers widely so that *all* families know that their time and talents are welcome.
- Make flexible schedules for volunteers, assemblies, and events to enable parents who work to participate.
- Organize volunteer work; provide training; match time and talent with school, teacher, and student needs; and recognize efforts so that participants are productive.
### Redefinitions
- "Volunteer" to mean anyone who supports school goals and children's learning or development in any way, at any place, and at any time -- not just during the school day and at the school building.
### Results for Students
- Skill in communicating with adults.
- Increased learning of skills that receive tutoring or targeted attention from volunteers.
- Awareness of many skills, talents, occupations, and contributions of parent and other volunteers.
### Results for Parents
- Understanding teacher's job, increased comfort in school, and carry-over of school activities at home.
- Self-confidence about ability to work in school and with children or to take steps to improve own education.
- Awareness that families are welcome and valued at school.
- Gains in specific skills of volunteer work.
### Results for Teachers
- Readiness to involve families in new ways, including those who do not volunteer at school.
- Awareness of parents' talents and interests in school and children.
- Greater individual attention to students, with help from volunteers.
**TYPE 4**
**LEARNING AT HOME**
Provide information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions, and planning.
### Sample Practices
- Information for families on skills required for students in all subjects at each grade.
- Information on homework policies and how to monitor and discuss schoolwork at home.
- Information on how to assist students to improve skills on various class and school assessments.
- Regular schedule of homework that requires students to discuss and interact with families on what they are learning in class.
- Calendars with activities for parents and students at home.
- Family math, science, and reading activities at school.
- Summer learning packets or activities.
- Family participation in setting student goals each year and in planning for college or work.
### Challenges
- Design and organize a regular schedule of interactive homework (e.g., weekly or bimonthly) that gives *students* responsibility for discussing important things they are learning and helps families stay aware of the content of their children's classwork.
- Coordinate family linked homework activities, if students have several teachers.
- Involve families and their children in all-important curriculum-related decisions.
### Redefinitions
- "Homework" to mean not only work done alone, but also interactive activities shared with others at home or in the community, linking schoolwork to real life.
- "Help" at home to mean encouraging, listening, reacting, praising, guiding, monitoring, and discussing -- not "teaching" school subjects.
### Results for Students
- Gains in skills, abilities, and test scores linked to homework and classwork.
- Homework completion.
- Positive attitude toward schoolwork.
- View of parents as more similar to teacher and of home as more similar to school.
- Self-concept of ability as learner.
### Results for Parents
- Know how to support, encourage, and help student at home each year.
- Discussions of school, classwork, and homework.
- Understanding of instructional program each year and of what child is learning in each subject.
- Appreciation of teaching skills.
- Awareness of child as a learner.
### Results for Teachers
- Better design of homework assignments.
- Respect for family time.
- Recognition of equal helpfulness of single-parent, dual-income, and less formally educated families in motivating and reinforcing student learning.
- Satisfaction with family involvement and support.
**Epstein's Framework of Six Types of Involvement**
(Including: Sample Practices, Challenges, Redefinitions, and Expected Results)
### TYPE 5
**DECISION MAKING**
Include parents in school decisions, developing parent leaders and representatives.
#### Sample Practices
- Active PTA/PTO or other parent organizations, advisory councils, or committees (e.g., curriculum, safety, personnel) for parent leadership and participation.
- Independent advocacy groups to lobby and work for school reform and improvements.
- District-level councils and committees for family and community involvement.
- Information on school or local elections for school representatives.
- Networks to link all families with parent representatives.
#### Challenges
- Include parent leaders from all racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and other groups in the school.
- Offer training to enable leaders to serve as representatives of other families, with input from and return of information to all parents.
- Include students (along with parents) in decision-making groups.
#### Redefinitions
- "Decision making" to mean a process of partnership, of shared views and actions toward shared goals, not just a power struggle between conflicting ideas.
- Parent "leader" to mean a real representative, with opportunities and support to hear from and communicate with other families.
#### Results for Students
- Awareness of representation of families in school decisions.
- Understanding that student rights are protected.
- Specific benefits linked to policies enacted by parent organizations and experienced by students.
#### Results for Parents
- Input into policies that affect child's education.
- Feeling of ownership of school.
- Awareness of parents' voices in school decisions.
- Shared experiences and connections with other families.
- Awareness of school, district, and state policies.
#### Results for Teachers
- Awareness of parent perspectives as a factor in policy development and decisions.
- View of equal status of family representatives on committees and in leadership roles.
**TYPE 6**
**COLLABORATING WITH COMMUNITY**
Identify and integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen school programs, family practices, and student learning and development.
### Sample Practices
- Information for students and families on community health, cultural, recreational, social support, and other programs or services.
- Information on community activities that link to learning skills and talents, including summer programs for students.
- Service integration through partnerships involving school; civic, counseling, cultural, health, recreation, and other agencies and organizations; and businesses.
- Service to the community by students, families, and schools (e.g., recycling, art, music, drama, and other activities for seniors or others).
- Participation of alumni in school programs for students.
### Challenges
- Solve turf problems of responsibilities, funds, staff, and locations for collaborative activities.
- Inform families of community programs for students, such as mentoring, tutoring, business partnerships.
- Assure equity of opportunities for students and families to participate in community programs or to obtain services.
- Match community contributions with school goals, integrate child and family services with education.
### Redefinitions
- "Community" to mean not only the neighborhoods where students' homes and schools are located but also any neighborhoods that influence their learning and development.
- "Community" rated not only by low or high social or economic qualities, but by strengths and talents to support students, families, and schools.
- "Community" means all who are interested in and affected by the quality of education, not just those with children in the schools.
### Results for Students
- Increased skills and talents through enriched curricular and extracurricular experiences.
- Awareness of careers and of options for future education and work.
- Specific benefits linked to programs, services, resources, and opportunities that connect students with community.
### Results for Parents
- Knowledge and use of local resources by family and child to increase skills and talents or to obtain needed services.
- Interactions with other families in community activities.
- Awareness of school's role in the community and of community's contributions to the school.
### Results for Teachers
- Awareness of community resources to enrich curriculum and instruction.
- Openness to and skill in using mentors, business partners, community volunteers, and others to assist students and augment teaching practices.
- Knowledgeable, helpful referrals of children and families to needed services. | <urn:uuid:6fc6205b-d9ed-4d09-9b29-91c390024015> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.sps186.org/downloads/table/13040/6TypesJ.Epstien.pdf | 2019-10-19T13:22:22Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00337.warc.gz | 329,284,457 | 2,648 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997125 | eng_Latn | 0.997285 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2417,
4679,
6723,
9252,
11321,
14008
] | [
3.0625
] | 16 | 1 |
1. Geography
- The parish covers 1,201 hectares (nearly 3,000 acres) and lies on the western fringe of the Blackdown Hills in East Devon, descending from an elevation of 271m (north of Hembury Fort) to 62m at Talewater.
- The main settlements are the village of Payhembury which lies in the centre of the parish and its outlying hamlets of Upton, Higher and Lower Tale, Colestocks and Lower Cheriton.
- There are around 23km of roads in the parish, almost all of which are single track minor roads. The A373 Honiton to Cullompton road crosses the north western part of the parish.
Map of the parish
2. People
The following information is taken from the 2001 population census.
- In 2001 there were 603 people living in the parish. There were 109 children and young people under 16 years of age, 157 people aged between 16 and 44, 207 between 45 and 64, and 130 people 65 years and over. The population has risen since 2001 with the building of new houses.
- Compared to East Devon District, the parish had a slightly higher proportion of young people and more people in the 45 to 64 year age band (see the chart on the following page).
- People living in the parish are generally healthy. The 2001 census shows that three quarters of residents (72%) were considered to be in good health. This is higher than for East Devon as a whole where 67% were in good health. However 19% of people living in the parish had a long-term limiting illness.
3. Families
- In 2001, 356 of the people aged 16 and in the parish were living in couple households. 334 people were married.
- Of the 246 households in the parish, 67 consisted of couples without children living at home, 48 had dependent children and a further 11 households consisted of a single parent and their children. 69 households consisted of people of pensionable age.
- Twenty families living in the parish did not own their own car or van. This is a lower proportion that for East Devon as a whole (8% of the parish compared to 18% in the district).
4. Housing
- In 2001 there were 264 dwellings in the parish. A significant number of houses have been built in the village since then. Of these houses present in 2001, 246 were occupied by people living in the parish. Eight were used as second homes or holiday accommodation and a further ten were unoccupied. These proportions are similar to those found across the district as a whole.
- Eighty percent of the houses (196) were owner occupied with the remainder being Council or social rented houses (10%) or rented from private landlords (10%). Again these are similar proportions as those for the district as a whole.
- Figures form the Land Registry show that average house prices in the county have more than doubled since 2000 (from £80,000 to £180,000), putting the price of houses in the parish out of the reach of many local people.
4. Community
- The parish has a vibrant community life. The primary school (a voluntary controlled church school) has an expanding roll (currently 68 pupils). Other institutions and groups include the toddler and pre-school groups, over 60s club, skittles team, tennis club, and the Church of England congregation of the parish church (also expanding). A central meeting place for events is the new parish hall which was built in 2008.
5. Employment and economy
- In 2001 there were 437 people of working age (16 to 74 years old) in the parish. Of these people, 57% were in employment, 1% were looking for work but unemployed (3 people) and the remaining 40% were not looking for work. The chart on the following page shows that compared to the district, the parish had a slightly lower proportion of unemployed people and a slightly higher proportion of economically inactive people.
- The 2001 census records the types of occupation of people of working age. The largest type in the parish were people with managerial or professional occupations (116 people), followed by people in routine and semi-routine occupations (76), and small-scale employers and ‘own account’ workers (71).
Economic activity of people of working age in Payhembury and East Devon
Source: Office for National Statistics, 2001 Population Census
- The majority of working people worked outside the parish, travelling an average of 21km. This is further than the average commuting distance of 17km for the district as a whole. 71 people in the parish worked from home (23% of the working population).
- The census records the average number of hours worked each week. Men living in the parish worked an average of 45 hours a week whereas women worked an average of 32 hours (suggesting that more women worked part-time than men).
- There are a number of businesses located in the parish. These include 13 farms, the village shop and post office, the pub (The Six Bells), two garages, a training stables and several people providing bed and breakfast accommodation. The largest employer located in the parish is the primary school.
6. Environment
- The central part of the parish is dominated by large fields of arable crops or ley grassland. Smaller fields of permanent pasture occur in the Tale valley and around the village and hamlets. Blocks of woodland occur on the slopes below Hembury Fort, beside the stream north of Curscombe Farm and east of Colestocks but, overall, relatively little of the parish is wooded. Most of the field boundaries consist of traditional Devon hedges (shrubs growing on an earth bank).
- The predominant soil type is a medium silty loam over clay or soft mudstone (the Whimple soil series). On the higher ground the soil becomes stonier and more freely draining over red sandstone (the Bearsted series).
- The parish lies in two river catchments. The River Tale crosses the parish from north to south, joining the River Otter just north of Ottery St Mary and flowing into the sea at Budleigh Salterton. The western parts of the parish drain into the River Clyst which flows into the Exe Estuary at Topsham.
- The north east of the parish lies within the Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (a national designation recognising the country’s most attractive landscapes).
- Features of historical interest include the parish church (St Mary the Virgin) and its yew tree (thought to be amongst the oldest in the UK at over 1,200 years old), Leyhill (15th century manor house), Lower House (late 16th century farmhouse) and Hembury Fort (a Neolithic and Roman hill fort with some of the most impressive earth ramparts in the south west).
RD July 2009 | <urn:uuid:2e14e1d4-8584-4d65-be2a-9c0e06c29fc5> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://www.payhemburyparishcouncil.org.uk/_UserFiles/Files/NP/Evidence/PayhemburyCharacteristics_2009.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:30:33Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00366.warc.gz | 308,644,880 | 1,452 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.998673 | eng_Latn | 0.999095 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"unknown"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
1450,
4052,
6533,
6547
] | [
2.6875
] | 1 | 0 |
Seventh Sunday of the Year
Love your enemies
INTRODUCTION
Does anyone know what an enemy is? (Someone who hates another person and wants to hurt or harm them). Today we hear Jesus telling us that we must learn to forgive and love our enemies, and never to hate them.
SIGN OF THE CROSS
LIGHT THE CANDLES
Say together: Fill our hearts with the love of Jesus.
SORRY
Jesus told us to be like his heavenly Father, who always forgives; Help us to forgive anyone who has hurt or harmed us. If we have spoiled our friendship with God we ask for his forgiveness as we sing our sorry song.
Sing Sorry Song 4: *When we say that we are sorry.*
GLORIA
GOSPEL ACCLAMATION
To welcome today’s Gospel sing Acclamation 3: *Alleluia, alleluia.*
GOSPEL (*cf* Matthew 5:38-48)
One day Jesus said: ‘If someone hits you, do not hit them back, instead you must forgive them and try to be their friend. Learn to love your enemies and to pray for anyone who wishes you harm. It is easy to love someone who loves you back, but it is hard to love someone who hurts you. Try to be like God our Father, who always forgives. If you do this, others will see God’s goodness in you, and my Father in Heaven will be very pleased.’
DISCUSSION
Jesus tells us to love as God loves – all people, even those we do not like! It is easy to be kind to those who are kind to us, but God wants us to be good to people who hurt us too.
Has anyone ever been hurt by someone else, for example a bully at school?
What happened and how did they react to the incident?
What has Jesus told us to do?
We should not let our anger win. We must try to be generous and kind, and to become friends. This is never easy, but we should try to do what we know is right. If the bully laughs at us and will not listen, do not give up! Tell an adult – a teacher or a parent, and perhaps they can help them to realise that hurting others is wrong and instead they must learn to love.
Do the children know of any countries at war?
All over the world many different nations are enemies and their people are at war. Many people are trying hard to bring peace to these places, to encourage friendship, just as Jesus wanted. In our own small way we too can be peacemakers like them; by offering our friendship to everyone we meet; by trying to end a quarrel between others, and by learning to say sorry and to forgive others who have hurt us.
ACTIVITY
Photocopy the illustrations onto thin card. Cut them out for the children to colour and make into badges which encourage peace throughout the whole world.
CREED
CLOSING PRAYER
Lord Jesus, you once said,
‘I leave you my peace, my peace I give you.’
May our hands reach out
to share your peace with others,
and may our hearts always be filled
with forgiveness and love. | <urn:uuid:e2b73063-861b-4a76-baca-39e980d7d56f> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://parish.rcdow.org.uk/hitchin/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2017/02/CL-7th-Sunday-Ordinary-A.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:24:16Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00363.warc.gz | 637,289,078 | 654 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.99518 | eng_Latn | 0.99518 | [
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
2763
] | [
2.890625
] | 1 | 0 |
THE CAPTIVE SIBERIANS
by George Archibald, ICF Co-founder
NOW THERE ARE 28
When ICF hatched in 1973 there were 11 adult Siberian Cranes in captivity at eight different centers. There were 6 "Sibes" in Western Europe, 2 in China, 1 in Japan, 1 in the U.S., and 1 in India. Seven years later, only 5 of these birds survive in captivity at two centers. Three of the birds are at ICF and two are in China.
Concurrent with the decline in the captive stock, the 1970's marked a decrease in the western population of wild Siberian Cranes, which winters in India, from 77 to perhaps as few as 53 birds. The Soviets estimate the eastern population at as few as 200 birds, with 5 nests located in 1977, 13 in 1978, 10 in 1979, and 24 in 1980.
In 1977, ICF began a comprehensive effort to breed Siberian Cranes in captivity. That year a male was sent to ICF from Vogelpark Walsrode and a female from the Philadelphia Zoo. They met spring they laid 12 eggs, which were all infertile despite artificial insemination. The following winter, the Philadelphia female died but she was replaced by a younger bird from Hirakawa Zoo, Wolf. "Hirakawa" laid 6 eggs in 1978, 1 of which was fertile, though the chick died while attempting to hatch. In 1979 she laid 11 eggs, all of which were infertile. Our seventy-year-old male, Wolf, just could not produce what counted most. In the winter of 1980 a new male, Tillman, was imported from Vogelpark Walsrode. Four of Hirakawa's 7 eggs were fertile this season, thanks to Tillman's-prowess. Unfortunately, all the embryos died during development.
In response to the growing need to establish a young and genetically diverse captive group of Siberian Cranes, the USSR's Ministry of Agriculture agreed to send Siberian Crane eggs to ICF in 1977 and 1978. ICF received a total of 11 eggs, of which 7 were fertile. All 7 hatched, and 3 magnificent males and 3 superlative females were reared at ICF, bringing our total population of Siberian Cranes to 9.
In 1979 the Soviets brought 4 Siberian Crane eggs to their Oka State Nature Reserve's new crane breeding center. All hatched but only 1 chick was reared due to dietary problems. Subsequently Vogelpark Walsrode provided the Soviets with the proper pelleted food for crane chicks. In 1980 12 eggs were brought to the Oka Reserve and 4 eggs were sent to Walsrode. A total of 14 chicks were fledged.
This spring a wild young Siberian Crane became lost on migration and ended up in Japan. The bird became quite tame so officials, fearing for its security, took it to Ube Zoo. ICF has proposed that this crane be sent to Baraboo for breeding purposes.
As of October 1, 1980, there are 28 Siberian Cranes in captivity in five centers: Oka State Nature Reserve (13), ICF (9), Walsrode (3), Peking Zoo (2) and Ube Zoo (1).
(continued on page 4)
OKA'S CRANES
Since Soviet ornithologist-conservationist Dr. Vladimir Flint's visit to ICF in May of 1978, our excellent friend and colleague has been instrumental in the hatch of a crane breeding center in the USSR.
Many ICF members will recall our efforts to establish a new Siberian Crane population in western USSR using the ubiquitous Common Crane as a surrogate parent - just as Sandhill Cranes have led a new group of Whooping Cranes into the skies over the Rocky Mountains. Since 1976 over 200 Common Cranes have been wing-tagged near protected wetlands in Iran, and these marked birds have subsequently been found nesting west of the Ural Mountains in the heart of Russia. But, these prospective foster parents must nest early and hatch their eggs in late May. It is therefore impossible to substitute Siberian Crane eggs collected from the wild, since the wild Siberians nest in early June.
Captive Siberian Cranes at ICF, however, were induced to nest from late March through mid May by the use of early spring doses of artificial illumination (to simulate the land of the midnight sun). Eggs produced from our captive birds in Wisconsin can therefore be placed into Common Crane nests at their nesting time. And when the Soviets decided to construct their own crane breeding center (to Dr. Flint's exacting standards), they built it in the heart of the marked Common Crane flock's nesting range. The Soviets now have a crane-earing facility from which captive-produced-Siberian Crane eggs might be shunted "out the back door" into the nests of Common Crane foster parents.
The Oka State Nature Reserve is the home of the Soviet's crane breeding center. Since the arrival of their first birds in 1979, their captive population has jumped to 27 birds representing six species. 1980 was a "Red Star" year for the Reserve. The New York Zoological Society gave the Reserve a yearling pair of White-naped Cranes, the U.S. National Zoo provided a pair of breeding Florida Sandhills, and Vogelpark Walsrode has donated a young pair of Stanley Cranes, five electric incubators, and a regular supply of pellet-fed food. The real star of Oka's show, though, are 10 Siberian Crane chicks reared from 12 eggs collected in the wild by Dr. Flint last spring. In addition, the Reserve has two sub-adult male Siberian Cranes reared in 1978 and 1979 and respectively named Sauey and Geogey, after ICF's co-founders.
The Oka State Nature Reserve is directed by well-known Soviet waterfowl biologist, Dr. Svet Prakhovski. This spring Dr. Prakhovski visited ICF for instruction in the sensitive points of artificial insemination. The captive breeding program at Oka is managed by Dr. Vladimir Panchenko, who hopes to study at ICF in the spring of 1981. A young and enthusiastic field biologist, Yuri Markin, is engrossed in field research on the Reserve's wild Common Cranes, and continues
(continued on page 4)
Molting Study Underway
by Kyoko Matsumoto,
ICF Researcher and "Chick Mama"
As you know, crane chicks grow very fast. Even I, while watching them every day, can almost see them grow. One aspect of their growth particularly fascinated me when I raised crane chicks for the first time in 1979. I began to notice interesting changes in feather structure, and wrote down everything I observed in the daily log book. I couldn't use the data, however, because I lacked an organized record.
This spring two well-trained Japanese ornithologists, Kuni Momose and Yoshi Shigeta, studied at ICF. I was able to discuss with them how to best organize molt observations, since Kuni and Yoshi have done molting studies on several other species of birds. Following their recommendations, I organized a data sheet for recording the molts of crane chicks.
Generally, newly-hatched birds have natal down. It consists of numbers of fine filamentous barbs with little hookless barbules (Marshall, 1960). As the texts predicted, we found that newly-hatched Red-crowned (Grus japonensis) and Eastern Sarus (Grus antigone sharpii) Cranes are covered with this natal down. In a few days the natal down releases from its sheath and the chicks become very fluffy. The Stanley Crane (Anthropoides paradisea) chick has a different type of natal down. The barbs appear glued together, and they only become fluffy at the tips.
On two-week old chicks we observed a second down emerging—one which is not mentioned in the texts. We therefore had to distinguish between first down and second down (1st and 2nd D.—Figure 1). The two sets of down we observed on the Red-crowned and Eastern Sarus chicks are distinguished by coloration and the rigidity of the sheath. But on the Stanley Crane, the second down looks almost the same as the first down. In fact, we began to distinguish a third, similar, natal down on the Stanley chick.
Generally juvenile feathers emerge after the natal down. These feathers are of the contour type. The contour feathers of cranes are, however, definitely less rigid and the margins, especially, are less sharply defined than in other bird families. On the cranes that we observed, the tips of the contour feathers (CF) were usually the same color as the second down and the change from second down to contour feather, though visible, is quite gradual (Figure 1, h through i).
On Red-crowned chicks the tips of the primaries, which are white on the adults, are black on all birds the first year and black on some birds the second year. Moreover, the molting pattern on each individual varies from place to place on its body: molting patterns on ear-coverts, neck, back, etc. are all different.
We've discovered many complicated, but interesting, facts about both chick and adult plumages. Research has just started and I hope to expand our observations of both chicks and adults of various crane species in the future. I believe there is an important relationship between the coloration and molting of feathers and the environment and behavior of cranes.
Figure 1: Generalized molting pattern of crane chicks. — drawing by K. Matsumoto
AVICULTURE WRAP-UP: 1980
by Mike Putnam, Aviculturist
Since the last issue of the Broiga Bugle a number of exciting developments have occurred in ICF's captive propagation program.
This summer we hatched a Stanley Crane (Anthropoides paradisea), the national bird of South Africa, for the first time in our history. "Zulu," named for one of the major tribes of South Africa, hatched on July 14th and is the first offspring from Priscilla and the infamous Killer. For weeks we artificially inseminated Priscilla from Killer without any result. The pair became increasingly hostile to our efforts, so we gave up trying to artificially inseminate (AI) them in May. Much to our surprise, Priscilla laid her first egg of the season on June 14th. After 30 days of incubation we hatched our first Stanley Crane. Zulu has been growing steadily ever since and, after correction of a leg problem, is well on the way to adulthood. We hope Zulu will have a better disposition than its father.
One day after Zulu hatched, Gloria and Painless, our Eastern Sarus Cranes, laid an egg which produced our last chick of the season. On the morning of August 16th we found "Burma," the third Eastern Sarus raised at ICF, alertly awaiting us in the hatcher. Burma, named for a country where this rare subspecies formerly lived, has proved very adept at catching insects which have helped to fuel its steady growth.
Three days before Burma's birth, tragedy struck at ICF when Tony, our male Whooping Crane, was found dead at 3:00 p.m. The preliminary necropsy report indicates he died from an abdominal hemorrhage. Tony was hatched in 1957 at the Audubon Park Zoo in New Orleans by his famous parents Crip and Josephine. Tony was one of the first two Whooping Crane chicks ever produced and reared in captivity. Tony's mother, Josephine, was the last remaining full-blooded Whooper from a now-extinct sedentary population which lived in the marshes of Louisiana. During her life Josephine produced four chicks which were successfully fledged. Tony was the last survivor among her four offspring, and thus the last Whooping Crane which carried genes from the Louisiana population. His death writes the final chapter in the history of the Louisiana Whoopers.
We recently introduced a new twist to the already fascinating Siberian Crane story. Artificial incubation of crane eggs is a difficult operation, and one which is not always successful. Hatching Siberian Crane eggs has proved to be especially difficult, and this species has never been bred in captivity. In a new approach to breeding the Siberian Crane, we are going to try hatching their eggs under foster parents. ICF has obtained several pairs of Florida Sandhill Cranes, which nest at the same time as our Siberians, to serve as foster parents for the Siberian Crane eggs we produce in 1981. The Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland, sent us two pairs of Florida Sandhills on August 19th. This is just one of many undertakings which illustrate ICF and Patuxent's cooperative efforts to save the world's cranes. We are expecting two additional pairs of Florida Sandhills from the National Zoo's Conservation and Research Center in Front Royal, Virginia.
As one breeding season winds down and egg production ceases, we are already gearing up for the next. This fall's preparations—forming new crane pairs, importing more birds, keeping the entire flock healthy—are vital for a successful breeding season next year. We look forward to a productive 1981.
THE WIRES AND WHEREFORES (of Crane Eggs)
by John Riley, ICF Researcher
When a crane lays an egg at ICF our aviculturists quickly remove it from the nest, so that the parent will recycle and lay more eggs. We then place the egg in an incubator which maintains specific settings of temperature and humidity. Determining the correct environmental conditions for artificial incubation has traditionally been done by trial and error. Since proper incubation is critical for healthy chick development, however, it deserves a more scientific approach. So in the summer of 1980 I packed up my lab notebooks and headed for ICF to study egg temperatures and incubation behavior of captive cranes.
Artificial incubation should, I reasoned, attempt to duplicate the conditions underneath a parent crane. My method was therefore to insert a thermocouple into the air cell of an egg which was actually being incubated by a captive crane at ICF. A thermocouple is simply a wire with two different kinds of metal conductors. Where two dissimilar metals are joined together an electric current is naturally generated. The strength of the current depends on the temperature at the site where the conductors are joined. I measured temperature with a galvanometer—a device which accurately measures low electric currents.
The wires I inserted into the egg were hair thin and extended into the air cell about 1/8 of an inch. I drilled a hole into the egg with an electric drill, inserted the wire, swabbed all surfaces with alcohol and an antibiotic and sealed the hole with epoxy. I put the egg back in the nest and ran the wire to an observation blind.
I then sat in my observation blind recording egg temperatures every 15 minutes, and noted the incubating parent's behavior at the nest. The reaction of the birds to wires in their eggs varied from passive acceptance (White-naped Cranes) to violent objection (Common Cranes). For the most part however, it was a successful technique and yielded good information.
I also attempted to measure egg humidity since it, too, is an important factor in development. The egg should lose a constant amount of water throughout the incubation period if the embryo is to develop normally. The incubating bird must maintain proper nest humidity for the egg to lose water at the proper rate.
I intended to measure egg humidity by placing an egg filled with silica gel in the nest of a White-naped Crane. I acted on the theory that the amount of water vapor absorbed by the silica gel in the egg would depend on the humidity in the nest. I spent two weeks carefully calibrating the silica filled egg in a known humidity environment. I set it on the nest one night and left with high expectations for my new device. When I returned the next morning the egg was smashed to tiny bits, with pieces scattered about the pen. Apparently I had gone a little too far.
I was, as I mentioned, more successful in gathering data on egg temperatures.
My results showed an average temperature of 37.5°C during the last five days of incubation for the Common Crane. The egg I was monitoring hatched out a healthy chick during the night of June 15. The average incubation temperature obtained from a White-naped Crane was 36.5°C. The data from the White-naped Crane were recorded using an infertile egg which I had emptied of its contents and filled with a saline solution. This technique is limited, since it doesn't record the amount of heat contributed by the developing embryo. I also gathered data on egg orientation, orientation of the incubating bird, nest attentiveness, solar radiation, wind speed and thermoregulatory behavior which has yet to be analysed.
I hope to apply these techniques in a study of incubation requirements of Siberian Crane eggs. This species is critically endangered, but attempts at hatching captive-produced eggs artificially have met with poor success. Fortunately, we have developed a synthetic wireless egg that will transmit different frequency pulses depending on its temperature. I hope to use this device in my proposed study. With luck, pluck, and continued careful research, ICF may soon be producing healthy flocks of magnificent Siberian Crane chicks.
FWS/IA: CATALYSTS FOR COOPERATION
by Scott Freeman,
Education Coordinator
ICF has been extraordinarily successful at migrating across the boundaries of politically polarized countries to implement effective crane and wetland conservation programs. However, not even our audacious cofounders could do their version of shuttle diplomacy without the support of the several governments involved. We are fortunate to have had an especially long and productive association with the staff of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's International Affairs Office (FWS/IA).
Our "main men" at FWS/IA are three dynamic young conservationists named Dave Ferguson, Steve Kohl, and Wendy Silberman. Steve and Wendy administer Fish and Wildlife's USSR/US program, and Dave heads the Special Foreign Currency Program, which sponsors projects in endangered species conservation in India, Pakistan, and Egypt. (Funds for the research, management and education programs Dave administers come from the sale of surplus U. S. - supplied food-stuffs in those countries).
The trio have diverse, but complimentary, backgrounds. Both Wendy and Steve are fluent in Russian, but whereas Wendy's expertise is in international affairs, Steve has experience in administering academic and cultural exchange programs. Steve also helped implement EPA's 1979 US/USSR Environmental Agreement. Dave is the field biologist in the group having worked extensively in Iran and the northeast U. S. on water development projects and wildlife research. Therefore, ICF is fortunate to work with such competent and dedicated conservationists.
ICF and FWS/IA have "learned up" on a number of scientific exchanges, research efforts, and conservation projects. For example, the numerous exchange visits made by ICF staff and Soviet crane biologists have been coordinated by FWS/IA. George Archibald's 1979 visit to help set up the Oka Reserve's crane research and propagation center, Drs. Galustian and Flin's research at ICF in 1979, and Dr. Frikloiski and Mr. Klepkov's study at ICF in 1980 were all coordinated and supported by FWS/IA. Our Washington colleagues were also vitally important in making the Siberian Crane egg transfers of 1977 and 1978 a reality, and will be sponsoring a group of Soviet aviculturists to study at ICF next spring.
FWS/IA has also sent ICF's Ron Saucy, George Archibald, and Steve Landfried to the far east to attend conferences and promote crane and wetland programs. ICF and FWS/IA plan to cooperate on several upcoming projects: the conference of ICBP's World Working Group on Cranes in India, a proposed aerial survey of Indian wetlands to search for Siberian Cranes, and next year's transfer of Black-necked Crane eggs from China to ICF.
FWS/IA cooperation and support has been of enormous importance to ICF's vital overseas programs. As the world's endangered cranes attempt to migrate through increasingly troubled skies, it is heartening to know that conservationists like Dave Ferguson, Steve Kohl, and Wendy Silberman are on the ground, working to keep the flyways clear.
The Black-necks of Ladakh
Editor's note: ICF cofounder George Archibald recently received the following letter from crane researcher Prakash Gole.
July 1
Yesterday I returned from Ladakh and thought that I should immediately give you the highlights of the 1980 expedition. I was successful in locating 14 Grus nigricollis (Black-necked Cranes) this time: six breeding pairs and two lone birds (I felt sorry for them). In 1976 and 1978 we had found only two pairs. The present number is considerably higher and is most encouraging. We found two nests with two eggs each. The other pairs were in various stages of courtship and nest construction. I am sure most of them must be incubating now. One of the mothers of 1978 hatched when we left them. The two glorious orange-brown chicks came out of the nest and began swimming within four hours of hatching. Wherever possible, I have employed local people to keep a watch on other pairs and report to me of their progress. The Forest Department and the army commanders are co-operating and will keep me informed.
We have attempted an ecological survey of the breeding wetlands of the Black-necked Crane and have collected large numbers of botanical and entomological specimens. The botanist who accompanied me helped greatly in this. The data are being analyzed now.
The posters that we prepared from the pictures you sent (see "Publicized Cranes," Vol. 6:2) became extremely popular. Awareness of the cranes' importance among troops and other armed forces in the area, and official interest in its preservation, is increasing. I am of the opinion that it will not be intentionally shot in the future. Effective protection of its breeding habitat will be the main problem. I have discussed a series of measures in this direction with the authorities.
I look forward to seeing you at the forthcoming Crane Conference, and I shall also be keenly awaiting your advice and guidelines regarding further studies of G. nigricollis in India.
Yours sincerely,
Prakash Gole
Maharashtra, India
Eastern White Storks at Walsrode. The stork and crane egg transfer to ICF - Germany was coordinated by our colleagues at FWS/IA. —photo by George Archibald
CALLING FOR THE CRANES
by
Steve Landfried, ICF Public Affairs Officer
Renowned for strong, loud voices that carry for miles, cranes have long used prodigious vocalizations to defend their territory against intruders. While unison calls and threat displays may deter other cranes, they have not stopped mankind from draining, filling, and developing the world's wetlands. Responding to the need for ICF to aid the sights and sounds of modern media to the warning calls of the cranes, I began work as a part-time Public Affairs Officer in August, 1979.
From the beginning it was clear that ICF's message must be heard by various groups: government officials, conservationists, educators, and the general public. ICF had three objectives for improving the crane and wetland consciousness of these groups: (1) establish better press contacts and increase ICF media exposure at the local, national, and international levels; (2) develop contacts with educators in hopes of introducing crane and wetland topics to school curricula; and (3) arrange field trips for members of the general public to view crane habitats first hand.
With respect to the first objective, events were particularly kind. Within a few weeks of my arrival on the ICF scene, "Lindsay", the first Brolga produced outside of Australia in nearly 60 years, hatched at ICF. Starved for good material over the Labor Day weekend, Madison, Wisconsin papers and television stations quickly picked up the story. Associated Press did, too, and ICF was soon in the pages of papers nation-wide. Needless to say, the story's success greatly facilitated our access to the local media.
ICF broke into the international news pages later in the year when Tillman, ICF's second adult male Siberian Crane, arrived. This Christmas present from the Brehm family at Vogelpark, Walrode could not have been better timed. He came, as did Lindsay, during a holiday lull in the news. On my way to a flight driver with friends, I dropped in on the story at the Madison office of the Associated Press. Within hours the story hit teletype machines across the country. It made the international desks as well, for the International Herald Tribune ran the story in its world-wide edition.
All of these successes multiplied our contacts with the media, and when 1980 graced ICF with a number of interesting developments, more stories than ever hit the national and international presses: Yoshi Shigeta's unrequited courtship with "Tex", Sharon Lantis' long journey to Japan on behalf of the Japanese Crested Ibis, Zhurka's remarkable feat of having ICF's first chick of the season on two successive Mother's Days, the arrival of "Zulu" - our first Stanley Crane chick, and the hatching of ICF's first grandchildren (or is it "grandchicks"?). ICF was also featured on several national and regional television shows.
While the main thrust of the ICF Public Affairs Program has been in the area of press releases, we have also worked successfully with the educational community. During the course of the last year, ICF staff made presentations at meetings of three local teachers associations and two global education workshops. Then in June I represented the United States and ICF at an environmental education conference in southern India. After the conference I gave slide and film shows throughout India on ICF's Siberian Crane projects.
Tours to crane habitats have also begun. Last fall, through university of Wisconsin students, crane enthusiasts saw between 8,000 and 12,000 Sandhill Cranes on their staging ground at the Jasper-Pulaski Wildlife Refuge in north-central Indiana...a truly breathtaking sight. A smaller group visited Wisconsin's Necedah Wildlife Area in August as part of another Extension course. And last Christmas ICF representatives toured Florida wildlife areas to scout proposed ICF tours in the southern part of that state.
In just over a year ICF's Public Affairs Program has made a number of solid accomplishments. What does the future hold in store? Only the promise that ICF will join the cranes in calling loud and clear whenever there is news.
* * *
Please help us learn where the ICF message is being heard. When you see an ICF-related article appear in print, we would appreciate your sending it to our headquarters in Baraboo. Thank you for helping us keep track of our tracks!
THE WISH LIST
ICF's staff gave delighted unison calls when several of last issues' wishes were fulfilled. Harold Bessac dug deep and gave our pterio project a shovel, Clara Sodle warmed our hearts with a pair of heat lamps, Elizabeth Conger donated the purchase price of a metric tape measure, Joyce O'Halloran and Jeffrey Polk cleared the way with a pair of brush clippers, and a certain anonymous gentleman laid a circular saw in our nest one moonless night. Many thanks, good friends.
Remember: Christmas is coming, so be sure to put ICF on your gift list. We still need:
3 water buckets at $6.00 each,
10 3x5 card file drawers at $10.00 each, and
1 case of semen extender at $50.00.
Thank you!
The International Crane Foundation is a registered, publicly-supported, non-profit organization which is dedicated to the study and conservation of cranes throughout the world. Saving cranes saves earth's vanishing wetlands.
Contributions
Grants and Awards
Wolf Brehm, Mary Burke, Samuel Johnson, Smithsonian Institution, World Wildlife Fund.
Life Members
John D. Constable, Herb Hilgendorf (from the estate of Katharine Green), Joe Metz, Tom Moore, Mrs. Charles Pain, Mr. & Mrs. Silas Peller, Doris Platt, Mr. & Mrs. John C. Stedman.
Supporters
NMC Projects Inc., Michael John Weising, Dr. Margaret Winston.
Associate
Stuart & Abigail Avery, Mr. & Mrs. Robert Bolz, Catherine Cleary, Committee for the Preservation of Wildlife, Donn & Alice D'Alessio, Mr. & Mrs. Frederic Dohnen, Ralph Findlay, James Kiesffer (Industrial Coils), Mrs. John J. Louis, Mr. & Mrs. Ronald Martox, Charles W. Miller, Ruth C. Nolan, David W. Pearson, Robert & Ellen Rasch, Eleanor Zulauf.
Nonmonetary Contributions
Baraboo Police Department, Baraboo Public Schools, Melody Dierking, Jaime Enders, Mark & Judy Evan, Debbie Fordham, Judy Foydham, Gail Gibson, Elsiece Hendrix, Marion Hill, Carey Jeffers, Dr. Donald Kindichi, Dianne & Phil Kingsley, Ed Klevenos, Sharon Lantis, Barb Morrison, Liz Nevers, Portage Industries, Dr. Burton Russman, Nan & Larry Stocking, Lynn Stone, Lucille Thompson, Karen Voss, Kate & Frank Wenban, Yiching Mo.
NOW THERE ARE 28
(continued from page 1)
As the wild populations continue to decline, the captive group offers a fresh hope for saving this magnificent species. ICF looks forward to working with the other centers to accomplish intense production of Siberian Cranes in captivity. Captive-reared birds will be distributed to more breeding centers, or restocked into the wild.
OKA'S CRANES
(continued from page 1)
to identify prospective pairs of foster parents for Siberian chicks. We thank our colleagues in New York, Washington, and Walrode for helping the Soviet crane facility fledge, and we congratulate our Soviet friends on their marvelous successes. | <urn:uuid:fb3eaf55-2f2a-43c3-bf75-5f5a26bd5dd0> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://www.savingcranes.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/1980v6n4.pdf | 2019-10-19T12:54:34Z | crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986693979.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019114429-20191019141929-00356.warc.gz | 1,075,950,964 | 6,428 | eng_Latn | eng_Latn | 0.997557 | eng_Latn | 0.998138 | [
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn",
"eng_Latn"
] | false | rolmOCR | [
5730,
16593,
21859,
29006
] | [
2.484375,
1.53125
] | 2 | 0 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.