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Technology Integration Effectively Integrating Technology in Educational Settings Royce Kimmons student_ipad_school - 225, Brad Flickinger via Flickr, CC BY-SA Learning Objectives Develop a foundational understanding of learning theories driving current technology development and adoption for K-12; Develop a foundational understanding of prominent technology integration models; Consider their own values guiding effective technology integration in the classroom. Technology integration [https://edtechbooks.org/-hdL] in the realm of education refers to the meaningful implementation of technology in educational settings to achieve learning goals. This chapter seeks to answer the question: what is effective technology integration? Though on the surface this may seem like a simple question, it is actually quite difficult to answer, because doing so is dependent upon our beliefs and values, how we view learning, and how we view technology's role in the learning process. To approach this question, we will proceed in this chapter by 1) revisiting some common learning theories and how they might influence our perspective of technology's role in learning, 2) exploring the beliefs and values that individuals and institutions might apply when evaluating technology use in the classroom, and 3) providing an overview of some common technology integration models that are used to help teachers better understand the process and goals of technology integration. Watch on YouTube https://edtechbooks.org/-Ki Key Terms Behaviorism a learning theory popularized in the mid-20th century, it treats learning as a response to stimulus and it conditions students to properly react to stimuli; the brain's processes are not considered and viewed as a "black box" Cognitivism a learning theory that focuses on brain functions and how information is processed, stored, retrieved, and applied Compliance legal, ethical, and institutional requirements of technology use (in contrast to their pragmatic use) Connectivism a learning theory that believes that learning need not be isolated to the mind, but becoming a learned and capable citizen in a digital society requires learners to become connected with one another in such a way that they can make use of the network as an extension of their own mind and body Constructionism a learning theory in which students construct artifacts in the outside world that support and reflect their internal construction of knowledge Constructivism a learning theory that considers individual and social factors by holding that learning is constructed by learners on top of previous experience, attitudes, and beliefs Facility the ease at which a new technology can be learned, implemented, or managed at the teacher- or student-level Institutionalization infrastructural compatibility, cost, lifespan, and management scale of new technologies PICRAT a technology integration model that holds that all technology uses either exemplify a Passive, Interactive, or Creative (PIC) relationship between student and technology as well as have a Replacement, Amplifying, or Transformative (RAT) effect on pedagogy Proof RAT a technology integration model that holds that technology use either Replaces, Amplifies, or Transforms (RAT) pedagogical practices (Hughes, Thomas, & Scharber, 2006) SAMR a technology integration model that holds that technology use in the classroom either takes the form of Substitution, Augmentation, evidence-based efficiency or efficacy of a technology to help improve student learning Modification, or Redefinition (SAMR) TPACK a technology integration model that illustrates the comples interplay between Technological Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge, and Content Knowledge Technology Integration the meaningful implementation of technology in educational settings to achieve learning goals Learning Theories Ever since there have been educators trying to teach students, there have been theories that guide how those educators view the process of learning. These learning theories encompass our beliefs about the nature of knowledge and how a person learns. Debates surrounding learning theories have existed for millennia, and even in the modern world, there is great diversity in how scientists, psychologists, and educators view learning. Some of the major learning theories that shape modern conversations surrounding technology integration include behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, constructionism, and connectivism. Each of these theories has been studied and written about at length, and it is impossible to devote sufficient time and attention to each theory in the limited space provided in this chapter. Rather, all educators should study competing learning theories and develop their own understanding of how people learn. In this chapter, we will merely provide an extremely high level overview of each of these theories, what each entails, and what each might mean for teaching and learning with technology. Behaviorism Behaviorism [https://edtechbooks.org/-ZLJ] was popularized in the mid-20th century as psychologists studied behavior patterns and response systems in humans and other animals. Behaviorism treats learning as a response to stimulus. That is, humans and other animals are trained to respond in certain ways to certain stimuli, such as salivating when a dinner bell rings or repeating a memorized fact to receive some external reward. Teaching and learning, then, is a process of conditioning students to properly react to stimuli, and technology can help facilitate this training by providing incentives to learning, such as games or other rewards, or by providing systems to efficiently develop stimulus-response conditioning, such as drill-and-kill practices. Cognitivism Cognitivism [https://edtechbooks.org/-beek] arose as an alternative to behaviorism in part because behaviorism treated the processes of the brain as an imperceptible black box, wherein understanding how the brain worked was not considered important for helping people learn. Cognitivism, therefore, dealt with brain functions and how information is processed, stored, retrieved, and applied. By treating humans as thinking machines, rather than as animals to be trained, research in cognitivism for teaching and learning focused on helping people develop efficient teaching and studying strategies that would allow their brains to make meaningful use of presented information. Through this lens, technology can help in providing information and study resources that assist the brain in efficiently storing and retrieving information, such as through the use of mnemonic devices or multiple modalities (e.g., video, audio). Constructivism However, both behaviorism and cognitivism tended to treat learning the same for all humans, despite their age, culture, or personal experiences. Recognizing that these factors might influence how learning occurs, constructivism [https://edtechbooks.org/-EdC] arose as a means for understanding how individual and social factors might influence the process of learning for different groups of people and individuals. Constructivism holds that learning is constructed by learners on top of previous experience, attitudes, and beliefs. This means that for learning to occur, new learning experiences must take into consideration these human factors and assist the individual in assimilating new knowledge to their existing knowledge constructs. Thus, if you are teaching students about fractions, you must teach them using language that they will understand and connect their learning to experiences in their own lives that will have meaning for them. Technology can help the constructivist learning process by making abstract concepts and facts more grounded in personal experiences and the values of learners and also by allowing the learning experience to be differentiated for individual learners (e.g., through personalized developmentally-appropriate software). Constructionism Believing that knowledge is constructed in the mind, some then took constructivism to the stage of a pedagogical process and called it constructionism [https://edtechbooks.org/-sWI]. From the constructionist viewpoint, the most effective way to teach in a constructivist manner is to have students construct artifacts in the outside world that support and reflect their internal construction of knowledge. For instance, if a student needs to learn about basic engineering concepts, in order to build the internal mind models necessary to understand engineering, students must construct external models, which might take the form of a bridge or catapult. Technology can support constructionist approaches to teaching and learning by empowering students and teachers to create and construct external models reflecting internal mind models with resources and possibilities not available in the real world. By using a simulation, for instance, students can construct any structure or machine without the need of expensive materials, or they might seek to understand economic principles of supply and demand by creating a simulated community that allows them to influence supply chains in ways that would not be possible in the real world. Connectivism Even with these competing theories, some still believed that learning experiences and processes as they actually exist in the real world were not fully represented, and this has become especially obvious now that we live in a society that is heavily networked and connected via electronic and social media. All traditional views about learning had placed knowledge and learning squarely in the mind or body of the student, but modern technologies in particular lead us to consider whether all memory, information processing, and other aspects of learning traditionally ascribed to the mind might not also be distributed with external devices. Connectivism [https://edtechbooks.org/-kBe] holds that the process and goals of learning in a highly networked and connected world is different than learning in the predigital world, because learners are now persistently connected to information sources and other resources through their electronic devices, such as smartphones or laptops. From the connectivist perspective, learning need not be isolated to the mind, but becoming a learned and capable citizen in a digital society requires learners to become connected with one another in such a way that they can make use of the network as an extension of their own mind and body. Thus from a connectivist perspective, the goal of education is to more fully and efficiently connect learners with one another and with information resources in a manner that is persistent and in which learners can make ongoing use of the network to solve problems. From this perspective, technology can be used to improve learning experiences by more fully connecting students with one another and information resources in a persistent manner. Differing Assumptions Each of these learning theories views the learner, the learner's relationship with society, and the learner's relationship to technology quite differently. For that reason, when we begin to consider what constitutes effective technology integration, we must acknowledge that different people and groups who have differing assumptions about how students learn will view technology integration very differently. A connectivist would believe that guiding students to use modern technologies to develop networked relationships with peers and experts in the field is an essential element of learning. However, this may require very little information processing and recall to be occurring in the mind of the learner, which would seem dubious to a cognitivist. Similarly, a constructionist would look to an architecturally sound structure created in a physics engine as evidence of understanding of mathematical engineering concepts, while a behaviorist might consider such an artifact useless in determining the student's ability to recite foundational mathematical equations that every engineer should know. In short, the effectiveness of technology integration requires evidence that the integration is effective, but what is believed to be effective for learning will depend upon our view of learning. Thus, the first step toward defining effective technology integration for yourself is to consider how you define learning and what constitutes evidence of learning. Similarly as teachers work within educational institutions, the criteria by which they and their students are evaluated will rely upon one or more of the learning theories mentioned above. If there is misalignment between how the teacher views learning and how the institution views learning, then misunderstandings will arise, because what the teacher views to be effective technology integration may not be recognized or valued by the institution and vice versa. As such, teachers need to decide for themselves what learning is to them and also understand what learning means in the institutions in which they operate. So, before you can ask yourself what is effective technology integration, you must first ask yourself the following two questions: What are my beliefs about learning and how learning occurs? What are my institution's beliefs about learning and how learning occurs? Learning Check Which learning theory emphasizes networked thinking? Behaviorism a. Connectivism b. Constructivism c. Cognitivism d. Which learning theory emphasizes stimulus and response relationships? Behaviorism a. Connectivism b. Constructivism c. Cognitivism d. Which learning theory emphasizes the inner workings of the mind? Behaviorism a. Connectivism b. Constructivism c. Cognitivism d. Which learning theory emphasizes prior personal and cultural experiences? Behaviorism a. Connectivism b. Constructivism c. Cognitivism d. Beliefs and Values Once you understand how both you and your institution view the learning process, then you can move to the next step and consider your beliefs and values with regard to technology. Some people might value the acquisition of technical skills for the sake of technical skills to be a good thing, while others might believe that technology should only be used if it is helping students to learn content better or to learn more. Though all students should learn some level of technical skill competency in order to make them suitable for the modern workplace (e.g., productivity software, keyboarding, basic programming), most technologies in education are not focused on this type of learning. Rather, when we talk about technology integration, we are generally talking about using technology to improve the learning of content knowledge, such as science, math, history, or language arts. When viewed in this way, teachers and institutions need to consider how well new technologies will help them to teach age-old content in better or more efficient ways and what are the opportunity costs associated with a shift to new technologies. There is a common myth in education related to technology adoption that older or more experienced teachers are less likely to adopt new technologies and to innovate upon their practice than younger teachers. Though this may sometimes be the case, many people do not stop to consider why this might be happening. Evidence suggests that age ultimately has nothing to do with a person's willingness to innovate, but rather, experience may help people to more quickly identify the transient nature of some changes or that some so-called innovations are actually harmful or ineffective for students. In the case of technology in education, experienced teachers may have a wealth of understanding of how their students learn and how they can teach in effective ways, whereas new teachers may be eager to try new things and to adopt technologies that they think will help them be effective in the classroom. The problem is that sometimes the most eager teachers are also the least capable of making informed decisions, because they may lack the experiential knowledge necessary to make informed choices about these technologies, how much time to invest in learning them, and what to expect in terms of student outcomes. In every case, a teacher's beliefs and values will drive how they view technology integration, whether old or young, and their willingness to use technologies in their classrooms. Similarly, schools and districts have their own beliefs and values about technology, how it should be used, and how it will impact students. For this reason it is important for us to understand each of these groups' beliefs and values, how they may be different, and how this influences the process of technology integration. Though personal beliefs and values are complicated and will vary between different people, we will consider four areas of belief and value that guide teachers and institutions in their technology integration practices. These include: Proof, Facility, Compliance, and Institutionalization. Proof First, proof [https://edtechbooks.org/-PDU] deals with the efficiency or efficacy of a technology to help improve student learning. Proof requires some form of discernible or measurable outcome and will be most important to teachers in the classroom or to principals and other administrators who invest time and money into technology and must prove that it is improving student achievement. From a teacher's or principal's perspective, if a technology does not directly improve students' ability to learn in a discernible or measurable way, then the value of that technology will be dubious. Teachers are stressed for time and they do not want to invest the effort necessary to learn and implement new technologies if they are not going to see actual results in how their students are learning. Likewise, principals face financial and other stressors which require them to provide evidence of student learning and that they are being wise stewards of institutional resources. Proof might be slightly different for teachers and principals, however, due to their level of vision and operation. A teacher will want evidence that a technology works in her classroom through the creation of student artifacts or saved time, while a principal might want evidence that a technology works in all classes, preferring more generalizable research evidence over anecdotal evidence from one or two teachers. This means that teachers and principals might not always see eye-to-eye when it comes to identifying meaningful evidence for technology integration, because a classroom teacher will not care about what the research says if she is not seeing success in her classroom, and a principal might not care what an individual teacher says as long as the evidence from other teachers is strong. Facility Second, facility [https://edtechbooks.org/-DuP] deals with the ease at which a new technology can be learned, implemented, or managed at the teacher- or student-level. Teachers want to use tools that are easy to learn, and the greater the learning curve associated with a new technology the less likely a teacher will be willing to invest the time and energy necessary to learn it. Similarly, if the technology requires teachers to invest a large amount of time troubleshooting or providing tutorials to students, then they are much less likely to use it. That is, teachers value technologies that they can pick up, easily use, and put away. Technology support personnel value these technologies as well, because it means that they have to provide less support to teachers in learning and troubleshooting them, but principals and other administrators may not believe that facility is very important in comparison to other values, because in their eyes the value of the technology for learning might outweigh the cost in terms of time or effort. Thus, a principal might require all teachers to learn a new technology, because she believes that it will drastically improve student learning, even though that technology is very difficult to use and requires high levels of support. Compliance Third, compliance [https://edtechbooks.org/-LCn] deals with the legal and ethical requirements of technology use in contrast to their pragmatic use. Those who value compliance will ensure that new technologies meet security requirements or legal requirements regarding student security. Teachers and administrators rarely think about compliance when integrating new technologies, or if they do, they only do so as an afterthought. Rather, strategic technology support personnel deal most heavily with this issue and seek to ensure that technologies that are used in the classroom and across institutions will not pose legal risk to the institution. Thus, the teacher may have students use an online blogging platform without letting school or district personnel know, because those same personnel might tell her to stop, because the platform does not meet mandated security, accessibility, or privacy requirements. Similarly, filtering of web searches is typically managed at the school or district level to ensure compliance with state and federal regulations, while classroom teachers might complain about how strict filtering systems are or may have little say in determining what is allowed and what is banned. In short, compliance seems to be one driving factor for technology integration but only insofar as dedicated professionals in schools and districts are involved in the technology integration process. Institutionalization And fourth, institutionalization [https://edtechbooks.org/-ZMf] deals with infrastructural compatibility, cost, lifespan, and management scale of new technologies. When a teacher purchases a new device or set of devices for her classroom she may not think ahead about the long-term costs associated with those devices (e.g., the price of apps or software updates, breakage, replacement), whether or not the devices are compatible with the school's technology infrastructure (e.g., can they access the network?), or the work involved in keeping those devices up to date and working. Rather, technology support personnel often understand these issues very well and this will guide them to prefer certain technologies over others. Some technologies are very easy to manage and are very secure but have very little value in the classroom, while others may have lots of classroom value but are so difficult to manage that technology support personnel will prohibit their use. Differing Beliefs and Values Based on these four values, it is easy to see why technology integration in school settings can be so complicated. On the one hand, a principal might value proof by wanting to use technologies that are shown through research to improve student learning, while the teacher may want to use a technology that is easy to learn, and a technology support professional might want to use a technology that is compliant and that can easily be implemented at an institutional level. The problem is that a single technology rarely does all things well, and for that reason, certain groups will gravitate toward certain technologies while others will take a very different view. Thus, though a classroom teacher might want to purchase iPads, a technology administrator might want to purchase Chromebooks, and a principal might want to purchase PC or Mac laptops. Each person in this scenario has certain values driving why they are picking one technology over another, and if the teacher does not understand the reason why a principal or tech support professional might have a differing view about what technologies to adopt, this can cause problems for integrating technology, because the teacher may not be able to get the technologies that she wants, she may not have the support necessary to manage and support them, or she might be required to use a technology that she does not want to use. In all cases, the best approach to technology integration involves considering the beliefs and values of everyone involved in the institution and making selections and necessary compromises to best meet their needs. As a teacher, you must understand at least at a basic level the beliefs and values that principals and technology support personnel are working under so that you can understand their perspectives and help to inform technology decision-making with your own. So, you must consider the following: What are the most important factors that will guide my own technology integration decision-making? How do I communicate and collaborate with others who may have different values? Learning Check Which two values would probably be most important to a classroom teacher? Proof a. Facility b. Compliance c. Institutionalization d. Which two values would probably be most important to a technology administrator? Proof a. Facility b. Compliance c. Institutionalization d. Which two values would probably be most important to a principal? Proof a. Facility b. Compliance c. Institutionalization d. Technology Integration Models Once you have a basic grasp of your own approach to learning and the beliefs and values that will guide your technology integration, you are ready to begin exploring how to make this happen effectively. Technology integration models are theoretical models that are designed to help teachers, researchers, and others in the education field to think about technology integration in meaningful ways. There are many, many technology integration models that are used by different groups. Some models are very popular while some are only used by very small groups of people, and some are very similar to one another, while others are very unique. Rather than provide an exhausting description of each technology integration model, we will now proceed by providing a brief overview of a few that we believe to be most widely used or valuable to help you begin thinking about technology integration in your classroom. The models we will explore will include the following: TPACK, RAT, SAMR, and PICRAT. TPACK TPACK [https://edtechbooks.org/-qqB] is the most commonly used technology integration model amongst educational researchers. The goal of TPACK is to provide educators with a framework that is useful for understanding technology's role in the educational process. At its heart, TPACK holds that educators deal with three types of core knowledge on a daily basis: technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge. Content knowledge is knowledge of one's content area such as science, math, or social studies. Pedagogical knowledge is knowledge of how to teach. And technological knowledge is knowledge of how to use technology tools. These core knowledge domains, however, interact with and build on each other in important and complicated ways. For instance, if you are going to teach kindergarten mathematics, you must both understand mathematics (i.e. content knowledge) and how to teach (i.e. pedagogical knowledge), but you must also understand the relationship between pedagogy and the content area. That is you must understand how to teach mathematics, which is very different from teaching other subject areas, because the pedagogical strategies you use to teach mathematics will be specific to that content domain. When we merge content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge together, a hybrid domain emerges called pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge includes knowledge about content and pedagogy, but it also includes the specific knowledge necessary to teach the specified content in a meaningful way. TPACK goes on to explain that when we try to integrate technology into a classroom setting, we are not merely using technological knowledge, but rather, we are merging technological knowledge with pedagogical content knowledge to produce something new. TPACK or technological pedagogical content knowledge is the domain of knowledge wherein technology, pedagogy, and content meet to create a meaningful learning experience. From this, educators need to recognize that merely using technology in a classroom is not sufficient to produce truly meaningful technology integration. Rather, teachers must understand how technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge interact with one another to produce a learning experience that is meaningful for students in specific situations. RAT and SAMR RAT and SAMR are very similar technology integration models, though RAT has been used more often by researchers and SAMR has been used more often by teachers. Both of these models assume that the introduction of technology into a learning experience will have some effect on what is happening, and they try to help us understand what this effect is and how we should be using technology in meaningful ways. RAT [https://edtechbooks.org/-BAZ] is an acronym for replace, amplify, and transform, and the model holds that when technology is used in a teaching setting, technology is either used to replace a traditional approach to teaching (without any discernible difference on student outcomes), to amplify the learning that was occurring, or to transform learning in ways that were not possible without the technology (Hughes, Thomas, & Scharber, 2006). Similarly, SAMR [https://edtechbooks.org/-tgt] is an acronym for substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition (Puentedura, 2003). To compare it to RAT, substitution and replacement both deal with technology use that merely substitutes or replaces previous use with no functional improvement on efficiency. Redefinition and transformation both deal with technology use that empowers teachers and students to learn in new, previously impossible ways. A comparison of the levels of SAMR and RAT The difference between these two models rests in the center letters, wherein RAT's amplification is separated into two stages as SAMR's augmentation and modification. All of these stages deal with technology use that functionally improves what is happening in the classroom, but in the SAMR model, augmentation represents a small improvement, and modification represents a large improvement. Both of these models are helpful for leading educators to consider the question: what effect is using the technology having on my practice? If the technology is merely replacing or substituting previous practice, then it is a less meaningful use of technology. Whereas technology use that transforms or redefines classroom practice is considered to be more valuable. [https://edtechbooks.org/-jBP]PICRAT Building off of the ideas presented in the models above, we will now provide one final model that may serve as a helpful starting point for teachers to begin thinking about technology integration. PICRAT [https://edtechbooks.org/-Dfb] assumes that there are two foundational questions that a teacher must ask about any technology use in their classrooms. These include: What is the students' relationship to the technology? (PIC: 1. Passive, Interactive, Creative) How is the teacher's use of technology influencing 2. traditional practice? (RAT: Replace, Amplify, Transform; cf. Hughes, Thomas, & Scharber, 2006) The provided illustration maps these two questions on a twodimensional grid, and by answering these two questions, teachers can get a sense for where any particular practice falls. The PICRAT model of technology integration For instance, if a history teacher shifts from writing class notes on a chalkboard to providing these notes in a PowerPoint presentation, this would likely be categorized in the bottom-left (PR) section of the grid, because the teacher is using the technology to merely replace a traditional practice, and the students are passively taking notes on what they see. In contrast, if an English teacher guides students in developing a creative writing blog, which they use to elicit feedback from peers, parents, and the online community on their short stories, this would likely be categorized in the top-right (CT) section, because the teacher is using the technology to transform her practice to do something that would have been impossible without the technology, and the students are using the technology as a tool for creation. Experience has shown that as teachers begin using technologies in their classrooms, they will typically begin doing so in a manner that falls closer to the bottom-left of the grid. However, many of the most exciting and valuable uses of technology for teaching rest firmly in the top-most and rightmost sections of this grid. For this reason, teachers need to be encouraged to evolve their practice to continually move from the bottom-left (PR) to the top-right (CT) of the grid. Teachers should seek to move their practice toward the topright of PICRAT Application With these foundational understandings, you are now ready to apply your knowledge to real-life scenarios. Here are a few brief descriptions of how teachers might use technology in a classroom setting. As you read each, consider whether these examples exhibit effective technology integration, what more information you might need to make an informed evaluation, and what factors you believe are most important for making this determination: A teacher uses PowerPoint as part of her lecture. 1. Students are asked to keep an online journal in a 2. blog. Students pass a touch-enabled tablet around the 3. room and write a collaborative poem. Students play an online role-playing game about 4. John Smith and Pocahontas. Students write answers to math problems on an 5. interactive whiteboard. Students organize geometric shapes in patterns 6. on an iPad. A teacher creates a video to introduce herself to 7. her students on the first day. Students make an animated video to tell a story. 8. A teacher designs a WebQuest (inquiry-driven 9. online lesson) for students to complete on their own time. A teacher uses Facebook to remind her students 10. about homework. Learning Check What does PCK stand for? Passive Content Knowledge a. Pedagogical Content Knowledge b. Passive Creative Knowledge c. Pedagogical Creative Knowledge d. What does PIC in PICRAT stand for? Pedagogical, Informational, Constructive a. Primary, Interactional, Concomitant b. Practical, Intuitive, Collaborative c. Passive, Interactive, Creative d. What does RAT stand for? Replace, Amplify, Transform a. Redifinition, Augmentation, Transition b. Remedial, Acceptable, Transitive c. Represent, Approximate, Triangulate d. How useful does PICRAT seem to you? Not at all useful a. Somewhat useful b. Useful c. Very useful d. Extremely useful e. Conclusion This chapter has provided a theoretical foundation for considering how we might determine the effectiveness of technology integration in educational settings. As you can probably tell, there are no easy, universal answers for determining whether a particular use of technology is meaningful or effective. Rather, our determination of effectiveness relies heavily upon our own understanding and acceptance of learning theories, our beliefs and values, and the technology integration models that guide our thinking. Thus, as you approach technology integration in your own teaching, you should use these foundational understandings to articulate the value of your decisions and to guide you in making choices that will be beneficial for your students. Suggested Citation Kimmons, R. (2018). Technology Integration: Effectively Integrating Technology in Educational Settings. In A. Ottenbreit-Leftwich & R. Kimmons, The K-12 Educational Technology Handbook. EdTech Books. Retrieved from https://edtechbooks.org/k12handbook/technology_inte gration Royce Kimmons Dr. Royce Kimmons is an Assistant Professor of Instructional Psychology and Technology at Brigham Young University where he studies digital participation divides specifically in the realms of social media, open education, and classroom technology use. More information about his work may be found at http://roycekimmons.com, and you may also dialogue with him on Twitter @roycekimmons [https://twitter.com/roycekimmons]. Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. & Kimmons, R. (2018). The K-12 Educational Technology Handbook. EdTech Books. 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Guide 2 Critical abilities associated with resilience What are some critical abilities associated with resilience? How can adults and children develop them? According to researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, thinking processes directly affect several critical abilities linked with resilience. 3 Developing and maintaining these resiliency abilities is an ongoing process that helps adults and young children bounce back from daily stress and tough times. row, we experience an amazing calming effect. Young children can learn to do "belly breaths" to calm down. Ask them to feel their bellies swell with air as they slowly inhale, and then, feel their bellies deflate as they slowly exhale. Tell them it's just like blowing up and releasing the air from a balloon. Ability 1. Emotional Regulation Emotional regulation is being in charge of our emotions enough to stay calm under pressure. When we get upset or angry, our emotions can be overwhelming and can adversely affect our whole day. When we're in charge of our emotions, we're able to calm down and clear our heads enough so that we don't stay overwhelmed. Being in charge of our emotions doesn't mean that we cut off our emotions or keep them inside. Expressing emotions is healthy and constructive. Being in charge of our emotions is a key part of self-regulation. It is necessary to calm down enough so that we can express our emotions in ways that will help, rather than hurt, a situation. " We can see the beginning stages of self-regulation in babies when they suck their fingers or hold onto their blankets to soothe themselves. Young children need our support to calm down. We can do this by letting them know that all feelings are acceptable, but not all behaviours are. We need to set firm and loving limits on their behaviour. For example, we can say, "It's okay to be mad. It's not okay to hurt yourself or somebody else. Then we can give them other choices to help them express their emotions safely and to calm down. For example, they can draw their "mad" feelings on paper. One simple and effective way be in charge of our emotions is the old tried and true method of taking three deep breaths. When we slowly inhale to the count of three and exhale to the count to three a few times in a Dr. Andrew Shatté, resiliency researcher and coauthor of The Resilience Factor, says that emotional regulation is the most important ability associated with resilience. 3 Being in charge of our emotions affects the way we interact with others, the way we solve problems—even the way we look at the world. Ability 2. Impulse Control Impulse control is the ability to stop and choose whether to act on the desire to do something. For example, when we see an item we want even though we cannot afford it, impulse control enables us to stop and decide that going into debt in order to have that item may cause unnecessary financial stress. Controlling our impulses helps enhance executive functioning skills 20 such as planning for the future, finishing what we set out to do, focusing our attention and delaying gratification. We can help young children develop impulse control by modelling it ourselves and giving them opportunities to practice waiting. This can be done by putting routines in place; playing waiting games that require focused attention, such as Red light/Green light and Freeze ; and using rhymes that promote waiting. Then we can acknowledge their effort. For example, we can say, "You did it! It was really hard to wait, but you did it!" Impulse control and emotional regulation are important self-regulation skills that lay the groundwork for developing the other resiliency abilities. Ability 3. Causal Analysis Causal analysis is the ability to analyze and accurately decide what caused the problem we are facing. The word accurate is very important. Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have shown that what we think about stressful events or problems affects how we feel about these events and what we do about them. Most people have developed thinking habits that become set patterns known as "thinking styles" or "explanatory styles." Some thinking habits get in the way of people's ability to look at problems accurately, find solutions and bounce back. If we use our thinking styles to analyze a problem, we may not be accurate about what caused the problem. Resilient thinking allows us to be flexible—to step back and assess the problem specifically and to decide what is accurate in a particular situation. For example, "It's all my fault" is revised to "I'm only one member of the team." "This is never going to end!" becomes "Once exams are over, I'll be able to hang out with my friends." "I can't do anything right" is replaced with "I'll get better at this once I have more experience." (We'll talk more about thinking habits or styles in Guide 4; see page 12.) Assessing situations accurately and flexibly can help us determine how long the adversity will last and how much of our lives it will affect. Realizing that a challenging situation is temporary and affects only a specific part of our lives helps us feel less overwhelmed. When a challenging situation is actually permanent and affects many aspects of our lives, accurate and flexible thinking can help us put solutions into place to ease the stress. We can help children develop the ability to analyze problems by first helping them identify the problem and then discussing together what they can do about it. For example, we can say, "There is a problem here because you both want to play with the same toy. What do you think you could do?" or "What do you think we could do to solve the problem?" To help children think more accurately and flexibly about whether a situation is permanent or temporary, we can challenge their initial assessment of the situation. For example: [x] "I never get to be first in line" or "She always gets to play with Alicia" can be challenged by first acknowledging the child's feeling and then offering a gentle reminder like, "Remember, yesterday you and Alicia played together in the kitchen centre?" or "We all get a chance to be first in line. Your turn will come, too." [x] "I will never be able to do …" can be challenged by reminding the child of past achievements: "You seem frustrated right now. Remember, you thought you would never be able to put on your jacket without my help? Now you can do it all by yourself!" 5 Ability 4. Realistic Optimism Realistic optimism is the ability to maintain hope for a bright future. This kind of optimism is not about seeing only the positive things in life and dismissing negative events. It's about seeing things as they are and believing that we can make the best out of a situation: "Realistic optimism is the ability to maintain a positive outlook without denying reality, actively appreciating the positive aspects of a situation without ignoring the negative aspects. 3 It is the ability to work toward positive outcomes with the knowledge that they don't happen automatically, but are achieved through communication, effort, problem solving, and planning. We do this by generating alternatives to encountered obstacles. We can ask ourselves, "What else can happen now?" or "How else could I think about this?" Here's an example: When a plan to take the children to the park for a picnic seemed threatened by an overnight rainfall and continuing grey skies, Martha considered the big picture. The children were looking forward to the outing, and overcast skies and cooler temperatures could mean fewer crowds from nearby childcare centres. The wet grass wouldn't be a problem if the kids wore their rainboots and coats. And if it started to rain, they could picnic on the benches under the shelter, and finish their outing by going to a nearby library. Martha was able to view the situation with realistic optimism. She didn't deny the negative aspects of the weather, but she also found some positive features—less heat and fewer crowds. She put a plan into place and believed she could cope with whatever the weather might bring. And by talking about the plan with the children before the outing, Martha modelled how accurate and flexible thinking can help people look for the controllable aspects in everyday situations. Ability 5. Empathy Empathy is often described as understanding what it is like to walk in another person's shoes. It's the ability to understand the feelings and needs of another person. Children learn to understand and support others' feelings by being understood and supported by those around them. Young children benefit when an adult helps them recognize their own feelings: "You look happy about doing that all by yourself." Later on, adults can help children recognize others' feelings: "Jenny's face looks sad. I wonder if she misses playing with her friend today." Research tells us that being understood and understanding others are important to building the capacity for resilience. Ability 6. Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is the feeling of being effective in the world —that we can make a difference and have an impact. It is the belief that we have the competence to tackle problems and bounce back when things get tough. This attitude influences our ability to persevere and maintain a realistically optimistic view of the future. Self-efficacy is rooted in actual experience. We can help children experience competence by giving them choices that allow them to influence decisions that affect them, for example: "It's cold outside. Do you want to wear your hat or pull up your hood?" Offering choice helps children feel that they have some control over what they do. Giving them opportunities to succeed, but still feel challenged, increases confidence. Ability 7. Reaching Out Reaching out is the ability to take on new opportunities that life presents. Resiliency research suggests that people who see mistakes as learning opportunities find it easier to take risks and try new things. We can help children want to try new things by pointing out, "No one is perfect" and "Everyone makes mistakes. It is part of how we learn." Adults can also model making mistakes and fixing them: "Remember when I forgot to read the story yesterday? Today, I'm going to read two stories." We can also remind children of what they have already accomplished, so that they see that they are indeed growing and learning every day: "When you were a baby, you couldn't walk. And look at you now! You run so fast, I can hardly keep up with you." Another important part of reaching out is being accurate and realistic about how much we can cope with and being willing to ask for help when we need it. We can find support from friends, co-workers, community organizations, and professionals. We can help children reach out for support by modelling that it is okay to ask for help. We all need support from others sometimes. 2 RESILIENCY ABILITIES: Reflections to Myself [x] Which ability(ies) is a strength for me? [x] Which ability(ies) is challenging for me? [x] What can I do to develop an ability(ies) that is challenging for me? Reflections About the Children Think about one child you work with: [x] Which ability(ies) is his/her emerging strength? [x] Which ability(ies) is challenging for this child? [x] What can I do to help this child develop a challenging area(s)? Please visit www.reachinginreachingout.com, RIRO's website, for a brief video on strategies to develop emotional regulation: Calming and Focusing (Skills Video 7). For a link to children's storybooks that promote the resiliency abilities, go to: http://www.reachinginreachingout.com/resourcesbooksKids.htm. 7 Summary of Guide 2 Critical abilities associated with resilience What are some critical abilities associated with resilience? According to researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, thinking processes directly affect several critical abilities associated with resilience, including: [x] Emotional regulation: the ability to keep calm under pressure and express emotions in a way that helps the situation [x] Impulse control: the ability to stop and choose whether to act on the desire to take action; the ability to delay gratification and follow through on goals and plans [x] Causal analysis: the ability to analyze problems and accurately decide what the causes are [x] Empathy: the ability to understand the feelings and needs of another person [x] Realistic optimism: the ability to keep a positive outlook without denying reality [x] Self-efficacy: the belief that one has the ability to solve problems, handle stress and persevere [x] Reaching out: the ability to take new opportunities and reach out to others Resilience is not something we either have or don't have. Developing and maintaining resiliency abilities is an ongoing process. What can adults do to help children develop these key resiliency abilities? [x] Teach children strategies to calm themselves down, control impulses, and delay gratification. [x] Help children plan for positive outcomes by analyzing the cause of the current problem. [x] Guide children as they try to identify their own and others' feelings, understand cause and effect, and reach out to ask for support from others when they need it. [x] Promote development of children's self-worth and encourage them to express an interest in life, take opportunities that are presented, and actively engage with others.	<urn:uuid:1edd3e31-6ade-4509-b3ab-8acf90b75091>	CC-MAIN-2019-13	http://reachinginreachingout.com/documents/Guide2-PDF-March2019.pdf	2019-03-18T22:01:46Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201707.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190318211849-20190318233849-00324.warc.gz	180,871,876	2,745	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997818	eng_Latn	0.998654	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3421, 6464, 9802, 11725, 13490 ]	[ 4.25 ]	3	0
Volume 25 Number 5 The Iowa Homemaker vol.25, no.5 1945 U. S. Christmas, 1956 Combines Customs of the Centuries Louise Stuckert Iowa State College Follow this and additional works at: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/homemaker Part of the Home Economics Commons Recommended Citation Stuckert, Louise (1945) "U. S. Christmas, 1956 Combines Customs of the Centuries," The Iowa Homemaker: Vol. 25 : No. 5 , Article 10. Available at: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/homemaker/vol25/iss5/10 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Publications at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Iowa Homemaker by an authorized editor of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org. Article 10 U.S. CHRISTMAS, 1945 Symbols from all over the world are combined in our American Christmas says Louise Stuckert T HE evergreen tree with colorful lights shining from branches weighted down with gay ornaments and silvery tinsle is one of the many symbols of an American Christmas.• The origin of the decorated spruce is the union of two elements. The first was a pagan custom of adorning houses with trees and winter greenery. This idea was imported to the Nativity Festival from the Roman Kalends of January where evergreens were used widely as a symbol of good luck. Second and most important was a wonderful legend that told how, on the night that Christ was born, all the trees in the forest, despite snow and ice, bloomed and bore fruit. Nicholas was wonderfully transformed by early settlers into Santa Claus. Saint Nick lost his legendary pale face and took on the tint of rosy apples; from a lean, ascetic man he became a fat, jolly old fellow and more a humanist than a saint. He added to this, a cap and suit of brilliant red, trimmed with ermine. He traded his gray horse for a reindeer and sleigh and became the human symbol of the Yuletide season for the children. Martin Luther introduced the first Christmas tree, decorated with cut paper and candles, into the domestic celebration of Christmas. " 'Twas the night before Christmas," undoubtedly did much to make Santa Claus or Saint Nicholas and the colorful stocking, hanging from the fireplace, popular with young Americans. The belief of Saint Nicholas, dates back to the third or fourth century. St. Nick was a son of wealthy parents. With his inheritance he joyfully, but secretly, bestowed his riches on poor, needy families. After his death many traditions sprang up and his birthday, December 6, was celebrated by prayer and festivity. Tradition of St. Nick was carried on, but his birthday was pushed up to that of Christ's. In America Saint Holly leaves and ribbon-wound Christmas candles surround the madoua figurine in a decorative theme for a fireplace mantle Christmas cards were originated in 1846 in England by Joseph Lundall, a London artist. They were printed by lithography and colored by hand, and were the usual size of ladies' calling cards. In 1862, Christmas card manufacturing gained a foothold and experiments were made with ordinary calling cards. Inscriptions of Merry Christmas and Happy New Year were tried on the cards. Customs come and customs go, but those of Christmas' remain forever. The custom of sending Yuletide greeting cards, or even using lighted candles, are an inherent part of the Christmas atmosphere. Cards help produce the Christmas spirit and good cheer. Gradually more complex ideas and intricate shapes and designs were used and until today Christmas cards still are the essence of good cheer and convey the Yuletide spirit. Christmas carols were at first Yuletide drinking songs and then they were welcomed aids to cheerful piety. Carols were adopted by Saint Francis of Assisi and his comrades to diffuse religious knowledge among the common people. They were bright, homely songs that praised the Child of Bethlehem. The tradition of lighted candles is a carry-over from the Middle Ages, when one single, large candle was set up in remembrance of the Star of Bethlehem. In some countries it was believed that the lighted candle was there to light the Christ Child on his way. There can be little oubt that midnight mass on Christmas Eve originated in a belief that the Birth of our Lord occurred about midnight. The holly and ivy wreathes, which adorn modern front doors, were once believed to have the power to bring the woodland spirit into the home. T he mode of saluting or more modernly- kissingunder a sprig of berried mistletoe may be a "naughty child" of the pox vobiscum, the kiss of peace, which was practiced in the ancient church, in token of the divine embrace of man in Christ, which made of believers one loving household of faith.	<urn:uuid:95ef53ce-20d7-468a-b4fc-b32ec90cc7b7>	CC-MAIN-2019-13	https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3592&context=homemaker	2019-03-18T21:53:08Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201707.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190318211849-20190318233849-00326.warc.gz	537,326,429	1,048	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.950776	eng_Latn	0.998629	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 807, 4790 ]	[ 2.40625 ]	1	0
UNIT-I ELECTRIC DRIVES AND TRACTION 1.What are requirements the of ideal traction system? - The speed control of the traction motor should be easy. - It must be free from smoke, ash, dust, etc.. - Locomotive should be self contained and it must be capable of withstanding overloads. 2.Define average speed and scheduled speed? Average speed: The mean of the speed from start to stop (i.e) the distance covered between two stops divided by the actual time of run is known as "average speed". Average speed=distance between stops/actual time of run in T. Scheduled speed: The ratio of distance covered between two stops and total time of run including time of stop is known as "scheduled speed". Scheduled speed=distance between stops/actual time of run + stop time. 3. Suggest suitable drives for lifts &cranes. LIFTS : DC series motor. CRANES: DC series and shunt. 4.What are the merits &demerits of DC system of track electrification? Merits: High starting torque, Less maintenance cost, Less vibration,Cheapest method of traction. EE6801-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION,UTILISATION AND CONSERVATIO N Demerits: - High capital cost. - Problem of supply failure. - Additional equipment is required for achieving electric braking &control. 5. What are the factors governing scheduled speed of a train? The scheduled speed of a given train when running on a given service is affected by the following factors. - Acceleration and braking retardation. - Maximum or crest speed and - Duration of stop. 6. What are the recent trends in electric traction? Development of practical electric vehicles has been completed. Motor selection becomes clear,battery trend becomes also clear, components are almost complicated. 7. Define tractive effort &its formula. It is an effective force on the wheel of a locomotive which is required for its propulsion. The tractive effort is a vector quantity and it is tangential to wheel. It is measured in newton. Ft=Fa+ Fg+ Fr 8. Define crest speed. The maximum speed attained by the vehicle during the run is known as‟ CREST SPEED". 9. Define specific energy consumption & discuss the factors that affects the specific energy consumption of trains operation at a given schedule speed. It is the energy consumed per tonne mass of train perkm length of the run.the specific energy consumption of a train running at a given schedule speed is influenced by - Distance between stops - Acceleration - Retardation - Maximum speed - Type of train and equipment - Track configuration. 10. What are the features of electric traction? - High starting torque. - Simple speed control - Self relieving property - Overload capacity - Parallel running. 11. Define dead weight adhesive weight. Dead weight:The total weight of locomotive and train to be pulled by the locomotive is known as dead weight. Adhesive weight:The total weight to be carried on the driving wheels it is known as adhesive weight. 12.Name the advanced methods of speed control of traction motor. - Tap changer control - Thyristor control - Chopper control - Microprocessor control. PART-B 1.Explain the mechanism of train movement with the speed time curve. 2.Explain about the types of supply system used in traction system. 3.Explain about multi motor speed control 4. What are the various types of electric braking used in traction? 5.Sketch the typical speed time curve for main line service &sub urban service in electric traction. Find the equation of distance travelled for main line system. 6.Explain the requirements of electric traction system. 7.What are the factors influencing choice of electric drives 8.Explain generative braking when used for DC series traction motor.How does it differ from the regenerative braking as used for shunt motors. 9.A 250 tonnes train with 10% rotational inertia effect is started with uniform acceleration &reaches a speed of 50 km p.h.p.s in 265 sec on a level road. find the specific energy consumption if the journey is to be made according to simplified trapezoidal speed time curve,the acceleration is 2 km p.h.p.s. Tracking retardation 3km./hr/sec & distance between the station is 2.4 km .efficiency of motor =0.9,track resistance=5 kg/tonne. 10.A train runs with an average speed of 50kmph.Distance between stations is 2.5 km.values of acceleration & retardation are 1.8 km phps &2.4 km phps respectively.calculate the maximum speed of the train assuming speed-time cuve. 12.An electric train has an average speed of 42 kmph on a level track between stops 1400 m apart.It is accelerated at 1.7 kmphps &is braked at 3.3 kmphps. Draw the speed time curve of the run. . UNIT-II ILLUMINATION 2-MARKS: 1.Define utilization factor. It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens given out by lamp. Utilization factor=Total lumens reaching the plane/Total lumens given out by the lamp. 2.What is flood lightning where it is generally used? Flood lightning means flooding of large surface with light from powerful projectors. A special reflector and housing is employed in flood lightning in order to concentrate the light emitted from the lamp in to a relatively narrow beam known as flood lightning projectors. It is generally used in, - Aesthetic flood lightning - Industrial &commercial flood lightning - Advertisting. 3.Define lumen. Lumen is the unit of flux and is defined as the luminous flux per unit angle from a source . 4.Define luminous efficiency. The ratio of the total luminous flux to the total radiant flux of an emitting source. 5.List the type of lightning system. Incandescent ,tungsten-halogen, compact fluorescent lamps, tubular fluorescent fixtures, high intensity discharge. 6 .Define the MSCP and lamp efficiency. MSCP:It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions and in all planes from the source of light. LAMP EFFICIENCY:It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input .It is expressed in lumens per unit. 7.Define the term luminous flux. It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. It is represented by symbol "F" or "Q" and is measured in lumens .It helps us to identify the output and efficiency of a given light source. Flux=Q/t Q=light quantity 8. List the types of lamps. Sodium vapour lamps Fluorescent lamp Neon lamp Mercury vapour lamp. 9. Why tungsten is used as filament material. Pure tungsten has properties including the highest melting point(3695 k),lowest vapour pressure and greatest tensile strength out of all the metals. 10. What is the importance of street lightning system ? To reduce the occurrence of accident. To avoid the theft. 11. Define solid angle. Solid angle is the angle generated by the surface passing through the point in space & the periphery of the area . W=area/radius=a/r 2 12.What are the requirements of lightning system . The following factors must be considered while designing lightning scheme. Colour of light Shadows Glare. Illumination level Uniform of illumination level 12.Distinguish between direct lightning & indirect lightning 13.If the total lumens required are 7200 & coefficient of utilization is 0.3, calculate lamp lumens required. Utilization factor= total lumens reaching the working plane Total lumens given out by the lamp. 0.3=7200/total lumens Total lumens=7200/0.3=24000 PART –B 1. Discuss laws of illumination & its limitations. 2. Explain the working of high pressure mercury vapour lamp with neat sketch . 3.Explain the various factors to be taken in to account for designing scheme for 1.street lightning 2.flood lightning 3.high way lightning 4.With a neat diagram explain the construction & working of (a) sodium vapour lamp (b)CFL 5.A hall of 30m long and 12 m wide is to be illuminated and the illumination require is 50 lumens per m 2 .calculate the no. of fitting required taking depreciation factors of 1.3 and utilization factor of 0.5 given that the output of different types of lamp or given below. 6.A lamp of 300 c.p is placed in 1.5 m below a reflecting plane mirror surface which reflects 70% of the light falling on it ,find the illumination at point 4m away from the foot of lamp hung 6m above the ground. 7.Explain the various steps followed in the calculation of illumination for designing the residential lightning. UNIT –III HEATING AND WELDING PART-A 1.List the advantage of electric heating? Economical, cleanliness, Absence of flue gases , ease of control or adaptation, Automatic protection ,upper limit of temperature special heating features ,High efficiency of utilization better working conditions ,safety ,heating of non conducting material. 2.What is meant by electric are welding ?what are the different types of electrode used and its applicability? Are welding is a type of welding that uses a power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and base material to melt the metals of the welding point .they can use either direct or alternating current ,and consumable or non consumable electrodes. Purpose is to join two metals .fabrication building and riveting. 3.What are the applications of induction heating? Surface hardening Annealing Tempering Deep hardening Soldering Melting of metals Extraction of metal from ore. 4.What the requirements of good heating materials? High specific resistance High melting point Free from oxidation Low temperature coefficient of resistance. 5.Comparison between DC welding &AC welding. 6.Mention the merits of dielectric heating. Uniform generation of heat with in the dielectric medium Inflammable materials such as plastics wood etc. It is the only method of heating non conducting material Heating is very fast 7.Specify the desirable properties of heating element materials. Composition Maximum operating temperature Specific resistance at 20 degree Celsius Specific gravity. 8.Mention the factors which limits of choice of frequency in induction & dielectric heating? Induction heating: Thickness of the surface to be heated Time of continuous heating Temperature Dielectric heating: Thickness Potential gradient Breakdown voltage Insulation 9.What is meant by arc welding & list its types? Arc welding is a type of welding that uses a power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at welding point . Types : Flux cored arc welding Gas metal arc welding Shielded metal arc welding Submerged arc welding. 11.Mention the application of dielectric heating ? Plastic welding ,plastic preheating, textile drying ,wood glue drying ,food drying ,post fake moisture removal ,pasteurization ,sterilization and preheating. 12.What is meant by resistance heating? The resistance heating is based on the principle that a current passing through a conductor produces heat due to I2R losses. The maximum temperature that can be achieved is 1000 0 c .this method is used for drying and barking, heat treatment of metals ete. 13.List some steps taken to minimize skin effect in induction heating? By using copper clad steel wire By using low frequency By reducing the the thickness of the laminate or strips. PART-B 1.Explain the classification of electric heating and its advantage. 2.What is electric welding ?explain its types. 3.Describe the construction & operation of coreless induction furnaces. 4. Explain the process of dielectric heating & desire the expression for total heat enegy. 5.Discuss in details about any two types of resistance welding 6. With neat diagram explain the working of different types of arc welding. 7.With the neat sketches ,explain the functioning of carbon are welding & shielded metal arc welding . 8.Explain the characteristics of a welding generator. 9.Estimate the efficiency of a high frequency induction furnace which takes 10 minutes to melt 1.8 kg of aluminium .the input to the furnace being 5kw & initial temperature 15 0 c 10.What is the different od AC welding & DC welding. 11. What are the requirements of good welding. UNIT-IV SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTIONS PART- A 1.Write down the energy balance equation for solar collector. The energy balance equation for the whole solar collector can be written as, Where,Qu= rate of useful heat transfer to a working fluidn in the solar heat exchanger. Ql=rate of energy loss Qs= rate of energy storage in collector. 2.Define solar constant. The solar constant Isc is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit perpendicular to the rays of the sun ,at the mean distance of the earth from the sun, based on 3.Define collector efficiency. Collector efficiency (ηc) is the collector performance and is defined as the ratio of the useful gain over any time period to the incident solar energy over the same time period 4.Give the main components of flat plat collector. Five main components as follows: A transparent cover. Tubes fins passages or channels Absorber plate Insulation Casing or container. 5.State wien's law. Wien „s law state that the emission increases with temperature .the re emmited light if so progressively shorter wavelength and greater energy as the temperature of block body increases . this is expressed by wein‟s law which can be written as λmax.T=constant=2989 um.kelvin 6.List the advantage of flat plat collectors. They have the advantage of using both beam & diffuse solar radiation. They do not require orientation towards the sun They require little maintenance. 7.Define air mass. Air mass is often used as a measure of the distance travelled by beam radiation through the atmosphere before it reaches a location on the earth surface .It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the atmosphere through which the beam radiation passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun directly over head. 8.What are the different types of solar collector. Solar collector are classified into two types. They are. Non concentrating or flat plat type solar collector Concentrating type solar collector. 9.What are the methods to improve the efficiency of flat plat collector. The transmission efficiency of energy through the collector to the working fluid may be increased.Decreasing the thermal losses from collector to ambient by reducing conductive 10.What are the different types of heat transfer mechanism. Radiation Conduction Convection. PART-B 1.Explain the power extraction aspects ofsolar PV system. 2.Explain the working principles of various types of concentrating solar collector with neat sketch . 3.Describe the operation & control stratergy of solar power conversion system 4.Schematically describe the residential coding & heating with solar energy. 5.Describe flat plate collector 6.Draw the neat block diagram of standalone solar PV generation system. Also explain the role of individual blocks 7.What the basic components of solar PV system 8.Explain the basic solar PV system used for power generation with neat diagram. 9.Describe briefly grid interactive solar PV system. 10.Explain how a solar used for industrial heating system. 11.Explain various solar PV application. 12.What is the importance of MPPT in solar PV system. 13.Explain the various stratergies used for operation of an MPPT? 14.Explain the VI characteristics of a solar cell &also explain an equvalient circuit of particular solar PV cell? UNIT-V WIND ENERGY PART-A 1.List the types of wind turbine. There are two types of wind turbine Horizontal axis machines. Vertical axis machines. Horizontal axis machines are classified into Horizontal axis using two aerodynamic blades Horizontal axis propeller type using single blade. Horizontal axis multibladed type. Horizontal axis windmill dutch type. Sail type. Vertical axis wind turbine are classified into Savonious rotor type machine Darrieus type machines. 2.What are the factor determine the output from wind energy converter. The wind speed The cross section of wind swept by rotor The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor transmission system. 3.Give the expression for available wind power. P= 1/8ρπD 2 V 3 (watts) Where, P=density of air D=circular diameter V=velocity of air. 4.Give some important factor consider for site selection of WECS High average annual wind power Availability of anemometry data Altitude of proposed site Terrain and its aerodynamics. Local ecology Nearness of site to local centre. 5.Define power co-efficient. The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called power coefficient. Power coefficient= power of wind rotor/power available in the wind The maximum theoretical value of power coefficient is equal to 16/27 (or) 0.593 6.Define solidity. Solidity is normally defined as the fraction of the total circumferential that contains blades.Numerically it can be expressed as S= NC/πD EE6801-ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION,UTILISATION AND CONSERVATION. Where, N= No of blades. C= Average breadth. 7.Define magnus effect. Magnus effect is caused by spinning a cylinder in an air stream at high speed of rotation. The spinning slows down the air speed on the side where the cylinder is moving into wind and increases it on the other side the result is similar to an air foil.This principle has been put to practical use in one (or) two cases but is not generally employed. 8.What is the function of back up in small producers? Battery storage Connection with the local electricity distribution system. A standby generator powered by liquid fuels. 9.What are the conversion losses available wind energy system? A 100% efficient aero generator would able to convert upto a maximum 60% of the available energy in wind to mechanical energy.Well designed blades will typically extract 70% of the theoretical maximum but losses incurred in the gearbox,transmission system or pump could decreases overall wind turbine efficiency to 35% or less. 10.Give some environmental effect due to wind turbine. Electromagnetic interference Noise Visual effect Bird life Risk PART-B 1.Sketch the diagram of HAWT explain the function of its main components. 2.Discuss the relative performance of a pitch regulated and stall regulated wind turbine. 3.Evaluate the suitability of various types of generator for wind power generation. 4.Explain the main features of wind diesel hybrid generating system also point out various types of operating scheduling for diesel unit. 5.With the help of block diagram functions of WECS. 6.Derive the expression for maximum axial thrust experienced by a wind turbine and also find the condition for such operation. 7.Using Betz model of a wind turbine describe the expression for power extracted from the wind.What is the maximum theoretical power that can be extracted and what condition. 8.Sketch the diagram of VAWT describe the functions its main components. UNIT-V WIND ENERGY PART-A 1.list the types of wind turbines There are two broad classification of WECS, they are - Horizontal axis machines - Vertical axis machines. Horizontal axial machines are classified into i)horizontal axis using two aerodynamic blades ii)horizontal axis propeller type using single blade iii)horizontal axis multi bladed type iv)horizontal axis wind mill dutch type v)sail type vertical axis wind turbines i)savonious rotor type machines ii)derrieus type machines. 2.what are the factors determine the output from a wind energy converter - The wind speed - The cross section of wind swept by rotor and - The over all conversion efficiency of the rotor transmission system 4.give some importance factors consider for site selection of WECS. - High annual average wind power - Availability of anemometry data - Altitude of the proposed site. - Terrain and its aerodynamics. - Local ecology and - Nearness of site to local centre/users. 5.Define power co-efficient. The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called the power coefficient.Thus, Power coefficient= Power of wind rotor Power available in the wind The maximum theoretical value of power co-efficient is equal to 16/27 (or) 0.593 6.Define solidity Solidity is normally defined as the fraction of the total circumferential that contains blades.Numerically it can be expressed as 7.Define Magnus effect. Magnus effect caused by spinning a cylinder in an air stream at high speed of rotation,The spinning slows down the air speed on the side where the cylinder is moving into wind and increases it on the other side,the result is similar to an air foil.This principle has been put to practical use in one (or) two cases but is not generally employed. 8.What is the function of back up in small producers? - Battery storage. - Connection with the local electricity distribution system. - A stand by generator powered by liquid fuels. 9.What are the conversion losses available wind energy conversion system? A 100% efficient aerogenerator would able to convert upto a maximum 60% of the available energy in wind into mechanical energy. Well degined blades will typically extract 70% of the theoretical maximum,but losses incurred in the gearbox,transmission system (or) pump could decreases overall wind turbine efficiency to 35% (or) less. 10.Give some environmental effects due to wind turbine. - Electromagnetic interference. Noise Visual effects. Bird life. Risk. 1.Sketch the diagram of a HWAT,explain the function of its main components. 2Discuss the relative performance of a pitch regulated and stall regulated wind turbine. 3.Evaluate the suitability of various types of generators for wind power generation. 4.Explain the main features of wind diesel hybrid generating system.Also point out various types of operational scheduling for diesel unit. 5,With the help of block diagram,explain the functions of WECS. 6.Derive the expression for maximum axial thrust experienced by a unit turbine and also find the condition for such operation. 7.Using betz model of a wind turbine describe the expression for power extracted from wind.What is the maximum theoretical power that can be extracted and what condition. 8.Sketch the diagram of VAWT,describe the functions its main components. 9.Demonstrate upwind and downwind machines,yaw active and yaw fixed machines. 10.With the help of a diagram,explain the nature of variation of wind speed with height from the ground.Explain the terms: Wind shear,gradient height,free atmosphere,planetary boundary,surface layer and edman layer.	<urn:uuid:d09b14a7-8601-49a1-a028-e069b222de03>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://stjoseph.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/EEGUC.pdf	2018-05-23T15:08:27Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00219.warc.gz	285,920,090	4,954	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.98562	eng_Latn	0.994543	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1117, 2091, 2959, 4465, 4663, 5750, 6743, 7449, 8430, 9393, 9838, 10500, 11310, 12178, 13167, 14466, 15557, 16241, 17130, 18248, 19070, 19487, 20362, 22716 ]	[ 3.53125, 2.8125 ]	2	0
Subject: Second Common English Exam Read through the following article, which highlights and elaborates on some key areas in which the Moon has both directly and indirectly influenced the emergence and change of life on the Earth. 1. The Earth is unique amongst the terrestrial planets in having a large satellite, the Moon. Numerous pieces of evidence indicate that the Moon was derived from the Earth as the result of a singular impact event soon after the initial formation of the Earth. As a result, the subsequent changes of the Earth and the emergence and development of life have been strongly influenced by the presence of the Moon. 2. Perhaps the most obvious influence of the Moon on the Earth are the ocean tides. The regular rise and fall of sea level creates a unique environment in the Solar System, where life is exposed to both immersion in water and exposure to air in the space of a few hours. This is an environment in which organisms can experience the stresses of an alien world before safely returning to their aquatic habitat; such changes possibly cause the migration of organisms from one environment to the other. 3. One of the least obvious but most significant contributions from the Moon to life on earth may have been the gift of workable metals at the surface of the planet. Ever since the first samples of lunar rocks and geochemical data were made available by the Apollo astronauts, scientists' interests and curiosity have been aroused by the relatively high abundance of metals in the Earth compared with the Moon. Current theory suggests that if the earth had once been entirely molten, then these metals should have been locked up in the Earth's metallic core as the Earth cooled. 4. The Moon has also encouraged the development of intelligence in less quantifiable ways. Certainly the earliest astronomers observed and calculated calendars based on their observations of the space and planned their agriculture accordingly. Galileo's telescope observation of the Moon and his recognition of mountains and craters caused human kind to think about the "Plurality of Worlds". In a more direct fashion, the Moon has caused technological development. Clearly the "Race to the Moon" which inspired and gave rise to rapid advances in electronics and high technological industries couldn't have happened without the Moon. 5. The conclusion reached is that the Moon itself, born in a unique and random event, has been essential for the emergence of intelligent life on Earth, and as a result much intelligence is probably a very rare occurrence itself. Part One: Reading (12 pts.) A. Answer the following questions in complete sentences. (5.25 pts.) 1. Scan paragraphs 1 and 2 to identify the thesis statement of the article, then show how this statement functions. (0.75) 2. The writer mentions three key areas in which the Moon has influenced life on the Earth. State these areas. (1) 3. Point out a piece of evidence presented by the writer to show that the Moon has indirectly caused the technological development man has made. (0.75) 4. Suggest a suitable title to the article. (0.75) 5. In no more than three sentences, summarize the fourth paragraph of the article. (1.25) 6. What purpose does the article convey? (0.75) B. The following statements are false. Rewrite them so that they agree with what the writer says or implies in the article. (1.5 pts.) 1. Observing the Moon has become useful to man recently. 2. It is only man who is affected by the tides caused by the Moon. C. For each definition below, pick from paragraphs 1 and 2 the word that best matches with it. ( 2 pts.) 1- being the only one of its kind 2- appearance; coming into existence 3- unfamiliar; not one's own 4- movement from one place to another D. Find the grammatical error in each sentence below and correct it. (1 pt.) 1. By the time man started exploring Mars, he already finished exploring the Moon. 2. While Galileo was observing the Moon, he was noticing how different it is from the Earth. 3. Space exploration had always been an interesting topic to man. 4. When man will land on Mars in 2020, he will have finished exploring the Moon fully. E. Rewrite the following sentences, beginning with the words given, without changing their meanings. (2.25 pts.) 1. The changes of the Earth and the development of life have been strongly influenced by the presence of the Moon. The presence of the Moon ………………………………………… 2. "These are environments in which organisms can experience the stresses of an alien world," said the writer. The writer said that ……………………………………………………… 3. "Did this not cause human kind to think about the Plurality of Worlds?" asked the writer. The writer wondered ………………………………………………… . Part Two: Writing (8 pts.) You are a news reporter, and you have just heard of a high tide and overflow of the sea water into a populated area, causing great damage and hundreds of deaths. In a well-organized essay, write about the effects this natural disaster had on that area. First, outline your ideas before developing them into an essay provided with a title. Score: 2 for the outline, 3 for ideas and organization, and 3 for form and grammar Best Wishes Subject Grade: Nine : Answer Key of the Second Common English Exam A. 1. The last sentence of the first paragraph is the thesis statement. This statement sums up the central idea of the text which is about the Moon's influence on the Earth. Score: 0.25 for identifying the thesis statement 0.25 for explaining its function 0.25 for sentence structure 2- Oceans, metal deposits, and technological industries (human intelligence) are the three key areas in which the Moon has influenced life on the Earth. Score: 0.75 for listing the three key areas 0.25 for correct sentence structure 3- The "Race to the Moon" has caused human kind to think about these remote areas and prompt rapid advances in electronics and high technological industries. Score: 0.5 for identifying the piece of evidence 0.25 for correct sentence structure 4- A suitable title could be "How the Earth and the Moon Interact". Score: 0.5 for suggesting a suitable and relevant title 0.25 for correct sentence structure 5- In his summary, the student should include the main idea and the major supporting detail(s). He may summarize it as follows: The development of human intelligence is caused by the Moon. Man's curiosity to get information about that remote outer space has driven him to invent highly advanced electronic and technological means to hit his target. Score: 0.5 for the main idea 0.25 for the supporting detail 0.5 for using own words 6- The writer is informing readers about / explaining the key areas in which the Moon has influenced life on Earth. Score: 0. 5 for identifying the purpose 0.25 for correct sentence structure B. 1. A long time ago, people planned their agriculture based on their observations of the space. 2. Man and some other organisms such as the aquatic ones are also affected by the tides caused by the Moon. Score: 0.75 for correcting each false statement C. 1. unique 2. emergence 3. alien 4. migration Score: 0.5 for each correct item D. 1. already finished ……. had already finished 2. was noticing ……. noticed 3. had always been ……. has always been 4. will land ……. lands Score: 0.25 for correcting every error E. 1. The presence of the Moon has strongly influenced the changes of the Earth and the development of life. 2. The writer said that those were environments in which organisms could experience the stresses of an alien world. Score: 0.5 for the verb form 0.25 for word order Score: 0.25 for each underlined item 3. The writer wondered whether/ if that had caused human kind to think about the Plurality of Worlds (or not). Score: 0.25 for each underlined item	<urn:uuid:d2037983-88b8-4ac0-b298-21eb601bc370>	CC-MAIN-2019-13	http://tarbaweya.org/uploaded/namezej_brevet/english/anglais/Second%20term,%20Grade%209.pdf	2019-03-18T21:25:10Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201707.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190318211849-20190318233849-00329.warc.gz	215,763,842	1,695	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99834	eng_Latn	0.998846	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 2585, 4740, 5209, 7132, 7839 ]	[ 4.59375 ]	1	0
Sciences Subject Group Overview Year 1: Physical Science Unit 1: Scientific Method Unit 2: Forces and Motion Unit 3: Energy Unit 4: Waves (Science and Design Unit) can human beings really control motion? 184.108.40.206.2 Identify the forces acting on an Unit 5: The Nature of Science - Engineerin g is no perfect design and that new technologies have Year 2: Life 220.127.116.11.2 Plan and conduct variables, ensuring that one and any other variables are Unit 2: Cells difference between the make informed experiment to find out kept the same (controlled). variables and the control? decisions more information, carry For example: The effect of conclusions (explanation). when similar investigations whether the differences are the many functions needed and that specialized cells in multicellular organisms are part of different organs and Unit 3: Cell of different parts of the cell. 18.104.22.168.1 Recognize that cells carry out life functions, and that these functions are carried out in a similar way in all organisms, including, 22.214.171.124.3 Use the presence cells carry out life functions, and that these functions are carried out in a similar way in all organisms, including, sugars from carbon dioxide stored for later use, or used Reproduction Human Body Cell Processes Vocab make more cells for growth 126.96.36.199.2 Recognize that in come from a single parent, the human immune system microscopic organisms and enter from outside the body cells that arise from within. 188.8.131.52.2 Describe how the 184.108.40.206.1 Recognize that all multicellular organisms are Unit 6: Coming Soon! Year 3: Earth Measurement Properties body when it is not functioning properly. organs that perform specialized functions. designed systems in Earth density, melting point and mixtures and identify pure Unit 2: Earth's structure and an ice cube from melting in this between metals and 220.127.116.11.1 Identify evidence formation and temperature their fossils to infer relative changes in environmental appearance and extinction satellite images and other predictions about local and 18.104.22.168.2 Understand that Weathering and Erosion Unit 4: Rocks and Minerals observations and analysis of data landforms result from the erosion and deposition of 22.214.171.124.2 Explain the role of weathering, erosion and glacial activity in shaping 126.96.36.199.4 Recognize that whose properties include a sour taste, characteristic color changes with litmus identify rocks and minerals including, but not limited to, density, hardness and composition and texture to physical conditions at the igneous, sedimentary and reasoning and imagination Interdisciplina ry Unit with Tectonics reasoning to identify to develop descriptions, satellite images and other predictions about local and satellite images to identify energy through the layers of the Earth and across its erosion and deposition of MN State Standards Explain and calculate the acceleration of an object forces in one dimension. Identify the energy forms and explain the transfers of energy involved in the Calculate and explain the energy, work and power Unit 1: Dimension Unit 2: Unit 3: Free transfers in a mechanical Use Newton's universal describe and calculate massive objects based on the distance between Year 5: Physics Unit 1: Dimension MN State Standards describe force, position, velocity and acceleration Unit 3: Free Explain and calculate kinetic energy involved in objects moving under the influence of gravity and other mechanical Use gravitational force to explain the motion of objects near Earth and free-body diagrams to describe force, position, velocity and acceleration Apply Newton's three calculate and analyze the effect of forces and momentum on motion Use gravitational force to explain the motion of objects near Earth and	<urn:uuid:d86f5cfb-4af2-4204-adbe-3d626b2033b6>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://mylila.org/images/IB_Education/Sciences_Subject_Group_Overview_Updated_2.20.18.pdf	2018-05-23T14:56:39Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00216.warc.gz	208,510,978	873	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.903052	eng_Latn	0.980291	[ "mlt_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 118, 266, 369, 469, 864, 1265, 1592, 1825, 2132, 2653, 2882, 3167, 3412, 3783, 3857 ]	[ 3.296875 ]	1	0
Social Emotional Language from Sensei for the Classroom/School Questions What are you? (A leader!) Who are we? (We are Lakes!) Should you ever let anyone hurt you? Should you ever let anyone hurt your feelings? Would you rather be first or best? Who's ready to be the best they've ever been? Who's ready to make your friends, class, school the best friends, class, school ever? Who's ready to have the best day ever? Should we be respectful and kind to everyone? Does everyone NEED to be your friend? Does everyone DESERVE to be your friend? Are you being the best version of you? Is that how a type 1 person would do/act? Can you read my mind? Who's going to be the best mind reader ever? Affirmations Lock it up—Check your posture (legs-back-hands-eyes) Notice-Choose-Act (to power through your fears or to do just a little bit more) Feedback-Use your words The adults stop the big stuff but I stop the small stuff! I can do it! I got this! Use the friendship target! Gossip, rumors, and drama are poison! (X) To make a good friend, you have to first BE a good friend! Be respectful and kind to everyone! There is no competition at the top "Just a little bit more" is a CHOICE! I love problems—There is no problem bigger than me! When I am tested—I just get stronger! NEVER give up! This is just how we do it at Lakes! Themes #1—I always stand up for myself and others! (stand up for yourselves and use the four steps) #2—When I back away from a fear the fear gets bigger, but when I power through a fear I get bigger! (be a "fear detective" and uncover the small fears then power through them) #3—I'm always a good friend and I expect the same from you! (no more drama, use the friendship target to manage your friends) #4—I always to a little bit more than anyone expects! (Be a TYPE 1 person) #5—No one out works me! (Hard work beats talent and brains every time) Leader's Creed Now I have found my voice . . . and I have made my choice. I will lead, not follow. I will create, not destroy. I will believe, not doubt. I am not better than anyone else . . . but no one is better than me. I was put on this earth for a reason. I will make a difference because . . . I am a Leader.	<urn:uuid:a3dadbc2-c405-4e56-aea1-1d0323098905>	CC-MAIN-2019-13	http://lakes.hartlandschools.us/documents/SEL-Sensei%20Language.pdf	2019-03-18T22:18:37Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201707.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20190318211849-20190318233849-00329.warc.gz	128,623,002	554	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997267	eng_Latn	0.997562	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1353, 2225 ]	[ 2.828125 ]	1	0
Exam 3; Phys 185 Name Note: As I walk around, you can ask me for help; for example, to supply an equation or a number you have forgotten down, or to give you algebra aid. If you do, however, I will write down what help I provided on your exam, and grade your answer accordingly. 1. (20 points) Explain why heat ﬂows from hot to cold but not the other way around. 2. (40 points) You take a table tennis ball with mass 0.0027 kg, and attach it to the bottom of a tub of water with a thread. The radius of the ball is 0.020 m, and the depth of the ball is 0.26 m. The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 . The volume of a sphere is 4 3 πr 3 . (a) Find the tension in the thread. (b) You fail to use waterproof glue, and the thread comes unattached to the ball. How long does it take for the ball to rise to the surface, assuming there is no drag force on the ball? (c) More realistically, the drag force in the water is large, and the ball will reach terminal speed almost instantly. With D = 1 2 C D ρAv 2 , where C D = 0 . 52 and A is the crosssectional area of the ball, calculate how long it will take the ball to rise to the surface. 3. (50 points) You have a monatomic ideal gas with an initial pressure of 2.0 × 10 5 Pa and volume of 1.0 m 3 (state 1). You then put it through the cycle shown in the p–V graph. (a) For the process taking the gas from state 1 to state 2, ﬁnd ∆Eth (the change in thermal energy), Q (the heat added to the gas), and W (the work done by the gas). (b) Find ∆Eth, Q, and W for the process 2 → 3. (c) Find ∆Eth, Q, and W for the process 3 → 4. (f) The cycle is a heat engine. If you total the positive Q's from the steps in the cycle, you will get QH, the amount of heat input to the gas over a cycle. If you total the negative Q's, you will get −QC, the discarded exhaust heat. Find QH, QC and W for this cycle as a heat engine. (g) Find the eﬃciency of this heat engine. 4. (30 points) A person with surface area of 2.0 m 2 and a skin temperature of 34 ◦ C stands naked in a room where the air is 22 ◦ C but the walls are 16 ◦ C. 5. (30 points) As in your lab exam, you have a cart with mass m on a horizontal track. Assume friction, weight, and the normal force are the only forces acting on the cart. You let the cart go and watch it slow down. Your motion detector gives you xi and vi at time ti, xf and vf at time tf , and the constant acceleration a between times ti and tf . (a) Write down an equation for Wf , the work done by friction in this interval. (b) If ∆K is the change in kinetic energy between ti and tf, mathematically show that ∆K = Wf or that ∆K ̸= Wf. (Hint: For 1D motion with constant acceleration, v 2 f = v 2 i + 2 a ( x f − x i ).) 6. (30 points) You have two identical-looking cylinders, with the same mass m and radius r. Cylinder 1 has a moment of inertia I1 = mr 2 , while cylinder 2 has I2 = kmr 2 , with k an unknown constant. You let them go from rest from the exact same height on an inclined plane, and let them roll without slipping. When they reach the bottom of the incline, you measure their center-of-mass speeds, ﬁnding v1 = 0.94 v2. What is k? (d) Find ∆Eth, Q, and W for the process 4 → 1. (e) Find the total ∆Eth, Q, and W values for the full cycle. Are these as you would expect? (a) The thickness of the "dead air" layer next to the skin is 0.004 m, with thermal conductivity 0.025 W/m·K. What is the rate of this person's heat loss due to conduction? (b) If skin's emissivity is 0.95, what is the net radiative heat loss to the walls? (StefanBoltzmann constant: 5.67 × 10 − 8 W/m 2 ·K 4 .) (c) When at rest, this person has a power consumption of 100 W to keep their metabolism going. How much total power do they need from their food to stay alive?	<urn:uuid:347a3063-4cfe-4075-b542-1d7f008ab2f4>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://edis.sites.truman.edu/files/2016/12/exam3-185-2013.pdf	2018-05-23T14:36:31Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00228.warc.gz	93,736,378	1,075	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997074	eng_Latn	0.99787	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 365, 861, 1136, 1529, 1577, 1907, 2067, 2696, 3741 ]	[ 3.671875 ]	2	1
Winthrop Faculty Publications 2012 Embedding action research in teacher candidate elementary classroom and physical education settings Seth E. Jenny Winthrop University, email@example.com Geraldine C. Jenny Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania, firstname.lastname@example.org Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.winthrop.edu/fac_pub Part of the Health and Physical Education Commons Publisher Citation Jenny, G. & Jenny, S. (2012). Embedding action research in teacher candidate elementary classroom and physical education settings. National Social Science Association Proceedings: National Professional Development Conference, 51, 105-114. Retrieved from http://www.nssa.us/journals/pdf/NSS_Proceedings_2012_Albuquerque.pdf This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Winthrop University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Winthrop Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Winthrop University. For more information, please contact email@example.com. Embedding Action Research in Elementary Classroom and Physical Education Settings Geraldine C. Jenny Slippery Rock University of PA Seth E. Jenny University of New Mexico Introduction Action research has become a popular format for teachers who desire to improve their own teaching. The systematic process allows practicing teachers to focus on what is important for them to examine regarding teaching and learning in their own classrooms. Action research also allows teachers a time saving way to stay current with research and improve their teaching while enhancing student learning amongst the busyness of the typical teaching year. Indeed, teachers have very little time to spare! Action research not only provides a teacher with an efficient way to improve teaching and expand self-learning, but it also positions teachers to share the knowledge they gain from their classrooms with other teachers at professional conferences while learning from other colleagues as well. This article is primarily designed to assist teacher candidates and classroom teachers in conducting action research. Where the authors ask teacher candidates to discuss or share their research drafts with cooperating teachers or university faculty, the in-service teacher should share their classroom research with colleagues and administrators for constructive feedback. Furthermore, many school districts are turning to action research as a way to develop novice teachers within the mentor program process that is often required for the first three years of teaching(Zambo&Zambo, 2004). Numerous administrators are implementingaction research as a plan for a half year or full year professional development option in their school districts. This is the era of No Child Left Behind, and stricter accountability has come to the forefront in American education. Action research has become an effective way for teachers to examine their own teaching success in the classroom and has prompted them to find approaches that have proven even more successful at enhancing student learning through data based decision making. Now is the time to focus on what is important to examine regarding teaching and learning in the classroom. Action research allows teachers a time saving way to stay current with research and improve their teaching while enhancing student learning during the busy schedule of the typical teaching year. This process will provide one with an efficient way to improve teaching and expand reflection, while positioning a teacher to share the knowledge gained from classroom research with colleagues and in professional arenas such as faculty meetings, conferences and other professional development events. Since most teachers are not familiar with action research, this article provides an ideal starting point for in-service teachers who wish to improve their own teaching in a non-intimidating, fruitful format which will have positive results. The step-by-step process described here can fit any teacher's self-paced time table and will prove well worth the effort as teachers and their students alike reap the benefits. In the approach presented, teachers select an area of emphasis in one of the major subject areas of the elementary curriculum that will be the focus of their study. A physical educator may choose to concentrate on a particular skill or National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE, 2004) student learning objective. Teachers assess students in that content area, plan and teach lessons that target this focus, and then collect follow-up data related to student growth. Candidates will develop an action research proposal and lesson plans, and will gather assessment data and student work samples that will demonstrate student learning in this academic area. Although action research can be used to focus on almost anything you choose in the teaching and learning environment, it is recommended to focus research on teaching strategies that impact student learning. A first priority is to make sure a question is sufficiently open ended to allow several possibilities to emerge (Hubbard & Powell, 1999). This means that questions cannot have a simple yes or no answer. Deciding upon a question is one of the hardest tasks of action research. How this question is written will impact the way a topic is approached, the type of data to collect, how data is analyzed, and the ways the results of a study are reported. There are many approaches to developing a good research question. This process may be a bit "messy" at first as revision and refinement are part of the process. It is not unusual to revise a question many times throughout the process of initial question formulation, review of related literature, and during the planning and procedural phases. Developing a Research Question When identifying a possible topic, one approach is to use question stems. These are thought starters that allow focus on topics of interest related to teaching and learning. Below are common questions stems adapted from Hubbard and Powell (1999) that will help one to get started in thinking and developing a topic of interest: * How does…..? * What classroom procedures or activities promote….? * What issues do students encounter when…..? * How can……? * What happens when…..? * What is the difference between…..? * What strategies do students use to…..? * How do students…..? In addition, the open-ended statements below, adapted fromhttp://www.sitesupport.org/actionresearch/ses3_act2_pag2.shtml, may also aid in focusing on an area of interest. * An academic area that I am particularly interested in learning about in classrooms is…..? * Something I am particularly interested in learning about teaching is…..? * In my classroom teaching, I am bothered by…..? * I desire to…..? * I am very curious about…..? * I would like to make a difference in the classroom by…..? * I am passionate in wanting to learn about…..? * If I could change something about teaching or student learning it would be…..? Moreover, it is advisable to keep a journal and brainstorm a list of things that cause wonder in your classroom. What surprises, concerns, intrigues, or delights are there (Hubbard &Powell, 1999)? Other strategies to assist in finding research questions are to consider the following approaches (Johnson, 2003): * Study or evaluate a teaching method in order to determine the effectiveness of the teaching method or technique. * Identify and investigate a problem to understand what is happening and the possible causes of a problem. * …include key starting words which are usually "what or "how" that focus on explanations, reasons, and relationships. * Examine an area of interest. What in particular about teaching is of interest? Please note, an effective action research question… * …is meaningful, possible to do in the classroom, manageable, written in everyday language, and has not already been answered. * …is one in which one feels commitment and passion. * …is concise, but is not a yes-no question. * …should provide an opportunity to stretch and grow as a professional while providing a deeper understanding of the topic and may lead to other questions. 1. Who is affected? A final suggestion to aid in refining a research question and to frame it is to develop a problem statement. As seen in figure 1, the question development chart may aid in developing a problem statement. A problem statement consists of a brief statement that answers the following critical queries that are affected by the question selected (Sagor, 1993). 2. Who or what is suspected of causing the problem? 4. What is the goal for improvement? What would the outcome be if the action had an ideal impact? 3. What kind of problem has been identified? Is it a problem with student learning, meeting curriculum goals, etc.? After developing a question, be sure to consider the big picture. A simple plan to organize your study can be seen in figure 2. Organize a study so that it flows smoothly and avoids potential roadblocks along the way. Consider the following areas for the action research study: * What setting and characteristics can be shared regarding a school and students? This should include: the grade level or age ranges, the socio-economic-status (SES) reported as the percentage of free & reduced lunch rates, ethnic composition reported as the percentage of each group represented, gender composition reported as the number of boys and girls, and location reported as urban, rural, suburban. Most of this information can be located with online school databases such as http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch or http://www.schoolmatters.com. * Where was the research conducted? * What was the reasoning that ultimately led to selection of this particular question? * How will the results impact your teaching? * Why is it important? * How may your study help provide insight into the teaching practices of others? A literature review should synthesize themes or commonalities found in similar research studies. A thorough review of the literature related to a research question may open up new ways of looking at a problem. This may show gaps in the research that a study may help to answer. A study will become more focused once other investigators' Literature Review: Background Topical Research examples of research questions, classroom research strategies, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods are reviewed. In brief, reviewing other studies allows one to make the connection between theory and classroom practice (Johnson, 2003). Remember these key points to assist you in your literature review: * Plan and organize your research well. * Be clear in your thinking by knowing what you are doing in your study. * Emphasize connections between the information in the articles or books to the question of your study to ensure relevancy. One should reflect on what data to collect, when it will be collected, from what sources it will be collected, and how to analyze it. Consider the artifacts, tools, or sources that are going to help find answers and insights regarding a research question. Think of a variety of possible data sources. Sagor (1992) organizes many of these sources according to research goals. The following is a brief list of possible data sources: Methodology: Procedures for Data Collection * Individual student tests or quizzes * Student writing samples * Student interviews (audio tapes) * Student homework * Student journals or portfolios * Student attendance records * Small group conferences * Teacher field notes * Teacher journals/logs * Teacher interviews * Lesson plans * Classroom observations * Student or teacher checklists * Student surveys/attitude/rating scales * Videotapes of class activities * Graphic organizers * Motor skill performance critical element skill rubrics or task sheets * Student projects, artwork, or performance assessments * Sport skill performance results It is also beneficial to keep a data log and record when all information is collected, the time, place, and the data itself. Consider the types of data to collect. Triangulation means collecting three different sources of information so that you can determine if they corroborate. It will bolster the credibility of final conclusions. For example, several students may be interviewed regarding their opinion of how Social Studies is taught in the classroom. The conclusion drawn is that they dislike it. Basing results on interviews could be flawed because students may be trying to influence what happens in their classrooms. Perhaps they believe that by saying that they do not like Social Studies they might gain more recess time or have a teacher fired. However, if the teacher is interviewed and the teacher concurs that the students seem bored and inattentive during class, two valid points of comparison are gleaned. If an analysis of student test scores yields that the class average is very poor in Social Studies, now three sources of evidence all point to the same conclusion. This triangulation makes statements and conclusions credible. Note that triangulation does not have to include three completely different sources. Student interviews, anecdotal notes written during observations of Social Studies lessons, accompanied by a questionnaire of what students do not like about Social Studies class would constitute triangulation. This holds true even though the data is all collected from the same students. Sagor (1992) highlights three key benefits of triangulation. Namely, that it allows for: imperfections or flaws in one of the data sources or collection instruments; increased confidence in the results when all three sources corroborate; development of important questions or insights when sources don't support the same results. Another essential aspect of methodology should be the data collection timeline.In order to gather the data needed for the study, it is important to schedule what and when collection will occur. Plotting this on the school calendar will help with accomplishment of goals. Planning is everything during a short window of opportunity! Another feature to consider while in the planning stage of research is whether data collection methods will be valid. In other words, consider what you plan to collect and then align your artifacts with your question. Will the artifacts aid in answering a research question? Reliability is the accuracy of measurement or assessment and validity is whether it measures what is desired to measure (Gay &Airasian, 2000). Data Analysis: Examination of the Data * Record observations systematically, carefully and precisely. Data analysis should be meaningful. In order to accomplish this: * Describe exactly what was done during the data collection and throughout the analysis. * Describe and interpret data objectively. * Record and report everything of importance. * Use data sources that can answer specific questions. Sagor (1992) also provides two insightful questions to ask when analyzing data: * Look at data from multiple angles/perspectives. 1. What are the important themes observed that will help answer the research question? Since every research project is unique, there is no one single approach that is best for each study. Become immersed in the information in order to deduce important findings and results 2. How much of the data supports each of the themes? Conclusions: Results Drawn from the Study Deep connections and valuable reflection occur by linking findings to what other researchers have discovered about the topic. Drawing conclusions about work strengthens your credibility when you make recommendations for your plan of action and for other teachers interested in a topic. Research that finds what doesn't work is Now is the time to draw conclusions. Remember, the process of doing research is as significant as the findings in a study. A teacher should grow in confidence that the tools to solve future classroom problems are available. Remember that research is not going to "prove" anything, but rather it is going to help "improve" one's teaching. just as important as research that finds what does work. Gaining insight into why study results were not optimal is what is most important. Acting on what has been learned is a vital component of action research. When reflecting on conclusions, think about what was learned from the project by reflecting about the following topics: Consider the facts and results of a study. Conclusions are merely a description based on the data that collected. What students learned and what was learned about teaching is vital. What strengths and weaknesses can be concluded about the research? This is the point where everything comes together. It is essential that study conclusions relate to research questions. Did findings answer research questions in full or do results leave only partial answers and other new questions? How do results differ from previous assumptions? It helps bring action research full circle, from the question to the answer. Making connections as a reflective practitioner is key to growing as a professional! * Teaching in general * Your students * Teaching in the targeted academic area * Your teaching style and procedures Most importantly, what impact did you have on the students' learning in the targeted area? How do you know? Support your answers with assessment data and with observations. * Your assessment strategies Implications and Recommendations: Reflections Regarding How the Study May Assist Other Teachers What actions might be taken based on study results? A plan of action is a description of intentions or a list of steps to take to improve classroom practice in the topic under study. A plan may result in one of five outcomes: a greater understanding of the topic/problem, the discovery of a new or underlying problem, a plan or method that may be effective in the classroom, a plan or method that may need to be revised or modified or a plan or method that may be ineffective in the classroom. The bottom line is that action research is a mechanism for professional growth for teachers who are willing to devote the necessary time and energy to it. It is an excellent way to link personal professional growth with school change aimed at improved student learning (CaroBruce, 2000).In conclusion, one of the purposes of doing an action research study is so findings can be used to enlighten other teachers by sharing specific implications and recommendations which may be of great assistance in enhancing student learning with their own students. Action research is one avenue for bringing teachers together to share their concerns and figure out a way to find answers for them(Caro-Bruce, 2000). Doing this is quite important, but it is often the most neglected part of the action research process.This is called "action" research, so it is where one considers what actions did or did not work in a classroom and what actions will be tried or recommended for the future. Specific details should be taken into consideration in recommendations so that others can easily implement them in their own environments. References and Resources Caro-Bruce, C. (2000). Action researcher's facilitator's handbook. Oxford, OH. National Staff Development Council. American Psychological Association.(2012). Publication manual of the American psychological association, 15 th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Casey, N. (2005). Cycles of inquiry: Improving the practice of pre-service teachers: Shepherding, scaffolding, guiding. Paper presented at PAC-TE, October 2005. Good, C. (1973). Dictionary of education.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Gay, L.R. &Airasian, P. (2000).Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Grady, M.P. (1998).Qualitative and action research: A practitioner handbook. Bloomington, IN: Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Hubbard, R. & Powell, B. (1999).Living the questions: A guide for teacher researcher. Portland, ME:Stenhouse Publishers. Graph website: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx. Institutional Review Board at Slippery Rock University (n.d.).Online IRB Handbook.Retrieved July 26, 2006 from http://academics.sru.edu/grantsirb/handbook1.doc. Jenny, G. & Snyder, R. (2007).Handbook for student teaching, Fall 2007. Slippery Rock , PA: Slippery Rock University Press. Jenny, G. (2000). The role of learning assessment in selected Reggio Emilia inspired Kindergarten, First and Second grade public school classrooms.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University. Johnson, A.P. (2003). What every teacher should know about action research. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon-Pearson Education, Inc. National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2004).Moving into the future: National standards for physical education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Author. Mills, G. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Merrill Prentice Hall Publishers. National Institutes of Health (2002).Human participant protections education for research teams.Retrieved July 26, 2006 from http://cme.cancer.gov/c01/pdf/. . Sagor, R. (1992). How to conduct collaborative action research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Richardson, J. (February/March, 2000). Teacher research leads to learning, action Tools for Schools Newsletter, 1- 8, National Staff Development Council. Wile, J. &Zisi, A.Becoming a teacher-researcher, 27- 31.Thinking Classroom: A Journal of Reading, Writing and Critical Reflection. Zambo, D, &Zambo, R. (2004).Pre-service teachers' perceptions of action research. Retrieved January 21, 2009 from http://arexpeditions.montana.edu/articleviewer.php?AID=96&PAGE=1 Figure 1.Question Development Chart Figure 2.Organizing Your Study 2. Identify descriptive information about the students 3. Describe what it was about your students' learning that prompted a and classroom setting. 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Topics Goals Fermi Questions What would it take to ﬁll this room with popcorn? How many people in the world are talking on their cell phones at this instant? If everyone in the country needed to be innoculated against a virulent strain of inﬂuenza, how quickly could this be done? Find the answers to these and other seemingly inaccessible questions by estimating and using knowledge gained from everyday experiences. Levels * Grades 4 through 12 * Adults will ﬁnd this activity interesting * This activity can be extended to an undergraduate research project * modeling * estimation * measurement * algebraic expressions * formulas * problem solving * Identify and evaluate modeling strategies * Generate many potential solutions to a given problem * Apply principles and generalizations to new problems and situations * Analyze problems from diﬀerent points of view * Make decisions as part of a group * Communicate mathematical ideas verbally and in writing * Work with a variety of measurement tools * Create and utilize formulas to tackle a problem * Use internet search tools to ﬁnd information * Hone estimation skills and conﬁdence Prerequisite Knowledge * familiarity with basic measurement skills * familiarity with common uses of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division * familiarity with fractions, decimals, and percents Preparation Time 5 to 15 minutes Activity Time Usually 1 to 4 hours per Fermi question Materials & Preparation * journal or paper for recording ﬁndings * pencils * copies of handouts (optional) * appropriate measurement tools (optional) * appropriate equipment for gathering experimental evidence (optional) * access to the internet (optional) Authors Beth Marchant and Amanda Katharine Serenevy email@example.com http://riverbendmath.org (574) 339-9111 Riverbend Community Math Center Credits Sample Fermi questions were gleaned from the following sources: * Teachers and students from the greater South Bend, Indiana area * Fermi Questions web page created by Louisiana Lessons in collaboration with the Math Forum; http://mathforum.org/workshops/sum96/interdisc/sheila1.html * Fermi Questions web page created for a Science Olympics competition by the Department of Physics at the University of Western Ontario; http://www.physics.uwo.ca/science olympics/events/puzzles/fermi questions.html * On Beyond a Million: An Amazing Math Journey by David M. Schwartz includes a broken popcorn machine in the story as a launch into large numbers. Elementary students might enjoy this book as a launch into popcorn Fermi questions. Fermi Questions Lesson Plan Introducing Fermi Questions Distribute the Fermi Questions handouts to the students. Brieﬂy introduce Enrico Fermi and Fermi Questions by reading and discussing the introductory page together. Explain that they will relate seemingly complicated questions to their everyday experiences. They will estimate by making a series of simple assumptions to arrive at a reasonable solution. You can opt to choose an activity ahead of time, allow students to choose a topic as a whole group, allow small groups to create their own questions, or give students a limited set of options to choose from. These choices have diﬀerent implications for the amount of time the activity will take and what materials might be needed. Fermi Question Lab The lab outlined here asks students to complete six steps for each Fermi Question: 1. Question: State the question and clarify the interpretation. 2. Wild Guess: Make a wild guess involving no calculations. 3. Educated Guess: Make an educated guess involving a chain of reasoning and calculations based on everyday experiences and estimates. 4. Variables and Formulas: Deﬁne variables and create a formula to solve the Fermi question. 5. Gathering Information: Perform experiments, conduct surveys, make measurements, and search for information to improve estimates and to ﬁnd a smallest reasonable value, a largest, reasonable value, and a most likely value for the answer to the Fermi Question. 6. Conclusions: Summarize the overall conclusions, possible sources of error, interesting facts learned, possible directions for future investigation. Providing guidance Walk around and listen to students as they discuss and work through the problems, providing guidance as necessary. If students need more support, stop them after each step and have them share their work so far. Depending on the level of the students, it may be helpful to have each group turn in their work following each step so that you can verify that they are on the right track. This can also break up the process into smaller chunks of time. Presentations A project of this type is a great opportunity to have students practice their written and verbal communication skills. Students often enjoy making a poster showing their ﬁndings, making a power point presentation, or creating a group report using a blog or a collaborative editor. Examples Illustrating How To Make Educated Guesses Here are sample reasoning processes for several Fermi Questions. Note that some of the estimates may not be accurate. The people making these estimates will need to gather additional information. How many bricks are in the exterior of our school building? I think that each brick is about 6 inches long and about 3 inches high. I think that the school is about the length of a football ﬁeld on each side. A football ﬁeld is 100 yards or 300 feet. It would take 600 bricks to equal this length on each of the four sides of the building. I think the school is about 30 feet tall. It would take 4 bricks for each foot, so that means the school is about 120 bricks high. So each of the four sides of the school needs about 600 × 120 = 72, 000. This means there are about 288,000 bricks. What is the volume of air that I breathe in one day? It takes about 10 breaths to blow up a balloon the size of a two-liter bottle. So, that means I breathe about one liter of air for every ﬁve breaths. I breathe about 10 times every minute, so I breathe about two liters of air every minute. This means that in an hour, I breathe about 120 liters of air. So each day, I breathe about 2,880 liters of air. How many kernels of popcorn would it take to ﬁll this classroom? I think that a puﬀed kernel of popcorn occupies less than a cube which is a half inch on each side. This means that 8 pieces of popcorn should occupy each cubic inch. There are 12 × 12 × 12 cubic inches in a cubic foot. I will approximate that as 10 × 10 × 10 cubic inches since I am just estimating anyway. That means that there are about 1000 cubic inches in a cubic foot and about 8 pieces of popcorn in each cubic inch, so I have about 8,000 pieces of popcorn in each cubic foot. The square ceiling tiles in our classroom seem to measure about 2 feet on each side. The room is 25 tiles long and 25 tiles wide, so the length and width of the classroom is approximately 50 feet by 50 feet for 2500 square feet. I think the classroom is probably about 2 of me tall, so the ceiling might be about 10 feet high. This gives a volume of about 25,000 cubic feet. So about 25, 000 × 8, 000 = 200, 000, 000 kernels of popcorn would be required to ﬁll the room. How many people in the world are talking on their cell phones in any given minute? I think that about half the people in the world have cell phones and my guess is that there are about 6 billion people in the world now. That means that 3 billion people have cell phones. I use my cell phone for a total of about one hour each day. Some people use their phones more than I do and some people use their phones less than I do. That means that I use my phone about 1/24 of the minutes in a day, which I will round to 1/25 of the minutes in a day. If I divide the 3 billion people with phones by 25, I should obtain a rough count of the number of people using a phone in any given minute. This means that about 120,000,000 people world wide are using a phone during any given minute. How many pennies would need to be stacked to reach your height, the height of the school, the tallest building in the world, Mount Everest, outer space? * I think that it takes about 4 penny rolls to equal one foot. I am about 5 feet tall, so that is about 5 × 4 = 20 penny rolls. Each roll has 50 pennies. So that is about 50 × 20 = 1000 pennies to equal my own height. (About $10.00 in pennies.) * I think that the school is two stories tall and that each story is about 15 feet tall. That means that the school is 6 times as tall as I am and so it would take about 6000 pennies to be the size of the school (about $60.00 in pennies). * One hundred stories is more than most tall buildings have, so 3000 × 100 = 300, 000 (about $3,000 in pennies) is probably enough pennies to surpass the tallest building. * Denver is the mile high city, and I know that the Rockies go up at least another mile. I don't know how the Rockies compare with the Himalayas where Mount Everest is, but let's say that they are twice the elevation. That would be four miles high. There are more than 5,280 feet in a mile, so I would need more than 21,000 feet of pennies to reach four miles. That means about 84,000 penny rolls or about 4,200,000 pennies ($42,000 in pennies). * How far up is outer space? I am not really sure, but I think 100,000 feet (roughly 19 miles) is about right. So that would be about 20,000,000 pennies to reach to outer space (a mere $200,000 in pennies). Example of a Full Fermi Lab Solution 1. Question: The question I am choosing is "If I combine all of the liquid I will drink over my lifetime, how many baths would it ﬁll?" I am interpreting this to mean liquid that I drink from a cup of some kind. I am not including liquid in soup, fruit, or other foods. I am assuming that the bath tub is ﬁlled completely. 2. Wild Guess: If I just make a wild guess, I think that the answer might be about 5,000 bath tubs of liquid. Making the wild guess is not very satisfying because I have no idea whether it is reasonable or not. 3. Educated Guess: Assumptions: I can make a more educated guess by making some assumptions. * Today, I had 4 mugs of coﬀee (about one and one half pints) two glasses of orange juice (half a pint), a can of soda (about half a pint), some milk on my cereal (about a third of a pint). I must have missed something . . . so I shall write down this assumption: On a typical day I drink about 3 pints of liquid. * Now I also need to know about bathtubs. I am 6 feet tall, and when I soak in the bathtub, I can reach the taps with my toes while keeping my head above water. So the bath must be about 5 feet long. The tub is about 2 feet 6 inches wide on the inside, and about 1 foot deep. Using the formula for the volume of a rectangular solid, I can make my second assumption: A full bath holds about V = L × W × H = 5 × 2.5 × 1 = 12.5 cubic feet. * One last assumption: I will live about 75 years. Calculations: The units I have chosen are incompatible. I've got pints and cubic feet. This is where I need a reference book. It says that 1 US pint = 29 cubic inches I know that 1 cubic foot = 12 × 12 × 12 = 1728 cubic inches. (12 inches are in a foot.) So, lets change all the units to cubic inches: * I drink about 3 × 29 ≈ 90 cubic inches per day. (Notice that I rounded my answer because I am approximating anyway.) * My bath holds 12.5 × 1728 ≈ 22, 000 cubic inches. * In 75 years that is 90 × 365 × 75 ≈ 2, 500, 000 cubic inches. So that means I will drink about 2, 500, 000 ÷ 22, 000 = 113 bath fulls of liquid. Answer: In a lifetime I will drink a little over 100 bath fulls. That answer strikes me as surprisingly low because that means that I only drink about 1 1 2 bath fulls of liquid each year. Perhaps some of my estimates were oﬀa bit or perhaps my sense of how many bathtubs of liquid I drink is not accurate. On the other hand, I see now that my wild guess of 5,000 bathtubs of liquid is too high, since that would mean that I drink 5000 ÷ 75 ≈ 67 bathtubs of liquid each year or one bathtub full every 5 or 6 days. 4. Variables and Formulas: Here are the variables I used while estimating the answer. * Let CP be the average number of pints I consume each day. * Let C be the average number of cubic inches I consume each day. * Let T be the total number of cubic inches I will consume over my lifetime. * Let L be the length of the inside of the bathtub in inches (since I ended up converting). * Let W be the width of the inside of the bathtub in inches. * Let H be the height of the inside of the bathtub in inches. * Let V be the volume of the bathtub in cubic inches. * Let Y be the number of years that I will live. * Let D be the number of days that I will live. * Let B be the number of bathtubs of liquid I will consume over my lifetime. Now I can use these variables to write the formulas used to calculate the answer. * C = 29CP (This formula converts the number of pints I consume each day to the number of cubic inches I consume each day.) * V = LWH (This formula ﬁnds the volume of the bathtub in cubic inches.) * D = 365Y (This formula gives the total number of days that I will live.) * T = CD (This formula gives the total number of cubic inches I will consume over my lifetime.) * B = T V (This formula divides the total amount of liquid I will consume over my lifetime by the amount of liquid held by one bathtub to get the number of bathtubs of liquid I will consume over my lifetime.) Notice that I could combine all these small formulas together into a single formula, which simpliﬁes to This formula requires that I estimate or measure how many pints we drink each day on average, how many years I will live, and the three dimensions of a bathtub to ﬁnd the total number of bathtubs of liquid I will consume over my lifetime. 5. Gathering More Information There are several measurements and pieces of information that I could gather to improve the estimate. * I could measure the length, width, and height (in inches) of my bathtub. * I could look up the average lifespan (in years) of people in the United States. * I could keep track of how much liquid I consume every day for a week and take an average. The formula I found in the previous step would then make it easy to obtain a revised answer. Data The actual length in inches of my bathtub is L = 52. The actual width in inches of my bathtub is W = 21. The actual height in inches of my bathtub is H = 13. The average lifespan (in years) of people in the US is Y = 78.11. (Source: CIA World Factbook) I tracked my liquid consumption for a week and obtained the following data. Sunday: 10 cups of liquid = 5 pints Monday: 6 cups of liquid = 3 pints Tuesday: 7 cups of liquid = 3.5 pints Wednesday: 12 cups of liquid = 6 pints Thursday: 4 cups of liquid = 2 pints Friday: 8 cups of liquid = 4 pints Saturday: 5 cups of liquid = 2.5 pints Based on this sample, I drink an average of about 3.7 pints each day, so CP = 3.7. Best Computed Answer The formula that I found earlier tells me that the number of bathtubs of liquid consumed in my lifetime can be computed using the following formula: So my best estimate for the number of bathtubs of liquid I will consume during my lifetime is: Largest and Smallest Possible Values Now I will investigate what the largest and smallest values Bathtubs come in diﬀerent sizes, but I could decide what the smallest and largest dimensions would be. It should at least be possible to sit down in a bath tub, so the smallest dimensions might be 30 inches by 30 inches by 12 inches deep. Large bathtubs can be pretty big, but let's just say for the sake of argument that the bathtub is at most 6 foot by 6 foot by 3 feet, or 72 inches by 72 inches by 36 inches. People live diﬀerent numbers of years, but I know that I have already lived 35 years and I know that I am unlikely to live longer than 110 years. The largest amount of liquid I can imagine drinking in one day is 2 gallons (or 16 pints). I think that I would need to drink at least 2 pints a day on average. To ﬁnd the smallest possible answer, I should use the smallest possible numbers for the number of pints consumed and the number of years lived, and the largest possible numbers for the length, width, and height of the bath tub. If I do this, I ﬁnd that So the smallest reasonable estimate is 4 (very large) bathtubs of water consumed over the course of my lifetime. To ﬁnd the largest possible answer, I should use the largest possible numbers for the number of pints consumed and the number of years lived, and the smallest possible numbers for the length, width, and height of the bath tub. This gives So the largest possible answer should be 1725 (very small) bathtubs of water consumed. 6. Conclusions Based on this analysis, I conclude that I will drink between 4 and 1,725 bathtubs of liquid over the course of my lifetime. The most likely estimate for the answer to this question is 215.5 bathtubs of liquid. One possible source of error in my computations is that my bath tub is not a perfect rectangular solid. One interesting fact that I learned during this investigation is that (according to MyFoodDiary.com) most doctors recommend drinking 8 to 12 glasses of water per day. Two other formulas for calculating the amount of liquid (according to the web page) are: 0.5 ounces × Body Weight in Pounds = Daily Fluid Requirement in ounces 0.034 ounces × Daily Caloric Intake = Daily Fluid Requirement in ounces. Another direction that I could take this investigation is to consider how much ﬂuid I receive from foods. Common Core State Standards This lesson incorporates all eight of the standards for mathematical practice described in the Common Core State Standards. In addition, the following content standards may be covered (depending on the speciﬁc Fermi Questions chosen). 4.Focus.1 Develop understanding and ﬂuency with multi-digit multiplication and division. 4.MD.2 Use the four operations to solve word problems involving distances, intervals of time, capacity, masses, and money, including problems involving simple fractions or decimals and problems that require use of simple unit conversions. 4.MD.3 Apply the area and perimeter formulas for rectangles in real world and mathematical problems. 5.Focus.2 Fluently add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit numbers and make sense of standard algorithms with decimals using models for fractions and decimals. 5.Focus.3 Develop an understanding of volume. 5.OA.1 Use parentheses, brackets, or braces in numerical expressions and evaluate expressions with these symbols. 5.OA.2 Write simple expressions that record calculations with numbers, and interpret numerical expressions without evaluating them. 5.NBT.5 Fluently multiply multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. 5.MD.1 Convert among measurement units within a given measurement system. 5.MD.3 Recognize volume as an attribute of solid ﬁgures and understand the meaning of volume in terms of unit cubes. 5.MD.4 Measure volumes by counting unit cubes, using cubic cm, cubic in, cubic ft, and improvised units. 5.MD.5 Relate volume to the operations of multiplication and addition and solve real world problems involving volumes of rectangular prisms. 6.Focus.1 Solve ratio and rate problems and understand related concepts. 6.Focus.2 Exhibit conceptual understanding and algorithmic ﬂuency with rational numbers and the four operations. 6.Focus.3 Write, interpret, and use expressions and equations. 6.RP.3 Use ratio and rate reasoning to solve real-world and mathematical problems (make tables, solve unit rate problems, work with percents, and convert measurement units). 6.NS.2 Fluently divide multi-digit numbers using the standard algorithm. 6.NS.3 Fluently add, subtract, multiply, and divide multi-digit decimals using the standard algorithms. 6.EE.2 Write, read, and evaluate expressions in which letters stand for numbers. 6.EE.4 Identify when two expressions are equivalent and understand what equivalence of expressions implies. 6.EE.6 Use variables to represent numbers and write expressions when solving real-world or mathematical problems. 10 7.Focus.1 Develop understanding of and apply proportional relationships. 7.Focus.3 Solve problems involving scale drawings and informal geometric constructions, and solve problems involving surface area and volume. 7.RP.2 Recognize and represent proportional relationships between quantities. 7.RP.3 Use proportional relationships to solve multi-step ratio and percent problems. 7.EE.2 Understand that rewriting an expression in diﬀerent forms in a problem context can shed light on the problem and how the quantities in it are related. 7.G.4 Know the formulas for the area and circumference of a circle and use them to solve problems. 7.SP.2 Use data from a random sample to draw inferences about a population with an unknown characteristic of interest. 8.Focus.1 Formulate and reason about expressions and equations. 8.G.9 Know the formulas for the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems. HS.A.SSE.1 Interpret expressions that represent a quantity in terms of its context. HS.Modeling Modeling is the process of choosing and using appropriate mathematics and statistics to analyze empirical situations, to understand them better, and to improve decisions. Quantities and their relationships in physical, economic, public policy, social, and everyday situations can be modeled using mathematical and statistical methods. When making mathematical models, technology is valuable for varying assumptions, exploring consequences, and comparing predictions with data. HS.S.IC.1 Understand statistics as a process for making inferences about population parameters based on a random sample from that population. 11	<urn:uuid:4618b9ff-699c-463f-bbee-2e031be3c70f>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://www.math.lsa.umich.edu/WCMTC/Fermi-Questions-Lesson-Plan.pdf	2018-05-23T15:03:11Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00226.warc.gz	435,218,251	5,025	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994498	eng_Latn	0.998265	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1853, 2595, 4976, 8029, 9493, 11591, 13849, 15798, 17645, 20225, 21897 ]	[ 4.78125, 3.09375 ]	3	1
HEMES NATIVE SON BY J. M. HOCHSTETLER A STUDY GUIDE TO THE SPIRITUAL T For each point, find scripture passages that back up your answers. 1. How did Elizabeth and Carleton individually react to Washington's unexpected opposition to their marriage? 2. Have you ever been faced with the indefinite delay of a dream that was dear to you? How did you react? What was the outcome of your response? 3. Knowing they might never have another opportunity to fulfill their love, both Elizabeth and Carleton were deeply tempted to seek temporary comfort in physical intimacy. Why did Carleton refuse to give in to it? How did he demonstrate his deepest love for Elizabeth and honor her by refusing to succumb to momentary desire? 4. When everything important to Carleton, even his very identity, was stripped away, what was his response? 5. Have you ever faced extreme suffering—whether it was physical or emotional, or both—similar to what Carleton faced during his enslavement by the Seneca? What carried you through your time of testing? 6. What do you think God's purpose is in allowing the kind of suffering Carleton experienced? Do you think it is ever God's will for his children to suffer? Would that be the action of a loving parent? 7. Does suffering only result when we are disobedient to God's laws and will? Does God ever make someone do what is wrong? When other people treat us unfairly, even persecute us, is it ever God's fault? 8. Do you think God sometimes allows us to suffer even when we are fully submitted to him and obeying his leading in our lives? If yes, why do you think he permits our pain when we are being obedient? 9. Explain what free will means. Should God keep someone from choosing to do what is wrong and hurting others? Should God have made us so that we have no choice but to obey him? Find scripture passages that support or contradict your opinions. 10. How did his own enslavement change his attitude toward the black slaves he held in bondage, though unwillingly? What did he resolve to do? 11. When months passed after Carleton's disappearance, and Elizabeth began to give up hope that he was still alive, she found herself being drawn to another man. Why was she attracted to him? In what painful dilemma did this attraction place her? 12. Tess counseled Elizabeth to wait for God's perfect will for her life. Have you ever gone through a painful time of doubt and of questioning what the Lord's will was for your life, when there seemed to be no answer? What did you choose to do? What was the result of your decision? What would you resolve to do today?	<urn:uuid:333b1656-40d8-46fc-afce-300233ec7c9c>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://jmhochstetler.com/guides/NSBibleStudyGuide.pdf	2018-05-23T14:31:11Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00225.warc.gz	153,114,711	563	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998292	eng_Latn	0.99837	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1437, 2593 ]	[ 2.8125 ]	2	1
ToxMystery Lesson Plan 2: Case Book: Catch That Hazard!!! Grade Level: 2-6 Description: This lesson plan is a follow-up lesson to the introductory ToxMystery activity lesson. It is a paper-based activity that incorporates the character "Toxie" from the computer game activity into a detectives' "Case Book". Students will work with the packet "Catch That Hazard!!!" They will follow the clues provided, and work with the ToxMystery computer game activity to fill in the clues. The chemicals to be investigated are introduced on the cover of the Case Book activity packet. After reviewing the clues with the ToxMystery game the students will fill out the final sheet of the Case Book packet. National Science Educational Standards Science as Inquiry: * Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry * Understanding about scientific inquiry Science in Personal and Social Perspective: * Personal health * Types of resources * Natural hazards * Science and technology in society * Changes in environments History and Nature of Science * Science as human endeavor * Nature of science Learning Outcomes Students will be able to: * Compare and analyze appropriate uses for chemicals and other household products * Identify potential environmental health hazards in and around their homes * Describe what they found in the activity in written and verbal formats 1 Background ToxMystery is a computer game activity developed by the National Library of Medicine to increase awareness of possible environmental health hazards around the house. ToxMystery was developed with ages 7 to 11 in mind. The activity presents Toxie the Cat as the narrator. Students navigate through Toxie's house and detect hazards in each of the rooms. When a health hazard is discovered, the student is then presented with a multiple choice question about the health hazard. The activity is complete when the student has successfully answered all of the questions in each of the rooms of the house. The activity is enhanced through the use of animation, audio, and music. Toxie, the narrator, is a friendly guide to the mystery of environmental health hazards. Time Needed Two forty-five minute class periods Materials Needed * Computer * Copies of the "Case Book" worksheets * ToxMystery Game (online or CD-ROM) * Pencils, pens, markers, etc. Procedure Lesson 2: Group Lesson 1. Load ToxMystery onto all computer stations that will be used during the lesson. 2. Introduce the students to the lesson by beginning a discussion of the first ToxMystery lesson. Write down concepts and terms that come up in discussion on the board. Include in the discussion mystery stories and detective work. Ask the students if there are detective stories that they enjoy reading. 2. Divide the students into groups and assign them to available computer stations that have a connection to the ToxMystery game on them (via web or CD-ROM). 3. Hand out the Case Book activity packet to each student or group. Ask students to go through the clues together and write down the location of the hazards in the notebook found on the chemical pages. 4. When the students have finished writing clues in their packet, bring the class together and give each student a copy of the " Arrest Warrant" for the chemical hazards. 5. Students will finish the lesson by filling out the "Arrest Warrant" page either individually or in groups by copying the clues from the notebooks in their Case Book activity packet. Evaluation The following questions can serve as an additional evaluation and reinforcement 1. Which culprits were found in many places? 2. Which ones were not found in very many places? 3. Name some ways that you can make your house safer for younger children or animals that live in your home. 4. What can you do to make sure that the hazards we found today don't hurt anyone? (Ideal answers: tell adults when we spot containers with hazards or hazards themselves, make certain our pets/brothers and sisters don't play around with hazards, etc.) 5. Tell me something you learned about these hazards today. What do you know now that you didn't know before? (This is an open-ended discussion question.) Students will demonstrate their ability to: * Identify hazards that are found in the home, both chemical and natural. * Report on findings in a log or journal * Read and follow directions 3	<urn:uuid:c3faa4c6-8e6e-48ff-ba1b-a91583714f75>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	https://toxmystery.nlm.nih.gov/pdfs/tmlessonplan2.pdf	2018-05-23T14:44:23Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00235.warc.gz	649,714,954	896	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997939	eng_Latn	0.998579	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1369, 3112, 4367 ]	[ 4.71875 ]	2	0
Reading Horizons Volume 39, Issue 2 1998 Article 5 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1998 Children's literature: What's on the horizons Lauren Freedman ∗ ∗ Western Michigan University Copyright c ⃝1998 by the authors. Reading Horizons is produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press (bepress). http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading horizons Children's literature: What's on the horizons Lauren Freedman Abstract Lipinski, Tara. (1997) Tara Lipinski: Triumph on ice an autobiography; Dingle, Derek T. (1998) First in the ﬁeld: baseball hero Jackie Robinson; Krull, Kathleen. (1996) Wilma unlimited: How Wilma Rudolph became the world's fastest woman; Horenstein, Henry. (1997) Baseball in the Barrios; Blackstone, Margaret (1998) This is ﬁgure skating; Erlbach, Arlene. (1997) Sidewalk games around the world; Lankford, Mary D. (1996) Jacks around the world; Egan, Terry, Friedman, Stan, & Levine, Mike. (1997) The good guys of baseball: Sixteen true sports stories; Cooper, Elisha. (1998) Ballpark; Ross, Kathy. (1997) Crafts for kids who are wild about... series. Children's literature: What's on the horizons Lauren Freedman WesternMichigan University Lipinski, Tara. 1997. Tara Lipinski: Triumph on ice an autobiog raphy as told to Emily Costello. NY: Bantam Books. ISBN: 0-55309775-X. 116 pp. This is a wonderful book written by a teenager particularly for teens. The collection of color photographs from infancy to world cham pionship gold is not only fascinating but has the potential to connect with the reader in ways that the text alone cannot do. The story traces Tara's figure skating career through a number of personal anecdotes. It also includes an introduction by Todd Eldredge, a list of important dates, a list of "my favorite things," a guide to scoring in figure skating, and a glossary of skating terms. Dingle, Derek T. 1998. First in the field: Baseball hero Jackie Robinson. NY: Hyperion. ISBN: 0-7868-0348-7. 48 pp. This book, written in chronological order, places Jackie Robinson squarely within an historical context which includes both the discrimina tion all African Americans faced during this time and World War II. The book is organized into chapters each describing a time in Jackie Robin son's life that coincides with an historical event(s). The story shares not only Jackie's life, but also describes those people he held as role models. The book gives a listing of Milestones in Black Sports, and a selected bibliography of books, films, newsreels, and articles for further investi gation. This is an excellent book for reluctant older readers as it has enough text to give interesting information and sufficient support mate rial. Krull, Kathleen. 1996. Wilma unlimited: How Wilma Rudolph be came the world's fastest woman. Illustrated by David Diaz. San Diego: Harcourt Brace. ISBN: 0-15-201267-2. 32 pp. The beautiful acrylic, watercolor and gouache illustrations painted by Caldecott winner, David Diaz, enhance the power already inherent in this life story of Wilma Rudolph. This is a book which will be grabbed up and read by younger children as well as older children and adults. Wilma Rudolph's story is indeed inspirational and will connect with the lives of many of our students who have major issues in their lives they are working to overcome. Horenstein, Henry. 1997. Baseball in the Barrios. San Diego: Gulliver Books. ISBN: 0-15-200499-8 (hb); 0-15-200504-8 (pb). 36 pp. This book is a photo essay narrated by a fifth grade Venezuelan boy who loves to play baseball. He talks about his team and how the game is played in the barrio. He also tells us what a barrio is and talks about his daily life. The reader also meets the members of his family. The text makes use of Spanish words and names. It should be of interest to young baseball fans; it will be especially welcomed by hispanic stu dents. The color photographs are abundant and sharp. At the end of the book is a world map that shows the location of Venezuela. There is also a double page spread of four categories of baseball terms in English and Spanish pronunciation in parentheses. Blackstone, Margaret. 1998. This is figure skating. Illustrated by John O'Brien. NY: Henry Holt. ISBN: 0-8050-3706-3. 32 pp. The cartoon-like illustrations demonstrate the simple, straightfor ward text descriptions. The book follows two girls as they walk to the ice rink in the park where they see "experts" doing the moves which are talked about in the text. For several of the moves, the readers also see one or both of the girls trying the technique. While the text is limited, it might be an excellent book for developing a beginning interest in ice skating. Erlbach, Arlene. 1997. Sidewalk games around the world. Illus trated by Sharon Lane Holm. Brookfield CT: Millbrook Press. ISBN: 0-7613-0008-2. 64 pp. Using an attractive, inviting and easy to use format, this book in troduces a popular children's game from 26 different countries described on a double page spread with a brief paragraph about the country. A world map on each double page spread shows the location of the country. Occasionally there is a language box with a pronunciation key of the terms (usually numbers) used by the children as they play the game. Each set of directions begins with the number of players, what they'll need, and how to play. Directions for play are clear and easy to under stand and include useful illustrations. There is a broad representation of countries. Games are indexed by continent, age, indoors/outdoors, and number of players required. An extensive bibliography is included at the end. This would be an excellent book to use in a study of diversity. Lankford, Mary D. 1996. Jacks around the world. Illustrated by Karen Dugan. NY: Morrow Junior Books. ISBN: 0-688-13708-3. 40 pp. This book includes "jack" games from fourteen countries. The name of each game is given as it is used in that country. For example, in South Korea the game is called Kong-Keui and in Israel it is called Hamesh Avanim. The book is organized in two page spreads. The opening spread contains a map of the world with the continents in green and the water in blue. The countries with "jack" games that are repre sented in the text are numbered and shown in yellow. A corresponding list of the countries is given on the left hand side of the two page spread. The rest of the book has the text on the left hand page and a painting of children playing the game on the right. There are details in each illustra tion which are pertinent to the country being shown. The text gives a bit of history and background and then a numbered list of rules for play. Egan, Terry, Friedman, Stan, & Levine, Mike. 1997. The good guys of baseball: Sixteen true sports stories. NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN: 0-689-80212-9. 111pp. Though slim on illustrations and photos, this book presents biog raphies of baseball players who exemplify virtuosity and strong work ethics. A wide range of ethnicities are represented in the biographies which run approximately ten pages. There are references for further reading given at the end. The stories have a great deal of substance. Some of the players depicted are not among the most famous or those with the most name recognition which makes this book unique. The players were chosen for their contributions as role models. Cooper, Elisha. 1998. Ballpark. NY: Greenwillow. ISBN: 0688-15755-6. 40 pp. This story describes, in few words and a series of cartoon-like watercolors and pencil illustrations, the activities that occur in a baseball stadium in preparation for the game and during the game. The text is printed on the pages in ways that enhance the illustration and almost be come part of the illustrations. This picture-based book details the be hind-the-scenes happenings of a major league baseball stadium, from the laundry room to the grounds-keeping crew. Ross, Kathy. 1997. Craftsfor kids who are wild about... series. Illustrated by Sharon Lane Holm. Brookfield CT: Millbrook Press. 48 pp. The attractive books in this series may be used as much by teach ers as by students. The format is inviting and well organized, but the directions for most of the projects are lengthy and detailed. Kids will enjoy making most of the items, but they will need adult/teacher guid ance. The topics all have child appeal. They can easily be incorporated into units on the topic. Twenty projects are included in .. .dinosaurs and ...outer space. Thirteen projects are included in ...rainforests.	<urn:uuid:d98aed44-4b2a-47f2-809d-b1e5a1aa9487>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1235&context=reading_horizons	2018-05-23T15:08:55Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00230.warc.gz	635,531,999	2,002	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.954058	eng_Latn	0.998066	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 329, 1057, 2668, 4666, 7005, 8513 ]	[ 2.8125 ]	3	0
ToxMystery Lesson Plan 1: Introduction to Common Household Chemical Hazards Grade Level: 2-6 Description: This lesson plan will introduce students to potential environmental health hazards in their day-to-day environment. Students will be introduced to ToxMystery, a computer game activity, and either individually or in groups, they will find potential environmental health hazards in each room of the house that is presented by the game. They will then answer multiple choice questions posed by the game about the hazards they encounter and complete assigned activity sheets. National Science Educational Standards Unifying Concepts and Processes: * Understanding of evidence, models, and explanation * Understanding of form and function Science as Inquiry: * Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry * Understanding about scientific inquiry Science in Personal and Social Perspective: * Personal health * Natural hazards * Types of resources * Changes in environments * Science and technology in society History and Nature of Science * Science as human endeavor * Nature of science * History of science Learning Outcomes Students will be able to: * Compare and analyze appropriate uses for chemicals and other household products * List and describe several chemicals and their potential dangers. * Describe, in written and verbal form, the actions that can be taken if environmental hazards are encountered. Background ToxMystery is a computer game activity developed by the National Library of Medicine to increase awareness of possible environmental health hazards around the house. ToxMystery was developed with ages 7 to 11 in mind. The activity presents Toxie, the Cat as the narrator. Students navigate through Toxie's house and detect hazards in each of the rooms. When a health hazard is discovered, the student is then presented with a multiple choice question about the health hazard. The activity is complete when the student has successfully answered all of the questions in each of the rooms of the house. The activity is enhanced through the use of animation, audio, and music. Toxie, the narrator, is a friendly guide to the mystery of environmental health hazards. Time Needed One hour class period Materials Needed: * Computer * Large paper (for discussion time for recording notes) * Tox Mystery Game (online or Cd-Rom) * Markers/Pencils * ToxMystery Paper Quiz: ( located in Teacher Resource Section with answer key) * ToxMystery Activity page(s) or Packet Procedure: Lesson 1: Group Lesson 1. Assess student awareness about potential hazards in the home and where they might be found. Record their responses on large paper, the blackboard, or a projector. 2. Show ToxMystery to classroom and begin to navigate the game. Explain that Toxie is their guide, and they are going to help him look for potential hazards in his home. 3. Engage students by asking in which room they would like to begin. 4. Continue to engage students by asking them what to click on as you roll over the hotspots. 5. As you discover the hazards in the room, encourage discussion about the environmental hazards in the room and record feedback and concerns. 6. Introduce vocabulary and terms as you go through the house. Encourage discussion and record interesting points on blackboard. (link to glossary and terms) 7. Have students point out where the same chemical hazard may appear in a different place in the house. 8. Review the activity after all of the hazards have been found. Encourage discussion on positive action that can take place if a potential hazard is discovered. Discuss why it is important to develop awareness of potential environmental health hazards. 9. Discuss one example of a hazard found in ToxMystery and discuss what action could be taken if the hazard was discovered at home. 10. Hand out printouts of the certificate and have students sign their names and color certificate if it is a black and white print out. Evaluation The ToxMystery activity sheets in the teachers resource section can serve as a reinforcement and evaluation tool. Students will demonstrate their ability to: * Identify where potential environmental health hazards may be found in the home. * List at least two actions to take when an environmental health hazard is discovered. * List and describe some of the uses of products that contain the potential hazards	<urn:uuid:d84d7762-a3d5-42ab-becd-484966ec7227>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	https://toxmystery.nlm.nih.gov/pdfs/tmlessonplan1.pdf	2018-05-23T14:44:41Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00234.warc.gz	668,508,086	868	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996102	eng_Latn	0.997557	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1319, 3042, 4397 ]	[ 4.75 ]	3	0
Volume 2 The Winthrop McNair Research Bulletin Volume 2 The Winthrop McNair Research Bulletin Article 13 2016 Instilling Resilience in Children of Poverty Alexis Williamson Winthrop University, email@example.com Bradley Steven Witzel Winthrop University, firstname.lastname@example.org Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.winthrop.edu/wmrb Part of the Education Commons Recommended Citation Williamson, Alexis and Witzel, Bradley Steven (2016) "Instilling Resilience in Children of Poverty," The Winthrop McNair Research Bulletin: Vol. 2, Article 13. Available at: http://digitalcommons.winthrop.edu/wmrb/vol2/iss1/13 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Winthrop University McNair Scholars Program at Digital Commons @ Winthrop University. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Winthrop McNair Research Bulletin by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Winthrop University. For more information, please contact email@example.com. Instilling Resilience in Children of Poverty Alexis Williamson Bradley Witzel, Ph.D. (Mentor) ABSTRACT More than sixteen million children are currently living in poverty in the United States (NCCP, 2015). If these children fail to develop resilience, then they will continue to live in the cycle of generational poverty. Generational poverty is where a family continues to live in poverty from generation to generation. In order to develop resilience, strategies must be implemented within schools in order to nurture resilience in children. This research study focused on resiliency and instilling resiliency in children living in poverty. Knowledge from administrators, teachers, and parents was gathered in order to create strategies to instill resilience in children of poverty. Administrators, teachers, and parents that participated in this study were individuals from Title I schools. Title I schools are schools where at least 50% of the school is on free/reduced lunch. In order for a student to be placed on free/reduced lunch, the family must be making a low enough income and considered to be living in poverty. Literature on resilience was used in order to support the ideas of educational personnel and parents. Concepts found in both interviews and literature was combined in order to form strategies that can be implemented inside of a classroom. Four strategies were created using concepts found in the study. INTRODUCTION Child poverty is a global issue (McKinney, 2014). As of right now, almost half of the 2.2 billion children that live in the world are living in poverty. (CLASP). The United States ranks among the worst developed nations in the world with almost 22 percent of children living in poverty (NCCP, 2015). "There are nearly 24 million young children under age 6 years in the United States" (NCCP, 2015), while more than 24 million children aged 6 through 11 are currently living in poverty. Poverty is defined as lacking material needs, such as the food, fuel, healthcare, clothing, housing, and resources, due to low income (McKinney, 2014). Thus, a child living in poverty lacks some of the most essential needs to survive and thrive. Numerically, poverty is when a family household income is below 100% of the Federal Poverty Threshold (NCCP, 2015). The Federal Poverty Threshold is currently set at $16,057 for a family of two, and it goes up to $23,624 for a family of four (NCCP, 2015). Child poverty is linked to poor performance in both school and work for children and adults (CLASP, 2013). If a child grows up in poverty, then the odds of that child becoming successful is quite slim. In many families, poverty is generational. Generational poverty is where families continue to live in poverty through the years or through generations. Children who are living in poverty now will continue living in poverty in the next generation. In order to stop the cycle and prevent the continuation of living in poverty, it is important that children develop resilience at a young age. Developing resilience at a young age will enable children to carry on that resilience throughout the rest of their lives. Overall, resilience is the ability to overcome adversity that one person may face in his or her life. Resiliency could be compared to sports. If an athlete is injured during the game, that athlete will have to undergo procedures and rehabilitation. Before the athlete is allowed to return back to the game, he or she must prove his or her capabilities. The athlete's determination and perseverance to working hard in order to get back in the game is resilience. Even though the athlete was halted due to an injury, he or she pushed through the adversity in order to keep performing in the game. This current investigation will analyze how to instill academic resilience in children of poverty at the elementary level. Administrators, teachers, and parents are people that influence a child's life. The purpose of this investigation will determine how administrators, teachers, and parents are currently instilling resilience in children so that a framework may be set to help educators and families alike. From this framework, a series of strategies will be realized that could be used by administrators, teachers, and parents in order to help instill resilience in children of poverty. Resilience Resilience is a topic that has been mentioned multiple times in social science literature. Resilience will be a key to help children of poverty break the cycle that they were already born in. The definition of resilience has changed over the years, and there is no consensus on an operational definition (Herrman, 2011). However, resilience has supportive research and common similarities are found between definitions. One definition of resilience, as stated by Herrman (2011), is "the positive adaptation, or the ability to maintain or regain mental health, despite experiencing adversity" (p. 258). Different types of adversities include, deficient parenting, poverty, homelessness, traumatic events, natural disasters, violence, war, and physical illness (Herrman, 2011). Poverty is defined as an adversity or as a risk factor (Masten, 2001). Risk factors are "predictors of undesirable outcomes drawn from evidence that this status or condition is statistically associated with higher probability of a 'bad' outcome in the future" (Masten, 2001, p. 228) Children who are living in poverty are facing an adversity at such a young age. However, developing resilience will be a key for children living in this situation to adapt to their circumstances. Herrman stated (2011), "Mastery of relatively minor adversity by children is important for developing resilience to later challenges." (p.259). By instilling resilience at a young age, children will be able to use the resilience later when they are faced with more obstacles. Another definition of resilience, as stated by Trevino and DeFritas (2013), is "persisting and demonstrating strong effort towards their academic goals despite barriers such as limited finances." (p. 300). Unlike Herrman's definition, Trevino and DeFritas' definition focuses on the academic aspect of resiliency. Trevino and DeFritas define resilience as having the ability to obtain academic achievement regardless of the financial situation. Masten (2001) defines resiliency as "A class of phenomena characterized by good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development" (p. 228). Each of these definitions focuses on a person's ability to persevere through negative circumstances. In this study, the definition of resilience by Trevino and DeFritas will be used. Intrinsic Motivation One's persistence and efforts are motivated by several potential sources (Witzel & Mercer, 2003). Two common categories of motivation are extrinsic and intrinsic. Intrinsic motivation occurs when someone develops internally satisfying consequences during or after the behavior, such as task completion, feedback or result, acquisition of knowledge or skills, and a sense of mastery. Extrinsic motivation takes place when someone develops satisfying consequences outside of the person such as tangible objects, token systems, and social approval. Often times when resilience is discussed, the topic of intrinsic motivation is mentioned. Intrinsic motivation is the drive that students have intrinsically to succeed. Intrinsic motivation is the passion that students have in order to be successful. In order to be resilient, one must be intrinsically motivated. It has been shown that a relationship exists between intrinsic motivation and achievement outcomes (Trevino & DeFreitas, 2013). If a child develops intrinsic motivation, then the child will experience a positive academic correlation. By seeing positive academic outcomes, children will slowly start to develop resilience. The selfdetermination theory is often related back to intrinsic motivation. The self-determination theory "explains the ideas of motivation including what causes motivation to manifest, what increases motivation, and what decreases motivation." (Trevino & DeFreitas, 2013, p. 294). The self-determination theory helps understand how to create intrinsic motivation and increase it within students. Intrinsic motivation requires nurturing or undermining positive potential within individuals (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is needed for resilience, but extrinsic motivation is not. Extrinsic motivation has been proven to negatively affect students and their development of resilience. Extrinsic motivation is the use of external rewards to encourage motivated or positive behavior. It often uses wealth, fame, popularity, and other tangible rewards (Trevino & DeFreitas, 2013). Students who depend on extrinsic motivation show less interest and less persistence in their academics. With intrinsic motivation, students showed more interest and value in what they were learning. Intrinsic motivation is critical for the development of resilience in students. Racial Identity and Racial Climate The racial identities of students and the racial climate of the school are both factors of developing resilience in students. Students who identify positively with their race or their race's historical background, have shown positive values and achievement (Byrd & Chavous, 2011). When students associate with the negative stigmas related back to their racial group, then the students will perform poorly. The negative stigmas will act as a barrier for the students. However, if students are shown the positive qualities of their racial group, the students will become more motivated to succeed. This leads back to intrinsic motivation. A positive racial identity leads to positive academic achievement. Racial climate also influences the development of resilience in students. A school's racial climate or even a classroom's racial climate affects student's intrinsic motivation. If a racial group is ignored or not acknowledged in a school or classroom, then students will not be motivated to succeed (Byrd & Chavous, 2011). If a racial group is acknowledged in the school or classroom, then positive academic achievement can be expected. If a racial group is shown as important in the classroom or in the school, the students of that racial group will feel more motivated to excel in their studies (Byrd & Chavous, 2011). Most students who are in poverty are of the African American and Hispanic race. In 2012, 37.5 percent of children in poverty were African American while 33 percent were Hispanic (CLASP, 2013). In order to instill resilience, it is essential to consider racial identity and racial climate essential. CURRENT STUDY The current study will be focusing on how to instill resilience in children of poverty. Resilience will enable children of poverty to go beyond their circumstances and possibly break the cycle of poverty. The most influential people in a child's life are their teachers, parents, and administrators. This study will gain knowledge from administrators, teachers, and parents of children who attend Title I schools in the Rock Hill area. Title I schools are schools where over 40 percent of children who are attending the school are on free and reduced lunch. Knowledge will be gained from the essential people in the children's lives to see what is already being done to help instill resilience, and what else needs to be done to help develop resilience. Responses gained from the subjects were compared to what has already been found in the literature to determine supportive strategies that could be used to instill resilience. The practical strategies that will be created at the end of this study could be used in schools and at home. By developing strategies that could be used at home and in school, these could help bridge the gap between school life and home life. Creating these strategies to develop resilience might be able to break the cycle of generational poverty. Over 2.2 billion children are living in poverty currently (CLASP, 2013), which means that these children will become adults in poverty. The children who are living in poverty are destined to continue living in poverty as adults unless resilience is instilled in children now. Resilience is a key to giving children of poverty a successful and productive life. METHODS Statement of Problem The statistics of the amount of children living in poverty is saddening. In the U.S alone, over 16 million children are living in poverty (CLASP, 2013). That is almost 22 percent of the children population living in the U.S. Poverty is an adversity that influences a child's outcome. "Research shows poverty is a strong predictor of children's success in school and adult employment and earning" (CLASP, 2013). If intervention is not implemented in these children at a young age, then these children will continue to live in poverty even as adults. In order to break the cycle of generational poverty, resilience must be instilled in order to motivate children to exceed beyond their circumstances. Research Question This investigation focused on how to instill resilience in children of poverty. This study took expert knowledge from the individuals who work with children of poverty on a daily basis. Administrators, teachers, and parents are the three most influential people in a child's life. The goal was to create strategies that could be used by gaining knowledge from individuals on what they are currently doing to implement resilience, and comparing it to the literature that is already on resilience. Study Design This study is considered a preexperimental design. As a pre-experimental design it investigates the conditions that have already occurred and cannot be directly used for cause-effects. As such, the purpose of this research is to define variables and determine how these variables are related (Campbell & Stanley, 1963, p. 34). This investigation is exploratory research. The focus of this research was finding the themes that were most important in developing resilience, and developing friendly strategies that could be used by administrators, teachers, and parents. This investigation was focused on creating strategies that could later be used in experimental research to determine if they are effective. Data Gathering Procedures For this study, intensive interviewing was used in order to gather data. Intensive interviewing "permits an in-depth exploration of a particular topic or experience and, thus, is a useful method for interpretive inquiry" (Charmaz, 2006, p. 25). Subjects were interviewed in order to gain more insight on their experiences related to resilience. Subjects in this study were specifically selected to include administrators, teachers and parents from Title I schools in the Rock Hill area. Four out of the eight Title I schools in the Rock Hill area participated in this study. One administrator was chosen from each school. Two teachers were chosen from each school, along with two parents from each school. Four administrators, seven teachers, and five parents were able to participate in the research. Recruitment for participants started with interest emails being sent to the administrators of each school. If administrators chose to participate, then recruitment letters were sent out for administrators, teachers, and parents. Afterwards, communication was made in order to set up meeting times for interviews. Once confirmed with a date, interviews were held. Each participant was asked five primary questions, with two supplementary questions following. Each set of questions was tailored to the role of the participant, but each set of questions focused on how the participants instilled resilience. The interviews lasted approximately thirty minutes. A maximum time of an hour was given if needed for the participant. The interviews were mostly held in person, but depending on the circumstances of the participants, phone and Skype interviews were offered. There was no recording of the responses of the interviews. Participants' responses were written down. At the end of each interview, participants were given a review of what was recorded so that no misinterpretations were included in the responses. Confidentiality All participants in this study were anonymous. Each subject was informed that his or her identity would be protected throughout this investigation. No names were written down on the data that was gathered from each interview. The only piece of information that had names written down on it was the informed consent agreements. Each participant had to sign an informed consent agreement showing that he or she agreed to participate in the research process. All informed consent agreements will be held in a folder inside of a locked storage cabinet. No one outside of the researcher will be able to view the informed consent agreements. All identities were protected in this research. Coding and Analyzing Once all the interviews were conducted, coding and analyzing took place. Data gathered from the interviews was coded and analyzed. This study used Grounded Theory in order to analyze and synthesize data. Grounded Theory "consists of systematic, yet flexible guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative data to construct theories 'grounded' in the data themselves" (Charmaz, 2006, p. 2). Data gathered from the responses of the interviews was referred back to the literature to find common themes. Triangulation was also used between the responses of educational personnel, parents and the literature. Triangulation consisted of taking data from three different sources and finding correlation between all three of the resources. Figure 1: Triangulation between educational personnel, parents, and literature Educational and parental opinions Educational Personnel Parental Literature Parental opinion with literature support Educational opinion with literature support Educational and parental opinions with literature support The common themes were used in order to produce strategies that could be used at home and inside of the classroom. Summary This entire study is a pre-experimental design. The goal of this research is to develop strategies based off of the literature and the knowledge of particular individuals. In this investigation the individuals were administrators, teachers, and parents of Title I schools in the Rock Hill area. Interviews were conducted in order to collect data. The data in this study consisted of the knowledge and opinion from administrators, teachers, and parents about how they are instilling resilience in their students/children. All identities in this study remained anonymous. All identities were protected, with the paperwork that has names being locked in a storage cabinet. Data gathered was coded and analyzed with the literature. Grounded Theory and Triangulation was the main two methods used in order to code and analyze information gathered. Strategies were created based off of the themes found. RESULTS After conducting sixteen interviews and undergoing two phases of triangulation, three main themes were found. Positivity, Relationships, and Self-Regulation were the three themes that not only appeared throughout all of the interviews, but also has foundation in the literature about resiliency. Having a positive attitude and setting high expectations for students will encourage resiliency in the students. Benard states "research has indicated that schools that establish high expectations for all youth—and give them the support necessary to achieve them—have high rates of academic success" (1995). Inserting positivity in a child's life and setting high expectations of that positivity could instill resiliency in that child. Relationships are another key theme that is important to developing resiliency. "At a time when the traditional structures of caring have deteriorated, schools must become places where teachers and students live together, talk with each other, take delight in each other's company…It is obvious that children will work harder and do things…for people they love and trust" (Benard, 1995). Relationships must be built not only between students and teachers, but also between peers, child and parent, and also teacher and parent. A teacher from one of the schools that participated in the study stated "It is important to build a relationship with your students, you must earn their trust and respect." By developing relationships with students living in poverty, teachers or parents will be able to encourage the child and also express positivity. That will slowly develop resiliency in the child without the child even realizing it. The last theme that was found within this study was SelfRegulation. Allowing children the freedom to make decisions or take control over their own path can instill resilience in a child of poverty. Self-Regulation deals with a person being able to control one's emotions, self-control, selfesteem, etc. Allowing a child living in poverty the ability to make decisions or to actively participate will help encourage resiliency. "Participation, like caring and respect, is a fundamental human need" (Benard, 1995). Allowing active participation and giving out responsibilities will not only help with SelfRegulation, but it could also help strengthen relationships and encourage positivity. All three themes work as a continuous cycle, if one theme is implemented then the other two themes can be found. From these three themes, four strategies were created. Each of these strategies can be used inside of the classroom. Each of the strategies focuses on one or more of the themes found in this study. 1. Daily individualized optimistic messages for each student (Positivity & SelfRegulation). 2. Monthly/Weekly goals for individual students and as a classroom as a whole (Positivity & Relationships). 3. Community-building activities or assignments on a weekly basis (Positivity, SelfRegulation, Relationships). 4. Let students play an active part in decision-making within the classroom and individually with themselves (Self-Regulation & Relationships) Figure 2: List of strategies based on the three themes (Self-Regulation, Relationships, and Positivity). CONCLUSION The next step for this study will be to implement the strategies found in the preexperimental portion of this study inside of an elementary classroom. Preferably one of the schools interviewed would be one of the schools to participate in the next stage of this study. A longitudinal study would most likely be used in order to gather significant enough progress and data. Implementing these strategies over an entire school year or through a semester of school would be ideal. Students who are deemed at risk will be the students that the study focuses on, but the entire classroom will experience the four strategies being implemented. A pre and post survey will be done in order to track growth and to see if the implantation of the strategies has an impact on the development of resiliency in children of poverty. The next phase of this study would be to see if these strategies are effective or if there is another focus that needs to be looked at when developing resiliency. REFERENCES Byrd, C.M., & Chavous, T. (2011). Racial identity, school racial climate, and school intrinsic motivation among African American youth: The importance of person– context congruence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21 (4), 849-860. Benard, B. (1995). Fostering resilience in children. ERIC Digest. Berliner, D.C. (2006). Our impoverished view of educational research. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 949-995. Campbell, D.T., & Stanley, J.C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: Practical guide through qualitative analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Center for Law and Social Policy (2013). Child poverty in the U.S: What new census data tell us about our youngest children. Retrieved from http://www.clasp.org/admin/site/publ ications/files/9.18.13- CensusPovertyData_FactSheet.pdf. DeFreitas, S.C., & Trevino, N.N. (2014). The relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic achievement for first generation Latino college students. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 17 (2), 292-306. Herrman, H., Stewart, D. E., Diaz-Granados, N., Berger, E. L., Jackson, B., & Yuen, T. (2011). What is resilience?. Canadian journal of psychiatry, 56(5), 258-265. Jiang, Y., Ekono, M., & Skinner, C. (2015). Basic facts about low-income children: Children under 6 years, 2013. National Center for Children in Poverty. New York, NY. Jiang, Y., Ekono, M., & Skinner, C. (2015). Basic facts about low-income children: Children 6 through 11 years, 2013. National Center for Children in Poverty. New York, NY. Masten, A.S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychological Association, 56(3), 227-238. Özkan, Y. (2010). Interpersonal impact of the poverty on children. International Journal of Academic Research, 2(6), 172-177. McKinney, S. (2014). The relationship of child poverty to school education. Improving Schools, 17(3), 203-216. Witzel, B. S., & Mercer, C. D. (2003). Applying rewards to teach students with disabilities: implications for motivation. 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Why is Autism Associated With Aggressive and Challenging Behaviors? Autism itself does not cause challenging behaviors. It is likely, however, that some of the underlying biological processes that result in autism might also result in behaviors that are outside of a person's control—similar to how the tremors associated with Parkinson's Disease are brought on by impulses that the person cannot direct. In addition, some behavioral responses are simply reflexes—no more of a choice for your child than when your leg jerks upward when the doctor uses his hammer on your kneecap. "Some of those behaviors that most professionals and many families would not consider challenging, such as making odd noises, repeating phrases over and over, closing and opening doors in a repetitive fashion, might not be dangerous or destructive. But they sure can be annoying, and raise everyone's stress levels. And when the individual is told to stop again and again but still doesn't, those little things can lead to big things. They can create a tension that makes everyone behave in ways that become problematic. Learning how to think about and deal with these low-level, irritating behaviors certainly changed how we functioned as a family and improved our quality of life." – NM, mother In addition, the core features of autism are areas in which difficulties can lead to feelings of frustration, confusion, anxiety or lack of control, resulting in behavioral responses. Since behavior is often a form of communication, many individuals with autism (as well as those without autism) voice their wants, needs or concerns through behaviors, rather than words. This does not mean that they are always knowingly communicating. For example, running away from a barking dog might be the child's biological fight or flight response to scary situations, or even to something that you might not view as frightening. Similarly, shutting down and retreating to a quiet place might be a child's way of saying 'this situation is far too noisy and crowded for me to handle.' This may be an automatic response in the moment, not a choice he is making. Challenging behaviors are more likely to appear when a person is feeling unhappy or unhealthy. Medical concerns, mental health issues, or sensory responses that we cannot see might bring pain or discomfort to a person with autism that we might not understand, especially when he is unable to say so. "All of a sudden when Mark was about 8 years old, he needed order. The change came overnight. If we opened a cabinet, he closed it. Loading and unloading the dishwasher was impossible—he could not tolerate the door being open. It was maddening to us, and so clearly compulsive for him. He became anxious and acted out if the order was not maintained. Thankfully, our doctor ran some tests and determined that he had high antibodies to strep, and the compulsiveness was likely due to a sort of obsessive compulsive disorder called PANDAS. The biological factors were not easy to treat and took a long time to resolve, but how we responded to his behavior changed completely when we realized that he wasn't doing this to drive us crazy, and that he was no more in control of what he was doing than we were. We worked a lot on building his tolerance for flexibility, in tiny bits and using positive rewards. Eventually, he returned to his flexible self, but we had to adapt our behavior to help him through this in a way that worked for all of us." – SP, father Many behaviors are also responses to previous experiences. A baby who gets a smile when he coos usually learns to coo more often. The same is true for challenging behaviors. If a child has learned that screaming gets him out of a difficult task, he might scream in the future to escape. How we respond to his actions can have a significant effect on what he does the next time he is in a similar situation. Because of the learning differences that autism can bring, people with autism might need specialized approaches to learning appropriate behavior. For example, the scolding look that stops your typical two-year-old in his tracks may mean nothing to a 30-year-old with autism who has not learned to recognize emotions and facial expressions. Without some of the abilities and skills that most of us have developed as children and adults, people with autism are often just using the tools they know how to use. Therefore, it is likely that behavior can be improved by helping them to increase the tools they have available—to communicate, to recognize their own biological and behavioral responses, and to build an increased ability to self calm and self regulate. Research on Aggression in Autism A recent study of aggression in autism showed some interesting trends in terms of risk factors, which may give some insight into challenging behaviors overall. I There is a much higher rate of aggression towards caregivers in autism than in the general population and in others with intellectual disabilities. I Unlike the risk factors in a typical population, aggression was equally common in girls as boys with autism. Several other usual risk factors (lower IQ, lower parental education, less language ability) were not associated with greater risk in autism. I The research also showed that just like in the typical population, age was a risk factor, with higher levels of aggression occurring at younger ages, which may suggest that learning and growth may help behaviors improve. I Those children with autism at highest risk of aggression exhibited the following characteristics: 1. More repetitive behaviors, especially self-injurious or ritualistic behaviors, or extreme resistance to change 2. More severe autistic social impairment These results show that core symptoms of autism are associated with the risk of aggression. Perhaps underlying conditions such as a lack of social understanding or the discomfort associated with breaking a routine might promote aggressive behavior. What is helpful to know about behavior? Before considering challenging behavior in isolation, it is helpful to think about human behavior in general. Some behavior is biologically driven (we eat when we are hungry) or reflexive (we cover our ears when a noise is too loud). But for the most part, behavior occurs because it serves a function and/or produces an outcome. Eating serves the function of satisfying hunger, and covering our ears softens the impact of the loud noise. Behavior also serves as a form of communication. Seeing someone cover his ears, even when we did not find a noise to be offensive, can communicate that he is particularly sensitive to sound. It is critical to remember that any individual is doing the best he can do in each situation, given his skills, education, physical and emotional state, and past experiences. We classify certain behaviors as challenging because we as individuals or a society find them to be difficult to accept. It will be important for you to become a careful observer, working to understand the purpose of behaviors. Taking a step back and considering why a person might behave in a certain way is the first important step toward understanding and learning how to help. It is also essential to reducing your own frustration. In fact, it is often helpful to think of an individual's actions as a response, rather than a pre-determined or willful behavior. However, there is a difference between understanding behaviors that we or society might not find appropriate and accepting those behaviors. For example, determining why a child needs to kick, and then developing his skills for communication should be the objective (e.g. ' I need a break.'), instead of allowing kicking as a form of speech. Similarly, working to understand and treat biological conditions that might cause challenging behaviors is essential. "Sam's teacher moved to another city, so he entered his second year of high school with a familiar but less skilled instructor. Soon he was headed to the nurse's office each morning and spending first period on her bed. Clearly the new teacher had anxiety, and the school staff believed that this was being reflected in Sam's behavior and increasing his anxiety as well. Or perhaps it was task avoidance, as there were a lot of language demands in that first period social skills class. Then one morning, he actually gagged and vomited, but once he got home it was clear that Sam was not sick. Soon after, other staff noticed that he would turn his head to the side and his eyes would roll during the period immediately after lunch. We also noticed a tendency to retreat to the couch at home after dinner. That's when we consulted the gastroenterologist, and sure enough, he was diagnosed with reflux. All of these odd behaviors and the trips to the nurse's office subsided once he was treated." – ED, mother When thinking about your loved one with challenging behaviors, it is also important to consider his positive features and strengths. Show respect for his thoughts, feelings and the likelihood that he understands far more — or alternately, perhaps far less—than you might consider. Take care not to speak about him in his presence, for it is likely that he understands more than he is able to show. Talk to him and provide him with information, even if you are not sure that he understands what you are saying. It is important to build your child's trust in your support, and shape his motivation and purpose into more acceptable behaviors. Function of Behavior Whenever behavior occurs, it is important to consider its purpose, or what is most often called its function. Although some behavior is biologically driven, much behavior is learned over time and through experiences, and shaped by what happens before and after the behavior takes place. Other behaviors may have begun as biologically driven (such as scratching an itch) but may turn into something that serves a different function (perhaps scratching to gain a teacher's attention). "Special educators [and parents] need to look at what a child can do instead of what he/she cannot do. There needs to be more emphasis on building up and expanding the skills a child is good at. Too often people get locked into a label such as dyslexia, ADHD, or autism, and they cannot see beyond the label. Kids that get a label often have uneven skills. They may be talented in one area and have a real deficiency in another. It is important to work on areas where a child is weak, but an emphasis on deficits should not get to the point where building the area of strength gets neglected." – Temple Grandin, Ph.D. An example of a productive behavior might be asking for something to eat, then receiving a cookie. The function of making the request is to get the cookie. For a child with limited language skills, the strategies involved in getting a cookie might look very different. But if the end result is the same, whatever the individual needed to do to be fed is the method by which he has learned to 'get a cookie.' Over time, an individual with significant communication challenges is likely to develop some creative and interesting methods for communicating—some of which might be considered challenging. The Function of Challenging Behaviors Challenging behaviors, such as aggression, disruption, or self-injury are often a chief concern of caregivers of individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities. Many of these challenging behaviors are learned and maintained by what happens immediately before and after the problem behavior. Because they are learned behaviors, problem behaviors can be modified by manipulating or changing situations in the environment, especially the events before and after the problem. In most cases, challenging behavior is seen as a way to request or communicate a preferred outcome (e.g., access to toys, food, social interaction, or cessation of unpleasant activity). Therefore, the goal is to replace the inappropriate "request" with more adaptive (appropriate and effective) communication. -p.13 Targeting the Big Three Questions you might ask about why a person is behaving in a certain way include: I Did this behavior start suddenly? If so, might my child be sick or is there another change that might have caused this? I Is there some underlying medical concern or condition that is making him reactive? Tired? Stressed? I What is my child attempting to gain from this behavior? Is he trying to escape something? I What is he trying to tell me? What can I learn from this? I Does it happen in certain places, with specific people or in situations where he is hungry or tired? Is there something we might adjust in his surroundings that might improve the situation? PAGE 4 I What happens before the behavior? Is there something that makes it more likely to occur? I What happens after the behavior occurs? What is helping this behavior persist? What maintains it or makes it work as a tool for this individual? I What do I typically do to get my child to stop engaging in the behavior? Am I (or is someone else) giving him more attention then, or doing something that might be making the behavior work to get him what he wants? If you can develop an idea of when or why a behavior is happening, you may realize there are simple solutions that help to improve a situation and make an undesired behavior less likely to occur. It is also essential to remember that behavior changes, and people adapt. The same behavior that serves a specific function in one situation may serve a different purpose in another setting. In other words, one bite might be out of frustration when a child wants something he is unable to ask for. Another might occur when he is afraid and needs to get away, and yet another might be an automatic response to intense stress. And although biting is the same behavior, the reasons it happens (the function) can be very different. Behavior generally serves one of several functions: I Obtaining a desired object or outcome I Escaping a task or situation I Getting attention, either positive (praise) or negative (yelling) I Trying to self-calm, self-regulate or feel good (sensory input ) I Blockingor staying away from something painful or bothersome (sensory avoidance) I Responding to pain or discomfortAttempting to gain control over an environment or situation (self-advocacy) Improvements can often be made by changing the situations and environment, or the things that come before and after problem behaviors occur. And since behavior is often a form of communication, teaching more adaptive and appropriate ways of communicating can often reshape problem behaviors into more appropriate requests, protests and responses. "Before I was able to express myself with my speech, the only way I knew how to escape from situations and people I didn't like was to hit and bite and run. I didn't want to hurt anyone, but I just couldn't stand being there anymore and I couldn't explain my thoughts or feelings in any other way. So many things bothered me, it was like being in intense pain. Now that I've had years of practice – first with signing and then my communication device – I can use my speech and other forms of communication to ask for a break or to move to a quiet space, instead of using aggression. Things are much better for me now." – DR, a young woman with autism Before formal interventions are developed, it is important to consider the wide array of possible contributing factors, including the biological ones. Appropriately determining function is then essential to creating a plan that might effectively address the behavior. PAGE 5 For example, if a child is hitting his mom in order to get out of making his bed, putting the child in 'time out' would actually give the child what he wanted (avoiding the task), and therefore support (reinforce) the behavior. In this case, he would be inclined to hit again to escape. Instead, if it is determined that the child hits because the task is too difficult, making the task easier to build success might allow him to stay engaged, and eliminate the need to hit. You may want to start by helping him make the bed, but be sure that he has to finish the job correctly by putting on that last pillow. In considering behavior, it is important to look at the individual as a whole, and to consider productive as well as challenging or maladaptive behaviors. It is also important to recognize that what we might consider negative behavior might have positive elements—the individual might be standing up for his wants or desires. Building appropriate self-advocacy and self-determination skills is essential. Visit the Positive Strategies for Supporting Behavior Improvement for more information. People with autism often report that they find the world confusing and anxiety-producing. Many of the successful supports for increasing appropriate behavior involve creating more predictability and safety, while also building self-regulation, communication and self-determination skills. Meet your child where he is now, celebrate the things he does well, and take small, positive steps to build the skills and the trust that will make him more adapted to your family and the world around him. Two Vital Things to Remember By applying the principles of behavior, you will teach the individual a more appropriate way to obtain what she wants (i.e., attention, access to leisure materials, or avoiding doing a task, etc.). I Consistency is Vital - While function-based behavior intervention can be very effective, for it to be most successful, it must be implemented consistently at all times by the majority of people who interact with the individual. I Continuation is Vital - More importantly, the behavior intervention should continue even if the challenging behavior begins to decrease, much like the way medication or diet works. Hoping for a lasting effect without continuing the changing agent (i.e., behavior treatment, medication, and diet) will only lead to frustration and failure. With consistency and adherence to the behavioral guidelines, you will see gradual change in the individual's challenging behavior. –Page 72 – Targeting the Big Three	<urn:uuid:c8b646d8-127b-4b92-80b2-2835839da522>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	http://www.autismspeaks.org/sites/default/files/section_1.pdf	2018-05-23T14:44:47Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00229.warc.gz	324,994,398	3,548	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998821	eng_Latn	0.998957	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3492, 5994, 9520, 12771, 15684, 18253 ]	[ 3.234375 ]	2	0
ToxMystery Lesson Plan 3: ACID OR BASE? TOXIE'S ON THE CASE! Grade Level: 2-6 Description: This lesson plan will extend the inquiry started in the ToxMystery activities by introducing students to the world of acidity and alkalinity in household products. National Science Educational Standards Unifying Concepts and Standards: * Understanding of evidence, models and explanation Science as Inquiry: * Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry * Understanding about scientific inquiry Science in Personal and Social Perspective: * Personal health * Natural hazards * Types of resources * Changes in environments * Science and technology in society History and Nature of Science * Science as human endeavor * Nature of science Learning Outcomes Students will be able to: * Understand the difference between acids and bases * Compare and analyze appropriate uses for chemicals and other household products * List and describe several chemicals and their uses, as well as their pH balance (acidity and alkalinity) Background ToxMystery is a computer game activity developed by the National Library of Medicine to increase awareness of the environmental health field. In the activity, "Toxie", the animated cat leads students on a tour of his home and points out potential hazards that might be found day to day. Litmus is a byproduct of a number of natural resources and is derived from the chemical azolitmin. The litmus test was derived from a number of natural sources, including plants like red cabbage and the hydrangea flower. Gardeners found that soils with higher pH content resulted in hydrangeas with blue flowers, while soils that had lower pH levels bloomed pink flowers. It was determined that the chemicals in these plants could detect acid content, and thus the litmus test was born. Litmus strips are used by scientists to determine the acid content of a number of materials. Time Needed One forty-five minute class period Materials Needed: * Computer * Various household materials/chemicals (the materials can include, but are not limited to: water, soda pop, oil, baking soda, bleach, vinegar, different juices such as lemon juice or orange juice) * ToxMystery Game (online or CD-ROM) * Shallow glass dishes (or clear petri dishes) * Markers/Dry-erase markers * overhead projector * Crayons/Colored Pencils * 1 head of red cabbage, chopped and boiled (directions on teacher worksheet) * 1 cheese grater To prepare Litmus Culture: 1. Take the head of red cabbage and grate it with the cheese grater. 2. Place the grated strips you get from this into a bowl and cover with water. 3. Allow to steep for about an hour, or until the water turns a purple color. 4. When finished, drain the purple water into a jar and, if so inclined, throw away the cabbage (the cabbage can be cooked or added to salads, if you prefer not to waste it). Procedure: Lesson 3: Let's investigate! 1. Review and Discuss Lesson 1, ToxMystery. Evaluate student assumptions about the potential hazards in household products. Discuss and record some of the hazards found in ToxMystery. 2. Introduce the litmus activity and discuss properties of chemicals. 3. Write the materials you are using on the board. 4. Prepare litmus by pouring it into your individual petri dishes 5. Pass out accompanying worksheet, titled "Acid or Base? Toxie's on the Case!" to students. 6. Begin by asking students to read along with you on the worksheet. 7. Ask them to name some acids and bases they've heard about. 8. On worksheet page two, show students what happens when acids and bases mix by mixing baking soda and vinegar together in equal portion. 9. To demonstrate the power of neutrals, add pure water to the mix. 10.Show students how the mixture begins to lose its potency. 11.When you reach page three, ask your students to write down the names of your materials in the spaces provided. 12.Proceed to add each of your materials to your prepared litmus samples. (Note: Make sure the student notice the difference in color) 13. Depending on time, you may opt for more or less materials to test. It is recommended to test at least one acid, one base, and one neutral. * When you've done all the substances, ask students these questions: * What pH do you think the {insert acid name here} was? * What about the {insert name of base}? The {insert name of neutral}? * When we added {insert acid name}, it turned very pink. * When we added {insert another acid name}, it turned even more pink. How could you tell which of the two acids is the strongest? * Sometimes, acids and bases can be harmful. If you happen to find an unhealthy chemical in your house, what should you do? Evaluation Students will demonstrate their ability to: Identify levels of acidity and alkalinity in household items List and describe acids and bases found in the home.	<urn:uuid:ce60490f-9090-4cce-89d4-91cb715d4268>	CC-MAIN-2018-22	https://toxmystery.nlm.nih.gov/pdfs/tmlessonplan3.pdf	2018-05-23T14:46:47Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865679.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523141759-20180523161759-00236.warc.gz	643,982,837	1,050	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.993232	eng_Latn	0.996935	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1026, 2440, 4025, 4847 ]	[ 4.84375 ]	2	0
LESSON PLAN Energy from the Sun DURATION In this lesson, the students will explore how solar energy is converted to thermal/heat energy. LESSON OBJECTIVES Upon completing this lesson the students will: * Measure the amount of solar heat that comes from the sun; and * Describe ways this energy can be used to help reduce our dependence on traditional fossil fuels and nuclear power. ESSENTIAL QUESTION The activity requires one class period. MATERIALS This activity works well for small groups of students. For each group performing the experiment, you'll need the following items. * 2 Styrofoam Cups * 2 Thermometers * Food Coloring * Aluminum Foil * A Measuring Cup * A Metric Ruler * A Watch with Second Hand * Insulation Materials (packing foam, shredded newspaper, etc.) How much energy comes to us from the sun? * A Cardboard Box (It should be the same height as the cups. Trim the box if needed.) COLLEGE & CAREER-READY SCIENCE STANDARDS 2021 GRADE 4 STANDARD 4-PS3-2. Make observations to provide evidence that energy can be transferred from place to place by sound, light, heat, and electric currents. DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA (DCI) PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer Energy is present whenever there are moving objects, sound, light, or heat. When objects collide, energy can be transferred from one object to another, thereby changing their motion. In such collisions, some energy is typically also transferred to the surrounding air; as a result, the air gets heated and sound is produced. Light also transfers energy from place to place. Energy can also be transferred from place to place by electric currents, which can then be used locally to produce motion, sound, heat, or light. CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS (CCC) Energy and Matter Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. GRADE 6 STANDARD 6-PS3-4. Plan an investigation to determine the relationships among the energy transferred, the type of matter, the mass, and the change in the average kinetic energy of the particles as measured by the temperature of the sample. DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA (DCI) PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer The amount of energy transfer needed to change the temperature of a matter sample by a given amount depends on the nature of the matter, the size of the sample, and the environment. CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS (CCC) Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Proportional relationships (e.g. speed as the ratio of distance traveled to time taken) among different types of quantities provide information about the magnitude of properties and processes. GRADE 7 STANDARD 7-PS3-5. Construct, use, and present arguments to support the claim that when the kinetic energy of an object changes, energy is transferred to or from the object. DISCIPLINARY CORE IDEA (DCI) PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer When the motion energy of an object changes, there is inevitably some other change in energy at the same time. CROSS-CUTTING CONCEPTS (CCC) Energy and Matter Energy may take different forms (e.g. energy in fields, thermal energy, energy of motion). SOLAR ENERGY WHY SOLAR ENERGY? The sun is our most powerful energy resource. It heats our planet and nourishes the plants we eat. Without the sun, we could not exist. The energy from the sun is there for the taking. It is not only free, it never runs out. If we could harness all of the sun's energy that falls on one square meter of the Earth's surface for one hour, we could light up a whole city for one year. Also, the energy from the sun poses no environmental hazards. THE CHALLENGE OF TAPPING THE SUN'S ENERGY With these many advantages, why are we not using solar energy to meet all of our energy needs? The answer is that tapping the sun's energy is not a straightforward process. To effectively use the sun, it must be constantly available. Yet, even under ideal weather conditions, the sun does not shine 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. To be useful, sunlight must be collected, moved to where it is needed, and stored. This is no easy challenge. People have been using the sun's energy for thousands of years for space and water heating purposes. With the beginning of the space age, scientists were able to develop a system that converts sunlight into electricity. This is called a photovoltaic system. Utilizing the sun's energy is categorized into three main systems. These are: * Passive Systems; * Hybrid Systems. * Active Systems; and The last, a hybrid system is some combination of the other systems. In all of the systems, they must face the sun in order to work. We know that the sun moves across the sky during the day from the east to the west. This creates the problem of where to face the system to get the maximum amount of energy from the sun. The answer is to position the system so that it faces due south, or only slightly east or west of south. There also is solar technology available that will allow solar panels to move or "track" the sun as it moves across the sky. This helps increase the efficiency of these solar panels. For more information about these systems, visit www.eesi.org/topics/solar/description. PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS Passive solar systems do not use any mechanical equipment to move the energy. In these systems, the actual building components become part of the system. These components, or thermal storage materials, are used to store heat during the day for use at night. Among the most commonly used thermal storage materials are tile, concrete, brick, and water. All of these materials are very good at absorbing and holding heat. As with all systems that utilize solar energy, location is a most important consideration in designing a passive solar house. To be most effective, the windows in a passive solar house must face south. In this position, they will be exposed to maximum sunlight. In addition, insulation should be placed around the glass to reduce heat loss. Windows, doors, and walls need to be free of leaks so that trapped heat stays trapped. Outside landscaping is another important part of passive solar systems. For example, evergreen trees that won't lose their leaves in winter can be planted on the north side of a home to provide winter wind protection. Trees that lose their leaves in winter can likewise be planted on the south side of a home to give it access to winter sunlight and to protect it from hot, summer sunshine. Learn more about passive solar home design at www.energy.gov/ energysaver/energy-efficient-home-design/passive-solar-homedesign. ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS Active solar systems use mechanical and electrical equipment such as pumps, photovoltaic panels and fans to move energy around. Four types of active systems are discussed in this section. Space heating, water heating, photovoltaic systems, and concentrated solar power. A house using active space heating will have to face south, with most of its windows on the south wall. This allows winter sunlight to enter the house, thereby heating the air inside. This heated air is then circulated throughout the house by fans. When sunlight passes through glass into an enclosed space, the wavelength of the light changes. This new wavelength can not pass back through the glass, thereby entrapping it in the house. This is known as the greenhouse effect. Think of it just like getting into the car on a cold winter day and finding the inside of the car warm. More equipment needs to be added to the system if night time heating is necessary. The air is heated in collectors and circulated through a rock bed storage compartment. This is an insulated box which contains small rocks. These rocks are heated during the day, and at night, the air inside the home is circulated through the rock bed. As it passes through the rocks, it extracts the stored heat, and heated air is circulated back through the house. Water heating systems are more complicated than space systems and can be used year-round. A collector panel is mounted on the roof (facing south). This consists of an insulated box with a clear glass or plastic cover. Inside this panel are many copper pipes and fins. These pipes are painted black to absorb and conduct the sun's heat to the water that is pumped through them. This collector panel is attached to the water heater tank which is located inside the house. The water is circulated between the collector and the water tank by electric pumps. Cold water is pumped from the water tank to the collector, and hot water is pumped back from the collector to the water tank. Thermosensors, which recognize changes in temperature, tell the pump when to cut on and off. Concentrated solar power (CSP) is an active system distinguished from other solar energy systems by its ability to function as a utility-scale power plant. CSP uses fields of mirrors to concentrate solar energy into channels holding heat-responsive fluid. The high temperatures excite the fluid to a point where it powers a turbine or engine, which in turn runs an electric generator. More information on concentrated solar projects is available at the U.S. Department of Energy's website – www.energy.gov/lpo/concentrating-solar-power-projects. Photovoltaic systems are a type of active system. They convert radiant energy from the sun into electricity. While photovoltaic technology has been around for more than 150 years, its actual development did not occur until 1954. It was first used in 1958 to provide electric power for U.S. spacecraft and satellites. The cost of producing electricity through photovoltaic technology has dropped significantly in the past few years. Prices have gone from more than $12 per watt to less than $4 per watt. Lawrence Berkeley National Lab tracks this information each year. For more information, visit https://emp.lbl.gov/tracking-the-sun. Photovoltaic systems, while once seen as too expensive, are becoming more commonplace. Photovoltaic systems are often used in remote areas, where it is too expensive for power companies to bring in electric power lines. Also, they are being used to light road signs and bus shelters. Researchers developing electric cars are making use of photovoltaic technology as well. SOURCE: www.eesi.org/topics/solar/description 17 Review with the class the background information on solar energy. Ask How can we measure solar energy? Solar energy is measured as heat or calories. EXPLORE Have the students work in small groups to perform this experiment to measure solar energy. Have each group record their results. To set up the experiment, have the students follow these steps. Fill two foam cups with a measured amount of very cold water. Set a standard amount for students to use based on the size of the cups. * To one of the cups of water, add several drops of food coloring to turn the water dark. Make the water as close to black as possible. Black absorbs sunlight. * To the other cup of clear water, cover the top with a piece of aluminum foil. This foil will reflect the sun. * Place the cups in the cardboard box. If necessary, trim the box so that it is the same height as the cups. * Add insulation material around the cups. See the illustration below. * Place the box in the sun for 10 minutes. The hottest time of the day is usually between 3 and 4 p.m. * Have students predict what will happen to the water in each of the cups. Instruct students to write their predictions down in their science notebooks. * After 10 minutes, stir the water in the cups with the thermometers and record the temperatures in a data table. NOTE: These measurements should be taken at the same time. 18 Have the students evaluate their predictions. Were their predictions correct or incorrect? Have them construct explanations for why their predictions were correct or incorrect. Discuss how darker colors absorb more heat. ELABORATE Use these results to do the following calculation to find out how many calories, or the amount of solar heat, received on 1 square centimeter in one minute at your location. Area = πd = centimeters 4 ml of H 2 O in 1 cup X difference in temperate of Calories = both cups after being in the sun for 10 minutes Area (square centimeters) of water X 10 The calories calculation is the same as the amount of solid heat received on 1 square centimeter in 1 minute at your location. Multiply by 10,000 to get the results for 1 square meter. Explain to the groups that scientists have measured the amount of solar energy beyond our atmosphere at about 2.0 calories per square centimeter per minute. About 1.5 calories per square centimeter per minute reaches earth after passing through the atmosphere. This is called the Solar Constant. Explain to the students that the Solar Constant is important for the study of heatexchange processes in the earth's atmosphere and for the investigation of processes occurring in the sun. EVALUATE After the experiment, have students consider how this solar energy might be applied to their everyday lives. What inventions or modifications to existing systems do they see as practical for using solar energy? For example, could passive solar energy be used effectively by schools, since most school buildings are not used at night? What about electric school buses? Have the students explain their idea and how it would save nonrenewable energy resources. Have the students reflect on these questions in their Science notebook. Set time aside to have a large group discussion where the students can share their reflections. E-LEARNING ACTIVITY * Online Solar Games and Activities – www.eia.gov/kids/gamesand-activities/ * Illinois Solar Schools Live Dashboard – www.illinoissolarschools.org (Pick a school from the A-Z list and click on "Show Solar Data" to see a live look at their solar.) * Colleton Solar Farm – www.santeecoopersolar.com/Solar-Share/ Colleton-Solar-Farm/Index.aspx (Flash is required to view.)	<urn:uuid:0be6e04d-b099-4ac6-af54-2551f0d66c18>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://energy.sc.gov/sites/energy/files/Documents/view/Energy%20from%20the%20Sun%2022.pdf	2024-02-23T10:07:56+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00043.warc.gz	238,222,087	2,939	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.989991	eng_Latn	0.998668	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1844, 3132, 10294, 13966 ]	[ 4.59375 ]	2	0
MolPlan New cradles of molecules in interstellar space: planetary nebulae DUUR 15/12/2015 - 15/03/2018 BUDGET 150 000 € PROJECT DESCRIPTION When low- to middleweight stars like our Sun approach the end of their lives, they first become red giants and eventually small white dwarf stars. In doing so, the old giants cast off their outer layers of gas and dust into space, creating beautiful planetary nebulae. During the planetary nebula stage the remaining stellar core is a hot white dwarf, whose intense UV radiation should destroy most molecules that had previously been ejected, and hamper the formation of new molecules in the nebula. In recent years however, it has become clear that the molecular content of planetary nebulae is not as sparse as originally thought. The 2014 detection of OH + in the Helix nebula with the Herschel satellite was the first clear evidence for the formation of molecular ions in planetary nebulae. This has created many scientific questions regarding the survival and formation of molecules in planetary nebulae. From observations we know that the molecules reside in or near dense clumps where they are shielded from the UV radiation of the central star. It is in such clumps that molecules may survive the planetary nebula phase and new molecules may be formed. Such clumps are observed in a number of highly evolved planetary nebulae with central stars where the nuclear burning has stopped and the luminosity of the central star has dropped significantly. The origin of these clumps is heavily debated. Many scientists argue that they are remnants of an early phase of the evolution before the central star started ionizing the nebula. However, such clumps are not identifiable in young planetary nebulae. This seems contradictory. Hence we propose to quantitatively investigate a new physical instability which may lead to the formation of clumps in recombining ionized gas around cooling white dwarfs. We will use the PDR code Cloudy to derive the temporal evolution of the physical conditions in a recombing plasma. This model will then be used in a theoretical analysis to determine if the gas is unstable in the way we proposed and what the time scale would be to form the globules. Finally, we will use Cloudy to create a model of the advection flow off the globules in the Helix nebula by matching it to the Herschel spectrum. Sakurai's object underwent a very late thermal pulse in the early 90's, then quickly cooled down to a born-again Asymtotic Giant Branch (AGB) star and recently started reheating. It will eventually form a new planetary nebula inside the old one. During the very late thermal pulse, the central star ingested the remaining hydrogen of its envelope into the helium burning layer leading to a hydrogen-ingestion flash. This created a unique set of physical conditions leading to the socalled i-process for creating heavier elements, which is intermediate to the well known s-process working in AGB stars and the r-process active in supernovae. The i-process is important in the first generation of stars and was proposed to occur in Sakurai's object by F. Herwig, but still needs to be corroborated by observations. After the hydrogen-ingestion flash, the processed material is immediately ejected into space and is currently forming molecules and dust. This creates a unique opportunity to study the i-process and molecular chemistry in a carbon-rich environment in real time. The origin of carbon lies in the nucleosynthesis in stars. One of the few carbon-rich environments found in space are the ejecta of AGB stars. A unique organic synthesis flourishes in the gas phase in these envelopes and a wide range of complex carbon bearing molecules are found, similar to organic molecules in dense clouds from which stars and planetary systems originate. AGB stars evolve into planetary nebulae. What becomes of the molecular material from the AGB shell once the nebula is ionized by the strong ultraviolet radiation emitted by the white dwarf? Which molecules survive, which are formed, and how, are important questions, which need to be answered in the quest to understand the chemical enrichment of dense clouds from which stars and planets originate. The understanding of the i-process is important for the understanding of the evolution of the first generation of stars and hence for cosmology. Our proposed research will provide critical constraints for modelling this process. MolPlan Astronomy is a science, which can be taught at different levels from 3-99 years. Looking up at the skies puts life on earth into context and changes one's mind-set. All kids are fascinated by space, and it can captivate their interest in science and technologies at a young age. Planetary nebulae are especially fascinating, because they are very beautiful, have intriguing morphologies, and contain interesting variety of physics and chemistry. Because they evolve relatively fast, kids can realize that objects in the sky are not as static as they seem, but evolution is observable and new discoveries can be made. Louizalaan 231 Avenue Louise • B-1050 Brussels Tel. +32 (0)2 238 34 11 http://www.belspo.be/brain-be/ • Email : firstname.lastname@example.org CONTACT INFORMATIE Coordinator Royal Observatory of Belgium Astronomy and Astrophysics Griet C. Van de Steene email@example.com LINKS http://aa.oma.be http://aa.oma.be/MolPlan/index.html	<urn:uuid:111fd3d8-8eb5-4132-ba94-2f13a4db646f>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.belspo.be/belspo/brain-be/projects/MolPlan_en.pdf	2024-02-23T10:44:27+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00045.warc.gz	702,980,586	1,141	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.988988	eng_Latn	0.997747	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4467, 5425 ]	[ 2.09375 ]	1	0
Name: Math Buzz Name: Math Buzz Math Buzz Math Buzz The graph shows the number of calories Jaxton burns while playing each sport for 60 minutes. Divide. 5 8,251 0 9 3,672 According to the graph, which sport burns the maximum number of calories? ____________________________ Sports Soccer Softball burn playing basketball than football? ____________________________ If Jaxton plays basketball for two hours, how many total calories will he burn? ____________________________ How many fewer calories will Jaxton Basketball Football Count the cubes and write the volume of the rectangular prism. List the factors of 35 from least to greatest. __________________________________________________ Is 35 prime or composite? _________________________ List the factors of 53 from least to greatest. __________________________________________________ Volume = __________ cubic units Is 53 prime or composite? _________________________ Rowan played video games five times as long over the weekend as he did during the week. If he played for 210 minutes over the weekend, how much time did he spend playing video games during the week? Show your work. 210 ÷ 5 = 42 42 answer: _______ minutes Rewrite each phrase as an algebraic expression. Add 19 to the difference between 70 and 56. (70 – 56) + 19 Start with the number 498. Multiply by 10. 4,980 ____________________________________ What place value did the 4 change to? a . tens b . thousands c . ten thousands Multiply. 544,950 ___________ = 6 x 90,825 6 1 5 2 4 x 8 ____________________________________ 475,632 Find 8 times as much as the sum of 42 and 3. 3,805,056 ——–––––––––––––––– 8 x (42 + 3) Answers may vary. According to the graph, which sport burns the maximum number of calories? Soccer ____________________________ How many fewer calories will Jaxton burn playing basketball than football? 150 calories ____________________________ If Jaxton plays basketball for two hours, how many total calories will he burn? ____________________________ 500 calories The Nile River is 6,650 kilometers long. The Amazon River is 6,400,000 meters long. Which river is longer? Metric Units of Length 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters 6,650 x 1,000 = 6,650,000 6,650 km > 6,400,000 m Nile River Find the products. 160,000 ________________ = 32 x 5,000 1,600,000 ________________ = 32 x 50,000 16,000,000 Add. Simplify if possible. Name a ray. _____________________________________ Ray WV Name a line segment. _____________________________________ Line Segment TW Name a pair of intersecting lines. Line XW and Line UV _____________________________________ Perimeter = 306 yd Answers may vary. 100 Length = ___________ yd Use a protractor to measure the angle. Then circle to classify the angle as acute, obtuse, or right. If the pattern continues, draw what the 11th shape will be. K KJI = _________ 25° J I acute obtuse right Count the cubes and write the volume of the rectangular prism. 24 Volume = __________ cubic units Write each improper fraction as a mixed number. 75 4 18 3 4 = __________ 101 10 = __________ 1 10 10 83 _____________ List the factors of 35 from least to greatest. 1, 5, 7, 35 _________________________________________ Is 35 prime or composite? _________________________ composite List the factors of 53 from least to greatest. _________________________________________ 1, 53 Is 53 prime or composite? prime _________________________ Write an equation and solve to find the measure of OPQ. O 6 6 answer: ________________ ________________ = 32 x 500,000 13 5 = __________ equation: __________________________ Super Teacher Worksheets - 17° + 34 * = 51 www.superteacherworksheets.com * Find the product	<urn:uuid:a0a9ba1f-a3f1-4e6c-a51f-519aa4db2373>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/daily-math-review/math-buzz-e-31-35.pdf	2024-02-23T09:18:49+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00045.warc.gz	1,056,721,671	929	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990009	eng_Latn	0.989432	[ "unknown", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 16, 34, 45, 955, 3839 ]	[ 3.90625 ]	1	0
Name: _________________________________ Typing Activity Below is a box with 12 of your spelling words in it. Use a computer word processor to type 12 sentences. Each sentence should have a spelling word in it. Word Box 1. carousel 5. jewel 2. middle 6. multiple 3. eagle 7. bicycle 4. cancel 8. towel 9. noodle 10. couple 11. wiggle 12. scramble Step 1: Write sentences with your spelling words in them. - Type your name at the top of the page. - Use each word in a complete sentence. - Each sentence should have at least six words in it. Number the sentences 1 through 12. Underline the spelling word in each sentence. Check to be sure all words are spelled correctly. Be sure each sentence makes sense, begins with a capital letter, and ends with a punctuation mark. - Check to make sure you underlined each spelling word. - Be sure each sentence has six or more words in it. - Check to make sure you numbered your sentences and typed your name at the top of the page. Step 3: Adjust the font and size. - Choose a basic font that is easy to read, such as Arial or Verdana. - Your font size should be between 12 and 16 point. Step 4: Save or print your file, as per your teacher's instructions. Teacher Notes * For this activity, you can use any word processor, such as Microsoft Word or OpenOffice, or GoogleDocs. * We suggest you disable automatic numbering. It can be confusing for students, especially if they are leaving blank lines between sentences with the enter key. * We also suggest that you disable the spelling auto-correct feature. This will prevent the computer from correcting words automatically, without the student noticing. Name: _________________________________ Spelling Level D, Unit 14 Score ______ / 25 Student wrote 12 complete sentences. Each sentence makes sense and has 6 or more words in it. ______ / 50 All words in the sentences are spelled correctly. ______ / 10 Student has correctly used spaces, capital letters, and punctuation. ______ / 10 Sentences are numbered, and spelling words are underlined. Student has chosen a font size and style that is easy to read. ______ / 5 Student has successfully saved or printed the file, as per the teacher's instructions. ______ / 100 total score Comments: _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________	<urn:uuid:0f5b04dd-62d9-467d-b45c-fe20e44d258a>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/spelling-d/listd14-spelling-typing-sentences.pdf	2024-02-23T11:22:57+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00048.warc.gz	1,052,719,684	540	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999072	eng_Latn	0.999356	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1213, 2412 ]	[ 4.28125 ]	95	0
Introduction Technology today is such a varied and flexible career field that you can never know where it might take you. Learning to code will equip you with all the tools necessary to accomplish any task and solve whatever problems are thrown your way, with any career choice that you make. Coding is easier than you think. Whilst the process of learning to code may start off being a little intimidating at first, it does get easier over time. The reality is, it's more to do with the breaking down of a problem logically rather than writing complicated algorithms. You don't have to be a genius in order to code. Coding skills allow you to build websites and applications you need to get tasks done without having to rely on others to do it for you. In a business world where websites and applications are important parts of the landscape, your ability to do these things for yourself will increase your productivity and efficiency. Whether you want to earn money from what you make or change the world for the better by helping people through technology, learning to code is such an empowering skill to learn. "Everybody in this country should learn to program a computer… because it teaches you to think." Logical Thinking You learn how to break down a problem into individual steps and to use a language that the computer understands to logically create a working program whilst communicating your thoughts in a structured way. Any professional job or career that you pursue is going to favour and reward quick thinking and the ability to solve problems in nimble ways. Consider learning to code as an advanced course in critical thought. One that just brings a solid skill foundation along with it. Bring Ideas to Life The nearly endless ways of coding and solving problems can inspire ideas to grow. You will start to develop a certain mindset on approaching problems and enabling you to look at challenges from a bigger picture to adapt to working through issues. You will get the chance to personally develop the projects that match your vision without having it lost in translation, which is always the risk when you're working with other people. Grow Confidence You become more confident in using your computer as you begin to understand how it works and how it can be controlled through programming. Confidence will grow further and have a positive affect on your social life as coding can provide an outlet for you to interact with the rest of the world. You develop the ability to make applications and websites for things you care about and want to share. "One of the best feelings is knowing that you accomplished something great. Learning to code gives you that excitement and empowerment." Everyone has their own coding tips, here at First Coding we've listed a few of our own. * Always carry a notebook: Ideas and solutions to coding problems can appear at any time, anywhere and having a notebook close to hand ensures that you can record your thoughts easily. Be sure to write down every idea, good or bad. This will also prove useful in tracking the progress of ideas. * Learn to play chess: Chess is a good way of training your brain to think ahead. This is a great coding skill, being able to think ahead and cater for a multitude of scenarios. * Keep your code simple: Why use a sledgehammer to crack a nut? A solution to a problem is often solved in just a few lines of code. This will also make it easier for someone else to read and understand. * Watch your syntax: Always be careful of your spelling. * Sensible naming: Name elements such as variables in your code sensibly. What job does your variable or function have in your code? Choose a name to reflect this. * Start small: Start off with small projects and be patient. Don't try to run before you can walk, experience comes with time. * Code of practice: If you are revisiting one of your old programs or collaborating with other programmers on a project, always leave code in a better state than you found it. * Keep learning: Develop the ability to continually learn through books, blogs and experimenting with new concepts. This is why side projects are so important in learning new skills and experimenting with new ideas. * Maximise your time: Planning your work before you sit down at the computer is a great way to maximise your coding time. Set a limit and don't go over your allotted coding time, your body and brain need breaks. Don't get distracted, there are so many distractions all around us that it's hard at times to remain focussed. Plan your work goals for the day and you'll have no problem in making the time you have available as efficient as possible. * Keep practicing: Practice, practice and practice again. "The programmers of tomorrow are the wizards of the future… coding is the closest thing to a superpower."	<urn:uuid:6029e853-f7bb-4432-8018-2ed98a8dfbad>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.firstcoding.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Coding-Guide.pdf	2024-02-23T10:46:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00049.warc.gz	812,819,112	946	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998949	eng_Latn	0.999116	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1215, 2720, 4839 ]	[ 2.078125 ]	1	1
In the days before matches were invented, a flint and steel were the fastest and most reliable way to start a fire and widely used. They were so important that they would be kept on the person at alltimes, often hung around the neck or from a belt. A tinder box and flint would have been anindispensable piece of equipment for anyone wishing to light a fire and an essential piece of kit forthose serving in the military or traveling out of the cities in India prior to the arrival of fast and reliableforms of transportation from city to city, specifically the railways. The box would be used to store the fine dry tinder which would be initially required to start a fire. Certain dried leaves, fungi, wood shavings or charred cloth were favourite tinder, whichever material was most convenient and highly combustible. Once the fire was built, the flint would be struck repeatedly on a piece of steel, commonly a knife, which would produce small sparks. These sparks would ignite a small pile of fine dry tinder which would be gently blown upon and fanned until a small flame was produced. At that stage, larger pieces of dry tinder would be introduced before using this bundle to set alight to the larger twigs and branches necessary for a good fire. A good fire gave warmth, allowed cooking and warded off predatory animals. This antique Indian silver fire striker compendium comprises a box with a hinged lift up lid and a protruding silver thumbpiece to facilitate easy opening. Below this hangs a curved silver frame to hold the flint. The flint is in place and probably original. There is a sturdy ring to the top of the box which would accept a silver chain, leather thong or thick cord. There are two repousse and chased panels to front and back, both feature designs after illustrations by Solvyns and both have a connection with fire. To the front is a copy of Solvyns portrait entitled 'Paramhamsa, a Purum Hungse'. This was the name of a particular type of fakir who superstitious Hindus believed was a man who had descended from heaven and had lived for thousands of years without taking any nourishment. They believed that if this man was thrown into water or fire, he would suffer no fatal effect from either experience. The inspiration for the back is another Solvyns illustration entitled 'Sahagamana, A Sho Hogomon, 3' which shows a widow about to step onto the funeral pyre of her late husband. 'When the Flemish artist Balthazar Solvyns arrived in Calcutta in 1791, the debate over sati (suttee) was just beginning as missionaries, amongst others, condemned official toleration of the "dreadful practice" and called for its suppression. Of all Hindu customs, none more fascinated--or appalled--the Europeans than "suttee," the practice of widow-burning. The term sati is Sanskrit for "virtuous woman," but it is used principally to refer to the faithful wife who "becomes sati" through selfimmolation on the funeral pyre of her husband. Europeans erroneously took the word to mean the practice itself, and suttee, the European corruption, has become the conventional term for the wife's self-immolation. Solvyns uses neither suttee nor sati as terms in his description, but rather the Sanskrit word he spells phonetically from Bengali pronunciation. The practice by which the wife joins her husband in the flames and becomes sati is termed sahamarana, "dying together," also known as sahagamana--Solvyns's Shoho-Gomon--meaning "going together." The practice was prevalent in Bengal in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Benoy Bhusan Roy, in 'Socioeconomic Impact of Sati in Bengal', writes that suttee was most frequent among Brahmins, but that the practice was found among the families of lower castes that had distinctive positions in wealth or property. Indeed, the possible increased frequency of suttee may have reflected an aspiration to higher social status among upwardly mobile sudra families. But, as official records in the early nineteenth century reveal, suttee was not limited to the more affluent. The practice was tobe found among many castes and at every level of society. Amongst European travelers in India during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, no description was complete without a reference to suttee--preferably with at least one eye-witness account! Pierre Sonnerat, who traveled in India in the 1770s, describes the practice and provides an engraving of an Indian woman going to be burned with the body of her husband. Another French traveler, Grandpre, writing of his experience in Bengal in 1789 and 1790, relates his ownunsuccessful effort to rescue a beautiful young woman who was to become sati, and notes that thepractice of suttee was particularly "horrible" in Bengal. Failed intervention was a frequent theme inEuropean accounts, as in Thomas Twining's description of his thwarted effort to prevent a sutteesome 60 miles outside Calcutta in 1792. Confirming accounts of restraints to prevent the woman'sescape, Edward Thompson writes in Suttee that "Especially in Bengal, [the woman] was often boundto the corpse with cords, or both bodies were fastened down with long bamboo poles curving overthem like a wooden coverlet, or weighted down by logs."	<urn:uuid:04b67c36-2c9f-4f6c-b678-c6bdfe9c66aa>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.graysantiques.com/download/11715	2024-02-23T09:18:11+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00047.warc.gz	827,935,931	1,131	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999001	eng_Latn	0.999001	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 5244 ]	[ 2.21875 ]	1	0
The Federation of Sacred Heart and St Mary's RC Primary Schools, Battersea AUTISM GUIDANCE POLICY MARCH 2022 Purpose The purpose of this policy is to define autism and outline the practices that are expected for all pupils with aspects of autistic to ensure that the best practice is consistent throughout the schools. This Policy includes: o Definition and description of autism. o Recognising autism. o Assessment and diagnosis of autism. o Strategies to assist children with autism. o Hilary House. o National and local guidance. o Policy aims and principles. Autism Autism is a lifelong developmental condition that affects how a person experiences the world around them; communicates with others, and relates to other people. Many people with autism are able to live fully independent lives but others may require varying degrees of support to help them in managing their day to day lives. People from all nationalities and cultural, religious and social backgrounds can have autism, although it appears to be more widely diagnosed amongst men. It is a lifelong condition; children with autism grow up to become adults with autism. Being Autistic Autism is a spectrum condition and affects people in different ways. Like all people, autistic people have their own strengths and weaknesses. Below is a list of difficulties challenges autistic people may share, including the two key difficulties required for a diagnosis: o Social communication and social interaction o Repetitive and restrictive behaviour o Over or under-sensitivity to light, sound, taste or touch o Highly focused interests or hobbies o Extreme Anxiety o Meltdowns or Shutdowns How to Recognise Autism Some children will arrive at school with a diagnosis of autism in place. However, other children will not begin to show features of the condition until later in their developmental journey. Sometimes, the academic, social, emotional and sensory demands of school and life outside the home can be a prompt for symptoms of the condition to appear. The following features should alert teachers and others to the possibility of autism and trigger discussion with parents and the possible implementation of the local referral pathway: o Social Communication Autistic people have difficulties with interpreting both verbal and non-verbal language like gestures or tone of voice. Some autistic people are unable to speak or have limited speech while other autistic people have very good language skills but struggle to understand sarcasm or tone of voice. o Other Challenges include: o Taking things literally and not understanding abstract concepts. o Needing extra time to process information or answer questions. o Repeating what others say to them (this is called echolalia). o Social Interaction Autistic people often have difficulty 'reading' other people - recognising or understanding others' feelings and intentions - and expressing their own emotions. This can make it very hard to navigate the social world. o Autistic People may: o Appear to be insensitive. o Seek out time alone when overloaded by other people. o Not seek comfort from other people. o Appear to behave 'strangely' or in a way thought to be socially inappropriate. o Find it hard to form friendships. o Repetitive and Restrictive Behaviour With its unwritten rules, the world can seem a very unpredictable and confusing place to autistic people. This is why they often prefer to have routines so that they know what is going to happen. They may want to travel the same way to and from school or work, wear the same clothes or eat exactly the same food for breakfast. Autistic people may also repeat movements such as hand flapping, rocking or the repetitive use of an object such as twirling a pen or opening and closing a door. Autistic people often engage in these behaviours to help calm themselves when they are stressed or anxious, but many autistic people do it because they find it enjoyable. Change to routine can also be very distressing for autistic people and make them very anxious. It could be having to adjust to big events like Christmas or changing schools, facing uncertainty at work, or something simpler like a bus detour that can trigger their anxiety. o Over or under-sensitivity to light, sound, taste or touch Autistic people may experience over- or under-sensitivity to sounds, touch, tastes, smells, light, colours, temperatures or pain. For example, they may find certain background sounds like music in a restaurant, which other people ignore or block out, unbearably loud or distracting. This can cause anxiety or even physical pain. Many autistic people prefer not to hug due to discomfort, which can be misinterpreted as being cold and aloof. Many autistic people avoid everyday situations because of their sensitivity issues. Schools, workplaces and shopping centres can be particularly overwhelming and cause sensory overload. There are many simple adjustments that can be made to make environments more autism-friendly. o Highly Focused Interests or Hobbies Many autistic people have intense and highly focused interests, often from a fairly young age. These can change over time or be lifelong. Autistic people can become experts in their special interests and often like to share their knowledge. A stereotypical example is trains but that is one of many. Greta Thunberg's intense interest, for example, is protecting the environment. Like all people, autistic people gain huge amounts of pleasure from pursuing their interests and see them as fundamental to their wellbeing and happiness. Being highly focused helps many autistic people do well academically and in the workplace but they can also become so engrossed in particular topics or activities that they neglect other aspects of their lives. o Extreme Anxiety Anxiety is a real difficulty for many autistic children and adults, particularly in social situations or when facing change. It can affect a person psychologically and physically and impact quality of life for autistic people and their families. It is very important that autistic people learn to recognise their triggers and find coping mechanisms to help reduce their anxiety. However, many autistic people have difficulty recognising and regulating their emotions. o Meltdowns and Shutdowns When everything becomes too much for an autistic person, they can go into meltdown or shutdown. These are very intense and exhausting experiences. A meltdown happens when someone becomes completely overwhelmed by their current situation and temporarily loses behavioural control. This loss of control can be verbal (e.g. shouting, screaming, crying) or physical (e.g. kicking, lashing out, biting) or both. Meltdowns in children are often mistaken for temper tantrums and parents and their autistic children often experience hurtful comments and judgmental stares from less understanding members of the public. A shutdown appears less intense to the outside world but can be equally debilitating. Shutdowns are also a response to being overwhelmed, but may appear more passive - e.g. an autistic person going quiet or 'switching off'. One autistic person described having a shutdown as: 'just as frustrating as a meltdown, because of not being able to figure out how to react how I want to, or not being able to react at all; there isn't any 'figuring out' because the mind feels like it is past a state of being able to interpret.' Assessment A formal diagnosis of autism is usually undertaken by a range of health care professionals through a multidisciplinary assessment or MDA. Pediatric doctors and nurses, speech and language therapists, occupational therapists and others, alongside parents will undertake a range of observations and assessments to ascertain if a child will meet the criteria for a formal diagnosis. Some children with autism may have an increased likelihood of also having one or more additional co-morbidities; conditions such as such as dyslexia, dyspraxia or attention deficit disorder, with or without hyperactivity. Many people with autism will experience anxiety and depression, especially as they grow older and have increasing awareness of the World around them and its demands. In schools, professionals should be aware that there will be children they encounter who will display aspects of autism who will not have a formal diagnosis. Teachers and support staff should be trained to recognise them and make appropriate adjustments to the environment, communication, teaching activities and social organisation to provide effective inclusion for students who experience these issues. Strategies Through the different phases of their education children will need a variety of strategies and interventions to bring about successful learning. This might include a range of groupings including mainstream classrooms, small groups and/or one-to-one work. School policies should include reference to behaviour management, risk assessment and reasonable adjustments that will be made in order to ensure the ongoing education of children with ASD. Staff supporting and working with a child with an autism will be trained as part of The School's regular professional development programme to be able to recognise autism and employ strategies that will provide successful integration for children with autism. Staff may employ the following Strategies: o Create co-operative learning opportunities with peers. o Focus on shared interests as a means of encouraging participation. o Allow the child to develop as much independence as possible. o Keep facial expressions, language and gestures simple and clear. o Give a clear indication of the amount of work required, teach what 'finished' means and what to do next. o Provide accurate, prior information about change/expectations. o Use timers and first/next/then visual charts to support expectations. o Provide additional visuals to support understanding of the task. o Differentiate tasks depending on the child's understanding, ability and prior attainment, e.g. using a laptop or iPad to support writing tasks. The above list is not exhaustive and will be altered, amended and added to through staff INSET and CPD. Hilary House Hilary House is a specialist base attached to Sacred Heart R.C. Primary School that provides for the needs of 18 children. These children receive specialist support and a differentiated, individualised curriculum within the base as well as being able to enjoy opportunities to experience mainstream education and wider social integration with their peers in the wider school community. Admissions to Hilary House are managed by Wandsworth Special Needs Assessment Service in consultation with The School. Children who are placed in Hilary House will have a formal diagnosis of autism and an Education Heath and Care Plan. We use a wide range of strategies and systems within Hilary House to ensure children have the best opportunities for development. These include: o Routines, systems and structures that maintain a reassuring consistency to the school day. o A high staff to pupil ratio. o Approaches to teaching following TEACCH and SCERTS models. TEACCH We use TEACCH principles to provide structure across all areas of the school. TEACCH also emphasises the importance of identifying underlying strengths and needs related to autism. It is therefore based on understanding the learning characteristics of individuals with autism and the use of visual supports to promote meaning and independence where appropriate. TEACCH Values include: o Teaching Sharing autism knowledge and increasing the skill level of professionals and practitioners. Expanding – increasing own knowledge to provide high-quality services to people on the autism spectrum and their families. o Appreciating Aappreciating the strengths and uniqueness of autistic culture. Collaborating and Cooperating with colleagues, other professionals, people on the autism spectrum and their families. o Holistic Adopting a holistic approach, looking at the person, their family and community. Some of the TEACCH Autism Program Priorities are: o Focusing on the person, their skills, interests and needs. o Understanding the 'culture of autism' and identifying differences based on individualised assessments. o Using visual structures to organise the environment and tasks when teaching skills. o Being broad-based, ie support people at work, teach skills but also ensure that people are supported during leisure and/or social activities. o Being flexible and teaching flexibility. The TEACCH principles and techniques may always need to be in place for someone, but they may look very different at different stages of the person's life. SCERTS The core domains of the SCERTS model focus on Social Communication, which has as its stated aim as 'helping a child to be an increasingly competent, confident and active participant in social activities' and Emotional Regulation, which focuses on 'supporting a child's ability to regulate emotional arousal'. (Prizant, Wetherby, Rubin, Laurent & Rydell, 2006). If a child has a weak capacity to self-regulate their physical arousal and emotional state they are less likely to be able to attend to and access social interactions and learning opportunities. The SCERTS model places equal weight on the role of Transactional Support in terms of the interpersonal support a social partner can give and the range of environmental supports such as visual and sensory strategies to support learning and emotional regulation. The Core Domains are: o Social Communication Goals to help the child be a competent, confident and active participant in a social world. To achieve this a child needs to develop competencies in two key areas - Joint Attention and Symbol Use. o Emotional Regulation The capacity to self-monitor levels of physical arousal and emotional states in terms of Self-Regulation and Mutual Regulation. o Transactional Support This includes the adjustments made to the environment to foster positive learning outcomes. o Interpersonal Support and Learning Support (environmental support): * A highly differentiated curriculum. * The use of a sensory room. * A wide use of visual visual strategies to access the curriculum. * Regular SALT and OT support for small groups and individual children. * Opportunities for developing social skills and cooperative play skills. * Support sttategies to manage anxiety, maintain emotional and sensory regulation. * Opportunities for consistent, effective communication with parents and carers of children within Hilary House. All pupils who attend the base have opportunities to access the mainstream school according to individual needs, ability and attainment. National and Local Guidance Our Policy follows the Recommendations and Guidance of the following Reports: o The national strategy for autistic children, young people and adults: 2021 to 2026 Updated 22 July 2021. o Special Educational needs and Disability (SEND) Code of Practice (2015) o Equality Act 2010 (section 6). o Wandsworth Strategy for Children and Young People with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities aged 0 – 25 2020 – 2024 (2020). o Wandsworth Autism Advisory Service, Good Practice in Early Years and Primary Schools (2020) o Wandsworth Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Policy 2019. Aims and Principles of our Policy: o All staff working with children identified with autism should have training to help them understand the nature of the condition and its implications for the delivery of appropriate support. This will include understanding the environment and ethos amongst staff required to nurture children with autism. o Sacred Heart School and St Mary's School acknowledge the diversity and complexity of autism, the value of early intervention and the varying needs of children at different points of their lives. o The children in Hilary House have the same opportunities and access to education and support that are extended to all pupils within the school. o Sacred Heart School and St Mary's School will take account of what strategies are working well in Wandsworth schools and any specific approaches and interventions which we provide training on should have a proven track record of success. o Parents/carers have an essential role in the development of good practice that will assist children with autism. o Families, schools and wider communities have an ongoing need for greater understanding and knowledge of autism.	<urn:uuid:23fe29d9-2bef-4173-a485-90d4f1b45e18>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.sacredheartschoolbattersea.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/ASD-Policy-2022.pdf	2024-02-23T09:53:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00049.warc.gz	1,025,924,753	3,107	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.941073	eng_Latn	0.994787	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 110, 2037, 5032, 8660, 11585, 14124, 16575 ]	[ 3.578125 ]	1	0
NEWSLETTER NO. 317 Volume 10 Márta(March) 2003 March: Originally first month of the Roman calendar. Named for Mars the Roman god of war, crops and vegetation. Flower: Daffodil Happy St Patrick's Day Happy Mother's Day Beannachtai na Feile Padraig oraibh go leir ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Guimid La Shona Aoibhinn d'ar Mathracha ar a la specisialta Life's richest treasure That money cannot measure Is a Mother's love A heart gift from God above ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING The Annual General Meeting of the Dalkey Community Council will take place on Monday, 3 March at 8pm in Our Lady's Hall. This is a public meeting and all residents of Dalkey are welcome to attend. The monthly meeting of the Dalkey Community Council was held on Monday, 3 February. MATTERS ARISING: The Community Council is proposing a change to its Constitution in respect of the reelection of members to the Executive Committee. Instead of a member requiring to step down from the Executive Committee for a minimum of two years it was felt that this should be amended to one year. This will be voted on in due course. CORRESPONDENCE: Copy of an e-mail was received which had been sent to Dun Laoghaire- Rathdown County Council by a resident complaining about the hoarding around the old Systems Printing site. A second copy of an e-mail was received which was also sent to Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council regarding the damage to the road and footpath on Cunningham Road due to the building work which has been taking place for quite some time. TIDY TOWNS: The Committee is planning a number of projects for the coming year for which it will also need to fundraise. Among the projects being considered are Dillon's Park and the DART Station. Please see full report inside - Ed HERITAGE: Please see report inside - Ed PLANNING: Redan: An application for a three storey structure has been lodged with the County Council. The Community Council has objected to this application. Old Systems Printing Site: There have been some archaeological finds on the site and a well has been located. Duchas will report on its findings and it will be available in the Planning Office of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council in due course. Permission has been given to the developers for the hoarding that surrounds three sides of the site. Retentions: There have been some applications to the County Council in respect of retentions. The Community Council is objecting to these applications for retention on the basis that the due process of planning applications should have been sought prior to erection. ANY OTHER BUSINESS: Harbour Road: There was concern with regard to the parking on the bend of Harbour Road (Ulverton Road side) where it is narrow. The local Gardai have been informed. National Tree Week: Tree Week is 2 to 8 March. Please see inside - Ed The meeting concluded. St. Patrick's Day is undoubtedly one of the most celebrated days in the year throughout the whole world. 'The Wearing of the Green' is not only celebrated here and the USA but also in places as far away as Australia, Japan, Singapore and Russia. It is often said everyone's Irish on St. Patrick's Day - 17 March. Patrick was born in Britain to wealthy parents in approximately 389AD. He was originally called Succat. At 16 years of age he was taken prisoner by a group of Irish raiders who were attacking his family's estate. They brought him to Ireland where he spent six years in captivity. During this time he worked as a shepherd, outdoors and away from people. Lonely and afraid he turned to his religion for solace, becoming a devout Christian. After six years he escaped and was ordained a priest and just after 431AD Patrick was appointed successor to St. Palladius, first bishop of Ireland. He returned to Ireland and administered till his death in about 461AD. During his time as a missionary in Ireland he chose to incorporate traditional ritual into his lessons of Christianity instead of trying to change native Irish beliefs. For example he used bonfires to celebrate Easter since our forefathers were used to honouring their gods with fire. He also superimposed a sun, a very powerful Irish symbol, onto the Christian cross to create the Celtic Cross. All this was done so that the veneration of the symbol would seem more natural and acceptable. The first St. Patrick's Day parade took place in the USA. Irish soldiers serving in the English military marched through New York City on 17 March 1762. The parade and music all helped the soldiers to feel Irish. And so the one saint who must be the most well known; his life and death are commemorated on 17 March throughout the world. * CIRCLE * Slow down the seasons, they're turning too fast! Spring is delightful, but quickly slips past, Summer is beautiful, peaches and cream, Long days and holidays pass like a dream. Autumn comes swiftly, with russet and red, A glorious canopy over my head, Winter comes creeping soon, misty and chill, Lights in the city and snow on the hill. The circle keeps spinning, the year rushing past, Slow down the seasons, they're turning too fast! Iris Hesselden from The Fireside Book of David Hope 2003 * CITIZEN'S INFORMATION CENTRE ... Know you rights * I intend retiring from work. If I take up employment again at some time in the future will I still have to pay tax and PRSI? If you retire from work and subsequently take up employment your earnings will be taxable along with other income regardless of your age. In addition to the usual personal tax-free credits, people over the age of 65 are entitled to an Age Tax Credit of Euro205 (2002) for a single person and Euro410 for a married couple. If you are under the age of 66 and earning over Euro38 a week in insurable employment you pay PRSI at either Class A or a modified rate, depending on your occupation. If you are aged 66 or over you do not pay PRSI regardless of your income. Since 1 July 2001 if you are aged 70 or over you do not pay the 2% Health Contribution. If you are under the age of 70 you will have to pay the Health Contribution unless you are in receipt of a Social Welfare Widow's or Widower's Pension, Deserted Wife's Benefit/Allowance or One-Parent Family Payment or you are a Medical Card Holder. Further details available from the Citizens Information centre, 85-86 Patrick Street, Dun Laoghaire. Telephone 284 4544 * YEARLY COLLECTION * In next month's edition of the Newsletter - April, the Community Council will include its little brown envelope for the yearly collection. The Council is made up of a group of ordinary individuals who volunteer a little of their time to represent their road/organisation and become one collective voice as it strives to make Dalkey an even nicer and more enviable place to live (if that is at all possible!). It acts always in the interests of the community of Dalkey and the protection of its heritage and environment. The Community Council publishes, monthly, this Newsletter in addition to running other activities - the Art Exhibition, Garden Competition, Tree Planting, the Christmas Tree at Archbold's Castle and many more. Neighbourhood Watch and the Community Games also come under the auspices of the Council. The only income at its disposals is from the advertisers in the Newsletter which goes towards the publication costs and this yearly collection. Without your support the Dalkey Community Council could not function and continue. The Council is very aware of the demands imposed on your generosity but hopes you will be in a position to see your way to continue helping the work of this Council for the benefit of Dalkey. * REMEMBER TO....... * Don't forget to put your clocks forward early on Sunday morning 30 March - Summer Time Begins. Welcome back to those long, bright and hot (!!) summer nights ……… * LETTER TO THE EDITOR * Dalkey needs notices with bite "People who let their dogs foul pavements are inconsiderate, bad-mannered, unhygienic and under the relevant byelaw can be prosecuted". Those emphatic words are displayed on public notices along the Thames footpath in Richmond, near London. Dalkey could be cleaner if a similar blunt approach were adopted, instead of the over-polite and ineffective notices in some public areas including the local hill park. T Quinn * MEMORIES OF DALKEY * My Dalkey memories began in 1927, a day in October, my first day in our new home. High on Dalkey Avenue with a view out over Dublin Bay and the blue Irish Sea with my five year old brother I looked down at the sea stretching to the far horizon. "That", said my brother, pointing his finger, "is the end of the world". I believed every word he said. Our home, "Merdon" we were told, had been built by a sea-captain in 1887. Saval Park Road, unpaved, wound down before it. Beside it, Dalkey Avenue went downhill to the village. In those quiet days we could hear the sound of the trams as they turned into Castle Street by Webster's Tobacco Shop. On Sundays the bell of the church in Castle Street rang out clearly. At night, in Autumn, lying in bed I could hear the calling of Redwings as they migrated south. It was only when I had grown interested in wildlife that I knew this. When I was young it was a mysterious sound. In those days, the 1920's the meadow behind Merdon was home to corncrakes whose crac-crac sounded in the summer evenings. Houses were built in that meadow in the late 1940's and the corncrakes lost their home. Dalkey then was a quiet town with small shops, O'Brien's, the butcher, near it the Post Office presided over by Mr. Rooney, Leinster House where toys, games and newspapers could be found and the chemist shop, Maxwells, whose owner of the same name, a friendly man, used the expression "be the hokey" over whose meaning I puzzled then and still do. There was no library in Dalkey. We went to the Carnegie, as it was called, in Dun Laoghaire. Our bread came from Connolly's Bakery which was located at the end of Dalkey Avenue. I remember the delivery man giving a ride to our cat, Kitty, in the basket from which he delivered bread. There were fewer cars on the roads then, the usual sound was the clop-clop of horses hooves as the delivery vans came up Dalkey Avenue from the village. Up near Dalkey Hill in winter the winds shrieked and roared around the house and every winter we lost one or two slates in the storms. In those days Saval Park Road had just six or seven houses. It was only in the 1930's that the fields beside the road were built on. One of the earlier houses was Wilkies farm from where we bought our milk. Wilkie's cows roamed the fields and their mooing could be heard at milking time. Killiney Castle then was inhabited by an old couple whom we would see being driven out in a horse drawn carriage by a severe looking driver. The couple passed on before World War II. Down at the railway station a man named Kirby had a horse and cab. While I was a small girl at Dalkey Convent he would be asked by my mother to pick me up and I would be driven home in style. In the Forties a grand project arrived. A steep road was built opposite the entrance to Merdon going up from the Avenue and ending, as it does today, at the side of Killiney Hill. Some local humorist named it "The Burma" road and the name stuck. I recall an unusually snowy winter around 1943 when the local boys and girls decided to sleigh down the road, dangerously, onto Dalkey Avenue. Lacking sleds they used whatever they could find, mostly dust bin lids. But the road became a great place to take a walk and go on up to the Green Walk above the Vico. Another memory I have was when I made my First Communion in 1928. As a treat that evening I was taken to a pantomime in Dalkey Town Hall - my first experience of this entertainment. It was "Robinson Crusoe" and I recall my amazement because Crusoe was played by a girl. In those far-off days there was a forge on Barnhill Road near the railway bridge. Walking past we would hear the smith striking the anvil and see the sparks leaping. On my last visit to Dalkey I could see the arch of the forge now bricked up. Dalkey is still a lovely place to live but in those far off days it had special old world charm, and because of its size we all knew one another - at least by sight if not to speak to. From faraway America I often think back to those days with gratitude that I grew up in such an old, historic town within reach of some of the most beautiful scenery in Ireland. Moira Ballis now living in New Jersey DALKEY TIDY TOWNS Recycling for glass, paper, cardboard, cans and plastic bottles is available at the DLRCC site at George's Place, Dun Laoghaire (opposite the old fire station and beside Iceland). There is also a range of containers at the West Pier (not for plastic bottles or cardboard). Ballina, a notable contender in the Tidy Towns Competition, recently publicised in the Irish Times details of their efforts to deal with the problem of chewing gum. The cost of cleaning just half of the streets in Ballina of chewing gum was €6,000 and only a few weeks later it was as bad as ever. Mayo town councillors would like to see a tax paid to retailers by the gum buying public, which would be collected to fund the hire of a Gum Busting machine. What would the people of Dalkey think about such a scheme for our own streets? Please let us know what you think. Chewing gum sales are even prohibited in some places e.g. Singapore! Dumping is an offence and could be reported to the Litter Warden. The Tidy Towns Committee has plans in hand for Fund Raising and Community Projects this year, which will be publicised when more progress has been made. NATIONAL TREE WEEK National Tree Week will take place from 2-8 March this year. Tree Week is sponsored by Coillte and Spar. This year 15,000 trees will be distributed to community groups and schools all over the country by the local authorities all over Ireland. Events have been organised all over the country which include forest walks, tree planting ceremonies, workshops, talks, competitions and even tree plantathons! Check out the notices for Dalkey's Tree Planting Ceremony - Ed. 'Clean Air - Grow your Share' is the slogan for this year and reflects the concerns for global warming which is caused by the build up of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere - this acts like a huge duvet, trapping heat from the sun and slowly raising the temperature of the Earth's climate. This build up of CO2 is caused by almost everything we do - driving, flying, heating our homes, and even boiling the kettle. And as the use of technology increases around the world, there will be a corresponding rise in the demand for energy. The aim of the Kyoto Protocol was to get governments around the world to reduce greenhouse gas levels by agreeing to cut emissions by 5.2%. It is predicted that by 2010, Irish emissions will exceed 1990 levels by 32%, thereby overshooting the Kyoto targets by 19%. There are a number of options to offset this projected increase - one of these is the planting of more trees… - Trees absorb CO2 and use it to make cellulose, the building block of wood. - In a single year, a tree can absorb over 9 kg of CO2, which equals the amount produced by a single car travelling non stop for 18,300 km! - Trees release the oxygen (O) in CO2 back into the atmosphere for us to breathe. - Over the course of a year, a single mature beech tree releases enough oxygen to support a family of four. With the theme 'Clean Air - Grow Your Share' we hope to highlight the importance of trees in combating global warming. By doing something as simple as planting a tree, everyone can play his or her part in helping the environment. By thinking locally, we can act globally! The Tree Council of Ireland HERITAGE Dalkey Castle & Heritage Centre is involved in a number of new initiatives to extend the scope of the Centre. A new Dart to Dalkey facility, where the customer can buy a combined ticket at any Dart station to cover the Dart trip and admission to the Centre, will begin for the new season. The Heritage Centre and Iarnróid Eireann will unite to market the facility. In association with Dúchas, The Heritage Council, The Tidy Towns and the Parks of Dún LaoghaireRathdown Co Co a conservation and preservation programme for St Begnet's Graveyard is underway. The Centre hopes to engage the services of the new Theatrical Animation Company, Deilg Inish during the summer months. Deilg Inish will provide Theatrical Animation in the Heritage Centre on selected days. Literary Walks and Lunchtime Theatre will take place from June onwards. Bloomsday, 16th June, will see the Dalkey Schoolroom Scene from James Joyce's Ulysses re-enacted in the Heritage Centre. The Heritage Maps have been installed in all the Community Council Displays and the casings have been painted. A Street Map with lists of all the facilities available in Dalkey is also under commission. The Centre will re-open 7 days per week from April 7th onwards. Currently, there are many research projects underway, carried out by FÁS trainees on a Local Training Initiative. The Art Exhibition season begins on March 28th with an exciting exhibition from a number of Irish and European artists, promoted by Solo Arte, an association of Irish and European Art Dealers. The Exhibition will foreground the work of Austrian artist Margit Piffer. The Centre is open to the public at weekends from 11.00-17.00 and to groups by arrangement. DALKEY ISLAND When the moon sits above the Island, There is Dalkey. The sea like glass looks silver and low-key A blood red sky at early dawn, Silhouettes the tower and church long gone. As that morning light shapes the hills, Life from the sea, and Island spills. From Bray to Howth a breeze blows free, To cool the air over Dalkey. The sun now sets in the West, Lights form the boats on Dalkey rest. Shadows that end a day that's blessed, The Island sleeps, by the sea caressed Night over Dalkey gently falls, Till the dawning sun, To the Island calls. Island big Island small, Island there on the High Sea. Island Here Island Near, My beloved Island Dalkey. 'Rail Around Dublin' by Donal Murray, published by Midland Publishing Ltd. This is the 8th Volume in Midland Publishing's Irish Railway Pictorial series and an excellent addition to it. This title looks at the Dublin railway network from1945 to the present time, ranging from the steam era to the diesels and now the DART. As well as offering a nostalgic look at Dublin's railways, this book looks at what the future holds for them. All photographs are excellent, captioned and dated and this book has to be a must for those interested in the various aspects of Irish railways. A super book. J. Scannell TALKS MOTHER'S DAY The earliest Mother's Day celebrations can be traced back to the spring celebrations of ancient Greece in honour of Rhea, the Mother of the Gods. During the 1600's, England celebrated a day called 'Mothering Sunday' on the fourth Sunday of Lent which honoured mothers. At this time many of England's poor worked as servants for the wealthy. As most were located far from home the servants would live-in. On Mothering Sunday these boys and girls would have the day off and would return home to spend the day with their mothers. They would also bring with them a mothering cake. As Christianity spread throughout Europe the celebration also honoured the Mother Church. However over time the church festival merged with the Mothering Sunday to become what we know as Mother's Day. COOK'S KITCHEN Potato Soup - 6 potatoes, large onion, 2oz butter, 2 pints vegetable stock, ½ pint milk, tablespoon of chives or parsley, nutmeg, pinch of salt and pepper, teaspoon of cornflour. Peel and cut potatoes in quarters and finely slice the onions. Melt butter in a saucepan and add the potatoes and onions, cover and simmer for ten minutes (don't let the vegetables go brown). Add the stock, salt and pepper and nutmeg. Stir, cover and bring to the boil stirring continuously. Reduce heat and simmer for 30 minutes, until vegetables are soft, stirring occasionally. Remove from heat and put through a sieve and return to the saucepan. Stir in the milk and cornflour, bring to the boil, stirring continuously. Remove from the heat, serve with a sprinkling of chives or parsley. Champ - 8 medium peeled potatoes, bunch of scallions, ¼ pint milk, salt and pepper, few knobs of butter. Peel and boil potatoes until cooked. Simmer the spring onions in milk for about 5 minutes. Strain potatoes and mash. Add the hot milk and scallions, salt, pepper and the butter. Mix well. Irish Coffee - cup of whipping cream, sugar, 6 cups of hot black coffee, 6 measures of Irish whiskey. Whisk the cream with 1 tablespoon of sugar until soft peaks form. Set aside. Make black coffee in separate glasses/mugs. Add teaspoon of sugar and measure of whiskey. Top with whipped cream. Serve immediately. (Be careful when using glasses with the hot coffee). St. Patrick's Day Cookies - 2¼ cups self-raising flour, ½ cup butter, cup sugar, 2 beaten eggs, tablespoon vanilla essence, tablespoon milk, a couple of drops of green food colouring. Sift flour. Cream butter, sugar, eggs. Add vanilla essence and milk to the flour. Blend all ingredients and then add the drops of green food colouring. Roll out dough to approximately ½ inch thick. Cut out and make shamrock shape. Place on baking tray. Bake at 300°f, 150°c, gas mark 2 for 10 minutes. Hour goes forward - Summer is coming! Mother's Day Sun, 30 Mar Sun, 30 Mar Storytelling for children aged 3-6 years old takes place each Thursday between 3.30pm and 4pm in Dalkey Library. 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Name:_________________________ 1. Consider the We Are Jeans store. It costs the business $29 to make a pair of jeans. This includes materials and labor. There's also the fixed cost amount to consider. Fixed costs can include salaries of employees, insurance, mortgage payments, equipment, and so on. The fixed costs are shared by all the different products sold. In this case, for the jeans, the fixed costs come to $1,000. The store sells the jeans for $49 per pair. How many pairs of jeans do they have to sell to start making a profit on them? What is the break-even point? 𝑅(𝑥) = 49𝑥 Break-even point: 50 pairs of jeans, $2450 Any jeans produced and sold after the 50 th pair will produce a profit. 2. You are a manager of a small company that produces and sells pavers for driveways. You sell the pavers in bundles that cost $200, and each bundle has 144 pavers in it. You have $1000 in fixed costs each month and it costs you $160 to produce each bundle of pavers. How many bundles of pavers do you need to sell each month to break even? Create a model of your linear equations and shade the area that represents profit. What would your profit be if you sold 30 bundles of pavers? 20 bundles? 𝐶(𝑥) = 160𝑥+ 1000 𝑅(𝑥) = 200𝑥 Break-even point: 25 bundles of pavers, $5000 At 30 bundles of pavers, the company would have a profit of $200. At 20 bundles of pavers, the company would have a loss of $200. Name:_________________________ 3. You decide to sell snow cones at a local park as a summer job. The snow cone machine costs $120 per month to rent. The cost to make each snow cone is $0.25. If you sell each snow cone for $1.50, determine the break-even point each month. Create a model of your linear equations and shade the area that represents profit. 𝐶(𝑥) = 0.25𝑥+ 120 𝑅(𝑥) = 1.50𝑥 Break-even point: 96 snow cones, $144 4. A coffee bean importer is analyzing his start-up business finances. He will has spent $40,180 on means of transportation, and warehousing. It will cost him $0.80 per pound of imported coffee beans. If he can sell the beans for $1.78 per pound, how many pounds of coffee will he need to import? How much profit will he make if he imports 30,000 pounds of beans? How much profit will he make if he imports 50,000 pounds of beans? 𝑅(𝑥) = 1.78𝑥 Break-even point: 41,000 pounds of coffee beans, $72,980 At 30,000 pounds of beans the company loses $10,780. At 50,000 pounds of beans the company has profits of $8,820. Name:_________________________ 5. The solar panel manufacturing company you work for must consider many variables in the business to make its many decisions. The company records show that fixed costs over the past year have averaged $8000 per month. In addition, each panel costs $95 in materials and $55 in labor to manufacture. A marketing survey indicates that the company can sell all the panel it produces if the panels are priced at $350 each. How many panels need to be sold each month to break even? How much money will the company make if they sell 20 panels next month? 100 panels? 6. A small business produces soap and lotion gift baskets. Labor, utilities, and other fixed expenses cost $6,000 a month. Each basket costs $8 to produce, and sells for $20. How many baskets does the company need to sell each month to break even? ``` 𝐶(𝑥) = 150𝑥+ 8000 𝑅(𝑥) = 350𝑥 Break-even point: 40 panels, $14,000 At 20 panels the company loses $4,000. At 100 panels the company has profits of $12,000. ``` 𝐶(𝑥) = 8𝑥+ 6000 𝑅(𝑥) = 20𝑥 Break-even point: 500 baskets, $10,000	<urn:uuid:b2e7d88f-f6b6-4f06-99d4-55ad0af5fbdc>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.owenmathclass.com/uploads/1/3/4/1/13414009/cost_and_revenue_systems_practice_key.pdf	2024-02-23T10:38:24+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00048.warc.gz	971,324,763	999	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999236	eng_Latn	0.999321	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1417, 2475, 3557 ]	[ 4.03125 ]	2	0
Missing Bits Results in Syntax Deficits Students with hearing loss, whether hard of hearing or deaf, are at high risk for deficits in syntax due to their imperfect perception of the English language. Word endings, tense, and other grammatical features are often lost when these 'bits and pieces' are not perceived. Extra direct instruction in grammar and syntax is usually necessary for students with hearing loss, as their missing bits often result in poorer comprehension – whether of conversation or the written word. These deficits can be glaring when a student turns in a written assignment. The challenge: Effectively teaching grammar and syntax is a daunting task. Hearing peers largely absorb correct syntax through listening alone and have a good handle on it as they begin to develop reading skills. As early as kindergarten, typical students following the general education curriculum should be able to (with adult assistance) speak/sign, read, and write a grammatically correct sentence as simple as "I like pizza." to as complex as "My brother rides his red bike around the park after school." By the fourth grade, typical students should be able to speak, read, and write sentences as simple as "I like pepperoni pizza from Pizza Hut." to as complex as "Jason, Kim and I rode in my mother's dark blue Suburban to the movies on Friday night where we saw three of the most popular students in our school." By middle school, typical students are responsible for the intricate content of novels. They are often given a prompt or topic as a writing assignment and a few ideas at which point they are on their own to generate the rest. Where typically hearing and developing students gradually absorb syntax with minimal extra instruction, students with hearing loss often have to work hard to keep up with this rate and complexity of typical development. What we need to know about syntax skills whether students use spoken language or a sign system: * Can the student speak/sign a sentence with a subject and a verb? * Use tense markers? * Use singular and plural forms? Many times, the /s/ on the end of plural words is not heard. The same can hold true for the possessive 's. If the student uses ASL, plural is shown by repeating the sign, such as CHAIR-CHAIR-CHAIR for "chairs" * Use articles and determiners? (the, a, that, this, etc.). * Are there any descriptive words being used? Prepositions? * For ASL users, is the student using classifiers? Nonmanual markers? Assessment: As with other areas of instruction, it always helps to start with the basics – identifying the student's challenges. As part of a functional assessment for syntax, taking language samples is a great way to take inventory of what a student knows. Use a smart phone to record a student as you read a book together or discuss a topic. Try to obtain about 50 utterances, which may take more than one session with some students. After doing recorded language samples several times, you will begin to feel adept at listening and looking for patterns in the student's language. Other assessment methods are provided as follows. Does the language make sense? (Is it sequential?) When language samples have been analyzed, gaps can be determined as can targets for instruction. Whatever your method for obtaining data whether it is language sampling, formal tests, or functional assessments suggested below, syntax is an important piece of the reading and comprehension puzzle and must be assessed! Other tools for gathering functional data: Test of Grammatical Structures (TAGS) PRESCHOOL and ABOVE Part of the Preschool Language Pack, the CID Teacher Assessment of Grammatical Structures (TAGS) is a series of three rating forms developed to evaluate a child's understanding and use of the grammatical structures of English. The rating forms provide a representation of grammatical structures for children with hearing loss who develop grammatical structures in smaller increments and at slower rates compared to children who are typically developing. This starter kit is a guide to using the CID TAGS system for teaching and tracking receptive and expressive language development in oral children who are deaf and hard of hearing. It can also be used to evaluate sentence structure for children who use sign language. The TAGS rating forms enable teachers to: * determine present levels of syntax skills * determine syntax goals for IEPs and lessons FREE CID Online Course: The Art of the * track syntax development over time and Structured Syntax Lesson: Assessing, Planning and Prompting * report syntax progress to parents and other professionals Grammar Chipper Chat GRADE K-5 These materials allow you to explore 16 of the grammatical structures found on most language assessments (i.e., CELF, TOLD). Each grammar area has 20-30 color-coded question cards with a sentence prompt on one side and images on the reverse side. The student fills in the missing word on the question side using the pictures as cues. A functional assessment can be performed using these cards. A subset of cards in each of the 16 areas (i.e 3-4 cards) can be shuffled together and presented in random order to the student. Additional cards can be presented in the areas in which there are errors to verify that there is a lack of functional use (up to 10 cards per problematic area). Refer to Brown's Stages to assess or intervene in sequence of development. A valuable means to pinpoint issues and monitor progress in syntax learning. Cracking the Grammar Code GRADE 5 - ADULT Within the 149-page FREE downloadable Syntax Skill Pretests and Simple Skill Activities sample book, there are pretests teachers can use to identify students' skill levels. Each pretest has a rubric to diagnose specific skills in the broader category. The pretests and answer keys are provided for the following syntax skill areas: Nouns, Articles, Conjunctions, Verbs, Pronouns, Adjectives-Adverbs-Prepositional Phrases, Finding the Subject, and Subject-Verb agreement. A passing score is 80% on any of these functional assessments. If your student does not pass various parts of the pretest the specific lesson to start on within the Cracking the Grammar Code workbooks is provided. Download the Free Syntax Skill Pretest book and start assessing your students ASAP! Formal, norm-referenced testing There are a number of test instruments typically administered by speech language pathologists that will assess a student's level of syntax development. If a student has received an evaluation by a speech language pathologist in the previous 6 months it is often useful to review those results for insights into specific areas of syntax deficit that have already been identified. Teachers of the deaf/hard of hearing often perform assessments related to students' listening comprehension ability, specifically the ability to recall and understand information presented by others. Two popular assessments for this purpose also provide some information about student syntactic understanding or use. While not an extensive investigation into syntax, if a TDHH is performing one of these tests anyway, it may provide a starting place to focus additional syntax assessment, for example with the Cracking the Grammar Code free syntax skill pretest book. Oral Passage Understanding Scale (OPUS) For ages 5.0 to 21 years, the Oral Passage Understanding Scale is a measure of listening (auditory) comprehension. It evaluates a person's ability to listen to passages that are read aloud and recall information about them. This ability is key to success in the classroom and social situations. It also measures memory skills, which are integral to listening comprehension. OPUS identifies how well a person can integrate and apply knowledge in three structural categories of language: 1. Lexical/Semantic: knowledge and use of words and word combinations 2. Syntactic: knowledge and use of grammar 3. Supralinguistic: knowledge and use of language in which meaning is not directly available from the surface lexical and syntactic information. prediction, yields more detailed information beyond simply whether or not Measuring higher-level comprehension skills, including inference and the individual can comprehend. These skills require deeper processing abilities. Test of Narrative Language-2 (TNL2) For ages 4.0 – 15-11, the TNL2 provides a format that shortcuts the typical lengthy language sample analysis process. No transcription is necessary. Children's answers to the comprehension questions and their stories can be reliably scored from audio recordings (use your Smart Phone!). The instructions are scripted and clear examples are used for scoring. 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UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL EXAMINATIONS International General Certificate of Secondary Education ECONOMICS 0455/03 Paper 3 Multiple Choice May/June 2005 1 hour Additional Materials: Multiple Choice Answer Sheet Soft clean eraser Soft pencil (type B or HB is recommended) www.XtremePapers.com READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST Write in soft pencil. Do not use staples, paper clips, highlighters, glue or correction fluid. Write your name, Centre number and candidate number on the answer sheet in the spaces provided unless this has been done for you. There are forty questions on this paper. Answer all questions. For each question there are four possible answers A, B, C and D. Choose the one you consider correct and record your choice in soft pencil on the separate answer sheet. Read the instructions on the answer sheet very carefully. Each correct answer will score one mark. A mark will not be deducted for a wrong answer. Any rough working should be done in this booklet. 1 In a market economy, what does the entrepreneur decide? A the combination of resources used B the demand for the product C the equilibrium price of the product D the level of profits 2 China is changing from a centrally planned economy towards a market economy. How will the influence of consumers and the government change? 3 A factory working at full capacity is producing tennis racquets and golf clubs. The management decides to produce fewer racquets and more clubs because of an increase in demand for golf clubs. What is the opportunity cost of producing more golf clubs? A the cost of retraining some workers to make golf clubs B the cost of transporting and selling the extra golf clubs produced C the materials bought to make extra golf clubs D the tennis racquets that will not now be produced 4 Anything used as money must have A a fixed supply. B general acceptability. C recognition as legal tender. D value in itself. 5 A business has two owners. They have limited liability. Its shares are not sold on the stock exchange. What type of business is this? A partnership B private limited company C public corporation D public limited company 6 What is most likely to be the main function of a central bank? A controlling the money supply B investing in commerce and industry C issuing and processing credit cards D making loans to individuals 7 What would prevent an Egyptian company being classified as a multi-national company? A It concentrates on one stage of production only. B It employs only Egyptians as managers. C It manufactures only in Egypt. D It uses other firms to transport its goods. 8 What would not cause a shift in the demand curve for a good? A a change in incomes B a change in the price of a substitute good C a change in the price of the good D a change in the tastes of consumers 9 Four changes affecting the supply of a good are listed below. What would cause the supply curve to shift to the right? A an improvement in technology B an increase in its market price C a reduction in labour productivity D the introduction of a sales tax 10 What is an example of complementary demand? A buses and bus fares B cotton and cotton seed C televisions and electricity D wood and sawdust 11 A good is successfully advertised. What is the most likely impact on the demand and supply curves for the good? 12 The diagram shows the supply and demand curves for a good. The market is in equilibrium at point X. What is the excess demand at price P? A PT B QR C QT D ST 13 The table shows the value of the price elasticity of demand for four products. What would have an increase in sales revenue if prices rose by 10 %? A cars only B cars and mobile phones C radios and salt D salt only 14 What might explain why wages paid in a particular occupation are high? A a large supply of labour B a low price for the good produced C a strong trade union D pleasant working conditions 15 What is a non-wage factor that can affect an individual's choice of occupation? A bonuses B commission C long holidays D overtime pay 16 A person has no outstanding debts. What might cause that person to save more and spend less from their monthly income? A a rise in the choice of products B a rise in income tax C a rise in interest rates D a rise in the price of essential products 17 The table gives information about full-time workers in a country. What can be concluded from the table? A All female workers earned less than male workers. B The difference between male and female earnings became smaller. C The hourly rate of pay for females was higher than for males. D The productivity of female workers was higher than that of males. 18 What is likely to be found when there are many small firms in an industry? A There are few barriers to entry. B There is high expenditure on research developments. C Products are distributed to widely dispersed markets. D Very large capital costs are needed to establish a firm. 19 A firm producing instant coffee previously paid for the disposal of the waste. It now sells the waste to be made into garden fertiliser. Which cost to the firm has not changed? A average cost B fixed cost C total cost D variable cost 20 In 2003 Hewlett-Packard, a major computer company, announced that its profits had fallen below the level predicted. What might have caused this? A increased advertising costs that greatly improved sales B low prices that made the company's product competitive C new technology that reduced costs D reduced sales and low prices 21 Wal-Mart, the world's biggest food retailer, has acquired a large number of supermarkets. What type of integration is this? A conglomerate B horizontal C vertical backward D vertical forward 22 Ericsson is the world's leading maker of mobile phone machinery. It announced that it had won a major contract to supply a Chinese phone company, China Mobile, with machinery. Ericsson also announced that it would become more efficient by reducing its workforce. How would economists classify these changes for the two companies? 23 A firm bottles 10 000 bottles of cola a week. Its fixed costs are $1000 a week. Its variable costs are $0.50 a bottle. Each bottle of cola is sold for $1. What is the profit per bottle of cola? A $0.40 B $0.50 C $0.60 D $0.90 24 The table gives information on the rate of economic growth in a country from 2001 to 2004. What is likely to have fallen in this period? A Gross Domestic Product B imports C prices D unemployment 25 What is most likely to conflict with a government's aim of price stability? A higher direct tax rates B higher government spending C higher interest rates D higher unemployment 26 The graph shows the percentage of tax taken from different levels of income by four different taxes. Which illustrates a regressive tax? 27 The table shows the working population and value of production in four areas of a country. The government wants to encourage industrial development in the area with the lowest productivity. Which area will it select? 28 The government of Kenya wishes to help people with very low incomes. Which policy would achieve this? A increasing housing subsidies B increasing income tax C increasing indirect taxation D increasing inheritance tax 29 In March 2000 the Ministry of Trade and Industry in Singapore stated that Gross Domestic Product grew by 5.4 % in the previous year. This produced higher revenues from taxation and resulted in a budget surplus. What may be concluded from this statement? A The change in Gross Domestic Product was caused by a change in taxation. B The government had increased the rate of taxation and the expenditure on its services. C The national income of the country had increased and so more was paid in taxes. D There had been economic growth because the government had reduced its expenditure and budgeted for a surplus. 30 The table gives selected details of the UK trade in goods in 1998 and 1999 in £ billion. What happened to the balance of trade in goods between 1998 and 1999? A The deficit decreased. B The deficit increased. C The surplus decreased. D The surplus increased. 31 Instead of cleaning their own homes, a large number of households decide to clean each other's homes and charge for their services. They all declare their income to the tax authority. What will increase as a result of this? A Gross Domestic Product B imports C investment D unemployment 32 The bar chart shows details of three economic indicators of several Asian economies in year 1 and year 2. Which country improved its economic performance in all three indicators? 11.7 5.5 12.2 12.0 8.5 5.3 7.6 4.8 3.6 2.3 1.7 6.0 3.9 5.4 13.3 10.8 11.7 7.6 5.8 6.8 –2.1 –5.7 –6.1 –1.3 China Malaysia Singapore India A B C D GDP growth, % Inflation, % Current-account balance, $bn year 1 Asian economies year 2 33 Which citizens are most likely to become worse off in a period of falling prices? A those earning fixed incomes B those saving at a fixed rate of interest C those who have borrowed money at a fixed rate of interest D those who have lent money at a fixed rate of interest 34 Many fishermen are unemployed owing to long-term legislation to conserve fish stocks in the North Sea. What type of unemployment is this? A demand-deficient B frictional C seasonal D structural 35 In producing a table of economic statistics about a developed country (Italy) and a developing country (Ethiopia) one pair of statistics has been placed in the wrong columns. Which is it most likely to be? 36 Which aspect of population will be most likely to change when the importance of the tertiary sector increases? A the dependency ratio B the geographical distribution C the occupational distribution D the total size When must there be a rise in a country's population? 37 A when the birth rate is greater than death rate and there is net emigration B when the birth rate is greater than death rate and there is no migration C when the death rate is greater than birth rate and there is net immigration D when the death rate is greater than birth rate and there is no migration 38 In Indonesia the opportunity cost of producing timber is lower than in any other country. To protect the environment, the Indonesian government decides to conserve its timber and ban timber exports. What would happen in Indonesia to the balance of trade and external costs? 39 Multi-national companies often set up business in developing countries. These countries benefit in a number of ways. What effect could not be considered a benefit for a developing country? A Investment in infrastructure is increased. B More local workers are employed. C New ideas and skills are introduced. D Profits earned are sent abroad. 40 If a country places a tax on imports of food, which group in the country is most likely to benefit? A consumers B farmers C food importers D supermarkets	<urn:uuid:d74f757c-5b6c-46cc-a2f6-a5da5649663d>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://paper.sc/doc/5a5b0ee64edb7a371804cb93/	2024-02-23T09:03:56+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00051.warc.gz	457,024,312	2,372	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998773	eng_Latn	0.999297	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1003, 1943, 3113, 3549, 4351, 5564, 6532, 7077, 8181, 9411, 10484, 10997 ]	[ 3.296875 ]	4	0
George Mason University College of Education and Human Development Elementary Education ELED 453, Section DL1 SCIENCE METHODS FOR THE ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM (3 credits) Spring 2021 (January 25-April 25) Mondays 10:30-1:10, Synchronous Online Instructor: Christie Byers Phone: (703) 727-4665 Email: email@example.com Office Hours: Zoom hours by appointment Prerequisites/Corequisites: Admission to the Elementary Education program. University Catalog Course Description: Develops skills and abilities in science teaching methods, applications of technology, safety practices, and creation of integrated science curricula. Examines science teaching based on contemporary theory, practice, and standards. Prerequisite(s): Admission to elementary education licensure program. Expanded Course Description: The primary goals of this course are to provide you with practical experience, theoretical background, and pedagogical skills that will help you to be successful in your future career as a teacher. Two main themes run through the course: 1) inquiry-based pedagogy, and 2) science and health content. With respect to content, the course is intended to help develop your background knowledge with the goal of successful teaching in an elementary science context. This course will also consider the intersections of science, self, and society through an exploration of healthrelated content including human body systems, nutrition, emotional health, and identity. A troubling concern we will address is that children often come to school with a keen interest in the world around them, but by the end of elementary school there is a noted waning of interest in science. This is at least partially attributed to the ways in which "school science" does not always emphasize the experiences of beauty, joy, liveliness, and meaningful learning that can come from engaging with science and connecting scientific understanding to the everyday experiences of children. Consequently, we will explicitly consider experiences involving wonder, actively building/creating new knowledge and the joy of discovery as opposed to the rote memorization of 'science facts.' For this reason, we will utilize inquiry and constructivist approaches to learning as a means of approaching science content that is too often presented as an exercise in the acquisition of vocabulary. Another intention of this course is to illuminate and sometimes problematize circulating assumptions related to science. For example, opportunities will be provided for us to experience encounters together that make us wonder about the world, our relationship with it, and our role within it, as a part of the natural world – not just as observers and/or exploiters of it. Also, science will be presented in a realistic light where scientists are recognized as humans, living in a specific time, and in a specific place, struggling to better understand the world (just like the rest of us) as opposed to omnipotent, infallible heroes that society and textbooks sometimes portray. Course Delivery Method: This course will be delivered 100% online using a synchronous online format via Blackboard Learning Management system (LMS) housed in the MyMason portal. You will log in to the Blackboard (Bb) course site using your Mason email name (everything before @masonlive.gmu.edu) and email password. The course site will be available on or before January 25, 2021. This course will use a combination of Blackboard Collaborate Ultra, Zoom, and Google Slides for synchronous online course delivery. Synchronous class sessions will include small/large group discussions and tasks, lecture, and student-led activities. A detailed schedule is included below. Under no circumstances, may candidates/students participate in online class sessions (either by phone or Internet) while operating motor vehicles. Further, as expected in a face-to-face class meeting, such online participation requires undivided attention to course content and communication. Please note: This course requires 15 hours of field observation. Additional details are in the "Assignments" section. These observations will be virtual/online in Spring 2021. Technical Requirements To participate in this course, students will need to satisfy the following technical requirements: 1. High-speed Internet access with standard up-to-date browsers. To get a list of Blackboard's supported browsers see: https://help.blackboard.com/Learn/Student/Getting_Started/Browser_Support#supportedbrowsers 2. To get a list of supported operating systems on different devices see: https://help.blackboard.com/Learn/Student/Getting_Started/Browser_Support#tested-devices- and-operating-systems 3. Students must maintain consistent and reliable access to their GMU email and Blackboard accounts, as these are the official methods of communication for this course. 4. Students will need a headset microphone for use with Blackboard Collaborate Ultra or other required web conferencing tools. 5. Students may be asked to create logins and passwords on supplemental websites and/or to download trial software to their computer or tablet as part of course requirements. 6. The following software plug-ins for PCs and Macs, respectively, are available for free download: * Adobe Acrobat Reader: https://get.adobe.com/reader/ * Windows Media Player: https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/14209/get-windowsmedia-player * Apple Quick Time Player: www.apple.com/quicktime/download/ Expectations 1. Course Week: Our course week will begin on the day that our synchronous meetings take place as indicated on the Schedule of Classes. 2. Log-in Frequency: Students must actively check the course Blackboard site and their GMU email for communications from the instructor, class discussions, and/or access to course materials 4 times per week. In addition, students must log-in for all scheduled online synchronous meetings. 3. Participation: Students are expected to actively engage in all course activities throughout the semester, which includes viewing all course materials, completing course activities and assignments, and participating in course discussions and group interactions. 4. Technical Competence: Students are expected to demonstrate competence in the use of all course technology. Students who are struggling with technical components of the course are expected to seek assistance from the instructor and/or College or University technical services. 5. Technical Issues: Students should anticipate some technical difficulties during the semester and should, therefore, budget their time accordingly. Late work will not be accepted based on individual technical issues. 6. Workload: Please be aware that this course is not self-paced. Students are expected to meet specific deadlines and due dates listed in the Class Schedule section of this syllabus. It is the student's responsibility to keep track of the weekly course schedule of topics, readings, activities and assignments due. 7. Instructor Support: Students may schedule a one-on-one meeting to discuss course requirements, content or other course-related issues. While we are unable to come to a Mason campus at this time, students can meet with the instructor via telephone or web conference. Students should email the instructor to schedule a one-on-one session, including their preferred meeting method and suggested dates/times. 8. Netiquette: The course environment is a collaborative space. Experience shows that even an innocent remark typed in the online environment can be misconstrued. Students must always reread their responses carefully before posting them, so as others do not consider them as personal offenses. Be positive in your approach with others and diplomatic in selecting your words. Remember that you are not competing with classmates; rather, you are sharing information and learning from others. All faculty are similarly expected to be respectful in all communications. 9. Accommodations: Online learners who require effective accommodations to ensure accessibility must be registered with George Mason University Disability Services. Learner Outcomes This course will enable students to: A. Build a pedagogical content knowledge base in science and understand the systems of nature in Earth science, biology, chemistry and physics through inquiry-based investigation. B. Conceptualize core principles regarding the Nature of Science, i.e., how wonder, creativity, experimentation, and evidence frame scientific thinking, as well as how theory is used in predicting and explaining phenomena. C. Engage in and use scientific practices such as data collection, analysis, modeling, use of evidence, construction of explanations, reliability, self-checking, and identification of limitations to conduct research experiments. D. Understand the historical development of scientific concepts and the social, cultural, and economic significance of science. E. Understand and use knowledge, skills, and practices of the four core science disciplines of Earth science, biology, chemistry, and physics to develop lesson plans demonstrating inquiry-based principles in science and health education, including the incorporation of technology. F. Demonstrate age-appropriate safety standards when designing hands-on classroom experiences. G. Examine science and health curricula and methods with respect to "Science for All" and standards documents at local, state, and national levels. H. Develop viable assessment tools for science and health contexts. I. Understand the relationship of science to math, the design process, and technology. J. Understand, possess, and integrate the knowledge, skills, dispositions, and processes needed to support learners' achievement in an interdisciplinary manner in Virginia's Foundation Blocks for Early Learning: Comprehensive Standards for Four-Year-Olds and the Virginia Standards of Learning in English, mathematics, history and social science, science, and computer technology. Professional Standards INTASC: Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, Model Core Teaching Standards Upon completion of this course, students will have met the following professional standards: #4. Content Knowledge. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content. #5. Application of Content. The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to authentic local and global issues. #6. Assessment. The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacher's and learner's decision making. #7. Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context. #8. Instructional Strategies. The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways. Technology (ISTE NETS): International Society for Technology in Education / National Educational Technology Standards Standard I. Teachers use their knowledge of subject matter, teaching and learning, and technology to facilitate experiences that advance student learning, creativity, and innovation in both face-to-face and virtual environments. REQUIRED TEXTS & READINGS Everything You Need to Ace Science in One Big Fat Notebook (2016) Workman Publishing ISBN-10 : 0761160957 ISBN-13 : 978-0761160953 **Other required readings will be provided via Blackboard COURSE ASSIGNMENTS AT A GLANCE Designated performance-based assessment (PBA) The grading scale for this course is as follows: Note: "C-" is not satisfactory for a licensure course; "F" does not meet requirements of the School of Education. ASSIGNMENT EXPECTATIONS: It is expected that all class assignments will be submitted on time. Therefore, All assignments are to be completed by the date listed in the syllabus. Written work will not be accepted after the due date unless prior arrangements have been made with the instructor. Credit will not be given for late assignments. All assignments must be submitted by the beginning of class (Eastern standard time) on the due date stated within the syllabus (see below) and should only be submitted via Blackboard. All assignments subject to change due to Covid-19 changes and restrictions. OTHER EXPECTATIONS: All written papers are expected to be double-spaced, with 1" margins, and in 12-point font (Times New Roman, Calibri, or Arial). APA format is expected. If you do not have a 7 th Edition APA manual, the OWL at Purdue is an excellent resource: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ Please Note: The GMU Writing Center offers online support via email. They will provide feedback on your writing within one hour. Graduate and professional writing can be difficult; I encourage you to take advantage of this service. http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/?page_id=177 PROFESSIONAL DISPOSITIONS: Students are expected to exhibit professional behaviors and dispositions at all times (See Elementary Education Program Handbook). Core Values Commitment The College of Education and Human Development is committed to collaboration, ethical leadership, innovation, research-based practice, and social justice. Students are expected to adhere to these principles: http://cehd.gmu.edu/values/. GMU Policies and Resources for Students Policies Students must adhere to the guidelines of the Mason Honor Code (see http://oai.gmu.edu/themason-honor-code/). * Students must follow the university policy for Responsible Use of Computing (see http://universitypolicy.gmu.edu/policies/responsible-use-of-computing/). * Students are responsible for the content of university communications sent to their Mason email account and are required to activate their account and check it regularly. All communication from the university, college, school, and program will be sent to students solely through their Mason email account. * Students with disabilities who seek accommodations in a course must be registered with George Mason University Disability Services. Approved accommodations will begin at the time the written letter from Disability Services is received by the instructor (see http://ods.gmu.edu/). * Students must follow the university policy stating that all sound emitting devices shall be silenced during class unless otherwise authorized by the instructor. Campus Resources * Support for submission of assignments to Tk20 should be directed to firstname.lastname@example.org or https://cehd.gmu.edu/aero/tk20. Questions or concerns regarding use of Blackboard should be directed to http://coursessupport.gmu.edu/. * The Writing Center provides a variety of resources and services (e.g., tutoring, workshops, writing guides, handbooks) intended to support students as they work to construct and share knowledge through writing (see http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/). * The Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) staff consists of professional counseling and clinical psychologists, social workers, and counselors who offer a wide range of services (e.g., individual and group counseling, workshops and outreach programs) to enhance students' personal experience and academic performance (see http://caps.gmu.edu/). * The Student Support & Advocacy Center staff helps students develop and maintain healthy lifestyles through confidential one-on-one support as well as through interactive programs and resources. Some of the topics they address are healthy relationships, stress management, nutrition, sexual assault, drug and alcohol use, and sexual health (see http://ssac.gmu.edu/). Students in need of these services may contact the office by phone at 703-993-3686. Concerned students, faculty and staff may also make a referral to express concern for the safety or wellbeing of a Mason student or the community by going to http://ssac.gmu.edu/make-a-referral/. * For information on student support resources on campus, see https://ctfe.gmu.edu/teaching/student-support-resources-on-campus Notice of mandatory reporting of sexual assault, interpersonal violence, and stalking: As a faculty member, I am designated as a "Responsible Employee," and must report all disclosures of sexual assault, interpersonal violence, and stalking to Mason's Title IX Coordinator per University Policy 1202. If you wish to speak with someone confidentially, please contact one of Mason's confidential resources, such as Student Support and Advocacy Center (SSAC) at 703-380-1434 or Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) at 703-993-2380. You may also seek assistance from Mason's Title IX Coordinator by calling 703-993-8730, or emailing email@example.com. For additional information on the College of Education and Human Development, please visit our website http://cehd.gmu.edu/. For additional information on the College of Education and Human Development, Graduate School of Education, please visit our website [See http://gse.gmu.edu/] http://cehd.gmu.edu/values/ EMERGENCY PROCEDURES You are encouraged to sign up for emergency alerts by visiting the website https://alert.gmu.edu. There are emergency posters in each classroom explaining what to do in the event of crises. Further information about emergency procedures exists on http://gmu.edu/service/cert PROPOSED SPRING 2021 CLASS SCHEDULE TENTATIVE CLASS SCHEDULE Faculty reserve the right to alter the schedule as necessary with notification to students. Day 4 Monday, February 15 10:30 am1:10 pm Synchonous, Online Day 5 Monday, February 22 10:30 am- 1:10 pm Synchonous, Online Day 6 Monday, March 1 10:30 am1:10 pm Synchonous, Online Planning and Assessing Inquiry Pedagogy Planning for Inquiry * Assessment for Inquiry: Formative, Summative * Student journals/notebooks Content * Physical science/Chemistry: matter, movement, and balance/homeostasis. * Life Science: Connections to the human body science/health * Ecology: ongoing inquiry Equity, Diversity, and Social Justice in Science Ed Pedagogy: * Welcoming, supporting, and integrating diverse sense-making repertoires * Whose science? Who's asking? Content * Science practices: NGSS and Virginia SOLs * Health: Identity and Emotions * Ecology: ongoing inquiry Integrated Approaches to STEM Pedagogy * Science/STEM across the curriculum * Technology teaching tools: Topics and Teach Group #1 and #2 * Collaborative planning: Work on Mini-Units (PBA) Content * The human body: cells, tissues, organs, systems Course Readings Due: Skim through all 5E Examples readings. Choose two to read in depth/be an expert on. Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 2/12 Bring wonder journal. Have completed at least 2 entries. Ecology inquiry materials: TBD Course Readings Due: Mason & Bohl, 2017: on science notebooks; Baxter & Banko (2018) on children's science drawings Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 2/19 Bring wonder journal Ecology inquiry materials: TBD Course Reading Due: Bang, et al (2017): Toward More Equitable Learning in Science Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 2/26 Bring wonder journal; have completed at least 4 entries. Ecology inquiry materials: TBD Bring ideas for unit topics Topics and Tech Groups #1 Day 7 Monday, March 8 10:30 am- 1:10 pm Synchonous, Online Day 8 Monday, March 15 10:30 am1:10 pm Synchonous, Online Day 9 Monday, March 22 10:30 am1:10 pm * Health: Nutrition * Ecology: ongoing inquiry The Materiality of Science Pedagogy: * Curating rich, material environments for encounters * Taking your class outside Content: * Physical science/Life Science: sound and hearing, light and sight. Attuning to the senses. * Place-based environmental learning * Ecology: ongoing inquiry Unit Planning Workshop * Conferencing with peers and instructor Pedagogy * Topics and Tech Groups #5 and #6 Present Content * Earth science: The Sun, Earth, Moon System * Ecology: ongoing inquiry Unit Planning Workshop * Conferencing with peers and instructor Pedagogy * Topics and Tech Group #7 Present and #2 Present Course Reading Due: Everything you Need to Know Text: pp. 373-432 Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 3/5 Bring wonder journals Ecology inquiry materials: TBD Bring draft of unit to work on Topics and Tech Groups #3 and #4 Present Course Reading Due: Everything you Need to Know Text: pp.143-158 Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 3/12 Bring wonder journals – have at least 6 entries completed Ecology inquiry materials: TBD Topics and Tech Groups #5 and #6 Present Course Reading Due: Everything you Need to Know Text: pp.197-208 Class Reflection due to Blackboard (Tools: Journals) by noon on Friday 3/19 Bring wonder journals Ecology inquiry materials: Synchonous, Online Content TBD * Chemistry: the basics * Ecology: ongoing inquiry COURSE ASSIGNMENTS/ASSESSMENTS 1. Class Participation, Reading Completion, and Written Reflections 30% Your success in this course is predicated on being an active participant: being fully present (in body and mind), completing the readings, engaging with your classmates in the discussions and activities, and writing thoughtful and detailed reflections after each class. It is expected that you will attend every class from beginning to end. If circumstances arise where this expectation is impacted, it is up to you to notify the instructor in advance, and to take full responsibility for what was missed. A class reflection (see below) will still be expected based on the class happenings and the readings. Further, there is a professional expectation that students will not work on other classroom projects, browse the web or send/check text messages during our class time. You will write a 500+ word reflection after each class period based on what we did together that day: A prompt will be provided by 3:00 pm in the afternoon after each class. These informal writings will be used by the instructor as a formative assessment (e.g. an exit ticket), and will demonstrate how you are engaging with the material: incorporating readings, our discussions and activities, your fieldwork, etc. These will be completed using the journals tool in Bb. Your reflection should… 1. be completed no later than midnight each Friday the week that the class took place. 2. be brief (but no less than 500 words), yet thoughtful, and demonstrate deep reflection on and integration of your learning 2. Wonder Journal 10% This project is about tracking your engagement in/with the science of the everyday; about the self + world. Notice your surroundings. Feel the movements and forces while you walk, drive, or ride your bike. Look at the sky, feel the sun on your face, watch your pet, communicate with another human, pay attention to the plants and wildlife in your neighborhood. Listen to birdsong. Count crows. Visit a body of water. Smell the rain, the soil, the flowers. Notice the play of light and shadows. Pay attention to the wind. Collect and look closely at rocks. Consider the physics of a Frisbee game. Visit with a mountain. Hang out with a tree. Go for a long walk and just wonder...no phone, no worries; just get lost in your thoughts (or non-thoughts: bodily sensations). What do you notice? What do you wonder? What do you feel? Over the course of the semester, use a composition book/journal to create some journal entries about these experiences AND also try using a digital notebook of some kind (we will use both and compare them) to create others entries. The basic idea is to document the various things that catch your attention: what you feel/observe/notice in and about the natural world. You may also choose to write about the science activities we do during class. The assignment is to write about, sketch, photograph, question, observe and record those things that capture your attention and imagination. These wonderings about the natural world (and our science activities) are just that…whatever you see, feel and think about those things that fascinate and/or confuse you, pique your interest: questions, thoughts, sensations that move into and out of your mind and/or body. There are not many rules…just two: 1. Complete at least 10 entries in total (more is fine): at least 5 handwritten in a notebook, and at least 5 digital (e.g. Google doc, blog, etc.); 2. You will choose from and turn in a selection of journal entries (# TBD) on Monday, April 12 Important note: Your wonders are yours and unique to how you engage with the world around you, therefore there is no wrong way to do these entries - as long as it is clear you put thought and effort into them. 3. Topics-n-Tech Group Presentations 10% There are so many cool technology tools out there (and new ones popping up all the time) that might be used to help Engage your students, help Explain a concept, or help Evaluate learning. In small groups you will choose a science topic (from our content text) and research a technology tool (choose one from our long list on Blackboard or another you find on your own) in order to create an interactive presentation for the rest of the class that helps us to 1) understand that content better, and 2) learn how to use the cool tech tool. There will be a sign-up sheet for different dates you might present throughout the course. 4. Inquiry-Based Mini-Unit Project (PBA) 30% The goal of this project is to construct (and teach a portion of) an inquiry-based unit appropriate for the context of your field site. You will design this unit based on the 5E model of inquiry lesson planning. The unit will entail writing a detailed and well-supported written description of the pedagogical approach that will be employed. The five-E sequence will be designed to develop science content understanding in engaging and dynamic ways for students, and this plan will provide some key theoretical and research-based support for the content, approach, and activities in the unit. Note: You will record yourself teaching one of these lessons in your field site in order to receive feedback from peers and instructor. The unit will be comprised of the following components and scored via the rubric provided at the end of the syllabus. All unit plans will include: A. Overview Theme/Topic: Give insight into the overall content concepts and provide an overarching description of the unit and goals. Consider it akin to the "movie trailer" of the unit where you set the stage and excite the reader for what lies ahead. Teacher Background knowledge: This section highlights the content knowledge that teachers should be familiar with. This can/should include some resources and/or sources…also list some common misconceptions (or naïve conceptions) children and adults may hold concerning the topic. Description of Students: Provide brief overview, describing the audience for which the unit is designed. B. Curriculum Design and Assessment Synthesis Learning Theory/Teaching and Assessment discussion (two pages) This section serves as a description of your understanding of the learning theory and rationale of your unit based on what you have learned from the course readings. The goal is to synthesize the readings and your understanding for processes related to inquiry models and pedagogy. Must include references in support of your claims for your approach C. Detailed Lesson Plans The unit will follow the 5 E model and as such your lessons should span the 5E process. These will generally be one E per lesson and would require 5 detailed lessons for the unit (See Bb site for lesson template). The unit should include a final assessment that would evaluate whether your students achieved the objectives at the end of the unit. This final assessment should include the questions/tasks the students are required to do and indicate what objectives are being assessed and how they are being assessed. For instance, posters, investigations, debates, etc. should align with original unit objectives. D. Assessment Your assessment efforts across your unit should include diagnostic, formative and summative assessments that are directly linked to your unit goals and daily objectives. These approaches should work to innovatively engage children in meaningful approaches that also comprise the spirit of inquiry and investigation as depicted in the readings. E. Support Materials (all materials for the daily lesson plans) For the daily lesson plans, you will develop all support materials that the teacher and students will use. For teaching and learning activities include each sheet of paper distributed to the students to carry out the daily lesson plans - laboratory experiments, activities, worksheets, instructions, assessments, rubrics, etc. Attach these to the appropriate lesson plan. Other teaching aids (ie. instructions for teacher demo or photos of experiment set up, etc.) used during the unit should also be included. Be sure that your unit plan can illustrate the following three aspects of teaching: introducing new content, hands-on assignments, and assessment of student learning. These activities should focus on the essential science concepts and connections, assess higher order thinking skills, and target different learning styles. Checking for understanding should be included daily. Include diagnostic, formative, and summative assessment. Your 'evaluation' portion of the unit should include major assessment instruments and grading criteria for the unit. F. References Cited section 5. Field Observations 5% This assignment involves formally documenting your observations during your field hours. Field hours may include a combination of videos and online observations in Spring 2021. Using a guiding observation document (available via Blackboard), you will make observations and relevant connections between course readings, activities, and our class discussions based on what you are seeing (or perhaps not yet seeing) in your field experiences. 6. Wonder Self + World Investigation/Presentation 15% The goal of this project is to pursue a science idea/topic that you find interesting, learn more about it, and share what you've learned with the rest of us. As a culmination of your journey with wonder (in combination of an exploration of yourself in relation to science) this semester, you will choose a topic from your wonder journal (or a new and different wonder(ing) and follow this wonder(ing) wherever it might lead you… This project will take the form of a digital presentation (2-3 slides) that will highlight: a) the wonder(ing) itself and its relationship to you/your interests/your environment/community b) the information you identified to make more sense of the topic (diagrams, sketches, experiments, observations, notes, photographs, etc.) c) a diagram/wonder road map – how did your exploration with wonder unfold? d) identify key scientific concepts related to this topic (definitions, models, connections to other scientific areas, etc.), e) list further questions you have and any hypotheses related to this exploration, f) explain how you might design an experiment or further exploration process from here g) explain how this project connects with the Nature of Science (NOS) and/or the NGSS science practices h) how, if at all, you feel this project affected you, your relationship to science, your thoughts/feelings about teaching science i) any ideas you have for incorporating wonder (not necessarily this wonder) into your future teaching. ASSESSMENT RUBRICS: PBA TASK: Science Unit Rubric (30% of total grade) Assessment Summary: The project is meant to facilitate your understanding of the design and teaching of an inquiry-based science unit. This will require research into both inquiry-based lesson planning and science content. 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Hello! I hope you have all enjoyed your summer break! I hope you feel refreshed and ready to begin Autumn Term 2019. Parents, if you have any skills, resources or experiences that you could share with us on our topic that may support our learning intentions, we would love for you to share them. This term the children will undertake a project on The Ancient Greeks. In our History lessons, children will find out who the Ancient Greeks were and plot important developments on a timeline as well as other world and British national history. They will research what life was like in the ancient cities of Athens, Sparta and Corinth. They will learn the importance of the Greek gods and that it was extremely unwise to make them angry! Greek society (including politics, clothing and food) will be explored and related to modernday Greece to investigate what has survived of the Ancient Greeks. Their unfortunate demise will be explored and questioned. In Geography, Ancient Greece as well as the seas surrounding it will be studied, including the vast empire of Alexander the Great. Numeracy will form an integral link in our project, as the children focus on and learn about the work of Greek mathematicians Archimedes and Pythagoras, even looking into ancient cyphers made by Polybius. Much focus will be on Number work, in particular place value and the four operations of calculation. Knowledge of times tables will be at the forefront of everyday group tasks, supported by a variety of iPad apps and written work. Literacy work will focus on the structure and language of newspaper reports, a form of recount writing, with the children gaining their inspiration from our class text, 'Girl of Ink and Stars' by Kiran Millwood Hargrave. As well as our class text, Greek myths and legends will be read and analysed during Guided Reading, where questions that encourage the children to infer (read between the lines) and explain will be answered together. Personal opinions will be shared and discussed with reference to the text. The children will once again form a company that will specialise in an aspect of the Ancient Greeks. The Collection, Lincoln and their events department are keen to work with us and a project commission will centre on promoting Greek Legacy in the 21st Century. Science will explore 'Earth & Space' and DT 'Greek inventions', both of which will link to the project. In PSHE, we will consider 'New Beginnings', in RE our learning will be around Hinduism. In PE, the children will be undertaking activities MSP and will be developing ball skills, control, coordination and teamwork through multi-skills activities. Computing skills will continue develop, alongside awareness of online safety. Kind regards, Mr Anderson and Mrs Higginson Update: Thank you for continuing to engage with Class Dojo to keep up to date with what is happening in school. Please check the 'Class Story' and 'Pupil Story' updates which give a window into the classroom. 'Pupil Story' allows your children and myself to share photos with only their parents. Please listen to your child read 3-4 times a week for 10-15 minutes, it makes a huge difference to their learning and understanding. Messages: P.E will continue to take place on Wednesday and Thursday. Please ensure that your child has a labelled kit in school on these days – it is typical to keep the kit bag in school all the time. For PE, earrings must be removed after the 6weeks by the child themselves or your child should cover their lobes with a plaster/micropore. Long hair must be tied back securely.	<urn:uuid:4dc665c1-e7e8-4daa-bf29-cd32bf83c3d3>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.eagleprimary.org.uk/media/class%204/Curriculum%20Newsletter%20Class%204%20Autumn%202019.pdf	2024-02-23T10:19:21+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00052.warc.gz	764,209,036	736	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99865	eng_Latn	0.99865	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3591 ]	[ 2.890625 ]	1	0
Progress Sea rangers close in on Gulf's killer nets Along Australia's remote northern coastline, indigenous sea rangers have been working with government and nongovernment organisations to clean up a deadly threat to marine life. Northern Australia is under attack by a new threat – ghost nets. These are fishing nets that have been lost, abandoned or deliberately discarded, but that continue to 'fish' indiscriminately. Due to its unique shape and location, the Gulf of Carpentaria acts as a catchment for marine debris from the entire IndoPacific region. The ghost fishing nets are swept in by the monsoonal winds over summer and, aided by the south-east trade winds during the winter season, the result is a steady stream of nets all year round. The Gulf's strong clockwise circular current, or gyre, means that the nets become stuck in an endless cycle of 'ghost fishing', bringing with it a huge and devastating catch of precious marine life. At Cape Arnhem between 1996 and 2003, derelict fishing nets entangled around 185 of the 205 stranded marine turtles – including four species listed as endangered or vulnerable. The floating nets also get caught up in propellers, rudders and even engine intakes. Only 5 per cent of nets originate in Australia; most originate from fishing activities outside the Gulf, making it harder to deal with the issue through negotiations with commercial fishing bodies or awareness-raising among fishermen. The Carpentaria Ghost Net Programme was set up with the help of a Natural Heritage Trust grant in 2002. The program involves a network of indigenous sea rangers from small coastal communities removing decades of accumulated ghost nets from the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Torres Straits. With the help of a WWF net identification guide, the sea rangers record information about the nets, which will help negotiations to stop the problem at its source. Over 200 different types of nets have been identified to date. \| 138 AUG–SEP \| 2007 When the rangers find animals, especially turtles, still alive in the nets, they are able to release them back into the wild. In the past 18 months, the program's 90 or so sea rangers have removed 2174 pieces of net with an average length of 28.3 metres from accessible parts of the northern coastline. This equates to approximately 59 kilometres, or 60 tonnes, of net. The largest net was a 6-tonne, 19kilometre-long Taiwanese gill net found off the coast of Arnhem Land in 2006. The removal of this net required the combined resources of Customs, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority, Dhimurru Rangers, NT Parks & Wildlife, and two local charter vessels. It took five very long hours to get this net from water's edge to landfill! Individuals involved with the project learn skills in project planning and management, information recording and reporting. The flexibility of the project allows for a high variation in literacy and numeracy skills – from simple data entry in the survey sheets supplied to GIS mapping. The project encourages individuals to selfassess and improve their skills, continually raising the bar by providing a range of training options. The program is managed by the Northern Gulf Resource Management Group and has taken out Banksia Awards in 2006 and 2007 as well as the Queensland Coastcare Award 2005. It involves a diverse cross-section of partners … from the Northern Territory, Queensland and Australian governments, and non-government participating organisations – Northern Gulf Resource Management Group, WWF, Northern Land Council, North Australian Indigenous Land & Sea Management Alliance, Clean Up Australia, Oceanwatch Aust Ltd and Conservation Volunteers Australia. • Riki Gunn & Erlend Haugen, Landcare Australia Ltd Riki Gunn works in the Northern Gulf Resource Management Group's Karumba office and is the coordinator and instigator of the Carpentaria Ghost Net Programme. Erlend Haugen is from Landcare Australia Ltd. This is an edited version of an article that first appeared in Vol 13(2) of Waves, the newsletter of the Marine and Coastal Community Network. More information: Carpentaria Ghost Nets Programme: www. ghostnets.com.au Marine and Coastal Community Network: www.mccn.org.au ECOS 11	<urn:uuid:d76d6bf7-9976-4e3f-bf86-d20006b4f0d6>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://www.ecosmagazine.com/?act=view_file&file_id=EC138p11.pdf	2024-02-23T10:11:14+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00055.warc.gz	53,167,393	888	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.994842	eng_Latn	0.994842	[ "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 4272 ]	[ 2.234375 ]	1	0
EXPLORING 'WHO?' BY ANNIE FISHER Resource written by Rachel Piercey Riddle poems Annie's poem is part of a long tradition of riddle poems, which describe something without telling us its name. The reader has to guess what, or who, is being described. Some of the earliest poems written in the English language are riddle poems – and scholars are still not entirely sure of many of the answers! Do your class know any riddles? One of the most famous is 'The Riddle of the Sphinx', well over two thousand years old: "Which creature has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and twofooted and three-footed?" The answer is a human, who crawls on all fours as a baby, then walks on two feet as an adult, and then needs the assistance of a walking stick as they get older. Riddles like this one take the form of a single sentence – but it still has some of the characteristics of a poem, such as repetition, wordplay and the power of three. Riddle poems have the space to offer lots of different clues, and to make the language interesting, beautiful and memorable. Getting to know the poem Ask your pupils to sit with their eyes closed and read the poem out loud to them. Stop before the last verse. Who has guessed the creature's identity? After you have finished, ask them what they thought and which parts stuck in their minds. There are no wrong answers! Display the poem (see below) or hand out individual copies and read it again. Rhyme scheme Ask them if they noticed the sounds of the poem. Annie has rhymed the second and third line of most verses. In the first verse, all three lines rhyme, and the last verse is a little different. Annie has had fun inventing her own rhyme scheme – and your poets should feel free to do the same. Similes There is one simile in the poem – can your class pick it out? What does the description of the creature shining "like a sucked sweet" add to the picture they are building in their minds? As a group, come up with some new similes to describe a slug. Try to make your similes as interesting and inventive as possible! You might like to show them this video all about slugs, to kickstart ideas. * Silent like… * As slow as… * For gardeners, they are as scary as… * It moves like… Clues Make a list of the types of clues Annie gives us about the creature, e.g. texture ("goo"), movement ("shimmies", "lurks"), appearance ("shines like a sucked sweet", "leaves a silvery trail"), habits (laying eggs, consuming plants), reaction from others ("gardeners fear"), what it is not ("grub" etc). Individual writing Invite the children to write their own poems, inspired by 'Who?'. Ask them to choose their own creature and offer a series of clues, inspired by the list above. They could add some more, too – what does their animal sound like? What is its habitat? Will they invent their own rhyme scheme, follow Annie's, or not use rhyme at all? It's up to them! Encourage them to redraft, scribble out and change things – poets almost never get their poem right first time and their notebooks tend to be very messy! When they're ready to write it up neatly, you may like to use the print-out template below. What will they choose as their title? Explain that if you have written a poem inspired by someone else, it's important to acknowledge them – and the easiest way to do this is with a short line underneath the title (see below). We would love to see what your pupils come up with! Tag us on Twitter @tygertygermag with a picture, or email us on email@example.com for some personalised feedback. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. after 'Who?' by Annie Fisher by ……………………………………………………………………………………… tygertyger.net WHO? by Annie Fisher Who has one foot, but no shoe; is all goo? Who shimmies down round your feet; shines like a sucked sweet? Who leaves a silvery signature trail; is a sort of a snail? Who lays five hundred eggs every year; is the visitor gardeners fear? Who will consume every cauliflower, sprout and legume? Who lurks in wet mud; is not grub, is not beetle or bug? That's right, it's a slug!	<urn:uuid:1bd71e37-4197-4c78-8a95-1864ae5bee83>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://tygertyger.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Who-resource.pdf	2024-02-23T11:09:00+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00053.warc.gz	620,544,121	948	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998518	eng_Latn	0.999025	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1746, 3568, 3714, 4125 ]	[ 4.3125 ]	1	0
Annual Targets / Personal Learning Goals The students' personal learning goals are decided following assessment using MSI Curriculum Profiles and/or Routes for Learning as appropriate + any other assessment tools as deemed necessary (e.g. the communication matrix, pragmatics profile, etc). To this, therapists, following conversations with teachers and parents, may add other individualised targets, i.e. physiotherapy targets and/or OT targets, that will be incorporated in the students' learning opportunities to support their development. Teachers use their knowledge of the students to select 8 to10 targets from the 8 MSI curriculum domains. Depending on the students' needs, some of the curriculum domains will be prioritised when selecting targets and programmes of learning. Because of the particular impact of their multisensory impairment, the domains of Understanding of time and place, Orientation, movement and mobility, Ownership of learning and Responses to routines and changes need to feature within the students' targets. The figure below provides a visual representation of how the 8 MSI curriculum domains relate to the 4 learning areas of the Education Health and Care Plans. Communication and interaction Social and emotional Cognitive development Physical and sensory Communication Social relationships and emotional development Conceptual development Sensory responses Understanding of time and place Orientation, movement and mobility Ownership of learning Responses to routine and change Students will have long-term targets set for the key stage with a minimum of one annual short term target per long term target, with up to 10 annual short term targets. For the purpose of assessment and tracking, these short-term annual targets are, then, broken down into 4 small steps measured as percentages towards achievement of the target. The level of progress (below expected, expected, above expected) is determined by the overall review of the student's achievements for each of the annual targets. To show progress, one of the tools used at the Alba Centre and across the school is Earwig, an online tool. We use the headings of the EHCP to group the targets in Earwig to make it user friendly, especially when a multidisciplinary group of professionals and parents who might not be familiar with the 8 domains of learning could be inputting evidence or information. This also makes reporting on the progress of the targets easier. It is important to state that in the Alba Centre we do not teach to a set of targets. We provide a holistic and relevant learning environment for the students that reflects the students' phase of learning. We then plan and timetable learning opportunities that support the development of the 8 MSI domains for each student. The EHCP targets are, then, used as a guide to assess and track learning along with other tools. Instead of a focus on what pupils will learn, with a clear set of linear, product-based learning outcomes on which to measure progress, the MSI Curriculum focuses on how children learn and especially on the development of effective learning and interaction skills. It is a process-based, branching, learner-centred curriculum, which specifies staff behaviour rather than learner behaviour, and emphasises cross-curricular working. Below is a visual representation of how the 8 domains of the MSI curriculum are linked to both the EHCP targets and National Curriculum subjects. Communication and interaction Social and emotional Cognitive development Physical and sensory Communication Social relationships and emotional development Conceptual development Sensory responses Understanding of time and place Orientation, movement and mobility Ownership of learning Responses to routine and change English PSHE and citizenship Maths Geography Science RE History MFL Art and design Design and technology Music PE ICT	<urn:uuid:da31b031-5512-46b6-9f5b-8f6d71df064e>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	https://www.lindenlodge.wandsworth.sch.uk/attachments/download.asp?file=344&type=pdf	2024-02-23T10:39:16+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00053.warc.gz	907,418,511	757	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.987089	eng_Latn	0.99673	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 3323, 3907 ]	[ 2.515625 ]	1	0
www.ecosmagazine.com Published: 15 December 2014 Global and Australian warming continues: CSIRO The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reports that 2014 is on track to be possibly the world's hottest year on record. Meanwhile, there's been a lot of public commentary lately about the so-called 'hiatus' in global surface temperature over the past 18 years, recent sea-level rise, and what it all means. Credit: CSIRO & Bureau of Meteorology So what do CSIRO's research and observations tell us? According to Dr Helen Cleugh, Science Director, CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship: '[The research shows] that average surface air temperatures have continued to rise during the past two decades, but not as fast as in preceding decades. In other words, while the rate of temperature increase is lower, the temperatures themselves are not lower. 'It is also important to note that when climate scientists use the term "global-mean surface temperature" they refer to near-surface air temperatures. Surface air temperature is an incomplete measure of warming of the planet; oceans store huge amounts of heat, with about 93 per cent of the extra heat stored by the Earth over the past 50 years being found in the oceans. 'The ocean today is warmer, and sea levels higher, than at any time since the instrumental record began. As the oceans warm, they expand and sea levels rise. Using a combination of coastal tide-gauge and satellite-altimeter data, CSIRO and others have shown that, globally, sea level has been rising since the late 1800s. Global-averaged sea level rose at an average rate of about 1.6 mm per year over the 20 th century, but this rate has accelerated to about 3 mm per year as measured by satellite altimetry and tide gauges since 1993. So the rate of sea-level rise has not slowed; it has increased. 'Our measurements across the land, atmosphere and oceans show that warming has continued unabated throughout the past 18 years. 'Last year was Australia's warmest year on record, followed by 2005 and 2009. For global land and ocean temperatures, 2013 tied with 2003 as the fourth warmest year globally; and 13 of the 14 warmest years ever measured occurred in the 21 st century. As reported by the WMO, this year is shaping up to be the world's warmest year – the year to the end of October is the planet's warmest on record. 'It is not unusual to see changes in the rate of surface warming. Over the past 120 years, there have been decades where global-mean air temperature has warmed more rapidly, and decades where relative cooling has occurred. 'Increases in greenhouse gases provide a warming effect but, due to natural variability, climate trends based on short records are very sensitive to the beginning and end dates, and do not reflect long-term climate trends. 'The rate of warming in any shorter period fluctuates because of factors such as short-term natural variability, ocean absorption of heat from the atmosphere, volcanic eruptions, changes in the 11-year solar cycle, and so on. This does not change any conclusion about the long-term trend of warming due to human activities, which have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 'CSIRO research has shown that there is less than 1 chance in 100,000 that global mean air temperature over the past 60 years would have been as high without human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. That is, the probability of global temperature increases being due to human activity exceeds 99 per cent. 'The world is not cooling.' Source: From an article by Helen Cleugh originally published in The Canberra Times. From ECOS online http://www.ecosmagazine.com/?paper=EC14303	<urn:uuid:0f30636d-5c06-4ff8-82dc-3bd6722c48fd>	CC-MAIN-2024-10	http://www.ecosmagazine.com/print/EC14303.htm	2024-02-23T11:17:48+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947474377.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20240223085439-20240223115439-00052.warc.gz	46,292,999	790	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998171	eng_Latn	0.998194	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 1956, 3685 ]	[ 3.0625 ]	1	0
Home Health Food and nutrition Healthy eating Food safety General food safety tips Reusable grocery bags and bins Video Gallery Full/Transcript Reusable grocery bags and bins can collect harmful bacteria from foods. These bacteria can also contaminate other foods or items in the bags/bins and put you at risk of food poisoning. Lower the risk of cross-contamination and food poisoning by following these food safety tips. On this page: At the store At home Cleaning reusable bags Cleaning reusable bins At the store Wrap your raw meat, poultry, and seafood in individual plastic bags (found in most produce and http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/...rition/healthy-eating-saine-alimentation/safety-salubrite/tips-conseils/reusable-bags-sacs-reutilisable-eng.php[2/11/2016 10:26:55 AM] meat sections). This will help prevent juices from leaking out and contaminating your reusable bags/bins and other foods. Wrap fresh produce in plastic bags to help protect them from contamination. It's particularly important to avoid contaminating fresh foods that will not be cooked before eating. Use separate bags/bins for produce and raw meat, poultry, and seafood. At home Clean and/or sanitize any areas--such as counters and tables--where you placed your bags/bins. Cleaning reusable bags Machine-wash your cloth bags frequently, especially after using them to carry fresh produce, meat, poultry, and seafood. Hand-wash reusable grocery bags inside out with hot soapy water if they aren't machinewashable. Dry your grocery bags after washing. If juices from food have leaked into the bag, make sure to wash it thoroughly before using again. Thoroughly wash your bags before using them for groceries if they've been used to carry nonfood items. Cleaning reusable bins Plastic bins should be washed using hot soapy water and/or sanitized with a mild bleach solution on a regular basis. Dry your grocery bins after washing. If juices from food have leaked into the bin, make sure to wash it thoroughly before using again. Thoroughly wash your bins before using them for groceries if they've been used to carry nonfood items. What the Government of Canada does to protect you The Government of Canada is committed to food safety. Health Canada establishes regulations and standards relating to the safety and nutritional quality of foods sold in Canada. Through inspection and enforcement activities, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency verifies that food sold in Canada meets Health Canada's requirements. For more information http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/...rition/healthy-eating-saine-alimentation/safety-salubrite/tips-conseils/reusable-bags-sacs-reutilisable-eng.php[2/11/2016 10:26:55 AM] Safe food handling tips Food recalls and advisories Report product-related health and safety concerns Video: Reusable grocery bags and bins Be Food Safe Food Safety Portal Food safety tips For industry and professionals Date modified: 2013-01-09 Government of Canada activities and initiatives Canada welcomes 25,000 Syrian refugees The Government of Canada is taking immediate action to welcome 25,000 Syrian refugees to Canada through a five-phase national plan. #WelcomeRefugees National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls The Government of Canada is launching a national inquiry into missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. Pre-Budget Consultations 2016 http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/...rition/healthy-eating-saine-alimentation/safety-salubrite/tips-conseils/reusable-bags-sacs-reutilisable-eng.php[2/11/2016 10:26:55 AM] Growing our Economy Together – Pre-Budget Consultations 2016. Have your say! #PBC16 Feedback Social media Mobile centre Top of Page http://healthycanadians.gc.ca/...rition/healthy-eating-saine-alimentation/safety-salubrite/tips-conseils/reusable-bags-sacs-reutilisable-eng.php[2/11/2016 10:26:55 AM]	<urn:uuid:0748d9b9-2050-4338-9548-bfc0b399b1f4>	CC-MAIN-2019-18	https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/ipc/pages/201/attachments/original/1456059697/Safety_Tips_Reusable_grocery_bags_and_bins_(1).pdf?1456059697	2019-04-25T04:57:05Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578681624.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20190425034241-20190425060241-00327.warc.gz	391,193,267	899	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.94583	eng_Latn	0.990912	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	false	docling	[ 793, 2705, 3576, 3883 ]	[ 3.484375 ]	1	0
Bozeman High School’s core purpose is to inspire students to thrive at school and throughout life. As a program within the high school, Bridger Charter Academy endeavors to create a student-centered learning approach with the same core purpose. Bridger Charter Academy Mission Statement To ensure academic, personal, and social growth of every learner by providing personalized pathways to rigorous standards and opportunities for learning that extend beyond the walls of the school. Bridger Shared Vision In the Bridger community and in life, Bridger students empower themselves through strong character, genuine learning, and hard work. BCA Core Beliefs - All students can learn and thrive. - Students may need a different approach to attain the academic, social, and emotional skills necessary for their success. - Proficiency in rigorous academic standards and cognitive skills is necessary for great success. - Learning is an active collaboration between students, teachers, families, and community. - Learning is a lifelong process with intrinsic value and relevance to all life experiences. - We have a responsibility to our community to be the best we can be. - Students learn best in a respectful, stable, inclusive, and flexible environment. - Any student who is in trouble or crisis needs our help and support in continuing to work toward success. - The individual and group are responsible for providing community service for the betterment of all. # Table of Contents BCA Program Overview - Key Program Features - I. Proficiency-Based Education - II. Climate & Culture - A. Community Environment - B. Community Expectations - III. Bridger & the Summit Learning Platform - A. Platform Components - B. Self-Directed Learning - C. Benefits of Mentoring & Developing Habits of Success BCA Program Admission - I. Program Availability - II. Student Fit - III. GHS Transfer Information - IV. Bridger Student Agreement Understanding Proficiency-Based Learning, Grading, & Earning Credit - I. Demonstrating Proficiency: Assessment & Accountability - II. Pacing & Late Work - A. BCA Student Timeliness Expectations - III. BCA Core Courses & PowerSchool - IV. Course Completion - A. Grade Conversion BCA Course Offerings Bridger Community Events Continuous Improvement Plan: Program Goals BCA Program Overview Bridger Charter Academy is an alternative program that operates within Bozeman High School. The program offers core (and some elective) course credit through proficiency-based instruction in a smaller learning community. BCA is not an online program. Students attend both BCA and BHS to meet graduation requirements. Key Program Features I. Proficiency-Based Education Bridger offers a proficiency-based pathway to graduation. We have teamed up with the national Summit Learning program for our learning management system and proficiency-based teaching philosophies. Components include: - Rigorous Standards. Courses have the same rigor and goals as BHS/GHS, but we assess students based on the specific content and cognitive skills for a course, rather than grades per assignment, quiz, etc. - Project-Based Learning. Courses are project-based, with room for student voice, choice, and differing needs. Course design emphasizes quality over quantity; that means finishing and/or revising every project or test. - No Ds or Fs, but Incompletes. If a student does not master all skills by the end of the semester, they will have an “I” (incomplete) on their transcripts until they do so. The “I” does not impact their GPA until it becomes a letter grade. - Differing Paces. Students sometimes need less or more time depending on the skill. Teachers help students develop self-directional skills to manage their time based on educational needs. If a student already has strong skills or previous knowledge, they can demonstrate proficiency and move more quickly. That means a student can even finish a course before the end of a semester or make up missing credits, if they have the drive to do so. II. Climate & Culture A. Community Environment BCA community works to create a safe, supportive, engaging and healthy school environment that promotes collegial relationships among students, parents/guardians, and staff. As a program, we focus on developing students' self-awareness, independence, and habits for success by striving to offer: - small class sizes (15:1 student-teacher goal ratio) - a school counseling program that supports social/emotional, academic, and career-planning programs; - a mentoring program focused on behavior, social, emotional, and career readiness competencies; - BCA community activities and events; - trauma-informed prevention and intervention strategies; - positive rather than punitive approaches to behavior management; and - family outreach. B. Community Expectations BCA staff and students follow all BHS rules and policies, as outlined in the larger BHS Student/Parent Handbook (available on BSD7 website). The Bridger community asks students to hold themselves to the following expectations, in support of all other habits of success: Be kind, be honest, be safe, be respectful, be responsible, and be resilient. III. Bridger & The Summit Learning Platform In order to facilitate their personalized approach to learning, BCA courses use the Summit Learning Platform (www.summitlearning.org). The platform supports classroom instruction, differentiation, transparent grading and feedback, and collaboration between teachers and students. BCA is not an online school; rather, we use technology to support personalized, proficiency-based education. Students (and their parents/guardians) will have access to the platform. A. Platform Components The Summit Learning Platform supports the 3 components essential to the learning emphasized in BCA classes: - Cognitive Skills, which are developed and assessed through projects, - Content Knowledge, which is developed and assessed through focus areas, in conjunction with the Self-Directed Learning Cycle - Habits of Success, which are applied in coursework and developed through mentoring. B. Self-Directed Learning Emphasized during self-directed learning time in class, when students choose their path of learning, particularly with content knowledge (focus areas), the SDL Cycle (shown right) includes the following: reflect, set a goal, make a plan, learn, show evidence of that learning, and continue the cycle for continued knowledge development. C. Benefits of Mentoring & Developing Habits of Success In mentoring, teachers: - meet with each mentee individually at least once, for about 10 minutes, every two weeks; - aim to be a trusted figure with whom a mentee is ready to reflect and share; - help hold students accountable with deadlines and outside world expectations; - provide scaffolds for habits of success until mentees are ready to build their own systems. In mentoring, students: - prepare for their weekly check-ins by responding to the prompts their mentors share and by reflecting on how they met or struggled to meet their goals; - come to the check-in ready to connect with their mentor so that they are comfortable sharing what is supporting their success and what is causing any gaps; - remain open to feedback and challenges presented to them in order to, over time, internalize the structures of mentoring and build habits of mind into their own systems of goal-setting and problem solving. --- Habits of Success - Self-Direction: Driving forward the actions needed to achieve goals, with or without help - Curiosity: Being interested in lots of things & wanting to understand more, even if it is challenging - Sense of Purpose: Charting a course for life that is meaningful and will have an impact on the world - Resilience: Bouncing back and dealing with challenging or harmful situations - Agency: Making my own decisions and acting upon them - Academic Tenacity: Overcoming distractions and persevering toward longer-term goals - Growth Mindset: Believing that I can grow my intelligence - Self-Efficacy: Believing that my actions can impact my success - Sense of Belonging: Feeling like I belong in my school community - Relevance of School: Believing that school is valuable and interesting - Self-Awareness: Being aware of what I think, feel, do; my strengths and weaknesses; the impact I have on other people - Relationship Skills: Understanding how others might feel and having skills to maintain strong relationships - Executive Function: Concentrating, staying organized, juggling lots of things happening at once, and planning for the future - Attachment: Having a strong bond with an adult who cares about me - Stress Management: Figuring out how to become calm and balanced when situations get stressful - Self-Regulation: Directing and maintaining my attention and emotions --- BCA Program Admission I. Program Availability All high-school-age students in the Bozeman community are welcome to attend BCA. However, space is limited. Students will be registered for BCA courses based on order of student request and seat availability. In order to maintain the learning community spirit, students must be enrolled in a minimum of two BCA core classes to be considered official members of the BCA program, and to thus be eligible for its additional program components, such as mentoring. Junior year, the American Studies combo course counts as two core courses. II. Student Fit BCA is a strong fit for students seeking: - A small learning community within a larger high school (15:1 student/teacher class ratio) - A focus on academic, personal, and social-emotional growth - Strong, positive teacher/student and student/student relationships - A desire to develop self-motivation and habits for success in a supported but self-driven work environment - Progression through coursework based on proficiency, not time Students do best in Bridger when they want to become independent, self-disciplined learners: you want to set goals, make plans, and reach new academic heights, or push yourself to change strategies when what you're doing isn't working. However, students do better in traditional classes when they prefer or learn best with explicit teacher-led instruction, mandates on time usage, or strict deadlines. III. GHS Transfer Information If you are an interested GHS student, please read and agree to the following: 1. If your admission to Bridger requires a transfer from the GHS district, you must first fill out the BCA Interest Form for GHS Students. This form is a required first step. Please fill it out as soon as possible if you are interested in BCA. You do not have to be certain of your interest before completing the form. You will need to log in with your BSD7students account to complete the form. 2. To transfer to BCA/BHS, you are required to enroll in at least two core courses with BCA. 3. Please read and agree to all statements written below (part IV: Bridger Student Agreement). 4. If you decide after transfer that BCA is not for you, you will return to your attendance school, GHS. You may choose to request a new transfer application to stay at BHS. IV. Bridger Student Agreement If a student wishes to attend Bridger Charter, they agree to comply with all components of the BCA program outlined in this handbook, including acknowledgement of the following general statements, provided here to dispel misconceptions about Bridger and its opportunities: - Bridger is not an online school. Attendance is expected and necessary for course credit. - Bridger cannot currently offer a full-schedule alternative to BHS or GHS. Bridger offers mostly core courses required for graduation; other courses will be completed through BHS. - There is no typical Bridger student. Students of all abilities, starting skill levels, interests, backgrounds, identities, individualized needs, or present/future goals are welcome. - The Bridger community thrives on a desire for all students to become self-sufficient, intelligent, empowered humans that can do anything we put our minds to, if they remain hardworking and resilient. This program is designed for students who are interested in developing that level of responsibility and potential. - Bridger is not an “easy credit” program. Earning grades takes grit and effort to grow. Through hard work and dedication, it’s possible for students to recover deficient credit more quickly than in a traditional model. - Students are not penalized for late work because it is not part of the standards. Simultaneously, students do not learn unless they take time to understand and revise. Self-paced means working with the class and teacher to learn together and find extra time as necessary to master skills and content. Teachers will not accept last-minute, non-proficient work for credit. Review the BCA Timeliness Expectations for more information. - Bridger students agree to be positive contributors to the Bridger community and abide by the community expectations: be kind, be honest, be safe, be respectful, be responsible, and be resilient. Understanding Proficiency-Based Learning, Grading, & Earning Credit The following information applies to all BCA courses that are in Summit. Health Enhancement is not included. I. Demonstrating Proficiency: Assessment & Accountability In order to ensure Bridger graduates are college and career ready, the program implements a system of skills assessment including standardized rubrics and department and statewide assessments in order to monitor individual learner growth and achievement, evaluate the quality and efficacy of the program, and provide transparency to all stakeholders. BCA is based on the philosophy that proficiency (see Grade Conversion chart below for definition) in rigorous standards is necessary for success. Therefore, the staff is committed to helping students demonstrate proficiency in academic standards (called “focus areas” in Summit), transferable cognitive skills, and deeper mathematical concepts. BCA courses are organized around the standards, and student performance is evaluated using those standards. Students work toward demonstrating proficiency through personalized learning time and engaging class projects. II. Pacing & Late Work Students can move ahead faster with skills and concepts that they easily grasp, or slow down when the skills or concepts become more challenging. Through timely, differentiated support, students will have a customized learning experience. Simultaneously, BCA students are expected to make steady academic progress on course standards, finding extra time for coursework when they need it, so that they can take advantage of whole-class learning engagements that engender curiosity, communication, and in-depth understanding rather than just “getting it done.” A. BCA Student Timeliness Expectations To encourage student proficiency and discourage procrastination, students may submit late work as old as the previous project. Work that is two projects old or older will not be accepted until Bridger Days, at the end of each semester. - For example: When you start Project #3, you may still submit work from Project #1, but your teacher will not review it until Bridger Days, unless you are 100% current on all other work. - Bridger Days are the last 5 days of each semester. If you are caught up on all your coursework during this time, then you earn the privilege of participating in Bridger Days activities. - If you do not finish your work during Bridger Days, then you will not earn credit for the course, and you will receive an "I" for the semester. - The purpose of this is to reward students who are "on pace," encourage students to submit work closer to when they learn the relevant content instead of working on overdue assignments, and offer an opportunity for teachers to provide more individual support at the end of each semester. III. BCA Core Courses & PowerSchool For information regarding core BCA course grades in PowerSchool (science, math, English, and social studies), look for up-to-date grade information on Summit Learning - not on PowerSchool. If you need Summit Learning access, contact your student’s teacher(s). In PowerSchool, teachers will enter grades at the 6, 12, and end-of-semester marks. At the 6 and 12 week marks: - For students who are on pace and have completed work required up to that point in the course, teachers will enter the up-to-date letter and percentage grade that appears in Summit Learning at that time. - For students who are behind pace or missing work required up to that point in the course, teachers will enter: - an I (meaning “incomplete”) and a 50% for students making slow but steady progress towards work completion - an I (meaning “incomplete”) and a 0% for students not making any progress toward work completion and credit - Please note that Incompletes do not impact GPA in any way. They exist only as a form of communication between teacher, guardian, and student. - These grades will be removed a week or two after each progress period. They should only serve as a reference, as Summit will have the most up-to-date grade information at any time. For information on end-of-semester grades in PowerSchool, please see the [Course Completion](#) section below. ### IV. Course Completion Students must proficiently complete all Power Focus Areas and Projects in the course in order to earn credit. A student cannot finish a course “early” without having first met this requirement. If a student does not meet the proficiency criteria by the end of the term, the student will receive an incomplete for the semester until he/she masters the remaining standards for the course. (An incomplete can be carried forward for 12 weeks, after which it becomes an F on the transcript except with extreme extenuating circumstances.) At the end of each semester, students will earn credit and letter grades based on the following weighted categories: \| BCA English, social studies, and science courses \| BCA Math Courses \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| Projects \| Units \| \| - assessed through Cognitive Skills \| - assessed through Math Concepts \| \| - worth 80% of final grade \| - worth 80% of final grade \| \| Power Focus Areas \| Power Focus Areas \| \| - mastery shown through Content Assessments \| - mastery shown through Content Assessments \| \| - worth 20% of final grade* \| - worth 20% of final grade \| Additional Focus Areas are worth 5% of this 20%, where applicable. Senior Project (Eng IV): Focus Areas are worth 10% (and projects 90%) for this capstone skills course. #### A. Grade Conversion \| Score Range % and BHS Letter Grade Based on Cog Skills and Focus Area mastery \| Score/Grade Meaning \| \|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------\| \| 93-100: A \| Advanced Proficient. Student demonstrates advanced, in-depth understanding of the concept/skill based on rubric or assessment. \| \| 90-92: A- \| Proficient Plus. Student demonstrates mastery of concept/skill based on rubric or assessment, with some advanced application. \| \| 80-89: B \| Proficient. Student demonstrates mastery of concept or skill application based on rubric or assessment. \| \| 75-79: C+ \| Developing Plus. Student demonstrates partial mastery of concept or skill application based on rubric or assessment. \| \| 70-74: C \| Developing. Student demonstrates understanding of concept or skill but continues to work on knowledge mastery or independent application, based on rubric or assessment. \| \| 60-69: D \| Emerging. The student demonstrates an understanding of foundational material with help from the teacher, but still struggles when working independently. Traditionally, a student does not receive credit in BCA with this score except when transferring out of the program. \| \| I (no credit) \| Incomplete. The student is behind pace and has not completed enough evidence to show level of proficiency in associated course standards. The student needs to catch up on overdue work as soon as possible. The incomplete serves as a placeholder for a student until they complete coursework with proficiency (in lieu of an F or withdrawal). \| ## BCA Course Offerings \| English \| Math \| Science \| Social Studies \| Other \| \|------------------\|------------\|-----------------------\|------------------------\|------------------\| \| English I \| Algebra I \| Geophysical Science \| World Geography \| Health Enhancement\| \| English II \| Geometry \| Biology \| American Studies \| \| \| American Studies \| \| \| \| \| \| English IV \| \| \| \| \| \| AP English \| \| \| \| \| ## Bridger Community Events Additional community-building events and activities are developed as opportunities arise. However, some activities are cherished as tradition, and they contribute tangibly to the development of our Bridger community each year. These include: - Bridger breakfast, run each Friday by different students and staff, supported by student and teacher donation - Community meetings, held once a month to celebrate learner success and discuss upcoming events - Bridger homecoming float, designed and operated by volunteer Bridger students - Thanksgiving dinner, made and served by Bridger students and staff, with the help of BHS's ProStart and/or other community members and stakeholders - Volunteer days at the elementary schools, including field day assistance and book read-aloud circles - Volunteer days at the Hawk’s Nest, including holiday crafts and book read-aloud circles - Dodgeball competitions - Board game events - Bridger senior class graduation ceremony and celebration (at BHS auditorium, day prior to BHS ceremony) Continuous Improvement Plan: Program Goals The BCA staff is committed to continuous improvement of our program. The following framework represents our long-term vision for continuous improvement of the charter. For questions, comments, or requests for more information, please visit our website for the most current contact information for program leader and counselor. 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TOUCHSTONES® VOLUME C Digital Binder Published by TOUCHSTONES® DISCUSSION PROJECT About the Touchstones® Discussion Project The Touchstones Discussion Project is a nonprofit organization founded on the belief that all people can benefit from the listening, speaking, thinking, and interpersonal skills gained by engaging in active, focused discussions. Since 1984, Touchstones has helped millions of students and others develop and improve these skills in school, work, and life. For more information about the Touchstones Discussion Project, visit www.touchstones.org. All contents developed by: Geoffrey Comber Howard Zeiderman Nicholas Maistrellis ©2021 by Touchstones Discussion Project PO Box 2329 Annapolis, Maryland 21404 800-456-6542 www.touchstones.org All rights reserved. This digital binder is provided for authorized instructional use only and only through June 30, 2021. No part of this book may be reproduced or repurposed in any form without prior written consent of the authors. ISBN: 978-1-937742-82-9 Worksheet 1: The Orientation Class INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Which ground rule do you think will be the hardest for the class to follow? Why? 2. Which ground rule will be hardest for you to follow? Why? Complete question 3 after the discussion. 3. Choose one or two of the goals (items $a$ through $k$ in the text) that you would like to achieve through this program. Write the letters here. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. The chairperson of your group is responsible for organizing the group, making sure everyone participates, and presenting the group’s answers to the whole class. The secretary is responsible for recording your group’s answers. The participants are responsible for being cooperative and helping make sure that the group work gets done. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Each person in the group should tell the group what he or she wrote down for question 1 in the Individual Work. 4. Everyone in the group should decide which ground rule will be the most difficult for the class to follow. Write your group’s choice below. Why did your group choose this ground rule? Worksheet 2: The Republic INDIVIDUAL WORK Complete the following questions on your own. 1. How do you think the prisoners would treat the man if he tried to go back and tell them how the world really is? 2. We all need information about things we haven’t experienced ourselves. Which of these sources do you trust most? Rank your choices from 1 to 6, with “1” being the source you trust most and “6” the source you trust least. - TV News - Internet - Politicians - Friends - Strangers - Teachers SMALL GROUP WORK 1. The chairperson of your group is responsible for organizing the group, making sure everyone participates, and presenting the group’s answers to the whole class. The secretary is responsible for recording your group’s answers. The participants are responsible for being cooperative and helping to make sure the group work gets done. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Group members should tell one another what they wrote down for question 1 in the Individual Work. 4. As a group, decide upon one response to question 1. Worksheet 3: Of Anger INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Order the following in terms of what makes you most angry, with “1” being most angry, and “5” being least angry. _____ a) Someone lies to you. _____ b) Someone hurts you physically. _____ c) Someone insults you. _____ d) Someone spreads a false rumor about you. _____ e) Someone steals something from you. 2. Remember the last time you were angry. a) What happened? b) Did you handle the situation well? c) Could you have done something differently? d) If yes, what could you have done differently? Small Group Work 1. The chairperson of your group is responsible for organizing the group, making sure everyone participates, and presenting the group's answers to the whole class. The secretary is responsible for recording your group's answers. The participants are responsible for being cooperative and helping to make sure the group work gets done. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Group members should tell one another what they wrote down for question 1 in the Individual Work. 4. Discuss the three main causes of anger that Bacon describes in the text. Which of the three do you think causes the most anger? Which causes the least? As a group, decide which you think causes the most anger and why. The secretary should write the answer below. Worksheet 4: On Human Cures for Sadness INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Everyone is sad sometimes. How can we overcome sadness and feel better? Aquinas has some suggestions. Which of the five cures for sadness seems to work best for you? Mark them from 1-5, with “1” being the most helpful and “5” being the least helpful. ____ a) Delightful activity ____ b) Tears ____ c) Friendship ____ d) Learning, reading, studying ____ e) Bathing and sleeping 2. Is there another effective cure that you use that is not listed above? Describe it here. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. All members of your group should report on how they answered question 1 above. As a group, help one another to explain the reasons for your choices. Then write your reasons below. Every member of the group should have their own responses to question 3 included below. 2. Which of Aquinas’ five cures for sadness do you think is the best? Which do you think is the least helpful? Write brief answers here. 1. Best 2. Least helpful 3. As a group, try to decide on one question that you would like to discuss during this Touchstones discussion. 4. Write an opening question to begin that discussion. APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Description \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) _____ Worksheet 5: God, Death, and the Hungry Peasant INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Imagine that you are going to distribute money to people and wish to be fair. How would you do it? Which one would you choose? Mark it with an X. _____ Give everyone the same amount. _____ Give those who need more money what they need. _____ Give each person what he or she asks for. _____ Let the people decide how it should be distributed. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. The chairperson of your group is responsible for organizing the group, making sure everyone participates, and presenting the group’s answers to the whole class. The secretary is responsible for recording your group’s answers. The participants are responsible for being cooperative and helping to make sure the group work gets done. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. As a group, answer the questions below. a) Why does the peasant give food to Death but not to God? b) Is this fair of him? c) Why or why not? Worksheet 6: Two Different Kinds of Minds INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Arrange the groups below as more or less similar. On the straight line, place them as you feel they are more or less similar to P (person with common sense) and M (mathematician), which are put at the extremes of the line. P _________________________________ M Novelist (N) Lawyers (L) Doctors (D) Composers (C) Historians (H) Engineers (E) Teachers (T) 2. Place your initials on the straight line above to indicate where you think you belong. Explain why you placed yourself there. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. The chairperson of your group is responsible for organizing the group, making sure everyone participates, and presenting the group’s answers to the whole class. The secretary is responsible for recording your group’s answers. The participants are responsible for being cooperative and helping make sure the group work gets done. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. As a group, come up with an answer for the question below. List all the reasons you can think of. Use the back of the worksheet to write your answer, if necessary. Why are some people afraid of mathematics? Worksheet 7: The Histories INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. If you were to create a country and decide what sort of government would rule the land, which would you choose (monarchy, democracy, or aristocracy) and why? SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Your group should be made of students who all chose the same government for question 1 in the Individual Work. As a group, answer questions a through c below. a) Explain your reasons for your choice for question 1 in the Individual Work. As a group, come up with an argument for your choice. This will be presented to the whole class at the start of discussion. Use the back of the worksheet or a separate sheet of paper to write your answer. b) Are different forms of government better at different times? c) Write down the letter for which form of government would be best in the following situations. Choose from Monarchy (M), Democracy (D), or Aristocracy (A). _______ War _______ Economic prosperity _______ Higher unemployment _______ Many natural disasters _______ Large population _______ Small population APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Behavior \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|------------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) 5.5 Worksheet 8: A Mathematician’s Defense INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Why does your school teach you mathematics? 2. Which of the following characteristics are true of mathematics? Mark the ones you choose with an ‘x’. a) beautiful b) important c) unimportant d) serious e) interesting f) boring SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Group members should tell one another what they wrote down for 1 and 2 in the Individual Work. 4. Now work as a group to come up with one set of answers for questions 1 and 2 above. Worksheet 9: Democracy in America, Equality and Liberty Small Group Work 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 3. Answer questions a-d. Be specific in your examples for item a. a) Give an example of equality. b) Give an example of freedom. c) Try to define equality. d) Try to define freedom. Individual Work 1. Which would you value more, freedom or equality? Why? Worksheet 10: The Consolation of Philosophy INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Rank the items below in order of how important they are to obtain during your lifetime. “1” is most important, “7” is least important). For example, if you think it is most important to be wealthy, you will mark “Money” with a “1.” Use each number 1 through 7 only once. _______ Money _______ Power _______ Honor _______ Pleasure _______ Friends _______ Family _______ Other ________________ 2. What makes you happy on a day-to-day basis? 3. What will make you happy in life? (This may be something listed above or something else.) SMALL GROUP WORK 1. As a group, create a definition for happiness and write it here. If you need more room, write your answer on the back. Worksheet 11: The Declaration of Independence INDIVIDUAL WORK Write in your own words what you think each phrase below means. Try to rewrite each phrase in a way that makes the meaning clearer. 1. …all men are created equal 2. …that we have the inalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Share your answers from the individual work with the other members of your group. 2. As a group, come up with one translation or re-writing for each phrase. Be specific and focus on what is meant by “all men,” “equal,” “inalienable right,” “life,” and “liberty.” Write your group’s translation below. APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Behavior \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) 4.5 Worksheet 12: On Public Education INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. How would you rank, in importance, government support of the following activities? This means the government would pay for the service entirely and there would be no cost to any citizen. Rank the following activities from 1 to 8 by placing “1” next to the activity that you think is most important to be fully government funded, with “8” being the least important to be fully funded. - a) medical care - b) public transportation - c) elementary and middle school education - d) child care - e) high school - f) food - g) college - h) vacations SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Choose a chairperson and a secretary. As a group, answer the following questions. 2. Place the above items (by letter) underneath the correct column below to show which you think the government should pay for, which you think the individual should pay for, and which you think the government and individuals should share the cost for. Each item from above should appear under one and only one of the choices. Government Pays All Individual Pays All Government and Individuals Share Cost 3. What other services do you think the government should pay for? Try to get your group to agree on an answer. Worksheet 13: Continuity and Irrational Numbers INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Which of these fields requires the greatest creativity? Order them from most creative “1” to least creative “6”. ________ a) music ________ b) business ________ c) mathematics ________ d) poetry ________ e) teaching ________ f) cooking 2. Name one or two people who you think are creative and explain why. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. As a group, discuss and come up with an explanation of why numbers were created. Think about the different ways in which we use numbers and try to decide just how they were created. Worksheet 14: Character INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Do you think the following characteristics and abilities are ones people are born with and inherited (mark with an I), or are they ones people learned from their upbringing and education (mark with an E)? a) Someone who sings very well. b) Someone always treats others fairly. c) Someone who is good at math problems. d) Someone who always finishes the chores or work before playing. e) Someone who is a good actor. 2. Write down one of your own characteristics (like kindness or quick temper or being good at music) that you think is mostly inherited and one characteristic that is learned. Inherited ____________________________________________ Learned ____________________________________________ SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. Voltaire says that we can only hide our traits, not change them. Look at the list below and decide which traits you think a person could change and which ones could never be changed. Check the appropriate box. \| Trait \| Could change \| Could never change \| \|------------------------\|--------------\|--------------------\| \| Mathematical ability \| \| \| \| Singing voice \| \| \| \| Laziness \| \| \| \| Kindness \| \| \| \| Sense of responsibility\| \| \| \| Bad temper \| \| \| 3. Pick one trait that your group thought a person could change and explain how a person would go about changing that trait. Worksheet 15: On Moral Education INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. The items on the following list are considered good and important for all of us. In your opinion, which of them can also be accompanied by consequences that are not good (N), and which of them are entirely good (G). - a) A medicine to cure cancer - b) Love within the family - c) Increased use of computers to store information - d) Increased contacts and relations between countries - e) The duty to speak the truth - f) Ease of travel 2. Crime is one evil that affects all of us. Circle the choices below that you feel would be the most effective method for eliminating crime. - a) A strong government and large police forces. - b) A decent job for everyone in the society - c) Religion - d) Education - e) Strict enforcement of laws SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. As a group, come up with an answer to both of the questions below. a) Mann says that systems like government, law, and religion have failed to curb “immoralities and crimes.” Why might education succeed where these systems have failed? b) What would be one difference between the educational system that Mann suggests and our current educational system? APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Behavior \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|------------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) 3.5 Worksheet 16: The Notebooks INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Which is more important to you: your sense of sight (your eyes) or your sense of hearing (speech and noises in general)? You must choose one. Eyes □ Ears □ Explain your choice. 2. Would you prefer to read about a great battle or to see a painting of it? See □ Read □ Why? 3. If you loved someone, would you want to see a painting of him or her or read a vivid description about him or her? See □ Read □ Why? 4. What would be worse, to lose your voice or your sight? Voice □ Sight □ Why? SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Compare your answers to the questions in the Individual Work. Make sure you explain the reasons for your choices. Feel free to change your answer if someone persuades you. Worksheet 17: First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Rank the following rights in order of importance. “1” is the right you feel is the most important to have, and “4” is the least important. _________ Freedom of Religion _________ Freedom of Speech _________ Freedom of Press _________ Right to Assemble Peaceably 2. For whichever right you marked as “1”, explain why you think that right is the most important of the four that are listed. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and a secretary. 2. Compare your answers to question 1 in the Individual Work. 3. As a group, decide which right is the least important to have. 4. Once you have decided, describe what it would mean if that right was taken away. Come up with examples of things that U.S. Citizens would not be allowed to do. Worksheet 18: On Religion and the State INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. In the United States, the government has no authority to tell its citizens what religious beliefs, if any, you must uphold. Therefore, Americans can and do practice many different religions. But this is not true everywhere; there are some countries in which there is an official religion for everybody. Below each heading, come up with three reasons why it would be better for a nation to have everyone share the same religious beliefs and three for why it would be better for a nation to allow everyone to choose his or her own religion. Sharing the same religion Having freedom of religion a) ___________________________ a) ___________________________ b) ___________________________ b) ___________________________ c) ___________________________ c) ___________________________ SMALL GROUP WORK 1. In the second to last paragraph, Jefferson talks about “natural rights” and “rights of conscience.” As a group, describe the difference between these two types of rights. 2. Elect one member of the group who will report your description to the class. Worksheet 19: Federalist Paper No. 10 INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Think about your own class. Have you found that during some discussions, groups within the class have conflicts with one another? This could be an example of a faction. Mark why you think such conflict occurs, or write another possibility in the blank below. - [ ] a) People do not listen well to one another. - [ ] b) People often agree with their friends in an argument. - [ ] c) People genuinely think differently. - [ ] d) People do not spend enough time working to understand one another. - [ ] e) Other possibility ________________________________ 2. What can be done to fix these situations when they occur in your class? Come up with a few possible solutions. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Elect a chairperson and a secretary. 2. As a group, come up with an example where factions are present in our government today. 3. After you have decided on your example, describe how that faction affects the government and come up with a way that the government could avoid factions. APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Behavior \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) 4.5 Worksheet 20: Federalist Paper No. 2 INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. All of your life, you have lived in a country that has a government. So you may have never thought about why you have a government. Why do we people a government? Take a couple of minutes to think about the question. Then, in the space below, write down some things that people need that the government does for them. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Elect a chairperson and a secretary. Answer the questions below. 2. The very name of our country, United States of America, implies that we exist as a single country, united. But what exactly unites the people of the United States? 3. What interests, traits, or other aspects of our lives unite all the people in the U.S.? Worksheet 21: Democracy in America, Why Americans Are So Restless INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. How would you characterize people in the United States? Put a T next to those terms that you think are true and an F next to those that you think do not apply. Americans are... ________ kind ________ hardworking ________ content ________ restless and impatient ________ competitive ________ generous SMALL GROUP WORK 1. In your group, share aloud your answers to each of the traits above. 2. As a group, decide on one characteristic that you all think is generally true for Americans. Use the space below to explain why you think this characteristic applies to Americans. Include examples if you can. Worksheet 22: The Meno INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. How would you explain the words “shape” and “love” to someone? What is shape? What is love? SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Share your definitions for “shape” and “love” with one another and decide on one definition for each of them. What is shape? What is love? 2. Discuss the following questions. Then try to come to agreement on your answers and write them in the space provided. What is common to all shapes? What is common to all cases of love? Worksheet 23: Prisoners Listening to Music INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Write down five observations that you notice after studying Kollwitz’s drawing. a) b) c) d) e) 2. What do you guess these three people are thinking about? 3. If you had to rename this drawing, what would you title it? SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Appoint a chairperson and secretary. 2. In your group, share your observations from the Individual Work. Then work together to create a “road map” for exploring the drawing. This map will be a set of directions that you will share with the entire class to help them better understand what the drawing tells us. How to “Read” this Drawing: 1. Start first by looking at: 2. Then move your eyes to look at: 3. Then notice these things about the drawing: 4. These details tell us that the artist wants us to understand this from the drawing: Worksheet 24: To Emancipate the Mind INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. How would you rank the following discoveries, from 1 to 6, in order of their importance for people? Write “1” for the most important and “6” for the least important. Use all numbers 1 to 6 only once. - a) computers - b) fire - c) writing and printing - d) antibiotics - e) telephone - f) the internet 2. In the space below, explain your decision for the one that you thought was the most important. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Compare your answers to question 1 above. As a group, come to agreement about which of the inventions is the most important. Write your answer below. ___________________________ is the most important invention. 2. Explain why your group chose that answer. Remember, one member of your group should be selected to report your decision to the class. WRITING ASSIGNMENT Lincoln stated that writing can make someone more free. In your discussion in class, many ideas were expressed about the role of writing. Do you agree that writing can make people free? Explain your response with examples from the text and/or life. Worksheet 25: Bonifacius—Essays to Do Good INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Describe your neighborhood. How big is it? How many people or families live there? Do people live in apartments, houses, or condominiums? Are people friendly? Do they do things together? Add anything else that you would like to say about your neighborhood. 2. Imagine that you have some neighbors who are experiencing difficulty. Some are impoverished. Some are lonely and have lost a spouse. Some are sick. Choose three of these situations and think of some things you could do to help them. Situation 1__________________________________________ Way to help: Situation 2__________________________________________ Way to help: Situation 3__________________________________________ Way to help: SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Compare your answers to question 2 above. 2. Choose three situations in total and include what you think is the best idea for helping that person or situation. Situation 1__________________________________________ Best way to help: Situation 2__________________________________________ Best way to help: Situation 3__________________________________________ Best way to help: Worksheet 26: Emile or On Education INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. When people talk about children being “spoiled,” what do they mean? Say in one sentence what being “spoiled” means. 2. You probably know someone who is spoiled. You may even have called someone spoiled. All the sentences below are true to some extent, but some are more true than others. With an “x,” mark the sentence that you think is most true. □ a) A spoiled child expects others to do as he or she wants. □ b) A spoiled child never considers other people’s feelings. □ c) A spoiled child makes life miserable for everyone. □ d) A spoiled child is selfish. □ e) A spoiled child never does what you ask. □ f.) A spoiled child thinks the world revolves around him or her. □ g.) A spoiled child is never satisfied. 3. Imagine that you are in the role of a parent and you are raising a child. Now imagine a situation in which your child wants something and won’t take no for an answer. What should you do to avoid spoiling your child? The list below contains a variety of suggestions. Check the ones that you think would help avoid spoiling your child. Come up with one thing you should do that is not on the list and write that in the last space. □ a) You should punish him or her. □ b) You should feel sorry for him or her. □ c) You should ignore him or her. □ d) You should try to change the child’s mind by talking to him or her. □ e) You should take away privileges or things that he or she likes. □ f) Other ____________________________ Small Group Work 1. Share your answers to question 3 in the Individual Work with the other members of your group. 2. Once you have shared your answers, as a group decide on two ways that best avoid spoiling a child. They can be from the list or ones you came up with on your own. Write your choices below. Make sure that you can explain why you chose these two actions when you report your answers to the class. a) b) APPENDIX G Participant Questionnaire Please complete the following by circling the number for each line that best describes your own behavior. Do you… \| \| Hardly Ever \| Sometimes \| Almost Always \| \|--------------------------------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------------\| \| Interrupt others? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Listen to all participants? \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| \| Solicit other opinions? \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| \| Build upon what others say? \| 10 \| \| \| \| Keep focused and on task? \| \| \| \| \| Encourage quieter members to speak? \| \| \| \| Please make a note of which of your own behaviors you would like to change. Can you make this change yourself or do you need help from others? Below is a list of different ways that describe how people behave during discussions. Not all of these descriptions are true in all discussions. But sometimes these behaviors are very common. Think about the discussion you just had with your class. Then read each of the lines below and decide if the behavior was present in your discussion. Put a circle around the number that best describes how much it was a part of the discussion. Then check the space that asks if you think your class needs to improve in that area. \| Behavior \| Not Present \| Somewhat Present \| Very Present \| Need to Improve? \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------\|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\| \| A few people did most of the speaking \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Cooperation \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Silence \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Interrupting \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Paying Attention \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Speaking to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Asking each other questions \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Many people talked at once \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| It was difficult to enter the discussion \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| \| Shows respect to the entire class \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| Yes \| No \| 1a) From the list above, pick one of the ways where you think your class needs to improve. Please explain why. 1b) What steps can your class take to improve? 2) On a scale from 1 to 10, how would you rate this discussion? (You can choose any number from 1 to 10. 1 is the lowest or worst score and 10 is highest or best score.) 4.5 Worksheet 27: Open Letter to His Former Master INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Suppose you are trying to convince a slave owner that owning slaves is wrong. What sort of argument or approach do you think would be most successful? Choose from the list below or write one of your own. - a) Show how terrible it is to be a slave. - b) Show that owning slaves is economically unsound. - c) Show that it goes against religion. - d) Show that, according to history, civilized societies give up slavery. - e) Describe a better way for people to treat each other. - f) Other__________________________________________ 2. Give a short reason for your choice. SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Elect a chairperson and a secretary. 2. As a group, hold a brief discussion on the question, “Why did Douglass write this letter?” The chairperson is responsible for making sure that you address this question. 3. When you have come to some agreement, the secretary should write your answer below and include the reasons for choosing that answer. Worksheet 28: The Life of Alcibiades INDIVIDUAL WORK, PART 1 1. Suppose you were deciding whether to hire a person to work in a company that you own. What sources of information would you trust in evaluating the person’s qualifications? Rank the ones listed below with “1” being the source you would trust most, “2” being the source you would trust the second most, and so on. Give “7” to the source that you trust least. - a) Questionnaire the applicant fills out - b) What you have firsthand information about (you have seen it yourself) - c) Comments from people the applicant worked for in the past - d) Written recommendation that the applicant supplies - e) Comments from the applicant’s teachers - f) The applicant’s responses during the interview - g) Stories you have heard from others SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Elect a chairperson and a secretary. 2. As a group, compare your ranking of the items above. Discuss and decide upon one source that you all agree is the most important. 3. Write that item below and explain why your group thinks it is the most reliable INDIVIDUAL WORK, PART 2 2. Would you be friends with Alcibiades if he were your age? Explain why or why not. Refer to the parts of the text that influenced your decision. Worksheet 29: Woman Holding a Balance INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Identify five significant details in this picture. a) b) c) d) e) 2. What is this woman doing? 3. What do you imagine she is thinking about? 4. What do you think is the relationship between the woman and the painting on the wall behind her? SMALL GROUP WORK 1. Form a circle with your chairs to make sure each person in the group is included. 2. Compare your answers to question 1 from the Individual Work. 3. Were there any details that everyone in your group recorded? What were they? 4. Were there any details that only one or two people noticed? What were they? 5. Now look again at the painting as a group. Are there any details in the painting that the group discovered that no one in your group noticed on their own? If so, what are they? Worksheet 30: We Cannot Live for Ourselves Alone INDIVIDUAL WORK 1. Do you feel it is important to volunteer your time to your community, or do you think certain community jobs should be handled by paid employees or by both volunteers and paid employees? 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A Local Government Guide to the Chesapeake Bay Module 2: Foundations of Clean Water Table of Contents 1 Purpose 2 What You’ll Learn 3 Local Connection 4 Historical Context 5 Present Day 6 What You Can Do 7 To Learn More 8 Glossary Please refer to individual slide notes for data references and information sources. Module 2: Foundations of Clean Water As a local leader, your decisions set the course for your community. Your actions determine the health and vitality of your jurisdiction, as well as that of your local waterways and the Chesapeake Bay. You can achieve win-win outcomes by prioritizing local economic development, infrastructure resiliency, public health, and education while also protecting your environment. This module is one in a series created by the Chesapeake Bay Program to support decision making by local officials. We encourage you to examine the full suite of modules: 1. How Your Watershed Works 2. Foundations of Clean Water 3. Clean Water for the Economy 4. Capitalizing on the Benefits of Trees 5. Preserving Local Character and Landscapes 6. Protecting Your Infrastructure Through Stormwater Resiliency 7. Building the Workforce of Today and Tomorrow To help local government representatives better understand how the information in the modules aligns with their priorities, look for these icons: - Economic Development - Public Health & Safety - Infrastructure Maintenance & Finance - Education Your community, like all others, values clean water. From the water you and your neighbors drink to the streams that run through your town, protecting water quality requires a holistic approach across jurisdictions. This module provides a brief overview of the laws and agreements relevant to the health of the Chesapeake Bay. These protections are the foundations of healthy local waterways across the region, which in turn support local economies, ensure clean water, inform infrastructure planning, and enhance education in your community. NOTE: This provides an overview of authorities and regulation, and should not be used as legal guidance. What You’ll Learn - What is the Chesapeake Bay Program and how did it begin? - What governs watershed protection and restoration efforts? - How does clean water benefit my community? - What is my community’s role in watershed protection efforts? Local Connections Your community, state, and country benefit when local government leadership is knowledgeable about water resources. Local Impacts The tourism industry loses about $1 billion each year because of nutrient pollution and harmful algal blooms. 46+ species of a toxic algae called cyanobacteria are known to be lethal to animals, including people, fish, dogs, and livestock. They grow in fresh and salt water polluted by nutrients. Many people rely on groundwater wells for their drinking water. Groundwater that has elevated nitrate concentrations, from chemical fertilizer use and other means, is especially dangerous for pregnant women and infants. \| State \| % state area with nitrate contamination in groundwater \| \|-------\|------------------------------------------------------\| \| DE \| 53% \| \| MD \| 28% \| \| PA \| 7% \| \| NY \| 3% \| \| VA \| 2% \| \| WV \| 2% \| Foundations of Clean Water Local Connection Local leaders who know about their local water resources can implement economic and policy incentives that support local conservation actions. In a survey of 826 Virginia voters, the top three most concerning environmental issues were contamination of tap water, drinking water supplies, and local rivers, streams, and lakes. "For every dollar spent, there was a real value for the community in creating a beautiful and welcoming public space." – Leslie Grunden, Assistant Director of Planning, Caroline County Department of Planning and Codes (Maryland) Greensboro’s Choptank River Park was a community gathering place that became derelict due to flooding. After constructing a wetland with native plants, the park now hosts soccer games, picnics, community concerts, and an annual kids’ fishing derby. The community gained a place to gather, relax, and exercise. Local stormwater runoff is now filtered by the new wetlands, protecting water quality in the adjacent Choptank River. Historical Context Many existing environmental policies are the result of bipartisan actions taken decades ago—and are still broadly supported today. The Chesapeake Bay was the first estuary in the nation targeted by Congress for restoration and protection. The US Takes Action 1960s: Visible tragedies began conversations on the need to protect the environment for the sake of people and communities. Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring. In 1962, her book revealed the dangers of pesticides like DDT to wildlife, pets, and humans. The Cuyahoga River in Ohio was so polluted with industrial waste that it spontaneously caught on fire in 1969. 1970: Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and signed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) The US EPA was established under President Richard Nixon. The EPA protects human health; they protect the air we breathe, water we drink, and land on which we work, play, eat, and live. They conduct federal research, monitoring, and enforcement activities. 1972 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 was amended and became known as the Clean Water Act. 1983 The Chesapeake Bay Program was established under the first Chesapeake Bay Agreement with broad bipartisan support. 1987 Chesapeake Bay Agreement called for a Local Government Advisory Committee to be formed. 1996 Local Government Participation Action Plan signed (updated in 2002). 2009 Obama issues Executive Order recognizing the Bay as a national treasure. EPA was also sued over inadequate Chesapeake Bay protection measures. 2010 As a settlement in the 2009 lawsuit, an agreement with EPA leads to federal pollution limits. 2014 Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement signed by representatives of the whole watershed. 2020 Statement in Support of Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Justice adopted. Clean Water Act: 1972 Purpose: • Prevent pollution • Assist publicly-owned wastewater treatment facilities • Maintain the integrity of wetlands • Secure “fishable, swimmable, drinkable” water for all Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) TMDLs are federal “pollution diets” that set limits on the amount of particular pollutants that can enter a waterbody. They are the means of meeting water quality standards. The original Chesapeake Bay Agreement of was a simple, one-page pledge. Read it here. The signatories of the Chesapeake Bay Agreement of 1983 became the Chesapeake Executive Council: - Pennsylvania governor Richard Thornburgh - Maryland governor Harry Hughes - Virginia governor Charles S. Robb - D.C. mayor Marion Barry - EPA admin William Ruckelshaus - Chesapeake Bay Commission chair Joseph V. Gartlan Since 1983, the Chesapeake Bay Program has led and directed the restoration of the Chesapeake Bay. Bay Program partners include federal and state agencies, local governments, non-profit organizations and academic institutions. Chesapeake Executive Council Principals’ Staff Committee Management Board Goal Implementation Teams (GITs) - Sustainable Fisheries - Habitat - Water Quality - Maintain Healthy Watersheds - Fostering Chesapeake Stewardship - Enhance Partnering, Leadership and Management Advisory Committees - Citizens - Local Government - Scientific & Technical Communications Workgroup Scientific, Technical Assessment & Reporting 1987 Chesapeake Bay Agreement Goal: 40% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorous entering the Bay’s tidal waters by 2000 This agreement established the first set of numeric pollution reduction goals for the Bay watershed and included priorities like protecting our living resources. Read the document here. “The improvement and maintenance of water quality are the single most critical elements in the overall restoration and protection of the Chesapeake Bay.” – page 3 of the 1987 Chesapeake Bay Agreement The Local Government Advisory Committee (LGAC) was formed to share the insights of local officials with state & federal decision-makers and enhance information flow among local governments about the health of the watershed. In 1992, the Chesapeake Bay Program partners agreed to include a focus on nutrients coming down from the Bay's rivers. Local Government Participation Action Plan: 1996 This document recognized the critical role that you play in protecting and restoring local waterways and the Bay. Among other objectives, it aimed to: • Create infrastructure that would allow local government to have meaningful input in decision-making, • Provide financial and technical assistance, since the Chesapeake Executive Council acknowledged that much of the burden falls on local government, and • Create opportunities to recognize local achievements. ~1,800 local government units in the watershed Each Agreement was entered into voluntarily, but the Bay states and D.C. were not meeting their numeric goals. In 2010, the pollution limits became legally enforceable through the Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for waters identified on the list of impaired waters. The TMDL numbers for the Chesapeake Bay were calculated based on modeling tools, monitoring data, peer-reviewed science, and input from jurisdiction to ensure necessary pollution control measures for the Bay and its tidal rivers. Why are the Chesapeake Bay TMDLs for nitrogen, phosphorous, and sediment? In 1975, the Senate asked the EPA to find the cause of the declining health of the Chesapeake Bay and its living resources. A five-year study ensued, pointing to nutrient enrichment as the main cause for the degradation, with nitrogen and phosphorous being two major culprits. Sediment was also found to be clouding the Bay’s waters and causing declines in underwater grasses, which provide shelter & food for animals as well as stabilizing against shoreline erosion. Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement: 2014 This Agreement included outcomes organized under these ten goal areas: - Sustainable Fisheries - Toxic Contaminants - Land Conservation - Vital Habitats - Healthy Watersheds - Public Access - Environmental Literacy - Water Quality - Stewardship - Climate Resiliency Each goal included between one and five outcomes. While the goals focus on the big picture, the outcomes are specific, measurable targets that contribute to achieving each goal. Read the document here. Chesapeake Bay Watershed Agreement: 2014 Three of the goals and outcomes are particularly relevant to local government priorities. Local Leadership The stewardship goal included a local leadership outcome; the partners prioritized providing information to and increasing the capacity of local officials on issues related to water resources and local conservation. Education The environmental literacy goal included outcomes for individual students as well as school-wide and jurisdictional outcomes, like more sustainable schools and a systemic approach to environmental literacy for all students. Climate Connection This is the first Agreement to include climate resiliency as a priority, asking the Bay states to carefully monitor and assess impacts and apply this knowledge to policies, programs and projects. This document commits the Chesapeake Bay Program to strengthen and improve diversity, equity, inclusion and justice in all areas of the partnership, including: - Recruit and retain staff and volunteers that reflect the diversity of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, - Foster a culture of inclusion and respect across all partner organizations, and - Ensure the benefits of our science restoration and partnership programs are distributed equitably without disproportionate impacts on vulnerable populations. Present Day Now that we have reviewed the history, let’s discuss current protection measures. The Chesapeake Bay watershed’s TMDL program is the largest and most complex program thus far. The Chesapeake Bay’s TMDL is a federal “pollution diet” that sets limits on the nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment throughout the 64,000-square-mile watershed, which includes Delaware, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia and DC. TMDLs were instituted because Bay states and DC were not meeting Clean Water Act goals through a voluntary program. As discussed in Module One: How Your Watershed Works, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sediment are pollutants that harm commercially and recreationally valuable species and make recreation unsafe. In short, that trio of pollutants threatens drinking water, recreational uses, tourism, ecosystems, and more. To get the desired pollution reductions by 2025, each of the six Bay states and DC has a Watershed Implementation Plan (WIP) that spells out detailed, specific steps that each will take. Federal, state, and local governments coordinate through the Bay Program partnership to develop WIPs. WIPs have several elements that must be addressed, including: - Interim (every 2 years) and final pollutant reduction goals - Current capacity (legal, financial, technical, etc.) to achieve targets - Strategies for increasing capacity to meet needs - Alternative reduction strategies and contingency plans - Transparent and consistent tracking and reporting protocols - Estimates of additional loads due to growth and how to offset them Monitoring and Modeling The WIPs are based on both monitored and modeled data. Scenarios are questions like “what will happen to nutrient levels if we increase forest canopy by X percent?” Projections help you make informed decisions based on the available data. Chesapeake Assessment Scenario Tool (CAST) is a web-based nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment load estimator tool that streamlines environmental planning for local governments. Specify a geographical area and select Best Management Practices (BMPs) you want to apply. CAST builds the scenario and provides estimates of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment load reductions. The cost of a scenario is also provided so that users may select the most cost-effective practices to reduce pollutant loads. Local Resources - Pennsylvania Department of Conservation & Natural Resources (DCNR) - West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) - Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) - New York Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) - Maryland Department of Natural Resources (DNR) - Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC) - DC Department of Energy & Environmental (DOEE) What You Can Do Understand what your State is doing to meet your TMDL requirements: - Chesapeake Bay milestones and two-year programmatic milestone goals - Information on each State’s Phase III WIPs - WIPs State (DEQ) Contacts Explore collaborative partnerships to help meet TMDLs. - For an example, read about Turtle Creek in PA Support environmental protections that are essential for a healthy and resilient community. Local Government Guide to the Chesapeake Bay • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pn1b6L4fzPQ To Learn More • Chesapeake Bay Commission’s 40th Anniversary Webinar recording and presentation • Learn about the history of the Chesapeake Bay watershed protections • Chesapeake Bay Program’s Restoring the Chesapeake Watershed • Hear a brief overview of the formation and progress in this five-minute video • Chesapeake Bay Program’s Understanding Chesapeake Bay Modeling Tools: A history of updates, governance, policy and procedures • Explore TMDLs, the Chesapeake Bay Watershed Model, and more in this short document • The EPA Administrators: Looking back at 50 years of environmental protection • Hear EPA administrators throughout history talk about their time at the EPA in a 7-minute video Glossary - TMDL: Total Maximum Daily Load* The federal “pollution diet” that sets limits on how much pollution can enter a waterbody to meet water quality standards for that specific pollutant. - Climate Resiliency The ability of living resources, habitats, public infrastructure and communities to withstand adverse impacts from changing environmental and climate conditions, like flooding and increased temperatures. - WIP: Watershed Implementation Plan The outline and steps on how individual jurisdictions will work with federal and local governments to achieve reductions in pollution outlined by the TMDL. - MS4: Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System A collection of structures designed to gather stormwater and discharge it into local streams and rivers. - NPDES: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System A permit program that addresses water pollution by regulating point sources that discharge pollutants to waters of the United States. - Algae Simple plants that can be single-celled or grow in clumps or slimy mats. - Groundwater Water stored under the earth’s surface in the cracks and spaces between particles of soil, sand and rock (also called aquifers). - Runoff Precipitation that does not evaporate or soak into the ground but instead runs across the land and into the nearest waterway. - Monitoring Water collection and analysis providing snapshots of qualities like nutrient content, temperature, and chemical contaminants over time. - Modeling Computer-based mathematical representations of the real world that estimate environmental conditions, and can be used to simulate ecosystems that are large or complex to aid in the management decision-making process.	40aca1e6-caaf-4645-bb37-f2d22e36a383	CC-MAIN-2021-49	http://www.virginiasheartland.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Foundations-of-Clean-Water-Power-Point-slides.pdf	2021-12-04T07:39:06+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964362952.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20211204063651-20211204093651-00545.warc.gz	136,964,664	3,498	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.920438	eng_Latn	0.991657	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "swe_Latn", "eng_Latn", "kiu_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 84, 357, 1440, 2091, 2339, 2475, 3578, 4566, 4827, 5603, 6421, 6833, 7241, 7893, 8746, 9310, 10354, 10867, 11688, 12194, 12290, 13055, 13784, 14051, 14550, 14984, 15412, 15505, 16216, 17975 ]	[ 2.875 ]	3	0
Air pollution through the lifecourse Every breath we take: the lifelong impact of air pollution Professor Stephen Holgate The Great Smog of 1952 took hold on London 64 years ago, claiming an estimated 4200 lives. WORSE THAN 1866 CHOLERA Deaths After Fog The rise in deaths in the week after London’s great fog early in December was greater than that in the worst week of the cholera epidemic in 1866. This is disclosed in a report of the health Clean air policy cuts smog death rate By our Parliamentary Staff The lower level of smoke pollution brought about by the clean air policy helped to reduce the number of deaths in the London smog in December, compared with the smog in 1952. This is the conclusion of the Ministry of Health and Local Government in its report for 1962, published yesterday (Stationery Office, Cmnd 1976, 4s 6d). The report emphasises that it is dangerous, nevertheless, to base conclusions solely on the weather; but applications for admission to hospital and the sickness fund showed sharp increases. On both accounts the new claims for sickness benefit rose by 50 per cent in a week. The report says that during 1962, 392 smoke-control orders covering 92,100 acres were operative, affecting well over half a million premises. In 1961, 338 orders covered about the same area but 100,000 fewer premises. Health impact: 1952 Great Smog - 5-8 December 1952: Great Smog. Estimated 4,075 premature deaths (and perhaps up to 12,000 in total) - Government’s initial response was to deny it had any responsibility in the matter - Churchill Government appointed Sir Hugh Beaver as Chairman of the Committee on Air Pollution to make recommendations - Sir Hugh Beaver called for “a national effort” of “costs and sacrifices” to combat “a social and economic evil which should no longer be tolerated” - In 1955 it fell to Eden’s new administration to enact the Committee’s findings. - Civil servants were bothered by their practicality - The Federation of British Industry was concerned about costs - Libertarians argued that it was no business of Whitehall what burnt in an Englishman’s hearth and home. Some argued the poor would freeze without coal - Treasury said it didn’t have the money and was rumoured to be blocking change - Ministers worried there was insufficient smokeless fuel to replace coal - But the public clamoured to go smoke-free - Sir Gerald Nabarro tabled a private Members Bill which was withdrawn when the Government agreed to legislation. The Clean Air Act came into force in 1956 Air pollution and health, RCP 1970 Bronchitis in children This report, it is suggested, brings forward enough evidence to justify the vigorous enforcement of existing legislation on the control of various forms of pollution, and especially the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968, the benefits of which are now being experienced. How the report came about • Great strides made on tobacco control, alcohol and obesity • Air pollution remains a major public health challenge • RCP and RCPCH convened working party to discuss evidence and draw up recommendations The Battle for Breath - the impact of lung disease in the UK - Lung disease is one of the top three killer diseases in the UK - 115,000 people a year die from lung disease - 1 person every 5 minutes - Mortality figures are roughly the same as 10 years ago, yet heart disease has fallen 15% - 1 in 5 people in the UK have been diagnosed with a lung disease - Every day, 1,500 new people are diagnosed with a lung disease Why the RCP is tackling this issue - Air pollution estimated to cause around 40,000 deaths per year in the UK - Estimated cost of air pollution is £20bn annually in the UK - Linked to major health challenges of our day such as heart disease, asthma, COPD, lung cancer, diabetes and dementia Air pollution in our changing world - Changes in the way we live have changed air we breathe - Total distance walked each year decreased by 30% between 1995 and 2013 - In 2012, road traffic in the UK was 10x higher than in 1949 - Not just outdoor environment but indoor as well Annual distance travelled by road in the UK Now, 774,513 diesel cars in London 170,000 (30%) increase since 2012 - Buses and coaches - Motorcycles - Goods vehicles - Light vans - Cars and taxis Health effects of pollutants across 24 hours/day of exposures - Morning - Traffic pollution: Particulates, nitrogen dioxide, ozone - School buildings and activities: Radon, mould spores, VOCs, carbon dioxide - Kitchen products and cooking appliances: Particulates, PAHs, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, VOCs - Day - School pupil - Office worker - Pensioner - Nursery toddler - Home worker - Cycle courier - Ambulance driver - Evening/night - Flowers: Pollen, mould spores from soil - Open fire: Carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide - Cigarette smoke: Hundreds of hazardous compounds - Personal care products: VOCs - Cat dander - Carpets and sofa cushions: House-dust mites, VOCs - Vapours from chipboard furniture: Formaldehyde Figure 1: An example of a 24-hr real-time sample. Protecting future generations - First report to examine health implications of exposure to air pollution over lifetime - Developing heart, lung, brain, hormone systems and immunity can all be harmed by pollution - Effects growth, intelligence, asthma and development of the brain and coordination Critical periods of risk from pollution during fetal development \| Age of embryo (in weeks) \| Fetal period (in weeks) \| Full term \| \|--------------------------\|------------------------\|----------\| \| 1 \| 2 \| Dividing zygote, implantation and gastrulation \| \| 3 \| CNS \| \| 4 \| Eye \| \| 5 \| Heart \| \| 6 \| Ear \| \| 7 \| Palate \| \| 8 \| Ear \| \| 9 \| Brain \| \| 16 \| \| \| 20–36 \| \| \| 38 \| \| Loss of conceptus \| Major morphological abnormalities \| Functional defects and minor morphological abnormalities Timing of air pollution risks: - Interrupted placental development - Fetal growth restriction - Early susceptibility to later preterm birth - Reduced weight gain - Preterm birth - Heart defects Principle stages of lung development in humans Embryonic - Lung bud differentiation - Trachea and bronchi - Pulmonary vein and artery Pseudoglandular - Conducting airways - Terminal bronchioles - Immature neural networks - Pre-acinar blood vessels Canalicular - Primitive alveoli - Type II, type II cells - Surfactant synthesis Saccular - Alveoli saccules - Extracellular matrix - Neural network maturation Alveolar - Expansion of gas exchange area, nerves and capillaries - Continued cellular proliferation - Lung growth and expansion 4–7 weeks 7–17 weeks 17–26 weeks 27–36 weeks 36 weeks – 2 years Birth 18 years In utero Postnatal Setting higher standards Effect of air pollution in modifying gene expression - epigenetics Environment alters the epigenome In utero environment Epigenome Mechanism for the effect of the environment Low lung function after birth Interaction effect Health effects of air pollution over our lifetime Toddler Harms from high pollution - More coughs and wheezing - More A&E visits - Decreased lung function Older person Harms from high pollution - Accelerated decline in lung function - Asthma - Type 2 diabetes - Poor cognition - Heart attacks, heart failure and strokes - Lung cancer Vulnerable groups Some people suffer more from exposure to air pollution because they are: - More likely to live in polluted areas - Exposed to higher levels of air pollution - More vulnerable to health problems caused by air pollution Recommendations for action 1. Act now, think long term. We must act now, and with urgency, to protect the health, wellbeing and economic sustainability of today’s communities and future generations. Government must empower local authorities and incentivise industry to plan for the long term. 2. Educate professionals and the public. The NHS and patient charities must educate health professionals, policymakers and the public about the serious harm that air pollution can cause. Health professionals, in particular, have a duty to inform their patients. 3) Promote alternatives to cars fuelled by petrol and diesel. Government, employers and schools should encourage and facilitate the use of public transport and active travel options like walking and cycling. Active travel also increases physical activity, which will have major health benefits for everyone. Local Transport Plans, especially in deprived areas, should: - expand cycle networks - require cycle training at school, - promote safe alternatives to the “school run”, based on walking, public transport and cycling instead of cars - encourage employers to support alternatives to commuting by car - promote leisure cycling - develop ‘islands’ of space away from traffic, for safer walking and cycling. European, national and local policies should also encourage the use of electrical and hydrogen-powered vehicles. 4. Put the onus on the polluters. Polluters must be required to take responsibility for harming our health. Political leaders at a local, national and EU level must introduce tougher regulations, including reliable emissions testing for cars. They must also enforce regulations vigorously, especially in deprived areas where pollution levels are higher and people are more vulnerable. 5. Monitor air pollution effectively. Air pollution monitoring by central and local government must track exposure to harmful pollutants in major urban areas and near schools. These results should be proactively communicated to the public, in a clear way that everyone can understand. When levels exceed EU limits or World Health Organization guidelines, local authorities must immediately publish serious incident alerts. 6. Act to protect the public health when air pollution levels are high. When these limits are exceeded, local authorities must have the power to close or divert roads to reduce the volume of traffic, especially near schools. 7. Tackle inequality. Our most deprived communities are exposed to some of the worst outdoor and indoor air quality, contributing to the gap in life expectancy of nearly 10 years between the most and the least affluent communities. Regulators, local government and NHS organisations must prioritise improvements in air quality in our most deprived areas, setting high standards of emission control across all sectors of industry. 8. Protect those most at risk. Children, older people, and people with chronic health problems are among the most vulnerable to air pollution. Public services must take account of this disproportionate harm through local tools such as planning policies for housing and schools, equalities impact assessments, and joint strategic needs assessments. At an individual level, healthcare professionals should help vulnerable patients protect themselves from the worst effects of air pollution. 9. Lead by example in the NHS. The NHS is one of the largest employers in Europe, contributing 8% of the UK’s gross domestic product (GDP). The health service must no longer be a major polluter; it must lead by example and set the benchmark for clean air and safe workplaces. In turn, this action will reduce the burden of air pollution-related illness on the NHS. The Department of Health, NHS England and the devolved administrations must give commissioners and providers incentives to reduce their emissions, and protect their employees and patients from dangerous pollutants. What can I do? As citizens and members of the public, everyone can help by: • trying alternatives to car travel: bus, train, walking and cycling • aiming for energy efficiency in our homes • keeping gas appliances and solid fuel burners in good repair • asking our local council and MPs to take action • learning more about air quality and staying informed. It might seem as if individual actions will not make a difference, but it all adds up, and each one of us must act. 10. Define the economic impact of air pollution. Air pollution damages not only our physical health, but also our economic wellbeing. We need further research into the economic impact of air pollution, and the potential economic benefits of well-designed policies to tackle it. 11. Quantify the relationship between indoor air pollution and health. We must strengthen our understanding of the relationship between indoor air pollution and health, including the key risk factors and effects of poor air quality in our homes, schools and workplaces. A coordinated effort among policymaking bodies will be required to develop and apply any necessary policy changes. 12. Determine how global trends are affecting air quality. From increased energy production and consumption to global economic development and urbanisation, we need to improve our understanding of how major social and economic trends are affecting air quality and its twin threat, climate change. 13. Develop new technologies to improve air pollution monitoring. We need better, more accurate and wider-ranging monitoring programmes so that we can track population-level exposure to air pollution. We also need to develop adaptable monitoring techniques to measure emerging new pollutants, and known pollutants that occur below current concentration limits. We must develop practical technology – such as wearable ‘smart’ monitors – that empower individuals to check their exposure and take action to protect their health. 14. Study the effects of air pollution on health. To appreciate fully the risk to health, we need further research on air pollution’s effects on the body. In addition to lung and cardiovascular disease, research into the adverse health effects of pollution should accommodate systemic effects such as obesity, diabetes, changes linked to dementia, and cancer, as well as effects on the developing fetus and in early childhood. The Mayor has announced bold plans to clean up London’s air and will launch a formal policy consultation in a matter of weeks. - Extending the Ultra-Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) to the North Circular Road and the South Circular Road and the possibility of bringing forward the introduction earlier than 2020. Under current plans the ULEZ will only operate within the Congestion Charging Zone and it is due to come in from 2020. - Implementing an extra charge on the most polluting vehicles entering central London using the Congestion Charge payment and enforcement system from 2017 (this would not mean an increase in the Congestion Charge but just the method for collecting the extra charge from people driving the most polluting vehicles). - Introducing ULEZ standards for heavy vehicles London-wide from 2020. - Giving the go-ahead for Transport for London (TfL) to start work on the costs and challenges of implementing a diesel scrappage scheme as part of a wider national scheme delivered by the Government. Proposals to work with the Government to tackle air pollution on a national and international level. Next steps: inform and empower the public on the serious effects of air pollution and lobby MPs for change as was so successful in Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968 and more recently, the delivery of tobacco legislation. 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REGIONAL MEETING ON SEX WORK(ER) RIGHTS 10-11 JULY, 2016 KATHMANDU, NEPAL Organized by Sex Workers & Allies, South Asia (SWASA) Overview The South Asia Regional meeting on Sex Work(er) rights was conducted by Sex Workers & Allies South Asia (SWASA) in Kathmandu, Nepal on 10 and 11 July, 2016. The participants from four countries belonged to the Jagruti Mahila Mahasangh (JMMS) from Nepal; Daffodil Collective and Stand Up Movement from Sri Lanka; Sex Workers Network of Bangladesh (SWNOB) from Bangladesh and the Veshay Anyay Mukti Parishad (VAMP), Uttara Karnataka Mahila Okkuta (UKMO) and the National Network of Sex Workers (NNSW) from India. In recent times regional allies have been collaborating more closely with sex workers’ rights organisations in order to build alliances and further a rights-based agenda in South Asia. In India, the National Network of Sex workers is linked to Asia Pacific Network of Sex Workers (APNSW) to which federations and organisation from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka are also linked. Additionally, the federations and community organisations are also individually linked to the Global Network of Sex Work Projects (NSWP). With the realisation that issues faced by sex workers in South Asia demand strategies different from those used in the Western and Eastern world, the time seemed ripe for the emergence of a regional network in order to lobby with governments South Asia. Such a regional network would be mindful of voices from South Asia, expressing themselves in their own languages, foregrounding local experiences and initiatives. Forging alliances with rights-based organisations around the region to strengthen advocacy efforts was an intrinsic part of the effort to broaden the network of allies. The SWASA initiative, launched in New Delhi in 2013 by regional representatives, seeks to empower sex work leaders and regional networks and build alliances with civil society in order to address practices harmful to sex workers. The main objective is to advocate for change in discriminatory laws and policies and improve HIV and health services and access to justice for sex workers. The initiative has been working to develop and strengthen networks of sex workers by enhancing their skills to address discriminatory laws and policies. Given the challenges faced in advocating for the amendment of policies and laws in each country, the strength of collectives coming together under regional networks enables the collectives to learn from each other’s experiences and struggles. Solidarity across borders ‘Kopisha’, a young woman from Nepal was cheated by her boyfriend Bahadur who was from her own village. He brought her to Allahabad, India, and sold her to an agent who took her to a brothel and left her there. After being physically abused by the brothel owner for many days, Kopisha had no other option but to do sex work. During a raid of the brothel, Kopisha escaped. Knowing no one else, she went back to the agent and asked him to find her a job. The agent took her all the way to Sangli and dumped her in a brothel. In the brothel, she was not happy, and witnessing her misery, the brothel owner tried to talk to her. She narrated her entire story and revealed that she was from Nepal. The brothel owner informed VAMP and SANGRAM and immediately Jagruti Mahila Mahasangh, Nepal, was contacted. They spoke to Kopisha in Nepali. Since she wanted to go back to her country, VAMP and SANGRAM made arrangements and helped her with Rs 10,000. Two members from VAMP accompanied her to her village and reunited her with her parents. Then they visited JMMS, where they were given some money to return to India. SWASA has facilitated JMMS, Nepal, to visit Sangli, Maharashtra, India, for a training and VAMP also went to Kathmandu to train members of the JMMS. Members from Sri Lanka had also come to Sangli for a five-day UNAIDS training. SWASA helped member organisations in Bangladesh to strengthen the sex workers’ network, a move which resulted in organising a ‘Public Hearing on Sex Workers’ Rights’ with the National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh. Think Global, Act Regional The need for regional networking is imperative, given the overall global scenario. The advocacy and campaigning initiative to overturn the 2007 UNAIDS policy is a case in point. Ostensibly a policy aimed at prevention of HIV, the policy in effect was abolitionist, in line with the official US policy promoting the ‘prostitution pledge’ which conflated human trafficking and violence with sex work. Funds earmarked for preventing HIV instead began to be allocated for abolishing sex work. In response, organisations campaigned against the ‘prostitution pledge’ and opposed the anti-sex work line. Sex worker rights activists, academicians and human rights defenders came together and rewrote the policy for UNAIDS from a sex worker rights perspective and presented it to UNAIDS in Delhi. UNAIDS then promised to amend the guidelines and policy and formed an Advisory Group called ‘HIV and Sex work’. The backlash was tremendous, with around 2000 groups across the world coming together to write a letter to UNAIDS alleging that they were helping traffickers, brothel owners and pimps by amending their guidelines. The sex worker’s rights groups relentlessly lobbied with human rights groups across the world, proposing a policy that would protect sex workers’ rights. As a result of this campaign, international organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International proceeded to articulate positions that supported full decriminalisation of sex work. Demanding decriminalisation Criminalising sex work has a deep impact on the daily lives of sex workers. When sex work or anything associated with sex work, such as soliciting, brothel keeping or living on the earnings of sex workers is criminalised, the women doing sex work and all those associated with her also become criminal. Sex worker rights activists have been arguing for full decriminalisation of sex work, and stopping making sex workers into criminals because sex work is work and sex workers have a right to safe working conditions. --- Maheswary, Stand Up Movement, Sri Lanka The police arrested me when I was standing alone. They took a condom, tore it and placed it near me to prove that I am a sex worker. Since I know the procedure followed by the police and the court, I went to the hospital for an internal examination and got a report that there was no sexual activity at the time. I was taken to the court and there again the judge ordered me to go to ward number 33 where the internal examination is done. At that time, I got both the reports, one that I went previously and did the examination and the second as ordered by the court. I submitted the first one as I knew that I was not having sex at that point of time. When I produced it in the court, the court warned the police and ordered them to release me as I had not had sex at the time when police caught me. The court also warned the police not to bring in a woman when she is not a sex worker. According to the law I can claim damage from the police. My case is still going on and if I am proved innocent I can claim 30 lakh Sri Lankan rupees. Participants shared their experiences with respect to the police personnel in the context of criminalisation in their respective countries. One such story is that of Kamala. Kamala, JMMS, Nepal “Two months back, one of my friends called me to a hotel and I went to meet him. While returning he gave me Rs 1000. When I was about to leave, two other men came and they forced me to have sex. I refused, saying that I was not well. But they beat me up and forced me. My friend also beat me, demanding that I have sex with them as I was a sex worker. But I did not agree and informed the police and asked them to help me. I waited for more than half an hour for the police while continuously being beaten up by all of them. But since it was more than half an hour and unable to bear the pain, I grabbed the keys of the gate and ran away. While on the way, I saw four men on a motor bike and asked them to drop me to the police station. But they refused. I went further and met another man and asked him to help me. He agreed and by the time I reached the police station, I saw the police van and waved my hand to stop them. I told them the entire story. Then the police asked me to lead them to the place where the incident occurred. I took them there and they wrote down something and asked me to sign it. As I was not literate, I went ahead and signed it. Then they asked me about my home. I told them the address and they went there and told my younger brother that they were taking me along with them. They took me to the hospital but did not perform any tests and instead arrested me and put me in the lock-up for seven days. After seven days they took me to the court, where the judge released me on grounds of health as I was suffering from cancer. As soon as I came out of the court, I called JMMS and informed them about everything. After coming out, the police said that since I was a sex worker, I should not work with other organisations. I began to do sex work to take care of the family, as I was not finding any work that would fetch me enough money to take care of seven members of my family. So, I had no choice but to do sex work. Society has made us sex workers. We are not sex workers from birth.” Decriminalisation Vs Legalisation “WE ARE WORKERS NOT CRIMINALS AND NOT IMMORAL BEINGS” Legalisation implies licenses from the state, mandatory health check-ups and zoning restrictions which will clamp down on sex workers and deny them their rights. What is needed is to stop criminalisation of sex work and sex workers, which means stop criminalisation of all persons who help sex workers to practice sex work with security. Sex workers are not criminals, but workers with rights as workers, demanding safe working conditions. While one view from Sri Lanka was that legalisation could control minors from coming or being brought into sex work, the global experience shows that licensing drives sex work underground since certain categories of people in sex work such as housewives and migrants who do sex work in a secret manner will go underground. Additionally, since licenses will be granted only to operate in particular zones, sex workers would not have the freedom to go anywhere and do sex work. Another interview from India about the licensing system in brothel-based sex work was the concern that confidentiality, especially in cases of persons living with HIV, could be breached. Forcible testing for HIV and other STIs was also a possibility. Renewing licenses would also cost money, and the attendant corruption in the system would mean bribes and other extra-legal pressures. A discussion about how the concepts of criminalisation, decriminalisation and legalisation work in the context of sex worker entailed a discussion about the three transactions that take place in sex work: a) Giving the service: Sex worker b) Taking the service: Client, partner c) Facilitator or helping the service to happen: broker, pimp, brothel owner, partner, taxi driver, rickshaw driver, hotel owner, massage parlour owner. In order to explain these concepts, the facilitator used the analogy of carpentry. The carpenter uses his tools like hammer and saw to make chairs and tables and other furniture. If he is not allowed to use his hammer and saw, then the carpenter cannot make the chair and table. In the same manner, the client, partner and brothel owner are tools of the sex worker and if they are banned, then a sex worker cannot survive. The carpenter makes furniture and keeps it in the market to sell. Suppose the state orders that persons buying these chairs will be sent to jail: how then will the carpenter survive? The government is allowing the carpenter to make and sell his products just like it allows the sex worker to do sex work but if the people who buy the furniture or the client who goes to sex workers are arrested then who will go to them? The state is not declaring the carpenter or a sex worker to be a criminal but it is arresting the customers of the carpenter or sex worker. This is called criminalisation. To continue the analogy, if the carpenter’s hammer or saw is broken, then will he replace them or throw them out and decide that all hammers are bad? Repairing and replacing is an option since no one wants to stop buying them. In the same manner, we can have a good broker and bad broker, a good pimp and a bad pimp. Because one brothel owner is bad we cannot say that we will shut all the brothels and sex work. What a hammer is to a carpenter, a client, partner and brothel owner are to a sex worker: essential tools. If no one buys the furniture, then how does the carpenter survive? And similarly, the sex worker is dependent on the client. In a criminalised set up, if one element becomes criminal then the whole set up breaks down, thus making everyone criminal. All our countries have laws of contract to regulate transactions between two parties; as well as laws against exploitation and so on. All these laws apply equally to a domestic worker, sex worker or the carpenter since the law says that there can be no exploitation; the law relates to exploitation and not to any specific work or worker. The law relates to minors in every sector and not only for minors in sex work. In a decriminalised set up, all existing laws will apply to all workers and not only to sex workers or sex work. Decriminalisation means that no new laws will be made and the existing laws will not be applied to the above three parties if they are all consenting. In Saudi Arabia, Iran or Iraq: everything is criminal - sex work, sex worker, client, brothel. In India and Nepal: customer/client is criminal. In India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh: brothel is illegal, pimp is illegal, but sex worker can do sex work. Adult doing sex work with consent involves no exploitation of anyone. This is operation of consent and there is an exchange of service for gain. If there is a minor, then that is sexual abuse. Minors doing any sort of work amounts to exploitation and minors doing sex work is not the only type of exploitation. If these four principles are adhered to, then the laws should not interfere. However, if there is a breach in any of these aspects, then the laws should come in. To conclude, each country has laws of contract; laws between two parties; laws of underage labour etc, all these laws will apply to a domestic worker, a carpenter or a sex worker. Kamala’s Story in a Decriminalised Set up (Group Presentations) Sri Lanka: 1. Kamala consented to one client but two others force her. In a decriminalised set up she would have the right to refuse other clients. She would have initiated legal action on the friend and other men according to the existing law in Sri Lanka. 2. For sexual exploitation she would have taken action against all three of them. 3. In a decriminalised set up, the men would have helped her rather than running away. 4. The police would have taken her complaint seriously, listened to her and done the required investigation. 5. The police would have facilitated her introduction to organisations rather than asking her to stay away from them. Nepal: 1. In a decriminalised set up, the incident itself would not have happened. 2. There would be no violence and no exploitation against Kamala. 3. Kamala would have had access to legal support. Bangladesh: 1. Kamala stated poverty as the reason for coming into sex work clubbed with illiteracy, so how could she be criminalised. In a decriminalised set up she would have been allowed to take up any profession including sex work. 2. In a decriminalised set up she could choose sex work to support her family. 3. In a decriminalised set up, her going with her friend to have sex is not a criminal part of it but the two friends forcing her would be criminal. 4. In a decriminalised set up she would have got help from the police and society. 5. In a decriminalised set up she would have had not got arrested. The criminal elements of the story are: 1. Forcing her to have sex 2. Police arresting her and detaining for six days without an offence is a criminal act. 3. Police telling her not to involve in any organisation is a criminal act. 4. They are excluded from society because they are sex workers. There is stigma attached to sex worker. So, the stigma is the criminal element. India: 1. There would have been no force by the other men on Kamala in a decriminalised set up. 2. The men would have been sentenced for the act of exploitation. 3. There would have been no sexual exploitation as she would have got help from the police 4. She would have not been arrested and detained. 5. Kamala had gone through mental, physical and financial trauma because of the incident, she would have been spared of these traumas in a decriminalised set up. 6. She would have access to justice. Human Rights and Treaties Having discussed the problems faced because of a criminalised set up, it was obvious that there are severe challenges in a system where sex work and any of the activities related to sex work are not recognised as legitimate work. It is crucial as sex worker rights groups and networks, to identify ways to address these violations at an international level. What are the opportunities as alliance members in South Asia to be able to use International mechanisms? Two opportunities will present themselves over the next six months for Nepal and Bangladesh and for India and Sri Lanka in the next one year. The objective of the session was to give participants an idea of the processes of rights in order to decide if they want to go ahead with a detailed training in-country at a later date. The constitution of every country lays down basic principles of governance. The laws of each country are made by representatives in accordance with principles laid down in the constitution. If there are two countries with different laws and principles, negotiations with each other are conducted in accordance with treaties and agreements between countries. After the Second World War, all the countries of the world felt that they should prevent another war because the next war could destroy humankind. The very first document that emerged was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, since it was decided that respective countries should not be left to decide on their human rights, but that there should be some common minimum principles which all of the countries would agree on. All the countries had to come together on a global level and decide on common principles of human rights. Over a period of time, human rights became specific and political, cultural, economic, social and civil rights evolved. There was then a recognition of marginalised communities like women, children, indigenous peoples, people with disability, people living in conflict situations etc. Each of these situations has rights attached to it and countries began to realise that there is need to identify the rights and rights violations of all these people. So, there came Convention on the Rights of the Children, Convention on the Rights of the Disabled Persons. The International community is constantly committing itself to monitor each of these countries on all these forms of discrimination. Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): CEDAW is an International Agreement which is signed by 180 plus countries, and is implemented differently on the ground. All the countries that signed the treaty went to the UN General Assembly and promised to give the rights written in the treaty to the women of their countries progressively (progressive realisation). This is done by having special laws for women, allocating resources and by ensuring that women in the country get these rights. CEDAW is an agreement to eliminate or bring to an end all forms of discrimination against Women. Every four years, governments of the countries have to submit a report to the CEDAW Committee in UN on the status of discrimination against women. The report has to be detailed, explain how the government has taken steps to eliminate discrimination in each and every elements of the section of the document. The government has to give evidence in the form of data, examples, case studies etc. As citizens, it is our right to participate in every International Agreement that our country signs. We have the right to tell the UN Committee that the report submitted by the government is not correct. So we can intervene by submitting our suggestions directly to the UN Committee. Reporting Cycle Under Human Rights Treaties 1. Report: State Government submits its report 2. Issue List: Treaty body presents state party with a list of issues and questions based on concerns raised by the report 3. State Reply: State party may submit written replies to list of issues and questions 4. Dialogue: Constructive dialogues between Committee and state party delegates during session 5. Committee Reports: Treaty body issues its concluding observations on the report including recommendations 6. Follow Up: Procedures to follow up on implementation of treaty body recommendations Explanation of the above: 1. Report: Government submits report to the Committee 2. Issue List: The Committee reads the report and for each section prepares a list of questions. Here we can also prepare a list of questions and give it to the UN Committee 3. State Reply: The State has to compulsorily reply to the questions raised. In Geneva, there is a dialogue that happens between the country and the UN committee. Here again if you think that your question is not answered you can ask the Committee to ask the government on your behalf. You cannot directly ask your country. You have to go through the Committee. 4. Dialogue: In Geneva, the Committee meets the State and there is a dialogue. All the civil society participants go there and participate in the dialogue and can tell the Committee that a particular question is not answer in the list of questions and you can ask the committee to answer the government. We cannot ask the government directly. The Committee reports back to the government. 5. Committee Report: The Committee gives its concluding remarks including recommendations on the report submitted by the State 6. Follow up: The state to give procedures for implementing the recommendations of the Committee. Till now, sex worker’s groups from Kyrgyzstan, the Netherlands, India, Austria, Russia and Hungary have submitted a status report on their rights from its inception. Bangladesh is due to report on October 2016 and Sri Lanka has time till March 2017. Questions relevant to the sex workers’ organisations: - Is it time for the countries to engage with International Treaty bodies? - Is it time to bring out voices to international forums and communities? - Is it time for us to say that sex workers from South Asia countries have a voice and want to make sure the international communities hear our voice? - Do you think there is value in engaging with this issue? - Can your country for the first time produce an independent chapter from the sex workers working on the ground? - Is it possible to come up with a combined report from sex worker’s groups from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka on ‘The Status of Women and Transwomen in Sex Work’? Opportunity to input by Citizens and Civil Society 1. As civil Society, sex workers organisation, we can send our list of questions to the committee and ask the committee to ask our government on our behalf. 2. Can be part of the dialogue between the UN committee and the state government in Geneva and get answers for the list of questions that were not answered in the Issue list 3. Can monitor the recommendations given by the treaty body to the governments Commitment from the Groups: “Namaste I am Manju from JMMS. We are ready to do CEDAW report from Nepal. And we want SWASA to support us in doing the report.” Manju, JMMS, Nepal “I am Radha. I am from Bhaktapur. I am a member of JMMS. I am a sex worker. We want support to report in CEDEW. We request SWASA to support us technically and train us to do the report.” Radha, JMMS, Nepal “I am Ann from Daffodil group, Sri Lanka. Sex workers from Stand Up Movement and Daffodil group in Sri Lanka will help in documenting for CEDAW report. We will do it with SWASA.” Ann, Daffodil Collective, Sri Lanka “I am Lily. I am a member with Sex Workers Network of Bangladesh. We are ready to work with CEDAW and will definitely submit report to CEDAW. We need help from SWASA.” Lily, Sex Workers Network of Bangladesh, Bangladesh “I am Mukta, I am a member of NNSW. I am a sex worker. From VAMP, UKMO we have already done the process for CEDAW. I request all of you to work with SWASA to do the reporting.” Mukta, NNSW, India The purpose of enhancing the voices of sex workers was to ensure a hearing at the proposed meeting at the end of July in Bangkok. Thus far, the South Asia region of sex workers’ groups in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka is being represented by only one community, the Bangladesh HIV/AIDS Research and Welfare Centre (HARC). It is thus important to ensure that many more sex workers’ groups from South Asia engage with the process and build capacity to submit reports. Understanding CEDAW Key Features: 1. Based on the principle that basic human rights include equality between men and women: There should be equality in whatever policies are made by the country. 2. Spells out the means of equality and how it can be achieved: Creates a frame of discrimination; looks at the fact that the equality which is supposed to be there between men and women (including transwomen) does not exist because of discrimination. 3. Acknowledges that discrimination against women continues to exist and such discrimination violates the principle of equality of rights and respect for human dignity: When it defines discrimination, sex worker groups have an entry point. Because CEDAW says that any form of discrimination which affects life and enjoyment of human rights is violation. So as a sex worker, if there is any form of discrimination on you or in your life that in itself is a violation of rights and CEDAW recognises such violations. 5. Focuses on systems, ideology or institutions that deny women their rights: Any custom or practise that discriminates a woman, the state has an obligation and responsibility to try and change it and remove that customary practise from the laws and constitution to make men and women equal. 6. There should be public institutions and systems to address and protect rights violation against women: For example, setting up specific systems such as Tribunals to address all forms of discrimination. Do other such forums exist and are sex workers we able to go and ask for justice? 7. CEDAW has made the countries, states and government responsible and accountable for all acts of discrimination, whether it is in public sphere, private sphere, corporate sector, or in our homes, or in the family: Cultural norms work in the context of sex workers for example, when a client beats a sex worker then they go and report in the police station. But when the same client becomes partner, husband, they hesitate to report it. Sections of CEDAW: CEDAW has 30 Articles/Sections on discrimination at various stages and 34 general recommendations. CEDAW is the only report that uses the general recommendations in its main text. It reads the text along with the recommendations. Decisions are given when every country goes before CEDAW once in four years. The decisions that a country gives is called the concluding points. Every time we submit a report we have to look into the concluding points and then submit the report. The structure and reporting was explained with the help of a diagram. Groups were asked to draw the same with a different graphic on what they have understood. Sri Lanka: The group explained it with the help of a bus which represented CEDAW. The CEDAW committee is the driver of the bus. The wheels are the countries of India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The passengers in the bus are the different groups working with sex worker groups like the Stand Up Movement, Daffodil Collective etc. The main objective is to stop all forms of discrimination against women. We need to follow policy that exercises human rights of Women, we need to reinforce human rights based on the principle of equality and we need all forms of discrimination. The conductor is the government of Sri Lanka. The holding supports in the bus represent the future generation to support us in the journey. More people can always come and enter the bus. Bangladesh: Bangladesh explained it with the help of a tree. The tree represents CEDAW. The water and manure that are given initially are the country reports. The trunk represents 30 articles which have been grown from time to time. Those who planted the tree are CSOs, NGOs from all countries. The branches of the tree are the general recommendations of the CEDAW. The fruits of the tree are the various comments of the CEDAW based on the reports. The fruits are enjoyed by all. India: India explained the process through the diagram of a girl child: the CEDAW committee born as a small baby and when reports are given it grows to become girl and we continue to give reports then it grows into a woman. So, the CEDAW committee should grow from time to time and expand its horizons so that women in the world would be free from all forms of discrimination. Nepal: The CEDAW Committee is a house. The materials used for building it are the reports of various countries. The 30 sections represent the structure of the house. General recommendations are the walls of the house and the roof represents the concluding comments. We want a safe and beautiful house without any criminalisation. We are waiting near the door to be opened so that we can enter the house and live happily. Mapping an Understanding of CEDAW The facilitator ran through the articles of the CEDAW document. There are 30 articles in the whole CEDAW document but the first 16 are the main ones and they were discussed in brief. Section 1: Defines Discrimination Discrimination can be separating, excluding and stopping someone. There should be no differentiation (a man gets more pay for same work, a labourer gets more than a woman), exclusion (women are excluded from property) and restriction (Hindu and Muslim women are restricted from entering temples during their menstrual cycle). -on the basis of equality of men and women; -of human rights and fundamental freedom; -in the political, economic, social, cultural and civil spheres. Section 2: Policy Measures to Eliminate Discrimination - Make policies to eliminate discrimination - State must use all possible mechanisms to eliminate all forms of discrimination through its constitution create new laws - Adopting legislative measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women - Establish legal protection through courts and tribunals - The state cannot engage in discriminating practices or allow anybody to do so - Public institutions and authorities will abide by such a policy - Measures to abolish existing laws, customs and practises that are discriminatory in nature Section 3: Guarantees Basic Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Measures to raise women’s status: For example, countries have adopted 33 percent reservations for women in parliament in all its three tiers so that after a certain period of time women are on par with men. Section 4: Special Measures for Equality These measures are not discriminatory against men. For centuries women have been discriminated under the name of customs, practised etc. If you do something for the women specially then these are not discriminatory against men. There are two types of measures: permanent and temporary measures Benefits of maternity are a permanent measure. Whenever she is pregnant she has a right to paid leave. Reservations at the panchayat and other elections are temporary measures. We can withdraw them once we achieve it after some time. India: There is the Bhagyalakshmi scheme for the girl child in India in which the government gives Rs 1,50,000 to a girl child after 18 years. Sri Lanka: During pregnancy, women are given Rs 30,000 worth of nutritious food. Nepal: After delivery at government hospitals, the mother and the new born are given a set of clothes and Rs 1000 as taxi allowance to go back home. Bangladesh: Free health care and food for rural women to raise their children from six months after birth to one year. Section 5: Measures to Reduce Sex Role Stereotyping and Prejudice The state should do the best to remove social prejudice and stereotypes, responsibilities of men and women are equal in family. Both men and women are equal partners in bringing up the child, both have to equally maintain the house etc. and ensuring education to talk about these differences. Section 6: Trafficking Prohibition and Prevention of Exploitation of Prostitution The state shall take measures to prevent trafficking of women and children and exploitation in prostitution. Section 7: Political and Public Life Right to vote, right to contest elections, right to hold public office, right to protest and participate in non-government organisations. Section 8: Representation Right to represent government at the international level. Section 9: Nationality Equal right in granting nationality. Marriage to a non-citizen will not change the nationality of the woman and she has an option to choose her nationality. The nationality of her husband should not be forced. Section 10: Education Women shall have the same right to education. Education should be such which will allow them to progress and achieve their aspirations. It should remove stereotypes. Section 11: Employment Right to equal employment with equal pay, which include paid leave, maternity benefits, safe working environment and protection in the workplace for women. Section 12: Health Care and Family Planning Women have the right to services related to family planning, pregnancy and breast feeding. Section 13: Economic and Social Life Women shall have an equal right to family benefits, access to loans, bank accounts, credit facilities, recreation, sports etc. Section 14: Women in Rural Areas Within schemes and measures there should be special measures and reservations for rural women. Right to all development schemes, right for equal trainings, forming SHGs etc. Section 15: Equality of Men and Women before Law Women should be equal before law and in legal capacity with respect to signing contracts, buying and selling property. In some countries women cannot sign documents, they can do it through men. And women cannot hold property. Section 16: Marriage and Family Relations Family and reproductive rights. Women have the right to choose their partners, decide about child bearing, own property and dispose it. Note: India has reserved on this section. In a treaty, countries can hold back on particular articles. Many Islamic countries also have not signed this section. Group work 1. What is the environment around sex work rights in your country (political, legal, social and any other)? 2. Factors contributing to the situation (positive and negative). 3. Opportunities for initiating advocacy on sex workers’ rights in the country. 4. Challenges envisaged in the country. Nepal: 1. Environment around Sex work - There is gender based violence, fear of violence, no protection from violence and discrimination towards sex workers. - No one can raise a voice or support female sex workers. There is no mention of this work in the new constitution. - Female sex workers cannot easily access free legal services and health services. - There is social stigma among sex workers as the constitution does not say anything on them. - Lack of coordination between the home ministry and health ministry. For instance, we distribute condoms to sex workers but police arrest them when they see the condoms. 2. Factors contributing to the situation - Lack of resources. - Sex work is very sensitive and because of social stigma sex workers do not disclose their identity. - Female sex workers don’t know about their rights. - There is no law that supports female sex workers. 3. Opportunity for initiating advocacy - Capacity building, sufficient resources, enhancing skills like basic computer literacy; knowledge building; interaction with political leaders; regular meetings with stakeholders; use of mass media for advocating the rights of sex workers. 4. Challenges - Cannot easily meet political leaders or decision makers, no support of stakeholders. Sri Lanka 1. Environment around Sex work - No right to vote; the local administer gives voter cards, if they know about the status of sex workers then they don’t issue national ID to sex workers. - Arbitrary arrests: female sex workers FSWs have no protection under the law. They face violence and police abuse and excesses. - They face social stigma and consequently don’t have access to several services. 2. Factors Contributingto the situation • Poverty and lack of options contribute to women entering sex work. • Female sex workers don’t know about their rights, and also lack family support. • Many women are trafficked and cheated and are brought to sex work. • When husbands desert them, the burden of the family lies on the women and they tend to choose sex work. 3. Opportunity for Advocacy • HIV prevention work already exists, so that can be used to work in the rights perspective 4. Challenges • Police and society have a dogmatic view towards sex workers and it is difficult to change that. • Lack of capacity and resource persons among sex workers themselves. Bangladesh: 1. Environment around Sex work • Madalipur, Tangail and Fultola brothels were evicted to make commercial spaces. • Out of five fundamental needs, female Sex workers are deprived of housing, health and education. • Sex workers from brothels are not allowed to use common graveyards. • Sex workers are harassed by the local goons, babus and police. They have to pay huge commissions to police and goons from their earnings. • No mention about sex work in the constitution. • Children of sex workers face difficulty in admission into schools because they don’t have fathers. 2. Factors contributing • Sex workers are harassed by police and local goons. • Since Bangladesh is a Muslim country, people cannot accept sex work as a profession. • Sex workers are not aware of their rights 3. Opportunities for Advocacy • CBOs and networks for solidarity. • Using street plays and mass media to raise awareness about rights. • Public hearing in Bangladesh on rights of sex workers. • Stopping eviction of brothels. • Assisting in anti-trafficking measures and sending girls back to their homes if they wish to return. 4. Challenges • There is no help from the police. • There are some brothels which are under risk and can be evicted any time • There is pressure from religious organisations to stop sex work. India: 1. Challenges - Lack of respect from police. - Inability to access housing and other welfare schemes. - Caste certificates are not given to sex workers and their children. - Negative talk about children going for higher education. - When sex workers apply for a passport, passport officers think that they are going abroad to do sex work. And in the passport application, there is no provision for the category of ‘devadasi’. - Even if sex workers get a house, there is discrimination and intolerance from neighbours. - Tremendous social negativity about sex workers. While sex workers in each of the countries faced specific issues, there were several common concerns, pointing to the need for joint action to overcome the challenges and further the agenda of sex workers’ rights. Moving Forward Critical concerns identified were: a) To strengthen cross-country dialogue for sex workers and allies in order to move forward in the region. b) To build alliances, an example of which was the public hearing with the Human Rights Commission on eviction in Bangladesh which was financially and technically supported by SWASA. c) To intervene at the level of global policy using international Treaties and instruments. Specific Action Plan (i) Sex worker collectives in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka will undergo training on CEDAW in August. They will then collect evidence of violence on sex workers and other rights violations. A follow up meeting will be held to compile the evidence and finalise the reports in time for the upcoming CEDAW review in October this year for Bangladesh and in February 2017 for Sri Lanka. (ii) In discussion with women’s groups and other activists from South Asia, a meeting of sex workers in the region will be organised with UN Women with SWASA support, to discuss the global policy on sex work.	cb70269e-4a05-465f-927b-2f87b8689844	CC-MAIN-2024-18	http://nnswindia.org/upload/news/News-Reports/Final-Report-SA-Regional-Meeting-SW-Rights-Nepal.pdf	2024-04-20T12:58:11+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817650.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20240420122043-20240420152043-00513.warc.gz	21,217,143	8,538	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.947215	eng_Latn	0.999298	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 130, 3714, 7301, 10920, 14085, 16835, 20127, 21799, 24183, 26710, 29088, 30953, 33304, 35641, 37717, 39689, 41512 ]	[ 0.9375, 2.109375 ]	2	0
Welcome to the Fall 2013 Issue of New Jersey Soybean Board News Your soybean checkoff created this newsletter to keep you informed about what’s happening at the state and national levels. Covering the latest issues in the soybean industry, NJ Soybean Board News serves as just one more way your checkoff works for you. NJSB Sponsors Soybean Science Program Funding from New Jersey soybean farmers and their checkoff gave children from under-performing schools an up-close look at soybean science and agriculture this summer. Nearly 300 children participated in the 4-H Summer Science Program, a project of the Rutgers Extension Cooperative, Union County, that was partially funded by the New Jersey Soybean Board (NJSB). “The program brings a general awareness of soybeans to children who would likely nor otherwise be exposed to it,” said James Nichnadowicz, the 4-H Youth Development agent for the Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Union County. “Not only do we expose them to soybean science, they are exposed more generally to scientific inquiry and agriculture as a whole. We hope that the program may encourage them to one day work in agricultural science.” The program offered participating students in the first through sixth grades a hands-on experience with activities like planting their own soybeans and tracking growth of the plants. Prior to the program, none of the participants had ever even seen a soybean plant. A survey of the participants conducted at the end of the program indicated that a large majority of students were more interested in science and agriculture as a result of the program, and many say they may one day want to become a scientist or work in agriculture. Children also learned about the many uses for soybeans, such as ink, lumber and food products like soy milk. Union County Extension Cooperative staff operated the program through visits to a variety of day camps once a week over the course of seven weeks. Most of the children that participated come from the cities of Plainfield, Rahway and Elizabeth. Increase in Bioheat® Use in New York State’s Future It’s been more than six months since the New York City Bioheat requirement went into effect, and the use of the B2 blend (2 percent biodiesel, 98 percent heating oil) has been successful, according to Paul Nazzaro, National Biodiesel Board (NBB) liaison with the petroleum industry. In June, this requirement expanded statewide. New York uses more heating oil than any other state. With this requirement, all heating oil sold in the state will contain at least 2 percent biodiesel by October 2015. This is good news for U.S. soybean farmers as continued growth in the biodiesel industry provides additional value to soybean oil, and Bioheat is a market with lots of room for expansion. “It’s great to see the how policies of a neighboring state benefit the soybean industry here in New Jersey,” said NJSB chairman Brian Palmer. “We can only hope that the percentage of biodiesel used in the blends will increase and continue to create additional value for soybean oil.” People in New York currently use about 2 billion gallons of heating oil every year. The 2-percent requirement will guarantee the use of at least 40 million gallons of biodiesel annually. Rhode Island recently passed its own B2 requirement, which should improve biodiesel and soy oil demand even more. “People recognize the benefits of using Bioheat as an alternative to conventional heating oil,” says Nazzaro. “That expansion speaks volumes for the bullish market potential on the East Coast.” Thanks in part to the soy checkoff’s efforts; U.S. biodiesel production has increased from nearly 500,000 gallons in 1999 to nearly 1.1 billion gallons in 2012. Soybean oil remains the primary feedstock for U.S. biodiesel production. To increase demand for U.S. soy oil, the soy checkoff partners with the National Biodiesel Board on biodiesel and Bioheat research and promotion. Getting To Know High Oleic Soy 1. High oleic can help farmers regain lost edible-oil market share. Soybean oil dominates the edible-oil market but has lost substantial market share over the last decade. Because of high oleic’s low saturated fat content and increased functionality, U.S. soy has an opportunity to win back some of its customers in the food industry, the biggest user of U.S. soybean oil. 2. High oleic varieties offer less saturated fats and a more stable oil for food-industry consumers than commodity soybean oil. High oleic varieties were bred with one thought in mind: customers. While so many new varieties are created to ward off insects, tolerate herbicides and help fight diseases, high oleic looks beyond the elevator to deliver a vegetable oil with no trans fats and less saturated fats than other oils. 3. Farmers who have grown high oleic soybeans say it yields similarly to other varieties. Farmers should also know that the high oleic trait will be available in the trait-and-disease packages farmers expect for new varieties. John Motter, United Soybean Board director and soybean farmer from Jenera, Ohio, says he had so much success growing high oleic last year, he devoted more acreage to it in 2013. “High oleic was my second-highest-yielding bean out of about five different varieties,” he says. 4. High oleic soybeans open doors for the potential for additional industrial applications. The food industry is U.S. soybean oil’s No. 1 customer, but the oil’s functionality and stability are attributes industrial users can get excited about, too. The same properties that extend the oil’s fry life mean it also has a longer life in other applications. 5. The soy checkoff has entered into agreements with two seed companies to accelerate the availability of high oleic. The checkoff is collaborating with DuPont Pioneer and Monsanto to expand the availability of the seed technology providers’ existing high oleic technology in maturity groups I to V by 2023. Without the support of the checkoff, it is estimated that the companies would only have developed high oleic varieties in late maturity group II and early maturity group III in the same time frame. These agreements will assist in reaching the soy checkoff’s aggressive goal of planting 18 million acres of high oleic soybeans by 2023. To learn more about high oleic soy, please visit www.UnitedSoybean.org/topics/high-oleic/	23945ebe-6619-43d3-a9c7-0add8911e988	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://njsoybean.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Fall_2013_Newsletter.pdf	2024-04-18T20:12:39+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817239.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418191007-20240418221007-00485.warc.gz	372,853,668	1,324	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998177	eng_Latn	0.998218	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 3269, 6392 ]	[ 2.625 ]	1	0
Forests are the source of raw materials to produce wood, paper, medicine and other materials. In addition, they play a key role in reducing environmental and climate pollution resulting from the activities carried out by human beings, by carbon dioxide (CO2) removal and sequestration and transforming it into biomass. Moreover, they serve as soil protection, regulate hydrological cycles, and are the habitat of a great number of flora and fauna species. The Value of Our Native Forests Forests are home to most terrestrial biodiversity in our planet. Therefore, world’s biodiversity conservation depends entirely on the way we interact with forests around the world and how we use them. Forests are the habitat of 80% of amphibians, 75% of birds, and 68% of mammals in the world. (1) Forests and trees are crucial to promote pollination, and there is an urgent need to stop degradation of their habitats and safeguard biodiversity, according to a new report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2) DID YOU KNOW THAT 31% OF THE EARTH IS COVERED BY FORESTS? Forests occupy an area of about 4,060 million hectares in the world, which represents 31% of the Earth surface (FRA, 2020). (3) About Fundación ProYungas: Fundación ProYungas is an NGO which works towards environment conservation and sustainable development by promoting land-planning processes at different levels and actively connecting production with nature preservation. Founded in 1999, it carries out its activities in the South American subtropic, mainly in the Argentine region called “Norte Grande”, which encompasses the greatest environmental, cultural and productive diversity in the country. PRODUCTION AND CONSERVATION In such a challenging backdrop of climate change, commitment to preserving the ecosystem services provided by nature is not a minor issue for such a big company as Citrusvil. Since 2016, Citrusvil has been part of the Protected Productive Landscape Program (PPP), a management model created by ProYungas which aims at striking a balance between production and biodiversity conservation. Every year, we work jointly towards sustainability, continuous improvement, and to enhance Citrusvil’s natural heritage. With over 5,700 hectares preserved, the company protects 0.75 hectares of native forests per each productive hectare in a high environmental value area such as the Yungas in the province of Tucumán. By means of carbon stock assessments in the native forests and citrus plantations, mammal and bird surveys, pollinator studies and restorations, among other actions, we can prove the importance given by Citrusvil to nature conservation. Forest area conservation will depend on the formally protected areas and the commitment to preserving forest areas (and other natural systems) from a thriving and profitable production sector with a global presence that allocates part of that profit to keep these wild areas in a good state of conservation. In this regard, the PPP is a tool available to organizations such as the European Union, among others, which ensures and reveals the environmental and social commitments from the production sector in Argentina and neighbouring countries (Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile and Brazil). By Alejandro Brown Ecologist, PhD in Natural Sciences, and Fundación ProYungas President. Looking After Our Future “With a view to sustainability, we seek to integrate different production activities with the preservation of natural goods (biodiversity, soil and water) and services (water and climate regulation, carbon and pollination). Based on our Sustainability Policy and the undertaken commitments, we developed different courses of action which include activities such as environmental indicator monitoring in orchards where native forests occupy a greater area and with higher environmental value,” says Agustina Lucci, Sustainability Manager. Citrusvil and Its Production Model Citrusvil’s orchards are located in an ecotone region between the Yungas ecoregion and the production areas near flatlands. These territories make up a landscape where farming hectares coexist with remnant forests and big areas of native forests, located in high slopes, which correspond to the floor of the Yungas mountain rainforest and forest. Don Vicente Private Natural Reserve. In 2017, as part of Citrusvil’s commitment to nature preservation, we formalised the creation of Don Vicente Reserve, which became part of the Argentine Network of Private Natural Reserves. This reserve has almost 1,500 hectares of Yungas native forests. Its characteristics and strategic location make it a natural area of great relevance in the region. It is a forest classified as Category 1 in accordance with the Territorial Ordinance on Native Forests (OTBN) of the province of Tucumán. It is not only possible to produce and conserve at the same time but it is also a great opportunity for a genuine sustainable development of production activities such as citrus production and agribusiness, which attract new markets and international sustainable investors. 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From the Principal’s Desk During the month of October, we have been focusing on the Core Competency of Creative Thinking. According to the BC Curriculum, Creative Thinking involves “generating and developing ideas that have novelty and value.” In more child friendly terms, it can be as simple as being curious and using our imaginations. As educators, Creative Thinking is something that we intentionally foster in our classrooms and in our daily interactions. However, creative thinking also happens organically, as students naturally use and grow the gifts that God has given them. You don’t need to go far to see Creative Thinking on our playground: • Students make birthday cakes in the sandbox for the birthday of a friend, complete with a table and seats and of course, plates and cake. Or unperturbed, once the birthday scene is flattened, they devise an elaborate tunnel system to get from one side of the sandbox to the other. • Or there is the plethora of animals that live in one of the trees that outline the field. Look carefully and you will find a sloth, a monkey, a koala and a chipmunk. (Don’t be fooled – they may look like students in the K/1 classroom, but animals they truly are!) • Or how about the fancy dining that often takes place in the garden. You can order almost anything. It might look like kale and lemon balm to the inexperienced eye, but it is fancy dining nonetheless. But Creative Thinking is not only on the playground. You can see it daily in our classrooms as well: • Students working together to apply just the correct code to debug a computer programming challenge. • Or finding just the right set of equations to solve that intriguing math problem. • Or working together to make the best pumpkin carving ever seen. • Or recently, working as a team in chapel to make the perfect “basket” for an egg-drop activity. Creative Thinking already abounds at Agassiz Christian school. Some may simply call this competency “using our imagination,” but all that playful imagination helps students (and adults) when there are problems to be solved or solutions to be found to make the world a better place. In Psalm 139:14, we read that each one of us is “fearfully and wonderfully made.” It is my privilege to see the creativity of our God every day as I walk the hallways and interact with the students. It is my prayer that Agassiz Christian strives to always be a place in which students use their Creative Thinking skills to honour our Creator. Class Pet! As parents, most of us hear the question, “Can we get a pet?” at some point in our parenting journey. Teachers often get the same request. “Mrs. deWolde, can we please have a class pet? We promise we will take care of it!” the grade 4’s and 5’s begged. This year I decided that I would give in to their requests. Now choosing a class pet is a difficult task. A pet needs to be quiet, clean and perhaps most importantly, it should connect to our curriculum. After much thought I found the perfect pet; although just one wouldn’t do, so I decided to get a few more. The grade 4/5 class has welcomed hundreds of Red Wiggler Worms into our classroom. We have begun a Vermicompost! A vermicompost is a method of composting that uses Red Wiggler Worms to decompose food waste quickly. We will be learning about how to feed our new friends, what they can and cannot eat and what we can do with the black gold (worm castings or worm poo) that they produce. If you are ever in the school, stop by and have a visit with our class pets. They won’t be very cuddly but they sure do work hard! Bottle Drive: This year the grade 6/7 class will be fundraising for the Grade Seven grad and campout with another bottle drive. Like last year, you can pick up bags with labels at school. If you have large amounts of bottles to be returned, you can also speak to Mr. Braun for different arrangements. The procedure is simple: • Fill your bag so it can still be tied up (with a maximum of 12 glass bottles) • Take it to any bottle depot and use the “Express” bin • All bags must be clear Any further questions can be sent to Simon Braun at email@example.com Thanks for your support! K/1 Abigail – I would make kindness for everyone by showing love, by being brave and by having a good heart button for people to use. 2/3 Piper – I would speak up to the world and tell them God wants to show peace and love and joy. I would do this when I am mayor. K/1 Gavin – I would make a chair that would go everywhere with you, so that when you are tired, you can sit down whenever you want. 2/3 Wesson – I would make a calming robot. I would make it for those who are mad. I would use bits and bobs and it would give you popsicles. 4/5 Kale – I would make a portal so we could go places faster without hurting habitats and without polluting the earth. 6/7 Brenden – I would create lots of medicine for different diseases. I would help people who are sick, because lots of people are getting sick. 4/5 Zac – I would create a robot that could help at my home and make some stuff easier and I would make it do my work. 6/7 Jordin – I would make a big shelter for all the homeless people so they could have food and water and a warm house. The best thing would be that they don’t have to pay for it! Question of the Month If you could create something that would make life easier for people what would you create? How? Why? GRADE 2/3 AT FAMILY PLACE ... into some outside activities K/1 VISIT TO TAVES APPLE BARN Important Dates to Remember - October 27 & 28 Parent - Teacher Conferences K-7 - October 29 - Day off in lieu of parent teacher conferences - November 11 - Remembrance Day - (no school P - 7) - November 12 - CEBC Conference - (no school P - 7) - November 26 - Report Card Writing - (no school P - 7) - November 29 - Fall AGM - December 3 - Report Card - Term 1 - December 18 - Jan 3 - Christmas Break - January 4 - School Re-opens for P-7 Inside Look is the publication of AGASSIZ CHRISTIAN SCHOOL 7571 Morrow Road Agassiz BC V0M 1A2 604.796.9310 telephone firstname.lastname@example.org Visit our website: agassizchristianschool.com FOLLOW US!	2d370e55-8202-4d9b-ab69-f61ec9a4a2c9	CC-MAIN-2022-27	https://agassizchristianschool.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Oct.-2021-Inside-Look.pdf	2022-07-07T06:38:24+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104683708.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20220707063442-20220707093442-00619.warc.gz	132,480,292	1,437	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.950857	eng_Latn	0.997953	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2491, 4188, 5424, 6169 ]	[ 3.046875 ]	1	0
Practice Paper 1 Class X Social Science Time 3 Hrs. M.M 80 This practice paper is designed as per the CBSE latest sample paper 2019 given on CBSE site. General Instructions: 1. The question paper is divided into four sections- Section A, Section B, Section C and Section D. 2. The question paper has 35 questions in all. 3. All questions are compulsory. 4. Marks are indicated against each question. 5. Questions from serial number 1 to 20 are very short answer type questions. Each question carries one mark each. 6. Questions from serial number 21 to 28 are of 3 marks. Answer of these questions should not exceed 80 words each. 7. Questions from serial number 29 to 34 are of 5 marks. Answer of these questions should not exceed 100 words each. 8. Question number 35 is a map based question of 6 marks with two parts-35 A from history (2 marks) and 35 B from Geography (4 marks) 9. There are separate questions in lieu of question no. 35 for visually impaired students. Section A Q.1 Which among the following is NOT responsible for Globalization. A. Liberalisation B. Information and Technology C. Trade Barrier D. Means of Transportation Q.2 Which among the following is NOT Part of ‘Term of Credit’? 1. Interest Rate 2. Collateral 3. Mode of Repayment 4. Pass Book A. Only 1,2 and 3. B. Only 2 and 4. C. Only 4 D. All of the above Q.3 Underemployment occurs when People A. Do not want to work B. Are working in a Lazy manner C. Are working less than what they are capable of doing D. Are not paid for their work Q.4 Which among the following is a component of a political party? A. Leaders B. Active Members C. Followers D. All of the above Q.5 Which among the following statements about India’s Constitution is wrong? A. It prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion. B. It gives official status to one religion. C. It provides to all individuals freedom to profess any religion. D. It ensures equality to citizens among religious communities. Q.6 Which among the following is the first Port developed soon after Independence? Q.7 In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the correct option given below: Assertion: Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation. Reason: Weavers in Silesia had a revolt against contractors who supplied raw material and gave them orders for furnished textiles but drastically reduced their payments. Option A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. B. Both A and R are true and but R is not the correct explanation of A. C. A is correct and R is incorrect. D. A is wrong but R is correct. Q.8 In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the correct option: Assertion: In 1917, Gandhiji organised a Satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. Reason: The peasants were affected by crop failure and plague epidemic. They could not pay the revenue and were demanding the revenue collection be relaxed. Option A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. B. Both A and R are true and but R is not the correct explanation of A. C. A is correct and R is incorrect. D. A is wrong but R is correct. Q.9 In the question given below, there are two statements marked as Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Read the statements and choose the correct option: Assertion: The new reading culture was accompanied by a new technology. Reason: There was a gradual shift from hand printing to mechanical printing. Option A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. B. Both A and R are true and but R is not the correct explanation of A. C. A is correct and R is incorrect. D. A is wrong but R is correct. Q.10 In which year Vienna congress was organised? A. 1818 B. 1816 C. 1817 D. 1815 For Q.11 to Q.13 Fill in the Blanks Q.11 The famous economist John Maynard Keynes thought that export of ………… from India promoted global economic recovery during the Great Depression of 1929-1933. Q.12 The Bretton Woods conference established an organisation called …………… to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations. Q.13 The colonization of Africa was completed in 1885 and called…………. OR Q.11 British East India appointed a paid servant called …………… to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth. Q.12 During the initial years of Industrialization esteem engine was mostly used in ……….. industry. Q.13 First Indian who established a Jute mill was ……………. Q.14 Mention any one step that can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas? Q.15 Mention any one importance of Roadways in transportation? OR Mention any one importance of pipelines in transportation? Q.16 Why is democracy better form of government than its other alternative? OR Democracy accommodates social diversity. Evaluate. Q.17 Mention the role of opposition in Democracy? OR Mention the role of Regional parties in Democracy? Q.18 What do you understand by the term Birth Rate? OR Why growth in tertiary sector is Important? Q.19 How have Self Help Groups (SHG’s) been important for poor households in rural area? OR How does money solve the problem of double coincidence of wants? Q.20 Why are Multi National Companies (MNC’s) important for Globalisation? OR Why is foreign trade important for countries like India? Section B Q.21 “Natural gas is considered as an environment friendly fuel.” Elaborate this statement. OR “There is a pressing need to use renewable energy resources.” Justify this statement. Q.22 “People may have conflicting development goals.” Support this statement with examples. OR What is the main criterion used by the World Bank in its development report in classifying different countries? What are the limitations of such criterion? Q.23 Why is there a great need to expand formal sector of credit in India? Explain with three reasons. OR How Reserve Bank of India keep an eye on the functioning of other banks? Why is it necessary? Q.24 Explain the role of Mazzini and Count Cavour in the unification of Italy? OR Explain the role of Bismarck in the unification of Germany? Q.25 Evaluate the contribution of Folklore, songs, literature etc. in shaping the nationalism during freedom struggle. Q.26 Explain the interdependence of all three sectors giving suitable examples. Q.27 Describe the positive and negative aspects of relationship between caste and politics? Q.28 “Panchayati Raj has strengthened the democracy in India.” Justify your answer giving suitable examples. Section C Q.29 Who was Alluri Sitaram Raju? Explain his role in inspiring the rebels in Gudem hills of Andhra Pradesh. OR How did the local people and the colonial government react to the Civil Disobedience movement. Explain. Q.30 Elucidate some of the efforts taken in our country to reform political parties? OR Describe the major functions of political parties. Q.31 The textiles industry occupies unique position in the Indian Economy. Why? OR Mention the significance of Information Technology industry in India. Q.32 Why is power sharing desirable? Give Reasons. Q.33 Distinguish between Intensive subsistence farming with commercial farming. Q.34 “Fair globalization would create opportunities for all and also ensure the benefits of globalization are shared better.” Support this statement. Section D (MAP WORK) 35.A Four places A, B, C and D are marked on the outline political map of the India, identify these places with the help of following information and write their correct names on the lines marked near them: (Attemp any two) a. The place where Mahatma Gandhi started Indigo movement. b. The place where Congress organize its conference in 1927. c. The Place where Jalianwala Bagh massacre took place. d. The place where Mahatma Gandhi abruptly called off Non-cooperation Movement. 35.B Locate and label Any Four of the following with appropriate symbols on the political map of India. a) Rawat Bhatta Nuclear Plant b) Bokaro Iron Steel Plant c) Thriuvananthapuram Software Technology Park d) Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Airport e) Marmagao Port f) Chhatrapati Shivaji Airport g) Kandla Port Following questions are only for visually impaired students in lieu of question no 35. (Attempt any Six) a) When was Rowlett Act enacted? b) When did Mahatma Gandhi returned to India? c) Name the writer of the novel “Anandamath”. d) Name the state where Kalpakkam Nuclear plant is located. e) Name the state where Bokaro iron steel plant is located. f) Name the state where Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose is situated located. g) Name the state where Meena Bakkam Airport is located. h) Name the state where Chhattarpati Shivaji Airport is located. i) Name the State where Kandla port is located. 1. Based upon Survey of India Map with the permission of the Surveyor General of India. 2. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline. 3. The Interstate boundaries between Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand, Bihar & Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh have not been verified by the Government of India. 4. The boundary of Meghalaya shown on this map is as interpreted from the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, but has yet to be verified. 5. The Internal boundaries and coastline of India shown on this map agree with the Record / Master copy certified by the Survey of India, Delhi, India. 6. The administrative Headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh. (Letter No.T.E. 981/62-A/3/213 Dated 5/5/2003) © Government of India Copyright, 2017. Publisher: INDIAN BOOK DEPOT (MAP HOUSE) 2937, Bahadurgarh Road, Delhi-110006. 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Woodburn School District Student Investment Account Plan/Application Our promise is to engage, inspire, and prepare all students to learn, lead, and contribute toward a just community, both local and global. March 3, 2020 Woodburn School District Student Investment Account Plan/Application Executive Summary As a result of the Student Success Act enacted by the legislature last year, the Woodburn School District became eligible for approximately $5 million dollars in Student Investment Account (SIA) revenues to invest in the service of improving achievement, reducing academic disparities, and for meeting student mental and behavioral health and safety needs. To be eligible, districts have been asked to create a plan/application for the use of these funds that address these outcomes, use an equity lens, and are consistent with analysis of performance data and feedback from extensive community engagement, feedback, and input efforts. A community engagement task force representing diverse members of our school community was created in the fall and met 5 times between October and March. The task force collaborated to learn about the district, review data, to synthesize community engagement feedback, to interact with panel presenters, and to provide feedback and insight on emerging draft strategies and plans. Multiple sources of data were reviewed and feedback from the school community was collected and reviewed in a variety of ways and at various stages. Community engagement strategies included interaction through surveys, focus groups, phone calls, panel presentations, family/parent meetings, staff meetings, and outreach to local businesses, professional groups, community based organizations, service organizations, and seniors. The superintendent regularly communicated district efforts, ongoing results, and emerging investment strategy recommendations to the Board at each of its public business meetings as a part of the superintendent report. In developing our strategies and application, teams kept the following required guidelines in mind: - Address mental and behavioral health and safety needs; - Increase student achievement and decrease disparities for underserved groups of students; - Respond to the feedback from extensive community engagement and outreach; - Align to allowable areas of investment: - Health and safety - Decrease class and caseload size - Provide a more well-rounded education - Increase instructional time. It is the intent of the Woodburn School District to enact these strategies over the course of the 2020-2021 school year and further develop, support, and sustain these efforts in subsequent years. Desired Outcomes: Woodburn School District Student Investment Account All Woodburn students and staff will experience safety and belonging in their academic, social, and emotional learning environments. All Students will have equitable access to increasingly inclusive and well-rounded educational experiences and opportunities that incorporate culturally and linguistically responsive teaching practices. 100% of Woodburn students will have their academic and social learning needs met in mathematics and literacy, with at least 80% of students performing at grade level in core mathematics and literacy via tier one instruction. All Woodburn students feel a sense of belonging, relevance, and belief in themselves in their academic community as shown by increased attendance. Strategy Overview Well Rounded Education (WRE) Increase access to science, technology, engineering and mathematics courses, programs, and experiences across the district. (WRE) Increase access to arts programs at the Elementary level across the District (WRE) Increase access and offerings to career and technology education, counseling, and experiences across the district. (WRE) Increase access to learning for students and counseling in grades 6-8, connected to college and careers. (WRE) Continue to develop culturally responsive early literacy programs and practices, building expertise in practice within our dual language programs. (WRE) Increase evidence-based support for school transitions between schools/ levels with a focus on kindergarten, grades 4 through 6, and grades 8 though 9. Reduced Class Size/Caseload (RCS) Add staff strategically and develop strategies for supporting research based student/ staff caseloads and class sizes. (RCS) Increase capacity of instructional assistants to provide academic and behavioral support for teachers and students in classrooms. (RCS) Increase staff and develop strategies for supporting appropriate caseloads for students in special programs. Increased Instructional Time (IIT) Increase access to before and after school programs that support academic progress and provide access to a more well-rounded education. (IIT) Increase access to summer school programs and courses that support academic progress, acceleration, and provide access to a more well rounded education. (IIT) Explore strategies and enhance alternative uses of technology to access learning, minimize test-taking time, and extend learning options. Health and Safety (H&S) Provide staff, strategies, and systems support for student mental and behavioral health and safety. (H&S) Implement a system for Social and Emotional Learning across the district that is evidence-based, culturally responsive, and supports academic learning in the classroom. Ongoing Community Engagement (OCG) Create coherent systems of ongoing community and family interaction and support that result in an increase in a sense of belonging for students and families in ways that enhance learning. \| Category \| Description \| Cost \| \|---------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------\| \| Increase Instructional Time \| Provides needed caseload reduction and academic support for staff supporting many of our most vulnerable students. Mentoring and coaching supports for these staff will enhance their ability to support students and staff in critical areas of instruction specific to supporting underserved groups of students. \| \| \| 1.0 FTE \| Add an additional 1.0 FTE to support before, after, and night school programs providing targeted student support. This provides flexibility and opportunity for access to courses and programs outside the regular school day where conflicts may reduce access to desired learning experiences. \| $120,000 \| \| \| Contract services for after school programs to provide for necessary transportation and/or curriculum supports for targeted/underserved groups of students. \| $20,000 \| \| \| Extended time and FTE to offer high school courses for credit during the summer. Beyond credit-recovery this provides the opportunity for students to take high school courses that can provide them flexibility and access during the regular school year. Courses offered can support class size reduction during the year and provide for broader/well-rounded educational opportunities. \| $150,000 \| \| \| Contract services (transportation/staffing) for summer school programs, which would allow expansion of access for targeted/underserved middle and elementary school students. \| $75,000 \| \| Health and Safety Needs \| \| \| \| 11.0 FTE \| Increase by 11.0 licensed FTE to enhance systems of support for student mental and behavioral health and safety. This will include support for staff to implement a system of culturally responsive social and emotional learning. This could include counselors, social workers, behavioral specialists, etc., and would be supported with curriculum, consultancy, and professional learning systems to enhance implementation. \| $1,320,000 \| \| \| Extended time and consult to support implementation of social and emotional learning systems and related Multi-Tiered Systems of Support. \| $75,000 \| \| Other: Community Engagement \| \| \| \| \| Extended time for family engagement activities. \| $5,000 \| \| Administration \| \| \| \| \| Arthur Academy charter school allocation. \| $131,567 \| \| \| Indirect cost. \| $262,501 \| Artifacts The Student Success Act, a law passed by legislators last session, provides for additional funding to support students, particularly those historically underserved, in several broad areas. The Student Success Act includes resources to support 1) A Student Investment Account; 2) Early Learning; and 3) Other Education Initiatives (this includes High School Success –Measure 98). The Student Investment Account will allow us to enhance our efforts to maintain optimal class and learning group size, to provide a well-rounded education, to increase student time for learning, to enhance systems for student health and safety, and to support access to engaging, relevant, and challenging courses fueled by quality instruction. We would like to take this opportunity for you to share your feedback about areas that we might prioritize. Choose your top 2 priorities in each section and place an X in the box to the left. \| Reducing Class Size \| \|---------------------\| \| • Ensure appropriate student-teacher ratios in classrooms \| \| • Increase use of instructional assistants to support classrooms \| \| • Ensure appropriate caseloads for students in special programs \| \| • Ensure appropriate caseloads-support for newcomer students \| \| • Ensure appropriate caseloads-staff support for English language learners \| \| Well Rounded Education I \| \|--------------------------\| \| • Increasing developmentally and culturally responsive programs and practices for early literacy. \| \| • Developing culturally responsive programs and practices in grades 6-8. \| \| • Learning, counseling, and student support in grades 6-8 that is connected to colleges and careers \| \| • Increased access to dropout prevention supports. \| \| • Increased support for school transitions. \| \| Well Rounded Education II \| \|---------------------------\| \| • Increase access to fine arts at the elementary and middle school level \| \| • Increase access to PE at all levels \| \| • Increase access to science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) program \| \| • Increase access to career and technology education programs \| \| • Increase access to advanced courses (International Baccalaureate, Advanced Placement) \| \| • Increased access to courses with college credit attached. \| \| • Increased access to educators with library/media endorsements \| \| Increase Instructional Time \| \|----------------------------\| \| • Add more hours to the instructional day \| \| • Add more instructional days to the year \| \| • Add more before or after school programs \| \| • Add more summer school programs and/or courses \| \| • Support technology that minimizes the time it takes for tests \| \| Health and Safety \| \|-------------------\| \| • Add training in social-emotional learning to enhance classroom instruction \| \| • Add training in trauma-informed practices to enhance classroom instruction \| \| • Increase support for student mental and behavioral health services \| \| • Increase training and support for crisis prevention and intervention \| \| • Add more school health professionals and/or assistants \| \| • Enhance facilities to directly improve health and safety \| \| • Increase awareness and training in suicide prevention \| What are your other ideas about: 1. Reducing academic disparities 2. Meeting student mental and emotional health needs 3. Providing access to academic courses 4. Allowing teachers and staff time to collaborate, use data, and develop strategies to keep students on track. 5. Establishing partnerships Draft Agenda • Welcome – Introductions • Task Force Goals • Learn about District and its planning and investing processes • Review and analyze District enrollment, performance, and survey data • Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge • Recommend areas for strategic investment aligned with Student Investment Account • Planning Overview: • The WSD Strategic Plan • The Student Success Act • The Student Investment Account • Practice Data Review and Analysis • Enrollment Data (What do you notice? What are possible implications?) • Performance Data - Report Card- (What do you notice? What are possible implications? • Survey Data- • Take Survey- • Review organization of results • Practice grouping with responses to open ended questions • Suggestions for Outreach Draft Agenda - Welcome – Introductions - Task Force Goals - Learn about District and its planning and investing processes - Review and analyze District data from a variety of sources - Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge - Recommend areas for strategic investment aligned with Student Investment Account - Reflect on learnings from our last meeting. - Strategic Plan and goals, enrollment, report card, and survey data - Bringing student voice to the task force - Student panel representing 5 high schools - Review and respond to the Oregon Healthy Teen Survey - Review updated survey data: Priorities - Review updated survey data: Themes in Open Ended Responses - Next Meeting, December 16, 2019 Draft Agenda - Welcome – Introduction - Task Force Goals - Learn about District and its planning and investing processes - Review and analyze District data from a variety of sources - Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge - Recommend areas for strategic investment aligned with Student Investment Account - Reflect and recap on learnings from our last meetings. - Strategic Plan and goals, enrollment, report card, survey priority data, teen health survey data, survey open ended response data - Bringing the voices of community behavior and mental health specialists to the task force - Panel representing police, school psychologists, behavioral specialists, and nurses - Review disaggregated survey data: Compare Priorities - What do we notice when we compare priorities of parents, students, staff, ethnic and gender groups? - Review focus group data: Compare Themes - What do we notice when we compare themes from our open ended survey responses to responses from focus group sessions? - Consider implications: What areas of investment are emerging? - Next Meeting: January 27, 2019 WSD Community Engagement Task Force Session 4 January 27, 2020 Draft Agenda - Welcome – Introduction - Task Force Goals - Learn about District and its planning and investing processes - Review and analyze District data from a variety of sources - Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge - Recommend areas for strategic investment aligned with Student Investment Account - Reflect and recap on learnings from our last meetings. - Strategic Plan and goals, enrollment, report card, survey priority data, teen health survey data, survey open ended response data, graduation rates, parent feedback-specialist feedback, and emerging strategies and solutions. - Bringing the voices and experiences of our building principals to the process - Panels representing high school principals and middle/elementary principals - Building principals will share SIA related needs based on their school improvement data and school level experiences. - Review emerging prior strategies and themes - Review and refine emerging themes and strategies in the context of the SIA targeted areas and allowable areas of investment. - Categorize and prioritize refined strategies - Use the SIA framework to categorize strategies-prioritize based on feedback and supporting evidence - Next and Final Meeting, February 24, 2020 Draft Agenda - Welcome – Introductions - Task Force Goals - Learn about District and its planning and investing processes - Review and analyze District data from a variety of sources - Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge - Recommend areas for strategic investments aligned with Student Investment Account and provide feedback on planning and process - Reflect and recap on planning and process to date: “Moving the Mission” and “Building Belief” - Reflect on Draft SIA Plan and Alignment to SIA Application Guidelines - Review documents shared with the Board Tuesday night - Review Data and District Project Updates - Updated survey data and WEA feedback - Elementary Class Size - Regional CTE - District Construction - Social and Emotional Learning Framework - Review emerging strategy details and analyze for alignment to SIA Guidelines - Timelines - March 3: Present Draft Application/Plan to the Board - March 17: Propose Board Approval - April 15: Deadline for Submission of Application to ODE - April-June: Work with ODE to Develop Outcomes Welcome! Community Engagement Task Force Expanding Our Sphere of Success February 24, 2020 ...to engage, inspire, and prepare all students to learn, lead, and contribute toward a just community, both local and global. Building Belief Children’s belief in themselves is the greatest influence on-and predictor of the level of their eventual performance, achievement, and success. Strategies are High-Leverage when they build competence and confidence (belief). WSD Strategic Plan Our Mission Our promise is to engage, inspire, and prepare all students to learn, lead, and contribute toward a just community, both local and global. Our Vision Woodburn School District will be an exceptional, equitable, and multilingual district, where all students are motivated, empowered, and prepared to succeed. Our Values Accountability Civic Responsibility Cultural Diversity Equity Family and Community Partnerships Learning Multilingualism Safety Goals and Objectives All students will graduate ready to pursue college, career, or military training with the skills needed: • All students will be proficient in skills that serve them for success in life • All students will be proficient in reading, writing, and math • All students will have access to technology and internet equity • All students will have pathways to complete post-secondary level course work prior to graduation • All students will have pathways to complete career and technical education course work, aligned with industry certifications prior to graduation • All students will be informed and prepared through experience to successfully apply learning to civic challenges Strengthen our culture of engagement, centered in equity • All students will practice ownership of their social, emotional, and educational well-being • All staff will foster positive and supportive relationships to facilitate student growth and provide meaningful and equitable opportunities for learning fair for all students • All families and community members will have opportunities to engage in school and support their, emotional, and academic success for all students • All students will have access to resources to support their (academic, life) goals Further strengthen our stewardship of public trust and enhance community trust • WSD will improve and maximize support services • WSD will ensure quality district facilities for current enrollment and anticipated future growth • WSD will be a leader in hiring, developing, and retaining quality staff, reflective and supportive of our student community Board Goals Strategic Focus • Grow student achievement through the use of high-leverage instructional and engagement strategies that raise rigor for all students, generate equitable outcomes, and eliminate opportunity and achievement gaps. • Engage diverse groups within our school community to share the goals and vision within our strategic and improvement plans, to listen to their hopes for the future, and to gather input from them to use in planning, visioning, investing, and in our superintendent search. • Work intentionally as a Board and within our school community to, build positive relationships, culture and operate in ways that generate shared understanding, build cultural competence, allow for effective communication networks, and create a sense of unity. • Respond to community growth and student learning needs of the future by conducting long-range capital improvements and financial planning through processes and practices that lead to long-term financial stability and sustainability. Key Timelines - February-March: Present draft plan to public/board - March/April: Board approval - April 15: Submit Plan to ODE - April-June: Negotiate measures with ODE --- Student Success Act - Student Investment Account - Early Learning - Other Education Initiatives Student Investment Account 1. Meet students’ mental and behavioral health needs. 2. Increase academic achievement and reduce academic disparities for students: of color, with disabilities, emerging as bilingual, navigating poverty and/or homelessness, or others historically underserved in school. How can we use SIA money? 4 Categories of investment for the Student Investment Account. - Engage the Community - Use and Equity Lens Community Engagement and Equity Lens \| SIA: Evidence/Need Based Strategies \| \|-------------------------------------\| \| Reduce class and caseload size \| Increase instructional time \| Well-rounded education \| Mental and Behavioral Health and Safety \| \| Mental and Behavioral Health & Safety \| \| \| \| \| Increase Academic Achievement \| \| \| \| \| Reduce Disparities \| \| \| \| Community Engagement - Community Survey - Teachers and Support Staff Survey - Parents at Schools - Parents from Migrant Program - Parents and Students with Disabilities - District Parent Advisory Council - Administrators - Newcomer Students - Success School Students - Selected Student Panel - Mental/Behavioral Health Panel - Principal Panel - Principal/Staff Leadership & Improvement Sessions Student Success Act - Data Review - Survey - Enrollment Data - Report Cards - Focus Groups - Community Organizations - Teen Health Survey - TELL Survey - Grad Rates WSD Community Engagement Task Force Session 4 January 27, 2020 Draft Agenda - Welcome – Introduction - Task Force Goals - Learn about District and its planning and investing processes - Review and analyze District data from a variety of sources - Identify broad themes and/or priorities that emerge - Recommend areas for strategic investments aligned with Student Investment Account - Reflect and recap on learnings from our last meeting - Review and refine emerging themes, report card, survey priority data, teen health survey data, survey open ended response data, graduation rates, parent feedback specialist feedback, and emerging strategies and solutions - Bringing the voices and experiences of our building principals to the process - Panels representing high school principals and middle/elementary principals - Building principals will share SIA related needs based on their school improvement data and school level experiences - Review emerging prior strategies and themes - Review and refine emerging themes and strategies in the context of the SIA targeted areas and allowable areas of investment - Categorize and prioritize refined strategies - Use the SIA framework to categorize strategies-prioritize based on feedback and supporting evidence - Next and Final Meeting, February 24, 2020 ### Enrollment Trends #### 2018-19/2019-2020 October 1st Disaggregated Enrollment Data \| Grade \| Students \| Gender \| Race/Ethnicity \| Special Programs \| \|-------\|----------\|--------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| \| \| Male \| Female \| Hip \| Am Ind \| Asian \| Black \| White Pac Island \| Multi \| IEP \| Migrant \| TAG \| 24 \| \| K \| 511 \| 263 \| 248 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 1 \| 443 \| 213 \| 230 \| 3 \| 0 \| 0 \| 2 \| 77 \| 0 \| 5 \| 48 \| 36 \| 5 \| \| 2 \| 432 \| 217 \| 215 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 3 \| 443 \| 213 \| 230 \| 3 \| 0 \| 0 \| 2 \| 77 \| 0 \| 5 \| 48 \| 36 \| 5 \| \| 4 \| 469 \| 236 \| 233 \| 1 \| 3 \| 0 \| 97 \| 4 \| 2 \| 62 \| 27 \| 45 \| 230 \| \| 5 \| 459 \| 230 \| 229 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 1 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Total \| 2690 \| 1350 \| 1340 \| 3 \| 11 \| 2 \| 465 \| 7 \| 24 \| 335 \| 178 \| 133 \| 1417 \| \| Grade \| Students \| Gender \| Race/Ethnicity \| Special Programs \| \|-------\|----------\|--------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| \| \| Male \| Female \| Hip \| Am Ind \| Asian \| Black \| White Pac Island \| Multi \| IEP \| Migrant \| TAG \| 24 \| \| 6 \| 451 \| 230 \| 221 \| 1 \| 3 \| 2 \| 2 \| 63 \| 1 \| 3 \| 85 \| 35 \| 63 \| \| 7 \| 488 \| 244 \| 244 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 8 \| 488 \| 244 \| 244 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Total \| 1357 \| 673 \| 675 \| 3 \| 3 \| 2 \| 101 \| 6 \| 8 \| 167 \| 86 \| 207 \| 241 \| Total K-12 Enrollment: 5576 #### 2019-20/2020-2021 October 1st Disaggregated Enrollment Data \| Grade \| Students \| Gender \| Race/Ethnicity \| Special Programs \| \|-------\|----------\|--------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| \| \| Male \| Female \| Hip \| Am Ind \| Asian \| Black \| White Pac Island \| Multi \| IEP \| Migrant \| TAG \| 24 \| \| K \| 413 \| 219 \| 194 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0 \| 24 \| 1 \| 3 \| 43 \| 57 \| 0 \| 246 \| \| 1 \| 387 \| 194 \| 193 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 2 \| 416 \| 213 \| 203 \| 1 \| 0 \| 0 \| 2 \| 67 \| 0 \| 6 \| 57 \| 63 \| 249 \| \| 3 \| 427 \| 214 \| 213 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 4 \| 452 \| 230 \| 222 \| 0 \| 2 \| 0 \| 64 \| 2 \| 2 \| 63 \| 67 \| 35 \| 222 \| \| 5 \| 450 \| 228 \| 222 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| 0 \| \| Total \| 2623 \| 1341 \| 1280 \| 1 \| 11 \| 3 \| 423 \| 6 \| 24 \| 329 \| 366 \| 125 \| 1458 \| \| Grade \| Students \| Gender \| Race/Ethnicity \| Special Programs \| \|-------\|----------\|--------\|----------------\|------------------\| \| \| \| Male \| Female \| Hip \| Am Ind \| Asian \| Black \| White Pac Island \| Multi \| IEP \| Migrant \| TAG \| 24 \| \| 6 \| 451 \| 230 \| 221 \| 1 \| 3 \| 2 \| 2 \| 63 \| 1 \| 3 \| 85 \| 35 \| 63 \| \| 7 \| 454 \| 227 \| 227 \| 1 \| 2 \| 2 \| 58 \| 0 \| 2 \| 81 \| 55 \| 66 \| 112 \| \| 8 \| 454 \| 227 \| 227 \| 1 \| 2 \| 2 \| 58 \| 0 \| 2 \| 81 \| 55 \| 66 \| 112 \| \| Total \| 1350 \| 707 \| 683 \| 3 \| 7 \| 4 \| 186 \| 3 \| 9 \| 257 \| 171 \| 184 \| 348 \| Total K-12 Enrollment: 5625 ### Achievement Trends #### Oregon At-A-Glance District Profile Woodburn SD 103 Student Success - Students Served: 5,559 - Regular Attendees: 95% - Grade 3 English Language Arts: 16% proficient with grade level expectations - Grade 3 Math: 47% proficient with grade level expectations - Grade 5 On Track to Graduate: 71% have earned enough credits to start 8th grade year - Grade 8 On Time Graduation: 89% District Goals - Grade 3 English Language Arts: Increase students’ proficiency with grade level expectations - Grade 5 Math: Increase students’ proficiency with grade level expectations - Grade 8 On Time Graduation: Increase graduation rate for all students The Oregon Department of Education is partnering with school districts and local education agencies to improve student achievement in English language arts, math, and science. The department will provide technical assistance to support these efforts. For more information please visit: [www.oregon.gov/ode/standards](http://www.oregon.gov/ode/standards) Report Card Measures Grades K-2 REGULAR ATTENDERS Students who attended more than 90% of their enrolled school days. Increase from previous year 1% 73% Oregon average 83% Report Card Measures Grade 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS Students meeting state grade-level expectations. Decrease from previous year 4% 16% Oregon average 47% Report Card Measures Grade 8 MATHEMATICS Students meeting state grade-level expectations. No change from previous year 17% Oregon average 39% Report Card Measures • Variance in Grade 9 On Track and Graduation Rate Grade 9 ON-TRACK TO GRADUATE Students earning one-quarter of graduation credits in their 9th grade year. Decrease from previous year 3% 71% Oregon average 85% Grade 12 ON-TIME GRADUATION Students earning a diploma within four years. Cohort includes students who were first-time ninth graders in 2014-15. No change from previous year 89% Oregon average 79% Report Card Variances Outcomes \| Grades K-2 REGULAR ATTENDERS \| Grade 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS \| Grades 3-8 INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROGRESS \| \|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| American Indian/Alaska Native: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Asian: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Black/African American: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Hispanic/Latino: 78% \| 13% \| Average \| \| Multiracial: 81% \| <10 students or data unavailable \| High \| \| Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| White: 52% \| 32% \| High \| \| Free/Reduced Price Lunch: 73% \| 16% \| Average \| \| Ever English Learner: 77% \| 10% \| Average \| \| Students with Disabilities: 71% \| <5% \| Average \| \| Migrant: 81% \| 14% \| Average \| \| Talented and Gifted: >95% \| 48% \| High \| \| Female: 72% \| 20% \| Average \| \| Male: 75% \| 13% \| Average \| \| Non-Binary: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| Data are suppressed to protect confidential student information. --- Report Card Variances Outcomes \| Grades K-2 REGULAR ATTENDERS \| Grade 3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS \| Grades 3-8 INDIVIDUAL STUDENT PROGRESS \| \|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| American Indian/Alaska Native: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Asian: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Black/African American: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| Hispanic/Latino: 78% \| 13% \| Average \| \| Multiracial: 81% \| <10 students or data unavailable \| High \| \| Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| \| White: 52% \| 32% \| High \| \| Free/Reduced Price Lunch: 73% \| 16% \| Average \| \| Ever English Learner: 77% \| 10% \| Average \| \| Students with Disabilities: 71% \| <5% \| Average \| \| Migrant: 81% \| 14% \| Average \| \| Talented and Gifted: >95% \| 48% \| High \| \| Female: 72% \| 20% \| Average \| \| Male: 75% \| 13% \| Average \| \| Non-Binary: <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| <10 students or data unavailable \| Data are suppressed to protect confidential student information. Increase access to learning for students and counseling in grades 6-8, connected to college and careers Continue to develop culturally responsive early literacy programs and practices Increase support of school transitions between schools/ levels Increase access to science, technology, engineering and mathematics across the district Increase access to art programs at the Elementary level across the District Increase access and offerings to career and technology education across the district Increase access to summer school programs and courses that support academic progress and provide access to a more well rounded education Increase access to before and after school programs that support academic progress and provide access to a more well-rounded education Explore strategies including alternative uses of technology to minimize test taking time Implement a system for Social and Emotional Learning that is culturally responsive and in support of academic learning in the classroom Create coherent systems of ongoing community and family interaction to support students in their sense of belonging Enhance systems of support for student mental and behavioral health and safety Increase systems for access to school health professionals and assistants Open Ended Questions - What are your ideas about how we might: - Reduce academic disparities? - Meet students mental and behavioral health needs? - Provide access to challenging academic courses? - Allow teachers and staff time to collaborate, use data, and develop strategies to keep students on track? - Establish productive partnerships? Emerging Themes Meeting Mental and Behavioral Health Needs - Increase staffing for counseling, behavior specialist, social workers, nurses, wrap around supports - Professional learning for SEL and related systems of support and understanding - School based health center - Analyze schedules – increase options and flexibility Time for collaboration for using data and developing strategies to keep students on track - Increase prep time, work days, and summer options - Use technology, dashboards and communication oracles - Provide professional learning in differentiation – make it more teacher driven - MTSS and collaboration – more professional learning – more summer and before/afterschool options Establishing Productive Partnerships - Connect more with the business community - More inter-school collaboration - More partners in the mental health support network - Technology to enhance collaboration - Community partners to support specific CTE programs - More services for newcomers-SIFE students - Analyze schedules for barriers to access - Provide professional learning opportunities - Improve communication systems Access to Academic Courses - CTE and Vocational/Trades Courses - IB and AP—Access for a wider range of students - More opportunities in The Arts - More ethnically and culturally relevant elective courses - Increase FTE to support course offerings - OnLine/Hybrid Course Opportunities Reducing Academic Disparities • Focus on Literacy and Dual Language Resources • Smaller class sizes and caseloads • Summer School Options • More Assistants and Tutors • Provide Professional Learning for Teachers Around Academics, Behaviors Management, and Differentiation Emerging Strategies for Investment • Reduce class and caseload size • Broaden program opportunities • Add CTE/Vocational/Trade programs • Create coordinated systems for mental and behavioral health support • Extend learning time—summer—before school—after school • Coordinate systems for SEL/Culturally responsive curriculum and practice • Training in SEL/ACES/Trauma informed/Culturally Responsive Practice • Improve core instruction for mathematics • Improve core instruction to support language learner access to content • Improve core instruction in language development • Support strategies to improve attendance • Create time for collaborative planning • Consider a school-based health clinic—add nurses • Increase and improve family communication and engagement • Increase staff of social workers, counselors, behavior and mental health specialists • Strengthen Community Partnerships District-wide Strategies • Implement a culturally responsive SEL program using evidence-based frameworks and practices. • Provide materials, support, and consultancy for the professional learning of staff for using the SEL framework. • Strategically hire and place counselors, social workers, and/or behavioral specialists to provide support for students and to support staff in the implementation of system wide school and classroom support for academic, social, and emotional learning. District-wide Strategies • Provide extended learning opportunities (after school, before school, evening, summer school) that support academic progress, access to well-rounded education, credit recovery, access to CTE, and serve to reduce class size during the regular school day. • Provide materials, support, and consultancy for the professional learning of staff to support mathematics, literacy, and language instruction. • Provide research-based support for student transitions (with focus on grades 8-9 and 5-6). • Support transportation strategies to increase access to a wide range of school experiences and opportunities. • Support a variety of evidence-based family engagement and involvement strategies. Elementary - Additional licensed and classified FTE to develop systems that would result in reducing class and caseload size in the early grades to support inclusive practice, relationship building, and proficiency in literacy, language, and mathematics. - Additional FTE to support the development and implementation of culturally responsive social emotional learning practices and to provide support for student mental and behavioral health, safety, and wellness. - Additional FTE to support enhanced access to broadened educational opportunities (well-rounded education) such as visual and performing arts, music, careers, & technology. Middle Level - Additional licensed and classified FTE to develop systems resulting in strategically reducing class and caseload size to support inclusive practice, relationship building, and increased proficiency in literacy, language, and mathematics. - Additional FTE to support the development and implementation of culturally responsive social emotional learning practices and to provide support for student mental and behavioral health, safety, and wellness. - Additional FTE to support enhanced access to broadened educational opportunities (well-rounded education) such as visual and performing arts, music, careers, & technology. High School • Additional licensed and classified FTE to develop systems resulting in strategically reducing class and caseload size at grades 9-10 to support inclusive practice, relationship building, and increased proficiency in literacy, language, and mathematics. • Additional FTE to support the development and implementation of culturally responsive social emotional learning practices and to provide support for student mental and behavioral health, safety, and wellness. • Additional FTE to support enhanced access to broadened educational opportunities in CTE, music, careers, & technology. Review of Draft Plans • What questions arise? • What alignment is noticed? • What are implications for strategy/improvement? Evidence-driven and Research-based Strategies: Each should: - Use feedback from community engagement and community engagement task force. - Use an Equity Lens - Improve student achievement - Reduce academic disparities/Equity and Opportunity Gaps - Address student mental and behavioral health needs - Reducing class-caseload-instructional grouping size - Strategically increasing time for instruction - Provide access to more well-rounded education - Provide for social and emotional learning and mental and behavioral health supports Drafting Evidence Drives Strategies \| SIA: Evidence/Need Based Strategies \| Reduce class and caseload size \| Increase instructional time \| Well-rounded education \| Mental and Behavioral Health and Safety \| \|-------------------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-----------------------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------------------\| \| Mental and Behavioral Health & Safety \| \| \| \| \| \| Increase Academic Achievement \| \| \| \| \| \| Reduce Disparities \| \| \| \| \| Some Updates Parent/Guardian 45% Teacher 31% Licensed Support Staff 5% Administrator 5% Community Member 3% District support staff 0% Educational Assistant 1% Instructional Coach/Mentor 0% Confidential staff 0% Classified Staff 0% After School Club 0% Special Ed Assistant 0% Caucasian 39% Hispanic/Latin x 50% Opportunity Checklist Goal Our goal was to reach underserved and marginalized community members for whom traditional outreach methods may present barriers to participation. Parents had the opportunity to communicate and articulate their students’ needs by alternate means. Many responses were obtained through in-person contact and one-to-one conversations. Outreach began in August 2019 at Fiesta Mexicana, an important community gathering. WEA Outreach - People 389 Total Responses - 100 Parents - 26% - 78 Students - 20% - 13 Community Members - 3% - 197 Educators - 51% - 1 Aspiring Educator - 0% WEA Opportunity Checklist Top 15 \| Top My School My Voice Checklist Options \| Number of Responses \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------\| \| Count of Class sizes that allow for one-on-one attention \| 201 \| \| Count of Active community involvement \| 179 \| \| Count of Staff that has time to collaborate \| 156 \| \| Count of A community free from bullying and harassment \| 156 \| \| Count of Use of early warning systems to keep students on track \| 150 \| \| Count of Healthy meals \| 142 \| \| Count of Fine arts \| 141 \| \| Count of Ample/appropriate learning spaces \| 136 \| \| Count of All staff are trained in positive behavioral supports and bullying prevention \| 135 \| \| Count of Regular physical education classes \| 135 \| \| Count of School counselor \| 131 \| \| Count of Career and technical education \| 129 \| \| Count of Paraeducators and other education support professionals \| 129 \| \| Count of Materials available in the languages the school serves \| 129 \| \| Count of Relevant, timely professional development \| 121 \| Elementary Class Size - Review the document showing updated class sizes at our elementary schools. What do you notice and/or wonder? Influences on Class/Caseload Size - Schedules - School Organization (Small schools, classes per grade, blends) - Boundaries - Programs - Repeating Courses - # Periods and Preparation Time - Length of School Day - Special program elements and organization Exploring Learning Partnerships (Alliances) that Expand the Sphere of Success Social and Emotional Learning Framework The ability to accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior. The ability to accurately assess one’s strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence, optimism, and a “growth mindset.” - Identifying Emotions - Accurate Self-Perception - Recognizing Strengths - Self-Confidence - Self-Efficacy The ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds and cultures. The ability to understand social and emotional norms for behavior and to recognize family, school, and community resources and supports. - Perspective Taking - Empathy - Appreciating Diversity - Respect for Others The ability to successfully regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in different situations – effectively managing stress, controlling impulses, and motivating oneself. The ability to set and work toward personal and academic goals. - Impulse Control - Stress Management - Self-Discipline - Self-Motivation - Goal Setting - Organizational Skills The ability to make constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions based on ethical standards, safety concerns, and social norms. The ability to recognize inappropriate social pressure, negotiate conflict constructively, and seek help when needed. - Identifying Problems - Analyzing Situations - Solving Problems - Evaluating - Reflecting - Ethical Responsibility The ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups. The ability to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, resolve conflict, demonstrate empathy, and work productively and effectively with others. - Communication - Social Engagement - Relationship Building - Teamwork © 2017 CASEL. All Rights Reserved Social and Emotional Learning SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING (SEL) COMPETENCIES SELF-AWARENESS - The ability to accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior. The ability to accurately assess one’s strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence, optimism, and a “growth mindset.” - Identifying Emotions - Accurate Self-Perception - Recognizing Strengths - Self-Confidence - Self-Efficacy SELF-MANAGEMENT - The ability to successfully regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in different situations – effectively managing stress, controlling impulses, and motivating oneself. The ability to set and work toward personal and academic goals. - Impulse Control - Stress Management - Self-Discipline - Self-Motivation - Goal Setting - Organizational Skills SOCIAL AWARENESS - The ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds and cultures. The ability to understand social and emotional norms for behavior and to recognize family, school, and community resources and supports. - Perspective Taking - Empathy - Appreciating Diversity - Respect for Others RESPONSIBLE DECISION-MAKING - The ability to make constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions based on ethical standards, safety concerns, and social norms. The ability to recognize inappropriate social pressure, negotiate conflict constructively, and seek help when needed. - Identifying Problems - Analyzing Situations - Solving Problems - Evaluating - Reflecting - Ethical Responsibility RELATIONSHIP SKILLS - The ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups. The ability to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, resolve conflict, demonstrate empathy, and work productively and effectively with others. - Communication - Social Engagement - Relationship Building - Teamwork © 2017 CASEL. All Rights Reserved JANUARY 2017 COLLABORATIVE FOR ACADEMIC, SOCIAL, AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING www.casel.org • Leadership for District-Wide Social and Emotional Learning Expanding Our Sphere of Success Academic Mindsets - a possible vision of success (...are beliefs, attitudes, or ways of perceiving oneself in relation to the intellectual work that supports academic performance) - I belong to this academic community - a strong sense of academic belonging - social and intellectual community. - I can succeed at this - the degree to which students believe they are good at a particular task or field. - My ability and competence grow with effort and practice - growth mindset - challenge and mistakes are opportunities to learn. - This work has value for me - intrinsic value placed on the tasks/topics - connected in some way to students’ lives, future, pursuit, or interests. “An alliance is more than a friendship. It is a relationship of mutual support as partners navigate challenging situations.” ...cause children to believe in themselves Regional CTE Facility Visioning High Wage-High Demand - Healthcare Social Services - Manufacturing - Construction - Diesel & Automotive - Computer Science & Engineering - Aviation HID-WILLAMETTE REGIONAL CAREER TECHNICAL EDUCATION CENTER Marion, Polk & Yamhill - PHASE 2 EXPANSION The Salem Keizer Career & Technical Education Center provides outstanding service to the students of the Salem Keizer School District and the community at large. The center currently serves over 1,000 students in the Salem Keizer School District, and has leveraged over $9 million in private investment and $3 million in public investment. THE CTEC program is now on track to expand into a Phase 2 – the Mid-Willamette Regional CTEC – which will serve students from Marion, Polk, and Yamhill counties. This expansion is made possible through partnerships with Willamette Education Service District (WESD), representing 25 school districts, and serving approximately 60,000 students. The Mid-Willamette Regional CTEC will provide a regional career and technical facility and provide access to high wage, high demand career and technical education (CTE) programs. Regional Impact District superintendents and school board members are excited about the program and have expressed their support for the regional expansion. The new regional program will prepare students for high wage, high demand local and regional workforce, and will help students enter the workforce quickly. Students entering the high wage and high demand career pathways that are critical to our economy will benefit greatly from the new regional CTEC. Businesses and industries in the region will be attracted to investing in the region’s future. Project Costs Anticipated first year project costs: - Facility: 47,000 sqft site purchase in process - $4 million - Site improvements and modifications - $2 million - Program equipment and supplies - $2 million MWIC has committed a donation to cover the $4 million cost of facility purchase. WESD and partner districts have committed to $1 million in initial funding. Annual operating cost will be borne by participating school districts. These funds will be used to pay for staffing, utilities, and other program equipment. These funds will be required to complete the project and open the Center by fall 2021. 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Picture-Perfect STEM Lessons, Grade 2 Using Children’s Books for Three-Dimensional Learning by Karen Ansberry and Emily Morgan Picture-Perfect STEM Lessons, Grade 2 Using Children’s Books for Three-Dimensional Learning by Karen Ansberry and Emily Morgan NSTA Press National Science Teaching Association Arlington, Virginia ## Contents Preface ................................................................. v Acknowledgments .................................................. ix About the Authors ................................................ xi About the Picture-Perfect STEM Program ................... xiii Safety Practices for Science Activities ........................ xv 1 Why Use Picture Books to Teach STEM? ....................... 1 2 Reading Aloud ..................................................... 13 3 Three-Dimensional Learning .................................... 25 4 BSCS 5E Instructional Model ................................... 37 5 Connecting to the Standards .................................... 47 6 How Big Is a Foot? .............................................. 61 How Big Is a Foot? and How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? 7 Imaginative Inventions .......................................... 79 Imaginative Inventions and Flip! How the Frisbee Took Flight 8 Melting and Freezing ........................................... 107 The Boy Who Invented the Popsicle: The Cool Science Behind Frank Epperson’s Famous Frozen Treat and Melting and Freezing \| Chapter \| Title \| Page \| \|---------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| 9 \| That Magnetic Dog \| 127 \| \| \| That Magnetic Dog and Is It Magnetic or Nonmagnetic? \| \| \| 10 \| Crayons \| 145 \| \| \| The Day the Crayons Came Home and The Crayon Man: The True Story of the Invention of Crayola Crayons \| \| \| 11 \| Science Mysteries \| 165 \| \| \| Ada Twist, Scientist and Matter \| \| \| 12 \| Build It! \| 191 \| \| \| Iggy Peck, Architect and Dreaming Up: A Celebration of Building \| \| \| 13 \| Seeds on the Move \| 209 \| \| \| Flip, Float, Fly: Seeds on the Move and Who Will Plant a Tree? \| \| \| 14 \| Flight of the Pollinators \| 229 \| \| \| Flowers Are Calling and What Is Pollination? \| \| \| 15 \| If You Find a Rock \| 247 \| \| \| If You Find a Rock and Rocks: Hard, Soft, Smooth, and Rough \| \| \| 16 \| Wind and Water \| 269 \| \| \| Kate, Who Tamed the Wind and How Do Wind and Water Change Earth? \| \| \| 17 \| Our Blue Planet \| 295 \| \| \| All the Water in the World and Earth’s Landforms and Bodies of Water \| \| Index .................................................................................................................. 317 How Big Is a Foot? Description Learners explore the history of measurement from the ancient Egyptian use of nonstandard units to the modern-day metric system. They learn why standard measuring tools are useful and that their development was a problem-solving process that took centuries. Alignment with the Next Generation Science Standards \| Performance Expectation \| K-2-ETS1-1: Ask questions, make observations, and gather information about a situation that people want to change to define a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool \| \|-------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Science and Engineering Practices \| Disciplinary Core Ideas \| Crosscutting Concept \| \| Analyzing and Interpreting Data \| Analyze data from tests of an object or tool to determine if it works as intended. \| ETS1.A: Defining and Delimiting Engineering Problems A situation that people want to change or create can be approached as a problem to be solved through engineering. Such problems may have many acceptable solutions. Asking questions, making observations, and gathering information are helpful in thinking about problems. Before beginning to design a solution, it is important to clearly understand the problem. \| Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Standard units are used to measure length. \| \| Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking \| Use quantitative data to compare two alternative solutions to a problem. \| Note: The activities in this lesson will help students move toward the performance expectations listed, which is the goal after multiple activities. However, the activities will not by themselves be sufficient to reach the performance expectations. Contemporary research on how students learn science, reflected in the Next Generation Science Standards and other state standards based in A Framework for K–12 Science Education, requires that engineering lessons taught as part of the science curriculum provide students with opportunities to “acquire and use elements of disciplinary core ideas from physical, life, or Earth and space sciences together with elements of disciplinary core ideas from engineering design to solve design problems.” (NGSS Lesson Screener, [www.nextgenscience.org/screener](http://www.nextgenscience.org/screener)) Featured Picture Books How Big Is a Foot? - Title: How Big Is a Foot? - Author: Rolf Myller - Illustrator: Rolf Myller - Publisher: Young Yearling - Year: 1991 - Genre: Story - Summary: The King has a problem. He wants to give the Queen a bed for her birthday, but no one knows the answer to the question “How big is a bed?” How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? - Title: How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? - Author: David A. Adler - Illustrator: Nancy Tobin - Publisher: Holiday House - Year: 1999 - Genre: Non-Narrative Information - Summary: Colorful cartoons and easy-to-follow text introduce the history of measurement, from the ancient Egyptian system to the metric system. Time Needed This lesson will take several class periods. Suggested scheduling is as follows: Session 1: Engage with How Big Is a Foot? Read-Aloud and Explore with Measuring with Feet Session 2: Explain with A Letter to the King Session 3: Explain with How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? Read-Aloud and Measurement Activities Session 4: Elaborate with Measuring the Playground Session 5: Evaluate with A Better Way to Measure Materials For Measuring with Feet - About 2 m of string or yarn (per pair of students) - Roll of masking tape - Yardstick For Measurement Activities - Meterstick - Metric ruler (1 per student) For Measuring the Playground - Measuring wheel (1 per class) - Metric ruler (per group of 4) - Meterstick (per group of 4) - Metric tape measure – soft, not metal (per group of 4) - Clipboard (per group of 4) Student Pages - A Letter to the King - Measuring the Playground - A Better Way to Measure to Map a Buried Treasure - STEM Everywhere Background for Teachers In this lesson, students learn how the development of standard measurements was a fascinating but lengthy problem-solving process. Weights and measures were among the first tools invented by humans. Ancient people used their body parts and items in their surroundings as their first measuring tools. Early Egyptian and Babylonian records indicate that length was first measured with the forearm, hand, and fingers. As societies evolved, measurements became more complex. It became more and more important to be able to measure accurately time after time and to be able to reproduce the measurements in different places. By the 18th century, England had achieved a greater degree of standardization in measurement than other European countries. The English, or customary system of measurement, commonly used in the United States, is nearly the same as that brought by the colonists from England. The need for a single, worldwide measurement system was recognized more than 300 years ago when a French priest named Gabriel Mouton proposed a comprehensive decimal measurement system. A century passed, however, and no action was taken. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly of France requested that the French Academy of Sciences “deduce an invariable standard for all the measures and all the weights.” A system was proposed that was both simple and scientific: the metric system. The simplicity of the metric system is due to its being based on units of 10. The standardized structure and decimal features of the metric system made it well suited for scientific and engineering work, so it is not surprising that wide acceptance of the metric system coincided with an age of rapid technological development. By an Act of Congress in 1866, it became “lawful throughout the United States of America to employ the weights and measures of the metric system to all contracts dealings, and court proceedings.” By 1900, a total of 35 nations had accepted the metric system. Eventually, the name Systeme Internationale d’Unites (International System of Units) with the international abbreviation SI was given to the metric system. Although the customary system of measurement is commonly used in everyday situations in the United States, U.S. scientists primarily use the metric system (SI) in their daily work. Adapted from: A Brief History of Measurement Systems www.dickeyphysics.com/Physics_Readings/History%20of%20Measurement%20Systems.pdf In this lesson, students approach the topic of the development of standard measures as an engineering design process. They make sense of why we use standard units of measurement through reading a story that poses the problem with nonstandard units of measurement and by collecting and analyzing data from nonstandard measurements. They are engaged in the science and engineering practices (SEPs) of analyzing and interpreting data and using mathematics and computational thinking through these activities. The crosscutting concept (CCC) of scale, proportion, and quantity permeates the lesson as students compare standard and nonstandard units. The SEP of obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information comes into play as students read a nonfiction book about the history of measurement and as they communicate explanations and solutions in writing. Learning Progressions Below are the disciplinary core idea (DCI) grade band endpoints for grades K–2 and 3–5. These are provided to show how student understanding of the DCIs in this lesson will progress in future grade levels. \| DCIs \| Grades K–2 \| Grades 3–5 \| \|-------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| ETS1.A: Defining and Delimiting Engineering Problems \| • A situation that people want to change or create can be approached as a problem to be solved through engineering. • Asking questions, making observations, and gathering information are helpful in thinking about problems. • Before beginning to design a solution, it is important to clearly understand the problem. \| • Possible solutions to a problem are limited by available materials and resources (constraints). The success of a designed solution is determined by considering the desired features of a solution (criteria). Different proposals for solutions can be compared on the basis of how well each one meets the specified criteria for success or how well each takes the constraints into account. \| Source: Willard, T., ed. 2015. The NSTA quick-reference guide to the NGSS: Elementary school. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. engage How Big Is a Foot? Read-Aloud Connecting to the Common Core Reading: Literature Key Ideas and Details: 2.3 Inferring Show students the cover of the book How Big Is a Foot? ? What can you infer from the title and illustration on the cover of this book? Begin reading the book aloud but stop after reading, “Why was the bed too small for the Queen?” ? Do you think it is fair that the King put the apprentice in jail? Why or why not? Have students share their ideas with a partner, and then call on students to share with the class. Ask ? How big IS a foot? Students will likely conclude that it depends on what you mean by “foot.” Students might know that a foot is a unit of measure that is 12 inches long. But if you are talking about a person’s foot, we’ll have to find out! Explore Measuring with Feet Remind students that “the King took off his shoes and with his big feet walked carefully around the Queen. He counted that the bed must be three feet wide.” Tell students that they are going to determine the length of three feet by using their own feet. Give each pair of students about 2 m of yarn or string. Then demonstrate the steps for measuring three “feet”: 1. Have your partner hold the end of the string where the back of your heel touches the floor. 2. Place one foot right in front of the other for three steps, and then freeze. 3. Have your partner stretch the string to the big toe of your third step. 4. Cut the string. It will now represent the length of your three “feet.” 5. Attach a piece of masking tape with your name on it to one end of the string. 6. Hang your string from the board. 7. Help your partner measure his or her three “feet.” When all students have hung their strings on the board, compare the various lengths. Ask ? Are all of the strings the same length? Why or why not? SEP: Analyzing and Interpreting Data Analyze data from tests of an object or tool to determine if it works as intended. Hold up a yardstick and ask ? How many feet are in a yard? (Students may know there are three feet in a yard.) ? How does your string compare to three feet as measured by a yardstick? short because of the difference in foot size between the King and the apprentice. Students should also provide reasonable advice for getting a bed the right size. Next, read the rest of the book to students. Ask ? How does the apprentice’s solution in the book compare to the advice you gave in your letter? ? What measuring tool was created to solve the problem? (a model of the King’s foot sculpted out of marble) ? Is there more than one correct solution? (yes) ? What are some other ways that the King could have had the bed built the right size? (by using a standard measurement tool with more precise markings) ? What tool would you use today to measure a bed? (tape measure, meterstick, ruler) A Letter to the King Connecting to the Common Core Writing Text Types and Purposes: 2.1 Writing Refer back to the book How Big Is a Foot? and revisit the question: ? Do you think it is fair that the King put the apprentice in jail? Why or why not? ? What advice would you give the King about how he might be able to get a bed the right size for the Queen? On the A Letter to the King student page, have students write a persuasive letter to the King about why he should let the apprentice out of jail. Ask them to explain why the bed is too small for the Queen and what he could do to get a bed that is the right size. Have students share their letters with a partner. Read the student letters to assess whether students understand that the bed is too How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? Read-Aloud Connecting to the Common Core Reading: Informational Text Integration of Knowledge and Ideas: 2.9 Making Connections: Text to Text Show students the cover of How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? Ask ? What do you think this book is about? Hold up How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? and How Big Is a Foot? Ask ? What do you think these two books might have in common? (Examples of answers include that both are about measurement and about people’s height.) Ask students to signal when they hear or see any connections between the two books. Then read aloud pages 1–19 of How Tall, How Short, How Faraway! (ending after “5,280 feet are 1 mile”), stopping to discuss any text-to-text connections. Students may point out some of the following connections: \| How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? \| How Big Is a Foot? \| \|-------------------------------------\|----------------------\| \| Ancient Egyptians measured with their hands and arms (digits, cubits, palms, spans). \| The King measured with his feet. \| \| Measuring with hands and arms caused problems with getting accurate measurements. \| Measuring with different-sized feet caused problems in getting a bed the right size for the Queen. \| \| In the past, people often used their leader’s or king’s cubit or steps as a standard. \| The apprentice decided to use the King’s foot as a standard to remake the bed. \| \| People made measuring sticks the size of their king’s cubit or steps. \| The apprentice made an exact marble copy of the King’s foot and measured with it. \| Measurement Activities Connecting to the Common Core Mathematics 2.MD.A.2 SEP: Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking Use quantitative data to compare two alternative solutions to a problem. Challenge students by asking ? Can you measure the length of my desk without a ruler? As a class, brainstorm a list of ways that you could measure the desk without using any traditional measuring tools. Then ask ? How did the ancient Egyptians measure out a span? (A span is the distance from the tip of your thumb to the end of your little finger with your hand stretched wide.) Make the following data table on the board: \| Length of Desk \| \|---------------\| \| Names \| Spans \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Call on a student to measure your desk with his or her hand span. Write that student’s name and his or her number of spans on the data table. Call on another student who is noticeably taller or shorter than the first student to measure the desk in his or her spans. Write that number of spans on the data table. Then measure the desk using your own hand span, and write that number of spans on the data table. ? Which is the correct answer for the length of my desk? (Students should begin to understand that there is no “correct” answer in spans.) ? Why did we get different answers for the length of the desk in spans? (Each person’s span is a different size.) ? Why do you think the span is no longer used for measuring length? (It is not an accurate measurement because the length of the span varies from person to person.) Connecting to the Common Core Reading: Informational Text Key Ideas and Details: 2.1 Go back to How Tall, How Short, How Faraway? and read from page 20 (“The metric system was first proposed over 300 years ago . . .”) to page 31 (“People have been measuring things for thousands of years.”). After reading, state that in different times and parts of the world, there have been many systems of measurement. Ask ? What are the two systems of measurement most widely used today? (the customary, also known as the English system, and the metric system) CCC: Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Standard units are used to measure length. Explain that the units used in these systems are called standard units. Standard units are units of measurement that are accepted and used by most people. Some examples of standard units are feet, inches, pounds, centimeters, meters, grams, and liters. The other type of units is nonstandard units, which are everyday objects that can be used to obtain a measurement. Examples include spans, cubits, paces, and digits. Explain that most people around the world, as well as scientists everywhere, use the metric system because it is simpler and less confusing than the customary system. Explain that, although the metric system was invented over 200 years ago, the United States has not entirely switched over to it. Some metric units are grams, kilograms, liters, centimeters, and meters. Ask ? What things do you know of that are measured in metric units? (Examples include 2 l bottles of soda, 100 m dash, grams of fat in food, distances in kilometers, and kilometers per hour on a speedometer.) Connecting to the Common Core Mathematics 2.MD.A.1 Give each pair of students a meterstick and a metric ruler. Have students use these tools to find something in the room that is about a centimeter long and something that is about a meter long. Next, label the third column on the data table “centimeters” and call on a student to measure your desk in centimeters with a meterstick. Write that student’s name and the measurement on the data table. Call on another student to measure the desk with the meterstick. Write that measurement on the data table. Then measure the desk yourself with a meterstick and write that measurement on the data table. Ask ? Why were the answers so different for the length of the desk in spans yet all the same for the length of the desk in centimeters? (Each person’s span is a different size, but a centimeter is always the same size.) elaborate Measuring the Playground Connecting to the Common Core Mathematics 2.MD.A.1 Tell students that an important part of using standard measurements is having the proper tools and using them correctly. Ask ? What are some of the tools we have used so far to make standard measurements? (rulers and metersticks) Would a ruler or meterstick be a good tool for measuring the circumference of (or distance around) the trunk of a tree or someone’s head? (No, because they are flat and can’t bend.) Show students a metric tape measure and demonstrate how it can be used to measure things that are not flat because the tape is flexible. Model how to measure the circumference of something in the classroom that is round – like a student’s head – or go outdoors and measure the circumference of a tree. Ask Would a tape measure be a good tool for measuring the distance from our classroom to the playground? (It is likely not long enough. Students might suggest marking the length of the tape measure at different points and measuring from there over and over again, but with that method, it is difficult to be exact.) Next, show students a measuring wheel and model how it is used to measure long distances. Explain that all these tools are used to measure length. They were designed by engineers to be easy to use, precise, and suitable for different situations. There are many other types of measuring tools to measure things like weight, volume, temperature, time, and so on, but this lesson just focuses on length. Explain that one of the most important things you can do to make sure you are taking precise measurements is to begin measuring at zero on the tool. Some rulers, metersticks, and tape measures begin with zero at the tip and others have some space before zero. Model where to find zero on all the measuring tools you are using for this activity. For the measuring wheel, model how to check that the device starts at zero before measuring. SEP: Analyzing and Interpreting Data Analyze data from tests of an object or tool to determine if it works as intended. Give each group of four students a metric ruler, meterstick, metric tape measure, the Measuring the Playground student page, and a clipboard. Tell them that they are going to go to the playground (or the gym) to measure things using these tools. On the way to the playground, use the measuring wheel to measure the distance to the playground from your room or from the exit. Groups can take turns using the measuring wheel. Optional: For fun, you may even want to try some high-tech measurement apps such as the Tape Measure App, Measure by Google, Measure by Apple, Ruler App, or Smart Measure. After students practice measuring, have groups share some of the measurements they took and how they decided which tool to use to take those length measurements. A Better Way to Measure Connecting to the Common Core Writing Text Types and Purposes: 2.1 Writing Review what students have learned about the history of measurement and the need for standard measuring tools. Then distribute the assessment student page, A Better Way to Measure. Correct responses may include the following: 1. The pirates disagree because, when they measured the distance to the treasure, they each used their own paces. One is tall and one is short, so their paces are different lengths. 2. The pirates could measure in feet, yards, or meters. 3. We wouldn’t know the exact distance to anything or anyplace. SEP: Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking Use quantitative data to compare two alternative solutions to a problem. STEM Everywhere Give students the STEM Everywhere student page as a way to involve their families and extend their learning. They can do the activity with an adult helper and share their results with the class. If students do not have access to internet at home, you may choose to have them complete this activity at school. Opportunities for Differentiated Instruction This box lists questions and challenges related to the lesson that students may select to research, investigate, or innovate. Students may also use the questions as examples to help them generate their own questions. These questions can help you move your students from the teacher-directed investigation to engaging in the science and engineering practices in a more student-directed format. Extra Support For students who are struggling to meet the lesson objectives, provide a question and guide them in the process of collecting research or help them design procedures or solutions. Extensions For students with high interest or who have already met the lesson objectives, have them choose a question (or pose their own question), conduct their own research, and design their own procedures or solutions. After selecting one of the questions in the box or formulating their own question, students can individually or collaboratively make predictions, design investigations or surveys to test their predictions, collect evidence, devise explanations, design solutions, or examine related resources. They can communicate their findings through a science notebook, at a poster session or gallery walk, or by producing a media project. Research Have students brainstorm researchable questions: - Which countries have not adopted the metric system as their official system of measurement? Why? - How long is a marathon and what is the story behind it? - What are some of the abbreviations for length measurements (centimeters, kilometers, inches, feet, miles)? Investigate Have students brainstorm testable questions to be solved through science or math: - How tall is everyone in your family? Order them from shortest to tallest. - Connect 10 small paper clips and use them to measure things around your room. Do paper clips make a good measuring tool? Why or why not? - Design a way to compare the size of your “pace” (every two steps) to the “pace” of your friends. How do they compare? Innovate Have students brainstorm problems to be solved through engineering: - What objects (that are always the same size) could be used to create a new way to measure? How would you use them? - Can you create a scale model of your room? - Can you make a scale drawing of the playground? Website Ozomatli: “Measure It!” from PBS Kids Rocks www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/4c3ca5c0-0e33-4504-8a16-f6d29c9730ff/ozomatli-measure-it-pbs-kids-rocks-video More Books to Read Cleary, B. P. 2009. How long or how wide? A measuring guide. Minneapolis: Millbrook Press. Summary: Part of the Math is CATegorical series, this book is a fun introduction to all the ways we measure length. Jenkins, S. 2011. Actual size. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Summary: With his colorful collage illustrations, Jenkins shows the actual sizes of many interesting animals. Some pages show the entire animal, whereas others show only a part of the animal. Leedy, L. 2000. Measuring penny. New York: Square Fish. Summary: Lisa learns about the mathematics of measuring by measuring her dog Penny with all sorts of units, including pounds, inches, dog biscuits, and cotton swabs. Nagda, A. W. and Bickel, C. 2000. Tiger math: Learning to graph from a baby tiger. New York: Henry Holt. Summary: At the Denver Zoo, a Siberian tiger cub named T.J. is orphaned when he is only a few weeks old. The zoo staff raises him, feeding him by hand until he is able to eat on his own and return to the tiger exhibit. The story is accompanied by graphs that chart T. J.’s growth, showing a wonderful example of real-world mathematics. Pluckrose, H. 2018. Length. Chicago: Children’s Press. Summary: Photographs and simple text introduce the concept of length and ways to measure it. Sweeny, J. 2019. Me and the measure of things. Decorah, IA: Dragonfly Books. Summary: Simple text and playful illustrations explain the differences between wet and dry measurements, weight, length, and size in a fun and relatable context. Weakland, M. A. 2013. How tall? Wacky ways to compare height. Minneapolis: Picture Window Books. Summary: From the Wacky Comparisons series, this book compares the height of different objects in weird and wacky ways. Also in this series are How Heavy? Wacky Ways to Compare Weight and How Long? Wacky Ways to Compare Length. Measuring the Playground Can you find something that is... About 1 centimeter long ____________________________ About 10 centimeters long ___________________________ About 1 meter long _________________________________ Choose some things to measure on the playground. List the object, length, and tool that you used in the table below. \| Object \| Length \| Tool \| \|--------\|--------\|------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 1. Why do you think the pirates disagree about the distance to the treasure? 2. What would be a better way to measure the distance to the treasure? 3. What would happen if everyone used his or her own paces to measure distance or length? Dear Families, At school, we have been learning about the history of measurement. We measured things in nonstandard units (like spans and paces) and standard units (like meters and feet). We identified tools that can be used to take exact measurements (like rulers and metersticks). To find out more, ask your learner questions such as: - What did you learn? - What was your favorite part of the lesson? - What are you still wondering? At home, you can watch a music video from PBS Kids about different tools we use to measure. Ozomatli: “Measure It!” www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/4c3ca5c0-0e33-4504-8a16-f6c29c9730f7/ozomatli-measure-it-pbs-kids-rocks-video After watching the video, look around at home for tools you use to measure things like size, weight, temperature, and time. Draw and label the measuring tools below. 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SCALING OUR WORK TO REACH MORE CHILDREN ANNUAL REPORT 2022-23 ## CONTENTS \| Section \| Page \| \|------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------\| \| From the CEO’s desk \| 00 \| \| Key moments of 2022-2023 \| 00 \| \| Scaling our work to reach more children \| 00 \| \| Goals & Impact \| \| \| A. Reuniting children with families: A preventive approach to protecting children at risk \| 00 \| \| B. Engaging communities on keeping children safe \| 00 \| \| C. Laying the foundation: Strengthening child protection systems across the Delhi-Howrah rail network \| 00 \| \| D. Enabling safeguarding one child at a time \| 00 \| \| E. Moving the wheel on child protection \| 00 \| \| Impact stories \| 00 \| \| Donor spotlight \| 00 \| \| Where we are at \| 00 \| \| Team \| 00 \| \| Financials 2022-2023 \| 00 \| Children living in the world’s most populous country, continue to live in extreme poverty, engaged in work, out of school, abused, exploited, neglected and bereft of their most basic rights, reason enough for our work to deepen. 27 years on the field put a spotlight on some telling data, stories and anecdotes, urging us to pivot our work with a more bottoms-up approach. Why is a bottoms-up approach necessary we asked ourselves? To be true to our goal and inch closer towards achieving it, we needed to focus on 2 key actions – prevention and collaboration. To prevent children from falling into vulnerable and exploitative situations, we needed to listen to them, their families and communities and recognize adequately their contributions to children’s protection and well-being, and support them where they fell short. Additionally, families and communities cannot keep their children safe unless the ecosystem lends itself to streamlining child protection mechanisms, unless child protection stakeholders deliver what is needed for each child and unless they collaborate to build a protective net for children — capacity building of stakeholders being a key lever in building self-sustaining services for children. We saw that placing children, families, and communities at the center enabled non formal-formal collaboration and alignment, greater use of schemes and services, internally driven social change, and high levels of community ownership — reaching and protecting more children. In 2022-2023 we protected 4000+ children, focused on reuniting them with their families. We launched awareness campaigns across the country, co-hosted district and state level consultations with key players in child protection, started up child help groups and self-help groups across vulnerable communities, and rolled out our first-ever bus terminal project at Anand Vihar, Delhi. The year saw its challenges, but a hardworking and dedicated team, backed with the trust and support of our donors and board members saw us emerge strong. I’d like to thank each of you for your unceasing support and confidence in our work – we promise to continue to deliver our best to children who need us the most. Director & CEO Navin Sellaraju Sukumar CEO, Railway Children India KEY MOMENTS OF 2022-23 4000+ CHILDREN REACHED PROTECTED ACROSS 10 RAILWAY STATIONS AND 1 BUS TERMINAL 48 CHILD HELP GROUP MEETINGS CONDUCTED. CO-HOSTED A MULTI-STAKEHOLDER STATE LEVEL CONSULTATION ON CHILD PROTECTION AT BHUBANESHWAR, ODISHA ROLLED OUT WORK ACROSS THE DELHI-HOWRAH RAIL NETWORK PROVIDED TRAINING TO OVER 5,000 RAILWAY PERSONNEL SPANNING 10 RAILWAY TRAINING INSTITUTES, CENTRES, MULTIDISCIPLINARY FACILITIES, AND ACADEMIES WITHIN THE DELHI-HOWRAH ROUTE, RAJASTHAN AND TAMIL NADU 64,000+ PASSENGERS SENSITIZED ON CHILD RIGHTS AND PROTECTION AT THE RAILWAY STATIONS AND A VIRTUAL CAMPAIGN WAS LAUNCHED IN COLLABORATION WITH IRTSCO TO STRENGTHEN ACTION ON CHILD PROTECTION ACROSS STATIONS AND TRAINS. SCALING OUR WORK TO REACH MORE CHILDREN GOALS & IMPACT Children continue to face a myriad of issues at home, in school, in their communities and across places and spaces. Years of work on the field, backed by strong evidence pointed towards the heightened need to prevent children from leaving their homes, and therefore the need to work closely with families and communities to strengthen their role in providing nurturing, thriving places for children to grow. If we were to reach more children and protect them, we needed to collaboratively build an ecosystem that supported our goal…and so we did. A. REUNITING CHILDREN WITH FAMILIES: A PREVENTIVE APPROACH TO PROTECTING CHILDREN AT RISK Children are safest when living with their families. Understanding why children leave home, counselling children and families to address and resolve their issues and providing families the support they need to ensure children are looked after at home helps prevent children from falling into unsafe situations. Railway stations and in the community remained focused to build safe spaces for children to ensure they wouldn’t fall through the cracks and into a life on the streets. CHILDREN REACHED AND PROTECTED ACROSS TRANSPORT TERMINALS: Across 10 railway stations and 1 bus terminal, we protected 4011 children, many of whom had run away from home, been engaged in labour or went missing amongst other reasons. BOYS VS. GIRLS From all the children we protected, 3333 were boys and 678 were girls. Boys were at risk for child labour, running away due to family disputes whereas girls were mostly eloping, love and infatuation amongst others. A FAMILY FOR EVERY CHILD Of the total children rescued 3943 children are back home with their families, with teams following up regularly to ensure children are safe, going to school, engaged in vocational training, linked to schemes, receiving nutrition and medical support based on their needs. --- B. ENGAGING COMMUNITIES ON KEEPING CHILDREN SAFE The adage ‘it takes a village to protect a child,’ is true in every sense. Vigilant community members, caring and compassionate parents and family members, alert neighbours and a healthy community environment for children goes a long way in ensuring children are safe. REASONS WHY CHILDREN NEEDED TO BE RESCUED Children leave home for many reasons. Sometimes compelled by their circumstances their families push them into work, early marriage, pull them out of school, unaware of the long term impact, other times a fight with a family member, an unhappy abusive home, infatuation and love during adolescent years are amongst many other reasons. It is to prevent children from falling into an endless abyss of abuse and exploitation that we put a great emphasis on the role of the community to be able to look after their children. FAMILY AND COMMUNITY SUPPORT Parents and families across low income communities often struggle to make ends meet for their children. Despite wanting the best for their children circumstances don’t always support them in giving their best in raising them. Knowledge and access to government schemes, benefits, employability skills training, forming self-help groups and children’s groups to address children’s issues at the community level to demand action are critical to uplifting the health of the community and its children. --- ENROLLED TO SCHOOL 161 EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 205 NUTRITION SUPPORT 202 VOCATIONAL TRAINING 33 COMMUNITY ACTIVITY & LEARNING CENTRES 5 CHILDREN ACCESSING THE GACL 271 FUNCTIONING CHILDREN’S GROUPS 19 CHILDREN PARTICIPATING 252 ADULTS PARTICIPATING FOR CHILDREN IN THE COMMUNITY 262 B. ENGAGING COMMUNITIES ON KEEPING CHILDREN SAFE (CONTINUED) FOLLOW UPS After rescuing and reuniting a child with his/her family, a new chapter of our work begins – follow ups. These are an essential component to ensure daily that children in care are safe, going to school, learning vocational skills, eating nutritious food and not sitting idle at home. For children who are at Child Care Institutes (CCIs) working to ensure their timely reunification is part of our follow up process. ACTIVITIES ACROSS THE COUNTRY • We organized the first district level consultation on child protection in Ghaziabad, to discuss how to connect and catalyze existing structures of child protection in the district, take stock of child protection mechanisms and discuss recent amendments to the Juvenile Justice Act. The consultation was attended by key child protection stakeholders - Chief Development Officer Ghaziabad, District Child protection officer, Child welfare Committee Chairperson, of the Secretary, Ministry of Women and Child Development and Shashank Shekhar, Supreme court advocate and former member of NCPCR. Additionally, the meeting saw representatives from the Railway police force, Station Superintendent, the Child Welfare Committee and Juvenile justice board (JJB), Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA) and NGOs. • In communities in and around Delhi Sarai Rohilla railway station, 123 children are accessing 2 activity centres every day. Our community volunteers create engaging activities for children to build their skills, and learn beyond the classroom. Children exhibit their talents through arts and crafts and participate in the awareness generation activities on child rights and protection in the community. Additionally, regular menstrual hygiene camps are conducted across the community to enhance adolescent knowledge and health, and Self-help groups are gaining steam amongst the women addressing child protection issues within the community. • The Divisional Railway Manager, Salem Division appreciated collaborative work with our partner organization implementing CCRS (Child in contact with railway stations) project at the Salem Railway Station for their outstanding service over 6 years in protecting children in need of care protection during an event that was organized. • “We need collaboration between civil society organizations and different government child protection institutions for protection of children at risk,” said Mrs. Mandakinee Kar (Chairperson, OSCPCR) at a state level consultation we organised in Bhubaneswar to enhance child protection mechanisms in Odisha. AWARENESS ACROSS STATIONS Across the country – from railway stations in Ghaziabad, Delhi Sarai Rohilla, Delhi Cantonment, Salem to Anand Vihar Bus Terminal our teams reached over 64,000 passengers and talked to them about child rights and protection. Our outreach teams marched across stations on the occasion of National Girl Child Day amongst other important days and sensitized all those stakeholders who can make transport terminals safe - security guards, coolies, bus conductors/drivers and railway stakeholders. IN FOCUS: OUR FIRST-EVER BUS TERMINAL PROJECT LAUNCHED AT ANAND VIHAR BUS TERMINAL Bus terminals, especially such those like the massive, intercity Anand Vihar Bus Terminal (AVBT), are neglected hubs brimming with potential of abuse and violation of children. Here drug addicts, exploiters and perpetrators gain a free pass and are often indistinguishable from common people. One would assume a robust child-safety mechanism guarding this terminal; instead, far from it, this busy terminal and several thousand others like it remain unattended. This year, we initiated our first-ever bus terminal project, protecting 186 children. C. LAYING THE FOUNDATION: STRENGTHENING CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEMS ACROSS THE DELHI-HOWRAH RAIL NETWORK As a key partner of the Indian Railways in building child-friendly railway stations, our capacity building and training workshops with railway officials over the years began gaining momentum – they were now able to identify children at risk, catalyze child protection systems to act, and together with their peers create safe stations for children. Evidence pointed towards the integral role of railway personnel and district child protection authorities in being able to make a substantial impact across the Delhi-Howrah rail network, if a coordinated effort could be set into motion. We began laying the foundation for 20,000 at risk children to be protected across the route. - A total of 5057 railway officials were trained during 56 training sessions we conducted on child protection issues in collaboration with 7 RPF Railway Training Centers, including Jagjivan Ram RPF Academy, Lucknow, 5 Zonal Railway Training Institutes, and 2 Railway stations and 1 division of various Railway Zones. - 1767 children (753 girls and 1014 boys) protected by railway officials across 15 railway stations along the Delhi-Howrah mainline, of which 182 (92 girls and 90 boys) were protected on running trains. - Child Welfare Police Officials trained at the District Level capacity building programme: With the purpose to enhance their understanding on child rights, child protection and child-friendly procedures 45 participants including child welfare police officers and investigation officers of various police stations of East Delhi district were trained on the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, its 2021 amendment and the POCSO Act, 2012, conducted by a team of resource persons. - Khoya Bachpan - A WhatsApp Group by railway officials: A fall out of a 2-day Training of Trainers (ToT) workshop on child protection in collaboration with the Railway Board, NCPCR and Railway Children India at the Zonal Railway Training Institute in October 2018 was a whatsapp group titled Khoya Bachpan, with the goal to safeguard children from the dangers of children travelling alone on running trains and seek guidance on the best way to deal with the situation. The group includes RPF officers, commercial staff, and members of Railway Children India. Hear what the railway officials have to say in the Impact Section. - Online training sessions: We conducted 6 online training sessions in association with 9 Training Institute/Centre i.e., JR RPF Academy Lucknow, ZTC-Kanchrapara (Eastern Railway) and ZTC-Bnadikui (Northwest Railway), a one-hour webcast session with Jagjivan Ram RPF Academy, Lucknow, 3 trainings on anti-human trafficking at J.R.RPF Academy, Lucknow, and 1 training for railway officials of Kota Division at Kota, (North-Western Railway) D. ENABLING SAFEGUARDING ONE CHILD AT A TIME From accountability, empowerment, prevention, partnership and protection, our child safeguarding policy equips our teams and partners to work towards ensuring every child’s right to be safe is prioritised and delivered. At the heart of our work, we are guided each day to enable and act for the safety of children. - New criteria for reporting of child safeguarding incidents/cases were finalised and implemented - An orientation session on criteria for reporting on child safeguarding was conducted with 4 partner organizations and direct implementation team members - Support provided to a partner who amended their organisation’s Child Safeguarding Policy and other partners who formulated and implemented their child safeguarding policy - 6 sessions conducted with all partners and direct implementation teams on RCI’s Child Safeguarding Policy, how to document information in Child safeguarding Incident Form (Appendix 9) and procedures of reporting - 6 batches of two days trainings sessions were organised on accessing the vulnerabilities/risks and needs of a child for RCI teams and partner networks. E. MOVING THE WHEEL ON CHILD PROTECTION In a world where staying relevant and being heard becomes primary, even for the rights of children, we have been working to generate more talk on the subject, making a shift in the way we think and act for children, and illustrating the role you and I can play in collectively keeping children safe. What's in a headline series – Bringing pressing news on children from across India 13 years on, reviewing the Right to Education Act Topical days – world book day, world water day, girls in science A year in review – The good, bad and ugly of 2022– Add photo IN FOCUS: VIRTUAL AWARENESS CAMPAIGN IN COLLABORATION WITH IRTCSD In partnership with Indian Railway Ticket Checking Staff Organisation (IRTCSO) we launched a nationwide awareness campaign reaching over 20,000 railway officials at their AGM in Alipurduar division, West Bengal. A poster on child protection issues created by RCI and IRTCSD was released by Mr. Rajesh Gupta, ADRM, Alipurduar Division, National President of IRTCSD, and RCI. IRTCSD members (TTIs/TTES/TCs) across Indian Railways received the poster via internal WhatsApp groups and social media handles of IRTCSD. 9-year-old Kanav (name changed) was found alone at EDM mall, Ghazipur Delhi, by the Delhi police. Our outreach team was informed and asked to help. He was crying and scared and wanted to go back to his family, but our team member spent time with the child, offered him water and biscuits, and helped him relax. On trying to engage with the child and find out about his whereabouts, Kanav shared that 2 days ago he went out to play, took a nap and lost his way back home, and was now roaming around Delhi. He couldn’t recall the bus stand’s name or place. He then continued and shared that he lived on the streets for four days at different places in the same clothes, without any money, and had to beg for money and food, couldn’t bathe, nor had any slippers on his feet. Neither could he recollect the contact details of anyone in his family or his home address. On direction from the Child Welfare Committee, Kanav was taken for a medical test, and stay at a shelter home for boys. At the home, he was encouraged to undertake activities, and provided with much-needed emotional support. “What makes you happy? Playing outdoor games! He replied. “What do you want to be when you grow up? A well-educated successful person!” He replied confidently. “And if you had a superpower, which one would you want, how would you use it? I like watching Doraemon and his gaggites – but my favourite is ‘hopter’ that lets him fly anywhere!” On a mission to find his family, our team presented the child before the Child Welfare Committee. The CWC directed our team to put in all efforts to trace his family and place him at a short-term home in the interim. Our team sprang into action and circulated the child’s details in the nearby police station. The Sub-inspector of Kotla Mubarakpur Delhi contacted our team on matching his details with a missing FIR registered for the same child by his family. The next day, the child was produced before the CWC with his father and elder brother and handed over to them. While Kanav was happily reunited with his family, their problems didn’t go away. He had lost his mother at an early age, his father was jobless and unemployed and therefore unable to take care of his children, go to school or support them. They were living under a flyover for 10 years after coming from their hometown in Uttar Pradesh, compelling his older brother to work and support the family. Our team stepped in during the follow ups with a goal to help him father find a job, connect him to government schemes, provide food and nutrition and get Kanav, his brother and sister enrolled into school. HOW LEARNING LOSS LEADS 10-YEAR-OLD MANU TO CHILD LABOUR 10-year-old Manu (name changed) hailed from a remote village near Salem, Tamil Nadu. His family included his father, a daily wage labourer; his mother, a homemaker; his elder brothers and an elder sister. All of Manu’s siblings were poorly educated, which followed suit for Manu, encouraging him to drop out of school after the 5th grade as his village provided no proper education in the local schools. Traveling to the neighbourhood village for secondary school was becoming too cumbersome for his family who was financially unstable. For Manu, however, this financial crunch brought with it an additional responsibility—the urgent need to contribute to the home and look for work. Manu left home in search of work, to find himself stranded at the Salem railway station... soon to be approached by our outreach team member. With the support of railway officials and as per the orders of the Child Welfare Committee, Manu was directed to a shelter for temporary stay. Here he was counselled. It was during this counselling session that Manu shared details about his background. Manu shared his story of securing a job at a poultry farm in Nammakal, but having lost his way at the station. He confessed to being unaware of the kind of work he was expected to do at this farm, or how much his mother would be remunerated in exchange of his work. In a matter of a few more days, our team, in collaboration with the local authorities traced his family, reached out to his parents and successfully reunited Manu with his family. What followed was family counselling, Manu being enrolled into school and providing support to the family and their children to reduce their daily burdens. CHANCE ENCOUNTER AT THE CHILD HELPED DESK PROVES LIFE CHANGING FOR TWO TEENAGE COUSINS One winter morning, two teenage boys, 15-year-old Anuj (name changed) with his 17-year-old cousin Suresh (name changed), wandered into the Ghaziabad railway station, right before the Child Help Desk (CHD). Upon spotting them ambling nearby, one of our outreach workers started a conversation with both of them. Soon after they were both led to the Child Assistance Booth and provided with food and water, along with other essentials to comfort and ease them. Both the children were led for a counselling session where they divulged details about the situations that led them to the station all alone. They revealed that they left home and were heading to Delhi to pursue a job at a nearby village, named Bansi. Both their families had weak financial backgrounds, which forced them to step out, take responsibility and earn a living for their respective households. Furthermore, Anuj shared that they had run away from home without informing anyone of their plan. In Bansi, they got meagre jobs at a local sugarcane farm. Three days into their work, the mediator who had helped them secure the job informed them of his plan of sending them away to Kerala. This plan didn’t sound right to Suresh. He felt the distance from his hometown and Kerala was too much to even contemplate the move. His concern for the well-being of his family, forced him and Anuj to take yet another brash decision and run away from the farm. Not knowing where to go after running away, the boys set out on a long walk to the Ghaziabad railway station, where our team members encountered them. Our team immediately set the ball rolling on reuniting with their families. The boys were produced before the Child Welfare Committee, taken to the nearby shelter for temporary stay and upon the orders from the CWC until their families could be located. Today, the boys are happily back home with their families. They are happy and in school. Their families have been counselled and supported through the journey of keeping their children safe and at home. All names have been changed to protect the identity of the child. ELOPED, EVICTED, BUT EVENTUALLY RESCUED, THE STORY OF A YOUNG TEENAGE GIRL FROM BHUBANESHWAR Our outreach team members spotted a young boy and girl walking aimlessly in the periphery of the Bhubaneswar Railway Station. Upon checking the ID cards of this young duo, it was found that the both of them were indeed minors. Realizing the potential threats to them, our team members introduced themselves and put forth the work of Railway Children India in brief, to take them to the safety of the Child Help Desk (CHD). Once at the CHD, both of them refused to divulge details about their background. It was apparent that some story was being cooked up and presented to our team members to evade any problems. However, after much coaxing and reassuring that the team was set on helping them, the girl, Lipika (name changed) began sharing her background. Lipika was a 17-year-old girl who had studied till the 10th grade. She was the only child to her parents. Her father worked as an assistant chef at a roadside dhabba, while her mother was a homemaker. Lipika’s family wasn’t financially stable. After completing her schooling, Lipika chose to stay at home and discontinue her education further because she was in love with a boy. Her parents dreamt of a bright future for their only girl, but were devastated with her choice and strongly resisted their relationship. However, this only further pushed her to rebellion and motivated her to elope with the boy. As a single child, Lipika was showered with unconditional love, which gave her the confidence that her parents will accept her as a newlywed. In a stark contrast to her belief, her parents as well as the community vehemently denied the union. Her parents even faced immense humiliation for this marriage. Lipika, too, was verbally abused by the boy’s parents. Following this isolation and unacceptance the duo headed to Bhubaneswar Saliasashi Basti, close to the railway station, where our outreach team found them. After offering food, water and other essentials to the duo, both of them were counselled. During the counselling session, Lipika was explained the complexities and potential risks of her decision. At this point, Lipika shared some more problems that she faced, in addition to having faced abuse. Lipika revealed that she was pregnant. She was immediately moved to a shelter and produced before the Child Welfare Committee (CWC), to ascertain the next steps. During her counselling with one of the CWC members, she also shared that she had taken medicines to abort the pregnancy. Subsequently, she was rehabilitated at an open shelter for better care and also referred for medical check-ups. Lipika was counselled extensively about the long-term repercussions of her decisions. Her family was intimated and told to be watchful of her physical and mental health. Multiple follow ups by our team, constant counselling and support helped Lipika get back on track and continue her education. TRAINED RAILWAY OFFICIAL SHARES HIS CHILDHOOD STORY OF RESCUE “As a 14 year old in 2003, I ran away from Bhagulpur and reached Howrah Station as my cousin tortured me every day and I couldn’t take it anymore. I started selling newspapers with the help of a vendor who provided me daily meals. Upon hearing my story, the vendor with whom I worked took down my uncle’s number and gave him a call, informing him about my whereabouts. Immediately my uncle came to take me back home, insisted I study which eventually led me to qualifying for the Sub-Inspector Railway Police Force exam in 2013. As destiny had it, I was posted at the same station where I once sold newspapers as a distraught teenager. Today, I am proud to be an MDST because of the help I received from a station vendor. Children at risk need the support of each of us to have a fulfilling childhood and the promise of a future. Together, we can protect children and build child-friendly stations.” HOW THE ‘KHOYA BACHPAN’ WHATSAPP GROUP IS SAVING CHILDREN A case of 2 girls who have been protected in running train through Khoya Bachpan WhatsApp group. Rekha and Sulekha (names changed), two teenage cousins from Sitamarhi, Bihar, have been living with their parents in Shaheen Bagh, Delhi for the past 15 years. A community member of Shaheen Bagh, acquainted with a member of our teach contacted him about the 2 girls having run away from home. He shared all their details and also mentioned that Rekha has been communicating with a boy from Patna – a potential clue for their whereabouts. The girls had switched off their phones, but fortunately their parents were able to find information that the girls had boarded the Karnataka express. A quick message on the Khoya Bachpan Whatsapp group – the coming together of railway officials across stations, activated an entire system to reach the girls. Active commercial officials from South and Central Railways provided details of a Ticket Checking Staff member near Burhanpur Station on duty at the time. With the assistance of the RPF, they searched all the sleepers and general compartments and found the girls in Coach No.54. The girls were rescued and handed over to the RPF/GRP staff at Manmad Station in Maharashtra. After completing the necessary formalities, the girls were sent to a Child Care Institution in the Nasik district of Maharashtra for further care and protection. Oure teams provided counselling to the girls’ parents and coordinated with the GRP official of Manmad Railway Station to restore the girls from the Child Welfare Committee, Nasik back to their home. The girls were successfully handed over to their parents. During counselling, the girls revealed that someone had promised them jobs in Bengaluru and helped them board the train, a case of trafficking, that was ripped in the bud due to the collective efforts of railway officials across locations. DONOR SPOTLIGHT The work of Railway Children India would not be possible without the support of our donors. Their generosity drives our contribution to fulfilling the rights and protection of children. They are: Apax employees visit Dadar station and Matunga community work in Mumbai The Worldline Team visit Dadar station and Matunga community work in Mumbai • The Worldline Team visited DSR station work and community work Airbnb employees visit our open shelter home and station work in Ghaziabad WHERE WE ARE AT OUR VISION We believe in a world where no child ever has to live on the streets. OUR MISSION Create and enable sustainable change for children living alone and at risk on the street. OUR AIM FOR 2027: We will evidence and demonstrate effective and sustainable safeguarding solutions around transport terminals where children could be prevented from slipping into street life. Our new strategy model focuses on four key action areas for change in order to protect the most vulnerable children before during and after they are lost to the streets. We aim to prevent children from slipping into a life on the street and suffering all of the harm and abuse we know that this can bring. 1. PROTECTING VULNERABLE CHILDREN AND SUPPORTING THEIR FAMILIES 2. STRENGTHENING COMMUNITY RESPONSES 3. STRENGTHENING CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEMS AND POLICIES 4. STRENGTHENING THE EVIDENCE BASE WHERE WE WORK RAILWAY STATION, BUS STATION, COMMUNITY WORK - 10 RAILWAY STATIONS & 1 BUS TERMINAL - 8 SLUM COMMUNITIES - 100,000 PASSENGERS DELHI-HOWRAH RAIL NETWORK - 5 STATES - 34 DISTRICTS - 64 RAILWAY STATIONS - 20,000 CHILDREN AT RISK MEET THE TEAM Our multidisciplinary team combines strategic, creative and technical talent, working together to achieve our vision on a daily basis. Meet the people behind Railway Children India. RCI BOARD Yazmin Riaz Chairperson – Director Fundraising at Save the Children Harbhajan Singh Director RCI – Chief of Strategy & HR at XLRI, Delhi Sanjay Kumar Gupta Director RCI, Chief Financial Officer at Aga Khan Foundation Megha Jain Director RCI – Director Catalytic Philanthropy at Dasra Priya Varadarajan Director RCI – Gender Fund Co-Impact & Founder at Durga Navin Sellaraju Sukumar Director & Chief Executive Officer of RCI SENIOR MANAGEMENT TEAM Navin Sellaraju Sukumar Chief Executive Officer Lopamudra Mullick Senior Manager Program & Strategic Alliance Johnbosk L Senior Program Manager Nawaz Alam Manager Corporate Fundraising Nitin Aggarwal Head of Finance & Administration Eepsita Pal Manager Human Resources Railway Children India B-107, First Floor, Panchsheel Vihar, Khirki, New Delhi – 110017 www.railwaychildren.org.in	0fe63113-62b7-4d47-97e1-70a70479a9c4	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://railwaychildren.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/India-Annual-Report-2023-v4.pdf	2023-10-05T03:36:25+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511717.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20231005012006-20231005042006-00163.warc.gz	500,882,269	6,770	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.90188	eng_Latn	0.99684	[ "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 62, 1440, 3714, 5038, 8143, 11918, 17179, 19790, 26686, 30096, 31234, 32172, 32289 ]	[ 2.34375, 1.5703125 ]	1	0
Introduction “Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It is the basic unit of life”. It was discovered by Robert Hook in 1831 in a cork slice. Leeuwenhoek (1674) discovered the free-living cells in pond water. The cell theory Cell is the basic unit of life, and was presented by two biologists, Schleiden and Schwann. The cell theory by Virchow suggests that all cells arise from pre-existing cells. Types of organisms (i) Unicellular Organism: These organisms are single-celled which perform all the functions. Examples: Amoeba, paramecium, bacteria. (ii) Multicellular Organism: Many cells are grouped together to perform a different function in the body and also form various body parts. Examples: fungi, plants, animals. Types of cells There are two types of cells: (i) Prokaryotes (ii) Eukaryotes \| Prokaryotes \| Eukaryotes \| \|-------------\|------------\| \| Cells of organisms lack nuclear membrane. \| Cells of an organism have a nuclear membrane. \| \| The nucleolus is absent. \| The nucleolus is present. \| \| Single chromosomes. \| Single or multi chromosomes \| \| Reproduction is always asexual. \| Reproduction is both sexual and asexual. \| \| Always unicellular. \| Often multicellular. \| \| Membrane-bound cell organelles are absent. \| Membrane-bound organelles are present like mitochondria. \| \| The centriole is absent. \| The centriole is present only in animal cells. \| Cell division is by binary fission. Example: Bacteria, Blue-green algae, etc. Cell division is by mitosis or meiosis. Examples: Fungi, Plant cells, Animal cells, etc. Difference between Animal cell and Plant cell \| Animal Cell \| Plant Cell \| \|-------------\|------------\| \| The cell wall is absent. \| The cell wall is present. \| \| Plastids are absent. \| Plastids are present. \| \| Centrioles are present. \| Centrioles are absent. \| \| Golgi bodies are present. \| Golgi bodies are present and called dictyosomes. \| \| Vacuoles are absent. If present, they are small. \| Vacuoles are present and large in size. \| \| A centrosome is present with one or two centrioles. \| Centrosome is absent \| Diffusion The random movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to the region of low concentration. low concentration is called diffusion. Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion. The cell also obtains nutrition from the environment. Osmosis The movement of water molecules through the selectively permeable membrane along the concentration gradient is called osmosis. Plant cells tend to obtain water through osmosis. Behave of cell in Hypotonic or Hypertonic or Isotonic solution \| Name of the solution \| Condition \| Result \| \|----------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hypotonic solution \| The medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell. \| The cell will gain water by osmosis and is likely to swell up. \| \| Isotonic solution \| Medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell. \| Water crosses the cell membrane in both directions. \| \| \| \| The cell will stay the same size. \| \| Hypertonic solution \| Medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell. \| Water crosses the cell in both directions, but more water leaves the cell than enters it. \| Plasma membrane or Cell membrane Outermost covering of the cell separates the contents of the cell from the external environment. It regulates the entry and exit of substances through the cell (selectively permeable membrane). It is made up of lipid and protein. Cell Wall Cell wall is another rigid outer covering in addition to the plasma membrane found in a plant cell. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. The function of Cell wall Cell wall permits plants, fungi, and bacterial cells to withstand hypotonic external media without bursting. Prevent cells from the extreme condition. Plasmolysis When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis, it causes shrinkage or contraction of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis. Nucleus Composition of Nucleus - The nucleus has a double-layered covering called a nuclear membrane. - The nuclear membrane has pores that allow the transfer of material. - The nucleus contains chromatin fiber, (Chromosomes are visible in a dividing cell). - Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. Functions of chromosomes - Chromosomes contain hereditary information. - DNA molecules contain the information necessary for cellular activity. - Functional segments of DNA are called genes. Functions of Nucleus - The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction. - It directs the chemical activities of the cell. Nucleoid In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a nucleoid. Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the fluid inside the plasma membrane. It also contains many specialized cell organelles. Function of Cytoplasm - It helps in the exchange of material between cell organelles. - It stores vital chemicals such as amino acid, glucose, vitamins, and iron, etc. - It is the site of certain metabolic pathways such as glycolysis. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane bound sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles). Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (i) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (ii) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum RER has ribosomes attached to its surface. Ribosomes are the main site of protein synthesis. The SER helps in the synthesis of lipids. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as membrane biogenesis. - Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones. - One function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials. - In the liver cells, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs. Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus consists of membrane-bound vesicles arranged parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER. The function of Golgi Body The material synthesized near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets. inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. Its functions include the storage, modification, and packaging of products in vesicles. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes. Lysosomes They keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material. Lysosomes have a membrane-bounded structure filled with digestive enzymes. Functions of Lysosomes Lysosomes break foreign materials entering the cell. When a cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cells. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell. Mitochondria Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell Structure of mitochondria Double membrane structure, The outer membrane is very porous. Inner membrane is deeply folded to increase surface area Functions of mitochondria Released energy by respiration in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) molecules. Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria can make some of their own proteins. Plastids - Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are three types of plastids: (i) Chromoplasts (colored plastids). (ii) Leucoplasts (white or colorless plastids). (iii) Chloroplasts (contains chlorophyll). Structure of Plastids - The internal structure consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in the stroma. - Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes like mitochondria and are similar to their structure. Function of Plastids - Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants. Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils, and protein granules are stored. Vacuoles - Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. They are small-sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. Function of vacuoles - In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. - Many important substances are stored in vacuoles like amino acids, sugars, and proteins. - In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba has consumed.	fe75731c-81fc-4d00-89d6-8d82a1b4afa0	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://www.speedlabs.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/9thCBSE_fundamental-unit-of-life_Chapter-Notes.docx.pdf	2023-10-01T11:54:03+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510888.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20231001105617-20231001135617-00221.warc.gz	1,084,944,284	1,939	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.99038	eng_Latn	0.993609	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1400, 2222, 3750, 4553, 5764, 6905, 7973, 9078 ]	[ 4.3125 ]	1	0
Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau escorts Elder Levinia Brown on Parliament Hill in Ottawa Sept. 29, 2021, the eve of Canada's first National Day for Truth and Reconciliation. The day honored the lost children and survivors of Indigenous residential schools, their families and communities. (CNS photo/Blair Gable, Reuters) by Christopher White Vatican Correspondent ROME — Pope Francis has, in theory, agreed to visit Canada — at a date to be determined — following an invitation from Canada’s Catholic Bishops in an effort to help the reconciliation process with Indigenous peoples, the Vatican said in a statement on Oct. 27. The Vatican’s announcement comes one month after the leadership of the Catholic Church in Canada “unequivocally” apologized to the Indigenous peoples for the suffering endured in residential schools. The apology comes after years of pleas from survivors and their families and previously mixed responses from the country's Catholic hierarchy. More than 150,000 First Nations children were required to attend state-funded Christian schools from the 19th century until the 1970's in an effort to forcibly assimilate them into the country. Up to 60% of the schools were operated by Catholic organizations. Children attending these institutions were stripped of their Native languages and culture and forced to convert to Christianity. Widespread abuse has been documented, with up to 6,000 deaths reported. Last summer alone, over 1,000 unmarked graves of Indigenous children were discovered at four residential schools in Canada. In June, Francis expressed his closeness to the country’s Indigenous peoples, saying it is important to walk "side by side in dialogue, mutual respect and recognition of the rights and cultural values of all the daughters and sons of Canada." In 2015, the Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Call to Action called on the pope to issue and apology to survivors and their families "for the Roman Catholic Church's role in the spiritual, cultural, emotional, physical and sexual abuse of First Nations, Inuit and Métis children in Catholic-run residential schools." "We call for that apology to be similar to the 2010 apology issued to Irish victims of abuse and to occur within one year of the issuing of this report and to be delivered by the pope in Canada," their statement read. Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, a Catholic, has also called on the pope to formally apologize, as has the Canadian Parliament. Indigenous leaders from Canada are scheduled to travel to Rome from December 17-20, during which time they are slated to meet with Pope Francis at the Vatican. Pope John Paul II visited Canada on three occasions, including a 1987 meeting with Indigenous leaders. "Be assured that the Church will walk that path with you," he told those gathered in the Dene Nation homeland, although no apology was issued. In an interview with the Argentine news agency Telam, published Oct. 22, Francis said he hopes to visit Oceania and Southeast Asia in 2022. No mention was made of a potential trip to Canada. A version of this story appeared in the Nov 12-25, 2021 print issue under the headline: Pope to visit Canada amid reconciliation process.	9485e9bd-c408-4e59-9b34-d2bac406072b	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.ncronline.org/print/pdf/node/201925	2024-04-23T14:29:49+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296818711.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20240423130552-20240423160552-00819.warc.gz	819,657,245	648	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990556	eng_Latn	0.998571	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 373, 1811, 3238 ]	[ 2.09375 ]	1	0
So You Have Asthma A GUIDE FOR PATIENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute So You Have Asthma A GUIDE FOR PATIENTS AND THEIR FAMILIES U.S. Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute NIH Publication No. 13-5248 Originally Printed 2007 Revised March 2013 ## Contents Overview .......................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3 Asthma—Some Basics .................................................................................................... 4 Why You? ......................................................................................................................... 6 How Does Asthma Make You Feel? .............................................................................. 8 How Do You Know if You Have Asthma? ....................................................................... 9 How To Control Your Asthma ....................................................................................... 11 Your Asthma Management Partnership ..................................................................... 11 Your Written Asthma Action Plan .............................................................................. 12 Your Asthma Medicines: How They Work and How To Take Them ....................... 12 Taking Your Medicines: How’s Your Technique? .................................................. 15 What Medicines Do You Need? ............................................................................... 17 Your Asthma Triggers and How To Avoid Them .......................................................... 18 Co-existing Medical Conditions ................................................................................... 22 Asthma and Physical Activity ...................................................................................... 22 Monitoring Your Asthma ............................................................................................... 24 How To Find Your Personal Best Peak Flow Number ................................................ 24 How To Use Your Peak Flow Meter To Monitor Your Asthma .................................. 25 What if Your Asthma Gets Worse? Reacting Quickly to Worsening Symptoms ........ 27 What Does an Asthma Attack Feel Like? ................................................................... 27 How To Manage an Asthma Attack ............................................................................ 28 Following Up .................................................................................................................. 29 So You Have Asthma ..................................................................................................... 30 Tools To Help You Keep Your Asthma Under Control .................................................. 31 Tips for Creating Good, Clear Communication With Your Doctor or Other Health Care Professional ........................................................................................................ 32 Sample List of Questions To Ask Your Doctor or Other Health Care Professional .... 33 Sample Asthma Action Plan ......................................................................................... 34 How To Remember To Take Your Medicines ............................................................... 35 How To Use a Metered-Dose Inhaler .......................................................................... 36 How To Use a Dry Powder Inhaler ............................................................................... 37 How To Use a Nebulizer ............................................................................................... 38 Tool to Assess Asthma Control .................................................................................... 39 Sample Self-Assessment Sheet for Follow-Up Visits ................................................ 40 For More Information ..................................................................................................... 41 Welcome to So You Have Asthma—your one-stop source for the latest information on controlling your asthma. If you have asthma, you’re not alone. About 26 million Americans have asthma.$^1$$^2$ Asthma is on the rise in the United States and throughout the world. An estimated 300 million people worldwide have asthma.$^3$ Asthma is a chronic disease. Like diabetes and high blood pressure, asthma takes ongoing monitoring and management to keep it under control. This guide offers practical suggestions to help you manage your asthma. It contains information about the most effective asthma medications and describes how to take them. It provides a list of possible asthma triggers and recommends ways to reduce your exposure to those that affect you. It also includes information about common warning signs of an asthma attack and explains how to act quickly to keep your asthma symptoms from getting worse. --- $^1$ Schiller JS, Lucas JW, Ward BW, Peregoy JA. Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2011. Vital Health Stat 2012;10(256):1-219. $^2$ Bloom B, Cohen RA, Freeman G. Summary health statistics for U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2011. Vital Health Stat 2012;10(254):1-148. $^3$ World Health Organization. Chronic Respiratory Diseases. In: Global Surveillance, Prevention and Control of Chronic Respiratory Diseases: A Comprehensive approach. Geneva: WHO; 2007, pp 12-36. Most people with asthma should be able to get it under control and keep it that way. Once your asthma is controlled, you should be able to do anything people without asthma can do—whether sleeping through the night, going on a hike, or playing in a soccer game. It’s like breathing through a straw. That’s how many people who have asthma describe what asthma feels like. But for most people who have asthma, it doesn’t have to be that way! We know a lot more about asthma today than we did just a decade ago, and we have a much better understanding of how to treat it. In fact, based on what we now know, most people who have asthma should be able to gain control of it—and keep it under control for a lifetime. And once your asthma is controlled, you should be able to do anything that someone without asthma can do—whether it’s sleeping through the night, going on a hike, or playing in a soccer game. In other words, you should be able to live a normal, active life! With good asthma control, you can: - Be free from troublesome symptoms day and night: - No coughing or wheezing - No difficulty breathing or chest tightness - No nighttime awakening due to asthma - Have the best possible lung function - Participate fully in any activities of your choice - Miss few or no school or work days because of asthma symptoms - Have fewer or no urgent care visits or hospital stays for asthma - Have few or no side effects from asthma medicines Doctors often refer to the list above as the goals of asthma treatment. Happily, most people who have asthma can reach these goals by taking the following four actions: 1. Work closely with your doctor and other health care professionals (such as a nurse practitioner, physician assistant, nurse, respiratory therapist or asthma educator) to learn how to manage your asthma and keep it under control. Regular “asthma check-ups” with your doctor will help. 2. Learn which medicines to take, when to take them, and how to use them correctly. For your quick-relief inhaler, ask your doctor if you can add a spacer to make it easier to take the medicine. Then take all of your medicines just as your doctor recommends. 3. Identify the things that bring on your asthma symptoms, also called your asthma triggers. Then avoid them, or at least reduce your contact with them. 4. Watch for changes in your asthma. You need to know when an asthma attack is coming and what to do. If you act quickly and follow the doctor’s instructions, you can help keep your asthma symptoms from getting worse. Here are some basic facts about what asthma is and what you can do to control it. • Asthma is a lung disease. It is a physical and medical problem that needs treatment. It is not something that you imagined or made up. Don’t let anyone tell you your asthma is just in your head. It’s in your lungs, and it’s real! • Asthma is serious. A person can die during an asthma attack. That’s why knowing how to take care of your asthma and when to get emergency help is so important. • Asthma does not go away, and it cannot be cured. Once you develop asthma, you are likely to have it for a lifetime. Even when you have no symptoms—even when you are feeling just fine—the asthma is still there and can flare up at any time. • Asthma symptoms result from ongoing inflammation (swelling) that makes your airways super sensitive and more narrow than normal. Although inflammation is a helpful defense mechanism for our bodies, it can be harmful if it occurs at the wrong time or stays around after it’s no longer needed. That is what happens when you have asthma. The airways in your lungs are more sensitive to things that they see as foreign and threatening—such as tobacco smoke, dust, chemicals, colds or flu, and pollen—also called asthma “triggers.” Your immune system overreacts to these things by releasing different kinds of cells and chemicals that cause the following changes in the airways: - The inner linings of the airways become more inflamed (swollen), leaving even less room in the airways for the air to move through. - The muscles surrounding the airways get bigger and tighten. This squeezes the airways and makes them smaller. (This is called bronchospasm.) - Glands in the airways produce lots of thick mucus, which further blocks the airways. These changes can make it harder for you to breathe. They also can make you cough, wheeze, and feel short of breath. If the inflammation associated with asthma is not treated, each time your airways are exposed to your asthma triggers, the inflammation increases, and you are likely to have symptoms that may get worse. The normal airway is open, so the air you breathe moves in and out of your lungs freely. When you are exposed to your asthma triggers, the sides of your airways become more inflamed or swollen, and the muscles around the airways tighten, leaving less room for the air to move in and out. Adapted from American College of Chest Physicians • Your asthma can be controlled! Discuss your asthma with your doctor. Together, you can create a treatment plan that will help you: - Reduce impairment—so you can keep asthma symptoms away, keep up with your usual daily activities, and sleep through the night. - Reduce risk—so you can prevent asthma attacks, stay out of the emergency room or hospital, and have fewer side effects from your medicines. Managing your asthma effectively means working closely with your doctor, taking your medicines as prescribed, avoiding your asthma triggers, and watching for any changes in your asthma. These steps will help you to reduce impairment and risk so you can gain—and keep—control of your asthma. You should expect nothing less! Treatment for most people who have asthma includes taking a long-term control medicine every day. The medicine will help reduce inflammation and prevent asthma symptoms. WHY YOU? Researchers are still working hard to learn more about what causes some people to develop asthma. They think that many different genetic and environmental factors play a role, especially during the first years of life when the immune system is still developing. Probably the most important factor in the development of asthma is atopy. This is the inherited tendency to be allergic. If other people in your family have allergies, you may have inherited a tendency to be allergic, and your chances of developing asthma are greater than average. Researchers also are beginning to see that exposure to certain irritants when you are very young plays a role in the development of asthma. For example, if you have a family history of asthma or allergies and your mother was exposed to certain irritants, such as tobacco smoke, when she was pregnant with you, you may be more likely to develop asthma. Exposure to certain indoor allergens in early childhood may also play an important role in the development of asthma. In many places, exposure to dust mites appears to have this effect. Other indoor allergens that may play an important role in the development of asthma include cat and dog dander (flakes of skin or dried saliva), cockroach droppings, and mold. Certain viral respiratory infections in early life also appear to play a part in the development of asthma and of ongoing wheezing. Exposure to irritants, certain chemicals, or substances in your workplace may increase your chances of developing occupational asthma. Changes in the way we live and work in the United States today may also increase our contact with these allergens and irritants. We now spend far more time indoors than we used to, and we’ve reduced ventilation in our homes and workplaces to conserve energy. This may trap allergens and irritants inside. On the other side of the coin, medical research has shown that children who are exposed to certain types of infections and environments during the first year or two of life may be less likely to develop asthma. Such exposures may be protective factors against asthma. For example, some children who grow up on or near farms have been shown to be less likely to develop asthma and allergies. Asthma and allergies also appear to be less common among children who have two or more older siblings or who attend daycare during their first 6 months. This discovery has led to the theory that our western lifestyle—with its emphasis on hygiene, sanitation, and indoor living and working—has resulted in changes in our living conditions and an overall decline in infections in early childhood. Many young children no longer experience the same types of environmental exposures and infections that children did in years past. This affects the way their immune systems develop during very early childhood and may increase their chances of developing atopy and asthma. This is especially true of people who have close family members with one or both of these conditions. This theory is called the hygiene hypothesis. It may help explain why asthma has been increasing in recent years. Most people who have asthma experience one or more of the following symptoms: - Coughing. Coughing from asthma is often worse at night or early morning, making it hard to sleep. Sometimes coughing is your only symptom. Sometimes coughing brings up mucus, or phlegm. - Wheezing. Wheezing is a whistling or squeaky sound when you breathe. - Chest tightness. This can feel like something is squeezing or sitting on your chest. - Shortness of breath. Some people say they can’t catch their breath, or they feel breathless, or out of breath—like they can’t get enough air out of their lungs. The symptoms of asthma are different for different people. And symptoms for one person can change from one time to another. So can the frequency of symptoms. How often you get symptoms will let you and your doctor know if you need to do more to control your asthma. Call your doctor if— - You have asthma symptoms more than 2 days a week. - Your asthma wakes you up 2 or more times a month. - You are using your quick-relief inhaler more than 2 days a week. - Your asthma is getting in the way of your usual activities. These are signs that your asthma is not well controlled and may be getting worse. Asthma symptoms can sometimes be mild. At other times, they can be serious enough to make you stop what you are doing. And sometimes, symptoms can be so serious that they are life threatening. In a severe asthma attack, your airways can narrow so much that not enough oxygen can get into the blood that goes to your vital organs. This condition is a medical emergency. People can die from severe asthma attacks. With effective asthma management, however, most people who have asthma can expect to have few, if any, symptoms. It’s easy to confuse asthma symptoms with symptoms of other conditions—for example, a cold or bronchitis. But asthma can be serious, so if you have a cough that won’t go away or are often short of breath, or you wheeze, especially at night or after being active, it’s a good idea to ask your doctor or other health care professional to check out what is causing your symptoms. You can do several helpful things before seeing your doctor. First, write down: - Symptoms you’ve had - Time of day or night they’ve occurred - Where you were at the time - What you were doing Second, create a list for the doctor of ALL the medicines and supplements that you are taking—or bring them all with you in a bag. Even if you are taking medicines for other conditions, one of them might affect your asthma or interact with an asthma medicine. Third, think ahead about the questions the doctor may ask you. For example, do you have any of the following? - Periods of coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or chest tightness that come on suddenly or occur often or seem to happen during certain times of year - Colds that seem to “go to the chest” or take more than 10 days to get over - Medicines you may have used to help your breathing - A history in your family of asthma and allergies - Things that seem to bring on your symptoms or make them worse - Symptoms that make it harder for you to live a normal, active life Finally, write down any questions that you want to ask your doctor. If you do not understand what the doctor is saying, ask the doctor to tell you again or to write it down for you. To help diagnose your condition, your doctor will examine you, focusing especially on your upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, throat), chest, and skin. He or she will use a stethoscope to listen to your breathing and look for other signs of asthma or allergies—such as eczema, an allergic skin condition. Your doctor may also use a device called a spirometer to check how well your lungs are working. You’ll be asked to take a deep breath in and then breathe out as hard as you can into a tube that is connected to the spirometer. You may have to do this several times to complete the test. The spirometer will show the amount of air you breathed out and how fast you breathed it out over a certain time period, usually 1 second. If your airways are inflamed and narrowed, or if the muscles around your airways have tightened up, the results will show it. If your doctor or other health care professional needs more information to make a diagnosis, he or she may also conduct other tests or send you to an asthma specialist for tests. These tests will help rule out any other conditions that might be causing your symptoms. These tests might include: - Allergy testing to find out what things cause your asthma symptoms - A test to see how your airways react to exercise - Tests to see if you have other conditions that may make your symptoms worse—for example, gastroesophageal reflux disease, obstructive sleep apnea, or rhinitis (runny, itchy, sneezy, or stuffy nose) - A test for sinus disease - A chest x-ray or an electrocardiogram to find out if a foreign object or other lung or heart disease could be causing your symptoms Of course, diagnosing asthma and starting treatment is only the first step. In follow-up visits, you and your doctor or other health care professional will work to achieve—and maintain—control of your asthma. Your doctor says, “Yes, you have asthma.” Well, breathe easy—because asthma can be controlled. But YOU need to take an active role in managing it. You don’t have to do it alone though. In fact, one of the most important actions you can take is to work closely with your doctor or other health care professional to learn how to manage your asthma on a routine basis. Your Asthma Management Partnership Think of your doctor and other health care team members (such as nurse practitioner, physician assistant, nurse, respiratory therapist, pharmacist, or asthma educator) as your partners in asthma management. While you know best how your body is feeling on a day-to-day basis, they know best how to help you get and keep your asthma under control. Don’t hesitate to: - Discuss your treatment goals with your doctor - Ask questions and express concerns - Ask the doctor to explain something again in a different way if you don’t understand - Get involved in decisions about your treatment so it meets your needs and is something that you know you can do - Let your doctor know right away about any changes in your asthma condition and make time to see him or her on a regular, agreed-upon schedule Remember, nearly everyone who has asthma can get and keep it under control. Working closely with your doctor or other health care professional to manage your asthma on an ongoing basis is essential to your achieving your goals. (See pages 32 and 33 for more tips about communicating with your doctor or other health care professional and for a list of questions you may want to ask your doctor.) Your Written Asthma Action Plan One of the first things you and your doctor should work on is a written asthma action plan. This plan will remind you of how to manage your asthma on a daily basis and how to recognize and handle worsening asthma. Be sure you understand the plan completely and know how to use it. In particular, your asthma action plan should: - Include the medicines you should take—explaining: - What they are and what they do - How much to take - When to take each of them - How to take each of them - What, if any, side effects you should look for - List your asthma triggers and provide information on ways to avoid or reduce them - Show how to monitor your asthma control using symptoms or peak flow readings - Show how to recognize and handle worsening asthma: - What signs to watch for - How to adjust your medicines in response to these signs - When to seek emergency care - What number to call in an emergency The next sections provide more information about each of the actions addressed in your written asthma action plan. A sample asthma action plan appears on page 34. As you read through the following sections, write down on this sample plan the actions you and your doctor have discussed. Then, the next time you see your doctor, share it with him or her and make sure you agree on everything in it. Your Asthma Medicines: How They Work and How To Take Them Most people who have asthma need two kinds of medicines: long-term control medicines and quick-relief medicines. 1. Long-term control medicines. These are medicines that you take every day for a long time, to stop and control the inflammation in your airways and thereby prevent symptoms and attacks from coming on in the first place. These medicines work slowly, and you may need to take them for several weeks or longer before you feel better. If your asthma is not well controlled, your doctor may increase the dose or add another medicine to your treatment. Once your asthma is under control, your doctor may be able to reduce some of these medicines. The most effective long-term control medicines are anti-inflammatory medicines. They reduce the inflammation in your airways, making the airways less sensitive and less likely to react to your asthma triggers. Anti-inflammatory medicines are most effective when you take them every day, even when you don’t have any symptoms. The most effective anti-inflammatory medicines for most people who have asthma are inhaled corticosteroids. Some people don’t like the idea of taking steroids. But the inhaled corticosteroids used to treat asthma are very different from the illegal anabolic steroids taken by some athletes. They are not habit-forming—even if you take them every day for many years. And, because they are inhaled, the medicine goes right to your lungs where it is needed. Also, they have been studied for many years in large groups of adults and children as young as 2 years old and, in general, have been found to be well tolerated and safe when taken as directed by your doctor. Other long-term control medicines used to treat asthma include: - Inhaled long-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonists—These bronchodilators can help prevent symptoms when taken with inhaled corticosteroids by helping to keep airway muscles relaxed. These medicines should \textit{not} be used alone. They also should not be used to treat symptoms or an attack. Two-in-one medicines that contain both corticosteroids and long-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonists are available. - Cromolyn sodium—This nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicine can be used to treat mild persistent asthma, especially in children. It’s not as effective as inhaled corticosteroids. DID YOU KNOW? Like many other medicines, inhaled corticosteroids can have side effects. But most doctors agree that the benefits of taking them and preventing attacks far outweigh the risks of side effects. Take inhaled corticosteroids as your doctor prescribes and use a spacer or holding chamber with your inhaler to make sure the medicine goes directly to your lungs. Be sure to rinse your mouth out with water, and don’t swallow the water, after taking these medicines. Rinsing helps prevent an infection in the mouth. • Leukotriene modifiers—These anti-leukotriene medicines are a newer class of long-term control medicines that block the action of chemicals in your airways. If not blocked, these chemicals, called leukotrienes, increase the inflammation in your lungs during an asthma attack. Anti-leukotriene medicines, which are available in pill form, are used alone to treat mild persistent asthma or with inhaled corticosteroids to treat moderate persistent asthma. They are not as effective as inhaled corticosteroids for most patients. • Theophylline—This medicine, also available in pill form, acts as a bronchodilator to relax and open the airways. It can help prevent nighttime symptoms. It is sometimes used alone to treat mild persistent asthma, but most of the time it is used with inhaled corticosteroids. If you take theophylline, you need to have your blood levels checked regularly to make sure the dose is right for you. With long-term control medicines, it’s important to take them every day, as your doctor prescribes. The suggestions on page 35 can help you remember to take your medicines. 2 Quick-relief medicines. You take these medicines when you need immediate relief of your symptoms. Everyone who has asthma needs a quick-relief medicine—usually taken by inhaler—to stop asthma symptoms before they get worse. The preferred quick-relief medicine is an inhaled short-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonist. It acts quickly to relax tightened muscles around your airways so that your airways can open up and allow more air to flow through. You should take your quick-relief medicine at the first sign of any asthma symptoms. Your doctor may recommend that you take this medicine at other times, as well—for example, before exercise. Short-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonists include albuterol, levalbuterol, and pirbuterol. They are also called by their brand names. Other quick-relief medicines are: • Anticholinergics—These medicines are used primarily in the emergency department, but if you have moderate to severe asthma, your doctor may recommend that you use them with a short-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonist to relieve symptoms. Or, if you can’t tolerate a short-acting beta\textsubscript{2}-agonist, this may be the treatment of choice for you. Inhaled corticosteroids are the most effective long-term control medicines for asthma, and, in general, they are well tolerated and safe for both children and adults when taken as directed by your doctor. Carry a quick-relief inhaler with you at all times to stop asthma symptoms before they get worse. • Systemic corticosteroids—Usually taken in the form of a pill or syrup, systemic corticosteroids may be used to speed your recovery after an asthma attack and to prevent more attacks. You would take them for 3-10 days. People who have severe asthma may need to take systemic corticosteroids for longer periods of time. Taking Your Medicines: How’s Your Technique? INHALERS Many asthma medicines—both quick-relief and long-term control medicines—come as sprays and powders in an inhaler. An inhaler is a hand-held device that delivers the medicine right to the airways in your lungs where it is needed. There are several kinds of inhalers—just a few examples are pictured on the next page. IMPORTANT! Quick-relief medicine is very good at stopping asthma symptoms, but it does nothing to control the inflammation in your airways that produces these symptoms. If you need to use your quick-relief inhaler more often than usual, or if you need to use it more than 2 days a week, it may be a sign that you also need to take a long-term control medicine to reduce the inflammation in your airways. Discuss this with your doctor as soon as possible. The metered dose inhaler (MDI) is a small canister that delivers a measured dose of medicine through your mouth to your airways. A dry powder inhaler delivers a pre-set amount of asthma medicine in powder form. Different types of inhalers require different ways to use them. It is important for you to learn how to use your inhaler correctly. Read the instructions that come with it. Also, ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional to show you how to use it. Then try it yourself and ask him or her to make sure you are using it the right way. SPACERS AND VALVED HOLDING CHAMBERS A spacer or valved holding chamber can make using an MDI a lot easier. It can also decrease the amount of medicine that lands on your tongue or in the back of your mouth. This reduces irritation to your throat and increases the amount of medicine that gets down into your lungs where it belongs. There are many kinds of spacers that can be chosen to fit your needs. - Some have a mouthpiece. - Some have a facemask that comes in different sizes to fit infants, children, and adults. - Many spacers fit on the end of an inhaler; for some, the canister of medicine fits into the device. - Some MDIs come with built-in spacers. Spacers are not needed for dry powder devices. Spacers also come with instructions on how to use them and keep them clean. It’s important to ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional to show you how to use a spacer with your MDI. Then try it yourself and ask him or her to make sure you’re doing it correctly. NEBULIZERS A nebulizer is another device for taking inhaled medicines. It provides the medicine in a fine, steady mist. Using a nebulizer is usually easy; you simply breathe in and out normally through a mask or mouthpiece connected to the nebulizer. But it takes more time to use than an inhaler. It’s also more expensive and requires more maintenance. Instructions for using different nebulizers vary, so follow the instructions on the package insert. Nebulized asthma medicine may be especially useful for infants, young children, and adults who have trouble using an inhaler. Regardless of which of these devices you use, you have to use them the right way, or you won’t get all the medicine into your lungs. The best way to learn to use these devices correctly is to ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional to show you how. Then demonstrate it back to him or her to make sure you have it right. Pages 36 through 38 offer general steps for how to use a metered-dose inhaler, dry powder inhaler, and nebulizer. What Medicines Do You Need? Your doctor is likely to consider a number of factors when deciding which medicines and how much of each you need. Your medicines should: - Prevent your ongoing symptoms (you should not need to use your quick-relief medicine more than 2 days a week) - Help maintain your normal lung function - Help you be as active as you want to be, whether at work or at school - Prevent your having repeated asthma attacks - Help do all of this without causing major side effects Each time you see your doctor, he or she will weigh all these things before recommending any changes in your medicines. Usually, if you have been doing well for several months, your doctor may consider reducing the number or doses of medicines you’re taking. But if your asthma is still not under control, he or she may recommend adding some medicines or increasing the doses of some of those you’re already taking. The goal is to achieve the best asthma control possible with the least amount of medicine. It may take several visits before the doctor finds exactly the right medicines and doses for you. This is why watching your asthma symptoms and seeing your doctor regularly are so important. Your doctor may also recommend other treatments to help manage other conditions that can affect your asthma. These include: - Allergy shots (immunotherapy) if your allergies aren’t easily controlled by avoiding your triggers and taking medicine. - Pneumococcal (pneumonia) vaccinations, for older adults. - Antibiotics, if you have a bacterial infection, such as pneumonia or suspected bacterial sinusitis. Antibiotics are not recommended for routine or emergency treatment of asthma. Now that you know more about asthma medicines and what they do, ask your doctor to write on your asthma action plan: - The name of each of your quick-relief and long-term control medicines - How much of each medicine you should take - When to take each of your medicines Any time your doctor prescribes a new medicine, ask him or her about the right way to take it! Ask about possible side effects and how to deal with them. Also ask what to do if you forget to take the medicine. Your pharmacist can also give you information about your medicines. Your Asthma Triggers and How To Avoid Them Avoiding the things that bring on your asthma symptoms—your asthma triggers—is another important action to control your asthma. Avoiding your asthma triggers can help reduce the inflammation in your lungs, your symptoms, and even your need for medicine. Some of the most common things that bring on asthma symptoms are airborne allergens and irritants, viral infections, and exercise. Airborne allergens are substances that you breathe in and that can cause you to have an allergic reaction. That is, in some people, the immune system sees them as “foreign” or “threatening” and reacts in an overly strong way to protect the body against them. Some of the most common allergens that affect people who have asthma are: - Cockroach droppings - Dust mites—tiny bugs (too small to see) that thrive in dust, mattresses, upholstered furniture, carpets, and stuffed animals - Warm-blooded animals, including pets such as cats and dogs—which have allergens in their dander (flakes of skin), urine, feces, and saliva - Pollen from trees, grass, and weeds - Molds, both indoor and outdoor Irritants are things in the environment that may irritate your lungs. Some of the most common irritants are: - Tobacco smoke - Air pollution, including ozone - Formaldehyde and other chemicals (called volatile organic compounds) from newly installed linoleum flooring, synthetic carpeting, particleboard, wall coverings, furniture, and recent painting - Gas stoves and other appliances not vented to the outdoors - Fumes from buses, wood-burning appliances, or fireplaces - Strong odors or sprays, such as perfume, talcum powder, hairspray, and paints. - Changes in weather and exposure to cold air Other things that bring on asthma symptoms in some people include: - Exercise and other physical activity (See page 22) - Viral respiratory infections, including colds, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and the flu - Medicines such as aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) like ibuprofen, and beta-blockers that are used in high blood pressure and glaucoma medicines - Bacterial respiratory infections, including Mycoplasma and Chlamydia - Sulfites used as preservatives in food (dried fruit, instant potatoes, or shrimp) or drinks (wine or beer) This is not a complete list of all the things that can bring on your asthma symptoms. It is important to learn what causes problems for you. The guide on pages 20 and 21 suggests ways to help you stay away from some common asthma triggers. Look at the things listed in dark print and put a check next to the ones that you know make your asthma worse. Ask your doctor to help you find out what else makes your asthma worse. Then decide with your doctor what steps you will take. Tobacco smoke is a common lung irritant. The guide on pages 20 and 21 suggests ways to help you control the triggers in your home and environment. How To Control Things That Make Your Asthma Worse Allergens ☐ ANIMAL DANDER Some people are allergic to the flakes of skin or dried saliva from animals with fur or hair. The best thing to do: - Keep pets with fur or hair out of your home. If you must have a pet, then: - Keep the pet out of your bedroom and other sleeping areas, and keep the door closed. - Remove carpets and cloth furniture from your home. If you can’t do that, keep the pet away from cloth furniture and carpets. - Try not to sleep or lie on cloth cushions. - Remove carpets from your bedroom and those laid on concrete. - Keep stuffed toys off of the bed or sleeping area. Wash stuffed toys weekly in hot water or cooler water with detergent and bleach. Dust mites can also be killed by placing stuffed animals in the freezer overnight in a plastic bag. ☐ DUST MITES Many people who have asthma are allergic to dust mites. Dust mites are tiny bugs (too small to see) that are found in every home—in dust, mattresses, pillows, carpets, cloth furniture, sheets and blankets, clothes, stuffed toys, and other cloth-covered items. Things that may help: - Put your mattress and pillow in special dust-proof covers. - Wash sheets and blankets on your bed each week in hot water. Water must be hotter than 130 °F to kill the dust mites. Cold or warm water used with detergent and bleach can also kill dust mites. - Reduce indoor humidity to below 60 percent. Between 30 and 50 percent is best. Dehumidifiers or central air conditioners can do this. ☐ COCKROACHES Many people who have asthma are allergic to the dried droppings and remains of cockroaches. The best things to do: - Keep food and garbage in closed containers. - Never leave food, dirty dishes, or standing water out. - Use poison baits, powders, gels, or paste (for example, boric acid). You can also use traps. - If a spray is used to kill roaches, stay out of the room until the odor goes away. ☐ INDOOR MOLD - Fix leaking faucets, pipes, or other sources of water that have mold around them. - Scrub mold off hard surfaces with soap and water, and dry completely. Wear gloves to avoid touching mold with your bare hands. If you use a cleaner with bleach or a strong smell, always ventilate the area. Pollen and Outdoor Mold What to do during your allergy season (when pollen or mold spore counts are high): - Try to keep your windows closed. - Stay indoors with windows closed from late morning to afternoon, if you can. Pollen and some mold spore counts are highest at that time. - If you do go outside, change your clothes as soon as you get inside and put dirty clothes in a covered hamper or container to avoid spreading allergens inside your home. - Ask your doctor whether you need to take or increase anti-inflammatory medicine before your allergy season starts. Other things that bring on asthma symptoms in some people include: Vacuum Cleaning - Try to get someone else to vacuum for you once or twice a week. Stay out of rooms while they are being vacuumed and for a short while afterward. - If you vacuum, use a dust mask (from a hardware store), a double-layered or microfilter vacuum cleaner bag, or a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter. Other Things That Can Make Asthma Worse - Sulfites (used to prevent spoiling) in foods and beverages: Do not drink beer or wine or eat dried fruit, instant potatoes, or shrimp if they cause asthma symptoms. - Cold air: Cover your nose and mouth with a scarf on cold or windy days. - Other medicines: Tell your doctor about all the medicines you take. Include cold medicines, aspirin, vitamins and other supplements, and nonselective beta blockers used, for example, in some eye drops and medicines for anxiety and high blood pressure. - Infections: Certain lung infections like a cold or the flu may also make your asthma worse. Irritants Tobacco Smoke - If you smoke, ask your doctor for ways to help you quit. Ask family members to quit smoking, too. - Do not allow smoking in your home or car. Smoke, Strong Odors, Sprays, and Fumes - If possible, do not use a wood-burning stove, kerosene heater, or fireplace. Vent gas stoves to outside. - Try to stay away from strong odors and sprays—such as perfume, talcum powder, hair spray, and paints. You don’t need to do all of the things listed in the guide, but doing just one or two things will probably not be effective. Try to use as many approaches as possible to really solve the problem. A good place to start is with the things in your bedroom that bother your asthma. Try something simple first. For example, if you’re allergic to dust mites, try using special dust mite-proof covers on your pillows and mattress, and wash the sheets, blankets, and pillows in hot water each week. Another thing you might consider is removing the carpet from your bedroom. And, using a dehumidifier or central air conditioner to reduce indoor humidity to or below 60 percent, ideally 30–50 percent, will help even more. If you smoke, ask your doctor for help to quit. If family members smoke, ask them to quit, too. Don’t let anyone smoke around you, in your home, or in your car. Co-existing Medical Conditions Some people have other medical conditions, along with their asthma, that may make asthma worse and harder to treat. These co-existing conditions include: - Gastroesophageal reflux disease - Obesity - Obstructive sleep apnea - Rhinitis/sinusitis - Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis - Stress, depression, and other psychological factors Treating these conditions may improve your asthma control. Asthma and Physical Activity Exercise and other physical activity can bring on symptoms in most people who have asthma. Symptoms may occur either during or right after being active. This is called exercise-induced asthma (or exercise-induced bronchospasm). But regular physical activity is good for all of us. In fact, doctors recommend that most people, including those who have asthma, get at least 2 hours and 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity that requires moderate effort every week (at least 1 hour a day for children 6–17 years of age). This activity should be for at least 10 minutes at a time. The good news is that if your asthma is well controlled, physical activity should not be a problem. In fact, most people who have asthma should be able to participate in any physical activity they like without having asthma symptoms. Here are some things you can do to prevent or reduce exercise-induced asthma: - Ask your doctor about using your quick-relief medicine 5 minutes before exercise. This usually can prevent and control exercise-induced asthma. You can also use this medicine to relieve symptoms during and after exercise. But remember to let your doctor know if you have to use it often during or after exercise. It may be a sign that you need to start taking daily longterm control medicine or to increase the dose of your long-term control medicine. • Try warming up before you exercise or do physical activity. This may help you handle continuous exercise without having to stop repeatedly to take more medicine. Good ways to warm up include walking, doing flexibility exercises, or doing other low-intensity activities. • Try to avoid your other asthma triggers while exercising or doing other physical activity. For example, if cold, dry air makes your asthma worse, wear a scarf or cold air mask when exercising outdoors in winter. • If you have been having mild asthma symptoms, consider reducing the intensity or length of the activity you do. • Try exercising indoors when outside temperatures are extreme, or the ozone level is high. The same is true if you are allergic, and the grass has recently been mowed, or pollen counts are high. • When first starting to be active, try increasing your level of activity gradually over time. Remember, asthma should not limit your participation or success in physical activities—even more intense and sustained activities like running or playing basketball or soccer. Monitoring Your Asthma Monitoring your asthma on a regular basis is important to keeping your asthma under control. Keeping track of your symptoms whenever you have them is a good idea. This will help you and your doctor adjust your treatment over time. The assessment tool on page 39 can help you monitor your asthma. Another way to monitor your asthma is with a peak flow meter. This is a hand-held device that shows how well air moves out of your lungs. Measuring your peak flow can help you tell how well your asthma is controlled. It can also alert you to an oncoming asthma attack hours or even days before you feel symptoms. And during an attack, it can help tell you how bad the attack is and if your medicine is working. The peak flow meter also can be used to help you and your doctor: - Learn what makes your asthma worse - Decide if your treatment plan is working well - Decide when to add or stop medicine - Decide when to seek emergency care Here are instructions for using a peak flow meter to monitor how well your asthma is under control. It is also a good idea to ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional to show you how to use your peak flow meter. The first step is to find your personal best peak flow number; then you can use the peak flow meter to keep an eye on how well your asthma is under control on a daily basis. How To Find Your Personal Best Peak Flow Number Your personal best peak flow number is the highest peak flow number you can achieve over a 2-week period when your asthma is under good control—that is, when you feel good and have no symptoms. To find your personal best peak flow number, follow the steps in the box on page 25 to take your peak flow readings: - At least twice a day for 2 to 3 weeks - When you wake up and in late afternoon or early evening - 15–20 minutes after you take your quick-relief medicine - Any other time your doctor suggests Write down the number you get for each peak flow reading. Your doctor will use these numbers to determine your personal best peak flow. Then your doctor will use that number to create three peak flow zones. These zones are usually set up on your asthma action plan like a traffic light—in green, yellow, and red. What your doctor tells you to do in each zone will help you know what to do when your peak flow number changes. 1. Always stand up. Remove any food or gum from your mouth. 2. Make sure the marker on the peak flow meter is at the bottom of the scale. 3. Breathe in slowly and deeply. Hold that breath. 4. Place mouthpiece on your tongue and close lips around it to form a tight seal (do not put tongue in the hole). 5. Blow out as hard and fast as possible. 6. Write down the number next to the marker. (If you cough or make a mistake, don’t write down that number. Do it over again.) 7. Repeat steps 3 through 6 two more times. 8. Record the highest of these numbers in a notebook, calendar, or asthma diary. Ask your doctor to write on your asthma action plan: - The numbers for each of your peak flow zones. Mark the zones on your peak flow meter with colored tape or a marker. - The medicines you should take while in each peak flow zone. - The steps you should take while in each peak flow zone. How To Use Your Peak Flow Meter To Monitor Your Asthma Every morning when you wake up, before taking your asthma medicine, take your peak flow by following the steps above. Make this part of your daily routine. Check this number against the peak flow zones on your written asthma action plan. Use the zone that your peak flow is in to help make treatment decisions. The zones will help you monitor your asthma and take the right actions to keep it under control or to treat symptoms. If you use more than one peak flow meter (perhaps at home and at work or school), make sure they are the same brand. Green Zone (Go)—80 to 100 percent of your personal best—signals good control and no asthma symptoms. If you take daily long-term control medicines, keep taking them. And keep taking them even when you are in the yellow or red zones. Yellow Zone (Caution)—50 to 79 percent of your personal best—signals caution: Your asthma is getting worse. Add quick-relief medicines, as spelled out in your written asthma action plan. You might also need to increase other asthma medicines; ask your doctor. Red Zone (Medical Alert! )—less than 50 percent of your personal best—signals medical alert! Add or increase quick-relief medicines according to instructions in your written asthma action plan and call your doctor now. Also, use your peak flow meter: - When you’re having asthma symptoms or an attack. First, take your medicine for the attack. Then take your peak flow. This will help you see if the medicine is working for you or if you need more treatment. - Any other time your doctor suggests. Sometimes, even if your asthma has been under control, you may start having symptoms. Some people have early warning signs and symptoms that an asthma attack is coming, even before more serious asthma symptoms start. These early warning signs can be different for everyone. They can even be different for you at different times. Work with your doctor to find out your warning signs. When you see those signs, act fast to stop symptoms and improve the chances of avoiding an asthma attack. Some of these warning signs sound just like common asthma symptoms. The difference is that they are milder. But pay attention to your early warning signs. Even mild asthma symptoms can get worse quickly and lead to an asthma attack. EARLY WARNING SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF AN ASTHMA ATTACK Check below any signs that warn you that an asthma attack may be coming: - [ ] mild cough - [ ] mild difficulty breathing - [ ] mild wheeze - [ ] chest starts to hurt or feel tight - [ ] waking up at night - [ ] cannot do all of your usual activities - [ ] itchy, scratchy, or sore throat - [ ] itchy, watery, or glassy eyes - [ ] itchy or runny nose - [ ] need more quick-relief medicine than usual - [ ] low peak flow readings - [ ] other _______________________ - [ ] other _______________________ What Does an Asthma Attack Feel Like? Just as different people have different warning signs of an asthma attack, an attack may feel different to each person. Nonetheless, people who have asthma commonly report the following signs and symptoms of an asthma attack: - It’s hard to breathe, especially to breathe air out, and you may breathe faster than usual. - You may wheeze, cough, or feel tightness in your chest. - Your heart may beat very fast. - You may start to sweat. - Initially, you may be able to breathe well enough to talk in complete sentences, but in more severe attacks, you may be able to speak only a few words at a time without pausing to take a break. How To Manage an Asthma Attack It’s best to be prepared before symptoms get worse or an asthma attack happens. Review your asthma action plan so you know what to do if you have symptoms or an asthma attack. Keep your asthma action plan where you can easily find it. Follow your asthma action plan as soon as you begin to have symptoms, and follow it carefully. It can save your life! Your asthma action plan tells you what to do if you have an asthma attack, including: - What medicines to take and how much to take (based on your symptoms and peak flow number) - How to know if the medicine is working - What to do if the medicine does not stop the asthma attack symptoms - When to call for emergency help and what number to call If you are ever unsure what to do in case of an asthma attack, call 9-1-1 or your local emergency service. Partnering with your health care professional means staying in touch regularly to maintain control of your asthma. If your medicines work well, you should plan on seeing your doctor again in the next 2 to 6 weeks. If not, call to schedule another visit right away. Once your asthma is under control, you may be able to gradually cut back your doctor visits to once every 1 to 6 months. Each visit with your doctor or other health care professional is a chance for you to find out if you are doing the right things to manage your asthma and to learn about things that may improve your asthma control. To make sure you get the most out of each visit, bring the following items with you: - Your peak flow meter and the record of your peak flows, if you use a peak flow meter - Your inhaler and other medicines - A record of recent asthma symptoms or attacks, medication use, and hospital visits (see page 39 for a tool to help you monitor your asthma control) - Your written asthma action plan Ask your doctor to make sure you’re using your inhalers and peak flow meter the right way. Also ask your doctor to review and update your written asthma action plan. A list of sample questions for your doctor or other health care professional appears on page 33. Before you leave the doctor’s office, be sure you have the answers to these and any other questions you have. Just a few years ago, having asthma meant living a life filled with should nots and cannots. That’s not the case anymore. Today, most people who have asthma should be able to get their asthma under control—and keep it that way for a lifetime. Managing your asthma sounds like a lot to do, and there certainly is a lot to learn, but you can do it—especially when it’s a team effort! And over time, managing your asthma will become a routine part of your life. The tools on the pages that follow will help you to keep your asthma under control. Tools To Help You Keep Your Asthma Under Control Tips for Creating Good, Clear Communication With Your Doctor or Other Health Care Professional SPEAK UP. Tell your doctor or other health care professional about what you want to achieve by improving control of your asthma. Ask for his or her help in achieving those treatment goals. BE OPEN. When your doctor or other health care professional asks you questions, answer as honestly and completely as you can. Briefly describe your symptoms. Include when you started having each symptom, how often you have it, and whether it has been getting worse. KEEP IT SIMPLE. If you don’t understand something your doctor or other health care professional says, ask for a simple explanation. Be especially sure that you understand how to take any medicines you are given. If you are worried about understanding what the doctor or other health care professional says, or if you have trouble hearing, bring a friend or relative with you to your appointment. You may want to ask that person to write down instructions for you. Sample List of Questions To Ask Your Doctor or Other Health Care Professional 1. Are you sure it’s asthma? 2. Do I need other tests to confirm the diagnosis? 3. If I think my medicine isn’t working, is it OK to take more right away? 4. What should I do if I miss a dose? 5. Will my medicine cause me any problems, like shakiness, sore throat, or upset stomach? 6. What if I have problems taking my medicines or following my treatment plan? 7. Is this the right way to use my inhaler? How do I use my inhaler with a spacer? 8. Is this the right way to use my peak flow meter? 9. How can I tell if I’m having an asthma attack? What medicines should I take and how much of each should I take? When should I call you? When should I go to the emergency room? 10. Once my asthma is under control, will I be able to reduce the amount of medicine I’m taking? 11. When should I see you again? Asthma Action Plan For: ____________________________________________ Doctor: ____________________________________________ Doctor’s Phone Number ___________________________ Hospital/Emergency Department Phone Number _______________ Date: ____________________________________________ Doing Well - No cough, wheeze, chest tightness, or shortness of breath during the day or night - Can do usual activities And, if a peak flow meter is used, Peak flow: more than (80 percent or more of my best peak flow) My best peak flow is: _____________________________ \| Before exercise \| □ 2 or □ 4 puffs \| 5 minutes before exercise \| Take these long-term control medicines each day (include an anti-inflammatory). Medicine How much to take When to take it --- Asthma Is Getting Worse - Cough, wheeze, chest tightness, or shortness of breath, or - Waking at night due to asthma, or - Can do some, but not all, usual activities Or— Peak flow: _________ to _________ (50 to 79 percent of my best peak flow) Add: quick-relief medicine—and keep taking your GREEN ZONE medicine. - □ 2 or □ 4 puffs, every 20 minutes for up to 1 hour - □ Nebulizer, once If your symptoms (and peak flow, if used) return to GREEN ZONE after 1 hour of above treatment: - □ Continue monitoring to be sure you stay in the green zone. Or—if your symptoms (and peak flow, if used) do not return to GREEN ZONE after 1 hour of above treatment: First - □ Take: _________ (short-acting beta₂-agonist) - □ Add: _________ (oral steroid) Second - □ Call the doctor □ before/□ within _________ hours after taking the oral steroid. --- Medical Alert! - Very short of breath, or - Quick-relief medicines have not helped, or - Cannot do usual activities, or - Symptoms are same or get worse after 24 hours in Yellow Zone Or— Peak flow: less than _________ (50 percent of my best peak flow) Take this medicine: - □ 4 or □ 6 puffs or □ Nebulizer - □ 4 or □ 4 puffs or □ Nebulizer Then call your doctor NOW. Go to the hospital or call an ambulance if: - You are still in the red zone after 15 minutes AND - You have not reached your doctor. --- DANGER SIGNS - Trouble walking and talking due to shortness of breath - Lips or fingernails are blue Take □ 4 or □ 6 puffs of your quick-relief medicine AND □ Go to the hospital or call for an ambulance □ NOW! (2 hr. avg.) How To Remember To Take Your Medicines • Put a favorite picture of yourself or a loved one on the refrigerator with a note that says, “Remember to take your asthma medicine.” • Keep your medicine on the nightstand next to your side of the bed so you can see it when you wake up and when you go to bed. • Take your asthma medicine right before you brush your teeth. • Put “sticky” notes in visible places to remind yourself to take your asthma medicine—on the refrigerator, on the cabinet where you keep your favorite morning mug (you might even keep the medicine inside the mug), on the mirror, on the front door. • If you use the phone company’s voice mail service, record a reminder for yourself, and the service can automatically call you every day at the same time. • Establish a buddy system with a friend who also is on daily medicine and arrange to call each other every day with a reminder to “take your medicine.” • Ask one or more of your children or grandchildren to call you every day with a quick reminder. It’s a great way to stay in touch, and little ones love to help the grownups. • If you take pills for asthma, place your medicine in a weekly pillbox, available at most pharmacies. • If you have a personal computer, program a start-up reminder to take your asthma medicine or sign up with one of the free services that will send you a reminder email every day. • Set your phone or watch alarm to remind you to take your asthma medicine. • Remember to refill your prescription. Each time you pick up a refill, make a note on your calendar to order and pick up the next refill one week before the medicine is due to run out. How To Use a Metered-Dose Inhaler A metered-dose inhaler is a device that sprays a pre-set amount of medicine through the mouth to the airways. To keep your asthma under control, it is important to take your medicine as prescribed by your doctor or other health care professional and to use the proper technique to deliver the medicine to your lungs. If you don’t use your inhaler correctly, you won’t get the medicine you need. Here are general steps for how to use and clean a metered-dose inhaler. Be sure to read the instructions that come with your inhaler. Ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional (such as nurse practitioner, physician assistant, nurse, respiratory therapist, or asthma educator) to show you how to use your inhaler. Review your technique at each follow-up visit. 1. Take off cap. Shake the inhaler. Prime (spray or pump) the inhaler as needed according to manufacturer’s instructions (each brand is different). 2. If you use a spacer or valved holding chamber (VHC), remove the cap and look into the mouthpiece to make sure nothing is in it. Place the inhaler in the rubber ring on the end of the spacer/VHC. 3. Stand up or sit up straight. 4. Take a deep breath in. Tilt head back slightly and blow out completely to empty your lungs. 5. Place the mouthpiece of the inhaler or spacer/VHC in your mouth and close your lips around it to form a tight seal. 6. As you start to breathe in, press down firmly on the top of the medicine canister to release one “puff” of medicine. Breathe in slowly (gently) and as deeply as you can for 3 to 5 seconds. 7. Hold your breath and count to 10. 8. Take the inhaler or spacer/VHC out of your mouth. Breathe out slowly. 9. If you are supposed to take 2 puffs of medicine per dose, wait 1 minute and repeat steps 3 through 8. 10. If using an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse out your mouth with water and spit it out. Rinsing will help to prevent an infection in the mouth. HOW TO CLEAN A METERED-DOSE INHALER AND SPACER/VHC Keep your inhaler and spacer/VHC clean so they can work properly. Read the manufacturer’s instructions and talk to your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional about how to clean your inhaler and spacer/VHC (each brand is different). When cleaning your inhaler and spacer/VHC, remember: • Never put the medicine canister in water. • Never brush or wipe inside the spacer/VHC. How To Use a Dry Powder Inhaler A dry powder inhaler has pre-set doses of medicine in powder form. The medicine gets to your airways when you take a deep, fast breath in from the inhaler. To keep your asthma under control, it is important to take your medicine as prescribed by your doctor or other health care professional and to use the proper technique to deliver the medicine to your lungs. If you don’t use your inhaler correctly, you won’t get the medicine you need. Here are general steps for how to use and clean a dry powder inhaler. Be sure to read the instructions that come with your inhaler. Ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional (such as nurse practitioner, physician assistant, nurse, respiratory therapist, or asthma educator) to show you how to use your inhaler. Review your technique at each follow-up visit. 1. Remove cap and hold inhaler upright (like a rocket). If the inhaler is a Diskus®, hold it flat (like a flying saucer). 2. Load a dose of medicine according to manufacturer’s instructions (each brand of inhaler is different; you may have to prime the inhaler the first time you use it). Do not shake the inhaler. 3. Stand up or sit up straight. 4. Take a deep breath in and blow out completely to empty your lungs. Do not blow into the inhaler. 5. Place the mouthpiece of the inhaler in your mouth and close your lips around it to form a tight seal. 6. Take a fast, deep, forceful breath in through your mouth. 7. Hold your breath and count to 10. 8. Take the inhaler out of your mouth. Breathe out slowly, facing away from the inhaler. 9. If you are supposed to take more than 1 inhalation of medicine per dose, wait 1 minute and repeat steps 2 through 8. 10. When you finish, put the cover back on the inhaler or slide the cover closed. Store the inhaler in a cool, dry place (not in the bathroom). 11. If using an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse out your mouth with water and spit it out. Rinsing helps to prevent an infection in the mouth. HOW TO CLEAN A DRY POWDER INHALER 1. Wipe the mouthpiece at least once a week with a dry cloth. 2. Do NOT use water to clean the dry powder inhaler. How To Use a Nebulizer A nebulizer is a machine that delivers medicine in a fine, steady mist. To keep your asthma under control, it is important to take your medicine as prescribed by your doctor or other health care professional and to use the proper technique to deliver the medicine to your lungs. If you don’t use your nebulizer correctly, you won’t get the medicine you need. Here are general steps for how to use and clean a nebulizer. Be sure to read the instructions that come with your nebulizer. Ask your doctor, pharmacist, or other health care professional (such as nurse practitioner, physician assistant, nurse, respiratory therapist, or asthma educator) to show you how to use your nebulizer. Review your technique at each follow-up visit. 1. Wash hands well. 2. Put together the nebulizer machine, tubing, medicine cup, and mouthpiece or mask according to manufacturer’s instructions. 3. Put the prescribed amount of medicine into the medicine cup. If your medicine comes in a pre-measured capsule or vial, empty it into the cup. 4. Place the mouthpiece in your mouth and close your lips around it to form a tight seal. If your child uses a mask, make sure it fits snugly over your child’s nose and mouth. Never hold the mouthpiece or mask away from the face. 5. Turn on the nebulizer machine. You should see a light mist coming from the back of the tube opposite the mouthpiece or from the mask. 6. Take normal breaths through the mouth while the machine is on. Continue the treatment until the medicine cup is empty or the mist stops, about 10 minutes. 7. Take the mouthpiece out of your mouth (or remove mask) and turn off the machine. 8. If using an inhaled corticosteroid, rinse mouth with water and spit it out. If using a mask, also wash the face. HOW TO CLEAN A NEBULIZER After each treatment: - Wash hands well. - Wash the medicine cup and mouthpiece or mask with a mixture of warm water and mild soap. Do not wash the tubing. - Rinse well and shake off excess water. - Air dry on a paper towel. Once a week: Disinfect nebulizer parts to help kill any germs. Follow instructions for each nebulizer part listed in the package insert. Always remember: - Do not wash or boil the tubing. - Air dry parts on a paper towel. Between uses: - Store nebulizer parts in a dry, clean plastic storage bag. If the nebulizer is used by more than one person, keep each person’s medicine cup, mouthpiece or mask, and tubing in a separate, labeled bag to prevent the spread of germs. - Wipe surface with a clean, damp cloth as needed. Cover nebulizer machine with a clean, dry cloth and store as manufacturer instructs. - Replace medicine cup, mouthpiece, mask, tubing, filter, and other parts according to manufacturer’s instructions or when they appear worn or damaged. Tool to Assess Asthma Control ASTHMA THERAPY ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE* (ATAQ) Instructions: Check 1 answer for each question and enter point value (0 or 1) on line. 1. In the past 4 weeks, did you: a) Miss any work, school, or normal daily activity because of your asthma? □ YES (1) □ NO (0) □ UNSURE (1) b) Wake up at night because of asthma? □ YES (1) □ NO (0) □ UNSURE (1) c) Believe that your asthma was well controlled? □ YES (1) □ NO (0) □ UNSURE (1) 2. Do you use an inhaler for quick relief from asthma symptoms? □ YES □ NO □ UNSURE If yes, in the past 4 weeks, what was the highest number of puffs in 1 day you took of the inhaler? □ 0 (0) □ 1 to 4 puffs (0) □ 5 to 8 puffs† (1) □ 9 to 12 puffs† (1) □ More than 12 puffs (1) Enter score Add the numbers in the white area and enter the total score here. TOTAL If the score is 1 or greater, discuss the questionnaire with your doctor. Source: Reprinted with permission by Merck & Co., Inc. Copyright © 2008 Merck & Co., Inc. All rights reserved. * The control domain is 1 domain of the ATAQ instrument. Other disease management domains are included in the complete instrument. † This reflects a lower threshold than was used in the ATAQ validation studies to identify potential control problems. This modification was designed to encourage patients and providers to discuss how asthma medications are being used. Sample Self-Assessment Sheet for Follow-Up Visits* A Tool for Assessing Asthma Control Name: ____________________________ Date: _______________________ YOUR ASTHMA CONTROL How many days in the past week have you had chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath, or wheezing (whistling in your chest)? ☐ 0 ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐ 6 ☐ 7 How many nights in the past week have you had chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath, or wheezing (whistling in your chest)? ☐ 0 ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐ 6 ☐ 7 Do you perform peak flow readings at home? ☐ YES ☐ NO If yes, did you bring your peak flow chart? ☐ YES ☐ NO How many days in the past week has asthma restricted your physical activity? ☐ 0 ☐ 1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ 4 ☐ 5 ☐ 6 ☐ 7 Have you had any asthma attacks since your last visit? ☐ YES ☐ NO Have you had any unscheduled visits to a doctor, including the emergency department, since your last visit? ☐ YES ☐ NO How well controlled is your asthma, in your opinion? ☐ very well controlled ☐ somewhat well controlled ☐ not well controlled Average number of puffs per day ____________ TAKING YOUR MEDICINE What problems have you had taking your medicine or following your asthma action plan? Please ask the doctor or nurse to review how you take your medicine. YOUR QUESTIONS What questions or concerns would you like to discuss with the doctor? How satisfied are you with your asthma care? ☐ very satisfied ☐ somewhat satisfied ☐ not satisfied These questions are examples and do not represent a standardized assessment instrument. Other examples of asthma control questions: Asthma Control Questionnaire (Juniper); Asthma Therapy Assessment Questionnaire (Volmer); Asthma Control Test (Nathan); Asthma Control Score (Boulet). The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Health Information Center provides information to health professionals, patients, and the public about the treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of heart, lung, and blood diseases and sleep disorders. For more information, contact: NHLBI Health Information Center* P.O. Box 30105 Bethesda, MD 20824–0105 Phone: 301–592–8573 Fax: 301–592–8563 Web site: www.nhlbi.nih.gov Also, contact these organizations for other resources: Allergy and Asthma Network Mothers of Asthmatics 8201 Greensboro Drive, Suite 300 McLean, VA 22102 800–878–4403 Web site: www.aanma.org American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology 555 East Wells Street, Suite 1100 Milwaukee, WI 53202–3823 414–272–6071 Web site: www.aaaai.org American Association for Respiratory Care 9425 North MacArthur Boulevard, Suite 100 Irving, TX 75063 972–243–2272 Web site: www.aarc.org American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 85 West Algonquin Road, Suite 550 Arlington Heights, IL 60005 847–427–1200 Web site: www.acaai.org American Lung Association 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20004 800–586–4872 (800–LUNG–USA) 202–785–3355 Web site: www.lungusa.org Association of Asthma Educators 1215 Anthony Avenue Columbia, SC 29201 888–988–7747 Web site: www.asthmaeducators.org Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America 8201 Corporate Drive, Suite 1000 Landover, MD 20785 800–727–8462 Web site: www.aafa.org Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1600 Clifton Road, NE Atlanta, GA 30333 800–232–4636 (800–CDC–INFO) TTY: 888–232–6348 Web site: www.cdc.gov Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network 11781 Lee Jackson Highway, Suite 160 Fairfax, VA 22033 800–929–4040 Web site: www.foodallergy.org National Jewish Health 1400 Jackson Street Denver, CO 80206 877–225–5654 Web site: www.njc.org U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Indoor Air Division 1200 Pennsylvania Ave. SW Mail Code 66095 Washington, DC 20460 Web site: www.airnow.gov So you have asthma... It can be controlled! And you can live a normal, active life. Discrimination Prohibited: Under provisions of applicable public laws enacted by Congress since 1964, no person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, national origin, handicap, or age, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity (or, on the basis of sex, with respect to any education program or activity) receiving Federal financial assistance. In addition, Executive Order 11141 prohibits discrimination on the basis of age by contractors and subcontractors in the performance of Federal contracts, and Executive Order 11246 states that no federally funded contractor may discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Therefore, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute must be operated in compliance with these laws and Executive Orders. 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DIPLOMARBEIT Titel der Diplomarbeit “Progressive Thinking: Analyzing the Progressive Aspect and its acquisition by EFL learners” Verfasserin Miriam Soltész angestrebter akademischer Grad Magistra der Philosophie (Mag.phil.) Wien, 2013 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A 343 Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Diplomstudium Anglistik und Amerikanistik Betreuerin: Univ.-Prof. Dr. M. Evelien Keizer To my parents Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge and thank those who have encouraged and supported me throughout the course of my studies and made this thesis possible. Special thanks go to my supervisor Univ.-Prof. Dr. M. Evelien Keizer. Thank you very much for your time and abundance of patience as well as for your constant supervision and support starting out from the research proposal of this thesis to the final draft. I would also like to thank Mag.a Barbara Schiftner for granting me access to the Austrian data of the International Corpus of Crosslinguistic Interlanguage (ICCI), which provided the basis for the empirical study that underlies this thesis and made this research possible in the first place. Very special thanks also go to my mother. You were unflagging in your efforts to proofread this thesis. Perhaps my deepest gratitude goes to my parents who have supported me during my studies both emotionally and financially. This thesis is dedicated to them. You have offered me unconditional love and support throughout the course of my studies until the completion of this thesis, and I know for sure that neither love nor support end here. You have always believed in me, even when I did not. You never gave me any idea that I could not do whatever I wanted to do or be whomever I wanted to be. As you guided me through the course of my diploma studies in English I realized that I wanted to follow in your steps as a teacher. Thank you for inspiring me. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my sisters Eva and Edith, my friends Julia, Udo, Iris, Marlies and Sebi for always being there when I needed them. Thank you for your countless encouraging (telephone) conversations, text messages and emails when I was desperate. Especially, I want to thank Julia for her academic advice, help and support with my thesis. Without you, this thesis would not have turned out the way it did. I also want to acknowledge the invaluable five years that I spent with Michael. Thank you for the wonderful time that we spent together. Abstract It has been observed that German-speaking learners of English tend to face major problems when it comes to the acquisition of the progressive aspect in English. ESL learners are particularly error-prone with regard to deciding in which contexts the progressive should be used. This is often explained in terms of the inexistence of a grammaticalized equivalent in the German language. This thesis attempts to gain insights into the types of errors that occur in L2 acquisition of the progressive aspect by learners of English with German as their mother tongue. To investigate how accurately learners use the progressive and if there is a connection between the lack of a grammaticalized aspectual category in German and the kinds of errors that are produced by ESL learners with the progressive aspect, a small-scale corpus study was conducted using the Austrian data from the ICCI. The starting point of this study was an examination of 200 essays written by ESL learners with German as their mother tongue. For this purpose, all occurrences of the progressive aspect were extracted from the language samples, including all forms that deviate from the target language norm, all correct uses of the progressive aspect and finally considerations were made as to which situations constitute an obligatory occasion for the progressive form. The results of the study revealed that it was possible to make a classification of learner errors namely into meaning errors, form errors and function errors. Further, it could be observed that the progressive aspect is mostly applied to activity verbs. However, most errors occurred with achievement verbs. The results suggest that in many cases the source of error can be traced back to the L1 German thus language transfer constitutes a contributing factor to the acquisition of the progressive aspect; however, L1 transfer cannot be the sole reason for the problems that arise when acquiring the progressive aspect. # Table of contents 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 2. PRELIMINARIES: COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ................................................................. 4 2.1. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS .................................................................................................................. 4 2.2. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION .................................................................................................... 11 3. THE VIEWPOINT OF EVENTS: THE CONCEPTS OF TENSE AND ASPECT IN ENGLISH ...................................................................................... 19 3.1. SITUATIONS AS THE BASIS OF ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................. 19 3.2. GRAMMATICAL ASPECT VS. LEXICAL ASPECT ........................................................................................................................................ 20 3.2.1. Lexical aspect .................................................................................................................................................................................. 21 3.2.2. Grammatical aspect ....................................................................................................................................................................... 23 4. THE SEMANTICS OF THE PROGRESSIVE: ANALYZING THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT ........................................................................................................ 34 4.1. THE NOTIONS OF BOUNDEDNESS AND UNBOUNDEDNESS .................................................................................................................. 34 4.2. BOUNDED AND UNBOUNDED EVENTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT .......................................................... 37 4.3. THE PROGRESSIVE CONSTRUCTION: THE MEANING OF -ING .................................................................................................................. 41 4.4. PROTOTYPICAL SENSES OF THE PROGRESSIVE – IS THERE SUCH A THING? ......................................................................................... 46 4.5. EXTENDING THE USE OF THE PROGRESSIVE: FUNCTIONING AS FUTURE TIME REFERENCE .................................................. 50 4.6. ASPECT IN GERMAN .................................................................................................................................................................................. 53 5. THE ACQUISITION OF PROGRESSIVE ASPECT IN ENGLISH AS AN L2 ........................................................................................................ 58 5.1. CROSSLINGUISTIC INFLUENCE ............................................................................................................................................................... 58 5.2. A PROTOTYPE ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT .................................................................................................................. 60 5.3. THE ASPECT HYPOTHESIS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 62 6. STUDY ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 65 6.1. METHODOLOGY, PARTICIPANTS AND DATA ........................................................................................................................................ 67 6.2. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................................................. 73 6.2.1. Activity verbs .................................................................................................................................................................................. 78 6.2.2. State verbs .................................................................................................................................................................................... 80 6.2.3. Accomplishment verbs .............................................................................................................................................................. 83 6.2.4. Achievement verbs ..................................................................................................................................................................... 85 6.3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................................. 87 6.4. Problems and Limitations ................................................................. 92 7. Conclusion ....................................................................................... 95 8. References ....................................................................................... 97 Appendix ............................................................................................. 102 Abstract in German (Deutsche Zusammenfassung) .......................... 102 Prompts ............................................................................................... 104 Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................. 112 \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| CG \| Cognitive Grammar \| \| EFL \| English as a Foreign Language \| \| ESL \| English as a Second Language \| \| ICCI \| International Corpus of Crosslinguistic Interlanguage \| \| IS \| Immediate Scope \| \| L1 \| First Language \| \| L2 \| Second Language \| \| MS \| Maximal Scope \| \| SLA \| Second Language Acquisition \| Tables and Figures Table 1: Semantic features of Vendler’s four categories of inherent lexical aspect ................................................................. 22 Table 2: Predicted order of development of morphology from prototypes to non-prototypes .................................................. 63 Table 3: Data in total numbers ........................................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 1: Profiling & Scope ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Figure 2: Schematization of ENTER ............................................................................................................................ 10 Figure 3: Basic aspectual classes .................................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 4: Classification of aspectual oppositions according to Comrie (1976) .......................................................... 30 Figure 5: Classification of situations .............................................................................................................................. 36 Figure 6: Explicitly bounded situation: Eric built a snowman .................................................................................. 38 Figure 7: Unbounded situation: Eric was building a snowman .................................................................................. 39 Figure 8: Progressive construction ............................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 9: Sample prompt ............................................................................................................................................... 69 Figure 10: General distribution of verb types ............................................................................................................. 73 Figure 11: Distribution of correct and erroneous occurrences per verb type ......................................................... 77 Figure 12: Relative proportion of correct and erroneous instances per verb type 77 1. Introduction When we hot having we’re Flaschen with water. (ICCI: icci_aut0050) Unfortunately, this is the reality English teachers are facing on a daily basis. Just as important to mention, however, is the reality learners of English are facing, namely grammatical constructions and lexical items they have little or no relation to. It has been noted by Williams (2002: 18) that the acquisition of the progressive aspect “constitutes one of the most basic and ubiquitous problems facing language teachers.” Considering the example above, it is of course not just the language teacher who faces problems related to teaching the progressive aspect; more significantly, it is the language learners who have to cope with a grammatical construction they have no conceptual representation of due to the inexistence of a equivalent in their mother tongue. It has never been asserted that second language acquisition is easy, nor has it been claimed that teaching English as a second language is easy. The example above provides ample opportunity for analyzing learner language and can be analyzed on many different levels. This particular sample sentence has been chosen to introduce this thesis because of the misused occurrence of a progressive -ing form. In this utterance two errors concerning the progressive construction can be identified. The first error can be classified as a form error, as the language user clearly failed to apply the correct formation of the progressive aspect BE + -ing form of the verb. Secondly, this is also an instance of an overuse of the -ing form, more specifically this means that the use of the -ing form is inappropriate in this utterance and that no correct meaning of the progressive aspect is achieved. Consequently, taking this brief analysis of an utterance produced by a German native speaker as a starting point, I would like to put forward the claim that the progressive aspect is an elusive concept for language learners with German as their first language. This thesis is therefore concerned with the use and the acquisition of the progressive aspect by second language (L2) learners of English with German as their first language (L1). Since language use has become more prominent in second language acquisition research and this aspect has not been accounted for in more traditional syntactic approaches (i.e. generative approaches to grammar), this thesis mainly adopts a Cognitive Linguistics perspective on language in general and on second language acquisition in particular. The overall aim of this thesis is to reveal the difficulties that language learners with German as their L1 face when acquiring the progressive aspect of English. The hypothesis I would like to put forward in this thesis is that the acquisition of the progressive aspect poses such an immense challenge to German speakers because they lack this grammatical concept in their L1; German is prescriptively said to be an aspectless language in which temporal information about a situation is only provided by means of tense marking the verbal construction. So, in short, in German the when can be provided by grammatical means whereas the how cannot. More specifically this means that in German the how has to be expressed lexically. In English, however, the how can be expressed via aspect. In order to find out what difficulties in particular German native speakers face when acquiring the progressive aspect in English, a small-scale corpus study is carried out analyzing students’ essays. In pursuit of this aim, this thesis is divided as follows. Firstly, a general introduction into the field of Cognitive Linguistics is provided as well as its implications and insights for second language acquisition and teaching are outlined briefly. In the second section an in-depth study of the English aspect system is presented, trying to clarify the distinction between grammatical and lexical aspect. The third section of this paper is dedicated to the semantics of the progressive aspect in which the progressive is analyzed in great detail giving a description of the different senses of -ing, looking at its functions and introducing the notions of boundedness and unboundedness. The fourth part centers on the acquisition of the progressive aspect by EFL learners before in the last section an empirical study is conducted, which tries to reveal possible difficulties that German native speakers face when acquiring the progressive. To conclude this introductory section I would like to quote Langacker (2008b: 66; original emphasis), who is one of the founding fathers of Cognitive Linguistics: Few would maintain that language instruction is easy. Nor can the advice of linguists always be counted on to make it any easier. Unless they are themselves experienced language teachers, the advice of linguists on language pedagogy is likely to be of no more practical value than the advice of theoretical physicists on how to teach pole vaulting. What they can offer, qua linguists, is insight into the structure of particular languages and the properties of language in general. But even when limited in this fashion, the input of linguists cannot necessarily be trusted. They quarrel with one another about the most fundamental issues, suggesting that some of them (at least) must be fundamentally wrong. It is therefore unsurprising that the impact of linguistic theory on language pedagogy has been less than miraculous and sometimes less than helpful. Accordingly, this thesis, with its underlying corpus study, will hopefully contribute to clarify some problems that occur in connection with the acquisition of the progressive aspect by learners of English with German as their L1. 2. Preliminaries: Cognitive Linguistics and second language acquisition 2.1. A brief introduction to Cognitive Linguistics This introductory section provides an outline of the conceptual structure of Cognitive Linguistics and provides a brief overview of the conception of language from a Cognitive Linguistics perspective as well as a reference framework for the most salient terms which will be used throughout this thesis. Cognitive Linguistics is a relatively new approach to the analysis of language which came into existence in the late seventies and early eighties in the work of George Lakoff, Ronald W. Langacker and Leonard Talmy (Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007: 7). Unlike previous approaches to analyzing languages, such as Generative Grammar, Cognitive Linguistics sees language not as an autonomous cognitive ability but as embedded in the cognitive capacity of the human mind. Further, the fact that language functions as an instrument which organizes, processes and conveys information is rooted in the basic tenet of Cognitive Linguistics and one of its fundamental characteristics is that of linguistic meaning. Consequently, research in this field is inextricably linked with how people classify and categorize their knowledge. Therefore, one of the main principles of Cognitive Linguistics is its interest in the mental structures that constitute knowledge (Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007: 3f.). Given this perspective in which, rather than syntactic structures, the language user is the center, the analysis of language in the Cognitive Linguistic framework is founded on a usage-based model, in which language use determines knowledge about linguistic structures. Thus, Cognitive Linguistics is not interested in “knowledge of the language”, as it would be the case in Generative Grammar, but in “knowledge through the language.” (Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007: 6; emphasis in the original) Following this line of argument, knowledge through language is taken to influence and shape grammar, which in turn is seen as the product of language use. Within the broader field of Cognitive Linguistics, Cognitive Grammar is, as the name suggests, primarily concerned with the theory of grammar and puts forward the claim that grammar is meaningful in its own right (Langacker 2008a: 3f.). A central claim of Cognitive Grammar and Cognitive Linguistics is that grammar and lexicon form a continuum consisting of symbolic structures, i.e. the linking of a form and a meaning (also referred to as form-meaning mapping) rather than treating them as separate notions (Langacker 2007: 438). More specifically, in Langacker’s words (2008b: 67; original emphasis), form-meaning mappings are concerned with “the pairing of a semantic structure and a phonological structure” and thus justifying the meaningfulness of grammar. Further, what Cognitive Linguistics shows is that these form-meaning pairings are not arbitrary in character but motivated (Verspoor 2008: 81). According to Taylor (1993: 205) the non-arbitrariness of grammatical structures means that “syntax is motivated by semantics”. Concluding from this notion it can be said that the Cognitive Grammar framework denies the distinction between competence and performance. Nevertheless, focus is put on performance or language use, meaning that language use constitutes the way in which grammar is represented. Bybee (2006: 711) has argued that “[a] usage-based view takes grammar to be the cognitive organization of one’s experience with language.”, thus offering an appropriate summary of a usage-based description of grammar and indicating the inseparability of language, communication and cognition (Ellis & Robinson 2008: 3). This view of language also suggests that the world is not something objective, but, even more, the world is something that is construed by human perception (Pütz 2007: 1147). The notion of construal is central in Cognitive Linguistics and, simply put, describes the speaker’s choice between alternative ways of how one situation can be conceived and portrayed (Langacker 2008a: 43). Thus, according to Langacker (2008a: 43), linguistic meaning consists not only of the conceptual content it evokes, but also of the particular way of how this content is construed. Langacker (2008a: 43; original emphasis) illustrated this with the example of a glass half filled with water. This can be described on two different levels. Firstly, on a conceptual level, this content is evoked in a fairly neutral manner: a glass filled with water. Secondly, on a linguistic level, a certain construal is imposed: (1) the glass with water in it designates the container; (2) the water in the glass designates the liquid it contains; (3) the glass is half-full designates the relationship wherein the volume occupied by the liquid is just half of its potential volume; and (4) the glass is half-empty designates the relationship wherein the volume occupied by the void is just half of its potential volume. Here, the same content is construed in four possible ways, all with substantially different meanings. The speaker’s choice of one particular linguistic alternative may be determined by (i) the specificity with which a situation is described; (ii) the speaker’s vantage point; and (iii) background assumptions evoking a particular linguistic form (Pütz 2007: 1148). According to Langacker (2008b: 68f.), describing a situation can therefore never be completely objective. There may be defaults, but the linguistic meaning of an expression is only partially, if at all, determined by neutral properties and is essentially dependent on the speaker’s perspective of the situation at hand. Pütz (2007: 1148) has rightly noted that “in choosing one way of expression over the other the speaker encodes certain meanings in a specific way.” Thus, this means that vantage point has supreme importance in the way situations are perceived and thus may be differently construed (Langacker 2008b: 69). The speaker’s choice of one particular construction over another is therefore dependent on his or her perspective of the situation described. Thus, foreign language learners do not only face the challenge of learning the forms of a particular language, but second language acquisition equally involves learning the different meanings associated with these forms. By way of example, in order to fully understand and make appropriate use of the English tense and aspect systems, learners need to know the various senses associated with, say, the progressive aspect, so as to discover what meaning difference it makes when using the present simple or the present progressive. So, the sentences (1a) and (1b), taken from Langacker (2008b: 69), differ in their perspective. While (1a) depicts a local view, (1b) characterizes a global view. (1) a. This road is winding through the mountains. b. This road winds through the mountains. The use of the progressive in (1a) (is winding) shows how the road and the mountains relate to each other time-wise, in which the mountain is an unmoving entity, whereas the road presents itself in small segments as a moving entity. The situation in which this particular sentence might be uttered is thus while actually driving along this road. However, the temporal relationship between the road and the mountain in (1b) is a stable one, in which the two entities are perceived as a single unified whole, when for example describing the landscape during a scenic flight over the mountains, or when looking at a map. These examples show that language-specific conceptualization of the different forms of a language need to be understood in order to be used appropriately in a certain situation. This implies that the notion of construal has an important role to play on foreign language teaching, particularly in the teaching of grammatical structures. Taylor (1993: 220) has pointed out that Cognitive Linguistics attempts both to seek explanations for these meanings, which should be easily accessible for language learners, and to make language learners aware of the various conceptualizations in their L1 and how they differ in the target language. Apart from the phenomena of construal and perspectivization described above, another dimension has to be recognized as linguistically relevant, namely that of prominence, which is based on the “Figure/Ground” alignment. The Figure/Ground distinction is one form of construal. It was first introduced to Cognitive Linguistics in the work of Talmy (1978). This distinction describes the different degrees of perceptual salience of one element over another in visual perception. It is a basic idea in Cognitive Linguistics that attention is distributed to the various elements of a scene with different emphasis (Verhagen 2007: 50). According to Verhagen (2007: 50) the Figure is the most salient entity and therefore the focus of attention. It is set off against the Ground, which only has secondary prominence. This is a psychological distinction which is encoded by grammatical as well as lexical means. One such Figure/Ground alignment, which presents itself in a grammatical alteration and partly a semantic difference, is the active/passive distinction. Further, the difference between the expressions X is on Y and Y is under X cannot be seen in the spatial configuration; rather, it is a semantic one, namely as to which element provides the Figure and which the Ground. Furthermore, Verhagen (2007: 50) points out that “[t]he meanings of lexical items quite generally include a subtype of this Figure/Ground construal”, i.e. that a lexical item allocates a subtype within a larger structure (the “base” in Langacker’s (2008a: 66 terminology). According to Langacker (2008a: 66; original emphasis) this is called profiling: “an expression’s profile stands out as the specific focus of attention within its immediate scope. The profile can also be characterized as what the expression is conceived of as designating or referring to within its base (its conceptual referent).” Thus, knowing the meaning of a lexical item always involves knowing what conceptual base (larger structure) an expression belongs to (Verhagen 2007: 50). Langacker (2008a: 64) provides the example of elbow and hand, as illustrated in Figure 1. While both profile different substructures, they share the conception arm as their common base. Further, Verhagen (2007: 50) points out that [grammatical constructions may impose a particular kind of profile on the temporal interpretation of a situation. For example the English progressive construction (be + V-ing) can be said to impose a particular profile on the interpretation of the clause, backgrounding any boundaries (beginning and end point) of the designated process, irrespective of the meaning of the verb. In addition to the ability of foregrounding information against a less prominent background there is another key concept in Cognitive Linguistics concerned with perspectivization, referred to as scope by Langacker (cf. 2008a: 62ff.; 2001b: 253), who defines the term in the following way: An expression’s scope is defined as the array of conceptual content it evokes as the basis for its meaning. Its maximal scope is the full array of content evoked. Within the maximal scope, there is often a more limited immediate scope comprising the specific array of content directly relevant for a particular purpose or at a particular level of organization. (Langacker 2001b: 253) Thus, scope describes the ability of directing one’s viewing frame in any direction of our conceptual universe. It is a matter of selection which information is foregrounded or backgrounded – the distinction between an expression’s maximal scope, i.e. its full coverage, and its immediate scope, the part which is relevant for a specific purpose (Langacker 2008a: 63). Clearly, as for both terms elbow and hand the maximal scope is the whole conception of a human body, more relevant for their characterization is the arm, their shared immediate scope. The representation in Figure 1 might help to illustrate the difference. Figure 1 Profiling & Scope (a) elbow maximal scope immediate scope (b) hand maximal scope immediate scope The differentiation between maximal and immediate scope is particularly crucial for the description of the progressive aspect (be + V-ing). The domain referred to here is that of the time in which the maximal scope of the situation is described whereas the progressive construction imposes an immediate temporal scope on the event and excludes the beginning and endpoint (Langacker 1999: 52). However, this issue will be discussed in far greater detail in section 4.2. Staying within the realm of the cognitive organization principles of knowledge, the ways of reasoning about the world and language as an instrument for perspecivizing linguistic meaning and giving prominence to certain elements, there is one more central concept in Cognitive Linguistics which needs to be explained at this point, one which has become a benchmark notion in Cognitive Linguistics, namely the notion of image schema. It describes schematized activity patterns which are abstracted from our perception of the world, especially pertaining to bodily experiences (Oakley 2007: 214; Langacker 2008a: 32). According to Oakley (2007: 214f.) an image schema is seen “as a supporting structure for human thought and language” and is, briefly put, “a condensed redescription of perceptual experience for the purpose of mapping spatial structure onto conceptual structure.” Image schemas are the means by which knowledge is structured and thus make it possible for humans to communicate via language (Oakley 2007: 218). All everyday activities that are performed involve complex acts of sensing, perceiving, moving and conceptualizing, which also have to be coordinated simultaneously within a three-dimensional world. So, for example, going to the grocery store, taking the groceries that are on the grocery list from the shelf, taking them to the checkout counter, taking them home and putting them aways are all activities that are dependent on simple experience patterns that have been manifested culturally and individually (example adapted from Oakley 2007: 214). Langacker (2008a: 32) uses an illustrative example to shows how the concept of enter can be split up into a combination of three image schemas: object, source-path-goal and container-content. Figure 2 Schematization of ENTER Since the primary concern of Cognitive Linguistics is linguistic meaning and since the assumption that grammar is inherently meaningful, and that grammatical and lexical items form a continuum of meaning, it lends itself preeminently as a tool for the attempt to explore the senses of progressive morphology -ing and analyze its functions and uses. Summarizing this brief introduction to Cognitive Linguistics, three basic tenets of Cognitive linguistics can be discerned, namely the importance and centrality of meaning, the meaningfulness of grammar and its usage-based nature (Langacker 2008b: 66). The next section of this thesis presents a discussion of the aspects and notions of Cognitive Linguistics that have found their application in second language acquisition, second language teaching and language instruction. 2.2. Cognitive Linguistics and second language acquisition Even though the application of Cognitive Linguistics to theories of second language learning and teaching and language instruction is still relatively tenuous and Cognitive Linguistic insights are taken up by Applied Linguistics at a rather slow pace, cognitive linguists such as Ronald Langacker have recognized that Cognitive Linguistics provides valuable theories that may have important didactic implications, and as such has a lot to offer to second language acquisition (SLA). Langacker (2008b: 66) has explicitly stated that [i]t remains to be seen whether language teaching will fare any better when guided by notions from cognitive linguistics. There are, however, grounds for being optimistic. Compared to other approaches, cognitive linguistics offers an account of language structure that – just from the linguistic standpoint – is arguably more comprehensive, revealing and descriptively adequate. In traditional theories of SLA Chomsky’s generative theory of grammar was the theory underlying teaching instructions in EFL. Generative theories of language are mainly syntactic in nature and ignore all social and functional considerations. Further, language competence and a person's other cognitive abilities are divorced from one each other as two autonomous systems in the human brain. Langacker (2008b: 67) has pointed out the decisive difference as follows: “If generative linguistics views syntax as being central to language, Cognitive Linguistics accords this honor to meaning.” The recent shift away from the traditional theories of language learning has called for the need of a linguistic theory that embraces the conceptual link of form and function. The present discussion of the features of Cognitive Linguistics clearly shows that it can offer useful insights into the meanings of linguistic forms. Further, according to Taylor (1993: 212) “learning a foreign language will involve not only learning the forms of the language but simultaneously learning the conceptual structures associated with these forms.” This realization has an important impact on foreign language learning and instruction. The theories of Cognitive Linguistics are therefore beneficial to raise the learners’ awareness of such form-meaning connections. Moreover, these theories hold that meaning determines the form of grammatical construction, which could be one effective way of teaching grammatical constructions in the EFL classroom. There are three central aspects of Cognitive Grammar that make it particularly relevant for teaching English as a second language, all of which have already been briefly mentioned in the preceding section of this thesis: the centrality of meaning, the meaningfulness of grammar and its usage-based nature (Langacker 2008b). As mentioned above, cognitive approaches to grammar rely on a usage-based model which centers around the language user, his/her vantage point of a situation and the context of the situation. Moreover, as has been stated by Achard (2008: 440), the usage-based model of a language is concerned with the process of mapping meaning onto form. More specifically, this means that grammar is not merely a linguistic system that is necessary to produce and understand language, but even more so, grammar is shaped and learned by the language users themselves during actual communication. This view of grammar is therefore a bottom-up approach in the sense that specific patterns and schemas emerge out of language usage as abstracted generalizations (Broccias 2008: 80). Langacker (2008b: 81) refers to authentic instances of language use from which conventionalized units are abstracted as usage events. He (1999: 99; original emphasis) has noted that [i]t is not the linguistic system per se that constructs and understands novel expressions, but rather the language user, who marshals for this purpose the full panoply of available resources. In addition to linguistic units, these resources include such factors as memory, planning, problem-solving ability, general knowledge, short- and longer-term goals, as well as full apprehension of the physical, social, cultural, and linguistic context. An actual instance of language use, resulting in all these factors, constitutes what I will call a usage event. Consequently, it can be argued that the notion of construal must play an essential part in speech production or, to put it in Achard’s (2004: 179) words “linguistic production is largely a matter of construal”. This implies that it is the speaker’s choice to use the construction or expression that best represents the conceptualization of the given situation. This puts the speaker directly into a central position of a usage event (Achard 2004: 179). However, this claim does not only hold true for L1 language use, but it should be given at least equal, if not more, attention in L2 acquisition and should therefore also be given consideration in language teaching and instruction. It is quite obvious that teaching grammar in the EFL classroom largely depends on the teacher’s view of the nature of grammar, his/her view on how the overall organization of the target language is stored and learned by the students, as well as the general importance of grammatical knowledge in SL learning (Achard 2004: 165). On the other hand, adopting the main tenets and principles of Cognitive Linguistics for second language acquisition, specifically for teaching grammar, allows a more contextualized and usage-based application in the foreign language classroom. This approach to language teaching is also supported by Achard (2008: 440f.), who claims that > [t]he usage-based conception of CG [Cognitive Grammar] is crucial for second language instructors because it posits that learners will most benefit from actual exposure to “real” instances of language use. It is only through exposure to the situations in which the natives select specific constructions that they can gain the necessary confidence and expertise to make similar choices themselves in comparable situations. This, however, puts language instructors into a pedagogically difficult position. From a Cognitive Linguistics perspective the prevailing grammar teaching practices in the EFL classroom cannot do justice to such a usage-based approach. In the current trend of grammar teaching (based on the materials used in EFL teaching at Austrian schools; cf. e.g. Gerngroß: 2005; Gerngross: 2009) a certain grammatical construction is introduced by explaining the morphosyntactic formation as well as stating the rule for its use. For instance, in the textbook The New You and Me for year 1 (Gerngross 2005: 81) the present progressive is initially introduced by saying: “So kannst du sagen, was jemand gerade tut oder was gerade passiert: Bildung: Person + am / is /are + ing-Form des Verbs” and is followed by a few examples that provide rules for their usage, highlighting ongoing action: “Can you help me? – Sorry, I’m doing my homework.” (original emphasis). According to Achard (2008: 441), grammatical constructions are traditionally presented as a rule and as “a property of the target linguistic system, and not a result of the speaker’s choice.” This fact puts the teacher into a challenging position, because it goes without saying that all speakers in a conversation actually know, and thus choose, what they want to say. The major problem with traditional grammar explanations is seen in the seemingly close link between form and use, i.e. function, instead of associating form with meaning. It is common practice that the progressive aspect – and all grammatical constructions – are taught in a way in which the use of the progressive strongly depends on adverbials or conjunctions that precede or follow the progressive aspect. In this case the choice for a specific construction is therefore lexically restricted (Achard 2008: 441) and depends on what is commonly referred to as signal words. So, for instance, in the sentence While she was having a shower, the telephone rang the most probable answer to the question as to why the progressive form is used here would most likely be explained in terms of the conjunction while. For students this is of course a simple and transparent rule to follow and easy to memorize. However, this attempt to explain the grammatical system of a language with fixed rules does not conform to the core concept of the centrality of meaning anchored in Cognitive Grammar. For, as mentioned earlier, it is evident that not the linguistic system itself is responsible for constructing and understanding specific constructions. Rather, this is determined by the speaker’s choice. On the other hand, teaching grammatical constructions by providing rules for their use is deeply entrenched in the history of our teaching practices. In this, what Achard (2008: 441) refers to as “system-based”, approach to teaching grammar problems arise only when students come across examples that clearly deviate from these hard and fast rules that at first seemed to be so straightforward and easy to grasp. According to Achard (2008: 441) For the instructor, focusing on the speaker rather than on the system involves the shift from teaching set patterns of lexical associations to teaching the conventionalized way of matching certain expressions to certain situations, as well as the flexibility of using the available alternatives to express specific semantic nuances. It represents a thorny pedagogical challenge because of the inherent flexibility of construal. The methodological difficulty consists in providing clear guidelines that teach students how to exercise their linguistic choice. This approach based on the tenets of Cognitive Grammar emphasizes a shift away from instructions of isolated grammatical items within a rule-governed system to the integration of constructions into certain situations, i.e. contextual use of grammatical constructions. Further, the adoption of Cognitive Linguistic principles in SLA indicates that the function of a construction also represents its meaning. Therefore, to make headway in this respect teachers face the challenging situation of having to create situations for teaching purposes, or placing students in situations in which the students find themselves in the similar position as native speakers, where they have to make a specific choice of one grammatical construction over another, depending on what they want to express with it. A major problem, however, is posed by the fact that learners of a language (especially students at beginner level) lack the range of conventionalized options and expressions readily available to native speakers. With respect to the uses of the progressive aspect, instead of overburdening the students with separate rules for the uses of the progressive and the non-progressive aspect, it might be beneficial to raise the students’ awareness of the conceptual difference between constructions such as John was building a house and John built a house, the progressive construction and non-progressive respectively. This realization may be helpful for the learning process and is essential for understanding that the choice of a progressive construction over a non-progressive one is simply a different way of construing a situation. Further, it is clear that in the example below, the beginning of a story, no straightforward patterns of lexical associations are recognizable: It was a stormy night, and the wind was howling through the trees outside. Anna was alone in the dark house and she was lying in bed trying to get to sleep. Suddenly she heard the sound of breaking glass downstairs. She sat up frozen with fear. Perhaps, an appropriate starting point to explain the use of the progressive aspect versus the simple past tense in narrative discourse is to try to make students aware which grammatical construction is used to set and describe the scene and which one is applied to move the story forward. Or, which parts of the story give information about the background, and which highlight the main events. Here, in the example above, while the progressive aspect is used to describe the background that sets the scene as in and the wind was howling, she was lying in bed, the simple past tense is used to tell and advance the story, it was a stormy night, Anna was alone, suddenly she heard a sound. Therefore, it can generally be said that while for the description of circumstances the progressive is used, consequences or reactions to them require the use of simple past. Consequently, the progressive aspect functions to outline background information in narrative discourse. It is important to point out is that verbs of having and being are exceptions, as they do not take the progressive in this context. The effect of applying the progressive –ing to be and have will be explained later in this thesis. As a result of making students aware of these differences they are likely to, at a later stage in the learning process, be able to link the progressive aspect to situations which describes the background of a given situation, or to react to a certain circumstance. The Cognitive Linguistics approach to language teaching proposes that form, meaning and function are inextricably linked and are not arbitrary but motivated. This fact will help learners to develop awareness toward form-meaning relations and facilitate the usage of grammatical forms in actual situations. Alongside the relation of construal and second language acquisition, the notion of prototype is another core concept of Cognitive Linguistics which can be helpful in explaining a grammatical construction or the semantic content of a word and can thereby facilitate language learning. As the idea of prototype is also of great importance to this thesis and therefore the most characteristic features of Prototype Theory should be explained. It is based on the idea that categorization is a fundamental property of how humans perceive, conceive and describe their world around them and their instrument of doing so is language. Thus, categorization is essential to language use. Linguists agree that human categorization is anything but a clear-cut matter. Categories can be referred to as clusters of entities that are determined by members that are more or less central to the category (Pütz 2007: 1148). In Langacker’s (1987: 371) terms a prototype is a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated to the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype; there are degrees of membership based on degrees of similarity. This suggests that categories do not occur naturally but are imposed onto the world by humans and are therefore highly subjective. For example, when thinking of the category “fruit”, which has a vast number of members like apples, pears, bananas, cantaloupes, pomegranates, limes, mangos, and so on, there will be exemplars that are more typical and more salient than others. This, however, is dependent on various factors like time, place, context, and culture. For western Europeans for instance the most typical kind of fruit would in all probability be apples, bananas, pears and plums. Australians on the other hand would most likely include mangos, passion fruits, lychees etc. in a list of typical fruits. Therefore, they would be referred to as the best example or the prototype of the category fruit. It is essential to consider the cultural background of the person who categorizes (Verspoor 2008: 81f.). This suggests that membership within a category is graded and, as mentioned above, subject to change according to time, place and context. In addition, it is influenced by background knowledge and assumptions as well as the cultural background of the language user. Ungerer & Schmid (2006: 45) put it as follows: The prototypes of cognitive categories are not fixed, but may change when a particular context is introduced, and the same is true for category boundaries. More generally, the whole internal structure of a category seems to depend on the context and, in a wider sense, on our social and cultural knowledge, which is thought to be organized in cognitive and cultural models. It can be deduced that different cultures categorize concepts in various ways and that boundaries between those categories are fuzzy. Admittedly, the example above is a rather obvious one and easily accessible, but there are of course more subtle ones that may not be explained so easily. The notion of prototype can also be applied productively in the foreign language classroom. According to Pütz (2007: 1148) “[t]he internal structure of categories in terms of prototypical or central members and noncentral or peripheral members is likewise reflected in the semantics of grammatical categories.” The obvious suggestion would be to teach from the typical example, i.e. the prototype, to special cases and other major clusters, focusing initially on the most frequent and basic uses of a grammatical construction or lexical item. This helps learners to raise language awareness, especially in terms of how differently languages can be structured. Therefore, a Cognitive Linguistics approach to language learning might also be helpful to introduce grammatical structures or lexical items that are idiosyncratic in the target language and do not exist in the learners’ L1. A striking example of a conceptual category that is obviously difficult to acquire for learners of English as an L2 is the acquisition of the progressive aspect for German native speakers since German is, strictly speaking, an aspectless language. However, I will not elaborate on this subject matter here; section 4.6. is dedicated to how aspectuality is expressed in the German language. The logical conclusion that imposes itself here is that it makes it particularly difficult for learners to acquire grammatical or conceptual categories that are nonexistent in their mother tongue. Full mastery of constructions – and especially the ones that are not isomorphous with the learner’s L1 – with native-like knowledge of their range of usage is certainly challenging and will only come about through intense exposure to and long-time practice of the target language. Finally, it is also important to mention at this point that it could be of advantage for a better understanding to present something as the non-prototypical use of a grammatical construction or the meaning of a lexical item rather than presenting it as the exception to the rule, thus highlighting the motivational character of Cognitive Linguistics. 3. The viewpoint of events: the concepts of tense and aspect in English 3.1. Situations as the basis of analysis A fundamental aspect of languages is that they provide their speakers with the ability to describe situations, refer to events that occurred in the past or will only happen in the future, and, most importantly, allow speakers of a language to describe the temporal sequence of these events, as well as talk about events as complete or incomplete processes (Michaelis 1998: 1, Li & Shirai 2000: 1). In her book Aspectual Grammar and Past-Time Reference Michaelis (1998: 1) states that [t]alking about processes, states, and occurrences is such a mundane aspect of discourse that one can forget that the language does not give an unmediated picture of reality, but instead imposes a particular conceptual framework upon the domain of eventualities. Michaelis therefore argues that although languages differ in the way in which they express temporal meaning, it is an inherent feature of all languages that they can express the basic concepts of time mentioned above. In order to be able to describe temporal concepts in a language there are two essential distinguishable grammatical systems which enable the speakers of a particular language to specify the temporal features of a situation, namely that of tense and aspect (Michaelis 1998: 1; Li & Shirai 2000: 1). One such feature for marking tense, for example, is placing the situation in relation to the actual time of speaking, often also referred to as speech time, and allows the speaker to specify whether the situation occurred previous to, simultaneously with, or will happen after the time of speaking (Michaelis 1998: 1). According to Michaelis (1998: 1), apart from tense marking, another feature is used to locate the situation within what she refers to as a reference interval, meaning that the situation is viewed through time; this is called aspectual marking. Thus, aspect is a linguistic category that describes how a speaker views the “internal temporal contour” (Downing & Lock 2006: 369f.) of a situation, which is to say, speakers characterize a single situation and state according to whether it continues throughout the reference interval, begins at that time, or is brought to a completion within that time (Michaelis 1998: 1; Li & Shirai 2000: 1f.). It is evident from the preceding discussion that aspect and tense are usually treated as separate linguistic objects of inquiry. It is equally obvious that both systems also strongly correlate, as Michaelis (1998: 2) puts it: Of course, we cannot ignore the temporal components of aspectual meaning, nor can we treat aspectual meaning as a semantic system divorced from the system of temporal expressions in general. Michaelis (1998: 2f.) maintains that there are certain events which can only be fully instantiated with the passage of time. The present is merely perceived “as a momentaneous interval, i.e. a point in time. Since this point cannot accommodate the full temporal profile of an event, one cannot relativize an event predication to the present.” (Michaelis 1998: 2f.) Michaelis (1998: 2f.) convincingly demonstrates this view with the following example of dying, thus illustrating the interrelation between tense and aspect. Therefore, it would be anomalous to say that Harry dies when constructed as an ongoing situation as dying can only be instantiated with the passage of time, to view dying as a point in time would be rather unusual (Michaelis 1998: 2f.). I will now discuss aspect in greater detail and will look at two types of aspect that have had an influential role in the research on the acquisition of aspect: grammatical aspect and lexical aspect. Downing & Locke (2006: 370) argue that “lexical aspect proves to be an invaluable tool for understanding the functioning of the Progressive [...] aspect[s].” ### 3.2. Grammatical aspect vs. lexical aspect For the description of the grammatical and lexical aspects I will adopt the terminology from Smith’s (1986) speaker-based model as this is the most prevalent in the relevant literature. In this model a speaker confers a certain perspective upon the situation he/she is referring to. For Smith (1986: 97), lexical aspect is the speaker’s characterization of an actual situation, referred to by Smith (1986: 100) as situation aspect. Aktionsart or inherent aspect are further terms used in the literature to denote the concept of lexical aspect (Li & Shirai 2000: 3). For a uniform description I will use the term lexical aspect throughout this thesis. Smith (1986: 100) defines lexical aspect as aspect which involves the linguistic forms and meanings associated, for a given language, with idealized situation types. In English the linguistic forms are verb classes, particles, and types of complements. Therefore, it is a matter of what is inherent in the lexical item. Grammatical aspect, referred to as viewpoint aspect by Smith (1986: 100), by contrast, is concerned with the explicit marking of verbs by inflectional and derivational morphology, and/or the use of auxiliaries (Li & Shirai 2000: 3). In English, there are two grammaticalized aspectual distinctions, namely the progressive versus non-progressive and the perfect versus non-perfect. For this reason, grammatical aspect sheds light on how different events can be viewed, either as complete, in which case the term perfectivity is used, or as incomplete, which is referred to as imperfectivity. The present section of this thesis will look at this distinction in greater detail. Further, it is noteworthy that “viewpoint aspect is dependent on situation aspect: the progressive viewpoint is limited to certain types of situation aspect, and the simple viewpoint varies in interpretation according to type of situation” (Smith 1986: 100). Thus, we can assume that there is a direct conceptual link between lexis and grammar during communication. 3.2.1. Lexical aspect For further illustration of situation aspect, i.e. lexical aspect, it is beneficial to briefly touch upon Vendler’s (1957; 1967) semantic categories of verbs (verb phrases), as his “four-way classification of the inherent semantics of verbs has become the starting point for any subsequent research on lexical aspect.” (Li & Shirai 2000: 4). Vendler’s (1957) theories will be particularly relevant when discussing Shirai’s (2002: 457ff.) prototype hypothesis of tense-aspect acquisition later in this thesis. Vendler (1957: 146f.) originally proposed that verbs could be classified – with respect to the temporal properties that they encode – according to the following basic categories: achievement, accomplishment, activity, and state. Both activity and accomplishment verbs have some duration but differ inasmuch as accomplishment verbs have a clearly defined inherent endpoint. Such situations are referred to as telic events whereas activity verbs describe situations with an arbitrary endpoint, also termed atelic situations. Achievement verbs also describe a situation that has an obvious endpoint, but are reduced to a specific point in time and therefore lack duration. State verbs finally denote a continuing situation and are consequently not dynamic (Li & Shirai 2000: 3-4). So, according to Vendler (1957: 147ff.), state verbs define a situation that is viewed as continuous over a longer period of time unless, of course, some external factors force a change of this state. Therefore, verbs like love, know are considered to be state verbs. Activity verbs are inherently dynamic, like run, walk and swim. However, according to Vendler (1957: 145f.) the verb run in the phrase run a mile describes an accomplishment rather than an activity as it has a clearly marked endpoint. The last category described by Vendler (1957) includes verbs like fall, die, or drop, which encode events as punctual and instantaneous and for that reason are referred to as achievement verbs. Table 1 below, adapted from Shirai (2002: 456), gives an overview of this four-way classification and shows the semantic features of Vendler’s categories. Table 1 Semantic features of Vendler’s four categories of inherent lexical aspect \| \| Punctual \| Telic \| Dynamic \| \|---------------------\|----------\|-------\|---------\| \| State \| - \| - \| - \| \| Activity \| - \| - \| + \| \| Accomplishment \| - \| + \| + \| \| Achievement \| + \| + \| + \| In this context, Downing & Locke (2006: 371) draw attention to the fact that in the traditional way of categorizing verbs into activities and accomplishments, Vendler (1957) disregarded the fact that in cases like walk to school (accomplishment) and win the race (achievement) human agency is involved. However, it cannot always be the case that all processes are agentive. The following sentence It snowed heavily denotes an event which has no agent. Such instances are best described in terms of boundedness and unboundedness (Downing & Locke 2006: 371f.). The notion of boundedness and unboundedness has its origins in the field of Cognitive Linguistics (Niemeier 2008; Niemeier & Reif 2008) and describes in what kind of viewing frame a situation is looked at. More precisely put, the viewing frame of a particular situation can be either maximal or restricted. So, bounded events are seen from an external and thus holistic perspective, or, in other words, are seen within a maximal viewing frame. In contrast, unbounded events take an internal perspective of a situation and focus on its progression; its starting and end points not taken into consideration but are implied. These events, then, are viewed within a restricted viewing frame (Radden & Dirven 2007: 175). The introduction of the notion of boundedness and unboundedness in the next section (4.1.) of this thesis is an attempt to analyze and describe the progressive construction in English in a more simplified way, capturing the perfective/imperfective distinction as discussed in the present section in other terms. Thus, for the purpose of a clear terminology throughout the rest of this paper I will treat perfective situations as boundedness, and imperfective situations as unboundedness, as has been suggested by Radden & Dirven (2007: 178). 3.2.2. Grammatical aspect A fundamental aspectual contrast denoted in grammatical structures is the distinction between perfectivity and imperfectivity. A situation can be described as perfective when it is presented as a complete entity regarding its initial and concluding points within a time frame. The speaker/writer takes an external position on a particular situation and views an eventuality as a whole entity in retrospect (Comrie 1976: 4). For example, Comrie (1976: 16ff.) treats a construction as exemplified in sentence (2) as a means of denoting a perfective situation. (2) John locked the safe.$^1$ In Cognitive Grammar, however, the defining property of a perfective situation, according to Langacker (1999: 223), is that the situation denoted by a perfective verb involves a change through time. Accordingly, in the Cognitive Linguistics $^1$ It is vital to note, and clearly evident from example (2), that perfectivity is not identical with the perfective aspect; the terminology used here may be misleading. framework perfective verbs are dynamic situations like learn, write, study and run, to mention just a few. It has been put forward by Brisard (2002: 252) that they “obligatorily take the present progressive as a default form and that, when they do, no intimation of any type of temporal progression is necessarily being conveyed.” Klein (1994: 3ff., 1995: 23f.), on the other hand, bases his assumptions on the distinction between the time at which a situation actually takes place and the time for which a claim is raised. His (1995: 23f.) interpretation of the perfective aspect is that the time for which an assertion is made is partly included in the post-time of the situation. Consequently, Klein (1994: 3.) exemplifies his theory in the following way. In the utterance (3) The light was on. the time for which the claim is made, also referred to as topic time (TT) by Klein (1994: 2-3; 1995), is the past. More precisely, this means that the time of utterance (TU) succeeds the topic time whereas the time of situation (TSit) applies to the time at which the light was actually on. In Cognitive Grammar the basic view is that only perfective verbs can be used in progressive constructions, whereas only imperfective verbs occur in the simple (non-progressive) present tense (Langacker 1991: 207f.; 1999: 223). Or, as Langacker (1991: 207) rightly puts it, “[a] verb’s ability to take the progressive is widely and correctly acknowledged as a diagnostic for its perfectivity.” By this definition, according to Langacker (1999: 223), learn (the poem) is a perfective construction as example (4) shows, whereas know (the poem) is imperfective. (4) a. He is {learning/knowing} the poem. b. He {knows/learns} the poem (right now). Conversely, the imperfective, as described in traditional terms by Downing & Locke (2006: 369f.), provides an internal view of a situation with no clear-cut boundaries and is “conceptualized as ongoing and incomplete; the beginning and end aren’t included in this viewpoint – we see only the internal part”. Comrie (1976: 4) further states that the imperfective can both look backwards towards the start of the situation, and look forwards to the end of the situation, and indeed is equally appropriate if the situation is one that lasts through all the time, without any beginning and without any end. The imperfective aspect as defined by Comrie (1976: 4) focuses exclusively on a certain point in time taking an inside view of a situation. Sentence (5) is by Comrie’s (1976: 24ff.) as well as Downing & Locke’s (2006: 269f.) definition of imperfectivity a representation of an incomplete event: (5) John was locking the safe. Applying the -ing form to the perfective verb lock has the effect of construing the situation as homogeneous, i.e. imperfective. The beginning and endpoint of the situation are marginalized. Contrary to Comrie’s description of imperfectivity above, Cognitive Linguistics stresses the stative character of imperfective verbs, such as know, like, understand, see or have. As opposed to perfective verbs, they typically occur in the simple present tense and denote a stative process through time. According to De Wit & Brisard (2009: 8), “the process persists indefinitely beyond the immediate scope and remains qualitatively identical.” Figures 3a and 3b (adopted from Langacker 2001b: 257) depict the difference between perfective and imperfective verbs. The two intricate boxes both refer to the temporal scope of a situation, the inner box represents the immediate scope (IS) whereas the outer box indicates the maximal scope (MS) and the arrows illustrate the passage of time. The two heavy lines represent the part of the situation which is profiled. In Figure (3a) the profiled situation is clearly bounded within the immediate scope of temporality. Unlike this, situations designated by imperfective verbs, as illustrated in Figure (3b) are construed as unbounded within the immediate temporal scope and persist indefinitely through time. However, Langacker (2001b: 257) also points out that “only that portion which falls within the immediate temporal scope constitutes the processual profile, because an expression’s profile is by definition confined to the onstage region.” By putting imperfectivity into perspective, the progressive aspect in English is, as Bardovi-Harlig (2000: 211) asserts, “the main imperfective viewpoint.” According to Langacker (1999: 226f.) the English progressive construction is, due to a clear functional motivation, only applicable to perfective (i.e. dynamic) verbs. Since the progressive renders a perfective construction into an imperfective one, it would be pointless to apply it to imperfectives, or, to adopt Langacker’s (1991: 208) exact words: “The vacuity of imperfectivizing a verb that is already imperfective is sensibly avoided by the collective wisdom of conventional English usage.” Therefore, the relationship between -ing and the imperfective has been explained by Langacker (1999: 226f.) “The effect of -ing is to imperfectivize the perfective process designated by the verb stem it combines with, and to impose on it the holistic, summary construal characteristic of a participle.” Consider again example (5), in which the progressive construction renders a perfective process imperfective, meaning that the perfective process of locking something is viewed from an internal perspective and provides a close-up view of an event, focusing on its progression. The onset and offset of the situation are not taken into consideration but are implied. Or, as Langacker has put it (2001b: 259): Technically, I describe it as imposing an immediate temporal scope that excludes the endpoints of the perfective process it applies to. [...] While the maximal scope is a span of time containing the full, bounded process, the immediate scope subtends just an arbitrary portion of its internal development. Only that portion is profiled, since – as a matter of definition – the profile is the focal point within the immediate scope. The overall progressive expression is imperfective, because grammatical class is determined by the profile and the profiled process is not bounded. Also, as with any imperfective, the profiled process is construed as being effectively homogeneous. I would like to note here that the actual description of the progressive construction will follow in section four (4.2.) below, which is exclusively devoted to a precise analysis of the progressive construction as such. Therefore, the subsequent discussion is concerned with a brief cross-linguistic discussion of the imperfective/perfective distinction, followed by an outline of habituality. It is important to mention that in English the perfective and imperfective aspects are covert categories, meaning that they are, unlike in many other languages, not directly encoded morphologically but, as Michaelis (1998: 59) notes, “have a number of grammatical and inferential ramifications.” It is the case in English that the distinction between a perfective and an imperfective interpretation is made inferentially by the speakers dependent on the context or, the relevance of one meaning. For example, sentence (6) He stopped and spoke to me in English. (Downing & Locke 2006: 370; my emphasis) describes a single event, whereas sentence (7) “He spoke English with a Welsh accent.” (my emphasis) depicts, according to Downing & Locke (2006: 370), a habitual event. They argue that in other languages like Spanish the perfective in sentence (6) would be clearly marked as such, namely habló. In example (7) spoke would be translated with hablaba (Spanish imperfective, which is clearly different from imperfectivity in English which would be was speaking), thus the perfective/imperfective distinction is, contrary to English, grammatically clearly marked in Spanish (Downing & Locke 2006: 370). The two latter examples show that a clear categorization of English verbs into perfective and imperfective is usually much less straightforward than one might think. To complete this discussion one issue still remains to be addressed, namely the relationship between imperfectivity/perfectivity and habituality, as exemplified in sentences (6) and (7), meaning whether a habit can be seen as a complete, i.e. perfective, event, as in (7). I do not agree with Downing & Lock’s (2006: 370) attempt to explain He spoke English with a Welsh accent in terms of habituality. Here, spoke describes a state rather than a habit as it refers to the accent of a person, which is ordinarily perceived as a person’s character trait and thus describes a lasting state of affairs that holds true for an infinite period of time. It can justifiably be said that habitual situations cannot be viewed as completed events since there is always potential for a change of some sort through time. As a matter of fact, the example at hand is imperfective because it portrays a static situation, its boundaries not being included in this given situation. There are, however, imperfective verbs which normally describe a state – as in I like this – but which can, according to Langacker (1991: 208), “sometimes receive a perfective construal” as the situation is perceived differently. In I’m liking this more and more the verb like is perfective the construction, however, denotes an imperfective situation. Also the state can be viewed as a momentary situation not meant to continue for an indefinite period of time (At least for now, I’m liking this). This also applies to perfective verbs construed as being generic or habitual, which are then regarded as imperfective (A beaver builds dams; Ralph always votes Republican) (Langacker 1991: 208). The perfective/imperfective-progressive relation is only mentioned in passing in this section; an extensive discussion will be provided in section 4, in which the various uses as well as the different senses of the progressive construction will be addressed. In continuation of the subject matter brought up above, Radden & Dirven (2007: 193) argue that habituality is a type of state which, in a narrow sense, portrays “successions [rather than states] of indefinitely recurrent equivalent situation.” These occurrences of regular patterns do not only apply to repeated human behavior, but are equally, if not even more so, applicable to recursive situations observed in nature, as in The earth revolves around the sun in a nearly circular orbit. However, generally speaking, habituals consist of individual events that are viewed in their integrity and hence perceived as a single, homogenous, lasting state. The expression of such habituals can be achieved in a myriad of ways, depending on the time the habitual state holds lasts. Thus, habitual situations may occur in the present simple. Radden & Dirven (2007: 194) list the following examples: (8) a. Mary smokes a pipe. [personal habit] b. Germans drink a lot of beer. [social custom] c. My son-in-law works in London. [occupation] d. But he lives in Paris. [residence] As has been emphasized by Radden & Dirven (2007: 194) habitual states can be expressed in various grammatical ways. For habitual situations in the past the phrase used to is applied (9a), keep V-ing may indicate habituials starting in the past and continuing up to the present (9b), and now is used for situations which only recently commenced (9c). These habitual situations are exemplified by Radden & Dirven (2007: 194) in (9) a. My fiancée used to work in a pub. b. She keeps applying for new jobs. c. She now works at McDonald’s. Following Radden & Dirven’s (2007: 193f.) definition of habituality, in which they stress the indefiniteness of recursive equivalent situations, it may also be the case that habitual states are only temporary in character. A temporary habitual state can be expressed by using the progressive construction, which then renders a seemingly timeless habitual state temporary, as exemplified in the sentences (10a, b) below, taken from Radden and Dirven (2007: 194). However, this effect of the progressive construction will be discussed in greater detail later in this thesis and is mentioned here merely for the sake of completeness. (10) a. Mom works at the Ministry of Finance. b. Mom is working at the Ministry of Finance (for the moment). Another observation made by Radden & Dirven (2007: 195) worth mentioning at this point is that habitual states may be highlighted by the use of frequency adjuncts such as constantly, always, forever and all the time, commonly used in combination with the progressive aspect so as to denote the repeated occurrences of events. The use of -ing in order to achieve temporary habitual states puts emphasis on the progression of the event. However, as has been pointed out by Radden & Dirven (2007: 195), frequency adjuncts focus “on the overall frequency of the individual events in the overall situation.” Consequently, if the nature of the event is connoted rather negatively, the negative association is enhanced. According to Radden & Dirven (2007: 195), “[t]he progressive habitual thus tends to invite inferences of irritation or even annoyance at a person’s [...] behaviour.” The following example (11) is taken from Radden & Dirven (2007: 195) for further illustration. (11) My husband is constantly getting into trouble. Comrie (1976: 25) suggests that the semantic distinction of aspectual categories be subdivided as follows: Figure 4 Classification of aspectual oppositions according to Comrie (1976) In Comrie’s (1976: 26ff.) description, habituality is depicted as a subcategory of the perfective. Further, Comrie (1976: 27f.) points out that one feature which holds true for all habituels is that they describe a situation which is characteristic of an extended period of time, so extended in fact that the situation referred to is viewed not as an incidental property of the moment but, precisely, as a characteristic feature of a whole period. (Comrie 1976: 27f.) This model differs significantly from Langacker’s (1991: 208) as well as Radden & Dirven’s (2007: 193ff.) descriptions of the relationship between (im)perfectivity and habituality inasmuch as for Comrie (1976: 25) habitual situations are in fact imperfective in the grammatical sense. The way Langacker describes his model, by using constructs of Cognitive Grammar, a perfective situation is rendered imperfective by changing the perspective taken on a situation. The basic aspectual distinction of English verbs, in Langacker’s (2001b: 255ff.) Cognitive Grammar framework, is a matter of perfective/imperfective distinction which is grounded on their grammatical behavior in a sentence. That is to say what Langacker (2001b: 255ff.) refers to as perfective verbs can also be described as dynamic verbs whereas imperfective verbs are the equivalent to stative verbs. We have now looked at two rather diverging descriptions of the perfective/imperfective contrast: in Comrie’s (1976) description, which represents a more traditional viewpoint in the distinction of the aspectual categories (and of aspect in general), aspect is treated as the perfective/imperfective distinction based on the subjective interpretations of situation and are purely grammatical with no impact of the inherent meaning of the verb, whereas Langacker’s theories are based on the grammatical behavior of verbs (Langacker 2001b: 255). At first glance, this lengthy discussion has in some way led to a slight confusion of the concepts and terminologies used in this section. As already mentioned earlier, and as has been stated by Boogaart & Janssen (2007: 815), one of the fundamental ideas in the Cognitive Grammar framework is that there is no distinction between lexicon and grammar, but that they form “a continuum of constructions” (Langacker 2007: 421). Langacker’s (2001b: 255) way of dividing verbs into two basic aspectual classes, which he terms perfective and imperfective, is line with the principles of Cognitive Grammar, not based on the inherent meaning of verbs (i.e. lexical aspect). Rather, they relate to verbs of perceiving change (i.e. perfective) and the lack thereof (i.e. imperfective) (Boogaart & Janssen 2007: 815). To make matters even more complicated, Boogaart & Janssen (2007: 815) emphasize that in the Cognitive Linguistics framework put forward by Langacker (e.g. 1999) lexical and grammatical aspects are both subsumed under the concept of perfectivity and that the progressive construction itself is an “imperfectivizing device”. A detailed discussion of the lexical aspect will follow in the subsequent section, but due to its relevance for some terminological clarifications at this point I will briefly state the so-called Vendler classes of verbs: state, activity, accomplishment, achievement (Vendler 1967: 144). This characterization of verbs is dependent on whether the situation indicates duration, involves change through time, and has an inherent end point, meaning that it is telic (Boogaart & Janssen 2007: 813). This classification has had great influence in the study of lexical aspect. Vendler (1957; 1967), who bases his assumptions on the distinction between lexical and grammatical aspect, treats perfectivity as a function in a sentence. More specifically, according to Vendler’s (1967: 144) categorization of verbs, activity, accomplishment and achievement denote a perfective function in a sentence whereas state verbs indicate an imperfective function. Thus, in the Vendler-like analysis of verbs or predicates these have a default option according to the inherent meaning of the verb itself. Moreover, it is to say that lexical, as distinguished from grammatical, aspect is independent of the speaker’s/writer’s subjective conception of a situation, because aspectual meaning is also inherent in the meaning of the verb. Langacker (1999: 390, note 14), however, formulates his approach to perfectivity and imperfectivity from a diverging angle and cautions against treating Vendler’s (1957; 1967) classification of verbs “as rigid lexical partitioning: verbs may have a default value, but the aspectual interpretation of a given expression is flexibly and globally determined.” This discussion leads to the conclusion that the imperfective/perfective distinction is, strictly speaking, a matter of lexical aspect within the Cognitive Linguistics framework. This can be seen in the fact that Langacker bases his assumptions on both perfective verbs, which may also be described as verbs denoting a dynamic process, and imperfective verbs, which may also be referred to as stative verbs (cf. perfective process learn the poem versus imperfective process know the poem, taken from Langacker 2001b: 258). Thus, it is the inherent lexical meaning of the verbs that affects the interpretation of the grammatical aspect and should be conceptually distinguished from grammatical aspect marking. In the present discussion, the aspectual notions of imperfectivity and perfectivity are nevertheless treated as a grammatical entity in English. 4. The semantics of the progressive: analyzing the progressive aspect Up to this point, the major concern of this thesis has been to introduce linguistic concepts that underlie the progressive aspect in English, as well as to shed light on how these concepts are differently dealt with in the relevant literature and how they correlate with the progressive aspect. Assuming that this discussion has provided an adequate overview of the notions tense and aspect, as well as the rather lengthy discussion of the classification of aspectual categories of perfective, imperfective and habituality with respect to the progressive aspect, this section has as its main objective in exploring the progressive aspect as such. Therefore, the notion of boundedness and unboundedness will be introduced at first. It is worthwhile to point to the distinction between these two linguistic phenomena, as it is reflected in the choice between using a simple tense or the progressive aspect and use of the progressive in English can be explained in terms of boundedness and unboundedness. Secondly, it remains to be discussed what the progressive exactly does. Moreover, the actual meaning of -ing, even though it is doubtful whether this is in fact possible or not, will be reviewed. Subsequently, I will elaborate on the various uses of the progressive, before concluding this section with a presentation of possible progressive constructions in German. 4.1. The notions of boundedness and unboundedness According to Langacker (2001a) the concept of boundedness/unboundedness is described as one of the organizing principles of language and is strongly related to the viewpoint and perspective of the language user. Langacker (2001a: 16f.) describes this phenomenon as follows: Inherent in every usage event is a presupposed viewing arrangement pertaining to the relationship between the conceptualizers and the situation being viewed. The default arrangement finds the speaker and hearer together in a fixed location, from which they report on actual occurrences in the world around them. There are however numerous kinds of departures from this canonical circumstance. The departures help make it evident that the default arrangement, so easily taken for granted, is nonetheless an essential part of the conceptual substrate supporting the interpretation of expressions. Whether canonical or special, the viewing arrangement has a shaping influence on the conception entertained and consequently on the linguistic structure used to code it. What Langacker suggests here is that in natural communication it is, when assuming a constructivist point of view, never the case that the people involved in this conversation see the situation presented from exactly the same perspective. As it is for the speaker to decide which lexical items to choose and in which grammatical form they should be presented in order to convey the intended meaning, encoding meaning is highly subjective. So for example, by using the simple form we describe a bounded situation; when we choose to use the progressive form instead, we mark a situation as unbounded (Niemeier 2008: 312; 315f.). In order to make the distinction between boundedness and unboundedness, that is, taking the temporal boundaries of whole situations into consideration, it is important to take another factor of the inherent aspectuality of verbs into account, namely that of whether an event has duration or no duration through time (Downing & Locke 2006: 370f.) The diagram in Figure 5, taken from Downing & Locke (2006: 371), gives a useful overview of the concepts of duration vs. non-duration and boundedness vs. unboundedness. It has to be kept in mind, however, that the illustration of the notions of boundedness and unboundedness below differ quite clearly from Radden’s & Dirven’s (2007) interpretation of these concepts. For instance, following Radden’s & Dirven’s (2007) description of boundedness and unboundedness, the example Jane is their eldest daughter, taken from Figure 5 below, would be described in terms of boundedness. Therefore, states can indeed be interpreted based on the concepts of boundedness and unboundedness. However, this will be discussed in more detail in section 4.3. According to this illustration by Downing & Locke (2006: 371) the concept boundedness and unboundedness of situations can be applied to durative processes. Moreover, when scrutinizing the examples above it becomes apparent that the way in which a situation is viewed, that is, whether it is viewed as being bounded or unbounded, can be coded in various ways, that is, for example by adding an adjunct or adverbial particle so as to establish a clearly defined endpoint: he swam in the pool is an unbounded situation which can be altered into a bounded situation he swam 70 lengths in an hour. Further, in the sentences (12) and (13) (Downing & Locke 2006: 372) (12) He rang his agent last week. (13) They rang their agents every day last week. the situation is presented as a repetition by adding a multiple object or subject rather than a single element; in this way the boundedness of the situation is obtained. Finally, the last way of modifying a situation according to Downing & Locke (2006: 372) is by means of grammatical aspect, which is why it is significant to introduce the concept of boundedness and unboundedness in a thesis which deals with the progressive aspect in English. Before going into greater detail in the discussion of the progressive aspect, I would like to summarize briefly the concepts introduced in this section of this thesis, as well as clarify the different terminologies used in the previous proposals. So, according to the diagram above there is an important distinction to be made when it comes to situations, taking into account the states that things are in, meaning that there is no clearly defined limitation of time, and the occurrence of things, which describes the “processes that things undertake or undergo” (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 343), which then can be either limited in time or not limited in time. Niemeier & Reif (2008: 343.) thus classify situations on the basis of their “inherent temporal structure”. An inherently unbounded situation, for example, would be the instance <LIVE IN THE OUTBACK>, a potentially bounded situation, such as <WANDER ABOUT THE MUSEUM>, can have implicit boundaries, while the instance <BUILD A SNOWMAN> is explicitly bounded. Hence, the verbs used in a communicative instance always have to be analyzed with reference to their other complements, that is, the entire predicate including the verbs complements, as it is the case that verbs and their complements have an effect on the type of situation that is evoked. Niemeier & Reif (2008: 343) therefore conclude that “it is crucial to consider the entire verbal predicate for the purpose of categorisation.” 4.2. Bounded and unbounded events with reference to the progressive aspect In order to put the notion of boundedness and unboundedness in perspective with the progressive aspect I will now have a closer look at the three instances mentioned above. Niemeier & Reif (2008: 343) note that [i]nherently unbounded situations are internally homogeneous and insusceptible to change. By contrast, potentially bounded situations are internally heterogeneous and susceptible to change and they are expected to come to and end at some point. Grammatical aspect, i.e., the use of either the non-progressive or the progressive form, interacts with lexical aspect in that it offers the speaker a means to construe an idealized situation in different ways. Depending on the type of situation, i.e., whether the situation is inherently bounded or unbounded, and depending on whether the situation is constructed as a single situation or as a repeated situation, grammatical aspect can have different conceptual effects. So, looking at the first situation, that is <BUILD A SNOWMAN>, it is obvious that it can be presented in the following two ways, in a non-progressive form and in a progressive form (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 343f.): (14) a. Eric built a snowman. b. Eric was building a snowman. The situation <BUILD A SNOWMAN> is, according to Niemeier & Reif (2008: 344), already explicitly bounded as such, as the verb build in this context – build as such is perfective and provokes a situation in progress – evokes a situation in which we automatically think of a starting point, closely followed by a process which involves some sort of change throughout time, and finally reaches an endpoint. In this case the endpoint is a finished snowman, probably looking like this: three round snowballs stacked on top of each other, whereas the one on the bottom typically is the largest one and the one on top, serving as the snowman’s head, is the smallest one. Further, the snowman might be decorated with a scarf, a broom and a hat, as well as with pebbles, which serve as eyes and jacket buttons, and a carrot representing the nose. So, this illustration of a finished snowman is also represented in example (14a), in which the situation is viewed in its entirety, taking its starting point, as well as its endpoint into consideration and making clear that it consists of several developmental stages. Figure 6 taken from Niemeier & Reif (2008: 349) may help to illustrate the concept of boundedness. Figure 6 Explicitly bounded situation: Eric built a snowman In (14b), however, the use of the progressive aspect has the effect of unbounding the situation (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 344). Schmiedtová & Flecken (2008: 370; 374) refer to this as “defocusing of boundaries”, meaning that neither the starting point, nor the endpoint are viewed as being part of the situation. In order to fully understand the concept of an unbounded situation as illustrated in (14b) Eric was building a snowman, for example, it is important to mention at this point “that the higher order schematic conception of a bounded situation is still evoked by the progressive aspect, [meaning that the bounded situation] functions as a base which provides the possibility of defocusing the boundaries”. (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 344). Further, the explicitly bounded situation in (14a) is viewed as fully completed and thus is not susceptible to change anymore, whereas (14b) is perceived as a situation still in progress and can still be changed. In the terminology of Cognitive Grammar, the process designated by the verb build in (14a) can be characterized as being perfective. This can be explained by saying that it profiles a bounded situation, or, to be exact, a bounded process which is internally heterogeneous and consists of many successive component states. Due to this heterogeneity, an imperfectivization of the process can be achieved by using the progressive construction as in (14b). Here, the progressive simply narrows the focus of attention, or, as Brisard (2002: 260) puts it, “takes an internal perspective on a homogeneously construed process”. The boundaries of the perfective process (14a) are merely implied and are put out of focus in its imperfective form in example (14b). Figure 7 taken from Niemeier & Reif (2008: 350) is an illustration of defocusing the boundaries, thus unbounding the situation. Figure 7 Unbounded situation: Eric was building a snowman Looking now at the instance <WANDER ABOUT THE MUSEUM>, which is, according to Niemeier & Reif (2008: 344) an implicitly bounded situation. It differs from the example discussed above in as much as the boundaries are implicit, rather than explicit because of the internal structure of the situation in (14a). So, the main distinction between (14b) and (15b) is that there is no actual change of the state involved in (15b), unlike in the snowman example, where the state changes from the incipient state of “no snowman” to a final state “a finished snowman”. (15) a. We wandered about the museum at night. b. We were wandering about the museum at night. So, (15a) is, like (14a), perceived as a completed situation and therefore not alterable anymore; (15b), however, is still in the middle of the process, with no implicitly marked boundaries (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 343f.). Finally, there is one remaining situation type to be discussed in this section of the thesis, namely that of inherently unbounded situations, as in <LIVE IN THE OUTBACK>. (16) a. I lived in the Australian outback. b. I am living in the Australian outback. This situation type is, so Niemeier & Reif (2008: 344f.) note, somewhat different from the ones discussed above, as the use of the progressive aspect in this case does not only bound the situation and denote a situation in progress which is then potentially susceptible to change, but even more importantly stresses that this state is a temporary one. The use of the non-progressive form, then, as in (16a) expresses a continuing state which the speaker does not necessarily intend to change, at least not for the time being. Thus, the situation in (16b) is unbounded. In summary, the choice of the progressive aspect versus the non-progressive form clearly has an impact on how a situation is constructed and always adds a communicative perspective to events on behalf of the language user, that is, “they [non-progressive and progressive aspect] indicate in what way the internal constitution of a situation is viewed” (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 345). So, the non-progressive form in inherently bounded situations, as in (14a) and (15a), denotes a completion of the situation, whereas the progressive form in (14b) and (15b) defocuses the boundaries and does not take either, its beginning or its end into account; hence, the situation is viewed from within, that is, it gives an inner perspective of the situation. In an inherently unbounded situation as in (16a) the use of the non-progressive denotes an ongoing situation which is not expected to change; the progressive aspect, however, “imposes implicit temporal boundaries on the situation, focusing on its temporariness.” (Niemeier & Reif 2008: 345) For instance, the situation in example (17a) can be viewed as dynamic, focusing on the circumstance as a temporary phase or a stage, thus suggesting change from the more permanent situation in example (17b). (17) a. I am living in Vienna. b. I live in Vienna. So far I have looked at general issues which, so I hope, are relevant to, and contribute to a better understanding of the progressive aspect in English, and have drawn attention to important terminological distinctions which have to be made in this context, as well as the lexis-grammar interface and the essential role that the perspective of situations plays in conveying meaning. The next section attempts to analyze the progressive construction as such by trying to answer the question what does the progressive -ing exactly do? Hence, this section aims at describing the meaning of -ing. 4.3. The progressive construction: the meaning of -ing The progressive construction in English is, according to Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (1972: 73) composed of “the auxiliary BE + -ing participle [i.e. present participle] of the verb-phrase head”. However, taking the perspective of Cognitive Grammar (cf. Langacker 1991: 207ff.), the progressive construction forms part of the analysis of the clause structure with the auxiliary verb as the clausal head. Cognitive Grammar has to be set apart from the traditional view of grammar (Generative Grammar) inasmuch as no distinction is made between what are traditionally described as main and auxiliary verbs. What motivates this differentiation in Generative Grammar is the fact that main verbs (e.g. wash) are viewed as lexical verbs with a detailed semantic content, as opposed to auxiliary verbs which supposedly are more of a grammatical category than part of the lexicon, with only a rather abstract, if any, meaning (Langacker 1991: 194). In contrast, Cognitive Grammar adopts the view of “the primacy of semantics in linguistic analysis” (Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007: 5), which is one fundamental characteristic of Cognitive Linguistics. More specifically, this means, or, as Geeraerts & Cuyckens (2007: 5) put it the basic function of language involves meaning. [...] The primacy of semantics in linguistic analysis follows in a straightforward fashion from the cognitive perspective itself: if the primary function of language is categorization, then meaning must be the primary linguistic phenomenon. That is to say, Cognitive Linguistics imposes meaning on all linguistic levels, thus also morphemes employed for nominalizations are considered to carry meaning. In what follows, this has significant importance, as Langacker’s (1991: 23ff.) description of the meaning of -ing is based on the nominalization derived by -ing. Perfective verbs, which, as already mentioned earlier, are construed as bounded, can take the progressive. The progressive construction exemplified in (18), taken from Langacker (1991: 25) (18) Sylvester is {walking/complaining/sleeping}. can also be demonstrated as corresponding mass-noun nominalization in the following examples, also taken from Langacker (1991: 25f.) (19) a. Walking is very good for one’s health. b. McTavish always does a lot of complaining. c. My cat does several sleepings every day. Consequently, as shown by these examples, mass nouns derived by -ing do not necessarily take a determiner (19a), may take quantifiers (19b), and can under no circumstance be pluralized (19c). Langacker (1991: 26) therefore further claims that the progressive -ing has the three following effects on a perfective verb stem: (1) it construes the event holistically (by suspending sequential scanning), (2) it confines the profile to an immediate scope of predication consisting of an internal series of component states; and (3) it construes these states at a level of abstraction that neutralizes their differences. More specifically, this means, according to Langacker (1991: 209), “that the progressive construction always views a perfective process from an internal perspective and thereby renders it imperfective.” However, it remains to be established how this construal is achieved. In Cognitive Linguistics the process of taking an internal view is described in terms of narrowing the profile of the process to a “series of component states” which exclude the beginning and final state of the process (Langacker 1991: 209). As has been put forward by Langacker (1991: 26) [now] by definition, the profile at a given level of organization is restricted to the scope of predication at that level, and in this construction the profile is coextensive with the immediate scope imposed by -ing. An expression like walking or complaining thus conforms to the characterization of a mass noun: the profiled region lacks inherent bounding within the scope of predication, since the endpoints of the process fall outside the relevant scope. What this all amounts to is that by adding -ing to a verb a homogenous view of a situation is achieved by defocusing the boundaries of the event and making it unbounded and the profiled states define an abstract region. The present participle form of the verb thus adopts the features of mass nouns and can therefore take the position of mass nouns in a sentence. One defining feature of nouns derived by –ing is their contingency of modifying a noun. The following examples are taken from Langacker (1991: 210): complaining customers, egg-laying mammal, anyone being followed, children playing in the rain. Further, this modification of a noun requires, what Langacker (1991: 210; emphasis in the original) an “atemporal relation”. To remain true to the primacy of semantics principle in Cognitive Linguistic, meaning that grammar is inherently meaningful, one integral part of the progressive construction must also be considered so as to arrive at a complete description of the progressive construction, namely the integration of be with the present participle (Langacker 1991: 210). Langacker (1991: 210f.) has pointed out that “[t]he effect of adding be is simply to retemporalize the expression (i.e. to reimpose sequential scanning), thereby deriving an imperfective process”. This is diagrammed in Figure 8 (taken from Langacker 2001b: 259), which is an illustration of the progressive construction as such. Here, the maximal scope indicates the time span of the full, bounded process (Langacker 2001b: 259), whereas, the immediate temporal scope only demarcates an arbitrary part of the bounded situation profiled by the maximal scope. Figure 8 Progressive construction* Beside Langacker’s (1991: 25ff; 207ff.) approach to describe the meaning of the progressive, Radden & Dirven (2007: 177f.) explain its meaning as having “one unitary meaning for events and states” and base their assumptions on the notions of boundedness and unboundedness. The English progressive aspect [...] has one unitary meaning for events and states, which may be described as ‘unboundedness with implicit boundaries.’ This meaning is, though, the result of different conceptual processes: with events, the temporal boundaries are defocused, with states, implicit temporal boundaries are imposed. The two viewing frames applied to events and state give rise to three aspectual classes: i. bounded events, which are expressed by the non-progressive aspect; ii. lasting states, which are expressed by the non-progressive aspect; iii. unbounded events and states with implicit boundaries, which are expressed by the progressive aspect. Following this description, the time schemas that define these three aspectual classes can be linked to Figures (3a), (3b) and (8) shown above. Figure (3a) is an illustration of (i), a bounded event, which is viewed within its maximal viewing frame from the outside and in its whole entirety. Here, the center of attention is directed toward the boundaries of the event, in particular its end, as in the sentence John locked the safe. In (ii) and Figure (3b) an unbounded state is described which may continue for an indefinite period of time, as in Ted resembles his father. It thus indicates constancy through time, the beginning and endpoint of the situation are not within the viewing frame of the situation. Here, the progressive is normally not applied (Radden & Dirven 2007: 179). Unbounded events, as described in (iii), are exemplified in Figure (8). An unbounded event is viewed from the inside, focusing on its development and is viewed within a restricted viewing frame. The use of the progressive aspect, as in John is locking the safe conveys a close-up view and therefore conveys a greater immediacy to the event as it progresses. Radden & Dirven (2007: 178) have stated that “the progressive presupposes overall boundaries of the event [...]. This explains why the meaning of the progressive has often, and correctly, been identified as expressing ‘limited duration’.” This, however, will be explained in more detail in section 4.3.1. Radden & Dirven (2007: 179) make an interesting observation concerning the use of the non-progressive aspect, which only is applies to two opposed aspectual classes, namely bounded events and lasting states. This account of the progressive aspect merely exemplifies how complex a linguistic system can be, in the sense that one linguistic form can express a variety of different meanings and vice versa, that one specific meaning can be achieved by using different forms. Of course, this fact poses a huge obstacle for second language learners. In the following three examples the progressive form -ing realizes three distinct meanings: (20) Please be quiet, can’t you see that I’m talking on the phone? (ongoing action) (21) I am always loosing my keys. (expressing annoyance) (22) We are flying to Australia in summer. (planned future event) Even though example (21) denotes a habitual situation, in which one would not necessarily make use of the progressive aspect, it may be used to impose a negative connotation on the event. The negative association of loosing something, for instance, is greatly enlarged. As has been mentioned earlier in this thesis, the use of the progressive with time adverbials can impose a negative connotation onto a situation, emphasizing the speaker’s annoyed or irritated approach to the situation. Considering the examples (20-22) above, it would be hard to disagree with Comrie’s (1976: 38) statement about the function of the progressive aspect: “There are so many uses [of the English progressive] that it is questionable whether there is a general basic meaning.” Further, Comrie (1976: 32f.) commented that “it should be noted from the outset that the English Progressive has, in comparison with progressive forms in many other languages, an unusually wide range.” 4.4. Prototypical senses of the progressive – is there such a thing? It seems that not just the progressive aspect but also the English tense-aspect system as such constitutes a main source of error for learners of English. In the present section of this thesis I will therefore look at verbs, or more specifically, categories of verbs as proposed by Vendler (1957), which cause the most difficulties in the acquisition of the progressive. Following that, I will try to come up with prototypical occurrences of the progressive, i.e. I will follow Rosch’s (1978) prototype theory of concepts which conveys that some members within a category are better examples of the category than others. The prototype of a category can be viewed as an idealized description of a category member summarizing the most representative attributes of a category and therefore, it serves as the criterion for classifying the surrounding less representative instances. Ellis & Ferreira-Junior (2009: 371) note that [t]he greater the token frequency of an exemplar, the more it contributes to defining the category, and the greater the likelihood that it will be considered the prototype. The best way to teach a concept is to show an example of it. So the best way to teach a category is to show a prototypical example. Research on category learning suggests that acquisition is optimized by the introduction of an initial, low-variance sample centered on prototypical exemplars [...]. This allows learners to get a “fix” on what will account for most of the category members. In the description of the notion of boundedness and unboundedness of situations earlier in this thesis I have discussed types of verbs which allow an internal perspective of a situation and are therefore referred to as unbounded, whereas an outside view of an event allows a holistic perspective on a situation and are thus referred to as bounded. It is, however, not always the case that all types of verbs allow such a perspectivation of events. It is, for example, fairly widespread in Austrian English lessons that the progressive aspect is first introduced as denoting an event in progress at the time of speaking. As for the basic function of the progressive aspect found in the prevalent literature, Downing & Locke (2006: 373) state that it indicates a “dynamic action in the process of happening. Attention is focused on some internal stage of the process, which cognitively, is viewed as something directly observed, unfolding before your eyes.” Hence, when the progressive aspect is first introduced in the foreign language classroom it is with the utmost probability associated with verbs describing a process, which correspond with Vendler’s (1957: 150) category of activity verbs, like run, walk, play, and, as already discussed above with those instances it is possible to defocus the boundaries so as to “zoom in” on the situation in order to view it as potentially ongoing with a possibility for change. Thus, students start applying the progressive aspect primarily to activities that are characterized by a dynamic as well as atelic nature (Shirai 2002: 455ff.). However, the pervasive and established slogan of the fast food chain McDonalds I’m lovin’ it may cause confusion among learners of English when following textbook instructions of the usage of the progressive aspect, namely an ongoing process at the time of speaking. So, can you not love something only at the moment of speaking? The issue here, however, is somewhat more complex. The verb love is, according to Vendler (1957), a stative verb and is therefore typically used to describe long lasting situations. So, customarily students of English are taught that verbs describing a state do not usually take the progressive form. Here, it is important to emphasize the word usually, as in the example at hand love is used in its metonymical motivated sense rather than in its basic and therefore prototypical sense. In I’m lovin’ it the verb love is used metonymically for the dynamic meaning of enjoy. Seemingly, in the prevalent literature the view is held that the same also applies to what Niemeier (2008: 318) and Downing & Locke (2006: 373) refer to as “involuntary sensory perception”, which includes verbs such as see, hear, feel, smell and taste. Likewise, they are also introduced in the EFL textbooks and courses as exceptions, since they do not take the progressive aspect. Niemeier (2008: 318) argues that the major problem with sensory verbs is that when seeing or hearing something, for example, the situation is over before it even truly started and thus does not allow an internal perspectivization: “[i]t therefore seems difficult to conceptualise such perceptions as being in progress.” There are nevertheless such verbs which have taken on dynamic uses and thus take the progressive aspect and for native speakers of English, as well as advanced learners of English sentence (23) quite naturally. (23) When you shine a torch at something you what you are seeing is light being reflected back onto things into your eyes. (Davis 2004: BYU PS53C) Here, seeing is also used in its literal sense, that is, in a more marginal and metonymically motivated sense, rather than in its prototypical sense. Here, the basic meaning of seeing is only part of the larger concept, that is to say that seeing merely acts as the metonymic link for taking leave of somebody (also cf. Niemeier 2008: 318). Other verbs that commonly fall under the category of exception verbs not allowing a progressive use are verbs that denote activities of a very short duration, like kick, jump, knock, nod, flash, cough, hit for example. So, sentence (24) depicts a conventional use of the verb kick. (24) Daria kicked her little brother. (25) When the mother finally entered the room, she saw that her daughter was not only screaming wildly, but that Daria was also kicking her little brother furiously. Sentence (25), however, illustrates a rather non-prototypical instance of kick. Firstly, let us consider example (24). Here, the brevity of the action does not allow an inner perspective, that is, the prototypical sequence of the event’s beginning, its continuation and its end is blurred and the phases all overlap, as the event happens so very quickly that we are unable to single out an unbounded “middle phase” but perceive the event as a whole, i.e. as bounded (Niemeier 2008: 317). However, if the progressive is nevertheless used, it affects the perspective of the situation and hence the lexical meaning of the verb. Rather than seeing Daria kick her brother once, as it is the case in (24), sentence (25) depicts with a quick repeated action. Niemeier (2008: 317) therefore argues that the kicking, that is, several quickly repeated kicks, can be viewed as a single event, for example in the framework of a temper tantrum. Hence, she further points out that the unboundedness of example (25) cannot become bounded. An attempt to make the situation bounded would be the following Daria was kicking her little brother, three times which renders the sentence as ungrammatical “because the three kicks are conceptualized as three separate events.” (Niemeier 2008: 317). So, when the number of repetitions is added, as in He knocked on the door three times, the simple form is used. In this context it is also important to mention two other uses of the progressive, which in my view are more prototypical instances of the progressive aspect than the ones discussed so far. One of these I have already mentioned in my discussion of the concepts of boundedness and unboundedness but I find appropriate to take up again here for the sake of completeness. So, for example states like living at a place, as in I am living in Vienna the progressive is applied to a verb, which unbounds the situation and thus shortens an action which otherwise describes an inherently long event. This conception of the progressive aspect which limits the duration of a situation, therefore viewing it merely as a temporary state, also quite often causes learning difficulties among learners of English. The last instance of the progressive aspect that I would like to mention in this thesis is, I believe, and is also treated as such in the relevant literature (e.g. Shirai 2002; Li & Shirai 2000), the most prototypical use of the progressive aspect, that is, action in progress. However, I am fully aware of the fact that this enumeration of progressive uses is only a fractional amount of what is actually possible. So, concluding, I would briefly like to look at the progressive aspect that is applied to verbs so as to indicate duration. This use of the progressive aspect usually does not cause major difficulties for L2 learners when viewed in relation to all the instances discussed previously. An example therefore would be (26) I am helping my dad. which denotes an action in progress at the time of speaking, which is also the first one to be introduced in the ESL classroom and textbooks (cf. Gerngross et al. 2009: 83). Having now looked at different situations in which the progressive aspect is used, thus imposing different meanings on a verb, from, as I see it, the least prototypical instance to the best example of progressive uses, the following meanings of the progressive can be summarized according to this discussion: metonymic senses, repeated action, shortening a process as well as action in progress. 4.5. Extending the use of the progressive: functioning as future time reference The English progressive construction be + -ing has, as already mentioned previously in this thesis, a wide range of uses especially when comparing it to other languages with grammatical progressive constructions. This section is aimed at exploring one use in particular which is clearly set apart from the meaning of the progressive construction with aspectual meaning, namely the use of be + -ing for future references. Specifically, this means that the non-aspectual use of the progressive describes situations that are not regarded “as unfolding over time”, as per Aarts’ (2011: 270) definition. Huddleston & Pullum (2002: 171) as well as Aarts (2011: 270) refer to this future time reference as the progressive futurate. Moreover, from a prescriptive way of looking at the grammatical form of be going to + infinitive for future reference (also referred to as “going to future” and henceforth used as such in this thesis), this form also adheres to the form of the progressive -ing construction. Keeping in line with -ing as a futurity marker in English, the other ways of expressing future meaning (shall/will, be (about) to, be gonna (in spoken colloquial English), as well as the simple present tense) (Brisard 2001: 253) will not be discussed here. That is to say, situations with future time reference can be construed in various ways within utterances. The present section is therefore devoted to analyzing two major constructions expressing futurity, namely be + -ing with future time reference and going to future, particularly with respect to the different ways of achieving future meaning, as they, as pointed out by Brisard (2001: 253), “tend to focus on slightly different aspects of the future.” Römer (2005: 154) has made valuable observations concerning the two possible variants to express futurity in English, the progressive futurate and going to future, as well as concerning their different meanings encountered in a variety of usage types. She claims that the going to future is more commonly used in the context of expressing the speaker’s intentions than the simple progressive form be + -ing. This statement by Römer (2005: 154) is based on the observation of the high occurrence of first person subject in combination with the going to future. Bergs (2010: 218) has also made valid contributions concerning the meaning of the future markers be going to and be + -ing. He states that the going to future focuses in particular on the time at which an utterance is intended to be valid, what Bergs also (2010: 218) refers to as “matrix time”, and that frequently plans underway are implied (Bergs 2010: 218). Further, Bergs (2010: 224) agrees with Römer’s (2005: 154) claim that the going to future combines with almost all subject types and frequently co-occurs with temporal adverbials. In terms of function Bergs (2010: 224), like Römer (2010), stresses its intentionality aspect as well as its objective predication derived from present circumstances. The progressive futurate, on the other hand, appears, according to Römer (2005: 154) particularly in contexts where concrete plans for the future have already been made: “These plans are in general much more firm and binding than the intentions expressed by the going to future.” The corpus-driven study conducted by Römer (2005: 154) supports this claim, as the progressive futurate often occurs in combination with a fixed time or date. The progressive futurate are exemplified in (27) and (28) and the going to future are illustrated in (29). (27) We are leaving the department at then o’clock. (Aarts 2011: 270) (28) I am playing tennis on Friday. (29) I am going to go now. However, the characterizations of be going to and be + -ing involve very subtle differences in function which are in some instances difficult to distinguish and describe, if at all, as these expressions share one core meaning, that is the expression of futurity, even though differ quite obviously in their form. Bergs (2010: 230f.), for example, states that The be going to future, for example, has links to the present progressive (through both form – verbal {-ing} – and function, i.e. a certain likeness between John is going to spend the summer in New York and John is spending the summer in New York). We can now explain as to why the going to future as well as the future progressive disallow progressive aspectuality (Celle & Smith 2010: 249), despite the fact that they share their form with the progressive construction discussed earlier in this thesis. It has been argued by Wekker (1976: 116) that certain occurrences of the progressive construction are “progressive in form but non-progressive in meaning”; thus the be + -ing construction is characterized not only by durativity, progressivity, habituality or imperfectivity, but it also implies further meaning, one that goes beyond the notion of aspectuality. Hence, as far as the claim made above is concerned, that is to say that the going to future is strictly speaking a progressive construction, cannot be supported. One convincing and valid explanation has been put forward by Römer (2005: 154f.), who claims that the going in the going to construction has undergone the process of grammaticalization, thus the semantic meaning of going has been reduced and has adopted a purely grammatical function (Römer 2005: 154f.). Moreover, to take up and further support the statement by Wekker (1976) from above, Goldberg (1995: 229) has rightly pointed out that It is not necessary that every syntactic form be uniquely associated with a particular semantics; there are cases of Thus, this phenomenon can best be explained in terms of Construction Grammar, which holds the view that the language as such and the constructional inventory which make up a language are structured on the basis of form as well as function (Bergs 2010: 229). The Construction Grammar framework is built upon the explicit inclusion of co- and contextual features. This means, according to Bergs (2010: 228) that “each individual expression can be defined in terms of form by the constraints of its occurrence and in terms of function by the core meaning plus subtle distinctions that are made.” So, that is to say that the constructions – be + -ing and be going to – presented in the present section to express futurity are, according to Bergs (2010: 228), not differentiated between various uses, for example through polysemic links, rather, all expressions of futurity are seen as constructions independent of one another and are in fact treated as constructions in their own right. This means that while this section is concerned with two constructions which both have as their core meaning the expression of futurity, there are, as has been put forward by Bergs (2010: 228) “of course a number of other constructions which are structurally similar or even identical, but which have different functions and – usually – also different co- and contextual constraints.” 4.6. Aspect in German The category of aspect has received relatively little attention in German grammar books (Dietrich 1995: 74). In support of the hypothesis of this thesis this section focuses on the description of aspect in German. The German language is generally characterized by the lack of grammaticalized means to express aspectual properties (Bardovi-Harlig 2000: 102; Slobin 1991: 10; Dietrich 1995: 74, 89). Im Deutschen existiert keine verbmorphologische Kategorie mit der Funktion, die begriffliche Kategorie Aspekt zu bezeichnen. Es ist also sicherlich richtig, dass es im Therefore, some researchers doubt whether it is legitimate to regard aspect as a separate category in German. However, studies were carried out (e.g. Krause 2002) investigating the progressive in German which suggest a trend toward the grammaticalization of this category in German, specifically the am-Progressiv construction (see below). However, it should be kept in mind that it is nevertheless possible to make aspectual distinctions in German in order to express imperfectivity. According to Dietrich (1995: 74), for instance, also in German there are forms found that are equivalent to the English progressive form and, as Comrie (1976: 33) convincingly argues, “the nonprogressive form does not exclude progressive meaning.” Further, Slobin (1991: 10; original emphasis) also argues as well that “[w]e do have available optional lexical means for expressing notions that lie outside of the set of obligatory grammatical distinctions in a language.” Therefore, if an imperfective viewpoint, that is, the progress or continuousness of a situation with no specific endpoint, is to be expressed, lexical means have to be deployed. Dietrich (1995: 75) mentions two major ways in which the progressive aspect can be realized in German. One such device is the use of explicit adverbial elements like gerade or schon like the following examples demonstrate: (30) a. Ich schreibe gerade einen Brief. b. Julia schlief schon, als ich nach Hause kam. Thus, the English translation of examples (30a) and (30b) would be I am writing a letter and Julia was sleeping when I got home respectively. In the latter example the Präteritum (schlief) is used to set a temporal frame for an action that happened in the past and has a comparable function of the past progressive in English. Secondly, Dietrich (1995: 74) mentions complex paraphrases as a means of expressing progressive meaning, like dabei sein zu + infinitive and am + nominalized infinitive + sein, (referred to as am-Progressiv by Krause (2002) and Van Pottelberge (2005)), which are labeled by Dietrich (1995) as semigrammatical forms. The expression am etwas tun sein (am-Progressiv) like in the example Ich --- 2 There is no verb-morphological category in German that describes aspect. It can therefore be assumed that there is no systematic morphological aspect category in the German language. bin am Einkaufen describes the internal temporal properties of the utterance and can thus be seen as the equivalent of English sentence I am shopping. In addition to the am-Progressiv, a prepositional progressive construction with a nominalized infinitive, two further constructions with prepositions are worth mentioning here. The prepositions in, as in im Steigen sein and bei, such as beim Schreiben sein, also add a progressive meaning to the phrase (Van Pottelberge 2005: 170). These constructions, compared to the am-Progressive, however, are, according to Van Pottelberge (2005: 179) more restricted in their use and are not poised to undergo the grammaticalization process, as it is the case with the am-Progressiv. Even though both Van Pottelberge (2005: 170ff.) and Krause (2002: 1f.) stress that the grammaticalization process of the am-Progressiv is far advanced, it does not yet have the status of the full-fledged progressive aspect in English. Additionally, Ungerer (1999: 131f.; original emphasis) offers a convincing account of how the progressive aspect may be realized in German: Um zu betonen, dass sich ein Geschehen zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt im Ablauf befindet, kann man zusätzlich zur Verbform Adverbien wie gerade, da und jetzt [...] [He is running down the hill. – Er läuft gerade den Hügel hinunter.] oder hinweisende Ausrufe wie Schau! (mal)! [...] [He is coming back. – Schau, jetzt kommt er zurück.] einsetzten. Meist aber wird im Deutschen nur die (einfache) Verbform verwendet, der progressive Aspekt also gar nicht ausgedrückt [...] [These people are all waiting for the bus. – Diese Leute warten alle auf den Bus.]. All the above mentioned forms of potentially progressive constructions in German denote action-in-progress and can thus justifiably be regarded as representatives of the progressive category. The English progressive, however, is used in a large variety of contexts. There are various other uses of the progressive construction which do not necessarily express the most prototypical use of the progressive --- 3 To emphasize the ongoingness of an action at a particular point in time, adverbials like at the moment, currently or indicative exclamations like Look! can be used in the verb phrase. For the most part, however, simple verb forms are used in German. Usually the progressive aspect is no expressed in German. aspect, that is, the duration or continuity of an action. Such characterizations of the semantics of the progressive construction only account for some uses of the progressive in English. In German, however, the progressive construction (cf. am-Progressiv) seems to be a rather pronounced way of locating a situation in the present, because it frequently implies a marked sense of ongoingness (Brisard 2002: 251). In other words the senses and usages of the progressive aspect in English, as already discussed earlier in this thesis, far exceed the range of senses and usages of other progressive forms in many other languages. The German progressive further differs from the English progressive in as much as its use is not obligatory but always optional (Van Pottelberge 2005: 170). Despite these attempts to theorize whether German is on the verge of undergoing a grammaticalization process toward an aspectual distinction, the fact that the German language actually lacks grammatical means to express aspect as such, still remains, in spite of Van Pottelberge’s (2005), Krause’s (2002) and Dietrich’s (1995) suggestions. This is particularly worth mentioning, considering the hypothesis underlying this thesis, which is based on the assumption that German completely lacks the concept of aspect. I would now like to explain briefly the problems that arise for German native speakers who are in the process of acquiring the progressive aspect in English. The most obvious reason is the non-existence of such a grammaticalized concept in the German language (Römer 2005a: 173). Römer (2005a: 173) also addresses another interesting issue that may have some influence on the acquisition of the progressive aspect, namely that learning problems my arise due to inadequate descriptions of [this] language phenomenon[on] in teaching materials […]. Maybe learners would find it less difficult to handle the progressive in communicative situations if it was presented in the same way as it is used by native speakers, i.e. in its most typical contexts and functions. Thus, Römer suggests that for native speakers the prototypical progressive aspect differs from that of L2 learners. Assuming that the above discussion has nevertheless provided an overview of how the progressive, or, the grammatical representation of ongoingness of a situation in the German language is dealt with in the relevant literature, we will now have a closer look at the acquisition of the progressive aspect. 5. The acquisition of progressive aspect in English as an L2 5.1. Crosslinguistic influence Learning a second language goes far beyond learning linguistic forms of the target language; more importantly, language learning involves learning how these language specific forms are used appropriately in different contexts. This section of the paper aims at providing a more detailed account of how the progressive aspect in English is acquired by non-native speakers of English, in particular those who have German as their first language (L1). I will try to find relevant explanations for the fact that the acquisition of the progressive aspect very often poses an immense hurdle to German native speakers who are in the process of learning English. This claim may find a possible explanation in the notion of language transfer, also referred to as crosslinguistic influence. Slobin (1991: 12) has proposed that speakers when acquiring a first language learn a special kind of “thinking for speaking” – a special form of thought that is mobilized for communication.” Slobin (1991: 12) states the following: [t]he activity of thinking takes on a particular quality when it is employed in the activity of speaking. In the evanescent time frame of constructing utterances in discourse one fits one’s thoughts into available linguistic frames. “Thinking for speaking” involves picking those characteristics of objects and events that (a) fit some conceptualization of the event, and (b) are readily encodable in the language. According to Slobin (1991: 23) this mode of thinking for speaking in an L1 is what is most difficult to master when acquiring a second language. Specifically, Slobin (1991: 23) bases his assumptions on the view that the grammatical categories which are most prone to influence L2 acquisition are not the ones which can be directly experienced cognitively and in a perceptual way. He exemplifies this phenomenon in the following way: if the L1 of a speaker lacks plural marking, the acquisition of an L2 which marks plurality grammatically should actually not cause unsurmountable difficulties, since, as Slobin (1991: 23) puts it “this concept is evident to the nonlinguistic mind and eye [... and] are obvious to the senses.” Hence, language-specific categories which constitute, according to Slobin’s (1991), the theory that thinking for speaking in an L1 do not cause the most difficulties in L2 acquisition. However, Slobin (1991: 23) explicitly excludes the distinction of aspect, tense, definiteness, voice, and the like from such language-specific grammatical categories. So, the distinction between “She went to work” and “She has gone to work” (Slobin 1991: 23; emphasis in the original) cannot be explained in terms of sensorimotor changes in the world. Further, he stresses that these are “distinctions that can only be learned through language, and have no other use except to be expressed in language.” (Slobin 1991: 23) Housen (2002: 189) follows this argument and concludes from this theory put forward by Slobin (1991) that we can speculate that L2-learners approach the acquisition of the TA [tense-aspect] system of their target language predisposed by the basic TA distinctions of their L1. This will guide them to search the L2 input for a similar TA system. Any similarities found are then used as a basis for reconstructing the target language system. When no similarities are found, i.e. when learners encounter form-meaning relations in the L2-input which have no apparent counterpart in the L1, they may, as an initial strategy, resort to universal semantic prototypes to help them process these unfamiliar mapping relations. In this case prototypes serve as a starting point for reconstructing the target TA system. Now, taking this transfer theory into consideration with regards to the acquisition of the aspect marker -ing, learners of English with German as their first language are predisposed by a grammatical system which marks tense distinctions but completely lacks the concept of aspectual distinction and are therefore not prepared by their L1 that a situation can be construed in alternate, meaning here, in an unbounded or bounded way. Learners are frequently confronted with the problem that the newly acquired morpheme -ing does not only have one meaning and function. The meaning component of -ing is thus not so easily acquired (Housen 2002: 189f.). Housen (2002: 190) therefore draws the conclusion that learners [draw] on universal semantic distinctions and cognitive operating principles first, analyzing -ing as a marker of the dynamic-atelic-durative prototype before gradually extending it to other, less prototypical predicates and sorting out its targetlike values. 5.2. A prototype account of the progressive aspect This section directly ties in with the previous one, as well as with section 4.4. as I have already briefly mentioned the concept of prototypicality there. This section thus concentrates on the question of what constitutes the prototype of the progressive aspect. Continuing the discussion from the section above, I would like to hypothesize that the prototypical verbs which take the aspect marker $-ing$ are dynamic, atelic and durative in character. Shirai (2002: 457) has also made this observation, namely that in second language acquisition action-in-progress is the most prototypical member of the category. This claim is justified by the chronological order in which the progressive aspect is taught in the English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom; thus the ESL textbooks which are currently used for teaching English in Austrian schools, the progressive aspect is first introduced as a way of expressing what a person is doing or what is happening at the moment of speaking (e.g. Gerngross et al. 2009: 83). The notion of prototype theory has also made valid contributions to second language acquisition. It has been put forward by Shirai (2002: 457) that “prototypical members of a category are acquired earlier than less prototypical members.” According to Shirai (2002: 457f.) the meaning of action-in-progress is achieved when $-ing$ is attached to activity or accomplishment verbs. In the learner’s – Li & Shirai (2000) do not only apply this to L2 acquisition but also to L1 acquisition – semantic representation of the progressive is only confined to verbs which describe an activity or an accomplishment, then Li & Shirai (2000: 66f.) speak of an undergeneralization of morphological markers on the basis of the semantic representation of the markers. This type of early undergeneralization accounts for the lack of overgeneralizations of progressive marking to stative verbs, because stative verbs are not part of the prototype. Further, Li & Shirai (2000: 66f.) claim that the use of the progressive on stative verbs is hardly ever used, even after learners (L2) and children (L1) use the progressive marker in a non-prototypical way, that is, following Li & Shirai’s description of prototypicality that would not be the case with activity verbs. Taking this into consideration leaves me to interpret that they do not take the metonymical uses (cf. discussion in section 4.4.) of the progressive into account. Following further Shirai’s (2002: 475) prototype hypothesis of tense-aspect acquisition, which claims that action in progress is the prototypical member of the progressive category and is first applied to activity verbs and only then to accomplishment verbs. The main reason for this claim is according to Shirai (2002: 475) that the prototype of the progressive, i.e., action in progress, is associated with the atelic characteristic of verbs which can only be attributed to activities, not however to accomplishments. Thus, the defining semantic features of the prototypical progressive as defined by Shirai is [-telic], [+durative] and [+dynamic]. For Li & Shirai (2000: 69) the application of prototype theory on tense-aspect acquisition is adequate as it “reflects an important general mechanism in language acquisition”, as the acquisition of the tense-aspect morphology in English is a matter of a form-function mapping process. Even though current semantic theories (cf. Cognitive Grammar) of aspect reject the dichotomy between lexical and grammatical aspect, this distinction is still prevalent in the present era of linguistic research, especially in connection with the acquisition of the tense-aspect morphology. The next section is therefore devoted to Andersen & Shirai’s Aspect Hypothesis (Li & Shirai 2000; Shirai 2002; Shirai & Andersen 1995), which deals with a developmental pattern in the acquisition of L2 tense-aspect morphology for which the dichotomy between lexical and grammatical aspect builds the fundamental basis. 5.3. The Aspect Hypothesis The Aspect Hypothesis was originally formulated by Andersen & Shirai (cf. 1994 & 1996) and is a model describing the functional development of tense-aspect morphology. Its central claim is that “first and second language learners will initially be influenced by the inherent semantic aspect of verbs or predicates in the acquisition of tense and aspect markers associated with or affixed to these verbs.” (Andersen & Shirai 1994: 133) This means that learners associate forms marking tense or aspect with the inherent meaning of the verb, that is, lexical aspect. Thus, there is a relationship between tense-aspect forms and inherent verbal meaning and create a prototypical link and are established acquisitionally (Rocca 2007: 2). According to Shirai & Andersen (1995: 745) the L1 and L2 acquisition of tense-aspect morphology follows a consistent pattern of development and is influenced by prototypes. With reference to L2 acquisition this means that first the prototypical members of a linguistic category are acquired and that this knowledge is only later expanded to less prototypical members of the category. The Aspect Hypothesis can be divided into four individual claims based on grammatical aspect and its relation to lexical aspect (cf. Shirai 1991: 9f.; Andersen & Shirai 1996: 533, Li & Shirai 2000: 50): 1. Past or perfective marking first emerges with achievement and accomplishment verbs, only later extended to activity and finally to stative verbs. 2. In languages with the perfective-imperfective distinction, the imperfective past emerges later than the perfective past, and the imperfective past appears with statives, extending next to activities, then to accomplishments and finally to achievements. 3. In languages that have progressive aspect, progressive morphology begins with activities, only then extends to accomplishments and achievements. 4. The progressive is not incorrectly overextended to statives. Thus, Ellis (2010) has stated that the Aspect Hypothesis describes how the abstract grammatical schema for perfective past generalizes from more concrete beginnings close to the prototypic centre in the clear exemplifications of telic achievements and accomplishments. Likewise abstract progressive morphology emerges from concrete exemplars in the semantics of activities and states. So, the above list allows the generalization that while acquiring English, past morphology -ed is added to verbs which semantically imply a clearly marked endpoint and progressive -ing is used with verbs that are inherently dynamic and durative. The generalizations of the Aspect Hypothesis are summarized and schematically represented in Table 2. Table 2 Predicted order of development of morphology from prototypes to non-prototypes (taken from Li & Shirai 2000: 50, 79) \| \| State \| Activity \| Accomplishment \| Achievement \| \|----------------\|-------\|----------\|----------------\|-------------\| \| (Perfective) Past \| 4 \| 3 \| 2 \| 1 \| \| Progressive \| ? \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| \| Imperfective \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| ? combination rarely occurs The numbers in Table 2 depict the order of acquisition of tense-aspect morphology from 1 as the earliest to 4 as the latest. The interrogation mark in the progressive/state cell marks the rare occurrence of this combination. Thus, the cells marked with 1 are the prototype and spread to the peripherals and non-prototypes 2 through 4 (Li & Shirai 2000: 79f.). The Aspect Hypothesis is, according to Li & Shirai (2000: 50), intended to apply to both to L1 as well as L2 acquisition of tense-aspect morphology, with exception of the last component, namely that the progressive is not incorrectly overextended to stative verbs. However, proponents of the Aspect Hypothesis do not exclude the possibility of the L1 influencing the L2. The study carried out by Andersen & Shirai (1996: 259), out of which the generalizations of the Aspect Hypothesis arose, has shown that L2 learners actually overextend progressive morphology to stative verbs, which, they argue, “may be a result of transfer from the learner’s L1 of a more general imperfective notion to the progressive marker.” (Andersen & Shirai 1996: 259) 6. Study This section of the paper is devoted to the small-scale corpus study underlying this thesis. The data taken from the corpus is used for analyzing learner’s accuracy of using the progressive aspect in the course of acquiring English as a second language. It is, of course, generally accepted to use language students’ errors in order to gain an understanding of how proficient students are in their use of the target language. Error analysis is, according to Ellis & Barkhuizen (2005: 73), concerned with the comparison of “the forms used by learners and target language norms.” The significance of learner errors and their implication for second language acquisition research has been dealt with extensively in the relevant literature by linguists such as Corder (1981) for example. He has put forward the claim that a learner’s error sheds light on the linguistic system the language learner is using at a given time in the course of acquiring the target language. According to Corder (1981: 10f.) learner errors are of importance in three ways. Firstly, errors are relevant for the language teacher, as they give insight into the progress the learners have made, that is, their status quo, what do they master after a certain time of language instruction and what has yet to be learned or improved. Thus, they serve a pedagogic purpose. Secondly, they provide evidence how a linguistic system is acquired or learned, so they can give useful insights for second language acquisition research. Thirdly, they are essential for the language learners themselves, as they serve as a device by which the learners can learn. Consequently, following the second reason listed by Corder (1981: 10f.) – that is studying learners’ errors for research purposes – I will use the potential that corpora and corpus analysis has to attempt to gain insights into the types of errors that occur in L2 acquisition of the progressive aspect by learners of English with German as their mother tongue. Moreover, this serves as the general underlying research question that will guide the analysis at hand. This study therefore also focuses on how accurately learners use the progressive aspect. More specifically, focus is put on the errors that learners produce, either when using the progressive aspect in situations that rather would have required a different tense or aspect, that is, overuse of the progressive form, or, when producing sentences which create situations that require the use of the progressive aspect. The latter is also referred to as obligatory occasions (Ellis 1994: 74), a more precise definition of which is given in the next section. Also, in the context of an obligatory occasion analysis I consider it important to look at the grammatical forms that have been used instead of the progressive form. Furthermore, this study also seeks to uncover whether a certain classification of learner errors can be made. Therefore, I propose the following three-way classification of errors: form errors in which the correct realization of the verbal construction BE + the -ing form of the verb has not been achieved; meaning errors such as limiting duration, backgrounding information, or lengthening an action, for example; and function errors, for instance the use of the progressive aspect to refer to future events. Admittedly, this refined distinction between function and meaning is a very subtle one. However, to obtain a more precise classification of errors I would like to put forward this differentiation assuming that function is a more concrete concept, whereas meaning refers to more abstract categories, that is, how does the meaning of the verb change by applying -ing. For this investigation the four-way classification of verb types into activity verbs, accomplishment verbs, achievement verbs and state verbs according to Vendler (1967: 102ff.) is applied. This represents the basis for the analysis and enables a better classification and description of learner errors. In accordance with the theory that has been discussed in this thesis the following results will be expected from the analysis: 1. While the progressive aspect is most commonly used with activity verbs, thus representing the prototype, state verbs will occur least in the progressive form. 2. There will be a higher frequency of meaning and function errors than of form errors, thus it can justifiably be said that acquiring the form of the verbal construction of BE + -ing is easier for learners of English than acquiring the meaning of -ing. 3. The function that the progressive aspect performs will most likely be that of future time reference. Further, the following research questions can be derived from the description of this study: 1. What are the types of errors that occur in L2 acquisition of the progressive aspect by learners of English with German as their mother tongue? 2. Which grammatical forms have been applied incorrectly instead of the progressive form? 3. Is a certain classification of learner errors possible? 6.1. Methodology, participants and data This analysis is based on data taken from the International Corpus of Crosslinguistic Interlanguage (ICCI). The main criteria that determined the choice of the ICCI for this data analysis were accessibility and the comparatively small size of the corpus. The ICCI is an international collaborative project which was initiated in 2007 by Prof. Yukio Tono from Tokyo University of Foreign Studies in Japan. Construction of this corpus started in March 2008. The ICCI consists of English written interlanguage data elicited from young learners of English at different stages of development and from different L1 backgrounds. Currently, there are twelve scholars from eight different countries (Hong Kong, Austria, Israel, China, Japan, Poland, Singapore, Spain, and Taiwan) actively contributing to this project. Taking into account the underlying hypothesis of this thesis, the research carried out for the present study limits itself solely to data which was compiled in Austria and has been made available to me for the purpose of this analysis by Mag. Barbara Schiftner, University of Vienna, who is also involved in the compiling the data for the ICCI. The data of the ICCI that has been compiled in Austria consists of 773 written essays of learners of English with different language backgrounds and first languages and from different language proficiency levels. I have, however, deliberately omitted all student essays from the analysis that were produced by learners with a different mother tongue than German. The data of the ICCI consists of written language samples in form of descriptive and argumentative essays, written according to various prompts. Learners from fifth to twelfth grade were given different prompts covering a variety of topics and task demands appropriate to their language proficiency level. Therefore, the samples are regarded as the outcome of planned language output, in which more planning and metacognitive strategies are involved than in spontaneously produced language, as in, for example, oral language production. While some prompts anticipate the production of argumentative essays, others require a descriptive way of accomplishing the task. This fact is expected to influence the choice of the tenses and the aspects which are used by the students to produce these texts. In the light of the central aim of the study, which, generally put, tries to describe difficulties that arise for students of English as an L2 when acquiring the progressive aspect, it is first of all useful to investigate the prompts on which the student essays are based on and which provide the foundation for the data on which the study at hand is based on. As mentioned above, according to the prompts, two types of essays can be expected, namely descriptive and argumentative text types. Following the discussion above about the meanings and functions of the progressive aspect, it may be assumed, since the progressive unbounds a situation and enables a homogenous viewpoint of a situation with marginalized beginning and endpoints, that, simply put, the progressive form is used to describe situations. Since argumentative text types unusually do not involve any descriptions of situations or events, and since it is generally not necessary to background any information, I assume that it would be superfluous to look at argumentative essays for obtaining valuable information about the progressive aspect. According to the following prompt$^4$ a descriptive text can be triggered: Describing yourself; A postcard to my English teacher; Writing to an English friend about food; A very good or bad day; Last night I had an exciting dream. An illustration of a sample prompt is shown in Figure 9 below. $^4$ All prompts can be found in the appendix. For this reason, I have deliberately excluded argumentative essays from the data analysis and looked at descriptive essays of learners of English with German as their L1. Figure 9 Sample prompt DESCRIBING YOURSELF This is your first letter to a new friend. Tell your friend - your name - your age - what you look like - where you live - what you like doing Ask your friend to write back soon. You can add your own ideas, too. Write at least 50 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. To arrive at a valuable result of the analysis that helps to determine how accurately the progressive is used by learners of English, the mere analysis and explanation of errors is not sufficient, as error analysis as such only looks at what learners produce wrongly and not what they opt not to produce. Weinberger (2005: 122), for example, stresses that error analysis “fails to provide a comprehensive picture of the learner’s language”. While this is a valid point, an error analysis is still an appropriate form of analysis for the present study. Since it does not aim at describing one student’s proficiency in English, let alone evaluate it, a comprehensive picture of a learner’s language is not necessary. Thus, to do justice to the general aim of this study, in addition to analyzing learner errors, an obligatory occasion analysis is conducted, as has already been mentioned briefly above. Obligatory occasion analysis is, as it is the case with error analysis, a method of analyzing how accurately learners apply features of the target language. In the course of learning a language not only errors in form of overuse of a specific feature of the target language occurs, but also, as already mentioned above, situations are created which require the use of a specific target language form (Ellis 1994: 74). Thus, it can be said that examples (31) and (32) are both illustrations of situations where obligatory occasions for the use of progressive -ing have been created. (31) I am here with mum and dad in Gibraltar. Here it is very hot (at the arrival we have at 9 p.m 43!!!). I am now sitting in a cafe. Mum is at the shopping street and dad is with me in the cafe. (ICCI: icci_aut0060) (32) There are currently 12 scholars from 8 countries/regions (Hong Kong, Austria, Israel, China, Japan, Poland, Singapore, Spain, and Taiwan) actively contributed to this project. (http://tonolab.tufs.ac.jp/icci/index.jsp, 29 December 2012) Here, as already mentioned above, both situations require the use of the progressive aspect. Example (31) is an extract from a postcard written to the learner’s English teacher. The vantage point from which the situation I am now sitting in the café is viewed is clear in this example. An inside viewpoint of the actual process of actually sitting in the café is taken by the writer of the postcard, undoubtedly referenced by the use of the time adverbial now. Thus, the use of the progressive in this context points to an event that is actually happening simultaneously with writing the postcard. Furthermore, the effect of applying -ing in this context is also to unbound the situation. As the verb to sit is a state verb according to Vendler’s (1967) classification, the temporal boundaries of the situation are imposed. Therefore, limiting the duration of an action that, in the strict sense, could go on for an indefinite period of time. However, in the utterance illustrated in example (32) the progressive -ing has not been used although the situation demands the use of the progressive construction. The use of time adverbial currently is indicative for an action that is going on at the present moment, again, presenting an internal view of a situation. Even though the situation created here by the writer of the text quite obviously calls for the use of the progressive form, it is, however, not entirely clear in this context whether this instance of obligatory occasion could not be classified as a form error instead, as the are* may point to the attempt to form BE + the -ing form of the verb and then mistakenly the past participle instead of the present participle has been applied. This scrutiny of example (32) gives evidence to suggest that such a classification of errors is never an objective and clear-cut matter. To arrive at the data which now constitutes the basis for the analysis of the underlying study, I have closely scrutinized 200 descriptive essays, omitting essays produced by students with L1 languages other than German. The overall number of descriptive text types that make up the Austrian part of the ICCI amounts to a total of 544; however, I have compiled a subcorpus of the first 200 descriptive learner essays. By doing so, all occurrences of the progressive aspect were extracted from the language samples, including all forms that deviate from the target language norm, all correct uses of the progressive and finally, considerations were made as to which situations constitute an obligatory occasion for the progressive -ing. In the course of the data isolation it became apparent that determining the latter posed the most challenge. Moreover, important to mention at this point is that all instances of be going to with future reference were included in the study as well, although this construction is in the strict sense of the word no progressive aspect as such. However, in the relevant literature (cf. section 4.3.3. in this thesis) it has been referred to as one possible function of the progressive aspect and has thus also been rightfully included in this paper. From the language samples that were extracted, 109 instances have been isolated from the ICCI that are relevant for the present study on the progressive aspect. In the next step the isolated occurrences of the misused -ing forms were scrutinized in the context in which they occur, which makes an error classification possible in the first place. Thus, an accurate and meaningful error analysis can only be carried out if the context in which the progressive is used is provided. Example (33) below highlights this fact. (33) What are you having for dinner? (ICCI: icci_aut0274) A situation where one might encounter an utterance as in example (33) could be for example right before the reference point of dinnertime. This is then an ordinary inquiry about what he or she will eat for dinner. Thus, looking at this utterance in isolation the -ing form of the verbal construction imposes a future use of the progressive aspect. However, viewing it in the context in which it occurs, the difference in meaning can readily be spotted. (34) Oh I cant tell you all what I like, because I like so much! Today I would eat a Ice Tea and a egg whit salad to lunch In the evening (dinner) I like to eat a yoghurt or a (pizza)? When my mother is not at home, I have some chocolate or some sweets for dinner. I like LASAGNE! like Garfield What are you having for dinner? Or for breakfast or for lunch? (ICCI: icci_aut0274) Here, the meaning that was aimed-at by using the progressive is not that of future time reference, rather, a general inquiry about what the addressed person in question usually has for dinner was intended. With regard to the analysis of the data, the next step was then to classify the misused occurring forms into meaning errors, function errors and form errors. Also, all correct instances as well as all obligatory occasions were determined. Simultaneous to this procedure, an analysis of all verb types according to Vendler (1967) was carried out. Instances of the progressive functioning to refer to future time were labeled as being non-classifiable, i.e. 0. All other occurring samples of the progressive were classified in accordance with the inherent meaning that the verb carries, that is lexical aspect. As pointed out in section 3.2.1., according to Vendler’s (1967: 101ff.) classification of verb types activity and accomplishment verbs differ from achievement and state verbs in that the former both feature duration and allow the use of the progressive aspect, whereas achievement and state verbs do not. Activity verbs and accomplishment verbs are distinguished by the fact that activities do not have an inherent endpoint while accomplishments do, so they are distinguishable in terms of boundedness. State verbs also last for a period time with no internal terminal point; however, achievement verbs are instantaneous in character and describe punctual actions. Concluding, it is important to mention that when approaching the sample texts (given as examples of evidence and clarification in this thesis) which have been elicited from the corpus any other deviations from the target language norm have been neglected deliberately, since the study does not aim at describing one student’s proficiency in English, nor evaluate it. So the overall picture of the student’s language level proficiency is of no relevance to the present study. Moreover, I would like to emphasize that not all theoretical aspects that were dealt with in the literature review in this thesis can be taken into consideration or studied in detail in the empirical part of this thesis, as this would exceed by far the scope of this thesis. Therefore, some aspects will be mentioned but others will be left out completely in the following corpus study. 6.2. Presentation of findings The present section deals with the analysis of the data that has been extracted from the ICCI using the methodology described above. The first thing I would like to address in the context of analyzing the progressive aspect and its use and acquisition by EFL learners is concerned with the general distribution of verb types from all occurring instances that were extracted from the ICCI. A quantitative analysis of the data at hand has shown that all four verb types occur in the progressive aspect, even if unequally distributed. Figure 10 is a diagrammatic representation to help to visualize the relative proportions of the distribution of verb types. Figure 10 General distribution of verb types While in the ICCI, as could be expected, activity verbs are the most frequently occurring verb types in connection with the progressive aspect, making up a total of 40%, a surprisingly high number of state verbs were used with progressive -ing, amounting to 28%. Accomplishment and achievement verbs are far less common but still make up 12% and 4% respectively. From all 109 occurring relevant instances that were extracted from the corpus, the 16% of verbal constructions that could not have been classified should not be disregarded. By means of this classification of verb types that underlies this study, it has been proven that the majority of the latter were progressive forms which refer to future events and thus function as progressive with future time reference. Among these, only one instance was noted that clearly does not function as the future use of the progressive: (35) I’m looking forward in seeing you. Write back soon! Best wishes (ICCI: icci_aut0175) The phrase I am looking forward to is, in the strictest sense of the word, a progressive form, however, it can be claimed that this phrase has been fossilized by convention in the English speaking community and has become a fixed and entrenched expression (Schmid 2007: 118). Owing to this fact, the progressive -ing form has no impact on the meaning of the lexical item, in that it does not for example imposes duration on the verbal construction. According to Schmid (2007: 118) “a lot of what speakers say is available in memory in some kind of prepackaged, ready-made format.” and I am looking forward to is indeed one of them. However, looking at example (35) above, for the language user who produced this utterance it represents a conventionalized concept but not a fully entrenched one yet, clearly recognizable as it is a fragmentary progressive construction in which the to has been left out. Out of the 18 extracted samples which did not allow a classification, 7 instances of correctly applied progressive -ing forms were noted which go beyond the notion of aspectuality and function as future time reference. The remaining examples that did not enable such a classification into verb types were erroneous uses of the progressive with future time reference. Here, speakers mostly made overuse errors were made by the speakers, meaning that future time reference was in fact not required. In addition, a few fragmentary forms were noted in which the correct formation of the construction was not achieved, as well as one situation was created that actually would require the use of the progressive -ing form, i.e. the use of the present simple in this situation is erroneous. This is exemplified in example (36) below. However, the utterance from extract (36) Mum, Dad, my sister and I go in twenty minutes to my grandma (own correction, original occurrence see below) cannot conclusively be classified as an obligatory occasion for the progressive aspect with future meaning. The situation that was described by the speaker in (36) allows several possible constructions. In this case are going to, will go, are going and are leaving are possible forms that could have been used here. So, the speaker even created an obligatory occasion for the progressive aspect. However, the problem in this case is obvious here, it is a direct transfer from German, since Mutter, Vater meine Schwester und ich gehen in zwanzig Minuten zu meinen Großeltern would be the correct equivalent in German, which is a simple present tense. An interesting fact to mention here as well is that all 7 correct uses of the progressive were instances of the going to future and not a single example of the progressive futurate was mention in the essays that were analyzed from the ICCI. Examples (37) and (38) show two correctly used samples of the going to future: (36) I'm every jeary ga swimming in the ENT001 pool It is very hot and I playing PSP at home. Mum, Dad, my sister and I go in twenty minets to my Grantma We are eating an talking with them. (ICCI: icci_aut0053) (37) Yesterday, I go to the sea. The water is famous, but the weather is not so OK. Today we are going to the pool and then we eat some cake. I like Croatia and I come next year also to Croatia. (ICCI: icci_aut0059) (38) My parents and my two sisters are with me. The weather is wonderful. The sun is very hot and the sea is very fine. My family and I went swimming yesterday and now we are going to a good restaurant. I love Frace. In both examples, (37) and (38), the languages users express their intentions. In (37) the speaker is taking of the plans for the day, thus plans underway are implied. In example (38) the speaker expresses his or her immediate intentions. This has also already been pointed out earlier in this thesis (cf. Bergs: 2010 and Römer: 2005). Also, in both extracts the co-occurrence of the going to future with temporal adverbials that indicate a definite point in time (now and today) is noticeable. All in all, as has also been indicated by Bergs (2010) and Römer (2005), these examples feature the speaker’s intentionality. Further, I would now like to look at the verbal constructions extracted from the ICCI that were actually classifiable. The classification of verb types into accomplishment, achievement, activity and state verbs thus makes a classification of errors concerning the progressive aspect possible. A diagrammatic overview of the overall distribution of correct and misused instance of the progressive per verb type is provided in Figure 11 below. It also stresses the general distribution of verb types found in the corpus. Figure 12 is a diagrammatic representation that helps to visualize the relative proportion of errors that occurred in more detail. As can be clearly seen in Figure 12 below, accumulations of errors appear in two categories in particular, namely achievement and accomplishment verbs. This highlights the exceptionally high occurrence of errors with accomplishment and achievement verbs, which in both cases exceed the number of correctly applied progressive –ing forms by far. As far as activity and state verbs are concerned, in either case the correct use of the progressive is higher than the errors that were produced. However, with state verbs the difference between correctly and incorrectly applied progressives is fractional and merely amounts to a number of two, more specifically, out of the 30 overall cases of the progressive found with state verbs in the ICCI, 16 correct usages and 14 erroneous usages were noted. It is surprising, however, that the correct uses of progressives with activity verbs is only slightly higher than it is the case with state verbs. Also, a rather unexpected finding is the high percentage of misused progressives with activity verbs, which amounts to 43%. This corresponds to 19 errors that were taken from the corpus. Having now a closer look at the errors that were produced by the language learners, two very broad overall categories of errors arise, firstly, the overuse of the progressive aspect, meaning that the progressive form was applied where it was not required and secondly, obligatory occasions, which are situations where the use of the progressive actually should have been applied, so the non-use of the progressive constitutes the error. In the subsections that follow each verb type is described in more detail, that is to say, salient instances that were extracted from the corpus are discussed as per the Vender (1967) classification of verb types. 6.2.1. Activity verbs As the diagrams from above show, activity verbs constitute the verb type which does not only have the most frequencies, but also features proportionally the smallest amount of errors. Example (39) is an illustration of an overuse error of the progressive with an activity verb. (39) I don't like lasagne. Often I haven't a breakfast. For lunch I am cooking for myself. When I'am not hungry I haven't any dinner. When I'm hungry I've a dinner. (ICCI: icci_aut0288) Since, according to the context, which is a description of a habitual situation, the reference point in this example is not within the event itself, the temporal boundaries should not be defocused. So, the present simple has to be applied here to indicate that the situation is habitual rather than unfolding over time. That is to say that the progressive construction in this context imposes a particular profile on the process of cooking something. Here, the meaning of the progressive, which construes the situation as ongoing, was not fully understood by the language learner. Similar to the example above, the following sample of an erroneous instance of the progressive describes a general situation rather than viewing it as happening at the point of speaking. What is more, even though the -ing form was not applied here, it can be assumed that the progressive construction was intended here as the use of are clearly suggests. Thus, this sample constitutes a meaning as well as a form error with an activity verb. (40) We are have allready been at the Eiffel Tower and at the Notredamm Chirch. Avery evening we went to a small street. There is a very good coffee house, where we are eat a lot of good Fransh thinks. I think Paris is very beautiful, because it is the town of love. As to whether direct transfer from German was responsible for the error in example (40) is not clear. This may, however, have been the case, since the correct equivalent in German is as follows: Dort gibt es viele Kaffeehäuser, wo wir viele gute französische Dinge essen which is a present tense in German. However, there is no definite way of telling whether this is the case due to the fragmentary progressive construction that was produced in English. An example for the avoidance of the progressive with the present simple tense with an activity verb is given in the following extract: (41) But suddenly someone cried for help. I saw a woman and fly so fast I could. When I was there a man attack this woman. I took the hands and threw him away. (icci_aut0234) However, it is made clear from the cotext in example (41) that the present tense is undoubtedly misused in this case and that owing to the context of the situation a different grammatical form is required here. In this situation an obligatory occasion was created though not exclusively for the progressive aspect. Two possible ways of putting the above sample into accurate English would be either the usage of the progressive as in When I arrived I saw that a man was attacking the woman or the use of the participle construction When I arrived I saw a man attacking the woman. The use of the progressive could be argued because the reference point clearly exceeds in time. Undoubtedly, the process of attacking the woman was already under way when the person arrived at the crime scene, therefore the boundaries of the situation need to be backgrounded and an internal perspective should be taken. A possible source of error that suggests itself here is of course language transfer from German. One correct German equivalent could be the following: Als ich ankam sah ich wie ein Mann eine Frau attackierte, the verb in question attackierte is a past tense in German. Interestingly, however, the English sample features a present simple tense and not, as it would be the case in German a past simple tense. Example (42) is a more clear-cut example of an obligatory occasion compared to the one illustrated above, as the situation created by the language user here certainly exceeds the reference point in time, and again, construing the situation as ongoing. To fully understand the situation that was created by the author of this essay a bit more context is provided. (42) I went for a walk in the city when suddenly people were screaming. I follow the voice of the people and saw a big hotel. On the top of the big hotel was a little boy. It seemed that he wanted to jump. Suddenly I ran into the hotel without thinking about that I have to do. In the hotel the policemen tried to come in the elevator. But the elevator was too small for all the policemen. I thought I were too late if I wait till the elevator were free. So I took the stairs. The hotel had 20 floors and at the 12th floor I hadn't any power. I thought about the boy and what he did now. Suddenly I got again power and I could reach the top of the hotel. (ICCI: icci_aut0232) Here, in the first part of the essay the scene was set in a sequential way by listing the events that happened consecutively in the simple past tense I went for a walk – On top of the hotel was a boy who wanted to jump – I ran into the hotel – I took the stairs and so on. The omission of the progressive aspect in I thought about the boy and what he did now may be due to the failure of locating the reference time within the situation that was described at the beginning of the narration, in which, however, the designated process (what he was doing now) is unfolding over time. The use of the time adverbial now clearly indicates the reference point in time, which was, however, missed by the author of the story. This case could also be classified as an error due to a direct translation from the German construction Ich dachte an den Jungen und daran was er wohl gerade machte, both verbs, the English did and the German machte are both past tenses. However, it could be argued that the gerade in the German construction was er gerade machte should actually indicate an action in progress. 6.2.2. State verbs So far, errors were discussed that were made with activity verbs. Now, I would like to look at instances of erroneous uses and non-uses of progressives with state verbs. As already mentioned above, an exceptionally and surprisingly high number of state verbs used with the progressive were extracted from the ICCI. Example (43) is an illustration of a situation which clearly designates a state with limited duration but the correct formation of the progressive was not achieved, thus constituting a form error. (43) Today we are at the beach and play volleyball with our friends. The water is blue and the sun is shine. I like it here because it is every day very warm. (ICCI: icci_aut0029) Here, as it was the case in some of the examples above, the application of the progressive was most likely intended but not implemented. The effect of applying the progressive aspect to a state verb, as in example (43), is limiting the duration of an otherwise inherently long lasting event. That is to say, here the correct meaning of the progressive was achieved; however, merely a fractional progressive construction was produced. Therefore, this type of error can certainly not be seen as a transfer error from the L1, as the correct German translation would be Das Wasser ist blau und die Sonne scheint. In German both verbs, the copula verb ist and the verb scheint are both instances of the present tense. This justifies the claim from above that the correct meaning of the progressive was achieved. Example (44) is a representation of a clearly overused progressive form with a state verb. (44) And for dinner I often have a bread with something or sausages and fruits. I would like eat today strawberry (knodel) an a big cake with lots of sugar, fruits and sweets. Can you write me a letter back in that is standing whats your favourite food. (ICCI: icci_aut0282) This example is indubitably a direct translation from the German construction schreib mir einen Brief in welchem steht. However, the use of the progressive in this situation cannot be attributed to German influence. It is clear from this context that the language user does not have a correct representation of the meaning and function of the $-ing$ form. One possible reason for the overuse in this case may for example be a certain method or technique in language instruction and could for instance result from overteaching the progressive aspect or from inadequate descriptions of the progressive in teaching materials. Römer (2005: 173) states that “[m]aybe learners would find it less difficult to handle the progressive in communicative situations if it was presented in the same way as it is used by native speakers, i.e. in the most typical contexts and functions.” A case that is not so clear-cut as the one above is illustrated in example (45). (45) Last night I was sitting into a plane because my family and I have to go to america very early. My grandmother was in hospital and she would dye soon so we tooked the first flight. I would like to argue this case as an ambiguous one, since on the one hand it can be viewed as a completed action when taking the subsequent sentence into consideration, which clearly depicts the event as already terminated. Thus, the vantage point is that is taken from the point of speaking describes a bounded situation, which is viewed as homogenous taking the beginning and endpoint into consideration. This would also have the effect of advancing the story. However, this meaning can only be achieved by using the simple past tense. On the other hand, the student might be conceptualizing the situation as compatible with the progressive, as the prompt asked for an exciting dream. We often enter a dream situation that has commenced before the moment of access and thereby the sitting would be construed as unbounded. Even if the explicit reference is absent it might have been in the mind of the author and the student might therefore have an accurate representation of the progressive aspect. As far as the non-use of the progressive is concerned in situations which require the use of a progressive form, example (46) is an illustration in which the speaker opted for the present simple instead. (46) Hallo I'm in Schladming with my mom, and my grandma. It is very fine, but it's very cold for summer, I have a lot of fun. We play tennis and swim. (ICCI: icci_aut0039) In the situation that is described in (46) the vantage point that is taken by the speaker is clear. Here, the situation should actually be viewed from the inside as an unbounded situation. This meaning is achieved as a result of the conceptual process in which implicit boundaries are imposed, as the action clearly exceeds to the left and to the right of the reference point. However, this meaning is expressed by the progressive aspect, as in I am having a lot of fun. This error might therefore be due to direct transfer from German, as the correct equivalent ich habe viel Spaß makes use of the present simple. 6.2.3. Accomplishment verbs As far as the use of the progressive aspect with accomplishment verbs is concerned, it is particularly salient that, as can be seen in Table 12 above, more errors were produced than correct instances. A correct conceptualization of the situation in which the progressive was used correctly by the language user is shown in sample (47). (47) It was dark outside and I was very tired but I didn't want to fall asleep. My sister was sleeping and my father was drinking coffee. My mother was reading a book. The plane was very big and I wanted to see more than the passenger cabin. I said I must go on the toilet but I went into the kitchen of the plane. (ICCI: icci_aut0244) Here, the first sentence specifies the temporal boundaries of the situation, setting the scene in the past which is also the reference point. In the sentences that follow the reference point clearly exceed in time, thus the author of the text takes an internal view of an unbounded situation, marginalizing the beginning and endpoint of the event. Moreover, it can be argued that the use of the progressive describes the background of the scene, whereas the cotext it was dark outside and I was very tired and the plane was big and I wanted to see more and I said I must go put the story forward. Example (48) is an illustration of a situation in which an obligatory occasion for the progressive aspect was created by the language user. The first sentence clearly sets the scene of the story. The sentence which then follows is a description of a situation that was already ongoing while the person in the story was looking out of the window. Thus, the reference point exceeds in time and therefore requires the use of the progressive aspect. (48) In the night I looked out from my window and saw the animal. I had seen that the monster had an baby from my neighbor in the arm and ran with it to the lake. Fast I ran also to the lake and saw the monster with the baby. The animal gave the baby into the boat and went sleeping. (ICCI: icci_aut0248) The error in example (48) occurred clearly due to a Germansim, since the correct German translation would definitely be put in the past tense Ich sah das Monster, es hatte das Baby des Nachbarn auf dem arm und rannte zum See. However, it has to be duly noted that any activity verb can be construed as an accomplishment verb by implying an endpoint that can be achieved in a processual way. Therefore, taking this fact into account, the result of this study with respect to accomplishment verbs is to some extent surprising. Further, the results of the study show that among the overuse errors that were made only slightly more meaning errors than function errors occurred. A representation of a function error is indicated in example (49). (49) Often we have "Topfenkrapferl" or "Palatschinken" for lunch. The dinner is often cooking by my father, seldom by my mother. We have often spaghetti or other good food. (ICCI: icci_aut0285) This error can definitely be classified as an overuse error that does not fulfill the appropriate function in the sentence. Here the progressive was wrongly applied to a passive voice. It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the source of error. One possibility could therefore be that the speaker did not fully grasp the correct formation of the passive voice, which is of course irrelevant here. One illustration of a situation in which the progressive most likely should not have been applied can be found in example (50). (50) Last year my family and I were in Italy for a week. It was sunny there and we are always going to the beach. At evening we go to the shopping street. (ICCI: icci_aut0056) This sample is worth discussing in the respect that the progressive aspect gives the situation at hand a negative connotation. It has been mentioned earlier that the use of the progressive with time adverbials such as always point to the mood of the speaker. Example (50) definitely falls under this category: It was sunny there and we are always going to the beach expresses the speaker’s annoyance and dislike about going to the beach so often. However, as language production is mainly a matter of construal, this example in particular cannot be classified as distinctly correct or distinctly erroneous. In fact, it could indeed have been the speaker’s intention to express his or her irritation about spending every single day at the beach. However, when looking at the whole cotext of this particular sentence I dare to say that this constitutes nevertheless a meaning error, since no any other mention of agitation can be found in the text. The last sentence even suggests quite the opposite: (51) Last year my family and I were in Italy for a week. It was sunny there and we are always going to the beach. At evening we go to the shopping street. I have buy me a Hot weel set. In our Hotel we have a big apartment. And my mother eat’s clam spaghetti. It was funny but one day it’s raining. I like it there but we don’t are there this year. 6.2.4. Achievement verbs Looking now at achievement verbs, the last category of verbs which remains to be presented, it is particularly striking that they are not only the types of verbs with the least number of occurrences but concurrently most errors happened within this category. The only correct usage of the progressive with an achievement verb is shown in example (52) (52) It was the day before our great concert in New York. We were standing behind the stage and our hearts are poching like a cuckoo clock. When we went out on the stage and looked into the publikum we saw thousands of screaming people. (ICCI: icci_aut0258) This is an interesting example in as much as the progressive was indeed applied correctly; however, a completely correct realization of the verb phrase was not achieved, as the language user clearly lacked the appropriate vocabulary for our hearts were pounding using the German word instead. Thus it could be argued in this case that the form-meaning relation of the progressive was successfully acquired here. As far as erroneous instances of the progressive with achievement verbs are concerned, one sample of an obligatory occasion and two overuses with meaning error were extracted from the corpus. For an accurate description of the obligatory occasion the whole context in which it occurs has to be given. (53) Dear Prof. ENT001! I am here with mum and dad in Gibraltar. Here it is very hot (at the arrival we have at 9 p.m 43∞!!!). I am now sitting in a cafe. Mum is at the shopping street and dad is with me in the cafe. Here at Gibraltar it is all spectacularly. I see the big freeway is closed. What is this? It lands a airplane. This is very unusual. And at the port are a lot of very big shipps. They came all from the U.K but we are from Austria. (ICCI: icci_aut0060) In example (53) the cotext of the sentence It lands a airplane specifies the temporal reference point of the situation. In the sentence I am now sitting in a cafe the correct realization of the progressive aspect was achieved which locates the reference point within the situation, disregarding the temporal boundaries of the situation. Since, the language user’s attention is drawn to the touch down of an airplane while he or she is sitting in a café writing the postcard, indicated by What is this?, the process of the landing airplane describes what is happening at the moment, entailing ongoing action and co-occurrence with the event of sitting in the café. The underlying reason for this particular error is difficult to find, owing to the correct usage of the progressive earlier in the text, especially because the second occurrence of the progressive also represents the prototypical usage of action in process. It could, however, be due to L1 influence, as in German the correct realization would most likely be put in the present tense: Was ist das? Ein Flugzeug landet. Das ist sehr ungewöhnlich. Example (54) is a representation of an overuse of the progressive, in which the correct meaning was not achieved. The action described here is not ongoing. The end of the lesson is clearly punctual, thus instead of the progressive a past simple is required. (54) Then my mother said to me that I had to go to school because the next day I had my English test. At the school all my friends contolate me and when the school was ending my best friend Oscar and I went to the soccer match Austria vs. Danemark. The match was great and in the end it was two to one for Austria. Concluding, most errors occur in particular categories, namely with achievement and accomplishment verbs. These categories are also the least frequently occurring ones in the corpus. Table 3 gives an overview of the data in total numbers. What this table highlights is that there are clearly considerable differences not only with regard to the distribution of the general occurrences of verb types but also in reference to their correct and erroneous instances. Table 3 Data in total numbers \| Verb type \| Overall occurrences \| Correct occurrences \| Errors \| \|--------------------\|---------------------\|---------------------\|----------------\| \| \| \| \| Overall numbers \| Obligatory occasions \| Overuses \| \| Activity verbs \| 44 \| 25 \| 19 \| 8 \| 11 \| \| State verbs \| 30 \| 16 \| 14 \| 7 \| 7 \| \| Accomplishment verbs\| 13 \| 5 \| 8 \| 3 \| 5 \| \| Achievement verbs \| 4 \| 1 \| 3 \| 1 \| 2 \| \| Non-classifiable \| 18 \| \| \| \| \| 6.3. Discussion of results This section is concerned with the discussion of the findings that have been described in the section above. At the beginning of section six some expected results of the study were stated. According to the results of this study some of these expectations were confirmed, while others turned out to be invalid and therefore, need to be reconsidered. Moreover, this section is aimed at providing suitable answers for the research questions which guided the present study. The hypotheses that were stated at the beginning of the empirical study were mainly concerned with the qualitative outcome of the study. The first hypothesis was that while the progressive aspect is most commonly used with activity verbs, thus representing the prototype, state verbs will occur least in the progressive form. Interestingly, this statement has been proven correct and incorrect at the same time. Although, as was expected, the instances that were relevant for the study and were indeed classifiable as activity verbs were the ones that occurred the most. However, the number of occurring state verbs was hardly less frequent than the total amount of activity verbs. What is more, is that with state verbs even less errors were made than with activity verbs (including all types of errors, i.e. overuses as well as obligatory occasions). It goes without saying that following what has been discussed in the literature review above, this is a highly surprising fact, especially, since in the context of second language teaching state verbs are often referred to as the type of verbs that do not allow the progressive aspect. With reference to this, it has become apparent through this study that the claim should be reconsidered. A possible explanation that presents itself here is that the state verbs, in the way they have been classified for the purpose of this study, may actually not be perceived as such. This is due to the fact that by applying the progressive aspect to a state verb the state verbs is thus turned into an activity and can also be viewed an action in process, even if it is limited in duration. This is illustrated in the following examples (55) through (57) that were taken from the corpus: (55) The weather is most of the time beautiful but sometimes it's raining. (ICCI: icci_aut0106) (56) I am now sitting in a cafe. (ICCI: icci_aut0060) (57) The sun is scheining. (ICCI: icci_aut055) Even if these samples have been classified as state verbs for the use of the study, they could also be described as instances of action in process with limited duration, may therefore justify the high number of occurrences in the ICCI. Furthermore, another reason that suggests itself for the unexpectedly high number of occurring state verbs may be the topics about which the students were asked to write about. For example one prompt was headed ‘A postcard to my English teacher’. This of course involves many description states, of where the people are staying or a description of the weather, for instance. This should therefore also be taken into consideration. The second hypothesis that was tested was concerned with the distribution of errors that occurred with reference to the classification of meaning, function and form errors. It was expected that there would be a higher frequency of meaning and function errors than of form errors, thus claiming that the acquisition of the form BE + -ing is easier for learners of English to achieve than acquiring the meaning of -ing. In the course of the study, it turned out that this hypothesis is difficult to prove. Most of the errors that were extracted could not be allocated to just one type of error, meaning that frequently errors tend to feature a combination of error types. There were, however, some instances of form errors in which the correct meaning of the progressive was nevertheless achieved. Examples (58) to (60) are an illustration thereof: (58) The water is blue and the sun is shine. (ICCI: icci_aut0029) (59) I’am don’t go away. I’am every jeary ga swimming in the ENT001 pool It is very hot and I playing PSP at home. (ICCI: icci_aut0053) (60) In four days we’re coming to our house. We all sending you love Grufle (ICCI: icci_aut0058) Form errors very frequently co-occurred with meaning errors one such example is illustrated below: (61) Mum, Dad, my sister and I go in twenty minets to my Grantma We are eating an talking with them. Then we go swimming in the pool and playing with the waterball. ENT003 and I making a (sand)casel. We sometimes go in a restaurant. (ICCI: icci_aut0053) Here, in addition to omitting the be in the progressive construction, the speaker should not have taken an inside viewpoint of the situation, rather the situation describes a sequence which is introduced by the time adverbial then. From the preceding sentences the reference point of time is made clear, namely it is the time before the family is leaving to visit the grandparents, thus what is then following points to the future. If the author of this text still opts for the construction ENT003 and I are making a (sand) castle, the function the progressive would perform would be that of future time reference. Further, as far as form errors are concerned it can be said that most of them result in fragmentary constructions in which the form of be is missing. However, some were noted in which it -ing was not applied, compare examples (58) to (61). In sum, it may be concluded that this hypothesis cannot be confirmed, which leads me to suggest that more emphasis should be put on form-meaning relations in second language instruction. The third hypothesis can in turn be verified. The function the progressive aspect can perform is future time reference. Several instances thereof were extracted from the corpus. However, I will not go into further detail here, as this has already been discussed in the section above, compare examples (36) to (38). As far as the research questions are concerned which guided the study, it can generally be said that more overuses of the progressive occurred than errors with obligatory occasions. This is an interesting finding, which does not necessarily support the underlying hypothesis of this thesis, that the acquisition of the progressive aspect poses such a challenge to German speakers because of the inexistence of a grammaticalized equivalent of the progressive aspect in their L1. However, I would like to put forward the claim that, as the study shows language transfer is indeed an influencing factor when it comes to the acquisition of the progressive aspect, it would be mistaken to consider transfer as the only relevant factor in the acquisition of aspectual meanings.$^5$ More specifically, this means that $^5$ It has to be noted at this point that no effort has been made so as to find other reasons for language transfer in this study, as this would by far exceed by far the realm of this thesis. the overall tendency to avoid the progressive is due to language transfer, thus there seems to be a strong correlation between errors that were obligatory occasions and L1 language transfer. According to the study, the simple present tense as well as the simple past tense was applied instead of progressive aspect. Translated into numbers, from all the 19 errors that were obligatory occasions which were taken from the ICCI, 13 cases were put into the present simple and 6 into the past simple. As the underlying hypothesis of this thesis suggests, more situations were expected that were obligatory occasions for the use of the progressive. However, some instances were difficult to classify because, as language production is indeed a matter of construal, in some cases it is difficult to determine whether a correct grammatical construction was used to convey what was actually intended by the speaker. One example that explains the fuzziness of categorization quite clearly is illustrated in (62): (62) I am living in Vienna (ICCI: icci_aut0016) As has already been mentioned earlier in this thesis, in this context the progressive shortens an action which can otherwise be defined as ongoing for an indefinite period of time. The effect of -ing here is shortening the state of living in a particular place, implying that the person intends to move to another place some time in the future. Thus, opting for the simple present tense or the progressive form makes a meaning difference in a case like this. Following this line of argument I would like to stress the usefulness of teaching students not only about the form of the progressive, but highlight its meanings and its use. Only then can they apply it to suit their needs in conveying their communicative purpose successfully. If this kind of teaching is extended from strict meaning effects on the different lexical aspects to typical occurrences within the different text types, what is conceived as obligatory occasions can be recognized as such and students can learn to make use of this additional way of encoding meaning in English that their L1 doesn’t encompass. Another interesting fact that should definitely be mentioned in this part of the paper is that the high frequency of activity verbs in connection with the progressive aspect may indeed indicate that ‘action in progress’ can be defined as the prototype of the progressive in English. This may find verification in the following statement by Gries (2008: 415): In a pedagogy context, frequency lists are mostly built on the assumption that it is more useful for L2 learners to learn first those units that are particularly important in the target register/genre/variety, and not surprisingly in Corpus Linguistics “particularly important” translates into “particularly frequent.” Concluding, I would like to mention that this study has contributed to establishing more senses of the progressive aspect which were not discussed in the literature review of this thesis. I would therefore put forward the claim that another effect that -ing has on the interpretation of an utterance is denoting a reference point that exceeds over time. Also, the fact that -ing can impose a negative connotation on a situation has been mentioned in the context of applying the progressive aspect to habitual events, but this use has not been identified as having its own meaning. Since in this case one can also talk about the effect it has on a verbal construction it could justifiably be categorized as a sense of the progressive aspect. 6.4. Problems and limitations It goes without saying that such a small-scale corpus study as the one conducted here, and corpus analysis in general, allows us to spot and describe all kinds of language problems. One of its major limitations according to McEnery, Xiao & Tono (2006: 120) is that the data set of a corpus gives no indication about what is possible and what is not possible, meaning that it cannot provide negative evidence. Since a corpus is a compilation of texts that have actually been produced by language users, what has to be omitted in a corpus out of necessity, is what has not been said. It may seem superfluous to mention this here. As already pointed out, this means of course that only because it has not been said and is perpetuated in a corpus, it would actually not be possible. Further, it has been pointed out by McEnery, Xiao & Tono (2006: 120) that “corpora can yield findings but rarely provide explanations for what is observed.” Therefore, observations of attested language facts are based on the researcher’s intuitions and generalizations. This is also what I found most problematic while working with the corpus, namely that judgments of any kind are highly subjective. In this respect, the fuzziness of categorization posed a particular challenge. Some borderline cases of classification of verb types were encountered in the course of the study. Example (63) is an illustration of an example in which the categorization of the verb type was not clear-cut: (63) I'm at home all holiday. I can't after to Italien. I sit in my room and learn about Englisch. How are you? I'm not so fine, but I hope next holiday, I can after to Italien. (ICCI: icci_aut0045) In this situation the language user created an obligatory occasion for the progressive aspect. The difficulty that arose here is concerned with the classification of the verb sit. In the dominant use, as described by Vender (1967: 99) sit is a state verb because no effort is needed for its continuation. However, I am sitting could in my view also be classified as an activity. The verb to sit is situated on the boundary between state and activity. Further, another limitation of corpus linguistics that has to be kept in mind is that the outcome of a corpus study is representative of the corpus on which the results are based. Thus, it is essential to make generalizations only in relation to the participants from which the corpus was sampled. Therefore, it is not only vital to know about the nature and composition of the corpus but also information about the participants has to be made accessible for the researcher. As far as the present study was concerned, only the most important information about the participants was available to me, i.e. sex, the grade in which the students were when the essays were written and the L1 of each student. Out of which only the latter was relevant for the study. For the purpose of the underlying study it also may have been helpful to actually have access to additional information about the nature of the language input the students received with respect to the progressive aspect. For example, information as to which textbook built the basis for language instruction would have supported this. Apart from some difficulties with the classification of verb types, I would like to briefly point out that working with such mini-corpus posed a challenge to draw specific conclusions as to whether language learners have an accurate conceptualization of the morpheme -ing they have acquired. It can hardly be claimed that one correct instance is representative for the full understanding of the meanings or functions of the grammatical form that has been learned by the student. A small-scale corpus study, as the underlying one, cannot give enough evidence about whether the full conceptualization of a grammatical construction has been acquired. This especially holds for the obligatory occasion analysis conducted in this study, which fails to give indication about whether the students have fully acquired the meanings and functions of a grammatical construction, in this case the morphology -ing (Ellis & Barkhuizen 2005: 79). Nevertheless, the study at hand has enabled a generalization of developmental patterns. It has also helped enormously in establishing the fact that the language learners’ L1 is indeed a contributing factor in acquiring the progressive aspect in English, thus resulting in language transfer. 7. Conclusion As the title of this thesis suggests, this thesis aimed at Analyzing the Progressive Aspect and its acquisition by EFL learners. Taking the importance of aspect as opposed to tense for this paper into consideration, it was essential to start out with a detailed description of aspect and its two subtypes which differentiate between lexical and grammatical aspect. It has become clear in the course of the empirical study that this distinction of lexical versus grammatical aspect was highly valuable for the analysis that was conducted. The predicate classes that are distinguished within lexical aspect enabled a more or less clear categorization of verbs into activity, state, accomplishment and achievement verbs, which in turn constituted the starting point for the analysis. For the part that constitutes the analysis of the progressive aspect the framework of Cognitive Linguistics was adopted to take the semantics and uses of the progressive construction under scrutiny. By exploring the notions of boundedness and unboundedness valuable contributions for a better understanding of the effect of -ing on a verbal construction could hopefully be obtained. It has not been mentioned before, but I would like to take this opportunity to suggest that the concepts of boundedness and unboundedness could also offer a new approach to teaching the progressive aspect as, I believe, they offer a transparent and accessible explanation for what -ing really does. Since the basic tenets of Cognitive Linguistics is the centrality of meaning, it offered a good starting point to explore the meaning of the morphology -ing. The following senses of the progressive could be deduced from the literature that was discussed and from the study that was conducted: describing an action in progresses, i.e. continuousness; limiting the duration of a process; expressing repeated action; imposing a negative connotation on a habitual situation; denoting a reference point that exceeds over time and backgrounding information. In the context of the different meanings of the progressive, it has been attempted to apply the notion of Prototype Theory. It has been claimed that ‘action in progress’ constitutes the most typical meaning of the progressive, which in turn has been verified by the corpus study. Since Cognitive Linguistics unifies linguistic expression, language use, and conceptual structure it offers a wide range of application. Therefore, cognitive-linguistic insights that are relevant for second language acquisition were also discussed in this thesis. Basing its assumptions on a usage-based model, second language acquisition from a Cognitive Linguistics perspective centers around the language learner. It suggests that students need to be sufficiently exposed to conventionally established elements, i.e. language units. Only if representative units are provided by the language instructor can the gradual learning process be successful. Further, it was noted that the acquisition of a grammatical construction should not be exclusively rule-governed because teaching according to rules in traditional grammar teaching goes hand in hand with learning rules and exceptions by heart. Instead, it has been suggested by Niemeier & Reif (2008: 331) that “an integration of the semantic-conceptual level into the pedagogical materials, alongside with morpho-syntactic rules and examples of contextualized use” should be considered. This can easily be applied to teaching the progressive aspect, viewing it as a process of mapping meaning onto form. The study conducted in this thesis aimed at investigating insights into the kinds of errors that occur in L2 acquisition of the progressive aspect. Therefore, learner language from the ICCI was taken as evidence for the L2 acquisition of the progressive aspect. The results of the study revealed that for the most part it was possible to make a classification of learner errors. Overall, the tentative conclusion can be drawn that, as has already been mentioned, language production is largely a matter of construal and that the specific context of a situation is crucial for teaching the different meanings of the progressive aspect. 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(2nd edition). Berlin: Springer, 79-91. Wekker, Herman. 1976. The expression of future time in contemporary British English: an investigation into the syntax and semantics of five verbal constructions expressing futurity. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Weinberger, Ursula. 2005. “Error Analysis with computer learner corpora: a corpus-based study of errors in the written German of British university students”. In Allerton D.J., Tschichold, Cornelia and Wieser Judith (eds.). Linguistics, Language Learning and Language Teaching. Basel: Schwabe. 119-131. Abstract in German (Deutsche Zusammenfassung) Es wurde zunehmend beobachtet, dass es für Lerner mit Deutsch als Erstsprache die Englisch als Zweitsprache lernen eine besonders große Herausforderung darstellt die grammatikalische Form des Progressiven Aspektes (be + Verb -ing) – im Deutschen auch Verlaufsform genannt – zu erlernen. Eine besondere Herausforderung dabei stellt die Entscheidung dar in welchen Kontexten der Progressive verwendet soll. Häufig wird dies dadurch begründet, dass es im Deutschen kein grammatikalisieretes Äquivalent zum progressive aspect im Englischen gibt, weil Deutsch als solches als eine aspektlose Sprache gilt. Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist es Einblicke in die Art der Fehler zu gewinnen die beim Zweitspracherwerb des Progressiven Aspektes im Englisch von Lernern mit Deutsch als Muttersprache auftreten. Weiters soll festgestellt werden ob die Fehler die von Lernern produziert werden einer gewissen Klassifizierung unterzogen werden können. Um herauszufinden wie genau lernende den Progressiven Aspekt verwenden und ob es einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Tatsache, dass es im Deutschen keine Aspekt Kategorie gibt, und die Art der Fehler die deutschsprachige Lerner produzieren, wurde eine Korpusanalyse durchgeführt. Ausgangspunkt der Korpusstudie war eine Analyse von 200 Aufsätzen die von Englischlernenden mit Deutsch als Muttersprache geschrieben wurde. Dafür wurden alle fehlerhaften und alle richtigen Vorkommnisse des Progressiven Aspektes aus dem Korpus extrahiert. Weiters wurden alle Aufsätze darauf untersucht ob es Situationen gibt in denen die Verwendung der progressiven Form aufgrund des Kontextes notwendig gewesen wäre. Aus der Analyse ergab sich folgende mögliche Klassifizierung von Fehlern in Bezug auf den Progressiven Aspekt: Formfehler, Bedeutungsfehler und Funktionsfehler. Außerdem konnte festgestellt werden, dass die progressive Form am häufigsten mit Verben verwendet wird die eine Aktivität beschreiben, welche im Englischen als activity verbs bezeichnet werden. Die meisten Fehler jedoch traten in Bezug mit Verben auf die eine punktuelle Vollendung beschreiben und im Englischen als achievement verbs bezeichnet werden. Das Resultat der Studie stützt die Annahme, dass Fehler of dadurch entstehen weil SchülerInnen oft eine direkte Übertragung vom Deutschen ins Englische machen. Demzufolge lässt sich schließen, dass Interferenz beim Erlernen des Progressiven Aspektes durchaus eine Rolle spielt, auch wenn dies natürlich nicht als einziger Grund vorliegt. Jedoch ob der Grund, dass das Erlernen des Progressiven Aspektes im Englischen sich darauf beruht, dass Deutsch eine aspektlose Sprache ist, konnte mit dieser Studie nicht eindeutig festgestellt werden. 1./2. Klasse (5./6. Schuljahr) DESCRIBING YOURSELF This is your first letter to a new friend. Tell your friend - your name - your age - what you look like - where you live - what you like doing Ask your friend to write back soon. You can add your own ideas, too. Write at least 50 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. A POSTCARD TO MY ENGLISH TEACHER You are on holiday. Write a picture postcard to your English teacher about your holiday. In this postcard you can write - where you are - who is with you - what the weather is like - what you and your family can do there - how you like it there You stay at home and do not go away? No problem – you can also write a postcard from home and tell your teacher about your holidays! Write at least 50 words. You have 20 minutes to write the postcard. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. WRITING TO AN ENGLISH FRIEND ABOUT FOOD In his/her last letter your English friend asked you to tell him/her about your favourite food. Write a letter in which you can - tell him/her what kinds of food you like 😊 and what you don’t like 😞 - say what you often have for breakfast, for lunch and for dinner - ask your friend to tell you about his/her favourite food in the next letter Write at least 50 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. --- WRITING TO AN ENGLISH FRIEND ABOUT POCKET MONEY In his/her last letter your English friend asked you to tell him/her about your pocket money. Write a letter in which you can - tell him/her how much pocket money you get. - tell him/her how often you get pocket money. - say what you do with the money. - ask your friend how he/she spends his/her pocket money. Write at least 50 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. 3./4. Klasse (7./8. Schuljahr) WRITING TO AN ENGLISH FRIEND ABOUT FOOD In his/her last letter your English friend asked you to tell him/her about your favourite food. Write a letter in which you can - tell him/her what kinds of food you like ☺ and what you don't like ☹ - say what you often have for breakfast, for lunch and for dinner - tell him/her what you would like to eat today - ask your friend to tell you about his/her favourite food in the next letter Write about 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. EATING OUT English pupils are coming to your school on a project week. They need information on restaurants and places where they can eat. Write a letter and tell them about a restaurant or place where you would go. Before you start writing think about: - where the place is - what sort of food you can get - what your favourite dish at the place is (and why?) - how the food is - prices Write about 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. MONEY TO SPEND Your aunt, who lives in New Zealand, sent you €2000.- for your birthday. Write a letter and tell her what you are planning to do with the money. Write about 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. A VERY GOOD ☺ OR BAD ☹ DAY Before you start writing think about a very good ☺ or very bad ☹ day in your life. Think about: Who (was with you)? What (happened)? When (did it happen)? Where (did it happen)? How (did you feel)? Write a story of at least 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the story. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. LAST NIGHT I HAD AN EXCITING DREAM Imagine that you had an exciting dream last night. In your dream you were a star (football star, pop singer, film star) a math genius¹, a hero (e.g. a life saver²)... Before you start writing think about: - who you were (football star/pop singer/...) - where you were - what other people were there - what you did - ... Write a story of at about 100-120 words. You have 20 minutes to write the story. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. Vocabulary: 1 – math genius – Mathematikgenie 2 - life saver – Lebensretterin, Lebensretter Last night I had an exciting dream... 5./6. Klasse (9./10. Schuljahr) EATING OUT English pupils are coming to your school on a project week. They need information on restaurants and places where they can eat. Write a letter and tell them about a restaurant or place where you would go. Before you start writing think about: - where the place is - what sort of food you can get - what your favourite dish at the place is (and why?) - how the food is - prices Write about 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. A VERY GOOD ☺ OR BAD ☹ DAY Before you start writing think about a very good ☺ or very bad ☹ day in your life. Think about: Who (was with you)? What (happened)? When (did it happen)? Where (did it happen)? How (did you feel)? Write a story of at least 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the story. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. MONEY TO SPEND Your aunt, who lives in New Zealand, sent you €2000.- for your birthday. Write a letter and tell her what you have done (or what you are planning to do) with the money. Write about 100 words. You have 20 minutes to write the letter. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. 7./8. Klasse (11./12. Schuljahr) MONEY There is a focus on money in the next issue of your school magazine. You were asked to write a short essay on the following topic: Should teenagers work part-time to earn money? Present your own views and give reasons for your opinion. Write a text of at least 120 words. You have 20 minutes to write the text. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. HEALTHY DIET There is a focus on food in the next issue of your school magazine. You were asked to write a short essay on the following topic: Human beings do not need to eat meat in order to maintain good health because they can get all their food needs from meatless products and meatless substances. A vegetarian diet is as healthy as a diet containing meat. Argue for or against the opinion above. Write a text of at least 120 words. You have 20 minutes to write the text. Please use a blue or black pen, not a pencil. CURRICULUM VITAE MIRIAM SOLTÉSZ AUSBILDUNG Universität Wien Diplomstudium Anglistik und Amerikanistik 2006 – 2013 Linguistische Diplomarbeit am Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Titel: “Progressive Thinking: Analyzing the Progressive Aspect and its Acquisition by EFL learners.” Betreuerin: Univ.-Prof. Dr. M. Evelien Keizer Universität Wien Lehramtsstudium Unterrichtsfach Bewegung und Sport und Unterrichtsfach Englisch 2011 bis heute Universität Wien Bakkalaureatstudium Sinologie 2007 bis heute Symmedia Akademie für Gestaltung, Bielefeld (D) 2005 – 2006 Einjähriger Lehrgang im Bereich Fotografie Höhere Lehranstalt für wirtschaftliche Berufe, Rankweil 1999 – 2004 Schwerpunkt Fremdsprachen (Englisch, Französisch, Spanisch). Rechnungswesen, Buchhaltung, Betriebswirtschaft, Kochen und Servieren. Abschluss mit gutem Erfolg. BERUFSERFAHRUNG Universität Wien ab März 2013 Studienassistentin am Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik für Univ.-Prof. Dr. M. Evelien Keizer. Lehrtätigkeit seit Okt. 2012 Englischlehrerin im Phönix-Realgymnasium, Knöllgasse, 1100 Wien Universität Wien seit Jän. 2012 Mitarbeit am Fachdidaktizkzentrum für „Bewegung und Sport“ an der Universität Wien unter der Leitung von Ao. Univ.-Prof. MMag. Dr. Konrad Kleiner. Administrative und organisatorische Tätigkeiten, sowie Übersetzungen Deutsch – Englisch. PROJEKTERFAHRUNG Dopingprävention März – Sept. 2012 Betreuung, Koordination und Organisation eines Projekts des Fachdidaktizkzentrums „Bewegung und Sport“ unter der Leitung von Ao. Univ.-Prof. MMag. Dr. Konrad Kleiner in Zusammenarbeit mit der NADA Austria unter der Leitung von David Müller zu Dopingprävention als pädagogisch-didaktisches Interventionskonzept mit dem Titel „Fair zum Körper. Fair im Sport.“ Dabei wurden Unterrichtsmaterialien erstellt und modular präsentiert, sowie Workshops zum Thema geplant, gestaltet und durchgeführt. ERFOLG Auszeichnung Student Award 2010 für hervorragende akademische Leistungen der Anglistik Wien für eine linguistische Seminararbeit mit dem Titel „Functions of like in English utterances“ im Zuge des Seminars “Hedging and being vague” im WS 2009/2010 bei Mag. Dr. Gunther Kaltenböck, M.A. Wien, am 31. 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EDVOTEK WORKSHOP: Left at the Scene of the Crime: Introduction to Forensic Science www.edvotek.com Introduction Explore genetic diversity using forensic science! In this lab, you become a crime scene investigator as you analyze biological evidence using both blood typing and DNA fingerprinting, a technique that identifies people via genetic differences. Gel electrophoresis is used to create DNA fingerprints from crime scene and suspect samples. A match between samples suggests which suspect committed the crime. Left at the Scene of the Crime Late one night, an intrepid scientist worked on an important biotechnology experiment in the laboratory. She was very close to creating a ground breaking vaccine that could save many lives. After working in the lab all day, she decided to go home to eat dinner and get a good night’s rest. The next morning, the lab had been broken into and was a shambles. The scientist found many important pages had been ripped from her lab notebook. Furthermore, security footage showed that someone had stolen critical reagents from the laboratory. Upon investigating the crime scene, police found some blood spilled on the broken window. Detectives identified this window as a potential entry and collected the blood as evidence to be analyzed. As a forensic scientist, you will analyze these samples. The results will be presented as an report in the court of law. Background Information Excerpts from EDVO-Kits 191 & 130 WHAT FORENSICS INFORMATION DOES BLOOD TYPING PROVIDE? Although blood evidence is used primarily for DNA profiling, simpler blood tests are still widely used in the modern forensic laboratory. Blood group testing is one such test. Testing for blood groups relies on the possible precipitation of an antigen-antibody complex from mixing two blood samples together. This phenomenon, called agglutination is a confirmatory test for blood. Only blood will produce this agglutination, which is why it is classified as a confirmatory test. Testing a sample for its blood group is a useful forensic test in several ways. In addition to being a confirmatory test for the presence of blood, by knowing the blood group of a sample, we can use the test to screen potential suspects against an unknown sample. In this lab, students will simulate the detection of a suspect’s ABO blood type. The ABO system of blood grouping is arguably the most famous and most important of all systems. If you’ve ever donated blood or had blood drawn at a hospital, you’ve probably heard of this group. What you may not know, is that the ABO group is just one of many blood groups that have been identified in the last century. In fact, the International Society of Blood Transfusions (ISBT) recognizes 30 blood groups systems! While we may not be able to use a particular piece of evidence, say a bloodstain for example, to say a unique person was the source of the evidence, we can say that it came from a single group of people, sharing the same blood type. How does this apply to blood? Take a look at the following table showing how many Americans have each type. Let’s pretend that we found blood on a broken window at a crime scene. We test it and find that it is Type O. Who left it there? It’s pretty easy to see from that table that just because a suspect has the same blood type as the blood found at the scene, he is not necessarily the person who left the blood. Because so many people have each blood type, it is easier to use the information to rule out a suspect. Using just the ABO group information, we can’t say for sure that the person with Type O is also the one who left that bloodstain, but we can absolutely say that the person with Type AB did not leave the bloodstain on the broken window. This use of evidence is very important in Forensic Science. Individual pieces of evidence that may not identify someone on their own can be used to draw a much more specific picture when used together. Using serological evidence in conjunction with physical evidence and eyewitness accounts will always help narrow down the possibilities in a case. Precipitation reactions between soluble antigens and antibodies can be visible reactions if both components are in equivalence. Under this condition neither the antigen nor the antibody is in excess and antigen-antibody complexes form large networks that precipitate out of solution as diagrammed below (Figure 1). When an antigen is attached to a red blood cell, the reaction is called an agglutination and the lattice of antigen and antibody that is visible at equivalence is called an agglutinate. Agglutination is a routine and cost-effective serological procedure because the agglutinate is very easily detectable. Blood typing is an example of a clinical agglutination assay that is familiar to all of us. Since the specific blood antigens are on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) they are termed hemagglutination reactions. Blood typing has various important forensic science applications and remains a powerful forensic tool in linking someone to a crime or accident scene. DNA FINGERPRINTING In humans, DNA is packaged into 23 pairs of chromosomes that are inherited from an individual’s biological parents. Although most of this genetic material is identical in every person, small differences, or “polymorphisms”, in the DNA sequence occur throughout the genome. For example, the simplest difference is a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (or SNP). Changes in the number and location of restriction enzyme sites result in Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (or RFLPs). Short repetitive stretches of DNA at specific locations in the genome can vary in number to produce STRs (Short Tandem Repeats) and VNTRs (Variable Number of Tandem Repeats). Although most polymorphisms occur in non-coding regions of DNA, those that disrupt a gene can result in disease. Medical diagnostic tests can identify specific polymorphisms associated with disease. Analyzing several different polymorphisms within a person’s genome generates a unique DNA “fingerprint”. DNA fingerprints can allow us to distinguish one individual from another. Because polymorphisms are inherited, DNA fingerprints can also be used to determine paternity/maternity (and other familial relationships). The best-known application of DNA fingerprinting is in forensic science. DNA fingerprinting techniques are utilized to interpret blood, tissue, or fluid evidence collected at accidents and crime scenes. After DNA is extracted from these samples, forensic scientists can develop a DNA fingerprint. The DNA fingerprint from a crime scene can then be compared to the DNA fingerprints of different suspects. A match provides strong evidence that the suspect was present at the crime scene. Early fingerprinting analysis involved restriction digestion of the isolated DNA. Following electrophoresis of the digested sample, the DNA is transferred to a nylon membrane during a process known as Southern blotting. Sequence-specific DNA probes are used to visualize the membrane-bound DNA. If the DNA is not digested by the restriction enzyme, the probes will only hybridize to a single DNA segment. If a restriction site occurs within this sequence, the probe will hybridize with multiple bands of DNA. VNTRs are identified when a probe labels DNA at a dissimilar molecular weight. Although RFLP analysis is very precise, it is time-consuming and requires large amounts of DNA. To address these problems, forensic scientists use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to produce DNA fingerprints. PCR allows researchers to quickly create many copies of a specific region of DNA in vitro (summarized in Figure 2). This technique requires 500-fold less DNA than traditional RFLP analysis and it can be performed in an afternoon. To perform PCR, purified double-stranded DNA is mixed with primers (short synthetic DNA molecules that target DNA for amplification), a thermostable DNA polymerase (Taq) and nucleotides. The mixture is heated to 94°C to denature the DNA duplex (i.e., unzip it into single strands). Next, the sample is then cooled to 45° C - 60° C, allowing the primers to base pair with the target DNA sequence (called “annealing”). Lastly, the temperature is raised to 72°C, the optimal temperature at which Taq polymerase will extend the primer to synthesize a new strand of DNA. Each “PCR cycle” (denaturation, annealing, extension) doubles the amount of the target DNA in less than five minutes. In order to produce enough DNA for analysis, twenty to forty cycles may be required. To simplify this process, a specialized machine, called a “thermal cycler” or a “PCR machine”, was created to rapidly heat and cool the samples. Figure 2: Polymerase Chain Reaction Experiment Procedures: What Forensics Information Does Blood Typing Provide? 1. Place a microtiter plate piece as shown below. Across the top of the plate, label the 8 wells A, B, AB, O, CS, S1, S2, and S3 respectively, using a laboratory marking pen. Label the 2 rows Anti-A and Anti-B respectively. The plate should look as pictured below. \| Anti A \| A \| B \| AB \| O \| CS \| S1 \| S2 \| S3 \| \|--------\|---\|---\|----\|---\|----\|----\|----\|----\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Anti B \| A \| B \| AB \| O \| CS \| S1 \| S2 \| S3 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| IMPORTANT: Avoid cross-contamination by using a new disposable pipet or pipet tip when using an automatic micropipet for each blood sample. 2. Using a different pipet or pipet tip for each sample, transfer 3 drops (40 µl) of each blood type sample (see table) from the provided QuickStrip™ to the two corresponding wells. For example, control A blood type goes into the two wells under the letter A. Repeat the same procedure for crime scene collected blood and blood from each of the three suspects. 3. Use a new pipet to add one drop or 20 µl of Anti-A serum into each of the wells in row #1. 4. Use a new pipet to add one drop or 20 µl of Anti-B serum into each of the wells in row #2. 5. Let the plate sit undisturbed on the lab bench for 5-10 minutes. 6. Observe the wells for the presence or absence of agglutination. Agglutination has occurred if the mixture appears to be granular rather than smooth. Record your results in the diagram in the Results section. \| QuickStrip™ Label \| Sample \| \|-------------------\|----------------------\| \| A \| Blood Type A \| \| B \| Blood Type A \| \| C \| Blood Type B \| \| D \| Blood Type O \| \| E \| Crime Scene Blood \| \| F \| Suspect A \| \| G \| Suspect B \| \| H \| Suspect C \| (no agglutination) +(agglutination) Experiment Procedures: Separation of DNA by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis 1. DILUTE concentrated (50X) buffer with distilled water to create 1X buffer (see Table A). 2. MIX agarose powder with 1X buffer in a 250 ml flask (see Table A). 3. DISSOLVE agarose powder by boiling the solution. MICROWAVE the solution on high for 1 minute. Carefully REMOVE the flask from the microwave and MIX by swirling the flask. Continue to HEAT the solution in 15-second bursts until the agarose is completely dissolved (the solution should be clear like water). 4. COOL agarose to 60° C with careful swirling to promote even dissipation of heat. 5. While agarose is cooling, SEAL the ends of the gel-casting tray with the rubber end caps. PLACE the well template (comb) in the appropriate notch. 6. POUR the cooled agarose solution into the prepared gel-casting tray. The gel should thoroughly solidify within 20 minutes. The gel will stiffen and become less transparent as it solidifies. 7. REMOVE end caps and comb. Take particular care when removing the comb to prevent damage to the wells. \| Size of Gel Casting Tray \| Concentrated Buffer (50x) + Distilled Water + Amount of Agarose = TOTAL Volume \| \|--------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 7 x 7 cm \| 0.6 ml 29.4 ml 0.23 g 30 ml \| \| 7 x 10 cm \| 1.0 ml 49.0 ml 0.39 g 50 ml \| \| 7 x 14 cm \| 1.2 ml 58.0 ml 0.46 g 60 ml \| NOTES: If casting 7 x 14 cm gels, each gel can be shared by 4 students. Place combs in the first and third set of notches. If casting 7 x 7 cm gels, each gel can be shared by 2 students. Place comb in the first set of notches. If you are unfamiliar with agarose gel prep and electrophoresis, detailed instructions and helpful resources are available at www.edvotek.com VISIT www.edvotek.com for complete experiment details & free student protocols. Experiment Procedures: Separation of DNA by Agarose Gel Electrophoresis 8. PLACE gel (on the tray) into electrophoresis chamber. COVER the gel with 1X electrophoresis buffer (See Table B for recommended volumes). The gel should be completely submerged. 9. LOAD the entire sample (35-38 µL) into the well. 10. PLACE safety cover. CHECK that the gel is properly oriented. Remember, the DNA samples will migrate toward the positive (red) electrode. 11. CONNECT leads to the power source and PERFORM electrophoresis (See Table C for time and voltage guidelines). 12. After electrophoresis is complete, REMOVE the gel and casting tray from the electrophoresis chamber and proceed to STAINING the agarose gel. Reminder: Before loading the samples, make sure the gel is properly oriented in the apparatus chamber. Wear gloves and safety goggles \| Lane \| Label \| Sample Name \| \|------\|-------\|----------------------\| \| 1 \| A \| DNA Standard Marker \| \| 2 \| B \| Crime Scene PCR reaction \| \| 3 \| C \| Suspect 1 PCR reaction \| \| 4 \| D \| Suspect 2 PCR reaction \| \| 5 \| E \| Suspect 3 PCR reaction \| \| 6 \| -- \| -------- \| Table B \| EDVOTEK Model # \| Total Volume Required \| Dilution 50x Conc. Buffer + Distilled Water \| \|-------------------\|-----------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| M6+ & M12 (new) \| 300 ml \| 6 ml 294 ml \| \| M12 (classic) \| 400 ml \| 8 ml 392 ml \| \| M36 \| 1000 ml \| 20 ml 980 ml \| Table C \| Electrophoresis Model \| M6+ \| M12 (new) \| M12 (classic) & M36 \| \|-----------------------\|-----\|-----------\|---------------------\| \| Volts \| Min./Max. \| Min./Max. \| Min./Max. \| \| 150 \| 15/20 min. \| 20/30 min. \| 25 / 35 min. \| \| 125 \| 20/30 min. \| 30/35 min. \| 35 / 45 min. \| \| 75 \| 35 / 45 min. \| 55/70 min. \| 60 / 90 min. \| FlashBlue™ Stain • Simple & Rapid • Stain in Less Than 5 Minutes! 1. After electrophoresis, wear gloves and place the gel in a small gel staining tray. Pour 75 ml of 1x FlashBlue™ stain into the tray, enough to cover the gel. Allow the gel to stain for no longer than 5 minutes. 2. Transfer the gel to another container with 250-300 ml distilled water. Gently agitate container every few minutes or place on a shaking platform. Destain for at least an hour (longer periods will yield better results). 3. After destaining, gel should have a light blue background and well-stained DNA bands. 4. For optimal visibility, examine the gel on a white light visualization system. InstaStain® Blue • Saves time & minimizes chemical waste! 1. Remove the agarose gel from its bed and totally submerge the gel in a small, clean tray. To stain a 7 x 7 cm gel, add 75 ml of distilled or deionized water. The agarose gel should be completely covered with liquid. 2. Gently float a card of InstaStain® Blue with the stain side facing the liquid (blue side down). The gel will be ready for visualization in approx. 1 hour. For best results, cover the gel and let soak in the liquid overnight. 3. The gel is now stained, destained and ready for photography. 4. For optimum visibility, transfer the gel to a white light visualization system. InstaStain® Ethidium Bromide • Minimizes chemical waste • Stain in 3-5 Minutes! 1. After electrophoresis, wear gloves and place the gel in a small gel staining tray. Moisten with a few drops of buffer. 2. Remove clear plastic protector and place the unprinted side of the InstaStain® Ethidium Bromide card on the gel. Firmly run your fingers over the entire surface of the card. Do this several times. 3. Place a small weight on top to ensure the card maintains direct contact with the gel. Stain the gel for 3-5 minutes. 4. After staining, remove the InstaStain® card. View gel on a UV transilluminator. Be sure to wear UV protective goggles. SyBr® Safe DNA Stain • Non-mutagenic • Ultra-sensitive • Safe • Stain in 10-15 Minutes! 1. After electrophoresis, wear gloves and place the gel in a small gel staining tray. Add approx. 75 ml of 1x SYBR® Safe stain to the tray, enough to cover the gel. 2. Allow the gel to stain for 10-15 minutes. (Agitation is optional.) 3. Wearing gloves, carefully remove the gel and transfer to a short/mid-range UV Transilluminator or blue bright light box. 4. Be sure to wear UV protective goggles while visualizing DNA bands. VISIT www.edvotek.com for complete experiment details & free student protocols. Experiment Results and Analysis BLOOD TYPING \| \| A \| B \| AB \| O \| CS \| S1 \| S2 \| S3 \| \|-------\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\|----\| \| Anti A\| ● \| ○ \| ● \| ○ \| ● \| ○ \| ● \| ○ \| \| Anti B\| ○ \| ● \| ● \| ○ \| ○ \| ○ \| ○ \| ● \| SEPARATION OF DNA BY AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS The DNA standards in Lane 1 make it possible to measure the DNA bands obtained from the PCR reactions. The results of this analysis indicate an identical pattern in Lanes 2 and 4. This is strong evidence that the crime scene DNA and Suspect 2 match. In criminal investigations, several known variable regions in DNA are analyzed to match crime scene and suspect DNAs. Here at EDVOTEK®, we’ve worked hard over the last year to bring you some new and exciting resources to make teaching biotechnology easier and more exciting than ever! We’ve created Quick Guide manuals, FREE for you to download off our website. We have also filmed several Instructional Videos that show step-by-step procedures. We hope you take advantage of these resources and enjoy teaching and learning with EDVOTEK®! www.edvotek.com/Quick-Guides Micropipetting Basics Agarose Gel Electrophoresis Stains: Visualizing DNA Tech Video youtube.com/EdvotekInc Watch us on YouTube Video: Preparing Agarose Gels Video: Staining with InstaStain® Blue Video: Staining with InstaStain® Ethidium Bromide Video: Performing Agarose Gel Electrophoresis Video: Staining with FlashBlue™ Video: Staining with SYBR® Safe VISIT www.edvotek.com for complete experiment details & free student protocols. Related Products Cat. #130 DNA Fingerprinting by PCR Amplification For 8 Gels. Forensic DNA fingerprinting has become a universally accepted crime-fighting tool. Recent advances use the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify human DNA obtained from crime scenes. This experiment, based on a crime scene scenario, has an inquiry-based component. Kit includes: instructions, Ready-to-Load™ QuickStrip™ DNA samples, UltraSpec-Agarose™ powder, practice gel loading solution, electrophoresis buffer, InstaStain® Blue and FlashBlue™ stain, calibrated pipet, and microtipped transfer pipettes. All you need: electrophoresis apparatus, power supply, automatic micropipet and tips, balance, microwave or hot plate, visualization system --- Cat. #191 Forensics Blood Typing What Forensics Information Does Blood Typing Provide? For 10 Groups. Detectives, investigating a murder crime scene, have discovered possible blood residue on a gun dropped at the scene. After identifying three potential suspects, each with a probable motive, the detectives act to match a blood sample from each suspect to the residue found on the gun handle. This is completed while they await DNA testing. In this classroom experiment, students will first identify whether or not the recovered residue from the gun handle is blood and will then use a rapid blood type test to further the investigation. Kit includes: instructions, control ABO simulated blood samples, simulated crime scene, and suspect blood samples, anti-A and Anti-B serums, blood detection stock solutions, transfer pipets, microtiter plates, tubes. All you need: 95-100% Ethanol, marking pen, distilled water. Optional: automatic micropipet (5 – 50 µl). --- Cat. # 590 EDVOTEK® Variable Micropipet 5 - 50 µl Micropipet Cat. #509 DuoSource™ 150 Power Supply 75 /150 V for 1 or 2 units Cat. #502 M12 Electrophoresis Apparatus For 2 Lab Groups Related Products Cat. #S-91 Whose Fingerprints Were Left Behind? For 10 Groups. After a crime has been committed, the evidence left behind can identify a potential culprit, although a single piece of evidence is not usually enough to convict someone. Even in this age of DNA, fingerprints and blood stains are still important at helping to identify a criminal. In this experiment your students will learn to detect and analyze fingerprints and then use these techniques to solve a classroom crime. Kit includes: instructions, brushes, magnifying lens, fingerprint cards, black dusting powder, grey dye dusting powder, fingerprint lifters. Cat. #S-51 Whose DNA Was Left Behind? For 10 Groups. DNA obtained from a single hair left behind at a crime scene can be used to identify a criminal. In this experiment, your students will compare simulated crime scene DNA with that of two suspects. Kit includes: instructions, Ready-to-Load™ dye samples, agarose powder, practice gel loading solution, electrophoresis buffer, micropipetted transfer pipets. All you need: electrophoresis apparatus, power supply, microwave or hot plate. Cat. #195 Forensic Toxicology For 10 Groups. In this forensic science experiment, students will use the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) to analyze crime scene samples for the presence of drugs. Kit includes: instructions, “victim” and “crime scene” samples, control samples, solutions, microtiter plates, transfer pipets, conical tubes. All you need: distilled or deionized water, beakers, 37°C incubator, paper towels, automatic micropipets with tips (recommended), lab gloves and goggles. 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Spain Bruce McKay www.Travel-Pix.ca \| Contents \| Page \| \|--------------------------------\|------\| \| Introduction \| 3 \| \| Map \| 4 \| \| Spain Timeline \| 5 \| \| Welcome \| 7 \| \| Granada \| 10 \| \| Alhambra \| 12 \| \| Alcazaba \| 17 \| \| Nasrid Palaces \| 24 \| \| Generalife \| 42 \| \| Catholic Granada \| 51 \| \| Córdoba \| 54 \| \| Mesquita / Cathedral \| 62 \| \| Córdoba Alcázar \| 74 \| \| Seville \| 82 \| \| Seville Cathedral \| 85 \| \| Seville Alcázar \| 96 \| \| Placa de España \| 108 \| \| Segovia \| 115 \| \| Ávila \| 121 \| \| Madrid \| 126 \| \| Old Madrid \| 127 \| \| Plaza Mayor \| 129 \| \| Royal Palace \| 134 \| \| Puerta del Sol \| 138 \| \| Bourbon Madrid \| 142 \| \| Sofia Museum \| 148 \| \| Retiro Park \| 150 \| \| Gran Via \| 154 \| My original interest in visiting Spain began with the Alhambra palace complex in Granada but over time, as I learned more about Spain and its history, my destinations list grew to include most of the country and sites dating from Roman times to the present. On an earlier trip I set out on an ambitious itinerary which started in Barcelona, but a minor injury cut my trip short after a great week there. This trip addresses the unfinished business – south to Granada, Córdoba, and Seville in Andalusia, and then back to Madrid and central Spain. Pieces of Spain's history over the past 2000+ years are scattered everywhere, so in the end I've just presented my photos by city, roughly in the sequence of my itinerary. The clashes between the Christians and Muslims which figure so prominently in Spain's history seem especially relevant today. Inescapably, they are reflected here but I've tried not to be obsessed by them. Independent travel in Spain for people who do not speak Spanish can be challenging. I've tried to forget the frustrations and concentrate on the incredible beauty and diversity I found. I've provided a map showing my route on the next page, and a brief outline of history on the two pages following, but you can skip the history if you're only interested in the pictures. Bruce McKay Spain - Destinations: Red dots - Day Trip: Green dots Key: - Portugal - France - Balearic Islands (Ibiza, Mallorca) - Algeria - Gibraltar (U.K.) - Ceuta (Sp.) - Melilla (Sp.) Cities and regions: - Madrid - Seville - Córdoba - Granada - Barcelona - Valencia - Alicante - Cartagena - Murcia - Almeria - Málaga - Marbella - Faro - Lisboa - Porto - La Coruña - Santiago de Compostela - Ourense - Pontevedra - Vigo - Oviedo - Santander - Bilbao - Burgos - Logroño - Pamplona - Zaragoza - Lleida - Tarragona - Barcelona - Figueras - Montpellier - Toulouse - Algiers - Huelva - Cádiz - Gibraltar (U.K.) - Ceuta (Sp.) - Melilla (Sp.) \| Year \| Event \| \|--------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 218 BC \| The Romans began to displace their eastern Mediterranean predecessors. Over the next 600 years they introduced their way of life – with their roads, aqueducts, temples, theatres, and religion. \| \| 476 AD \| Visigoths from the north assumed power after the collapse of the Roman Empire, but didn’t organize effectively. \| \| 711 \| Moors, Muslims from North Africa, crossed at Gibraltar in 711 and conquered nearly the entire peninsula by 718. The Moors controlled southern Spain for the next 750 years. They built mosques, libraries, observatories, universities, and irrigation systems. At first Muslim, Christian, and Jewish religions were allowed to co-exist. \| \| 1085 \| Catholic Christians, who began pushing back down from the north shortly after the Muslim invasion, captured Toledo, the most important city of central Muslim Spain. \| \| 1469 \| Isabel I of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon married, uniting the two major northern kingdoms into a powerful Christian state. The alliance of Isabel and Fernando, designated as the "Catholic Monarchs" by the Pope, gave new impetus to the Reconquista (Reconquest), which quickly pushed further south. \| \| 1478 \| Isabel and Fernando stirred up religious bigotry and established the Spanish Inquisition, which saw the Muslims and Jews expelled from Spain and thousands killed before it was abolished in 1834. \| \| 1492 \| Granada, weakened by dissent within Muslim ranks and eventually the last refuge of Muslims in Spain, fell to Isabel and Fernando. Religious tolerance was promised, but not delivered. \| \| 1492 \| Christopher Columbus reached the Bahamas, and a new era began. \| \| Year \| Event \| \|------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 1493 \| Christopher Columbus returned from America. \| \| 1500s \| Brilliant but ruthless Conquistadors conquered Mexico (1519), Peru (1532), and Chile (1541), plundering and destroying the Indian civilizations. Vast quantities of gold and silver flowed across the Atlantic, enriching the monarchy, the church, and the nobility. Trade in newly discovered commodities flourished. Spain became the most powerful state in Europe and the most important colonial power in the world. Its empire included southern North America, Central America, western South America, territories in Europe, and colonies in the western Pacific. \| \| 1600s - 1800s \| Backward-looking and conservative leadership and an endless series of wars in Europe steadily diminished Spain over the following centuries. Spanish sea power was destroyed by the British under Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. One by one its overseas colonies gained their independence. While the rest of Europe industrialized and became more democratic and unified, in Spain domestic political instability increased steadily. \| \| 1900s \| In 1936 Spain was finally plunged into a bloody internal conflict, the Spanish Civil War. The Nationalists, under General Francisco Franco, won in 1939, with the support of Hitler, Mussolini, and the German Luftwaffe. General Franco ruled as a conservative dictator until his death in 1975. Free elections were first held in 1977. \| \| 2000s \| Construction of vacation homes, condos, hotels, and businesses grew the economy rapidly until the world economic crisis of 2008. Adult male unemployment in Spain is now 25%. Youth unemployment is 56%. \| Welcome My inter-city travel will be by rail. High speed AVE service links Madrid to Córdoba and Seville. Travel to Granada is a bit slower. The territory between Madrid and Córdoba is relatively flat and dry. Approaching Granada. Olive groves and more varied terrain. Granada’s population today is about 250,000. It has been populated from the 8th century BC, ruled in turn by Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Visigoths, Moors, and Christians. Today Granada is most famous for the Alhambra, the palace and fortress complex which was the last Moorish refuge to fall to the Christian Reconquista of Spain. The complex is massive, with a view over the whole city and the surrounding region from its perch atop a steep cliff. The Alhambra consists of separate sections. First came the Moors' defensive fortress, the Alcazaba, which dates from 889 AD. The Nasrid Palaces and the Partal were mostly added by the Muslim emirs in Spain between the mid 11th and mid 14th centuries. The Generalife palace and gardens complex was added during the early 14th century. Generalife is pronounced "heh-neh-rah-lee-feh". The overall complex stretches across a width of about 1 km / 0.6 miles. I split my visit across two days. The Gate of Justice, the exterior gate of the fortress section, was built in 1348. It is the largest and most impressive of the four gates in the Alhambra walls. Alcazaba Entrance to the fortress itself is via another massive gate, Puerto del Vino (Wine Gate). In the Plaza de Armas (Arms Square) all that remains are the foundations of the buildings which provided services and lodgings for the civil population and the troops. The Watchtower on the western end of the fortress is the tallest, rising 27 metres / 90 feet above the cliff. The bell atop the Watchtower has been moved and replaced several times, sometimes after being struck by lightning. The views from the towers of the Alcazaba permitted surveillance of the entire surrounding region. Alcazaba And they provide a close look into the adjoining Nasrid Palaces. Nasrid Palaces Entrance to the Mexuar Palace Mexuar Palace design and craftsmanship Nasrid Palaces The Nasrid king met with his ministers and received members of the public in the Mexuar Palace. Nasrid Palaces Courtyard of the Golden Room Nasrid Palaces Court of the Myrtles, centre of the official residence Nasrid Palaces Entrance to the Comares Tower Nasrid Palaces Hall of the Ambassadors, for official negotiations Nasrid Palaces Comares Palace The domed ceiling with stalactite vaulting in the Hall of the Abencerrages produces a star-like effect. Nasrid Palaces Court of the Lions The Lions Fountain Nasrid Palaces Nasrid Palaces Palace of the Lions Nasrid Palaces Palace of the Lions The Partal was added adjacent to the original Nasrid Palaces later. Nasrid Palaces Partal Gardens Nasrid Palaces View from the Partal Palace portico Just one discordant note. In 1527 King Carlos V ordered the destruction of part of the complex to accommodate the construction of his own large Renaissance palace. The huge Palace of Carlos V is not only out of place, but suffers in comparison to the elegance of the original Moorish palaces. Generalife ("heh-neh-rah-lee-feh") translates as Architect's Garden. It was a separated private refuge from the palaces for the Nasrid kings. Generalife Lower Generalife gardens Generalife Court of the Water Channel. Generalife The water jets cool the air and are soothing. Generalife Sala Regia (Royal Chamber) Nasrid Palaces seen from Generalife Generalife Upper Generalife gardens Generalife Alhanbra and Granada seen from upper gardens Granada and the Alhambra finally surrendered to the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492. Statue showing Queen Isabella listening to Columbus’ plans for westward voyages in the square in Granada bearing her name. Granada’s Cathedral was built between 1522 and 1704. Granada’s Muslims and Jews were promised religious tolerance under the terms of surrender but were expelled by the 1600s. The Roman Bridge across the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba was built in the early 1st century BC, and is believed to have replaced a previous wooden structure. The bridge has been restored several times, but two original arches remain. Córdoba By the 10th century Córdoba was the most populous city in the world, with 500,000 inhabitants, and had become a centre for education under its Islamic rulers. The Calahorra Tower at the southern end of the Roman Bridge houses a Cultures Museum highlighting the intellectual achievements of Islamic Córdoba. Córdoba's libraries and universities imported, translated, and extended Greek learning, and its medical schools made advances in surgical techniques. The astrolabe, the navigation instrument so important in the exploration of the New World, was one product of the advances in mathematics and science. The hydraulic engineering expertise of the Romans was extended. This Islamic water wheel would have raised water to the caliph's palace. But the golden period did not last. During the latter part of the 11th century internal power struggles between different Muslim factions led to destruction and a steady decline. Construction of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, also called the Mezquita, was begun in 784 and extended in stages until 984. The Mequita is most notable for its rows and rows of columns crowned with red and white arches. There are 856 columns of jasper, onyx, marble, and granite. Mihrab: This richly ornamented prayer niche indicates the direction to Mecca, and held a gilt copy of the Koran. Beginning in 1523 the central part of the mosque was destroyed to accommodate the insertion of a Catholic Cathedral. The Cathedral of Córdoba, inside the former mosque Mesquita / Cathedral Islamic law forbids images of people or of God in mosques. Chapel of the Conception, one of several chapels inserted around the edges of the former mosque. The Córdoba Cathedral Treasury houses a large silver monstrance used to display the Host on special occasions, paintings, and nine statues of saints. The conflicted dual identity of this mosque / cathedral remains contentious to this day. The Courtyard of the Orange Trees, part of the original mosque, has been retained, but is now covered with paving stones. Córdoba Mesquita / Cathedral The mosque's minaret was torn down and replaced by this bell tower. The Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos (Castle of the Christian Monarchs) occupies a site originally occupied by a Visigoth fortress and incorporates parts of a Moorish alcázar. Christians took Córdoba in 1236. Conversion of the Alcázar began in 1328. Isabella and Ferdinand used it while planning for the capture of Granada and for the Inquisition. The gardens outside the main castle walls occupy about 55,000 m² / 14 acres. Despite originating in the Christian era these gardens are typically Moorish in design. The gardens feature ponds, fountains, and aromatic plants. Córdoba Alcázar The Alcázar gardens were an unexpected delight ... Córdoba Alcázar ... and a pleasant and relaxing way to finish my visit to Córdoba. Seville is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir. Although it is 80 km / 50 miles from the Atlantic, the river is navigable all the way to Seville. Seville harbour is the only river port in Spain, and this gave the city great economic advantage at various times in the past. The Torre del Oro (Tower of Gold) was built by the Moors in the 13th century. It was an anchor point for a chain to block passage up the river. The Reales Alcázares de Sevilla, Seville's royal palace, was originally a Moorish fort. In 1364 Spanish King Pedro I ordered the construction of a royal residence within the palaces which had been built by Moorish rulers in the 12th century. Although commissioned by a Catholic monarch, the palace is one of the best remaining examples of mudéjar architecture. It was built by craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. The facade of the palace of King Pedro I Seville Alcázar Mudéjar architecture Seville Alcázar Patio of the Maidens Seville Alcázar Patio of the Maidens The Alcázar's large gardens were added in later centuries to provide a refuge from the heat and bustle of Seville. Seville Alcázar gardens In 1503 Isabella and Ferdinand added the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) annex to personally regulate trade with the New World colonies from Seville. The royal monopoly required all New World shipping to pass through Seville. Treasures like the gold and silver from the Incas ushered in Seville’s Golden Age. The Cathedral of Seville is an expression in stone of post-Reconquest confidence and wealth. Work began in 1402 and continued for centuries. Seville Cathedral It is the third-largest church and the largest Gothic building in Europe. It also boasts the largest altarpiece in the world. Seville Cathedral Apparently the members of the cathedral chapter said "Let us build a church so beautiful and so great that those who see it will think we were mad." Seville Cathedral The Cathedral was built on the site of a mosque. Only the courtyard and a modified form of the minaret were retained. Seville Cathedral The exterior exhibits traces of Moorish influences. The crowds come to see the treasures in the interior, which do not. The Tomb of Christopher Columbus. Columbus was originally buried in Havana, but Spain transferred his remains to Seville in 1902. Seville Cathedral is also known as the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See. Seville Cathedral Chapel of the Grand Conception Seville Cathedral Sacristia Mayor Seville Cathedral's 16th century Custodia de Corpus by Juan de Arfe (left) and other treasures in the Sacristy Seville Cathedral Monstrance for Holy Week Seville Cathedral The main altarpiece, the Cathedral’s main claim to fame, is being restored and is all covered up. It consists of 45 carved scenes from the life of Christ. It was the life’s work of single craftsman, Fleming Pieter Dancart. It is carved in wood and covered in gold. It is the largest and richest altarpiece in the world. Plaza de España You've seen this before, with your friend Luke Skywalker. Plaza de España was used as a location for Star Wars Episodes I and II. Plaza de España This massive semi-circular building was constructed for the 1929 Ibero-American Exposition hosted by Seville. The bridges over the moat represent the four ancient kingdoms of Spain. Plaza de España The architecture is described as a mix of Art Deco and Renaissance / neo Moorish. Tall towers mark the north and south ends of the building, which now houses government offices. Along the wall by the canal are 48 alcoves with painted ceramic murals and benches, one for each province of Spain. Plaza de España A delightful finish to my visit to Seville. Back in central Spain. Segovia is 90 km / 50 miles north of Madrid. The land here can support raising cattle. Segovia Back to Roman times. Segovia’s aqueduct was built at the end of the 1st century AD and remained in use until the late 1800s. The aqueduct is built of unmortared brick-like granite blocks. There are a total of 167 arches in the portion of the aqueduct in the city. Segovia The aqueduct brought water from a mountain river 17 km / 11 miles from the city. Segovia's Alcázar occupies the site of Roman and Arab fortifications. It was built in stages mostly from the 12th through 16th centuries. Segovia Cathedral was built between 1525 and 1577 and was the last great Gothic cathedral to be built in Spain. The centre of Ávila, 65 km / 40 miles west of Segovia, is encircled by the finest-preserved medieval walls in Europe. Ávila The 11th and 12th century walls are 2.5 km / 1.5 miles long, punctuated by 88 semi-circular towers. Ávila The walls average 3 m / 10 feet wide and 12 m / 40 feet high. The fortifications are the most complete in Spain. Ávila Santa Teresa Gate, one of nine Ávila View from Santa Teresa Gate Madrid doesn’t have a big Roman or even medieval history. When King Philip II chose Madrid as his capital in 1561 it had just 20,000 inhabitants. Some of Madrid's most historic secular buildings are located around Plaza de la Villa. The Casa de los Lujanes on Plaza de la Villa, with its Gothic portal and Mudéjar-style horseshoe arches dates from the 15th century. Plaza Mayor, at the heart of Old Madrid, was started in 1617 and built in just two years, replacing slum houses. The most prominent building on the square is the Casa de la Panaderia, built as the seat of the powerful bakers' guild. The equestrian statue at the centre of the Plaza is of Philip III, who ordered the square's construction. Plaza Mayor Bullfights, pageants, and trials and executions by the Inquisition were all held here, watched by crowds, often in the presence of the reigning king and queen. Plaza Mayor Balconies gave the monarchs good views of the festivities. Royal Palace Madrid’s vast and lavish Royal Palace was built to impress. After a fire in 1734 King Philip V commissioned a truly palatial replacement. The Palace has 135,000 m² / 1,450,000 sq ft of floor space and contains 3,418 rooms. It is the largest palace in Europe by floor area. The interior of the Palace is notable for its wealth of art and the fine construction and decoration of its rooms. Interior photography is not permitted. The memorial to King Philip IV which faces the Royal Palace in the Plaza de Oriente was sculpted between 1634 and 1640. Puerta del Sol The Puerta del Sol (Gate of the Sun) is a late 19th century semi-circular plaza which competes with Plaza Mayor as the focus of Old Madrid. Puerta del Sol This building has housed the city’s post office, Spain’s Ministry of the Interior, and police cells during the Franco regime. It is now home to regional government. Puerta del Sol The equestrian statue on this plaza is of King Charles III who inaugurated many public works programs in Madrid. Puerta del Sol All roads lead to and from Madrid. Puerta del Sol is Kilometre / Mile Zero. This stone marks the centre of Spain's radial transportation systems. The French Bourbon monarchs ruling Spain in the 18th century expanded Madrid to the east and set about embellishing the city. The Puerta de Alcalá was constructed between 1769 and 1778. Until the mid-19th century it marked Madrid's easternmost boundary. The Palacio de Comunicaciones, originally headquarters of the postal service, was added to Plaza de Cibeles between 1905 and 1917. The fountain in Plaza de Cibeles depicts Cybele, the Greco-Roman goddess of nature, sitting in her lion-drawn chariot. It was sculpted between 1777 and 1782. The Paseo del Prado, one of Madrid's main boulevards, runs south from Plaza de Cibeles and is the location of some of the city's most important cultural institutions. The Prado Museum is on Paseo del Prado, but I don't have time to begin to explore its vast collection of art treasures. But I do want to visit the Reina Sofia Museum to see Picasso's war protest painting, Guernica, perhaps the most famous single work of art of the 20th century. Guernica Oil on canvas, 7.8 x 3.5 m / 25.5 x 11.5 ft PABLO PICASSO 1937 Picasso was outraged by the devastating bombing of the Basque town of Guernica by German warplanes flying in support of Spanish Nationalist forces in April 1937. © Succesion Pablo Picasso Interpretative detail at: Wikipedia \| Guernica Retiro Park is a large (1.4 km² / 350 acre) park created as a private retreat by the king in 1632 and opened to the public in 1869. Retiro Park It is entirely surrounded by present-day Madrid, and a popular destination for families on weekends. Retiro Park The park is filled with sculptures, monuments, galleries, and a large artificial lake where you can rent row boats. Retiro Park Even a lake has to have an equestrian statue. This is a monument to King Alfonso XII (1857 – 1885). The Gran Via, a main artery of modern Madrid, was built between 1904 and 1929. The project required demolishing many buildings in the centre of the city. Gran Via The new road created opportunities for architects to create a showcase of 20th century architecture. The Edificio Metrópolis on the corner is most famous. Gran Via is called the Spanish Broadway, and it is said that it never sleeps. But I have to catch some rest because tomorrow I head home. 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INTRODUCTION The Central Vista complex is the centre of administration for the nation and houses all facilities needed for efficient functioning of the Government of India. It is also of significance as a major tourist attraction, besides being the site for the majority of India’s national festivals and key ceremonial events. Inaugurated in 1931, the Central Vista included the Rashtrapati Bhavan, North and South Blocks, the Parliament House, the Record Office (later named as The National Archives) along with the India Gate monument and the civic gardens on either side of the Rajpath. The Central Vista Avenue comprises of Kartavya Path and India Gate lawns. Rajpath has been renamed as Kartavya Path which symbolizes a shift from an icon of power (Rajpath) to being an example of public ownership and empowerment (Kartavya Path). Post-independence, the Central Secretariat buildings such as Udyog Bhawan, Nirman Bhawan, Shastri Bhawan, Rail Bhawan and Krishi Bhawan were constructed during 1956 - 1968 to cater to the increased demand for office spaces, required for the Central Government Ministries. EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL VISTA The Delhi Town Planning Committee, set up in 1912, prepared a layout, which divided the new capital into three main categories. The first category focused on the buildings that the Government would provide before the new city became the seat of the government, the second focused on the buildings that the Government could add later on to the new city and the third included the buildings that were to be constructed by private agencies. The Government of British India appointed Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker as the architects for designing the imperial buildings, in 1913. The original set of Lutyens-Baker buildings were designed and constructed over two decades, from 1911 to 1931. NEED FOR THE CENTRAL VISTA DEVELOPMENT/REDEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN The Central Vista development/redevelopment project aims to strengthen governance infrastructure by building new facilities for India's Parliament, an efficient and sustainable Central Secretariat to house all the ministries of the Government of India. The objectives of the Central Vista development/redevelopment project are: 1. RESTORING THE ORIGINAL SYMMETRY AND LAYOUT OF THE CENTRAL VISTA The Central Vista was originally designed with a strong underpinning geometry, splendid symmetry and a carefully choreographed processional route. The Master Plan aims to restore the original symmetry and order, while respecting the Heritage of the building and spaces. 2. STRENGTHENING THE FUNCTIONING OF LEGISLATURE The Master Plan proposes the first purpose-designed Parliament for independent India, equipped with state-of-the-art infrastructure to meet all needs of an expanded Parliament. After the present building is retrofitted and refurbished, the two will be used in conjunction. In addition, a separate building to house the offices for Members of Parliament is also planned. 3. IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY AND EFFICIENCY OF ADMINISTRATION The planned Common Central Secretariat (CCS) will include 10 office buildings and a Central Conference Centre. All the 51 Ministries are envisioned to be located in 10 CCS buildings to improve coordination, collaboration and administrative synergies. The present buildings of the Central Vista shall be replaced with modern office buildings with capacity to hold about 54,000 personnel to meet the present and future needs of the Ministries/ Departments. 4. CONSERVATION AND REJUVENATION OF CULTURAL AND HERITAGE FACILITIES The North and South Blocks will be refurbished to house the National Museum. The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) will continue its important cultural agenda, at a new location opposite Hyderabad House. A purpose-designed facility is also envisioned beside the historic building of the National Archives of India (NAI) for creating state-of-the-art facilities. 5. PROVIDING ADEQUATE AND SECURE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR EXECUTIVE OFFICES A modern, secure and appropriately-equipped Executive Enclave is planned to house executive offices and facilities for the Prime Minister’s Office, the Cabinet Secretariat and the National Security Council Secretariat. 6. ENSURING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY, EXPANDING PUBLIC SPACE AND EXTENDING THE CENTRAL VISTA AXIS The overall objective of works planned on the Central Vista is to ensure environmental sustainability, expand and improve public space, and to extend its axis. The New India Garden is being planned near the River Yamuna. A publicly-accessible National Biodiversity Arboretum is also planned to the west of the President’s estate, to showcase endangered plants of India in high-tech greenhouses set amidst indigenous forestation. 7. PROVIDING ADEQUATE AND SECURE FACILITIES FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT AND THE PRIME MINISTER Modern, adequate and secure residential facilities for the Vice President and the Prime Minister are planned to the north of North Block and south of South Block respectively. These new residential facilities will be highly functional and equipped with all necessary amenities. Locating offices and residences of all dignitaries in a single location will reduce redundancies of infrastructure and improve city traffic management. 8. PROMOTING TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT The Central Vista Development/Redevelopment project has been envisaged by integrating the principles of transit-oriented development. All buildings of the Central Secretariat will be connected to each other and to Delhi’s metro network via a secure underground people mover and with the city’s bus network via a grade shuttle. As a result of uptake of shared transit facilities, overall emission and air pollution level from personal vehicles is expected to reduce, resulting in the improvement in overall air quality of the capital city. BENEFITS OF STRENGTHENING AND REFURBISHING THE CENTRAL VISTA GOVERNANCE BENEFITS The objective of the Central Vista Development/Redevelopment Master Plan is to improve the productivity and efficiency of administration by providing it with highly functional and purpose-designed office infrastructure. Some of the emergent governance benefits shall be as follows: - Combining all 51 Central Government Ministries in 10 Common Central Secretariat buildings will allow for easy movement of personnel, documents and goods, thereby increasing administrative efficiency. - It will create modern workspaces with latest technology for better productivity and efficient utilization of human resources. The infrastructure and facilities will be built at par with global standards. - The Prime Minister's Office, Residence and Vice President Residence are proposed to be built near the South Block and North Block respectively, in proximity to the Parliament and Common Central Secretariat, which would help in addressing security and logistic arrangements in a comprehensive manner, without interfering with the regular movement of traffic. ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Environmental sustainability is at the core of the Central Vista project, with a comprehensive plan to use centralised systems and infrastructure, promote the use of public transport and have upgradeable technology, systems and services. The projects will result in overall increase in green cover. No trees will be cut in any projects in Central Vista. Strict measures are also being undertaken simultaneously to minimise environmental effects of the Central Vista project during the construction phase. Steps are being taken to minimise on-site air emissions, noise, wastewater discharge, soil erosion as well as construction waste. All construction and demolition waste received from dismantling of existing buildings shall be processed in construction and demolition (C&D) waste treatment plant and recycled for use in construction. ARCHITECTURAL CENTRALITY None of the listed Heritage Buildings in Central Vista will be demolished. While these heritage buildings retain their architectural majesty, they are under severe stress and in need of comprehensive upgradation. Therefore, the heritage buildings that fall under the scope of the Central Vista development/redevelopment project will be appropriately retrofitted, as per Heritage Conservation standards, and refurbished for their future use. All the works planned on Central Vista are designed to be mindful of the Vista’s original layout, its geometries and its architectural character. All the paintings, sculptures, manuscripts, collections and other significant heritage and cultural artefacts that are presently housed at the National Museum, National Archives of India and Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) are carefully preserved. CENTRAL VISTA AVENUE The Central Vista Avenue comprises Rajpath and India Gate lawns. The Central Vista Avenue is considered to be one of the most important roads in Delhi, where the annual Republic Day parade takes place on 26 January. Post-Independence, the Central Vista Avenue streets were also renamed: King’s Way became Rajpath and Queen’s Way became Janpath. The Viceroy’s House became the Rashtrapati Bhavan and the All-India War Memorial became the India Gate. The imperial buildings at the Central Vista Avenue continue to serve as an important space for Indian diplomacy. New office buildings have been added over the course of time to meet the growing demands for administrative space. CENTRAL VISTA AVENUE REFURBISHMENT PROJECT: A WORLD CLASS AVENUE, WITH MODERN AMENITIES The original stretch of the Central Vista Avenue has undergone multiple changes over the course of time. Despite the changes, the Avenue continues to retain its basic character and serves as a setting for national and public events, a precious civic garden for the city and an important tourist attraction. Thus, redevelopment of Central Vista Avenue emerged as a priority area for the Central Vista Master Plan. The objectives of the Central Vista Avenue refurbishment proposal are to: - Refurbish, strengthen and restore its landscape - Provide amenities that make it comfortable for civic users and tourists to use - Make it more pedestrian friendly and easier for traffic to negotiate through - Provide adequate space and facilities for vendors - Ensure that arrangements for national events cause minimal disruption - Ensure integrity and continuity of the Avenue’s architectural character. The Central Vista Avenue Refurbishment Project will modernise the avenue while also restoring elements with heritage value. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM ACROSS THE COUNTRY FOR THE CENTRAL VISTA PROJECT #1 SANDSTONE AND GRANITE STONE FROM RAJASTHAN Sand stone from Sarmathura in Dholpur district of Rajasthan; Granite stone from Lakha village in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan are being used extensively in the Central Vista Project to develop both the exterior as well as interior layer of various structures. #2 AUTHENTIC WOODEN CRAFTWORK FROM MAHARASHTRA The New Parliament Building in Central Vista will have extensive usage of wooden structures for creation of interior as well as exterior decor, rooted in traditional motifs and elements. The wood is being procured from Nagpur and the wooden architecture design is being led by artisans & craftsmen from Mumbai, Maharashtra, promoting authentic wooden craftwork from the State. #3 HAND-KNOTTED CARPETS FROM UTTAR PRADESH The New Parliament Building will have hand-knotted carpets from Bhadohi, Uttar Pradesh popular for its beautiful hand-knotted carpets, earning it the name of ‘Carpet City’. Renowned for the “knot-by-knot” technique, the beauty of the design comes from the way the knots are made by craftspersons in an intricate manner, using fingers. PROGRESS OF THE CENTRAL VISTA PROJECT - Employment Generated (In Man-Days): 35,78,595 - Manpower Onsite: 8,165 - Manpower Offsite: 1,435 - Skilled Manpower: 3,973 - Semi Skilled Manpower: 5,397 - Steel Used (In MT): 41,504 - Cement Used (In MT): 1,05,710 - Fly Ash Used (In Cubic Meter): 17,331 - Work Force Vaccinated: 8,259 (data as on November 22, 2022) UNHEARD STORIES OF CENTRAL VISTA - 100% of the workforce working on the Central Vista have been insured - AQI is comparatively better from adjoining monitoring station by about 8-10% - 10 saplings planted for every tree relocated - 8259 labourers working on Central Vista have been vaccinated till date, and 100% vaccination is being targeted. In this Amrit Kaal, the new Central Vista will be the architectural icon every proud Indian will turn towards for inspiration and a feeling of belonging. India is a proud nation with a vibrant democracy. The vision for the new Central Vista gives a symbolic expression to this pride that resides in every Indian’s heart. References: - [https://centralvista.gov.in/](https://centralvista.gov.in/) - [https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1857905](https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1857905) - Press Information Bureau ([pib.gov.in](http://pib.gov.in)) - [https://twitter.com/transformindia/status/1567819492927086594?lang=da](https://twitter.com/transformindia/status/1567819492927086594?lang=da) AG/HP/RC/KG/MZ	f54d2dd5-e4d9-4c29-8b74-ec7f7e1faf40	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2022/nov/doc20221122133001.pdf	2023-09-26T02:22:40+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510130.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20230926011608-20230926041608-00267.warc.gz	592,788,657	2,724	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.92036	eng_Latn	0.99088	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 958, 3011, 4892, 7043, 9033, 10019, 11428, 12514, 13260 ]	[ 2.1875 ]	1	0
PART 1 Questions 1 - 5 You will hear five short conversations. You will hear each conversation twice. There is one question for each conversation. For questions 1 - 5 put a tick (✓) under the right answer. Example: 0) How many people were at the meeting? 3 13 30 A B C ✓ 1) What doesn’t the girl like about her photo? A B C 2) Which is the boy’s next lesson? A B C 3) What will the woman do first? A B C 4) What do they need to buy for dinner? A B C 5) What did Joe get for his birthday? A B C PART 2 Questions 6 - 10 Listen to Gemma and her husband, Harry, talking about pictures for their new house. Which picture will they put in each room? For questions 6 - 10, write a letter A - H next to each room. You will hear the conversation twice. Example: O) living room B \| Rooms \| Pictures \| \|----------------\|---------------------------\| \| 6) bathroom \| A) beach \| \| 7) bedroom \| B) cathedral \| \| 8) kitchen \| C) Gemma's parents \| \| 9) hall \| D) Harry's village \| \| 10) dining room\| E) horses \| \| \| F) mountains \| \| \| G) racing cars \| \| \| H) river \| PART 3 Questions 11 - 15 Listen to Grace telling a friend about a hotel. For questions 11 - 15, tick (✓) A, B or C. You will hear the conversation twice. Example: O) Which ice cream will they have at the party? A Rosebank Hotel ✓ B Rosewood Hotel C Rosemount Hotel 11) The hotel is A in a town B on a mountain C near the sea PART 3 - CONTINUES ON NEXT PAGE 12) At the hotel, Grace could A play golf B play tennis C use the swimming pool 13) In Grace's room, there was A a fridge B a video player C a coffee machine 14) In the restaurant Grace had? A too few vegetables B a lot of fried food C chips with every meal 14) Grace says the hotel was A cheap B boring C noisy PART 4 Questions 16 - 20 You will hear a conversation about a holiday English course. Listen and complete questions 16 - 20. You will hear the conversation twice. HOLIDAY ENGLISH COURSE Place: Oxford Students must be: 16) ____________ years old or more. Starting date: 17) ___________________ July. Students stay with: 18) English ________________ Price of course: 19) £_______________________ College in: 20) ______________________ Street. PART 5 Questions 21 - 25 You will hear some information about an air museum. Listen and complete questions 21 - 25. You will hear the conversation twice. AIR MUSEUM Place: 140 planes Museum is near village of: 16) _______________________ From village, get bus number: 17) _______________________ Summer opening times: 18) 10 a.m. to ___________ p.m. Price of family ticket: 19) £__________________________ Day for plane trips: 20) _____________________________ You have now 8 minutes to write your answers in the answer sheet.	fe988e53-aae4-4054-b0f0-791fa27c579e	CC-MAIN-2021-49	https://www.benedictonline.com/videopreintermediate/videott/KETTEST2.pdf	2021-12-05T01:54:50+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363134.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20211205005314-20211205035314-00282.warc.gz	724,622,753	774	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996776	eng_Latn	0.998544	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 507, 1622, 2419, 2951 ]	[ 3.453125 ]	1	0
Sikkim at a glance 1) Sikkim, a state in India, is located in the eastern Himalayas, in the north-eastern part of the country. It is one of the smallest states of India. Sikkim is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and northeast, Bhutan to the southeast, the Indian state of West Bengal to the south, and Nepal to the west. The capital and largest city is Gangtok, in the south-eastern part of the state Kangchenjunga, the highest peak in India and the third highest peak on Earth. 2) Vegetation - There are mainly five types of forests in Sikkim namely sub-tropical, moist mixed deciduous, moist temperate, conifer and sub-alpine forests. With an area of 7096 km², the state has 30.77% forest as a protected area which includes seven wildlife sanctuaries and one national park which is the highest in the country. Khangchendzonga National Park, the only national park in the state is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site declared in July 2016. 3) Language: The official languages of the state are English, Nepali, Sikkimese (Bhutia) and Lepcha. Nepali is the vernacular of Sikkim, while Sikkimese (Bhutia) and Lepcha are spoken in some areas. 4) Districts of Sikkim - Sikkim has four districts East Sikkim, West Sikkim, North Sikkim and South Sikkim whose capitals are Gangtok, Geyzing, Mangan and Namchi respectively. 5) Out of 3 ethnic groups Lepcha, Bhutia and Nepali. Sikkim is a beautiful cultural bouquet filled with fascinating folk dances, traditions and customs. Traditional dresses like bhaku. 6) Education - The school in Sikkim is affiliated to CBSE & ICSE board. Sikkim is a partner state of Delhi under Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat. The literacy rate of Sikkim is 82.6%, which ranks 13th in India. Sikkim which is the crown of India and also the brother of 7 sisters (North East State), Shri Narendra Modi, Hon’ble Prime Minister while addressing the State Agriculture Ministers' Conference declared Sikkim as the first organic state of India. Historical Sites 1. Siddheshwar Dham, Namchi 2. Yumthang 3. Zero Point. 4. Nathula Border 5. Baba Harbhajan Singh Valley Temple 6. Rumtek or Rumtek Monastery (Math), Famous People of Sikkim 1. Danny Dengzongpa (Film History) 2. Baichung Bhutia (Indian football player) “Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat” is an initiative announced by Hon’ble Prime minister on 31st October 2015. This programme aims to actively enhance interaction between people of diverse cultures living in different states and UTs of India with the objective of promoting greater mutual understanding amongst them. SCERT in the collaboration with DOE has provided us a great opportunity to visit Sikkim and acquaint ourselves with the diverse culture of Sikkim. A team comprises of 30 members (28 TDCs from different schools of DOE along with Ms. Sonia Tondan from SCERT, & Dr. Dharmender Dagar, Asst. prof. DIET Ghummenhera) reached Bagdogra on 15th Jan 2023. From there we travelled to Gangtok via the route of Siliguri. It took approx 5 hours to cover the distance of 124 km and reach from Bagdogra to Gangtok. This journey was though quite long and tiring but highly exhilarating as the road passed through lush green forest along the meandering Teesta- river. Finally, we reached the Cardamom residency where we had to stay for one night. Gangtok is the largest populated place as well as the capital of the mountainous Northern Indian state of Sikkim. It is at the centre of Sikkim’s tourist industry. It is in the eastern Himalayan range at an elevation of 1650 m (5410 feet). Kanchenjunga mountain range is quite visible from this city. While visiting the local areas and markets of this city, we got to know many interesting facts about the culture, language, occupations of the people living here. The population of Sikkim is approx 6-7 lakhs. Most of the people here speak Nepali language but they are well acquainted with Hindi as well. People of different religions are found here like Hindu's, Buddhist, Christians and Muslims. People here are generally known as Nepalese, Bhutia, Tibetan aur Lepcha. The major religious festivals of Sikkim are Diwali, Christmas, Dussehra, Holi etc. Nepali festivals like Maghe Sakranti, Ram Navami are also celebrated here. We can see glimpses of Buddhism and their festivals also. People wear mostly common western attire but their love for traditional dresses like Bhutia, Gho, dumidum can also be seen. Men wear Thokorodum including pyjama, shirts and a cap. Tourism and agriculture are the main sources of livelihood of the people. However, the state has only about 12% of its land under civilization. Women in Sikkim are equally participating in all the economic activities to support and meet the economic needs of their family. Most of the women are working here. Apart from its sight, seeing and adventures, Sikkim is also famous for food. Sikkim is known as an organic state, so people here tend to prefer fruits, vegetables, eggs and meat from local farmers that are organically cultivated Momos, noodles, noodles soup, bamboo shoot, curry, dal Bhat. Thukpa are the most popular delicacy among the people of Sikkim. While visiting Gangtok or nearby areas of Sikkim, we realized that life here is full of many hardships. Extreme chilly weather and natural conditions make it difficult for people to survive. Still, they are always seen with smiling faces and contented faces. Sikkim is a worth seeing place. One must surely visit this place. After the tiring long mountain road journey of the first day, everyone was fast asleep at the “Hotel Cardamom” in Gangtok. We received directions from our Group Leader and Coordinator Dr. Dharmendra Dagar ji to be ready for breakfast at 7.30 am and to leave for Lachung by 8 am. State Government Senior Secondary School, Bojoghari. All of the TDCs got up with a very happy note. After the morning tea at the hotel, we left for a visit to the nearby State Government Senior Secondary School, Bojoghari. Within a few minutes, we reached that school on foot. Everyone found the school impressive. After the brief visit, we returned back to the hotel and had breakfast discussing the challenging terrain for building such school at mountain slopes. Immediately after that we packed our bags and checked out of the hotel and left for Lachung. Making new friends each one of us was excited to go see Lachung. We all boarded the cabs. The one we boarded was driven by a young man, Ruchak. He was very cheerful and quick to answer. He was our driver as well as guide for this tour. By now our taxi was racing along the winding mountain roads. Here the roads were narrow and had sharp turns. Somewhere it was a very steep climb. As the car kept moving forward, we were surprised to see how cool and composed the drivers were. We would all on our guard at every sharp turn but Ruchak was a very skilful driver and made us relax. He used to reassure us every now and then to be fearless of the journey and we went on like this. The height and vastness of the mountains was visible. The trees and plants there were mesmerizing. The beautiful and picturesque views were making us happy. The air was so fresh and pure as it was welcoming us. Seven Sisters Fall: After a journey of about two hours, our happiness to add to our excitement we saw a waterfall. When we saw a beautiful waterfall falling from the mountains in front of us, everyone was excited. Its name was "Seven Sisters Fall". Every camera was clicking cheerful faces of the TDCs. The residents informed us about the name of the waterfall. As water from the height falls at seven different places there, it is called “Seven Sisters Fall.” The beauty of the huge rocks under the thundering waterfall was impressive. The water was pristine clear that everything was clearly visible at the bottom. All the companions were going near the fall for a panoramic view and capturing the beauty in their cameras. Some companions were seen battling with the cold air with the help of tea and coffee. A beautiful bridge over the canal was adorned by the colourful Buddhist Prayer Flags along with a Buddhist shrine and Dharamchakra. After enjoying for about an hour, we were back in our seats in our cabs. The pine and deodar trees on the mountains looked very attractive. The river Teesta was seen flowing at the foothills along the path. As we climbed higher up the mountain, a drastic drop in temperature was felt. The Theng Tunnel A long tunnel welcomed our group. When we came out of the "Theng Tunnel" through the mountain on the way, all were surprised and it compelled us to think about the efforts of fellow human beings, who carved out such a unique path through the chest of the mighty mountain. On the way after a while, we at a distance we saw the "Yak". It was very strong and dark in color. We were also surprised to see its big horns. When we expressed our desire to see him from close quarters, Ruchak our driver paused the taxi. We all went near the yak and took some photos. We discovered our childhood in it. As many of our comrades had seen yaks for the first time. After meeting the Yak, we went ahead. We realized that road making and repairing is a all-season continuous task in the mountains. Somewhere the roads were lying damaged and somewhere the road was in good condition. Repair work were also in progress at some places. Ruchak was successfully pushing the taxi overcoming all the difficulties and obstacles in the way. After listening to Hindi music for some time, he put on some other music, which we could not understand. When asked, he told it be a song in Nepali language. We were also told that most of the Sikkim people understand Nepali. We were enjoying that melodious music and in the meantime the cab kept leaping miles after miles. The boy Ruchak, when asked about the tattoo on the hand on his hand, it was told that it is a tradition in Sikkim. The would-be groom needs to have a tattoo done on his hand for the would-be bride, before marriage. He kept enlightening us about many important social, cultural, and geographical information with us and while the cab kept galloping ahead. The Prayer Flags: We noticed at many places, white and colored flags on both sides of the road with prayers written on them. We were told that these white flags were put for the peace of a departed soul and the colored flags were placed after a wish is fulfilled. They are placed at clean and airy slopes of the mountains. These auspicious flags are 108 in number. Most of these flags were placed at the turn of the road, which looked very attractive. It was told that these flags are not taken down after installation, rather they get degraded naturally due to sun and rain. We observed there at various places, that the women work in every field for their livelihood. Women were seen running shops, hotels, and other businesses primarily. As the cab kept climbing up the mountain, the temperature kept dropping and the chill kept increasing. After some time, our cab reached near the “State Government College of Magashila,” which was situated at the state highway. We visited the building and saw the well-maintained library; it was beautiful and orderly. We also saw the artistic project work by the students there, which was highly commendable. We took some photographs there too and moved on. Just, after a while at some distance, a tyre of a cab of our group got punctured. There we saw a strong spirit of co-operation. Drivers were helping each other to solve that problem. Meanwhile we got down there and had tea and coffee. The people and Culture At some distance an elderly village woman was seen carrying some vegetables on her back in a big basket. We approached her to know more about her health and daily life. At first, she was a little hesitant, after realizing our eagerness she talked with us. She was very hardworking but healthy even at the age of 70. She was like an inspiration for us. Both the cabs were ready and started running again after an hour. On the way we saw a marriage program was going on. The colorful costumes of the guests present there gave us a real glimpse of the culture of Sikkim. Their traditional costumes were looking very beautiful and attractive. Lachung, the destination: In this way, after traveling for several hours, we finally reached Lachung, completing our day long journey. It was very cold there. The temperature was reported several degrees below zero. It was bone-chilling cold there. For many of us it was a new experience leaving Delhi Ki Sardi far behind. Most of the companions moved into their hotel rooms after a welcome tea. But some of us went out for a brief walk with some of our friends. Roaring sound of rushing waters of the river was heard in the dark. The water flowing on the roads was found frozen at some places. It was a pleasant surprise to see this scene with our own eyes and felt the strong presence of harsh nature. We passed by an army unit crossing the Sentry Gate. There, we met the great sons of our motherland performing their duty in that harsh weather. The strong spirit of patriotism among the soldiers to guard their country at any cost made us realize the significance of our great armed forces. Their promptness and spirit of service was enough to wake our spirit of patriotism. There some memorials of some martyrs were raised, we offered flowers of gratitude. There we had important information from the soldiers about the challenges of the weather in Lachung. We returned to our hotel after expressing our gratitude towards all those alert soldiers. By the time we got back to the hotel, a hot meal was ready. We were very hungry. After dinner, we went to our room and went to rest. Due to extreme cold conditions, many colleagues had to make additional arrangements for the room heaters. We were so tired that we soon feel fast sleep. Thus, this second day of Sikkim tour was spent with great enthusiasm. It was an opportunity to know and learn a lot about the Sikkim’s geography, society and culture. Thus, the second day of our Sikkim tour was very successful and informative. DAY 3: On the third day we went from Lachung to Yumthang Valley, Teesta River (Hydro Power Electric Plant) and Zero Point, and back to Gangtok. LACHUNG Before reaching LACHUNG, Our journey started on January 16 morning from Gangtok the capital of Sikkim to Lachung and the weather is almost unpredictable throughout the journey. You never know when snow might greet you. Several waterfalls seven sisters water fall, Amitabh Bachchan Falls (real name is Bhewma Falls), naga falls, were seen in the way. Hydroelectric project. The project has been established since September 3, 2014, in Chungthang on the Teesta River has the potential to generate 1200 MW of electricity. This is the third dam on Teesta River. The Lachung and Lachen, two glacier fed rivers in northern Sikkim, join the southern Chungthanges. Theng Tunnel is a road tunnel on the Chungthang-Mangan highway in North Sikkim. The 578 meters long tunnel is the longest tunnel in the state of Sikkim. It is constructed by Border Road Organisation as part of Project Swastik on the Sino-Indian border. During ride we have enjoyed ALAAV in between to save us from cold waves. All the above beautiful and charming places add to the charm and adventure of the journey. The taxi reached Lachung after taking a few breaks throughout the ride. LACHUNG, A hill station town with an altitude of about 9,600 feet, Lachung offers some stunning views of the snow-capped Himalayas along with the Lachung and Lachen rivers in its vicinity. Located at a distance of about 125 km from Gangtok, it is the first night halt for the tourists as it gets dark before they reach here. Most of the inhabitants of Lachung are Lepchas, of Tibetan origin, and the languages spoken here are Nepali, Lepcha and Bhutia. You can easily explore the city on foot, as it is a small village. Beyond this, Yume-Semdong and Yumthang Valley, located at 16 kms distance, are popular destinations. Yumthang Valley Our journey to Yumthang valley started in the morning on 17 Jan 2023. Yumthang Valley is located in the North Sikkim district of Sikkim at an altitude of 3,575 m (11,729 ft) above sea level. This valley is surrounded by the Himalayan mountains and is very beautiful. It is 148 km from Gangtok, the capital of Sikkim. Is located at a distance. Yumthang Valley is also known as "Valley of Flowers". Red, orange, purple, yellow and white flowers are found here. Due to heavy snowfall, the Yumthang Valley is closed from December to March. Enriched with natural beauty, this place attracts many tourists during the spring season with beautiful wild colourful flowers like roses and buds. Apart from this, there are various other attractive places around this beautiful place. Zero Point Sikkim We were eager to explore Zero Point Sikkim as we were fascinated by the fact that it is the last outpost of India. Our journey to Zero Point began when we boarded a taxi from Lachung early in the morning. The road trip from Lachung to Zero Point is one of the juiciest road trips ever. pollution!! Oops, this term is not present in the dictionary of North Sikkim. Zero Point, also known as Yumesamdong, Zero Point Sikkim is situated at an altitude of 15,300 ft above mean sea level (23 km from Yumthang Valley) and is the last outpost of India. The road ends here!!! The drive from Yumthang Valley to Zero Point is through rolling hills amidst the rugged terrain of the geographical region. Zig zag road on Zero Point Sikkim route. We Enjoying the journey, we reached zero point. There is hardly any vegetation in Zero Point as it is covered with snow for most of the year but still, you can spot yaks grazing in the snow in search of vegetation. Due to the height of the zero point, the oxygen in the air decreases and some people may have difficulty in breathing. The place is a short distance from the international border between India and China, so a special permit is required to visit Zero Point Sikkim and the driver may charge some extra INR for the same. After spending an hour at Zero Point, our taxi headed back to Gangtok. During the visit to Sikkim, there were a large number of two colored flags on the side of the roads there. One of them was white and the other was colourful, something was written on the colourful. White colored flags are used for the peace of the souls of the dead. Apart from this, colorful flags are a symbol of worship so that people get positive energy. It is used by the people of Buddhism. 108 flags are hoisted when a person dies. The flags fluttering in the wind represent the peace of their souls. During the journey, saw the spinning wheel of Dharma. It is said that this is the prayer wheel, by rotating it sins are washed away and it is rotated from its right side. Here also it seems that whether it is plains or mountains, despite all the progress, the soul of India is the same. People's beliefs, beliefs, superstitions, concepts of sin and virtue and imagination are the same. It was a great experience with a group of great people (TDCs) to explore the amazing place SIKKIM. DAY: 4 Day 4(18th January 2023), began with a trip to Natula pass. Located at 14,150 feet, Nathu La in East Sikkim is around 55 km away from Gangtok, the state capital. We all were very excited for the trip and talked at lengths with the soldiers about the political and geographical importance of the place in Indo-Sino relationship. On our way to Natula pass we got to see the Famous Changu Lake/Tsomgo lake, it is a Sikkim glacier lake at 12,310 feet. Tsomgo is a name that means 'water source.' It's 40 kilometres from Gangtok town, on the rugged Jawaharlal Nehru Road that leads to Nathula Pass. It is one of India's uncommon and magnificent high-altitude lakes. The reflections of the neighbouring hills on the frozen water made the lake even more appealing. On our way back from the Natula pass we got to visit Baba Harbhajan Singh Temple. It was a sight to behold. We all felt so overwhelmed with pride and a feeling of Nationalism while listening about the great martyr, who continued to serve the nation even after his death. The respect that the army and his fellow soldiers gave him was exemplary. Got to see a few villages like Chipsu, Kumbuk and lakes like Madhubala, Manju, Elephant etc along the way. The other attractions were 15 miles Kiangshola market, Transit camp, Gunju war memorial, Alpine sanctuary and Sherthang trade centre. The day turned out to be exceptionally good. Not only did we get to see the natural beauty and cultural heritage of the state but learnt about its geopolitical importance too. DAY 5: It was the 5th day of tour being introduced with Sikkim, Its people, Its cultural richness, Its languages, professions, dresses and way of living, we learnt a lot about all the aspects of the Sikkim. During four days journey we found all social, cultural and economic aspects enriching our knowledge regarding Sikkim state. On 19th January 2023, we woke up early in the morning at Gangtok. We had our breakfast and packed our luggage, we left for “Namchi” (South Sikkim) it was 78 KM away from the state capital Gangtok. Namehi is situated at an altitude of 1675 M above sea level and lies off the road between Melli and Jorethang. After two hours journey, we stopped on mid-way on the bank of Teesta River. We were very excited and clicked some pictures of “Holy River TEESTA”. The beauty of the huge rocks and valley under the thundering water was impressive. After enjoying about half an hour, we were back in our cabs. On the way the road was very dangerous and both side we saw mountains with pine and deodar trees. After 04 hours journey finally, we reached Namchi, we took tickets for “CHHAR DHAM”. There are replicas of the “DWADASH JYOTIRLINGS” surrounding the statue of Lord Shiva. We took a group picture there and enjoyed a lot. Namchi is rapidly becoming a tourist spot and pilgrimage center. We saw one of the biggest stadiums – “THE BHAICHUNG STADIUM OF FOOTBALL” which was built by Sikkim government in honour of famous footballer BHAICHUNG BHUTIYA. Football teams from all over INDIA come and play “The Gold Cup” every year. Char Dham, the four most revered Dhams of Hindus have been replicated in the fantastic campus/complex to benefits the devotees and tourists. We stayed there around three hours. The group visited the Shri Jagannath Temple, which is one of the most important temples in Puri, Odisha. The temple is dedicated to Lord Jagannath and is considered a sacred place for devotees. The temple complex includes three main shrines: the Jagannath Temple, the Balabhadra Temple, and the Subhadra Temple. The temple is known for its unique architecture, intricate carvings, and vibrant colors. The group also had the opportunity to witness the daily rituals and ceremonies that take place at the temple. DAY 6: It was the sixth day of the trip to Sikkim. With a thankful notion to the Director SCERT, directorate of education and Delhi government we had reached Darjeeling. The effect of the tedious journey to Darjeeling was going to end soon with the new hope to devour more beautiful scenery with our eyes as today we were going to tiger hills to witness the mighty and pre requisite rising Sun. We reached the tiger hills 2 hours before the sunrise with eagerness and a new hope to enjoy the unprecedented scene. Finally, at 6:30 in the morning the golden sunrise reflected on the Kanchenjunga and the whole mountain began to shine like gold, which reminded us of our students when they are waiting for us like Kanchanjunga to shine with the Sun of education and knowledge of the worthy teacher. After witnessing this extraordinary and unprecedented scene, we moved forward to the Buddhist monastery and enjoyed the Holy environment there. Then we proceeded to assimilate the emotions of nationalism and martyrdom at the Gorakha Martyrs Smarak, the names of the Martyrs and our national flag Tiranga infused us with the previous memories of Indo China border at Nathula and the service of our respected soldiers in the difficult conditions. These places made us feel proud of our respected chief minister and education minister on including the Desh Bhakti curriculum in Delhi schools which further strengthened our morale when we met respectful and honourable group leader Shri Major Jai Kishan, the principal of Himalayan mountaineering institute at Darjeeling who has trained more than 25000 mountaineers till now and has held the world record of sky jumping at two hundred miles per hour speed from 25000 feet high in the sky. Mr. Jai Kishan shared his mental toughness and perseverance with will power which made him unfurl the national flag in Antarctica celebrating 75 glorious years of our independence. Next move was to visit the HMI Museum which showed the success stories of many famous national and international mountaineers like Santosh Yadav and Tenzing Sherpa. The sixth day visit was accomplished by watching Tea estates having winding paths and eye soothing greenery everywhere and finally the toy train riding reminded us Happiness Curriculum in our Delhi Government schools. Witnessed everything about Sikkim, sweet and friendly people, the places showing the records in our books and especially the feelings of EK BHARAT SHRESHTHA BHARAT. RETURN JOURNEY – An Experience Well Deserved It was the 7th or the last day of the trip or in other words we can say that it was the concluding day. Being introduced with Sikkim, its people, its cultural richness, its languages, profession, dresses, way of living, flora and fauna and beautiful weather conditions; we deepened our understanding of all the aspects of the state of Sikkim. Main points of visit or the new social, cultural and economic aspects we got to be acquainted with during these 6 days, we found them very fruitful, didactic and worth enriching our knowledge and education regarding the state of Sikkim. On this day, we woke up early in the morning at Darjeeling. We went for an early morning walk. It was refreshing and enlivening. During our morning walk we took some photographs of beautiful tea gardens of Darjeeling spreading their fragrance all around. We were provided with healthy but delicious breakfast with the aroma of local menu. We grasped everything more keenly as it was the day when we were ready to say goodbye to Sikkim and Darjeeling and returning back to our Delhi. We packed our luggage and left for airport. On our way to airport, we again relished the scenic beauty of world-renowned tea garden of Darjeeling. We interacted with the local people who helped us know about their culture, history, local cuisine, local flora and fauna and other aspects of their culture. Thus, interaction with friendly people of the state of Sikkim deepened our overall understanding. We also wondered at bamboo trees which we North Indians are alien to. On the way to Bagdogra we again enjoyed some wonders of nature which left all of us with lifetime of memory. As we were lost in the beautiful valley of Darjeeling, without even realization we reached our destination of Bagdogra Airport. Here, all of us were brimming with new memories, optimism and enthusiasm as it was such a fulfilling journey. All of us got together at airport, as we waited for our flight, we engaged in rich interaction with each other. All of us shared our thoughts, ideas and memories we were carrying along. Then, we dispersed in to different sections of airport to engage into our own individual activities like reading books, relishing coffee, buying some useful articles etc. Then, we zoomed into sky with rich experience of visiting one of the seven sister states. Here, we felt deeply motivated to share this experience with our students, colleagues, family members and even neighbours. We are deeply grateful to the initiative taken by our worthy Director.	1c6f65cc-62c9-43c2-8965-6e26b3342732	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://scert.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/SCERT/sikkim_tdc_1.pdf	2023-09-22T14:39:46+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506420.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20230922134342-20230922164342-00234.warc.gz	559,510,236	6,254	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997313	eng_Latn	0.998733	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1170, 3310, 5337, 7207, 10150, 13516, 14642, 14950, 15632, 17076, 17665, 18223, 18739, 19571, 20349, 21100, 22498, 23010, 23406, 23953, 24928, 25811, 26590, 28053 ]	[ 2.90625, 2.21875 ]	1	0
NACO-Red Ribbon Club Guidelines 2015 NACO National Aids Control Organisation IEC-Youth Affairs Red Ribbon Club Guidelines 2015 What does Red signify in Red Ribbon The significance of Red Ribbon in HIV & AIDS - Red like Love As a symbol of compassion and tolerance; for those who face the disease after being detected as positive. - Red like blood Representing the pain that people face, who have died of AIDS. - Red like the anger For the disease for which there is still no cure. - Red as a sign of warning To stay aware regarding HIV/AIDS and not to carelessly ignore it, instead. INTRODUCTION Young people (aged 15-29 years) constitute almost 40 Crore and represent one third of India’s population. Adolescents aged (10-19 years) constitute 32.5 Crore of the population, which is one fourth of the total population. Compared to earlier generations, the condition of the present day Youth in India has considerably improved; they are healthier, more urbanized and better educated than ever before. Nonetheless, the majority continues to experience major constraints in making informed and healthy life choices. It is generally acknowledged that a significant proportion of Youth are exposed to high risk behavior or unwanted sexual activity. This is generally because the Youth of today are exempted from the availability of correct, conscience and adequate information on how to adapt better and healthy life skills decisions. The young generation today, also, does not receive or have prompt and appropriate care and thus, they experience adverse reproductive and other health concerning issues. It is estimated that over 35 percent of all reported HIV incidences in India occur among young people (aged 15-29 years). Evidences also suggest that Youth (aged 15-29 years) are more prone to risk behaviors, which may lead them to HIV and other Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). As per BSS 2006 Findings, it is found that: • 8% of young people in age group of 15-19 years have experimented with sex either before or outside marriage • Only 27% have comprehensive knowledge on HIV transmission and prevention • 3.4% of Youth have self reported STI What is the need of Red Ribbon Clubs The targeted Youth population (15-29 years) is amongst the most vulnerable population who may be exposed to HIV infection, and as a result they may, account for a large portion of the infected persons. The targeted Youth population, with its specific psychological and social attributes is more susceptible to sexual curiosity and behavior that in turn makes them particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. The above, thus forms for one of the core reasons and ground for having a formal forum or a club to tap this targeted group to further educate and guide them about HIV/AIDS in order to make them aware and safe. Targeted Youth (aged 15-29 years) accounts for almost half of all new HIV infections worldwide (Source: UNAIDS/WHO AIDS). This sends an alarming signal on the extraordinary crisis, which the tertiary education has to grapple with. Youth are especially vulnerable to risk of HIV infection, also, because of limited access to correct information and lack of understanding towards life skills and related choices. Through Red Ribbon Clubs, the targeted Youth are encouraged to learn about safe and healthy lifestyle. The Red Ribbon Clubs promote and channelize, access to information on HIV/AIDS, further educating them about Voluntary Blood Donation and safe sexual behaviors. Red Ribbon Clubs also aim to enable the targeted Youth to become more conscious and conscience about HIV/AIDS and related issues to further act as change agents, in HIV/AIDS programme. Youth in colleges who are pursuing their career goals, are exposed to high risk behavior and are very vulnerable in nature. At this age, they are experimentative in nature and hence, are more open to risky behaviors and elements that may lead to chaos in future, especially regarding HIV/AIDS. Rationale The Youth are growing up in a rapidly changing environment with different beliefs and values about morality and sex knowledge from those of the earlier generation. This has created conflicting demands and a teetering lifestyle for them. This type of changing environment and surroundings add to the factors that in turn make the Youth vulnerable. Some of such examples are as follows: - Early sexual developments and maturity among Youth these days have led to an increased number of sexually active young population. However, often they lack adequate and relevant information to protect themselves. Consequently, they are unable to comprehend the extent of the risk involved in early and unsafe sex practices. - The tertiary institutions provide very little amount or no amount of sexual and life skill education, which leads to mystification and secrecy around sex and love. The Youth therefore are easily exploited by often misleading messages that the peer groups or mass media may communicate about sexuality. - In addition, to the above point, peer pressure, access to internet and the constellation of media, creates excitement, curiosity and adventure about sex and sexuality related matters among Youth, which in turn instigates in them, risky behavioral patterns. • A large proportion of drug users start the use of drugs during their early age— as Youth. Often, it starts as an experiment under peer pressure, leading to dependency of the drug or any such addictive substance like alcohol. This affects their ability to make right decisions about behavior in general and sexual behavior in particular. • In the considered scenario, although the Youth suffer the most from HIV/AIDS, the epidemic among Youth remains largely invisible, both to themselves and to society as a whole. Many a times, the targeted population of Youth has been diagnosed with having HIV for years without even knowing that they were infected. • As a consequence to the above point, the epidemic is spreading beyond high-risk groups to the general population of the targeted Youth, making it even harder to control. Also, since the Youth is economically dependent and socially inexperienced, they thus, generally have less access to the knowledge of health care than adults. • Youth are socially inexperienced, have less knowledge and are malleable in nature. They are left to the risk of HIV infection with less awareness or no understanding of the consequences of risk exposure and protection modalities. • Societies, with its traditional norms and values often compound the risk by making it difficult for Youth to learn about HIV/AIDS and other reproductive health concerning matters. Role of RED RIBBON CLUB The RRC seeks to initiate efforts to: - Educate Youth with correct, concise and adequate information and heighten their level of awareness about HIV/AIDS/STI/sexuality and other related issues. In further clearer words to eliminate myths and misconceptions about the same. - Enable Youth, especially the female students, to identify and understand situations of exploitation and abuse. - Sensitize the Youth regarding care and support needs of People Living With HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and instill in them the spirit of helping and supporting the PLWHA and reduce the stigma and discrimination against them. - Increase the access of Youth to health care services related to HIV/AIDS/ STI /Drug use. - Create linkages between Youth and governmental, non-governmental agencies and community based organizations to access safer and responsible healthy behavior. - Create among the Youth a cadre of peer educators for seeking and encouraging positive health behavior as well as ensuring sustainability of the club. - Involve Youth in activities done and planned by RRCs, channelizing their energy in the right and positive direction. - Bringing together the Youth of the Nation, by creating opportunities in order to bring about the change and further making them, change agents. - RRC also prepares and promotes Youth peer educators within and outside the campus. Red Ribbon Club specifically targets to - Impact mitigation - Reduce Vulnerability - Stigma reduction - Mainstream HIV & AIDS Prevention, Care & Support and Treatment Aims and Objectives of RRC: - To harness the potential of the Youth by equipping them with correct information on HIV/AIDS Prevention, Care and Support and Treatment. - To build their capacities as peer educators in spreading messages on positive health behaviour in an enabling environment. - To reduce new HIV infection among Youth by raising their risk perception through awareness on HIV/AIDS. - To induce among Youth, the spirit to help and support PLWHA, thereby reducing stigma and discrimination against PLWHAs. - To motivate Youth and build their capacity as peer educators and change agents by developing their skills on leadership, negotiation, and team building. The RRC programme targets Youth who are invariably in the age group of 15-29 years. The programme covers all academic educational institutions and non-academic areas of educational institutions. In order to reach out to the targeted Youth population, it is suggested that RRCs be formed in the A & B districts at the priority basis. Then districts in the C & D category should also be covered. It must be clearly understood that to open as many RRCs for the best reach towards the targeted Youth population, must be the priority. And to further strengthen, not only the quantitative approach of the RRC but also to increase and maintain the quality of the existing RRCs for their timely participation must be a concerned matter, always. The RRCs should remain functional by appointing and having a structural working system (as mentioned in the guideline) The Nodal Officer and Peer Educators must be timely trained & re-trained, so as to say actively participating. The AD Youth Affairs SACS, should be treated as the point person for all RRCs in the concerned state. The RRCs must also celebrate and take part in the observance & celebration of days and events as per the Annual Activity Calendar (given in the guideline) and other time to time guidelines disseminated from NACO/SACS, if any. Possible Inter-Sectoral Collaboration At SACS level, Assistant Director- Youth Affairs, must guide and always seek for possible and best interventions and convergence for the better implementation of the Programme. Depending on the local circumstances, state specific issues, needs and opportunities, the RRCs will have freedom to collaborate and join hands with different departments and institutions for further activities to attain the positive objective and outcome of the RRC, under the Youth intervention programme. Some of the Departments that may be approached from time to time, for a possible and positive intervention, could be Department of Higher Education; Department of Youth Affairs and Sports; Health Department; NGOs; Department of Law; Colleges, Universities including professional & technical colleges; Commissioner of Technical Education; Positive networks; Licensed Blood Banks; Police Department and more. To achieve the qualitative and quantitative target of RRCs, implementation of the programme in the colleges and universities must be done in an effective manner. Following the programme’s guideline, regular reporting, following-up and accomplishment of the RRC Annual Activity Calendar and trainings must be done in the expected manner. A formal RRC structure should also be created in colleges, with the patron or the nodal person (NSS coordinator, as in most of the cases) acting as a head/in-charge and students holding positions of President, Vice-President, Secretary, and Joint Secretary—all together as Star Members of the RRC with other RRC members also acting as an active part of the formal structure. The selected students should act as Peer-Educators. To ensure effective constitution and functioning of Red Ribbon Clubs it is proposed to constitute a Joint Working Committee (JWC) at state level constituting at least one member each of the following: - Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports - Higher Education - NSS/Nodal Person of RRC - Peer Educator/Star RRC member - Principal/Head of Institute *The student representatives (for RRC Committee) should be nominated and elected by the RRC students. In colleges having co-ed population one male and one female must be part of the committee. Preferably these should be Peer Educators or Star RRC members. JWC will specifically, focus and aim at the following points: - The Committee shall have active members of teaching faculty and students. The Committee can also accommodate any expert(s) as per the requirement, and as deem fit for the furtherance of activities of the respective Red Ribbon Club. - RRC tenure will follow the educational session of the institution/University. - Ensure that the RRCs activities at Institutional or higher level do not clash with or affect the educational programme and/or schedule of the Institution. Role of a Joint Working Committee The JWC at the State Level must: - Meet once in every quarter to review the activities of the RRC and to plan future activity as per annual activity plan/Annual Activity Calendar. - Take decisions on management issues related to the club. - Explore /identify channels for resource mobilization for the smooth functioning of the club. - Review new activities proposed by the RRC members. - Review the performance and plan for the next year (programmatic as well as financial) of RRC in the meeting held in the last quarter of the year. - Must keep and share reports. - Must share and discuss over hindrances and try to best resolve them. The Joint Working Committee (JWC) of RRC must meet to analyze, solve and resolve RRC concerning issues in every meet at Ste level. The same information must also be shared with NACO, regularly and timely reporting must also be done to NACO. The RRC must hold special activities such as debates, painting competition, quizzes, essay competition etc. on specified special days and even otherwise including World AIDS Day, National Voluntary Blood Donation Day, International Blood Donor Day, International Youth Day, National Youth Day, International Women’s Day and International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking etc. Voluntary Blood Donation camps through each and every RRC should also be organized on regularly basis. Advocacy with Vice Chancellors of the Universities and Principal of colleges and higher officials of Education Department should also be carried out in order to convince them on the need for regular strengthening and expanding the RCC component and seek their cooperation and support from time to time. Periodic trainings must be undertaken regularly for NSS Officers/University Coordinators/ College Programme Officers/Patron Officers in-charge of the RRC; all or both whichever the applicable case maybe. RRCs should also be used as a platform for reaching the Out-of-School Youth through Village Camps, Rallies, Nukkad Natak and other such activities. Going by the above handholding and strengthening procedures for the better implementation of the RRC programme, the club must focus and determine to achieve the following basic minimum outcomes successfully, every year: - Targeted Youths to be made aware of at least 3 correct modes of transmission and know at least 2 correct modes of HIV/AIDS prevention. - Number of PLWHAs involved in the programme to reduce stigma and discrimination - Numbers of RRCs established. - Number of Peer educators trained. - Number of other Youths sensitized by peer educators regarding HIV/AIDS - Number of Youth registered for regular Voluntary Blood Donations. - Number of units of blood collected through voluntary blood donation. Role of Universities and Colleges While the Institution may be persuaded to support RRC activities financially and introduce RRC and its events into the permanent entities and event calendar of the institution, the major roles of the University/College/Institution will include: - Active participation in the advisory committee at the respective level. - Facilitating infrastructure and other necessary support for the implementation of programme/events of RRC. - Designate the Faculty teacher cum NSS Coordinator as Programme Officer for RRC. - Mainstreaming of HIV/AIDS programme by including it in the University curriculum & programme. - Advocacy at the highest level to support the programme on self sustainable basis. - Encouraging the contribution of RRC members by highlighting it in college newsletter or other publications. ORGANOGRAM SACS (PD) JD/DD (IEC) Assistant Director (Youth) Higher Education Institutions (Vice Chancellor/Dean) Institutions (Head/Principal) Program Officers Finance Peer Educators RRC Members Role of SACS At SACS, the IEC officer at senior level will be responsible for facilitating the functioning of RRC. The IEC Officer at SACS will be responsible for: - Updating the Project Director of SACS on the development/progress with regard to RRC. - Facilitating communication with/at all levels regarding the formation and functioning of RRC in the State. - To be the focal point for RRC related activities at the State level. - Ensuring funds are allocated and disseminated for the programme. - Providing technical inputs in trainings and capacity building of the various cadres involved in RRC. - Developing and providing Youth friendly IEC/BCC material to RCs/FOs for RRC. - Ensuring publicity of RRC through Mass Media by SACS newsletter, website, etc. - Including RRC activities in IEC and annual work plan of the State. Funds Utilization - Funds utilization must be done preferably by finance department & should be transparent. - Separate Cash book should be maintained and kept under safe custody of convener. - Proper Voucher bills supporting the expenditure should be kept along with the cash book for future auditing and verification. - The procurement such as the stationery items & similar items are to be purchased at the Govt. approved rate & or from departmental stores. - Funds for recurring expenditure should be recouped from SACS in advance. - Funds will be disbursed to colleges only after approval of contract by SACS. - Statement of Expenditure shall be submitted to SACS every 6 months. - Audited Utilization Certificate with audited Statement of Expenditure. - The Utilization Certificate will be signed by the Programme Officer and sent to the RRC Regional Coordinator, who in turn will forward a consolidated Utilization Certificate and Statement of Expenditure to SACS. - The institutions can retain the original vouchers unless called for. Assistant Director, Youth Affairs (AD Youth) S/he will be responsible for the State Youth activities at SACS including RRC formation and implementation. The Assistant Director-Youth will coordinate with various departments. S/he will be an overall Coordinator for Youth activities in States happening through SACS. Roles and Responsibilities of Assistant Director Youth • Developing overall strategy for the formation of RRCs in the state as per the National RRC Operational guidelines. • Identify and develop inter-sectoral linkages at the State and University levels. • Monitoring the funds allocated for the RRC in the state. • Assisting SACS for capacity building of the RRC officials. • Coordinating with and assisting SACS/IEC division in preparation and distribution of resource materials for RRC and publicity through Mass Media. • Macro level planning of the overall programme including planning of Voluntary Blood Donation camps, organizing state level competitions and edutainment programmes. • Monitoring, supervision and reporting of the RRC programme. • Ensuring the proper and methodological accomplishment of RRC activities mentioned in the RRC Annual Activity Calendar. • Time to time reporting to NACO about the programme progress. Attached is the Compulsory Activity Based Calendar for Red Ribbon Clubs. This Annual Activity Calendar, every RRC College must have and must follow as guide to plan and conduct various RRC activities in the college and beyond, around the year. The AAC must be provided to all RRCs through SACS. AD Youth (SACS) is responsible for making sure that all the activities mentioned in the AAC around the year must be met. Youth and RRC-Being the change! A glimpse NATIONAL YOUTH DAY 2015 “Rise! Awake! And stop not, till the goal is reached” – Swami Vivekananda Theme: “Youngmen and Women” Slogan: “How can we have a tomorrow?” NEED OF THE TIME MENTALLY HEALTHY YOUTH YOUTH ON GO WITH DREAMS AND HOPE Red Ribbon Club Guidelines 2015 Red Ribbon Club Guidelines 2015 Notes	0b4f0f64-687b-43ee-9d57-2224691785bb	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://anacs.andaman.gov.in/admin-pannel/docfile/46-Red%20Ribbon%20Club%20RRC%20Guideline%202015.pdf	2023-09-24T13:36:01+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506646.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20230924123403-20230924153403-00772.warc.gz	110,204,667	4,123	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.900712	eng_Latn	0.995122	[ "pol_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "kiu_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "unknown" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 95, 128, 614, 2191, 3711, 5300, 6705, 8095, 8945, 10245, 11178, 11945, 13086, 14535, 15874, 16711, 16910, 17744, 18789, 20043, 20461, 20744, 20777, 20810, 20817 ]	[ 2.15625, 1.046875 ]	1	0
Creating a Nurturing and Responsive School Environment to Promote Students’ Social, Emotional, and Academic Success Clay Cook, PhD, LP Associate Professor John W. and Nancy E. Peyton Fellow in Child and Adolescent Wellbeing College of Education & Human Development University of Minnesota Core Faculty Institute for Translation Research in Children’s Mental Health University of Minnesota email@example.com @ClayCook_PhD Prevention Cure Copyright © Pegasus Vertex, Inc The Problems that Necessitate Change • 1 out of 4 children experience social, emotional, and behavioral needs that interfere with their academic functioning. • Most children do not receive indicated mental health services (Kataoka et al., 2002) – Less than 20% of students with mental and behavioral health needs receives services. MYTH If you build it, they will come The Problems that Necessitate Change • Services are unlikely to be evidence-based (Evans & Weist, 2004; Rones & Hoagwood, 2000) • Low levels of effectiveness, some iatrogenic effects for SMH programs targeting low-income, urban youth (Farahmand et al., 2011) • Longstanding disparities for students of color – Less likely to receive effective services – More likely to receive exclusionary discipline – More likely to be referred for special education under EBD and placed in restrictive settings Hospitalizations Suicidal ideation & attempts Figure. Associated Changes in Pediatric Emergency Department (ED) Visits for Suicide Attempts (SA) and Suicidal Ideation (SI) - Pediatric SA/SI visits $P$ for trend < .01 - All pediatric ED visits $P$ for trend = .67 Change Compared With Baseline (2007), % \| Year \| Pediatric SA/SI visits \| All pediatric ED visits \| \|------\|------------------------\|-------------------------\| \| 2007 \| -5% \| 10% \| \| 2008 \| 5% \| 10% \| \| 2009 \| 30% \| 20% \| \| 2010 \| 10% \| 10% \| \| 2011 \| 30% \| 10% \| \| 2012 \| 50% \| 10% \| \| 2013 \| 30% \| 10% \| \| 2014 \| 90% \| 20% \| \| 2015 \| 90% \| 20% \| What should go on educators’ plates? Know your Portions VEGETABLES & SALAD (3 serves) Choose a variety of different types and colours PROTEIN (1 serve) Choose lean cuts of meat, trim visible fat and take skin off chicken CARBOHYDRATES (2 serves) Choose low GI or wholegrain varieties Portion control Making sure the right stuff is on the plate A Tale of Two Gaps... 1. Access & Utilization of Services 2. Enhancing Service Quality Schools as the Hub of Access - Academics - Social, emotional, and behavioral - Physical & medical • “If a child doesn’t know how to read, we teach.” • “If a child doesn’t know how to swim, we teach.” • “If a child doesn’t know how to multiply, we teach.” • “If a child doesn’t know how to drive, we teach.” • “If a child doesn’t know how to behave, we… teach? …punish?” (Herner, 1998) Framing Questions • What is missing from the environment that the student needs and we have the control over to implement? • AVOID THESE QUESTIONS – What does the student have that we can label or name? – What is wrong with this student? – What external factor explains why the student is struggling, but goes beyond our control? • Parents, poverty, etc. TRAUMA The Science of Human Behavior Setting Events An event that increases the likelihood that the trigger will provoke the behavior Triggering Antecedents The immediate event that provokes the behavior Problem Behavior The main behavior of concern Maintaining Consequences The purpose or reason why the problem behavior occurs (i.e., function) Setting Events • Factors outside the immediate situation that increases the probability that a given situation will provoke a behavior • TRAUMA!!! Examining Educators’ Own Vulnerabilities • Specific situations in which we are more vulnerable to unskillful behaviors that do not align with our values • Examples: – Tired/fatigued (lack of sleep) – Stress due to external factors – Feeling overwhelmed because juggling multiple responsibilities Adult Self-Regulation • Anticipating stress • Fatigue 1. Problem Behavior The main behavior(s) of concern 2. Triggering Antecedents The immediate event that provokes the behavior 3. Setting Events An event that increases the likelihood that the trigger will provoke the behavior 4. Maintaining Consequences The purpose or reason why the problem behavior occurs (i.e., function) Educator Behavior • Unwanted, behavior • Removal from the classroom • Relief from unwanted behavior What are ACEs (cumulative risk)? ABUSE - Physical - Emotional - Sexual NEGLECT - Physical - Emotional HOUSEHOLD DYSFUNCTION - Mental Illness - Mother treated violently - Divorce - Incarcerated Relative - Substance Abuse ### ACES (Adverse Childhood Experiences) #### 33% Report 0 ACES - With 0 ACESs - 1 in 16 smoke - 1 in 69 are alcoholic - 1 in 480 use IV drugs - 1 in 14 has heart disease - 1 in 96 attempts suicide #### 51% Report 1-3 ACES - With 1-3 ACESs - 1 in 9 smoke - 1 in 9 are alcoholic - 1 in 43 use IV drugs - 1 in 7 has heart disease - 1 in 10 attempts suicide #### 16% Report 4-10 ACES - With 4-10 ACESs - 1 in 6 smoke - 1 in 6 are alcoholic - 1 in 30 use IV drugs - 1 in 6 has heart disease - 1 in 5 attempts suicide Mechanisms by Which Adverse Childhood Experiences Influence Health and Well-being Throughout the Lifespan - Adverse Childhood Experiences - Disrupted Neurodevelopment - Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Impairment - Adoption of Health-risk Behaviors - Disease, Disability, and Social Problems - Early Death Emotion Dysregulation • The emotional system overwhelms the cognitive, rationale thinking part of the system – A person loses access to other skills, with the main motivation being to avoid, escape or put an end to an unwanted situation Is the emotional reaction justified and proportional to the situation? Does it result in impairment? What not to do • The truth alone never sets one free – Compassion and understanding alone won’t address the needs of trauma-exposed students • Blame game – Avoid placing blame on families and the community as being deficient • Recognize the social determinants of ACES • Lower accountability and expectations for behavior – Shaping behavior through high accountability and high support Develop, grow, heal, and recover Neuroplasticity Whole Child Approach Defined • Policies, procedures, and practices that ensure each child receives what they need academically, socially-emotionally, and behaviorally to…… – develop and maintain their wellbeing, engagement, and growth in school – and their eventual success in work, civic, and private aspects adult life Whole Child as both Skill Acquisition and the Environment • Social-emotional wellbeing as a function of Enabling, Healthy Environments – Create the context for engagement and learning to occur • SEL competencies as Enablers to Life Success – Knowledge and skill acquisition “Organizations are groups of individuals whose collective behaviors are directed toward a common goal & maintained by a common outcome” Skinner, 1953, Science of Human Behavior Safe, Nurturing, Predictable, Reinforcing and Responsive Host Environments Safe Environment • Individuals do not anticipate harm or hurt, emotionally or physically • An environment free of bullying, discrimination, aggression/violence Nurturing Environment • Secure relationships that create sense of belonging, respect and safety • Setting and enforcing limits compassionately and with empathy (teaching that behaviors have consequences) Predictable Environment • Predictable environments are stable environments in which students can anticipate and trust what is going to happen. • Adults strive to maintain consistency in their expectations and reactions to behavior through common language and practices. Reinforcing Environment • Students/staff are non-contingently acknowledged for their value and worth as a person – Greetings, check-ins, farewells • Contingent recognition of behavior, effort, and contributions to greater good – Praise – Access to privileges – Rewards – Social activities/experiences Responsive Environments • Understands children’s basic needs and seeks to ensure children receive what they need to develop and grow in a healthy way. • Fairness is about differentiating supports to ensure everyone receives what they need. • Early and timely intervention when struggles/problems first emerge. Social-Emotional Competencies Enablers Social competence Emotional competence Sense of Purpose / future orientation Responsible decision making Acquisition of Self-Regulation Skills Definition Ability to regulate thoughts, feelings, impulses, and behavior in pursuit of goals and experiences that are not immediately attainable (i.e., delayed gratification) School as a Recipe Metaphor • Promoting optimal student outcomes is like a good cooking recipe that involves the integration of core active ingredients – An active ingredient is a component of a recipe that helps achieve its desired outcome – Single active ingredients represent necessary features of the recipe, but insufficient alone to produce the desired outcome The Recipe for Optimizing Student Social-Emotional and Academic Success What are the ingredients? Evidence-Informed Ingredients • Environment – adults in charge create a safe, structured, predictable, and positive environment • Relationships – everyone (staff and students) feels a sense of belonging and connection • Instruction – rigorous instruction to teach students the social, emotional, and academic knowledge and skills necessary to meet the demands of home, work, & civic life • Agency: sense of purpose/future orientation – sense of purpose, properly motivated, and future oriented • Relentless family and community engagement – families and community organizations are partners Linking Ingredients to Implementation Environment: positive, safe, structured, predictable SW-PBIS & Proactive Classroom Management Positive relationships for ALL Establish, Maintain, Restore or Restorative Practices Instruction to teach students academic, social-emotional, and health skills Core academic, SEL & health curricula Promoting student agency Future possible selves; goal setting/service learning Relentless family support/engagement School-home communication system; regular parent training Supporting and responding to physical needs School health center with medical and mental health providers Social-Emotional & Behavioral Side Targeted/Intensive (FEW High-risk students) Individual Interventions (3-5%) Selected (SOME At-risk Students) Small Group & Individual Strategies (10-25% of students) Universal (ALL Students) School-wide, Culturally-responsive Systems of Support (75-90% of students) Tier 3 Menu of Individual Supports for a FEW: • FBA-based Behavior Intervention Plan w/ Replacement Behavior Training • Individualized Cognitive Behavior Therapy • Home and Community Supports Tier 2 Menu of Default Supports for SOME: • Self monitoring • School-home communication system • Structured mentor-based program • Class pass intervention • Positive peer reporting • Small group SEL, SST, CBT Tier I Menu of Supports for ALL: • School-wide PBIS • Social-emotional learning curriculum • Relationships w/ ALL Students • Proactive classroom management (GBG) • Differentiated supports within Tier 1 for struggling students Progress monitoring Screening What are the ingredients? • Environmental ingredient – A safe, nurturing, predictable, and reinforcing environment School-wide PBIS: Teaching, Modeling, Cueing and Reinforcing Common Behavioral Expectations to Create Positive School Culture & Climate Big Ideas of SW-PBIS • Common language • Consistency among adults • Shared understanding of behavior between adults and students • Code-switching • Behavioral feedback from the environment • Turning behavioral mistakes into learning opportunities School-Wide PBIS: 7 Steps of Implementation 1. Establish 3-5 positively stated, teachable behavioral expectations 2. Create a behavioral expectation by setting matrix 3. Develop a schedule for ongoing teaching of expectations 4. Post expectations in every setting to cue and prompt behavioral expectations 5. Create a motivation system to recognize and acknowledge students for exhibiting the behavioral expectations 6. Develop a progressive method of responding to problem behaviors with clearly defined categories of problem behaviors 7. Gather data on disciplinary sanctions that could inform decision making \| Teaching Matrix \| All Settings \| Hallways \| Playgrounds \| Cafeteria \| Assembly \| Bus \| \|-----------------\|-------------\|----------\|-------------\|-----------\|---------\|-----\| \| Respect Ourselves \| Be on task. Give your best effort. \| Have a plan. \| Eat all your food. Select healthy foods. \| Study, read, compute. \| \| Watch for your stop. \| \| Respect Others \| Be kind. Hands/feet to self. Help/share with others. \| Use normal voice volume. Walk to right. \| Play safe. Include others. Share equipment \| Practice good table manners. Whisper. \| Listen/watch. Use appropriate applause. \| Use a quiet voice. Stay in your seat. \| \| Respect Property \| Recycle. Clean up after self. \| Pick up litter. \| Replace trays & utensils. Clean up eating area. \| Push in chairs. Treat books carefully. \| Pick up. Treat chairs appropriately. \| Wipe your feet. Sit appropriately. \| 1. SOCIAL SKILL 2. NATURAL CONTEXT 3. BEHAVIOR EXAMPLES The effectiveness of the progressive response system depends on the adult being calm and having some degree of empathy for the student (does not mean you have to agree with the behavior). Keys: - Privately correct problem behavior (if possible avoid publically correcting student behavior) - Try to minimize interactions that would be harmful to the relationships Minor behaviors Staff-Managed Minor behavior - Disrespect - Defiance/non-compliance - Disruption - Physical contact/aggression - Tardy - Dress code - Inappropriate language - Technology violation 1st or 2nd Minor Behavior Strategies - Proximity control - Redirection tactic within the classroom - Modify seating or assignment - Direct verbal prompt - In-class reflection - Mini-conference with student (behavior support takes over class) - Buddy teacher and “Think Time” - In-class natural and logical consequence Did the behavior change? Yes! Reinforce appropriate behavior and praise No? Try a more intensive corrective effort (red) Student is non-responsive to repeated corrective efforts 3rd Minor Incident within a predetermined amount of time (e.g., middle school 55-minute period) Level 1 Referral - Fill out referral - Behavior support specialist engages in a solution-oriented process (apology, loss of privilege, restitution task, etc.) Responding to Problem Behavior Progressive Response - Proximity control - Redirection strategy - Ongoing Monitoring - Prompt expected behavior - Teaching interaction - #1 warning of consequence with “Think Time” - #2 delivery in-class disciplinary consequence - #3 request for office support process Reconnect, Repair, & Restore Relationship Proactive Classroom Management: Prevention-oriented strategies to promote academic engagement and decrease problem behaviors Structured Environments Proactive Classroom Management Relationship Strategies 1. 5 to 1 ratio of positive to negative interactions (Magic ratio) 2. Behavior specific praise 3. Smiling and being nice 4. Positive greetings and farewells on a daily basis 5. Communicating competently w/ students 6. Wise Feedback 7. Non-contingent reinforcement Procedural Strategies 7. Precorrection 8. Organizing a productive classroom (effortless to pay attention, flow, limit distractions, seating) 9. Providing numerous opportunities to respond 10. Providing student choice 11. Ongoing teaching, modeling, and recognition of behavioral expectations 12. Transitions are managed well 13. Independent seatwork is managed and used when needed 14. Teacher proximity and mobility 15. Class-wide motivation system to motivate behavior 16. Goal setting and performance feedback 17. Visual schedule of classroom activities 18. Effective cueing systems to release and regain attention What is a Precorrection? A form of errorless learning Reminding/prompting students how to be successful before they even begin the activity, assignment or task - Not assuming that students are ready or are thinking about how to be successful - Rather, providing them with the behavioral answers to be successful in class What is a Precorrection? Managing behavior with precorrection: - Anticipate what activities may cause inappropriate behaviors - “Getting in front” of problem behaviors - Example: Gentle reminder of expected behaviors in the hallway before dismissing for lunch VS. Managing behavior with consequences: - Requires waiting until the behavior occurs to respond - Example: Creating an action plan for three alternatives to yelling at a peer Steps to implementing precorrection 1. Identify context and anticipated behaviors. 2. Determine the expected behaviors. 3. Adjust the environment. 4. Provide opportunities for behavioral rehearsal. 5. Provide strong reinforcement to students engaging in expected behavior. 6. Develop a prompting plan to remind students about the expected behavior. 7. Develop a monitoring plan to determine the effectiveness of the precorrection plan. 8. Offer students an opportunity to give feedback on this strategy. What are the ingredients? • Relationship ingredient – All students and staff feel welcomed, valued and a sense of belonging and connection to others in school Common Language: Three phases to every relationship Establish: Making sure no child falls through the relational cracks Maintain: Ongoing effort to keep positive relationships intact Restore: Repairing harm following negative interactions Establish-Maintain-Restore - Provides staff with concrete relationship practices - Embedded within professional learning communities as a continuous improvement Establish - Intentionally cultivate positive relationships Maintain - Keeping relationships intact through ongoing positive interactions Restore - Reconnecting with the student after a negative interaction to restore the relationship EMR General Things to Do and Avoid Do • Correct behavior privately and with empathy • Positivity • Greet • Recognize & acknowledge positive behavior Avoid • Publically correct behavior to embarrass or shame • Negativity • Ignore • Take positive behavior for granted Establish Strategies The Practices Banking Metaphor • Relationships are transactional, like banking: – One cannot withdraw from a relationship until deposits have been made Banking Metaphor Types of withdrawals from relationships teachers need to make: - Correcting student behavior - Motivating a student to do unwanted work - Reminding students to show up to class on time - Getting students to be okay with failure - Encouraging students to try their hardest Establishing Positive Relationships Strategy #1 Banking Time 1. Find individual time to spend with a single student to engage in relational conversation 2. Student selects something to do during interaction 3. Adult uses effective communication techniques - Open-ended questions to facilitate conversation - Actively listen so the person feels heard - Express an interest in what the student says - Avoid judgment, giving advice, delivering instruction - Respond with empathy by putting yourself in your student’s shoes Establishing Positive Relationships Strategy #4 Indirect compliments delivered through others • Identify something to compliment about the student’s behavior/performance and relay that compliment through another adult • Positive note or call home to parent • Positive office referral to administrator • Through another teacher or school counselor • Compliments must be specific and sincere! • Specific = something the student said, did, or achieved • Sincere = conveying that one really means it Establishing Positive Relationships Strategy #5 Positive greetings and farewells on a daily basis • Positive greetings (salutations) at the door using the student’s name provides an ongoing opportunity to personalize interactions with each student to welcome and demonstrate that the teacher values their presence. • Positive farewells each day by offering words of encouragement, saying thank you for participation, and wishing someone a good rest of the day. NOTE: Be sure to do this for students who need it the most and recognize when students have been absent the previous day. 2x10 Strategy - Spend 2 minutes a day for 10 straight days in a row engaging in a conversation that has nothing to do with an instruction or academic task at hand to acknowledge that the student is a person and not just a student. NOTE: 2 minutes is an approximation of time. If student gives you signals that they aren’t up for it, don’t continue to push the interaction – timing is key! Maintain Strategies The Practices Without intentional maintenance practices, relationships tend to strain or get worse over time. MAINTAINING Relationships with Students: Ongoing Positive Interactions Relationships are maintained by striving for a 5 to 1 ratio of positive to negative interactions AKA - the “Magic Ratio” 5:1 Gets the job done!!! Maintaining Positive Relationships Strategy #2 • Effective Use of Praise: process of recognizing, acknowledging, and approving 1. Behavior specific praise - Contingent, specific, and sincere recognition of a specific behavior exhibited by the student 2. Growth mindset-oriented praise - Recognize the student for effort, hard work, growth, a process used Maintaining Positive Relationships Strategy #2 • Relationship Check Ins – Interaction with no strings attached other than to check in on how things are going – Capitalize on brief moments to check in with students • Open-ended questions • Expressing an interest in how the student is doing in general Maintaining Positive Relationships Strategy #4 Responding to Problem Behavior with Empathy • Empathy is the ability to decipher what the other person is thinking and feeling in a given situation. • Before correcting behavior begin the interaction with an empathy statement that communicates you are seeking to understand how they are thinking / feeling. Steps to responding with empathy • Start with an empathy statement – “You seem bored with today’s class and I know firsthand how challenging things can be when class seems boring, It’s tough to stay on task. HERE IS THE DEAL” • Label the perceived problem behavior – “Right now you are talking out loud and distracting other students from doing their work.” • Describe the appropriate alternative behavior – “Instead of talking out loud, I need you to start working quietly on the assigned work.” • Provide a rationale for appropriate behavior – “If you can quietly on your work, other students can get their work done and I’ll circle back to you to figure out what’s boring and see if we can make it go away.” • Put the student in a decisional dilemma – “You have a couple of choices. One is you can get back to working on this assignment and I’ll come back to see if we can make class seem less boring. The other choice is to continue to talk out loud and distract others. If you continue with this, you’re going to miss out on being able to work with others in group. I’m going to give you a few moments to figure out what you want to do.” • Deliver feedback – “Thanks for making the right choice, Now, tell me what’s bothering you about today’s class.” Restore Strategies The Practices Restore Relationships Goal • Reconnect with the student after a negative interaction to repair harm through a skillful communication to restore the relationship – Reconnect and repair in order to restore (R³) Actions • Find a window of opportunity to reconnect with the student, select from 1 of 5 skillful communication techniques, and deliver it genuinely and authentically to the student When is Restore Needed? \| Changes in student’s behavior \| Your internal feelings \| Following a negative interaction \| \|------------------------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------------\| \| - changes in eye contact \| - you don’t like/are \| - argument/disagreement \| \| - starts ignoring your \| annoyed by the student \| - removal from class \| \| instructions \| \| - unintentionally \| \| - argues, debates, \| \| embarrassed the student \| \| challenges more than usual \| \| - misunderstanding (e.g., \| \| - starts shrugging when \| \| student takes constructive \| \| you ask questions \| \| feedback personally) \| \| - becomes more withdrawn \| \| - student gives you \| \| \| \| negative feedback (can be \| \| \| \| about other teachers or the \| \| \| \| school in general) \| These MAY indicate a need to restore the relationship. Restorative Communication Techniques 1. Letting go of the previous interaction - fresh start 2. Ownership for the problem - acknowledging one’s own mistake/missed opportunity 3. Empathy statement - Showing effort to understand the student’s perspective 4. Statement of care - separating the deed from the doer 5. Collaborative problem-solving - working together to find a win-win solution Matching the Technique to the Student Technique - Letting go conversation - Ownership for the problem - Empathy statement - Statement of care (separating deed from the doer) - Collaborative problem-solving to identify a win-win scenario Student who needs to hear adults make mistakes Matching the Technique to the Student Technique - Letting go conversation - Ownership for the problem - Empathy statement - Statement of care (separating deed from the doer) - Collaborative problem-solving to identify a win-win scenario Student Student who wants their perspective / feelings recognized Matching the Technique to the Student Technique - Letting go conversation - Ownership for the problem - Empathy statement - Statement of care (separating deed from the doer) - Collaborative problem-solving to identify a win-win scenario Student Student who thinks the adult does not care for or want them in the class because of their behavior Matching the Technique to the Student Technique - Letting go conversation - Ownership for the problem - Empathy statement - Statement of care (separating deed from the doer) - Collaborative problem-solving to identify a win-win scenario Student Strong willed student who likes to have input on the solution moving forward What are the ingredients? • Knowledge and skills ingredient (i.e., teaching and learning) – Teach the knowledge and skills that enable students to meet the demands of civic, work, and private aspects of life Social-Emotional Learning: Adopting a curriculum that supports students to learn self-regulation and decision-making skills that lead to increased resilience and school and life success What is Social and Emotional Learning? - Self-awareness: Recognizing one’s emotions and values as well as one’s strengths and limitations - Self-management: Managing emotions and behaviors to achieve one’s goals - Social awareness: Showing understanding and empathy for others - Relationship Skills: Forming positive relationships, working in teams, dealing effectively with conflict - Responsible decision-making: Making ethical, constructive choices about personal and social behavior social & emotional learning EI SOCIAL AWARENESS SELF-AWARENESS RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT SELF-MANAGEMENT Implementing an SEL Curriculum • Delivery – What? • Selecting a high quality curriculum – When and where? • Time and day of the week • Homeroom, advisory period, health class, other classroom setting – Who? • General education teacher, health teacher – Master scheduling issue Isn’t this the responsibility of homes? • How many of you are a parent? • How many of parents have the knowledge and skills to teach literacy, math, writing, STEM? • Teaching social-emotional skills goes beyond the knowledge and skillset of most parents It Takes a Village firstname.lastname@example.org @ClayCook_PhD	420eb5f7-0c43-4dbf-ba8f-8c9cff16c19d	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.northlandfdn.org/files/clay-cook-pp1-052019.pdf	2024-04-18T13:28:39+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817206.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20240418124808-20240418154808-00494.warc.gz	844,045,931	6,159	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.935563	eng_Latn	0.989336	[ "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 420, 471, 808, 847, 1354, 2322, 2673, 2763, 2863, 3152, 3520, 3528, 3872, 4022, 4327, 4825, 5052, 5602, 5910, 6151, 6253, 6653, 6704, 7031, 7312, 7493, 7569, 7732, 7939, 8212, 8526, 8840, 8990, 9211, 9584, 9684, 10277, 10901, 11867, 11986, 12123, 12372, 12986, 13907, 15230, 15582, 15708, 16675, 17000, 17440, 17946, 18109, 18352, 18764, 19033, 19070, 19212, 19504, 20041, 20551, 21147, 21539, 21575, 21672, 21893, 22268, 22587, 22945, 24221, 24255, 24651, 25928, 26338, 26626, 26940, 27295, 27620, 27832, 28019, 28561, 28641, 28944, 29222, 29253 ]	[ 2.078125, 3.890625 ]	2	0
G K KIDS We Believe.... Nurturing Young Minds through Innovative Education “If I can’t learn the way you teach me, teach me the way I learn!” GK Kids – A renowned school in the vicinity of Pimple Saudagar, Pune, we aim for the holistic development of kids. With the emphasis on Holistic Development, our curriculum is well blended with, Project Based Learning, Play Way Methods and Montessori Theory. This has contributed GK Kids to be one of the best schools in Pune. Preschool span is unquestionably the period during which the foundations are laid for the complex behavioural structures that are built in a child’s lifetime. It has been discovered that the emotional responses of an adult are largely determined by his/her early childhood experiences. With the structure of “Explore, Evolve & Enjoy” our goal is to create an educational community that promotes social growth, emotional growth, intellectual enrichment, creative success and academic success for children. Vision To empower students to acquire, demonstrate, articulate & value knowledge & skills that will support them, as lifelong learners, to participate in & contribute to the global world & practice the core values of the school. Facilities.... - Open & spacious classrooms - Safe and fenced outdoor play area - Play ground - Enriched library - Sand Pit - Well-equipped Computer lab - Art studio - Child level washrooms - Fully equipped Montessori classroom - Well-equipped Music room - Smart Classrooms - Day-care facility is available from 7.00 am to 7.00 pm Salient Features... - Child centric curriculum - Holistic approach - Highly safe atmosphere - Hands on experience with sensory integration therapy - Optimum Teacher student ratio - Skilled, qualified & well trained teachers - Innovative activity based learning - Counselling sessions - Phonics Club Seven Petal Approach... GK Kids Curriculum revolves around the emergent strategies of the early years and the purposeful acquisition and understanding of content in form of Seven Petal Approach. The right mix of Innovation and Creativity in education will enhance and enrich a child's learning experience, and ensure to keep their interest and focus on learning further. - Language Domain - Personality Domain - Cognitive Domain - Social & Emotional Domain - Physical Domain - Aesthetic Domain - Environmental Domain Our curriculum..... Language Domain First petal of our curriculum approach is to provide opportunities to develop academic skills through individualized and group instruction based on Readiness activities, Monthly projects and Experiential learning, which leads to intellectual enrichment. Language skills are enhanced with the enriching sessions of Vocabulary, Phonics, Picture reading. Personality Domain Second petal is an umbrella term that refers to self-directed efforts that help kids learn, grow, and improve. Inter personal & intra personal skills are focused with enthusiastic Music sessions, Role plays, Cooking sessions, Elocution, Competitions which, help the child to find joy and fulfillment in the process of self-improvement. A Value based story sessions with interaction & communication with children are the prominent attribute of personality development at GK Kids. Cognitive Domain Third petal encompasses a child's working memory, attention, as well as a child's ability to manage and respond to the experiences and information they experience on a daily basis. Memory Matching, Puzzles, Sorting, Classifying, Sequencing, Riddles, Indian Pitara & Brain Gym activities are conducted to enhance cognition of children. Social & Emotional Domain Forth petal emphasize on emotional and social skills that help children develop a sense of responsibility to others in the community by arranging enthusiastic interactive sessions of value based stories & activities. Systematic opportunities are given to the children to develop social skills with careful direction and guidance through Traditional Stories, Drama & Music sessions. Physical Domain Fifth petal has a wide range of interesting activities and games carefully planned to develop children's Gross and Fine motor skills in their indoor and outdoor physical environment. A large playground, with Advanced Play Equipment benefits children to enjoy and increase the stamina and gross motor development. Experiences in the arts to foster creativity and self-expression which are depicted though all creative activities based on fine motor skills. Sixth petal enhances Aesthetics Domain & to a set values relating to nature and the appreciation of beauty many innovative activities like crafty leafy animals, print art, Play dough, Modelling, Finger Painting, Making masks, Rainbow activity, Making head gears activities are incorporated in the curriculum. Environmental Domain Seventh petal helps in learning through sensory experiences involving touching, moving, listening, seeing, and other entertaining activities. All the classrooms are colorful with Unique Wall themes and Boards for visual learning for children. Important days like World Heart Day, Rivers day, World Habitat Day, Grandparent’s day, Science day, Coconut day, Gurupournima and many more are incorporated in the curriculum with innovative activities. We work to promote a sense of community in which each child can feel connected and valued. We help children learn and play together by promoting kindness, cooperation, and respect for others. We look forward to fill the child’s life with rays of hope and confidence. And we wish to provide opportunities to face sunshine with happy learning. “Education is the passport to the future, for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today.” — Malcolm X Contact Us +91 9075040036 GK Kids, Opp. Govind Garden Restaurant Pimple Saudagar, Pune - 411027 www.gkkids.in firstname.lastname@example.org	e18d2290-bc44-4b79-8317-fa978bd9071a	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://gkgurukul.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/GK-Kids-brochure-Final_v3.pdf	2023-10-01T01:07:05+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510734.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20231001005750-20231001035750-00324.warc.gz	302,604,196	1,139	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.978326	eng_Latn	0.992333	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 144, 979, 1210, 1543, 1844, 2041, 2365, 2756, 3257, 4021, 4497, 5277, 5620, 5865 ]	[ 3.25 ]	1	0
Handloom fabric is the pulse of India, and has been a tradition in our land since millennia. India is one of the few countries where handloom and hand-spinning are still thriving. In his recent ‘Mann ki Baat’ address to the nation, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi spoke about National Handloom Day (celebrated on August 7) and encouraged citizens to support handloom artisans, which, in turn, would add to the vision of “Vocal for Local”. From khadi, which has its roots in our movement for Independence, when Mahatma Gandhi encouraged Indians to start spinning yarn with a charkha (spinning wheel) at home, to clusters of weavers spread all over India who spin and weave indigenous cloth – whether it’s ikat, bandhni, patola, Banarasi brocades, zari, Apatani, or pashmina – cloth made on the hand-operated loom is woven within the fabric of our nation. Handloom fabrics like khadi were omnipresent right until the advent of the power loom in the West in the 18th century, which ensured that our markets were flooded with machine-made cloth, and led to a decline in our own industry. But thanks to A weaver weaves a traditional saree using a wooden handloom in Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu. From the ancient ikat to the royal patola, from jamdani to Banarasi brocade to the ornate gyaser, and the Kashmiri pashmina, here are some of India’s most famous handwoven and handspun weaves that celebrate rare artisanal flair to create the most unique and opulent fabrics. BY PRIYA KUMARI RANA government initiatives like World Handloom Day and many others, we are now aware of the significance of various types of handlooms available in India, as designers and customers pay homage to the artisanal work in each outfit, saree, or cloth purchased. KHADI Khadi, the most humble yet potent symbol of India’s freedom struggle, needs to be certified by the Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC), for it to be able to carry the name – and the cloth must be hand-spun and handwoven. The fabric is mostly woven in KVIC-recognised and supported institutions where the government provides employment to rural weavers. These institutions are scattered all over India, in Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh – and the cloth can be bought from Khadi Gram Udyog outlets all over India. Nowadays designers are experimenting with khadi – from stalwarts like Rajesh Pratap Singh, who has been creating clothes from khadi for over a decade, to younger labels like Anavila that experiment with bright hues and jewel tones by procuring khadi woven in Bengal, and dyed with natural dyes like turmeric and indigo. IKAT Ikat is a truly mysterious weave, with an Egyptian mummy discovered with a piece of Odisha ikat – a proof of the trade routes between the two ancient civilisations. References to ikat have been found in the murals of the Ajanta caves from 200 BC. Ikat, unlike other forms of tie-and-dye, is unique because here it’s the yarn that is first dyed (by mashing together bundles of yarn tied tightly together, dyed in the pattern of your choice), and then the weaver takes the yarn, and lines it up on the loom to create a pattern on it – a very laborious and intricate process. There is warp ikat, weft ikat, and double ikat, which is very intricate, and it’s manufactured in Odisha, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. Veteran designers like Madhu Jain, have made ikat their métier by creating museum-worthy pieces in bamboo silk in the ikat styles of Indonesia, Uzbekistan, and India. Jain has been vocal in her support of sustainable fabrics and living, and this new textile does not eat into the A group of weavers make Sambalpuri ikat fabrics in Bargarh, Odisha. Odisha’s rich weaving tradition includes the tribal Bomkai and the striped or chequered Santihali sarees, but ikat with resist Sambalpuri, woven in silk or cotton, is its most recognisable product. One of the richest ikat weaves in India – that was once worn by royals and aristocrats – comes from the state of Gujarat – the Patola. Inspired from the land of Babur, Uzbekistan, where it was a royal textile – master artisans like Asif Shaikh (founder of the CDS Art Foundation), awestruck by its large, bold pattern (the ikat in India has smaller motifs), has superimposed his version of ikat with miniaturised motifs that have been hand embroidered on the fabric. Patola. Natural dye like madder roots, indigo, and turmeric are used to colour the thread, and patterns look identical on both sides. Delhi-based fashion label Asha Gautam recently created a phenomenal Patola sari for actor Urvashi Rautela, which took six months to make – with more than 70 days to colour the threads, and 25 days to weave, and with 600 gm of silk. BANARASI BROCADE The Pilikothi area of Varanasi is the centre of the world-famous Banarasi brocade, which involves intricate motifs in zari handwoven onto silk cloth, producing some of the finest sarees, typically worn by a bride on her wedding day. Kolkata-based designers and textile revivalists Swati and Sunalma are known for their delicately woven tissue saris with one side silk, and the other side pure zari, with borders in Hashiya miniature paintings in brocade. Each saree takes around eight months to weave and costs around INR 2 lakh. The ornate Gyaser weave (traditionally made for the heavy robes of Buddhist monks in monasteries in Tibet and Lhasa) was brought to Varanasi from China by traders. This Oriental influence can also been seen in today’s Banarasi sarees. A contemporary Banarasi weave Promotion of the ‘India Handloom Brand’, cultural diplomatic engagements and the support of indigenous artworks are some of the important steps being taken toward promoting the handloom industry. Shanti Banares, based in Varanasi, is a third-generation textile brand specialising in Banarasi weaves, and is led by Amrit and Priyanka Shah. In one of their recent collections, they have used Persian weaves to create bird motifs – unusual in Banarasi saris, using antique-finish zari. “To make a loom, the weaver normally makes a jacquard (a pattern that is woven in a certain ratio of under and over threads) that comes on the loom,” says Amrit Shah. “But when there is no jacquard, the weaver takes a motif and weaves on it like a drawing – a technique known as uchyant, where each motif is woven separately.” Some of their most intricate sarees are woven with jamdani (a technique that uses the lightest yarn or zari to weave motifs separately onto the silk). Another forte of theirs is the jangla jaal, which is a Banarasi brocade pattern of delicate vines woven with zari into a pure silk sari. A saree like this needs around four to eight weavers and can take from two to four months to be ready. APATANI WEAVE This weave is prevalent in every home of the Apatani community in Arunachal Pradesh (and parts of Nagaland) even today, although unfortunately, the number of families practising it has been declining. With its colourful geometric, zig-zag patterns, normally using the colours black, red, white, and yellow, the minimalist patterns are used to create aesthetic shawls and other fabrics on a bamboo tube set. With many youngsters turning away from the loom, it’s time to bring back their interest by creating a market for these wonderful textiles, in the forms of shawls, throws, and even jackets. PASHMINA Next we travel to the picturesque, wintry setting of Kashmir, which produces the warm and comforting pashmina weave. A 100 per cent pashmina must be made from 100 per cent cashmere to be considered premium, and only gets THINKS TO KNOW - In 2015, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi declared August 7 as National Handloom Day. - The ‘Handloom Mark’ is a symbol of the rich legacy and tradition of Indian handloom textiles. The Mark is aimed to promote the brand of handlooms and develop a niche market for the handloom textiles with a distinct identity. - India’s textiles industry employs around 35.22 lakh handloom workers. More than 90% looms are in rural areas. India is the second largest exporter of handloom products in the world, with exports valued at US$ 333.9 in 2017-18. Weavers working on handlooms to make kani textiles at a home workshop in the outskirts of Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. the GI (Geographical Indication) certification if it’s handspun and handwoven using pure pashmina wool from Ladakh. “The wool for the pashmina we make is from goats from the Chand Khand region of Ladakh,” says Tariq Ahmad Dar, a former model who runs his own luxury pashmina brand, Pashmkaar. The hand-spinning of the yarn is done by women artisans from Srinagar (it takes one woman one week to make thread from 10 gm of wool), and once it’s woven into a shawl or a stole, it’s dyed or embroidered (a 2-m shawl takes 15 days to embroider). Dar employs 250 artisans (including 40 women just to spin the yarn), and is using fresh, bright colours to make pashmina stoles for men as a fashion accessory using his international travels and inspirations to make fashionable pieces for modern men. Some of the pieces for women in his Shah Bano line have taken around three years to embroider, and prices can go up from INR 12,500 all the way to INR 1 lakh. When you design and weave a beautiful pattern directly onto the pashmina, this is known as kani—woven with small, eyeless wooden sticks—which is the most prized pashmina of all, and gets its own GI, and features stunning Mughal motifs (mostly flowers) in a very labour-intensive, almost spiritual process (only 3-4 cm can be made in a day). “The pashmina was the first economic revolution in Kashmir, especially for women,” says Dar, adding, “My grandmother would spin yarn on a charkha, and even today the yarn cannot be made without women.” The above are just a few of the handloom textile traditions practised in India. But there are many more that are flourishing in different parts of the country. With support from the government, designers and textile revivalists are working towards popularising these fabrics again. Promotion of the ‘India Handloom Brand’, cultural diplomatic engagements and the support of indigenous artworks are some of the important steps being taken toward promoting this industry. Also effective are implementation of government schemes such as the “Make in India” and “Vocal for Local” to promote handlooms and crafts; the Mudra scheme to support women entrepreneurs, the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, and mobilising SHGs are other bottom-up approaches. But what is most important, is the support people can offer in the revival of these weaves by buying and wearing them. Priya Rana is a leading fashion writer who has edited major publications in India. 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Merriam Webster’s dictionary defines disaster as, a sudden calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction or a sudden or great misfortune or failure. Barker, NY. Barker’s Village Hall/Library was located in an old Train Station on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad, fondly known as the Hojack line. “Hojack originated from the engineer of the first train, who was named Jack Welch (often called “Big Jack”). Welch used to be a farmer and was more familiar with horses than steam locomotives. When he stopped the trains he would shout “Whoa Jack!” This became Hojack over time.” (Wikipedia) Somewhere after 1876 the “Barker Station” was built. Closed in 1959, the station became property of the Village and was used for storage. In 1963, it housed the Village Clerk’s office and in 1969, it housed the Public Library. On a bitterly cold day, Sunday January 20, 2019, just before midnight disaster struck. The old Train Station now housing the Public Library and Village Hall was on fire, flames through the roof. After hours of fighting the fire, the building was a total loss. Gone were years of history, a library full of books, and many records stored on computers. Many of their written records were stored in fire proof containers that were mostly salvageable. Almost everything else was lost. It is tough to prepare for a disaster like this. Many places have a “This could never happen to us” attitude. It can happen and it does happen. A building can be replaced. A new building, hopefully properly protected with an alarm system and a fire protection system can be built. How do you protect your data? There are many secure “cloud” based options on the market; research what is out there, ask your neighboring systems what they recommend. Back up your data regularly, store the backup in a secure location. Many municipalities store credit card information for online payments so it needs to be secure. Mirror your data on a laptop, just be sure it is kept in a safe place. Size your “fireproof” storage according to your current and future needs. You don’t need to wait for a disaster to protect your data. That is something that can be done now. Choose a secure backup option. Almost any building can be retrofit with an alarm and sprinkler system. Barker is moving forward with an upbeat attitude. They will rebuild and are making plans to properly backup their data. A Village is more than a building; it is people who care coming together to rebuild after a disaster. I am looking forward to our next visit. I will see you in my travels. Quality on Tap! 💧💧 Quality On Tap! Our Commitment Our Profession	2b418f2a-fc1c-4f7d-b6de-482fbf02096d	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.nyruralwater.org/sites/default/files/Holley_Spring%202019.pdf	2024-04-15T09:18:22+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296816954.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20240415080257-20240415110257-00175.warc.gz	835,229,063	574	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998677	eng_Latn	0.998677	[ "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2646 ]	[ 2.71875 ]	1	1
From the President’s Desk In his video address the MSTA President, Brian Peterson, shares how bees in a hive mirror the roles we play in schools. He reminds us all that, “You are a vital part of the education system. You are training our next generation to be scientists and engineers and to love science.” He encourages teachers to consider sharing their ideas by presenting at the MSTA conference. From the Desk of Your Executive Director Betty Crowder and Robby Cramer, MSTA Co-Executive Directors Summer 2018 The MSTA Executive Director Role Continues to Evolve For the past year both Betty Crowder and Robby Cramer have served as Co-Executive Directors for the Michigan Science Teachers Association. We will continue to work together to support MSTA this year! As colleagues, we are honored to guide and support the MSTA leadership as they fulfill the mission of this respected organization: to stimulate, support and provide leadership for the improvement of science education throughout Michigan. The MSTA Board Retreat April 2018 The focus of the MSTA board retreat was to reflect on the goals and accomplishments in 2017-2018 and to analyze the feedback from the 2018 MSTA State Conference. Each committee considered what worked well and what needs tweaking for next year. We carefully considered the feedback from attendees and vendors that was gathered through electronic surveys and comments at the conference. Our discussions were rich as perspectives were generated from all the data we collected from our members and vendors. Based on the comments and reviews of the 2018 state conference, we have invited Samantha Johnson and Jim Clark from Next Gen Science Innovations to be our keynote speakers and to conduct several sessions at our conference in Grand Rapids, Michigan March 1 and 2, 2019. We hope that you will join us! Please consider sharing your expertise and ideas by being a session presenter. We wish you all a great beginning to the 2018-2019 school year. Michigan teachers will celebrate science and engineering at the 2019 Michigan Science Teachers Association Conference on March 1-2 at the Amway Grand Plaza Hotel in Grand Rapids. You will not want to miss this opportunity to increase your ability to implement the Michigan Science Standards. Whether you choose to attend general sessions, share-a-thons, workshops, or special events, there is sure to be something for everyone! The Pre-Conference Institute will be held on Thursday, February 28. These longer sessions will offer a more in-depth look at a variety of topics for all educators. Be sure to check out these offerings when conference registration opens. We are thrilled to announce the return of Jim Clark and Samantha Johnson, Directors of Next Generation Science Innovations (https://nextgenscienceinnovations.wordpress.com/). These outstanding national presenters will explore various aspects of the science standards during workshops at our Pre-Conference Institute and sessions during the full day conference on Friday. We are delighted that they will deliver the keynote presentation on Friday morning as well. You will also want to take time to visit the Exhibit Hall where you will find a large selection of science resources for your classrooms. The MESTA rock shop, NSTA bookstore, and MSTA store will be open on Friday and Saturday. And, of course, there will be chances to win raffle prizes at various booths throughout the exhibit hall. Watch for upcoming emails, social media posts, and newsletter articles containing more details to make your conference an amazing experience. We hope that you will also consider sharing your educational experiences and expertise with others. We will begin accepting presenter applications in early September. Information will be posted at http://www.msta-mich.org/ We look forward to learning alongside each of you at the 66th annual Michigan Science Teachers Association Conference! The Most Amazing Day Jennifer Sherburn, Hesperia High School Modeling instruction begins with a phenomenon and asks students to develop an explanation. Here I will describe one of the best days of modeling with my students. I began the lesson by presenting the following situation: Suppose you are standing in the aisle of a bus that travels along a straight road at 55 mph, and you hold a pencil still above your head. Then suppose you release the pencil. Will the pencil strike the floor 1) behind you, 2) at your feet below your hand, or 3) in front of you? The class was very divided on their thinking—approximately half thought the pencil would land below the hand, the other half thought it would land behind you. Representatives for both “sides” shared their logic and a few students changed their thinking. One student said, “it would land behind you. Think about holding the pencil up and walking across the room right now and dropping it. It would land behind you.” Another student countered, “That’s not the same because you need to be on something that is moving.” One vocal thinker suggested, “Mrs. Sherburn, someone should stand in your wheeled chair while holding a pencil. Then someone pushes it and we can see where it lands.” Perfect! Except for the standing part. The entire class walked out to the hall while the volunteer readied himself, cross-legged in my chair, to be pushed quickly down the smooth hallway floor. The two students, rider and pusher, made final adjustments with a tennis ball (easier for us to see) held directly in front of the rider’s head. We counted them down and shortly after starting their motion, the ball was released. And clearly enough for all of us to see, the ball hit the rider in the chest. To myself, I thought, “well, I’ll be darn!!! Not, what I was expecting.” Our evidence was clear enough: the pencil on the moving bus would land behind you. The bell rang. And yet, our observations, our evidence, still didn’t align with my hypothesis. I quickly checked the answer key, which indicated that the pencil would land “at your feet below your hand.” Well, now I was puzzled. What was going on with our evidence to indicate something different with my preconceived notion and the answer key? With only 5 minutes before my next class, I quickly shared the experience with another teacher and shared the answer key. His response, “the answer key is wrong. The pencil should land behind you.” My time was up for the moment to process what just happened and my clear misconception. I had only just begun reviewing the agenda with students for my next class when a I heard a commotion in the hallway. I stepped outside my classroom only to see the teacher I had just conferenced with and his entire history class, along with a student sitting cross-legged in a wheeled chair. My heart was filled with so much excitement that I had puzzled another teacher enough that he had to investigate the situation with his non-science class. Another hour passed and it was lunch time. I was just sharing the morning events and my misconceptions with another teacher when the history teacher came in to further our discussion and investigation. I was still holding on to the idea that the pencil should land below you and he wasn’t convinced. I posed a further question to him, “If you were in the bus and jumped up, would you land behind where you started?” He only thought for a moment and said, “yes!” His response reminded me of a Bill Nye momentum video I had to share. In the video... The Most Amazing Day continued from page 3 a ball is placed in the smokestack of a toy locomotive car. The car is pushed and the ball pops up while the train keeps moving. A moment later the ball falls right back into the smokestack. I looked up at the teacher and could see a light bulb turning on; I could see it on his face. Lunch was almost over and one of my students from my morning class stopped in before heading to his vocational center class. He said he had been thinking about the wheeled-chair and tennis ball most of the morning. The other teacher, quickly shared our lunchtime discussion and added scenarios that had been posed since the original bus scenario. The teacher told this student, “I was with you until I saw this video.” I replayed the video before the student had to leave for his afternoon classes. At the end of the day, the student again stopped by my classroom. This time to give me a few sheets of paper (see below). He explained that he conducted a few trials on the bus to the vocation center. He dropped a pencil as the bus braked when a stop sign approached, when the bus traveled at a constant speed, and when the bus accelerated from a stop. He reported, “I was wrong. The pencil should hit at your feet as long as you were moving at a constant speed.” He further explained his experimental results using force diagrams in his report. Then he explained what happened in our own class demo and why the ball didn’t land in the rider’s lap. He said, “The reason the tennis ball hit his chest was because he was accelerating. If he was traveling at a constant speed and released the ball, it would have landed in his lap.” This is a great example of how modeling instruction can engage students’ curiosity and make learning fun. I don’t think I could come close to describing the pride, appreciation and excitement I felt as a teacher at the end of this day. I have the best job ever!!! BOOK YOUR STEM EXPERIENCE FIELD TRIPS. Interact with 250+ hands-on exhibits that explore Space, Health, Physical Science, Engineering and more. With live stage shows, a 4D theater, and a planetarium, there’s always something new to discover and learn at MiSci. Our programs are designed to support Michigan’s Science Standards. DISTANCE LEARNING. Bring MiSci to you! Our educators bring engaging science workshops, group presentations and experiences to your school or event that will inspire learners to explore and appreciate science. Visit Mi-Sci.org/Educators/ for more details. Engineering Principles and Elements of Art: Hand in Hand in the Elementary Classroom Angie Herek, Visual Arts Teacher, Williamston Community Schools Last summer, I was awarded a mini-grant focusing on arts integration combining NGSS engineering principles with National Art Standards to create an architectural unit for my elementary students. The results along the way were interesting and reinforced teamwork, cooperation, and communication between students. The project ran ranged from 3-5 days with 45-minute class sessions. Each class started with a different international architectural wonder from Australia, Africa, or Japan. Students worked in groups of four to plan, build, and construct different structures which were then photographed and turned into two-dimensional art the following session. After deciding what type of structure they would design, they created them from a variety of building materials including: Keva Planks, Lincoln Logs, Lego Duplos, and wooden blocks. Bristle Blocks, Magnet Blocks, and Tinker Toys were used for decoration and additional elements. Each group was photographed with their structure once it was complete. During the project students asked each other questions, gathered information, organized and developed ideas, made a physical model, refined and reflected on their work, conveyed meaning, and worked together to build and complete their structure while connecting with international architectural structures along with literacy connections through books such as Roberto: Insect Architect, Iggy Peck Architect, and Rosie Revere Engineer (NGSS K-2 ETS1.1, K-2 ETS1.2, 3-5 ETS1.1, 3-4 ETS1.2 & NAS Anchor Standards #1, #5, #6, #11). The following session students set to work putting their structure into a two-dimensional format which included drawing, painting, using architectural stamps, and found object collage (something known as junk art) to complete their individual architectural masterpiece. Just as with any discipline there were successes and failures. Here are a few things that students gleaned from the experience: - Teamwork and communication is key to success. - Keva Planks on a shaky table fall every time. - Dividing up the responsibilities ensures completion. - Everyone can contribute. Through this project, students were able to strengthen their ideas of art and science while stretching their knowledge of structures and engineering through arts integration. Chemical Gardens Larry Kolopajlo and Colin Crowell, Eastern Michigan University In 1646, John Glauber discovered the phenomenon that today is known as chemical gardens. The term chemical garden refers to the alien structures formed when transition metal salts, often as the hydrate, are dropped into a sodium silicate solution that has been diluted to half strength. Most chemical garden structures, colored hollow tubes, sprout from the surface of the seed dropped into the silicate solution within seconds. As the metal ions of the seed crystal dissolve in the silicate solution, they precipitate with the silicate and form interesting growing hollow structures that pass bubbles of air. Aside from posing an attention-grabbing demonstration, chemical gardens show disorder in macroscopic systems, since the growths are unpredictable. Below are some examples of chemical garden structures made in our lab for outreach presentations. CoSO₄•7H₂O over 10 minutes → Growth of Co(NO₃)₂ Ni(NO₃)₂•6H₂O CoCl₂•6H₂O Co(ClO₄)₂•6H₂O MnCl₂•7H₂O ZnSO₄ MnSO₄•7H₂O Cu(NO₃)₂•6H₂O CaCl₂ Fe(SO₄)₂NH₄•6H₂O Summer: A time to get caught up on reading and reflecting! By Wanda F. Bryant @wandabryant, 7th grade science teacher, Detroit Public Schools Community District This summer I read Ambitious Science Teaching by Mark Windschitl, Jessica Thompson, and Melissa Braaten. I have also participated in Twitter chats about the book using the hashtag #ASTBookChat. Twitter chats are a great way to network with other teachers and share ideas and resources. Below are some “gems” from the book that I tweeted. Gem#1: Teacher outlines explanation for anchoring phenomenon with NO gaps (research what you don’t know). Explanation is used to plan instruction, putting activities first that match Ss’ everyday experiences. pages 30-33 Gem#2: Expertise in orchestrating productive talk is a matter of deliberate practice (page 64). Since the one doing the talking is the one doing the learning, much of my time will be spent learning from #ASTBookChat. p. 35, and 48. Gem#3: I’ve used individual summary tables with lesson included and students’ names. This is preferred. More equitable and sustained classroom conversation can be achieved by making each part of the table the focus of mini conversations. Gem#4: 2/2-Ss record observations on sticky notes to jumpstart initial data. p.188-189 Gem#5: Make sure Gotta have it explanation items express a relationship! page 216 1. Key 2. 1 Card for each person in the group—NEW! 3. Monique’s cells 4. Lock and key to let glucose into cells? NEW! 5. Glucose 6. Insulin 7. Circulatory system: heart, veins, etc - Risk factors (traits—red, yellow, blue, black) a. Not enough insulin produced b. Insulin not produced at the correct time every day c. Correct type of insulin is not produced (broken insulin molecule) Gem#6: My focus area this fall will be on what AST calls “practical measures”, using structured talk for how and why reasoning and assessing depth of Ss’ scientific explanations during small group work via exit tickets. pages 68, 243-244. Gem#7: AST recommends PDSA-PlanDoStudyAct as a means to identify problems of practice and organizing with colleagues to improve. I’ll be using pages 74-75 on structured talk scaffold and chapter 13 to improve practice. A tool to help with structured talk can be found https://ambitiousscienceteaching.org/structured-talk-pdsa-data-snap-tool/ Gem#8: Subconsciously, I think I help Ss uncover observations and patterns and connect activity to anchoring event using BPOs. Prime Ss during small group work to prepare for whole group conversations is new goal. p180, 184, 196. A tool to support on-going changes in student thinking can be found at https://ambitiousscienceteaching.org/tools-planning/ Ideas for Productive Discussions at the Beginning of the School Year By Laura Ritter, MSTA Region 6 Director & Physics Teacher at Troy High School Student-to-student discussions are a regular occurrence in my classroom. As the school year nears, I am reminding myself of the work I will need to do to make sure that these discussions are productive. If you are looking for some ways to improve discussions in your own classroom, below are some ideas that might help. - The first few days of the school year are critical for establishing the tone and norms for your class. Decide what norms you want to establish with the class every time you have a discussion. Will students have to raise their hands to talk? How will they be positioned around the classroom—in a circle, pods or in rows? Will they use a communication tool—like chart paper or whiteboards? Students already understand the expectations for the more traditional lecture-style class. They will need to clearly understand how your expectations for discussions might be different. You may want to introduce question prompts. - Set aside some time to do some get-to-know-you and teambuilding activities. These activities might feel like wasted time because they are not academic, but they are critical for getting students comfortable talking about science to each other. - Students also need to feel comfortable and safe expressing their ideas in front of you. They are used to being judged by their teachers. Many teachers use an IRE (Initiate-Response-Evaluate) approach to questioning students—even if IRE isn’t their intent. Often we think we are avoiding judgment by using phrases like “that’s an interesting idea” when a student’s idea is incorrect. But, our students can easily crack that code. They are constantly watching body language and listening to tone of voice of the teacher. Once they know your “tells”, they might stop participating altogether in order to avoid the potential embarrassment of being wrong or sounding stupid. Try to hold back from responding after every student’s response and give the students the opportunity to respond to each other. Your students need more time to process than you do, so use wait time. - It takes a lot of practice on the part of the teacher to steer students in the right direction without taking a more authoritative stance. Start the year with a low-stakes activity such as discussion that centers around a phenomenon that relates to the next unit of study. Have students debate a question that uncovers their preconceptions. A biology teacher might ask: “As a tree grows, where does it get most of its mass?” Give students options like “air, water, the Sun, soil…” and have each student choose what they think is the best answer and debate their ideas as a class. During this activity, you must pay attention to your own body language and try not to jump into the conversation. Your students will have fun debating the ideas with each other and will be eager to learn about the correct answer in the lesson that follows. - The AAAS Project 2061 website (http://assessment.aaas.org/topics) has common sense misconception assessment items organized by topic. This could serve as a resource for developing questions for students to discuss. Page Keeley’s Uncovering Student Ideas series of assessment probes are also a great resource for phenomena related to common sense misconceptions. Productive student discussions do not come easily. If you set the right tone at the beginning of the year, you might find that you will reach your goal of productive discussions sooner. Good luck! Celestial Highlights By Robert C. Victor, Abrams Planetarium Abrams Planetarium at Michigan State University has provided the September and October issues of its Sky Calendar for this issue of the MSTA Quarterly Newsletter. The occasion is the presence of four bright planets in the early evening sky at the start of the new school year – provided you begin looking very soon after sunset, perhaps only half an hour after, very low in the west-southwest, for Venus. As the sky darkens slightly more, Jupiter becomes visible, to the upper left of Venus. Mars, faded some after its very close approach near the end of July, is still quite bright, in the south-southeast at dusk in September, while Saturn is in the south. Two diagrams on the September Sky Calendar (Sept. 15 and 24), and one on October (Oct. 1) show the broad panorama of four planets, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars, in order from right to left across the sky. Diagrams for Oct. 14 and 28 also show four planets, Mercury having replaced Venus, but you’ll need binoculars to have any chance to spot Mercury so low in bright twilight during this very unfavorable appearance. Students can follow the Moon’s eastward progress against the background of bright stars and planets. Have students attempt to observe the Moon each clear evening Sept. 10-24 and Oct. 9-24. The planets will make good markers for students to notice changes in the Moon’s position from one night to the next. Sept. 11-20 are especially good dates, as are Oct. 10-12 (using Jupiter to help notice the Moon’s changing position), Oct. 13-15 (using Saturn), and Oct. 17-18 (using Mars). Abrams Planetarium has added an Extra Content Page to its website, to supplement the Sky Calendars. To view, visit [http://www.abramsplanetarium.org/msta](http://www.abramsplanetarium.org/msta) The observing projects on the website have various levels of difficulty. A good activity for beginners is simply locating and observing the brightest stars and planets. Evening and morning twilight is a fine time to look for them. Scroll down to the twilight charts which plot only the naked-eye planets and the brightest stars, two charts for each month, August through November. Each chart is accompanied by a description. Before Daylight Saving Time ends in early November, the morning sky is available without having to get up unreasonably early. And every year in September and October, mornings are rich with bright stars. During November 2018, Venus will rocket upward into predawn skies, and attain exceptional brilliance by late that month (after we’re back on Standard Time, but it’ll be worth getting up to see Venus at its best). So that you can make plans, we include information about the total eclipse of the Moon which will occur on the night of Sunday, January 20. This fall, Abrams Planetarium Sky Calendar marks its 50th anniversary. In the next 50 years, we shall continue to strive to inspire teachers and students to go outdoors to enjoy the beauty of the changing night sky. continued on page 12 Celestial Highlights continued from page 11 Venus nears end of its current reign as ‘evening star.’ In September, it is highest in the sky about 1.5 hours after sunset on Sept. 14 and 15, but 2.5 hours after sunset on Sept. 30. Venus is highest an hour left of setting Sun, by 40° on Sept. 14, and by 33° on Sept. 30. But look south at sunset on Sept. 15, Venus is only 15° up at sunset, and by Sept. 30, it’s sinking to 7° on Sept. 30. Unless you have a very clear or even binocular view, Venus will always appear low in the sky around sunset. Now on its way toward its next orbital, backlitness by the Sun will make it appear unaltered. By Sept. 30, Venus is only 1/3rd full and 46° across. Four planets visible. Venus very low WSW. Jupiter very low WSW, 1-3°, low in SW at upper left of setting Sun. Saturn, of mag. -0.4 to -0.5 at sunset, is 1-2° above and to the right of Jupiter. Mars, of mag. +1.8, is 1-2° above and to the right of Saturn. Mercury, of mag. -0.2, is 1-2° above and to the right of Mars. All four planets are visible for 45 minutes after sunset. On Sept. 29 marks the arrival of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Meanwhile Venus is now well advanced in its second quarter, with its arrival at perihelion in mid-September followed by its southern summer solstice on Sept. 22 (when planet’s south pole is tilted most toward the Sun). The southern polar cap is readily visible through binoculars and small telescopes. Observing info for Aug.-Oct. can be found in the dusk and dawn planet and transit charts. In October 2018, we’re winding down from a run of four lunar eclipses. Our evening skywatch astronomy. In particular, you’ll want to see your ‘scope very soon after sunset on Oct. 1. Venus is very near inferior planetary conjunction, 8° to 10° below the Sun. At sunset on Oct. 1, Venus is only 7° up at sunset, and by 10 p.m., it’s 1½ hours from the Sun. At that time, Venus is 47° (arcminutes) across. Its crescent phase will surprise and delight you, especially if you think Galileo reported Venus’ phases in 1610. (He did, 25 years ago!) Venus sets 3 minutes earlier than the Sun on Oct. 1, 4 minutes later on Oct. 2, 5 minutes later on Oct. 3, 6 minutes later on Oct. 4, 7 minutes later on Oct. 5, 8 minutes later on Oct. 6, and so on. Venus passes inferior conjunction within 6.7° SSW of the Sun. But don’t worry, Venus appears as a very thin crescent that is not particularly bright and less than one percent illuminated. In general, Venus is a thin crescent as close to inferior conjunction as it is to superior conjunction. It takes a powerful telescope to see the crescent with the naked eye to the Sun. Try standing over a mirror and use the mirror bridge to block the Sun from your telescope’s field of view. You’ll have an easier time: a bright crescent of Venus will pass over 8° north of the Sun during the evening. Venus is north of a building in midday, and won’t be visible until daylight. Rocketing nearly vertically into the sky, the Moon starts out rising 40° east of the meridian at sunset. It speeds up in Oct. 31, rising 50° before midnight. On the night of Oct. 29, the Moon is 1.5° above the Sun. Venus glares at mag. -4.7 or brighter, and is visible all night. See http://abramsplanetarium.org/events/ for information on this month’s events and a peek at what’s coming up in the coming school year. Planetarium business office: (517) 355-4679 http://abramsplanetarium.org/SkyNotes http://abramsplanetarium.org/calendar/ Celestial Highlights continued on page 13 The planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are plotted for mid-September 2018. At chart time 10 objects of first magnitude or brighter are visible. In order of brightness they are: Jupiter, Mars, Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Saturn, Altair, Antares, Fomalhaut, and Deneb. Our usual monthly maps are designed for stargazers just beginning to find their way around the sky. This month’s map is useful for serious stargazing from dark locations. It contains many more stars, inclusive to magnitude 4.5, and some fainter stars as needed to complete patterns or assist in locating special objects. A selection of double stars (labeled with Greek letters) and “deep sky objects” is also plotted. All are visible with modest equipment; most are within the range of the unaided eye or binoculars. The double stars, in order of decreasing angular separation, are ζ UMa, δ Lyr, α Cap, α Cyg, ε Lyr, ν Dra, ζ Lyr, β Cyg. Two open or galactic clusters are noted: M7 between the Teapot and tail of Scorpius, and the Double Cluster in Perseus. Two globular clusters, more compact concentrations of hundreds of thousands of stars, can be found: M13 in Hercules and M22 in Sagittarius. M8 in Sagittarius is the Lagoon Nebula, a gas and dust cloud from which stars are forming. M31 is the famous Andromeda Galaxy, a collection of 300 billion stars located 2.5 million light years from Earth. It is barely visible to the unaided eye. Celestial Highlights continued from page 13 This chart is drawn for latitude 40° north, but should be useful to stargazers throughout the continental United States. It represents the sky at the following local daylight saving times: - Late September: 11 p.m. - Early October: 10 p.m. - Late October: 9 p.m. This map is applicable one hour either side of the above times. The planets Mars and Saturn are plotted at map time, mid-October 2018. Eight objects of first magnitude or brighter are visible. In order of brightness they are: Mars, Vega, Capella, Saturn, Altair, Aldebaran, Fomalhaut, and Deneb. In addition to stars, other objects that should be visible to the unaided eye are labeled on the map. The double star (Dbi) at the bend of the handle of the Big Dipper is easily detected. Much more difficult is the double star near Vega in Lyra. Low in the east-northeast, the Pleiades is a very attractive open or galactic star cluster. The position of an external star system, called the Andromeda Galaxy after the constellation in which it appears, is also indicated (Gix). Try to observe these objects with unaided eye and binoculars. —D. David Batch The Michigan Water Environment Association (MWEA) is pleased to announce the “Dan Wolz Clean Water Education Grant” for this year. The Dan Wolz Clean Water Education Grant was established eight years ago to heighten public awareness of the career opportunities our industry has to offer and to improve the quality and quantity of Clean Water community education in Michigan’s public schools. Dan Wolz was a true environmental steward of the earth. Thus, in recognition of the passion Dan had for education, this award continues to reach hundreds of Michigan students. Details: The MWEA partners with the Michigan Science Teachers Association to identify those teachers who have a great program and are in need of financial assistance to execute a project within a curriculum focused on water environment issues. As a grant recipient, a teacher will be provided with: - Complimentary conference registration and one night stay in a hotel for both the MSTA Annual Conference (to accept the award in the year given and to attend/present at the following year’s conference). - Your school employer’s cost for substitute pay will be covered both years. - Complimentary conference registration and one night stay in a hotel for attendance at the Michigan Water Environment Association’s Annual Conference, the year following award. Mileage for travel to this conference is reimbursed. - $1500.00 cash award for purchase of classroom and project supplies. Following the use of the Dan Wolz Education Funds and implementation of classroom projects the following school year, the recipient is expected to: - Give a 30-40 minute presentation as a featured speaker at the MSTA Annual Conference. - Give a 15-20 minute presentation at the MWEA Annual Conference. - Write an article for both the MSTA newsletter and the MWEA magazine describing your experiences implementing the classroom project. Grant Application Process: Grant applications are published in the fall issue of the MSTA newsletter, with an October 31, 2018 submission deadline. Determination of the award recipient will be made in November. The award will be presented at the MSTA conference in March 2019 at the awards banquet. This year, the award will be given to one K-12 MSTA science teacher. Process and Procedures for Applying: 1. The Dan Wolz Clean Water Education Grant application is available in this newsletter. 2. Submit the application by October 31, 2018 to: email@example.com with “Dan Wolz Award” in the subject line. 3. The MSTA Awards Committee and MWEA will make determination jointly. 4. Determination of the award winner will be made by end of November 2018, with notification occurring in December. Applications can be considered for at least two years. 5. The Award recipient will be introduced at the MSTA Conference at the awards banquet in March 2019. Expectations of the award recipient: - Be available to accept this award at the MSTA State Conference Awards Banquet March 2019 - Write an article for both the MSTA and MWEA newsletters - Give presentations at both the MSTA (March) and MWEA (June) state conferences in 2020 Past Recipients of the Dan Wolz Education Grant: 2007 - Mary Lindow, Battle Creek 2008 - Emily Curry, Jackson Public Schools 2009 - John Martin, Waterford School District - Don Hammond, Flint Beecher High School 2010 - Gary Cousino, Rochester Community Schools - Douglas Morrison, Manistique Middle School 2011 - Susan Tate, Whitehall Middle School 2012 - Chris Groenhout, Grandville High School 2013 - Dave Chapman, Okemos High School 2014 - Tammy Coleman, Lowell High School - Randy Cook, TriCounty Schools 2015 - Josh Nichols, Heritage Elementary School - John Travis, Williamston Community Schools 2016 - Connie Atkisson, Thirkell Elementary-Middle School, Detroit Public Schools - Lea Sevigny, Central Middle School, Forest Hills Public Schools 2017 - Sarah Geborkoff, Houghton Middle School 2018 - Holly Hereau, Thurston High Achool Need more Information? - For more information about the award go to: [http://www.mi-wea.org/weg.php](http://www.mi-wea.org/weg.php) - For more details regarding the grant itself, contact MWEA representative firstname.lastname@example.org - For more information about the Michigan Water Environment Association go to [http://www.mi-wea.org](http://www.mi-wea.org) ## Dan Wolz Clean Water Education Grant Rubric \| Criteria \| Unsatisfactory (0 - 9 points) \| Basic (10 - 14 points) \| Average (15 - 19 points) \| Above Average (20 - 25 points) \| Distinguished (26 - 30 points) \| \|---------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Project Description \| Project not clearly defined \| Project description is marginal. \| Adequate project description. \| Proficient project description. \| Superior description of project \| \| Connection to GLCE and/or HSCE \| No Connection to Michigan Science Standards \| Marginal reference to Michigan Science Standards \| Adequate reference to Michigan Science Standards \| Reference to Michigan Science Standards is proficient. \| Detailed connection to Michigan Science Standards \| \| Dissemination Plan \| Does not articulate a dissemination plan \| Marginal evidence of dissemination plan \| Adequate evidence of dissemination plan \| Proficient evidence of dissemination plan \| Detailed dissemination Plan \| \| Sustainability \| No evidence of sustainability \| Marginal evidence of sustainability \| Adequate evidence of sustainability \| Evidence of sustainability is proficient \| Details evidence of Sustainability \| \| Links to Grant Goals and Results \| Application does not have a link to the stated goal and intended results of the grant \| Poor attempt to link to the goal and intended results of grant \| Adequate attempt to link to the stated goal or intended results of the grant. \| Application is linked to the stated goal and intended results of grant. \| Distinguished link to the stated goal and intended results of grant. \| The goal is to enable Michigan teachers to be aware and promote careers in water environment, water quality, and wastewater management not only to their students but also to the science community. The results we are seeking would be students throughout Michigan who will have a much greater awareness and appreciation of the contribution this great industry makes to our society and maybe even become inspired to choose a career path that would make them a part of that contribution. Dan Wolz Clean Water Education Grant Application The mission of the Michigan Water Environment Association: Michigan Water Environment Association will be a recognized authority on and advocate for preserving, restoring, and enhancing Michigan’s water resources. Grant Narrative: • Describe your project and share how this project relates to your curriculum and teaching practice with students and or science teachers (Maximum one page.) • Purpose of Grant: Give your statement of how you can share with others in your community as well as other educators in the state of Michigan what you have implemented with your students. (Maximum one page.) • Provide a summary of why you are interested in Michigan’s water resources Identify the locations and contact information for the nearest water treatment plant(s) in the school district where you teach. Do these facilities offer tours? (Maximum one page.) • Rubric used in the selection process will be available on the MSTA web site http://www.msta-mich.org/ Contact Information: Name: ____________________________________________________________ Home Address: ______________________________________________________ City: _________________________________ State: ____ Zip: _______________ Phone Number: ________________ Email Address: _________________________ School District: ______________________________________________________ School Name: _______________________________________________________ School Address: ______________________________________________________ City: _________________________________ State: ____ Zip: _______________ Position/Title: __________________________ Grade Level (s): _______________ Completed Applications must be received by MSTA by October 31, 2018. 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Audition Theme: Senses – Smell Domain and goal - Answers: What do you do with your____? - Answers: What does it smell like? It smells like _____. - Listens in the presence of background noise TIP: ★ It is important for your child to listen and focus on the primary person talking in the presence of background noise or music. This is helpful in crowded situations, noisy environments, and certain situations at school. Activities The Nose Game We do not do as many things with our nose as we do with our eyes, but there are some verbs you can act out to answer the question, ‘What do you do with your nose?’ Your child answers the question as you take turns acting out these verbs: - smell - sniff - inhale - wrinkle - blow - wipe Candy Smells There are many varieties of candies that have distinct smells. Break the candies into little pieces. Ask your child to close his/her eyes as you hand them a little piece of candy to smell. Ask your child, ‘What does it smell like?’, then let them taste the candy. Candies might smell like: - strawberries - cherries - grapes - lemons - bananas - oranges - apples - peppermint - chocolate - peanut butter Smell Barrier Game After you have played the Smell Barrier Game from the Language section this week, and after your child is familiar with the language and vocabulary, turn on the TV or music to create background noise. This provides practice for your child to attend to what you are saying and to not pay attention to background sounds. \| Date \| What did your child do? \| \|------\|-------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Domain and goal - Uses adjectives to describe smells - Uses auxiliary verb: should - Understands idiom: under your nose Activities Smell Barrier Game Gather a variety of objects with distinct smells. Ask your child to close their eyes and smell while you present one thing at a time. Use adjectives to describe the smells. Then he/she opens their eyes to discover the source of the smell. Encourage the auxiliary verb 'should' by talking about what you should or should not eat. Here are some adjectives and examples of objects you might use: - sweaty... sweaty shirt - fragrant... fragrant flower - burning... burning candle - clean... clean towel - delicious... delicious cookie - fresh... fresh parsley - musty... musty dish cloth - rotten... rotten fruit - salty... salty water - smoky... smoky bacon - sour... sour lemon - spicy... spicy pepper - stinky... stinky shoes - strong... strong cheese - sweet... sweet cake. Idiom When your child has lost something even though it is close to him/her, say, 'It is under your nose.' TIP: ★ Encourage your child to resolve conflicts with siblings by talking about how he/she feels about what happened. Model and practice some useful phrases such as, 'I feel ___ when ____.' The s sound is the most frequently used sound in the English language. This is one of the reasons you have bombarded your child with the s sound over the past few weeks. This week you continue to provide many opportunities for your child to hear and practice saying the s sound. Smell and Sniff Activities Since the theme this week is the sense of smell, you frequently use the words ‘smell’ and ‘sniff’. Your child may be producing the s sound correctly in s blends. Model the correct production of these words and use them in phrases. Listen to your child’s speech. Are they saying the s sound correctly? Your child may smell or sniff: - strawberries - mustard - medicine - icing - ice cream - breakfast - apple sauce - syrup - popsicle - toast - spices - freshly cut grass - Mom’s lipstick Clothes Closet Look in the clothes closet and talk about these objects to provide lots of practice with the s sound: - scarf - sweater - pants - necklace - purse - tights - slippers - sneakers Barrier Game You are bombarding your child with the s sound as you play this game to teach adjectives related to smell for the Language lesson this week. Use these examples or see the Language lesson for additional ideas: - sweaty - delicious - musty - salty - smoky - sour - spicy - stinky - strong - sweet School Days Talk about things your child might experience at school, such as: - bus - glasses - pencil - eraser - stairs - slide - swing - scissors - circle - outside - sidewalk \| Date \| What did your child do? \| \|------\|-------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Smell Poem, in Finger Frolics, Over 250 Fingerplays for Young Children from 3 Years, Discovery Toys, Pleasant Hill, CA, 1985 I like the smell of strawberry pie And roses in the spring; The scent of a vanilla candle and Thanksgiving turkey wing. I like the smell of new-mown grass, And raked-up leaves in fall. I like to sniff mom’s spice-shelf And a brand-new basketball. I like the smell of a sandy beach, And the salty spray of oceans; I like the smell of ancient books, And mama’s baby lotion. • Do a kitchen activity with your child. Mix equal portions of thyme, rosemary, and oregano to represent the spice shelf. • Create the smell of the ‘salty spray of oceans’ by combining salt in warm water. • Smell different lotions available as samples in retail stores. • Get scratch-and-sniff stickers or scratch-and-sniff books to provide fun opportunities for your child to smell a variety of things. Look, Listen, Taste, Touch, and Smell: Learning About Your Five Senses (Amazing Body), Hill Nettleton (Author), Pamela (Author), Shipe (Illustrator), Becky (Illustrator), Picture Window Books, 2006 Read another book about the five senses. Your child finds out how the five senses help us and reviews previous lessons about the senses. Smell (The Five Senses), Maria Rius (Author), J. M. Parramon (Author), J. J. Puig (Author), Barron's Educational Series, 1985 Last week you read to your child from this series of books about the sense of sight. This week you read the book about the sense of smell. 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STUDY MATERIAL FOOD PRODUCTION (809) CLASS – XII By: NCHMCT \| Unit \| Page \| \|-----------------------------\|------\| \| Unit 1: Indian Regional Cookery \| 3 \| \| Unit 2: Indian Snacks \| 21 \| \| Unit 3: Indian Gravies \| 26 \| \| Unit 4: Indian Sweets \| 36 \| \| Unit 5: Presentation of Indian Meals \| 45 \| \| Unit 6: Fast Food \| 50 \| \| Unit 7: Introduction to Baking \| 63 \| \| Unit 8: Menu Planning \| 77 \| \| Unit 9: Food Costing \| 93 \| \| Unit 10: Food Safety \| 107 \| UNIT 1 INDIAN REGIONAL COOKERY Objectives: - To enumerate and describe the factors that affect regional eating habits in various parts of India. - To describe the unique ingredients found in various states of India. - To prepare popular dishes from various regions of India. - To list popular Indian dishes from various regions of India and appraise the variety of food in Indian region. Introduction India is a vast country with a myriad of cultures. Each culture has its own festivities and food. The amazing variety of Indian food with local ingredients and spices is something we all as Indians can celebrate and appreciate. Factors affecting regional eating habits: Food in any part of the world is affected by some common factors: 1. Geographical location: The geographical location of an area determines its climate and thus affects the local crop or produce. E.g. fish and coconut are easily available in coastal regions while not in mountains. Similarly, areas where there is abundant availability of water, rice is grown as this crop requires stagnant water for some time. Similarly, in desert areas, fresh produce is sundried and kept for future use, and crops requiring less water are produced. 2. Landscape and climate: In places where cold is intense, more fat is used while in hot climate, steamed and easily digestible food is cooked. 3. History of the region / foreign influences: Cooking is an art which passes on from the older generation to the younger one. However, whenever there is an amalgam of two or more societies, it is natural that they both tend to adapt to each other’s attributes. This includes food as well. E.g. You must have read in history that the Goan region was a Portuguese colony. Today, there are many dishes like chourico, bacalhau, caldo verde, arroz doce etc which are common to Goa and Portugal. Similarly, the Awadhi cuisine from the Uttar Pradesh belt today is an amalgam of local Indian and Mughal cuisines with dishes such as biryani, rizala, mughlai paranthas, kebabs, and rich aromatic gravies. 4. Religion: India is a country where people from many religions live harmoniously together. Religious beliefs of people also affect their food. E.g. Jews only eat Kosher meat, Jain or Hindus prefer vegetarian food while Christians eat meats. Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork and so on. Due to these religious beliefs, the ingredients and meal patterns also vary. 5. Culture: Culture is a sum total of ideas, customs, religion, and social behaviour of a particular group of people. This includes festivities of various groups of people. E.g. Assamese celebrate harvest festival Bihu, Punjabis celebrate Baisakhi while in western India, it is Makar. Sankranti and Pongal in southern parts of the country. A variety of foods are associated with festivals across the country. Activity: Numerous varieties of agricultural goods in the form of food grains, fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee etc are produced in India. Tons of fruits like Mangoes, Oranges, Bananas, Apples etc are exported from India each year. India is also known world over for its quality tea and spice exports. Find out more about major agricultural produce exported from the country, the state they are grown in and how the geography of the area helps in quality production. Regional Indian Food a) NORTH ZONE: - North zone of India comprises of the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh are at times separately classified as Central India. This zone also includes the Union Territories of Delhi, Chandigarh. Geographical features – Northern most states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are the mountainous regions of mighty Himalayas. Usually weather is colder than the rest of India and in winters a major area of the above states receives snowfall. The area is a popular tourist destination during summers as an escape from extremely hot climate in plains. In contrast the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh are the Northern plains with many river beds such as Ganges and its tributaries, Yamuna, Beas, Satluj etc which forms the fertile plains. Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh are dotted by Vindhya and Satpura ranges and the land is irrigated by Narmada and Mahanadi. Cuisine of Jammu & Kashmir: The famous Kashmiri banquet called Waazwan is a feast and comprises of thirty six courses of food served in order. Specially prepared by cooks known as wazas, the meal is served in large bronze thali called ‘thramis’ that can be shared by four persons and indicates brotherhood. Major festivals: Ramzan, Id, Mahashivratri Staple food: Rice is the staple food. People like to eat bread from local bakery. Unique Ingredients: - Lotus Stem (Nadroo) – grown in shallow waters of Dal and Wular lakes. - Shallots (Praan) – It is a hybrid between onion and shallot and has a strong garlic like flavor. - Saffron – Dried stigma of Crocus flower, it is expensive and is used to flavor and colour rice, desserts and gravies. - Morels (Guchhi) – Expensive and perishable mushrooms sold in dried form associated with royal cooking. - Saag (Haaq) – Type of greens which are cooked like Punjabi saag. • Ver – A paste of various spices including praan, dried and shaped liked pressed spheres (tikkis) and sundried. They can be stored for future use. A small piece is broken and added to curries to flavour them. • Vegetables such as turnips (Gogji) and round radish (Muzh) are used on their own or with meats. • Abundance of fruits (apple, pomegranate, plum, cherry etc) and dry fruits. Dishes: • Roganjosh: Shoulder of lamb is simmered in a red gravy made with praan, curd, and spices such as deghi mirch, fennel powder, ver and cardamom powder are added. • Dum aloo: Small potatoes are first parboiled, pricked all over and deep fried to a crisp outer coating. They are then stewed in a curd based gravy flavoured with fennel powder and kashmiri red chillies. • Yakhni: Pieces of lamb are stewed in a thin curd based gravy flavoured with fennel, cardamom and dried ginger powder to make yakhni. • Rista: Poached lamb dumplings in a rich red gravy. The lamb is freshly pounded to make a paste which is then flavoured and made into dumplings. • Gushtaba: Similar to rishta, it is lamb dumplings in white curd based gravy. • Tabak Maaz: Lamb ribs are boiled with aniseed powder, ginger, turmeric, asafoetida and cinnamon powder till it absorbs all the water. It is then pan fried in hot ghee. • Kehwa: The Kashmiri green tea flavoured with saffron and chopped almonds. Cuisine of Himachal Pradesh: Festivals: Kullu dussehra is very popular. Apart from this all major festivals are celebrated. Dishes: • Dham – Dham is a meal cooked on special occasions or festivals. This includes Madra, Kadi, Moong dal, Khatta etc. It is traditionally served on plates made out of leaves. • Madra – This is a curd and lentil based curry. The lentil used is usually chickpeas or kidney beans. • Palda – These are potato chunks cooked in thick curd gravy with spices and turmeric. • Sidu is a local bread made from wheat flour. The dough is kneaded and set aside for some hours for the yeast to settle and the dough to rise. This dough is rolled with a variety of stuffing and is put on direct flame of bonfire to be par-cooked and then later steamed to complete the cooking. This distinct bread is usually enjoyed with ghee or butter alone or can be savoured with mutton or daal as well. • Mittha as the name suggests is a local dessert of Himachal Pradesh. It is prepared with sweetened rice mixed with a generous helping of raisins and other dry fruits. • Kullu trout - Trout fish is marinated with subtle spices to bring out the natural flavours and then shallow fried in mustard oil. Cuisine of Punjab: Festivals: All major festivals including Gurupurab, Baisakhi, Lohri etc Ingredients: - Fish – Many river fish are found and eaten as a popular snack or in a gravy. - Meat and chicken – Both red and white meats are equally popular and cooked in variety of gravies. - Milk & milk products – Farming and animal husbandry are two major economic sectors in the region. Hence there is ample use of milk and milk products in cuisine. - All seasonal vegetables such as brinjals, lady finger, mustard leaves, bathua, fenugreek leaves, gourds etc are eaten. Staple food: Both wheat and rice are equally popular. Tandoor: The concept of ‘Sanjha Chulha’ – community cooking in tandoor is very popular. Tandoor is a clay over which is used to cook vegetables, kebabs, rotis etc and is lit by coal. The temperature reaches up to 400°C. Dishes: - Sarson ka saag aur makke ki roti – A winter delicacy prepared by a cooking and grinding green leafy vegetables. A major part is mustard leaves along with some spinach or even fenugreek leaves. The saag is typically served with rotis made out of makki flour. - Pindi chole – A dry preparation made by soaking and boiling chickpeas. The cooked chickpeas are flavoured with pindi chole masala, salt, ginger juliennes, green chillies and coriander. - Kadhi Pakoda – A gravy is prepared with curd and gram flour. Dumplings made out of gram flour are simmered in the gravy so as they absorb the kadhi and become soft. - Rara gosht – A mutton preparation made with both chunks of mutton and minced mutton flavoured with spices cooked in a pot. - Dal makhani – Whole black gram is cooked with onion, tomato puree and spices to a creamy consistency. - Amritsari Macchi – Fish fillet which is marinated and cooked to a crispy texture by coating with gram flour batter and deep fried. - Murg Makhani – More popular in restaurant as butter chicken, the chicken is marinated and cooked in tandoor. It is then put in makhani gravy – a tomato based gravy with a buttery mouthfeel. - Dal amritsari – Split black gram and Chana dal cooked together and tempered. - Ras kheer – A sweet made by cooking rice in sugarcane juice. Cuisine of Haryana: Haryana is known for its cattle wealth and is the home of the famous Murrah buffalo and local Haryana cow. Hence there is an abundance of milk and milk products in Haryanvi cuisine. People make butter and ghee at home and use these liberally in their daily diet. Dishes - Mixed Dal - Various dals (Chana, toor, masoor and moong dal) are mixed with spices and are cooked in ghee. The semi crushed grains of the dal allow the dish to have a rich and thick texture to eat the dal. Most people have dal with plain rice or jeera rice. - Bajra Khichri - For preparing bajara khichri, bajara is soaked overnight. Then Moong daal and bajara are washed together and cooked in a pressure cooker along with spices. - Kachri ki chutney - It is made from ground kachri, garlic, onion, other spices, and yogurt. - Alsi ki Pinni is a sweet dish made from alsi (flax seed or lin seed) wheat flour, sugar, nuts and ghee. All these ingredients are used to make a mixture, which is then rolled into balls. This sweet dish is also healthy as alsi is rich in omega 3 and iron. Cuisine of Uttar Pradesh: Festivals: All major festivals such as Holi, Diwali, Dussehra, Teej, Makar sakranti, Janmashtami, Id, Ramzaan etc are celebrated with fervour. Staple food: Mostly wheat towards the west and rice towards the eastern districts. Sugarcane is grown in abundance and there are many sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh. Cooking food: The food in the Hindu kitchens is divided as Kacchi rasoi i.e meal consists of food cooked in water like rice, dals, khichdi, chapatti etc while there is Pucci Rasoi where meal consists of food cooked with a medium of fat / ghee such as paranthas, pooris, gravies etc. Dishes: The daily meal consists of lentils, one or two vegetables (cauliflower, carrots, peas, gourds, lady finger, brinjals, alocaccia etc), curd, chapatti, rice, papad, pickles, salad. - Thandai – Drunk to cool off summers, it consists of icy cold milk blended with pistachio, cardamom, black pepper, saffron and sugar. - Ghevar – A sweet markedly prepared during the month of saawan, using a chilled batter of refined flour poured in a mould kept in hot oil. The contact creates a mesh like structure of flour which is the base. It is then dipped in sugar syrup and coated with khoya and nuts. - Khasta Kachoris – Deep fried soft bread, stuffed with filling made up of spiced pulses such as urad dal pithi. - Gajak and rewri – Typically made during winters, sweets made of sugar or jaggery with sesame seeds and set to a crunchy texture. - Pulao / khichdi- Rice cooked with pulses or vegetables and simply eaten with some pickle, papad and mattha (salted buttermilk). Khichdi in various forms is associated with celebration of Makar Sankranti in many parts of country. - Petha – A sweet made up of pumpkin / ash gourd popularly made in Agra. - Pede – A sweet made up of milk popular from Mathura. - Gujiya – A sweet made on Holi in which refined flour dough is rolled and filled with nuts and khoya and is deep fried. Lucknow / Awadh – The modern day capital of Uttar Pradesh is Lucknow. Lucknow was also the capital of the kingdom of Awadh and till date is epitome of legendary hospitality and food. The splendour of Nawabi era is still evident in the food spread called Dastarkhwan. Although Awadh is not a state anymore, the Mughlai food of Lucknow and surroundings is known as Awadhi cuisine. Unique Ingredients – - Spices like allspice (kebabchini), royal cumin (shahi jeera), mace (javitri), saffron (kesar), baobeer, dried lemon grass (jarakush), sandalwood, rose petals, alum, vetiver etc. - A popular spice mix called Lazzat-e-taam is used to flavour dishes. Equipments - Deg: a pear shaped brass pot. - Lagaan: Shallow and round copper utensil to cook large cuts of meat and poultry. - Mahi tawa: Similar in appearance as a parat, a big round flat bottom try with raised edges used to cook kebabs. Dishes - Pulao – Pulaos were popular in Awadhi cuisine and made from best long grain fragrant rice and stewed in meat stocks. - Sheermal – Light flaky bread cooked in tandoor with saffron and milk smeared over it. - Kaliya – A yellow gravy with use of turmeric and saffron with meat. - Rizala – A mutton preparation in creamy white yoghurt based gravy. - Shammi kebab – Meat is cooked with chana dal and then minced and spiced. - Kakori kebab – It is made from lamb meat clear of any sinews, minced with fat and kidney, seasoned with numerous spices and skewered and cooked on coal. - Galavati kebab – Made so as to melt in mouth these are also popular as tunde ke kebab. Made by keema breast of lamb and cooked on mahi tawa, the texture is like a paste. - Shahi tukda – Deep fried pieces of bread dipped in sugar syrup and rabri is poured over it. It is decorated with chopped nuts and warq. Cuisine of Madhya Pradesh: Major festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Shivaratri of Ujjain is famous. Staple food: Both wheat and rice are equally popular. Dishes: - Daal bafla - Dal Bafla is a dish that hails from the heart of India, that is, Madhya Pradesh. It is similar to the Rajasthani staple dal bati or the Bihari dish litti. The dish is essentially a ball of baked dough that is served with toor dal. - Bhutte ka kees - Grated corn roasted in ghee and later cooked in milk with spices. - Malpua - Malpua is majorly prepared with flour, fried in ghee and then dipped in the sugar syrup. Malpua is best served with rabdi for a complete treat. - Bhopali Gosht Korma – A mutton preparation known for the subtle taste of its gravy. - Palak puri - Palak Puri is eaten as a breakfast meal and it is best served with aloo sabzi and raita for a perfect lunch meal. Palak Puri is prepared with wheat dough mixed with grind spinach leaves and some spices to get the best taste. - Murar ke kebab – The lotus stem is cleaned, boiled and roasted. It is mixed with other vegetables, spices etc shaped as kebabs and shallow or deep fried, EAST ZONE: The east zone of the country is comprised of states of Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, North eastern states and West Bengal. The states of Bihar and West Bengal lie on the Indo-Gangetic plain. Jharkhand is situated on the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Odisha lies on the Eastern Ghats and the Deccan Plateau. The interior states have a drier climate and slightly more extreme climate, especially during the winters and summers, but the whole region receives heavy, sustained rainfall during the monsoon months. Snowfall occurs in the extreme northern regions of West Bengal. This region is rich in minerals, flora, and fauna in dense forests. Cuisine of West Bengal Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Durga pooja of Bengal is very famous. Unique Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish is available. The Ganges basin provides some fresh water fish. Popular fish are hilsa, carp, sea bass, prawns, shrimps etc - Mustard paste (Kasundi) - Darjeeling for famous tea plantations - Panch phoran – A mixture of five spices – cumin, mustard, fenugreek, onion seed and fennel seed used in Bengali cuisine. - Runner beans (barbatti) – thin long beans - Red spinach or laal shaak Staple food: Rice Dishes: - Bhaja – Anything deep fried with or without coating with a batter – brinjals, vegetables or even fish. - Chingri malai curry – Small sized prawn are stewed in a gravy made with boiled onion pasted and coconut milk - Doi mach – Fish is stewed in a yoghurt based gravy - Kosha mangsho – A mutton dish marinated and cooked to a spicy aromatic semi-dry gravy cooked in mustard oil. - Aloo posto – Potatoes cooked with poppy seeds flavoured with whole spices and turmeric. - Chorchori – A vegetable dish tempered with panch phoran and flavoured with poppy seeds and mustard seed paste. - Luchi – Deep fried bread similar to pooris but made with refined flour. - Radha ballavi – Similar to kachori from Uttar Pradesh where urad dal pithi is filled in the dough. It is rolled and deep fried. - Chutneys – made with mangoes or tomatoes tempered with mustard seeds are popular. Dates and raisins are also used. Mishti doi – Milk is cooked with some caramelized sugar, cooled and set into pots for preparing sweet yoghurt. Chenna sweets – rasgullas, chamcham, sandesh etc Snacks such as jhaal muri & phuchkas. Cuisine of Odisha - Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated with fervour. A unique feature is the famous Rath Yatra of Jagannath Puri temple Unique Ingredients: - Mustard paste - Coconut milk and gratings - Fish and seafood Staple food: Rice is the major staple diet. Dishes: - Kaanika – A traditional form of pulao where rice is cooked in desi ghee with a pinch of turmeric powder, salt, black pepper and sugar. Raisins and nuts too are added. - Chhena Poda – Cheena Poda literally means burnt cheese. This is known to be Lord Jagannath’s favourite sweet and is often offered to him at the Puri Temple. It is prepared with well-kneaded chhena or fresh cottage cheese, sugar and nuts and baked. - Pahala Rosogulla - The slightly golden chenna dumplings combined with semolina are shaped in balls and cooked in light sugar syrup. - Alloo dum dahi vade - A popular street food, it is a combination of spicy alloo dum gravy combined with dahi vade, topped with chopped onion and sev. - Macha ghanta – It is made up of fried head of the fish and is served with hot steamed rice and salad. The curry is a rich blend of onions, potatoes, garlic and the regular spices. Vegetarians may make a plain ‘Ghanta’ by avoiding fish in it. - Dalma – This dal is made with roasted moong dal without any onion or garlic. A few regular spices along with a cup of vegetables such as pumpkin, plantain, yam and papaya, are added to the dal. - Santula - This dish is a fried or boiled vegetable curry that consists of a blend of raw papaya, potato, tomato and brinjal with mild spices. - Khattas – Khatta refers to a type of sour side dish in Odisha. There is a wide variety of khattas such as Khajur Khatta, Tomato Khatta, Mango Khatta, and Dahi Nadia. - Patrapada macha – Fish is marinated in spices and a paste of mustard seeds, poppy seeds, cumin seeds etc. It is wrapped in banana leaf and steamed. This is served hot with rice. - Macha besara – Local catch of fish cooked in a mustard based gravy. Cuisine of Bihar – Festivals: Bihar is home to many pilgrimage sites such as Bodh Gaya, Mithila and Vaishali. A major festival is Chhath pooja. Ingredients: - River fish in northern areas - Milk & milk products – curd, buttermilk etc Staple food: Wheat, Bajra and rice are the staple diet. Dishes: - Litti chokha – Littis are round spicy baked balls of wheat flour or sattu with a crisp outer texture. It is often served with chokha which is a vegetable dish made with boiled/ roasted mashed spicy mixture of potatoes and brinjals. - Khichdi – Mix of Rice, Dal and several Vegetables; steamed together to give a distinctive taste of different ingredients combined in one dish. - Sattu – Ingredients. Sattu is prepared by dry roasting mainly barley or bengal gram. They are then made into a flour after roasting. In Bihar sattu is served as a savoury drink or even filled in a parantha. - Khaja - This is a crispy layered dessert made from wheat flour, sugar, mawa/ khoya and deep fried in oil. - Dal Peetha- This dish is prepared by rice flour dough that is stuffed with lentil paste. The dumpling is then steamed or fried. - Laai – Lightly fried cereal such as puffed rice is coated with jaggery syrup and shaped into balls. Cuisine of North Eastern States Festivals: - Bihu is a popular harvest festival and dance form. Many other festivals are celebrated. Ingredients: - Cash crop – teak, cotton and jute. - Assam famous for tea plantations - Fish – Most fish is from river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It can be cooked fresh or preserved as fermented fish. - Bamboo shoots – the pulp is used as a vegetable and may also be stuffed with meat and cooked. - Betel nut – Popularly exported - Sweet potatoes – An important root vegetable cooked in various ways. - Rice – A large variety of rice is grown in these states. A variety of rice called boka saul is consumed after soaking in water but not cooking. It is traditionally eaten with curd. - Fruits – orange, pineapple, papaya, apple, jackfruit, litchis, banana etc - Assam is popular world over for quality tea plantations Staple food: Rice is the major staple diet. However maize and millets are also eaten. Dishes: Influence of the orient belt and Chinese cuisine - Khar (Assam) - The main ingredients of this unique dish are raw papaya and pulses. Pork is added that has a crisp outer and soft inside. Bamboo shoots are also added. It is eaten with steamed rice. - Pitha (Assam) – A snack that is eaten sweet for breakfast while salted ones are coated in light butter and tea. Rice mixed with light spices and salt/sugar is moulded into thin tubes and stuffed inside a hollow stem of bamboo. The Pitha is then fried/roasted/barbequed inside the hollow bamboo stem and this gives the pitha an exotic flavor. - Sanpiau (Mizoram) - It is a traditional snack which is prepared with rice porridge which is served with freshly pasted coriander leaves, spring onions, crushed black pepper, finely powdered rice and last but not the least the zesty fish sauce. b) WEST ZONE: This zone has the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Goa and Maharashtra. This also includes the union territories of Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli. The Thar desert and Rann of Kutch are the desert areas in Rajasthan and Gujarat. These areas have a hot and dry weather. Most other region falls in the peninsular plateau. The Western Ghats along the coast of southern Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa make the region humid. The vegetation varies from tropical rainforests along the Konkan coast to thorny bushes and shrubs in northern Gujarat. Narmada, Tapi and Godavari rivers flow through the land. Cuisine of Rajasthan Major Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Ingredients: - Millets (Bajra) – This crop can grow in sandy soil, hence popular in rajasthan. - Cluster beans (Gawar ki phalli)- A kind of beans locally grown and cooked in a dry or semi-dry form. - Ker – A kind of a wild caper berry. - Sangri – A kind of a dessert bean cooked with ker. - Kachri – A berry like fruit which is dried and is used to add sour flavor to the food and also acts as meat tenderizer. - Mangodi- dried dumplings made from a mix of dal and spices sundried and stored. - Papad – lentils mixed with spices, made into a dough and rolled into thin sheets. They are then sundried and stored. Staple food: Majorly wheat and bajra based breads are popular. Dishes: - Laal maans: The red meat is made using lamb, curd, onions and garlic falvoured with a typical chilli called mathania chilli from rajasthan. - Safed maans: Meat with a white curd based gravy thickened with onions. - Sooley: An appetizer where fish or thin slices of meat is marinated and cooked on open charcoal grill Ker sangri: A dry preparation similar to a pickle. Dal baati churma: The daal is panchmel daal – a mix of five types of lentils cooked together and tempered with desighee. The baatis are dumplings of whole wheat flour baked on dry cow dung cakes. They are then dipped in hot ghee. Churma is a sweet preparation made by frying whole wheat flour and desi ghee. Gatte: Gatte are made by kneading gram flour with curd, mustard oil, dry fenugreek leaves, turmeric and salt into a dough. The dough is shaped into long cylinders and poached in salted water. The gattas are then cut into 1 inch long pieces and cooked in a curry. Papad ki sabzi: Curry made with potatoes and fried papads. Namkeens: Rajasthan (Bikaner) is popular for various types of savories called namkeen that form a popular tea time snacks. The namkeens are made up of variety of toasted, fried or baked ingredients such as dal, potatoes, besan etc, Mirch ke pakode: a variety of large green chilli is stuffed with a spicy mix, coated with batter and deep fried. Cuisine of Goa Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish is available – prawns, crabs, lobsters, pomfrets clams, mussel and oysters are equally popular. - Chicken, lamb, pork and beef are equally popular. - Coconut - Toddy vinegar – fresh sap of coconut palm is fermented to vinegar. - Kokum – used as a souring agent. - Palm jaggery – obtained from sap of palm trees and used as a sweetening agent in sweets. - Dried fish and prawns – dried and salted prawns (Kismur) and fish are used in cooking. Staple food: Rice Dishes: - Khatkhatem – Assorted vegetables diced and cooked in a thick and mild coconut masala. - Sorpotel – Offals and meat is cut in cubes and boiled and then cooked in a spicy and sour (vinegar) gravy. - Vindaloo – A pork preparation in which spices are ground with toddy vinegar to give a tangy flavor. - Chouricos – A remnant of Portugal reign, it is a spicy sausage. - Rechado – A red coloured spicy paste made from red chillies, vinegar and spices, smeared over fish and roasted. - Caldeen – A thick fish curry made by grinding coconut, turmeric, ginger, garlic, cloves and cumin. Base of the gravy is coconut milk. - Caldo verde – goan soup thickened by mashed potatoes garnished by spinach. - Xacuti – A curry with roasted coconut and spices with chicken or meat in it. - Sannas – A fermented and steamed batter of rice flour and toddy similar to idlis. Bibinca – A dessert made in layered form which is baked one at a time. The mixture is made from coconut milk, eggs, nutmeg, cardamom powder and traditionally has sixteen layers. Dodol – a sweet made by paste of soaked rice, jaggery and coconut milk cooked in ghee and prepared similar barfi. Cuisine of Maharashtra Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Ganesh puja and Dahi handi festivals are popular. Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish and some fresh water fish from rivers are popular. Pomfret from Arabian sea is popularly eaten, - Yam (suran) – A large root vegetable is extensively used in maharashtrian cuisine. - Pepper – Variety of peppers are grown and used in local cuisine. - Kokum – Wild mangosteen a dark coloured fruit which is salted and dried. It is used as souring agent and also used to prepare sol kadhi – a popular beverage. - Val – Small white beans used to make rice or as a vegetable. - Bombay duck – A type of fish popularly eaten in Mumbai. - Tindli – Fresh green gherkins used to prepare vegetable or pulao. - Coconut – Being in coastal belt, use of coconut is common. - Sesame seeds – White ones often combined with jaggery in sweets. - Goda Masala – A mixture of roasted and powdered spices coriander seed, cumin, sesame seed, cinnamon, cloves, coconut, mace, cardamom, peppercorns, bay leaf, mustard seeds, asafoetida, poppy seed, fenugreek seeds. - Malvani Masala – A mixture of roasted and powdered spices dry red chillies, coriander seeds, cloves, peppercorns, cumin seed, dagad phool, turmeric, asafoetida, nutmeg, star anise and fennel. - Vatana – Dried yellow peas called usal. - Khuskhus (Poppy seed) – Used as thickening agent in form of paste. - Sago (Saboodana) – used to prepare sweets. - Peanuts – Often added to gravy for thickening and taste. Also added to rice. - Fast food – Batata vada, paani poori, bhel etc Staple food: Majorly rice even though wheat is also popular. Dishes: - Ukadiche Modak – Steamed rice flour dumpling stuffed with jaggery, coconut and steamed. Offered to Lord Ganesha on Ganesh Chaturthi. - Amti – A lentil preparation thin and flavourful. - Bhareli Wangi – Baby brinjals stuffed with a mix of spices, coconut, peanut etc and cooked dry. • Gavalaychi kheer – A sweet made by sooji flakes, milk and nuts. • Puran poli – A wholewheat bread stuffed with split yellowpeas cooked with sugar and cardamom…popularly prepared on Holi. • Valachi khichdi – A rice preparation made with rice, spices and vals. • Sol kadhi – A drink with digestive properties, kokum extract with coconut milk and seasoned. • Zunka bhakar: Zunka is made with gram flour, onions, salt, and tempered with chillies and garlic. Bhakar is a bread made from dough of jowar flour and water baked on charcoal. Cuisine of Gujarat Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. The state is popular for Navratras and Garba. Ingredients: • Most of the Gujaratis are vegetarians. There is an intensive use of jaggery, vegetables and grains. • Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish is available. The ganges basin provides some fresh water fish. Popular fish are hilsa, carp, sea bass, prawns, shrimps etc. Non-vegetarian is cooked in mostly Bohri or Parsi homes. • Farsans – a generic term for a variety of Gujarati snacks – dhokla, khandvi, fafda, khakra, khaman etc Staple food: Breads prepared from bajra, millets and flour. Dishes: • Khandvi - Small rolled crepes made with cooked batter of besan, curd, ginger and green chillies served topped with chutney. • Oondhiya – A delicious blend of vegetables cooked in oil. Potaot, sweet potatoes, yam, brinjals etc with a mixture of coconut, green chillies, lime, sugar, garlic, and coriander cooked onslow flame. • Doodh pak – Rice cooked in milk served hot or cold. • Patrani macchi – A parsi preparation in which fish fillet is covered with chutney made up of green coriander, green chillies coconut ect, is wrapped in banana leaves and steamed. • Salli jardaloo murgi – chicken cooked in spicy gravy with apricots and garnished with potato straws • Dhansak – A combination of five dals, vegetables and spices cooked with mutton served with brown rice. • Malai nu khaja – Rounds of flaky pastry sweetened and stuffed with malai • Methi thepla – Thin bread made with wheat flour, bajra, besan, methi and spices. c) SOUTH ZONE: States of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu occupy the South Zone on India. This zone is flanked by oceans on three sides and therefore, home to scenic beaches. This also includes the Union Territories of Lakshadweep, Pondicherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. In addition, culture and languages are strikingly different from rest of India. Most of the above states fall into the region of Deccan plateau towards centre and the mountainous terrain of eastern and the western ghats near Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea. Cuisine of Andhra Pradesh Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated such as Ramadan, Id, Sankranti and Pongal Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish and some fresh water fish from rivers are popular. - Lamb / Mutton – very popular in making most non-vegetarian biryanis and gravies. - Elephant Yam – A large root vegetable. - Chickpeas – A pulse prepared in north as pindi chole. - Parboiled Rice – The rice after being harvested is soaked and then steamed in a large steam pressures. This is done at controlled temperatures and controlled moisture to discourage swelling of the grains. The rice is then dried and milled. This process makes the rice more nutritious. - Field beans & cluster beans - Fast food – Bohri samosa (minced meat filled samosas). - Spices – betel roots (pan ki jad), vetiver roots (khas ki jad), stone flower (pathar ke phool), marathi mogu etc - Potli masala - Potli ka masala is tied in a muslin cloth and dropped in the water and bring it to a boil. The spices releases the flavour into the water. The water is then used to cook rice, which gives the aromatic flavour to Hyderabadi Biryani. Potli ka masala is used in Biryanis, Nihari, Haleem, Paya etc Major ingredients are Ingredients are bay leaf, coriander seeds whole, vetiver roots, sandalwood powder, dry rose petals, black cardamom, kabab chini, cinnamon, litchen (pathar ka phool), betel root (pan ki jadi), Star anise, Kapoor kachli and Kasuri methi. - Bhojwar masala – The masala is used to prepare all types of curries and specially in stuffed vegetables. Major ingredient are coriander seeds, bay leaves, red chilli powder, cloves blacak caraway, stone flower, poppy seeds groundnut, coconut, cumin, sesame, fenugreek seeds and mustard seeds. Staple food: Majorly rice in the form of biryanis. Dishes: - Dalcha – Meat is cooked with chana dal and whole spices with yoghurt. - Haleem – Lamb is cooked along with broken wheat until soft and then pounded till it resembles a paste. - Gil-e-firdaus – A dessert made by cooking grated white marrow with milk and sugar thickened with sago seeds and khoya. - Kacchi biryani – The meat is marinated for a longer period with tenderizers such as raw papayas, hung curd, spices and condiments. The parboiled rice and marinated meat are then arranged in layers with mint, fired onions, and saffron. The handi is then sealed and allowed to steam. The seal of handi is broken at the time of meal. - Baghare baingan – baby brinjals are slit and stuffed with a mixture of coconut, tamarind, spices, peanuts etc and cooked on slow flame in kadahi. - Nihari – A spicy meaty stew. Cuisine of Tamilnadu Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Pongal is the harvest festival and newly harvested rice and moong dal are cooked together in a new clay pot. For festivity it is usually sweet (sakkarai pongal). It can be made savoury too using salt and pepper (venn pongal). Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish and some fresh water fish from rivers are popular. Pomfret from Arabian sea is popularly eaten. - Rice - A wide variety of rice is used each with its own quality is used in households. - Banana – Each house has a plantain tree and raw bananas, ripe bananas, leaves, flower all are used in cooking. - Coconut – Being a coastal belt, coconut is found in abundance and is used grated or by extracting coconut milk for gravies. - Vegetables such as drumsticks, yams, various types of gourds and shallots. - Fresh neem flowers – used in pachadi specially on Tamilian new year. Staple food: Rice – preferably parboiled rice Dishes: - Kozhambu (pronounced as kolambu) – A thin stew of vegetables with spices. Can be thickened with a paste of rice and lentils to make it a spicy stew. - Pachadi – South Indian raitas – grated carrots, deep fried okra, roasted brinjals etc are mixed with smooth thick curd which is tempered with curry leaf, mustard seed, urad dal and whole red chillies. - Kootu - a mixed vegetable preparation with coconut. - Avial – A vegetable preparation made with raw bananas, drumsticks beans cooked in coconut milk and spiced sour curd. - The concept of ‘tiffin’ which means idlis, dosas, vada, sambhar, coconunt chutney etc. (breakfast) - Poriyals – fresh seasonal vegetables - Variyals – deep fried crisp vegetables - Mysore pak – A sweet made with gramflour, sugar and ghee - Appams - A dish made with rice batter bowl-shaped thin pancakes made from fermented rice flour that are thicker in the center - Idiappams – Also known as String hoppers, these are made from steamed rice flour made into a dough with water and a little salt, and forced through a mould similar to those used for pasta to make the strings. They are cooked by steaming. Cuisine of Karnataka Festivals: All major festivals are celebrated. Mysore dussehra, nine days of navratri and Ugadi, the new year as per lunar calendar are popular. Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish is available. - Banana - Coconut - Vegetables such as okra, yam, brinjals etc Staple food: Rice Dishes: - Bisi bele huliyanu / Bisi bele bath - Rice cooked with dal, vegetables and spices; like Huli with rice, but often richer - Chitranna - Cooked rice flavoured with spices, particularly oil-popped mustard seeds and turmeric - Tomato gojju - Cooked cut or mashed tomato with a sweet-sour gravy. - Mysore pak - A sweet made with Chickpea flour, sugar and ghee. - Huli - Combination of vegetables and lentils simmered with spices, coconut, tamarind and seasoned with Ghee, asafoetida, curry leaves and mustard, it is an integral part of every formal meal. - Akki roti - A thick, flat roti made with a dough of rice flour, chillies, onions and salt; the dough is shaped and flattened by hand. - Dosa, Idli, Vada as in Tamil cuisine. Cuisine of Kerala Festivals: Apart from all major festivals, Onam the harvest festival and Vishu the astronomic new year are celebrated. Ingredients: - Fish – Being the coastal belt, different varieties of marine water fish is available. - Banana – Used in cooking, as a fruit and also to make chips. - Coconut – Common to the coastal region - Mangoes – Varieties of mangoes are used in cuisine as pickles or curries. - Jackfruit – Used both as a vegetable when raw and as fruit when ripe - Tamarind – The souring agent - Drumstick or sambhar phalli – Used in sambhar and cooked with lentils. Staple food: Rice The Sadya - Hindus in Kerala other than Namboodris may eat meat or fish. However Namboodris are strictly vegetarian and involve them in service of God. The famous ‘Sadya’ meal has evolved as food made by Namboodri Brahmin, which is eaten like Prasad from God, is never tasted to keep it pure. The meal is had sitting on the floor and is served on banana leaves. The narrow tip of the leaf should face the left side of the diner and salt is served first on the extreme left of the leaf. On bottom left half of the leaf is placed a small yellow banana, banana chips & other fries and poppadum. Then beginning from the top left half of the leaf are placed lime curry, mango pickle, injipuli, thoran, olan, aviyal, pachadi and khichadi. Rice is served at the bottom center. Sambhar and kalan are poured over the rice. After the meal sweet is served. Dishes: - Malabari Parantha – flaky shallow fried paranthas made with a very soft dough which is flattened by flipping on the table, oil is applied and then rolled like lacchha parantha. - Pathiri – A flat bread made from rice flour. It can be cooked on griddle, deepfried or even steamed. - Puttu - thin vermicelli strands of rice dough similar to string hoppers. - Meen moilee – Fish cooked in a gravy of coconut milk with onions, ginger, garlic, green chilli, kokum and spices etc. Two extracts of coconut milk are added in this gravy. - Kozhi curry – Chicken curry made by adding onion, tomatoes, ginger, garlic spices and coconut milk. - Ishtews – vegetable or meat stew. Indian cuisine is vast and rich in heritage. The recipes are passed through generations. We should be proud of this culture, use of unique local ingredients and the association of food with occasions, seasons and festivities. The Indian cuisine is a vast ocean of depths that are still unexplored. Indians have a proud heritage of hospitality ‘Atithi devo bhava’ and food is one of the mediums to express this sense of welcome and warmth. Summary India is a country with vast diversity. There are many factors that affect the cuisine of an area. These include geographical location, history, culture, religion etc. We must attempt to learn the variety of ingredients, dishes, spices that make the cuisine of India unique. There are many dishes associated with festivals, seasons and occasions. Though the Indian cuisine is diverse, the sense of hospitality is common among all cultures and areas of the country. ------------------Exercise----------------- Q.1. Compare the ingredients used in cooking of the coastal regions as compared to the ones used in Gangetic plains in India. Q.2. What are the factors that affect cuisine of a region? Explain giving suitable examples. Q.3. Which food is associated with following festivals in India: a) Sankranti b) Pongal c) Ganesh chaturthi d) Holi e) Month of saawan f) Lord Jagannath Q.4. Differentiate between: a) Poriyal and Variyal b) Khichdi and Pachadi c) Rista and Gushtaba d) Pathiri and Malabari parantha e) Appams and Idiappams Q.5. Write short notes on: a) Sadya meal b) Cuisine of Awadh Q.6. Match the following: \| Column A \| Column B \| \|----------------\|--------------\| \| Pal payasam \| Variyal \| \| Dal Bafla \| Pathiri \| \| Akki roti \| Kheer \| \| Puttu \| Dal Baati \| \| Bhaja \| Idiappam \| Q.7. Name the state in which following spice mixes are used to flavour food: a) Malvani masala b) Panchphoren c) Potli ka masala d) Lazzat-e-taam e) Goda Masala f) Ver Activity: India is home to a wide number of mega community kitchens serving thousands of meals each day. Many of such kitchens are operated on massive quantity cooking and the food is offered free of cost to one and all visiting. Some of them are – Sri Sai Sansthan Prasadalaya (Shirdi - Maharashtra), Harmandir Sahib, (Amritsar - Punjab), Akshaypatra (Hubli – Karnataka), Jagannath Temple (Puri – Odisha). Find out more about the operation of such kitchens near your residential cities. Note the ingredients used, equipments, dishes prepared and food offered as prasad. Also note the variety of foods associated with festivals. Discuss the role of these kitchens in promoting equality and harmony. Practical: 1. Prepare 8 menus, two from each zone in India. Each menu (preferably from one state) should be comprised of four dishes in the following form – • One preparation of chicken/meat/fish/egg or pulse • One preparation of vegetables • One preparation of rice/roti (breads) • One preparation of soup/salad/chutney/beverage such as chaach etc that can accompany or enhance the meal. Note: The menus may be repeated for better practical proficiency. UNIT 2: INDIAN SNACKS Objectives: - To define the term Snacks and enumerate major ingredients used in preparation of different Indian snacks. - To list popular Indian snacks from various regions of India and describe them. - To prepare popular snacks from various regions of India. Introduction A snack is a food generally eaten between meals and is smaller in portion size than major meals of the day. Snacks come in a variety of forms – fresh made at home, bought from street vendors or shops or as packaged food (Ready to eat such as chips, wafers, namkeens etc. or convenience foods such as frozen fries). These food items are usually portable, quick to eat and satisfying hence also termed as comfort food. They can be sweet, salty, sour and spicy. In Indian culture, it is hospitable to offer some snacks to guests with tea/coffee or other regional beverages. Globalization has led to many food items from other countries being prepared or sold in Indian markets as snacks. These include sandwiches, burgers, spring rolls etc that are now quite popular in the Indian market. At the same time, we must appreciate the wide variety of traditional snacks of India. Indian snacks: Traditional Indian snacks are prepared with a vast variety of ingredients. These include: - Flour – Refined flour (Maida), wheat flour, rice flour, gram flour etc - Pulses – Green gram, Black gram etc - Vegetables – Potato, onion, brinjals, green chillies, green coriander, lemon etc - Flavouring agents - Coconut, Tamarind, Kokam etc - Spices & condiments – Salt (Table salt, Black salt etc), chilli powder, turmeric powder, carom seeds, cumin seeds, mustard seeds, coriander powder, garam masala, chaat masala and a vast variety of spice blends. - Nuts – Peanuts, Cashews etc The methods of cooking these snacks also vary from frying, steaming, roasting, sautéing, griddling etc. Many snacks have crossed regional boundaries and are relished all across the nation. Regional classification of Indian snacks NORTH ZONE: - Samosa – A conical shaped crust is prepared with refined flour dough. This is then filled with a spicy mixture of potatoes, sealed and deep fried. Variations include variation in shape such as potli (bundle) samosa or a paper thin crust such as in Bohri samosa. The filling may be cooked spiced mixture of pulse or even minced meat. - Pakoda – Fritters made with a variety of ingredients such as potato, cauliflower, green chillies, brinjals, bread etc coated with a batter of seasoned gram flour and deep fried. - Golgappe – Also popular as paani puri in west and phuchkas in east. They are made up of flour or semolina dough, rolled thin in small discs and deep fried so as to swell and make a thin crisp shell. This is then filled with a variety of ingredients such as boiled potatoes, boiled grams, filled with spiced water, chutney or even curd. - Aloo tikki – A boiled potato based patty, spiced and may be stuffed with dal and shallow fried to a very crisp outer texture. It is served topped with curd, chutneys, grated radish and chana. - Rajkachori – A crust similar to golgappa but larger in size filled with a vast variety of ingredients to give variety of textures and taste. There is boiled potato, curd, chutneys, spices, boondi, pomegranate seeds, boiled black grams, papdi, nylon sev etc - Dal kachori – A flaky and soft textured deep fried crust of refined flour, filled with a spiced mixture of urad dal. - Kebabs – A variety of ingredients, coarsely minced and seasoned are skewered and cooked on charcoal grill or may even be griddled, shallow or deep fried. - Tikkas – A variety of charcoal grilled snacks made from chunks of vegetables, paneer, meats of fish marinated, skewered and grilled. - Amritsari macchi – Local fish fillet, cut, marinated and deep fried after coating with gram flour batter and served as a crisp fritter. - Kulcha matar – Baked leavened bread kulcha served along with or filled with a spiced mixture of matra (dried white peas). - Namkeens: Rajasthan (Bikaner) is popular for various types of savories called namkeen that form a popular tea time snacks. The namkeens are made up of variety of toasted, fried or baked ingredients such as dal, potatoes, besan etc, EAST ZONE: - Jhaal muri – Puffed rice mixed with many other titbits like peanuts, onion, tomato, boiled potato, green chillies, green coriander, mixture of spices and some mustard oil. - Phuchka – Parallel to the golgappas of north, phuchkas are a popular street food in Bengal. - Singhara – The samosas of the north are Singhara in west Bengal. - Beguni - Brinjals sliced and battered before being deep fried in oil. - Fuluri - Cauliflower florets coated with seasoned gram flour batter and deep fried in oil. - Fish kabiraji – Local fish fillet marinated, coated in beaten egg and bread crumbs and pan fried. - Dimer devil – Boiled egg wrapped in spicy potato filling, coated with bread crumbs and deep fried. - Aloo kabli – A salad that combines tamarind, roasted cumin, black salt and other spices mixed with boiled cubed potatoes, green chillies, coriander, chopped onion & black chanas. - Ghoogni – It is spiced chickpea or Bengal gram based curry enjoyed itself or served as a meal with hot puris. Chikvi (Tripura) – A fragrant stir fry made with dominantly bamboo shoots and pork, flavoured with jackfruit seeds, green papaya, green chillies, ginger, fresh lime leaves and rice flour paste. WEST ZONE - Batata vada - A popular potato snack recipe from Maharashtra which is made by dipping spiced potato balls in chickpea flour batter and deep fried. Batata vada is mostly served with chutney or sandwiched in a Pav. - Pani puri – Parallel of the golgappas of the north. - Bhel puri – A savoury snack made with puffed rice, tossed with vegetables and tangy chutneys. An essential ingredient of Bhel is sev which are savory thin crunchy noodles made of chickpea flour. - Fafda – It is a fried crispy crunchy tasty snack made with gram flour, laced with carom seeds and black pepper. It is usually served with papaya sambharo and besan chutney. - Khakra - Round, very thin and crispy in texture, khakhras are commonly eaten in the morning with breakfast. They are made of wheat flour, oil and salt. There is a vast variety of khakras, a popular one being methi khakra. - Khaman – It is prepared with a fermented batter of gram flour with spices and steamed. It may be tempered and soaked in lemon sugar syrup. It is fluffier than dhokla. - Dhokla – It is made with a fermented batter of rice and split chickpeas and is steamed. It is denser than khaman. - Poha – It is pressed rice cooked with onions, potatoes, peanuts and seasoning like chillies, lemon and curry leaves - Upma – It is cooked as a thick porridge from dry-roasted semolina or coarse rice flour, mixed with small cubes of vegetables and lightly spiced. - Misal pav - Misal is a spicy flavourful curry made of moth beans (missal). The curry is made of lot of spices, onion, garlic, ginger and chillies. It is then topped with boiled potatoes, chiwda, sev, chopped onions, coriander, green chillies and served with a dash of lemon. The spicy and thick mixture of the sprouted lentils is enjoyed with pav or breads toasted with butter. - Sev Usal – Usal is prepared with white peas / dried safed vatana. It is served with gathiya, pav, spring onion, sweet chutney and tari. Tari is a spicy gravy prepared using chilli powder, garlic paste, oil and salt. It is topped with sev. - Khandvi – It consists of yellowish, tightly rolled bite-sized pieces and is primarily made of gram flour and yogurt. - Gathiya – It is a crunchy and spicy deep fried strands made from gram flour dough. - Dabeli – A Gujarati snack that has its origin in Kutch. It features a pav drizzled with hot and sweet chutneys, stuffed with a potato masala, and peanuts, toasted and adorned with sev. - Bhakarwadi - It is a traditional Marathi cuisine sweet and spicy snack made from gram flour dough made into spirals stuffed with a mixture of coconut, poppy seeds and sesame seeds. Gujarati snacks are collectively known as Farsans. SOUTH ZONE - Idli – Rice Idli or Rava Idli are a type of savoury rice cake made by steaming a batter consisting of fermented black lentils and rice. - Vada – Uddina Vada, Rava Vada, Masala Vada, Medu vada is a traditional dish from South Indian cuisine served with coconut chutney and Sambar as a popular breakfast in most of the Indian restaurants. This crispy deep fried snack is made from urad dal (black gram lentils) and some seasoning. At times chopped onion, curry leaves and some other spices may be added. The mixture is shaped like a ring and deep fried. - Kuzhi Paniyaram – It can be served as a savoury or a sweet. It is made from black lentils, and rice and the preparation process is similar to that of an Idli but cooked on gas in a paniyaram chatti. - Dosa - Masala Dosa or Rava Dosa is a type of pancake made from a fermented batter. It is somewhat similar to a crepe in appearance. Its main ingredients are rice and black gram. - Uthappams - They are prepared like dosa but the batter and uthappams are a lot thicker and topped with chopped vegetables. They are served with sambhar and chutney. - Kothu Parotta - Parotta, made from flour, is a flatbread that is a typical household food in North. Kothu Parotta is made from shredded parotta, mixed with either egg, meat or vegetables. - Channa sundal – It is a south Indian recipe of a no onion no garlic stir fried chickpeas with spices and coconut. It is prepared during Vinayaka chaturthi or Janmashtami puja. - Murukku - Murukku is typically made from rice and urad dal flour. The flours are mixed with water, salt, asafoetida and either sesame seeds or cumin seeds. The mix is kneaded into a dough, which is shaped into spiral or coil shapes either by hand or using a mould. The spirals are then deep fried in vegetable oil. - Banana chips – Dried slices of banana, deep fried to a crisp texture. Summary: A snack is a food generally eaten between meals and is smaller in portion size than major meals of the day. These food items are usually portable, quick to eat and satisfying. They can be sweet, salty, sour and spicy. A variety of ingredients are used in preparing these snacks – vegetables, pulses, spices, flours and flavouring agents are used in preparing Indian snacks. A brief description of few regional Indian snacks is given above. ------------------Exercise----------------- Q.1. List any ten major ingredients used in preparation of Indian snacks. Write the name of the snack in which they are used. Q.2. ‘Many Indian snacks have crossed regional boundaries and are popular all over the nation’. Justify the statement giving suitable examples. Q.3. Describe any three methods of cooking used in preparation of Indian snacks. How do they add to the texture and consistency of the product? Q.4. Match the following: \| Column A \| Column B \| \|----------------\|-------------------\| \| Paniyaram \| Puffed rice \| \| Bhel puri \| Pressed rice \| \| Samosa \| Gram flour \| \| Upma \| Refined flour \| \| Khaman \| Semolina \| \| Dimer devil \| Potato \| \| Poha \| Eggs \| \| Batata vada \| Black gram & rice \| Q.5. Write a short note on Farsans. Practical: 2. Prepare any two snacks from each zone of India with accompanying chutney/salad etc. Note: The snack preparation may be repeated for better practical proficiency. UNIT 3 INDIAN GRAVIES Objectives: - To explain the importance of preparation of basic gravies in a hotel. - To list basic Indian gravies and describe their major ingredients and method of preparation. - To enumerate the dishes in which the basic gravies are used. - To prepare basic Indian gravies. Introduction India is a country known for unique blend of spices in food along with varying textures, taste, richness, body and flavours. Indian gravies are the sauce counterpart of the western cuisines. They coat the main ingredient such as meats, chicken, vegetables or cottage cheese etc to form the main dish in a meal. In hotel industry it is useful to prepare these basic gravies and keep them ready. Some modifications in the basic gravy in terms of spices or few ingredients can help a chef make multiple dishes in less time. This is important as today the hotel menus are very extensive. However, the guest does not wish to wait for a long time between ordering a dish and the food being served. Hence, some pre-preparations are necessary to prepare a dish on the menu in less time. Keeping basic gravies ready is one such task that helps to produce multiple dishes in lesser time. Pre-preparation for gravies: - Boiled onion paste: Peel and cut onions in about 1” chunks. In a pot cover with water and bring to boil. Simmer till the onions are translucent and tender. Let it cool. Grind along with the cooking liquid to make a paste. - Fried onion paste: Peel and cut onions in slices. Deep fry in oil to a brown colour. Cool. Mix with little curd / water. Grind to a smooth paste. - Spinach paste: Sort good green leaves from wilted ones or unwanted grass. Wash. Chop roughly. Put in a pot, cover with water. Add some salt. Bring to boil and simmer. When tender, let it cool. Grind to a smooth paste. - Ginger garlic (green chilli) paste: Peel ginger and garlic. Wash and roughly chop. Mix few spoons of water sufficient to grind. Grind to a smooth paste. At times, many chefs add washed green chillies to this and grind together. - Poppy seed paste: Wash and soak poppy seeds for about 45 min. Cover with water. Bring to boil and simmer till the seeds are soft. Grind with cooking liquid to a smooth paste. - Cashew nut paste: Roast or fry cashews till golden in colour. Cool. Add a little water and grind to make a paste. - Melon seed paste: Wash melon seeds. Cover with water. Bring to boil and simmer till tender. Cool. Grind to a smooth paste. - Green cardamom powder: Coarsely crush green cardamom. Mix with equal quantity of sugar and grind to form a powder. Strain through a sieve. • Almond paste: Wash and cover with water in a pot. Simmer till tender. Peel. Grind to a fine paste by adding some water. • Coconut paste: Scrape coconut. Mix with little water and grind to a smooth consistency Types of gravies: 1. White Gravy: Base: A boiled onion paste forms the base of the gravy. Major ingredients: Boiled onion paste, Ginger garlic paste, poppy seed/ cashew/ melon seed paste, milk/ khoya, cream OR curd. Spices: Whole garam masala such as bay leaf, clove, cinnamon stick, Cardamom etc. (May be removed post cooking after extraction of flavours), Salt, White pepper powder or grinded green chillies with ginger garlic. Optional: Rose water, Pinch of sugar Dishes in which used: Base for kormas, safed maans, shahi paneer etc. Often used in combination with makhani or hariyali gravy to form dishes like Methi malai paneer / murg, Malai kofta etc Care: Onion should not colour while cooking in ghee / oil. Hence cook on low flame. Add curd / milk / cream at the final finishing stage of the dish as they tend to deteriorate rapidly. Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|--------------------------\|-----------\| \| 1 \| Onions \| 350 gms \| \| 2 \| Ginger \| 25 gms \| \| 3 \| Garlic \| 25 gms \| \| 4 \| Green chillies \| 5-6 nos \| \| 5 \| Green cardamom powder \| 2 gms \| \| 6 \| Mace powder \| 2 gms \| \| 7 \| Salt \| To taste \| \| 8 \| Green cardamom whole \| 4 nos \| \| 9 \| Black cardamom \| 2 nos \| \| 10 \| Bay leaf \| 2 nos \| \| 11 \| Cinnamon stick \| 1”pc \| \| 12 \| Cloves \| 4-5 nos \| \| 13 \| Poppy seeds \| 25 gms \| \| 14 \| Coriander powder \| 20 gms \| \| 15 \| Melon seeds \| 25 gms \| \| 16 \| Garam masala powder \| 5 gms \| \| 17 \| Oil / Ghee \| 160 gms \| \| 18 \| Almonds \| 25 gms \| \| 19 \| Cashew nuts \| 60 gms \| \| 20 \| Fresh cream \| 150 ml \| \| 21 \| Curd \| 175 gms \| \| 22 \| Khoya \| 85 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Prepare boiled onion paste. - Prepare cashew nut paste. - Prepare poppy seed and melon seed paste. - Prepare ginger garlic green chilli paste. - Grate khoya. - Mix about 50 ml water in curd and whisk to a smooth consistency. Method: - Heat oil in a pot. - Add whole spices i.e. Green cardamom, black cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, bay leaf. - Cook for few seconds. Add onion paste and cook on medium flame continuously stirring so as not to change the colour. - Add grated khoya and continue cooking on low flame so as not to change the colour. - Add ginger garlic green chilli paste. Continue cooking over gentle heat for few minutes. - Add, coriander powder and salt. Add two table spoons of water and cook till masala leaves oil. - Add beaten curd. Bring to boil while stirring. - Simmer and add cashew nut paste, melon seed paste, poppy seed paste and almond paste. - Simmer for some time. - Add cream. - Sprinkle garam masala powder, cardamom and mace powder. - Simmer till the consistency is thick but pouring. - Cool, cover and refrigerate for future use. 2. Makhani Gravy: Base: A boiled tomato paste forms the base of the gravy. Major ingredients: Boiled tomato paste, Ginger garlic paste, Cashew paste, Cream, Unsalted white butter Spices: Whole garam masala such as bay leaf, clove, cinnamon stick, Cardamom etc. (May be removed post cooking after extraction of flavours), Salt, Red chilli powder or grinded green chillies with ginger garlic, roasted and powdered kasoori methi Optional: Pinch of sugar or honey, Garam masala Dishes in which used: Murg makhani, panner makhani or in combination with white gravy. Care: Tomatoes chosen should be deep red and not too sour in taste. Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|--------------\|----------\| \| 1 \| Tomatoes \| 1.8Kg \| \| \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|---\|----------------------------------\|-----------\| \| 2 \| Canned tomato puree \| 400 gms \| \| 3 \| Ginger \| 20 gms \| \| 4 \| Garlic \| 20 gms \| \| 5 \| Green chillies \| 8-10 nos \| \| 6 \| Deghi mirch powder \| 20 gms \| \| 7 \| Butter (Unsalted white butter) \| 275 gms \| \| 8 \| Cream \| 250 ml \| \| 9 \| Green cardamom \| 5 gms \| \|10 \| Cloves \| 5 gms \| \|11 \| Cashew nut \| 120 gms \| \|12 \| Salt \| To taste \| \|13 \| Honey \| 20 gms \| \|14 \| Kasoori Methi \| 15 gms \| \|15 \| Garam masala (Optional) \| 10 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Prepare cashew nut paste. - Roast kasoori methi turning continuously. When crisp, rub between palms to make a powder. - Prepare ginger garlic green chilli paste. - Wash and cut tomatoes roughly in chunks. Method: - Cook together tomatoes, tomato puree, ginger garlic green chilli paste, salt, deghi mirch powder, green cardamom, cloves and some water. Simmer the mixture till tomatoes are well done and mashy. The mixture should thicken. - Strain to remove pips, peel etc. Reheat the liquid obtained in a clean pot. Simmer. Add butter, fresh cream and garam masala. - Cook for few minutes. Add honey and kasoori methi powder. Check seasoning (salt & pepper). - A thick and pouring consistency should be obtained. Cool. - Cool, cover and refrigerate for future use. 3. Green / Hariyali Gravy: Base: A boiled spinach paste forms the base of the gravy. Major ingredients: Boiled spinach paste, Ginger garlic paste, Cashew paste. Cream or butter for finishing. Spices: Mild chillies, Sweet spices – cinnamon powder, mace powder, cardamom powder, nutmeg powder. Coriander powder, turmeric powder etc. Optional: Other greens such as fenugreek leaves, mint and green coriander can be used with spinach. To thicken or flavour add cashew paste, coconut paste may be added. Dishes in which used: Palak paneer, Saag / palak meat, Palak corn, Nilgiri murg (with mint and coriander) etc Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|-----------------------------\|-----------\| \| 1 \| Onions \| 300 gms \| \| 2 \| Ginger \| 15 gms \| \| 3 \| Garlic \| 15 gms \| \| 4 \| Green chillies \| 5-6 nos \| \| 5 \| Green cardamom powder \| 2 gms \| \| 6 \| Mace powder \| 2 gms \| \| 7 \| Salt \| To taste \| \| 8 \| Spinach \| 500 gms \| \| 9 \| Methi leaves \| 80 gms \| \| 10 \| Nutmeg powder (or grated) \| 1 gms \| \| 11 \| Cinnamon powder \| 2 gms \| \| 12 \| Cloves \| 2 nos \| \| 13 \| Turmeric powder \| 5 gms \| \| 14 \| Coriander powder \| 20 gms \| \| 15 \| Red chilli powder \| 5 gms \| \| 16 \| Oil / Ghee \| 160 gms \| \| 17 \| Cashew nuts \| 40 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Clean, wash and chop spinach and methi leaves. Boil and grind to a paste. - Prepare cashew nut paste. - Prepare ginger garlic green chilli paste. - Prepare boiled onion paste. Method: - Heat oil/ghee in a pot. Add onion paste and cook to a light brown colour. - Add turmeric powder, coriander powder, red chilli powder. Cook on slow flame. - Add pureed tomatoes and salt. Cook till masala leaves oil. - Add spinach paste, cashew paste, nutmeg powder, mace powder, cinnamon powder and cardamom powder. Cook on medium flame to a pouring thick consistency. - Cool, cover and refrigerate for future use. Note: One can add a table spoon of flour mixed in little water while cooking spinach paste to ensure that it blends well to a smooth texture. 4. Yellow Gravy: - Base: A boiled onion paste forms the base of the gravy. - Major ingredients: Boiled onion paste, Ginger garlic paste, poppy seed/cashew/melon seed paste, milk/cream OR curd. Spices: Whole garam masala such as bay leaf, clove, cinnamon stick, Cardamom etc. (May be removed post cooking after extraction of flavours), Salt, White pepper powder or grinded green chillies with ginger garlic. Optional: Saffron instead of turmeric powder, Rose water, Pinch of sugar Dishes in which used: Base for kormas. Often used in combination with makhani or hariyali gravy to form dishes like Methi malai paneer / murg, Malai kofta etc Care: Onion should not colour while cooking in ghee / oil. Hence cook on low flame. Add curd / milk / cream at the final finishing stage of the dish as they tend to deteriorate rapidly. To prevent curdling of curd, a spoon of flour may be mixed with it. Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|-----------------------------\|----------\| \| 1 \| Onions \| 350 gms \| \| 2 \| Ginger \| 25 gms \| \| 3 \| Garlic \| 25 gms \| \| 4 \| Green chillies \| 8-10 nos \| \| 5 \| Green cardamom powder \| 2 gms \| \| 6 \| Mace powder \| 2 gms \| \| 7 \| Salt \| To taste \| \| 8 \| Green cardamom whole \| 4 nos \| \| 9 \| Black cardamom \| 2 nos \| \| 10 \| Bay leaf \| 2 nos \| \| 11 \| Cinnamon stick \| 1”pc \| \| 12 \| Cloves \| 4-5 nos \| \| 13 \| Turmeric powder \| 5 gms \| \| 14 \| Coriander powder \| 20 gms \| \| 15 \| Red chilli powder \| 5 gms \| \| 16 \| Garam masala powder \| 5 gms \| \| 17 \| Oil / Ghee \| 160 gms \| \| 18 \| Cumin seed \| 5 gms \| \| 19 \| Cashew nuts \| 60 gms \| \| 20 \| Fresh cream \| 50 ml \| \| 21 \| Curd \| 175 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Prepare boiled onion paste. - Prepare ginger, garlic green chilli paste. - Prepare cashew nut paste. - Whisk curd to a smooth consistency. Mix about 50 ml water. Method: - Heat oil in a pot. - Add whole spices i.e. Green cardamom, black cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, bay leaf. - Cook for few seconds. Add onion paste and cook on medium flame continuously stirring so as not to change the colour. - Add ginger garlic green chilli paste. Continue cooking over gentle heat for few minutes. • Add turmeric powder, red chilli powder, coriander powder and salt. Add two tablespoons of water and cook till masala leaves oil. • Add beaten curd. Bring to boil while stirring. • Simmer and add cashew nut paste and cream. • Sprinkle garam masala powder, cardamom and mace powder. • Simmer till the consistency is thick but pouring. • Cool. Cover and refrigerate for future use. Brown (onion tomato) Gravy: Base: Chopped onions and tomatoes form the base of the gravy. Major ingredients: Chopped onions, chopped tomatoes, Ginger garlic paste Spices: Cumin seeds, whole garam masala such as bay leaf, clove, cinnamon stick, Cardamom etc. (May be removed post cooking after extraction of flavours), Salt, Red chilli powder or grinded green chillies with ginger garlic, coriander powder, turmeric powder Optional: Mustard seeds Dishes in which used: This gravy is used in North Indian cooking and forms the base for many curries. The stage at which it is given in recipe, it can be used as tempering for dals (boiled lentils) and dry vegetable dishes. When water is added to the base and it is cooked further, it forms a curry which can be used to simmer vegetables, cottage cheese, meats, eggs etc. This gravy is usually chunky in texture, but if desired it can be cooked and pureed for a smooth consistency. Care: Cumin seeds should not burn and turn black. Onions are to be browned. If overcooked, they impart a bitter flavour & if under cooked, they never blend with liquid (water) and give a raw taste and aroma. Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|---------------------\|-----------\| \| 1 \| Tomatoes \| 600 gms \| \| 2 \| Onions \| 600 gms \| \| 3 \| Ginger \| 50 gms \| \| 4 \| Garlic \| 50 gms \| \| 5 \| Green chillies \| 8-10 nos \| \| 6 \| Black cardamom \| 2 nos \| \| 7 \| Salt \| To taste \| \| 8 \| Bay leaf \| 4 to 6 nos\| \| 9 \| Cinnamon stick \| 1”pc \| \| 10 \| Turmeric powder \| 10 gms \| \| 11 \| Coriander powder \| 30 gms \| \| 12 \| Red chilli powder \| 10 gms \| \| 13 \| Garam masala powder \| 15 gms \| \| 14 \| Oil / Ghee \| 85 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Peel and chop onions. - Chop tomatoes. - Prepare ginger garlic green chilli paste. Method: - Heat oil / ghee in a pot. - Add cumin seed. Cook to a light brown colour. - Add whole spices i.e. Black cardamom, bay leaf and cinnamon. Cook for 10 seconds. - Add onions. Fry on a medium heat till evenly browned. Keep stirring. - Add ginger garlic green chilli paste. Cook while stirring till brown. - Add turmeric powder, salt, coriander powder and red chilli powder. Add two tablespoons of water. - Cook on medium flame till masala begins to leave oil. - Add tomatoes. Cook while stirring till masala leaves oil. - Add garam masala powder. - Cool, cover and refrigerate for future use. 5. Kadhai Gravy: Base: Chopped onions and tomatoes form the base of the gravy. Major ingredients: Chopped onions, chopped tomatoes, Ginger garlic paste, capsicum & onion chunks. Spices: Coriander seeds, whole red chillies, whole garam masala such as bay leaf, clove, cinnamon stick, Cardamom etc. (May be removed post cooking after extraction of flavours), Salt, Red chilli powder or grinded green chillies with ginger garlic, coriander powder, turmeric powder Dishes in which used: This gravy is used in north Indian cooking and forms the base for chicken, vegetables or paneer. Care: Add sautéed chunks of onion and capsicum near serving time to let them remain slightly crisp. Tomatoes used for preparation of gravy should be red and not too sour. Recipe: \| S.No. \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|-------\|---------------------\|----------\| \| 1 \| Tomatoes \| 1 kg \| \| 2 \| Canned tomato puree \| 200 gms \| \| 3 \| Onions \| 400 gms \| \| 4 \| Ginger \| 50 gms \| \| 5 \| Garlic \| 50 gms \| \| 6 \| Green chillies \| 8-10 nos \| \| 7 \| Whole red chillies \| 8 -10 nos\| \| 8 \| Salt \| To taste \| \| \| Ingredient \| Quantity \| \|---\|----------------------------\|----------\| \| 9 \| Turmeric powder \| 10 gms \| \|10 \| Coriander powder \| 30 gms \| \|11 \| Red chilli powder \| 5 gms \| \|12 \| Garam masala powder \| 10 gms \| \|13 \| Oil / Ghee \| 85 gms \| \|14 \| Coriander seed \| 30 gms \| Pre-preparation: - Peel onions. Keep some one inch chunks. Chop the rest. - Chop tomatoes. - Cut capsicum in one inch chunks. - Prepare ginger garlic green chilli paste. - Broil whole coriander seeds and whole red chillies. Coarsely grind. Method: - Heat oil / ghee in a pot. - Add chopped onions. Cook to a light brown colour. - Add ginger garlic green chilli paste. Cook while stirring till brown. - Add turmeric powder, salt, coriander powder and red chilli powder. Add two tablespoons of water. - Cook on medium flame till masala begins to leave oil. - Add tomatoes. Cook while stirring till masala leaves oil. - Add little water to get desired pouring thick consistency. Add garam masala powder. - Boil and simmer. Add coarsely grinded coriander seeds and whole red chillies. - Cool, cover and refrigerate for future use. - Add sautéed chunks of onion and capsicum near finishing time. Summary: There are many gravies prepared in Indian cuisine. These vary in colour, texture and flavour. The base gravies are prepared and stored in hotels. This base, with little modifications and finishing is used in preparing a variety of dishes on the menu in lesser time. The basic gravies as white gravy, brown onion tomato gravy, hariyali gravy, yellow gravy, kadhai gravy and makhani gravy. ------------------Exercise------------------ Q.1. What are Gravies and how do they contribute to a food? Q.2. How is the preparation of basic gravies important in a commercial hotel? Q.3. What are the thickening agents used in preparation of various Indian gravies? Q.4. Write the methods of preparing: a) Boiled onion paste b) Fried onion paste c) Cashew nut paste Practical: 3. Prepare each gravy base and use it to prepare any one dish. UNIT 4: INDIAN SWEETS Objectives: - To describe the importance of sweets in Indian tradition and festivities. - To list popular sweets from various regions of India and write a brief description of each. - To explain role of sugar cookery in preparation of sweets. - To prepare popular sweets from various regions of India. Introduction: Meetha or Mithai are the two most accepted words for Indian confectionary dishes. They are eaten on all festivities and are an important part of every major meal. They are a way of conveying greetings in all form of celebrations. A chef expert in preparing Indian sweets is termed as Halwai. The shops of sweets are found in every city and the chef uses locally sourced ingredients in preparing delectable sweets. A variety of ingredients are used in preparation of sweets: - Main ingredient – a) Milk: Usually from cows or buffalos. At times pre-packaged condensed milk may also be used. b) Khoya / Mawa: It is prepared by boiling and reducing milk to a semi solid stage. Depending on the fat content in the milk and method of preparation one can have a variety of khoya such as Batti ka khoya, Daab ka khoya or Danedar khoya. c) Chenna – Fresh cottage cheese made by curdling cow milk. d) Other ingredients - Gram flour, Coconut, Pulse such as moong dal, refined flour, pumpkin, carrot, fruits such as apricot etc - Sweetening agents – Sugar (Refined sugar, Boora), Jaggery (from sugarcane or palm) - Flavouring agents – Nuts such as almonds, pistachio, cashew, cardamom, nutmeg, cloves, rose water etc - Garnish – Slivers of dry fruits, Silver or gold varq (thin leaves of silver or gold), rose petal, coating of ingredients such as sesame seeds, coconut powder etc Fats & Oils – Desi ghee, refined oils and Vanaspati (partially hydrogenated vegetable oil) are used to provide texture, flavour and as a cooking medium for many sweets. Many sweets are associated with festivals in India. Few are listed below: \| Festival \| Sweet \| \|----------------\|------------------------\| \| Holi \| Gujia \| \| Lohri \| Til gajak \| \| Pongal \| Sarkarai pongal \| \| Gudi padwa \| Til gud ladoos, Shrikhand \| \| Saawan ki teej \| Ghewar \| \| Ganesh chaturthi \| Ukadiche Modak \| \| Eid \| Seviyan, Zarda \| \| Gurupurab \| Karah prasad \| Many Indian sweets have crossed the regional boundaries and are popular all across the nation. For every occasion, celebration or as a token of respect, sweets are gifted and eaten. To prepare these sweets, expertise is required. The quality of ingredients, method, skill and final presentation, all are equally important. For preparing many sweets, one needs to prepare sugar syrup. Though it sounds simple, but preparing sugar syrup of required consistency requires skill. Sugar cookery: Sugar syrup is an important ingredient for preparing most sweets. Sugar for Indian sweets is used in various forms such as Boora or Jaggery. However, many a times one needs to prepare sugar syrup (chasni) to a required consistency. The sugar syrup can be prepared by taking two cups of refined sugar and one cup of water in a thick bottom pot. Begin to cook the mixture while stirring to dissolve the sugar completely. As water evaporates, the concentration of sugar keeps increasing. Keep testing this syrup to check its consistency. To do this, dip a wooden spoon in the syrup and lift out. Allow cooling for a few seconds and touch the syrup with a forefinger and then touch the forefinger to the thumb. Pull the thumb and forefinger apart gently. Half-thread consistency is when a single thread is formed and breaks immediately when your forefinger and your thumb are pulled apart. One-thread consistency is when a single thread is formed and does not break when your forefinger and your thumb are pulled apart. Two-thread consistency is when two threads are formed as above. This stage is also called the soft ball stage - when a drop of syrup of this consistency is dropped into a bowl of cold water, it forms a soft ball. Two and a half thread consistency is when three threads are formed but one breaks immediately as finger and thumb are pulled apart. This stage is also called the firm ball stage - when a drop of syrup of this consistency is dropped into a bowl of cold water, it forms a firm but pliable ball. Three-thread consistency is when three threads are formed as above. This stage is also called the hard ball stage - when a drop of syrup of this consistency is dropped into a bowl of cold water, it forms a hard ball. \| Stage \| Temperature range \| Use in Indian sweets \| \|------------------------\|-------------------\|----------------------\| \| Half thread \| 100°C \| Rasgulla \| \| One thread \| 104°C - 106°C \| Thin coat on sweets such as gujiya \| \| Two thread / Soft ball \| 112°C - 116°C \| Variety of Burfi, Gajak \| \| Two & half thread / Firm ball \| 118°C - 120°C \| Sohan papdi \| \| Three thread / Hard ball \| 121°C - 130°C \| Chikki \| Though the sugar can be cooked beyond this stage too such as caramel, but usually these are the only stages used in preparation of most of the Indian sweets. One can use a candy thermometer to measure the stages precisely. However, many Halwais use the above method to check the stage of sugar cookery while preparing sweets. Following are few of the sweets commonly prepared across the nation: North Zone: • Sohan Halwa - It is made by boiling a mixture of water, sugar, milk, and cornflour until it becomes solid. Saffron is used for flavoring. Ghee is used to prevent it from sticking to the pan. Almonds, pistachios, and cardamom seeds are added. • Doda - The fudgy, chewy form of barfi is made with milk, sugar, nuts and ghee. • Gulabjamun - Gulabjamun is made from khoya shaped as round balls, which is deep fried and then soaked in sugar syrup. • Imarti: A sweet prepared by using a moong dal batter being piped in hot oil in a flower shape. It is deep fried and soaked in sugar syrup. • Jalebi – A spiral shaped sweet prepared by refined flour batter fried in hot oil and soaked in sugar syrup. • Kheer – It is prepared by boiling milk and cooking it with rice and sugar. Many variants of kheer are prepared all over India while replacing rice with semolina, tapioca, vermicelli, roasted dal etc. It is flavoured with cardamom, raisins, saffron, cashews, pistachios, almonds or other dry fruits and nuts. • Gajrela / Gajar ka halwa – A carrot based sweet prepared by cooking grated carrots in milk, water and sugar, adding some khoya, ghee and nuts. • Moong dal Halwa – The sweet is prepared in winters using coarsely grinded moong dal, ghee, khoya sugar and nuts. • Kaju katli / Kaju barfi – It is barfi made with cashew paste, khoya, sweetening and ghee cooked and set together. • Chikki – It is a traditional Indian sweet made from peanuts and jaggery. Many variety of chikkis are prepared in which instead of peanut roasted Bengal gram, puffed rice etc may be used. • Petha - It is a translucent soft candy from Agra. Usually rectangular or cylindrical, it is made from the ash gourd vegetable. Many flavoured variants are available, e.g. kesar petha, angoori petha etc. • Kulfi falooda – A summer treat, kulfi it is made using sweetened, thickened milk, may be flavoured and set into moulds. The falooda is prepared using cooked corn flour batter, passing it through mould and making it in long noodle like shape. The kulfi is cut in pieces and served with falooda. • Peda - A sweet famous from Mathura. The main ingredients are khoya, sugar and flavoured with cardamom seeds. The colour varies from a light brown to a caramel colour. • Phirni: A sweet prepared from powdered rice, milk, cardamom, saffron and sugar. • Zarda: Fragrant basmati rice with saffron, nuts and sugar. • Seviyan: Vermicelli cooked with milk, nuts, sugar and saffron. East Zone: Bengali sweets made of chenna (from curdling cow’s milk) are popular. These include: • Sandesh: A famous dessert made from chenna, palm jaggery and reduced milk. • Roshogulla / Rasgulla: It is made by shaping a dough of cheena and flour into balls and cooking them in sugar syrup. Chhena jilapi: This is made in a manner very similar to regular jalebis which are popular throughout India. However, the basic ingredient is fresh chhena which is kneaded and shaped and deep fried. They are then soaked in sugar syrup. Chhena Murki: It is a Bengali dessert recipe that is prepared using chhena and sugar syrup shaped into small cubes. Chamcham: Cham cham is a Bengali sweet made by curdling milk and then shaping the coagulated solids to cylindrical shape pieces. These are cooked in sugar syrup similar to rasgullas to get a soft, spongy and light texture. Cham cham sweet is then filled / topped with mawa and nuts. Other popular sweets from the East zone are: Bhapa Doi or Baked Yogurt is hung curd blended with milk and condensed milk and baked with a water bath in the oven or steamed on the stove top. It is an important part of sweet dish in the Bengali weddings and special occasions like festivals etc. Patisapta is a traditional Bengali sweet which is made with thin pancakes made out of refined flour / rice flour or semolina. A mixture of grated coconut, khoya and jaggery is then filled in the pancakes and rolled into cylindrical shape. Thekua: It is prepared by mixing jaggery, flour and ghee, flavoured with cardamom powder & coconut powder, shaped in to balls and deep fried. Chhena Poda – Cheena Poda literally means burnt cheese. This is known to be Lord Jagannath’s favourite sweet and is often offered to him at the Puri Temple. It is prepared with well-kneaded chhena or fresh cottage cheese, sugar and nuts and baked. Pahala Rosogulla - The slightly golden chhena dumplings combined with semolina are shaped in balls and cooked in light sugar syrup. West Zone: Puran poli: It is prepared by preparing a soft dough with flour, turmeric powder, salt and ghee. The dough is filled with a mixture of cooked dal, jaggery and ghee and cooked on a griddle. Shrikhand: A traditional sweet from Maharashtra, it is prepared from hung curd, often called as chakka in Marathi. It is usually flavoured with saffron, nutmeg, cardamom, almonds and pistachios. Mohanthal: It is made by roasting besan in ghee and adding sugar syrup. It may be flavoured with rose water, cardamom, saffron, slivers of nuts etc. Bibinca: A traditional baked pudding from Goa made from coconut milk, ghee, egg yolk, sugar and flour. It traditionally has seven layers. Dodol: It is made by cooking coconut milk, palm jaggery, and rice flour cooked and set into a mould. It is sticky, thick, and sweet. Ukadiche Modak: This form of modak is prepared during Ganesh utsav in Maharashtra. A rice flour dough is prepared by cooking rice flour in water. The dough is rolled, filled with the mixture of coconut and jaggery, shaped and steamed in a steamer. Basundi: A thickened form of rabri flavoured with cardamom powder. Gavalychi kheer: A form of kheer prepared using semolina flakes, milk and sugar. South Zone: Ada: It looks like small packets made with rice flour dough with a sweet filling and steamed in banana leaves. Payasams: Payasams are a variation of north zone kheer. However, many variations of payasam are prepared using jaggery and coconut milk as compared to sugar and dairy milk in the north zone. ✓ Pal payasam: A form of rice kheer of north zone. Paruppu payasam: It is made by roasting and cooking moong dal and cooking it with ghee, jaggery and coconut milk. It may be garnished with fried nuts. - Coconut Barfi: The barfi is made from fresh grated coconut, ghee and set with sugar syrup. - Mysore pak: A variation of besan barfi of the north and mohanthal of the west. - Ande ki piyosi: A baked sweet made with eggs, sugar, milk, ground almonds, ghee, saffron etc. - Khubani ka meetha: Apricots are boiled in syrup to prepare a compote like consistency. The preparation is topped with malai (more contemporary trends include custard or icecream) and garnished with almonds or apricot kernels. - Double ka meetha: It is a bread pudding Indian sweet of fried & crumbed bread slices soaked in reduced hot milk with spices, including saffron and cardamom. It is popular in Hyderabadi cuisine, served at weddings and parties. - Badam ki Jali: Almonds are first ground into flour and made into a dough with sugar, and then rolled into a large roti-like shape. Moulds are then used to give a variety of shapes. These are baked for some time to give it the crisp texture. - Ashrafi: The soft Ashrafi is also prepared like badam ki jali but is not baked. Instead the dough is pressed in a mould with traditional Nizami inscription to look like a coin. Exercise Q.1. Discuss the importance on sweets in Indian culture. Q.2. Write short notes on: a) Bengali sweets b) Use of milk / milk products in preparation of Indian sweets Q.3. Describe the various stages of sugar cookery and their use in preparing Indian sweets. Q.4. Name two Indian sweets prepared by using following as main ingredients: a) Moong dal b) Besan c) Chenna d) Khoya e) Curd f) Refined flour g) Eggs h) Rice flour Practical: 4. Prepare any two sweets from each zone of India. Note: The sweet preparation may be repeated for practical proficiency. UNIT 5 PRESENTATION OF INDIAN MEALS Objectives: - To describe the importance of Balanced Diet and ways it can be accomplished in Indian meals. - To list accompaniments of Indian meals - To compare and contrast traditional and contemporary presentation of Indian meals. Balanced diet: A balanced diet includes a variety of foods in adequate amounts and correct proportions to meet the day’s requirements of all essential nutrients including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and fibre. It is important to have sufficient water as well. Balanced diet helps to keep good health. One must realize that requirement of nutrients vary from person to person. This depends on many factors such as age, sex, body weight, height, physical activity etc. Nutrition is a specialized field that provides a knowledge of achieving the most suitable nutrition from meals as required by one’s body. However, today our everyday food habits have become skewed towards foods that have more quantity of fat and carbohydrates than our body uses. This accumulation of excess fats and carbohydrates coupled with lack of exercise leads to various diseases. Hence, it is important to obtain all variety of nutrients in our daily diet. Few good habits are: - Including serving of salads – raw vegetables with a lemon based dressing. - Including serving of seasonal vegetable dish accompanied with pulses (daal). We must eat a variety of vegetables and pulses not just few liked ones. - Including products such as curd and buttermilk. - Using whole grain flour instead of refined flour. It is also a good habit to use other types of flours apart from wheat such as bajra, makki, gram flour etc in various dishes. - Use of limited quantities of oils and consuming variety of oils. - Avoiding saturated fat. Coupled with above if we exercise each day, we can avoid a lot of modern lifestyle diseases. Accompaniments of Indian meals: A complete Indian meal comprises of pulses, cereals, vegetables, curd / buttermilk and lots of accompaniments. As the name suggests, these are preparations that are served in small quantities and add to the overall colour, texture, taste and nutritive value. 1. Pickles – It is an age old tradition to prepare pickles using seasonal best quality vegetables and preserve them using salt, spices and oils. 2. Preserves – This includes Jams, Jellies and Marmalades. Jams are prepared using fruits that are preserved using sugar. Marmalades too are prepared from fruits but include the peels of fruits while jellies are prepared from fruit juices. 3. Chutneys – An accompaniment to many Indian snacks too, there are a wide variety of chutneys that are prepared. These include – - Mint Coriander chutney - Tomato chutney - Peanut chutney - Coconut chutney - Saunth (tamarind) chutney 4. Crisps – In India, variety of crisps are prepared all over the country. These include potato chips, sabudaana chips, vegetables cut into thin slices and deep fried, popaddums / papads/ khakras made of grinded dals and spies and sundried. 5. Drinks - Many traditional Indian drinks are used to accompany meals, or to simply quench the thirst. These include: - Chaaach / Buttermilk - Lassi - Solkadhi - Aam panna - Shikanji - Coconut water - Sherbets Hence, our meals must consist of a balanced amalgam of above accompaniments along with the main meal not only for flavour but also for completing a balanced nutritional intake. Importance of food presentation: It is important to cook food well, taking care of aspects such as temperature, colour, texture, taste etc. However, if not presented attractively, the effort does not yield appreciation. Such a product may yield low commercial benefits i.e. may not find a proper sale in a restaurant. Hence, one must consider food presentation while finalising a menu for a restaurant. Traditional presentation of Indian meals: Traditionally, Indian meals are served using a combination of Thalis and Katoris (bowls). These could be made of earthenware, stainless steel, brass, copper or even silver plated. The Thalis preferably should have rounded edges to hold the food. Katoris are kept for serving gravy dishes or the ones with thin consistency. The entire meal is served as one i.e. the thali will carry main dish, accompaniments, rice, breads, sweets and drinks alongside in one go. In many cultures, food is served on banana leaves which is considered auspicious. Most individual dishes are garnished with simple things such as chopped nuts, chopped herbs such as coriander leaves, curry leaves or mint leaves, lemon slices etc. ![Food served on banana leaf.](image1) ![Food served on earthenware lined with a banana leaf.](image2) Contemporary trends in presentation of Indian meals: Though in most households, the traditional presentation is practiced, with the expansion of tourism, many hotels have Indian restaurants that cater to clientele from all over the world. The chefs have started experimenting with the presentation of many Indian dishes which includes not changing the basic recipe but merely plating the food in a way to make it look more eye-appealing. Also, there is an effort in pre-plating the food as compared to the dishes presented in serving bowls and serving using serving spoons. Individual dishes or dishes with few accompaniments are plated rather than providing the entire meal i.e. starters, crisps, soup, main course and sweet at the same time. Some modern presentations are as follows: Considerations for plating the food: - Prepare a framework in mind and put it on paper – This helps to prepare the broad framework for easing out plate presentation. The creativity and precise work both are required to prepare the framework. Decide on one element that can be used to give visual height to overall food on the plate. Consider main dish and its portion size – To plate attractively, one needs to consider the portion size of the dish or accompaniments that are to be kept on plate. Too much or too little food is avoided. - Decide on accompaniments to play with colours, textures and visual appeal. This could include: - Sauces or chutneys - Crisps in various shapes - Micro-greens: These are young vegetable greens that are approximately 1 to 3 inches in length. They have an aromatic flavour and concentrated nutrient content and come in a variety of colors and textures. E.g. Arugula, mustard, red amaranth, chia, wheat, peas, radish, sunflower etc Fresh herbs – Small tender leaves of mint or coriander are commonly used in Indian cuisine. Apart from this spring onion greens, chives, soya greens may also be used. Fancy cuts of vegetables. Edible flowers. Candied fruit peels or vegetables. - Customised shape / colour / pattern of crockery. - Garnish – Use in small quantity, should be edible, must blend with flavour of the dish and provide a contrast of colour. - Avoid clutter – Leave some area of plate vacant especially for pre-plated food. Activity: Explore some hotels or restaurant in your city and neighbouring areas. Find out how they plate the dishes they offer, what are the accompaniments and garnish and how the entire presentation makes the food look eye appealing. Summary: Balanced diet is important to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Though the dietary requirement of nutrients varies from person to person depending on various factors such as sex, age, occupation etc, we must switch to some healthy eating habits. Indian meal with all its variety and accompaniments can be relished and also used as a complete source of nutrition. Traditionally, Indian meals are served in a thali with katoris for thin consistency dishes or even on earthenware and banana leaves. However, with globalization, many chefs are now moving towards presentation on Indian meals in a contemporary way using various ingredients, special crockery and reshaping the traditional dishes without altering the flavour. Exercise Q.1. Define Balanced diet. Discuss the ways to achieve a healthy diet pattern. Q.2. List and explain accompaniments to Indian meals. Q.3. What are various considerations to achieve attractive food presentation? Q.4. Answer in brief: a) Microgreens b) Preserves c) Accompaniments Practical: Prepare Indian regional meal, snacks or sweets as discussed in previous chapters and present the same dishes in different ways. Compare in terms of: - Use of crockery - Quantity and consistency of dish served - Garnish - Accompaniments used in plate for giving contrast of colour, texture and flavour. - Vacant space left on the plate. UNIT - 6 FAST FOOD OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit, the student will be able to - To outline the history of fast foods - To identify the salient features of these outlets - To state the flow of work - To describe the use of convenience food - To explain the preparation of fast foods I. INTRODUCTION “Fast food is not so much a system as a way of life.” – Peter Bertram Fast food refers to those types of foods that are easily prepared in mass quantities and are served quickly. The focus is on the speed of service and affordable prices of the menu items. It meets the need of “grab and go” service especially for leisure, industrial & traveling market requirements. Fast food outlets are take-away or take-out providers that promise quick service. They offer both “drive – through” services as well as dine in services. Now a days, customers can order food online via smart phone applications and get their food home delivered. Fast food has been designed to be eaten “on the go” and does not require cutlery. It is eaten as finger food. Common food items served at fast food outlets include sandwiches, hamburgers, fried chicken, french fries, onion rings, chicken nuggets, tacos, pizza, hot dogs, ice cream, idli, dosa, samosa and other Indian snacks. The basic concept of fast food outlets depends upon the following factors: - Cheap food - Products that can be cooked quickly and held in the short-term without deteriorating. - Large throughput of customers - Demand for takeaways as well as consumption on premises. - Precise portion control. Consumer perception of fast food: - Quality - High quality food that would stand as a substantial meal. - Service – The essence of this particular style of fast food is speed that is why it is called fast food. - Cleanliness – The promotion of fast food is mainly done by the bright, attractive and clean image that the stores present. - Value – Customers are becoming price conscious and are looking for their money’s worth these days. As such, the prices must match the quality. The ethnic kiosks in India vary from state to state across India. The vada pav vendors in Mumbai are just as famous as the chole batura vendors in Delhi. Even though the menu items are not limited to particular places these days, however the tastes are not standardized in Indian fast food kiosks. II. HISTORY OF FAST FOOD The first of fast food restaurants started in the US and it continues to be home to many of the world’s fast food chains. However, the roots can be traced back to ancient Rome, where they had commercial establishments termed ‘Thermopolium’. These establishments sold ready to eat foods. The fast food restaurants began to open around the mid – 1900s in the US, starting with the White Castle in Wichita, Kansas. In India as well, the concept of fast foods has been prevalent since the time when ‘Dhabas’ and ‘Udipi’ started to come up all over the country. Among the famous fast food outlets are the Chatwallas of Delhi, Bhelpuriwallas of Mumbai, Nizams of Calcutta and the Dosawallas of the South. Modern commercial fast food is highly processed and prepared on a large scale from bulk ingredients using standard procedures and equipment. It is usually served in cartons, paper bags or in plastic wrapping, which enables quick product identification and counting, promotes longer holding time and helps avoid transfer of bacteria. III. SALIENT FEATURES OF FAST FOOD - It specializes in one particular product. Example - Burgers, pizzas and so on. - Variations in the menu are based on one product. Example – Aloo tikka burger, tuna burger, etc. - Products can be prepared quickly and be held for a short while without spoilage. - It relies heavily on the availability of convenience products. To prepare pizzas, pizza base is required, to make burgers, burger buns are required and to serve pani puris, the puris are needed. - Ensures good portion control as convenience products form the base and the presentation is clearly displayed over the counter for the customers to know. - It concentrates on pricing the items moderately and selling them in volume so as to gain more profit. Lower the selling price, higher the sale and vice versa. It caters to all the segments of the market. - The outlet units are equipped with high efficiency automatic kitchen equipment, which does not call for the continuous attention of the cook. Thus, the cook can simultaneously concentrate on some other work. IV. FLOW OF WORK Fast Food System Staff - Cook - Assembler - Cleaner Kitchen Automated food ordering system Software - Menu - Item - Internal Ordering system - Display - Card Processor - System Administration Hardware - Modern - Cash return - Card reader - Receipt printer - Cash acceptor - Signaupad - Kitchen screen - Keypad - Screen Bun toasting 11 SECONDS Assembly with condiments 20 SECONDS Wrapping of patty with bun 14 SECONDS Customer service, order, and payment 45 SECONDS Order read on a video screen More personnel added during busy periods Order picked up immediately to keep it fresh HEATED CABINET FOR THE GRILLED PATTIES HEATED LANDING PAD BUNS TOASTER CONDIMENTS Fast food outlets usually serve customers food that has been pre-prepared or pre-cooked. These processed ingredients are prepared at a central unit which are then supplied to individual outlets. The processed ingredients are then cooked either by grilling, microwave or deep-frying or are assembled immediately when the items are ordered or when the orders are anticipated. Standard Operating Procedures are followed while using pre-cooked products so as to ensure that they are safe for consumption. The products are disposed of if the holding time is excessive. Following SOPs certifies that a consistent level of product quality is maintained and guarantees quick delivery of the order and reduces the labour and equipment costs in the outlets. V. USE OF CONVENIENCE FOODS Convenience products are processed foods, either they are ready to eat or they require minimum degree of cooking. Convenience food or packaged food is a gift for those who are bustling to make the work needs and personal life needs meet. As such, eating out has become a part of one’s life routine. For the chefs in the restaurant chains as well, packaged foods are a boon when they have to maintain the standards and consistency of the food they prepare. It is also a quicker option when they are pressed for time, which is always. According to Mr. Sudhir Pai, Executive Chef, Holiday Inn Mumbai International Airport, “Any raw material that is in any way processed to remove one or more steps needed to produce the final dish is convenience food.” Convenience foods reduce the amount of time spent on preparing food at home. They can be consumed immediately or after adding water, heating or thawing. Examples: Canned soup, Frozen foods, Cake mixes, etc. \| Advantages \| Disadvantages \| \|------------\|---------------\| \| Convenience food benefits \| Disadvantages \| \|---------------------------\|---------------\| \| Reduces meal preparation time \| Cooking time is sometimes increased for thawing or baking \| \| No need to plan, buy and store ingredients separately \| Lack of freshness in vegetables and fruits \| \| Less wastage \| Typically high in calories, fats, saturated fats, trans fats, sugar and salt. \| \| Cost efficient for mass production and preparation \| Cost per serving may be higher than homemade \| \| Faster presentation and easier clean up \| Harder to control fat, salt and sugar levels. \| Convenience food can be categorised into three types: - Canned: Sardines, fruits, ham - Dehydrated: Dry meat, dry fish, spaghetti - Frozen: Meat, poultry, fish VI. PREPARATION OF FAST FOODS 1. SUB A sub, short for submarine sandwich, is a very popular and easy to make meal. It is a type of sandwich that consists of a length of bread or roll split crosswise and filled with a variety of meats, cheese, vegetables and condiments. Subway is the chain that is famous for these subs. Preparation - The sub roll or roll of bread is cut in half, down the middle. - Cheese is added to it and the bread is toasted. - Any condiment as per choice is spread onto the bread - The sub is filled with meat (if it is a non-vegetarian sub) and vegetables. - Seasonings are added to the sub as per taste. 2. Burgers A burger is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat placed inside a sliced bread roll/bun. They are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles and condiments. Preparation For the patties: - Get the meat grinded by the butcher, once through the coarse plate of the grinder and then through the fine plate of the grinder. - Roughly chopped onions and garlic are then added to the ground meat. - Flavouring ingredients such as sauces, herbs and spices are added to the meat and mixed properly. - Egg yolk, salt and pepper are added with the prepared meat mixture. - The mixture is then shaped into flat burger shapes of half an inch thickness. These are then chilled for approximately 30 minutes as cold and firm meat tends to cook easily. - Once they are cold and firm, they can be grilled, fried in a skillet or pan, barbecued or baked. For the burger: - The toppings are prepared while the patties are being cooked. - The toppings usually consist of lettuce, onions, tomatoes and cheese. - Once the patties are cooked, the burger has to be assembled onto the burger bun and served. French fries, mashed potato or salads are the usual accompaniments for burgers. 3. Pizzas It is a savoury dish of Italian origin, consisting of a usually round, flattened base of leavened wheat based dough topped with tomatoes, cheese, and various other ingredients baked at a high temperature, traditionally in a wood-fired oven. Preparation For the pizza base: - In a bowl, yeast, salt, sugar and water are mixed properly till the yeast dissolves and it is let to sit till the mixture starts to foam. - A dough is made by mixing this water mixture with flour. It is knead till the dough feels firm and cohesive. The dough is placed in an oiled bowl and allowed to rise. - Once the dough has risen, it is divided into balls of the required size. For the pizza sauce: - Tomatoes are crushed in a bowl and kept aside. - Oil is heated in a saucepan and onion and garlic are sautéed. - The crushed tomato paste is then added to the saucepan along with oregano, basil, sugar, salt and pepper. - The mixture is cooked on medium flame until it starts to boil. It is then allowed to simmer for 30 minutes. - Once the sauce is prepared, it is let to cool and blended if it seems too chunky. Baking the pizza: - The oven is pre-heated to 230 degrees Celsius for at least 30 minutes. - In the meanwhile the dough is flattened and shaped. - Olive oil is brushed over the crust. Then the sauce and toppings are added to the base, while leaving half an inch of the outer crust edge uncovered. The pizza then is placed in the oven and baked for 10 – 15 minutes. Once it is cooked, it is sliced and served. 4. Wraps A wrap is a form of sandwich made with a soft flatbread rolled around a filling. Preparation For the tortillas: - Prepare dough by mixing flour, salt, baking powder, lard and water and kneading it. - Divide the dough into the required number of pieces of equal size. Roll each piece into a ball. - Pre-heat a large skillet over medium flame. In the meanwhile, roll the balls into thin, round tortillas. - Place a tortilla into the hot skillet and cook till bubbly golden. Flip and cook the other side as well. Do the same for the rest of the tortillas. For the wrap: - Prepare the filling by cutting and sautéing the vegetables and/or meat. - Place a large lettuce leaf at the centre of the tortilla. - Place the fillings on top of the lettuce. - Add nuts (almond, toasted or plain walnuts) and/or seeds (sunflower, sesame seeds) to give a pleasant crunch. - Add cheese, dressings and condiments (mayonnaise, BBQ sauce, Mustard sauce, vinegar, oil). - Add any seasonings (Salt, pepper, herbs – dried or fresh). - Tuck in all the fillings and wrap the tortilla. - Slice in half across the diagonal and serve. 5. Chinese Fast Foods A) Dim Sums It is a Cantonese delicacy which is relished world-wide. Basically, a dim sum is a steamed bun filled with meat or vegetables. Preparation - Prepare dough from flour, water and salt. Mix well, knead it and cover with a damp cloth. - Prepare the filling by cutting cabbages, spring onions, broccoli, carrots and French beans into small pieces. - Put them in a bowl and add salt and pepper and mix well. - Divide the dough into equal portions and roll them out into thin discs. - Add the vegetable filling, fold and twist the edges to seal it. - Place the dim sums in a lined bamboo steamer over hot water and let it steam for 8 – 10 minutes on high flame. - Serve the steamed dim sums with ginger soy sauce. B) Chow mein Chow mein are Chinese stir fried noodles and is particularly popular in India, Nepal, the UK and the US. Preparation - Cook Hakka noodles in boiling water. Drain, place the noodles in cold water, and drain again. Toss them in 1 tbsp sesame oil and set aside. - Heat a wok over high flame. Add oil to it. - Sautee garlic, add all other vegetables and stir fry them. - Add noodles to the wok along with the soy sauce, spring onions, salt, pepper and castor sugar. • Stir fry for a few minutes. Add sesame oil and toss. • Serve hot. C) Dragon Chicken Dragon chicken is the name given to marinated chicken strips that have been fried and sautéed in a spicy and tangy sauce. Preparation • Marinate the chicken with dark soy sauce, red chilli paste, egg, all-purpose flour, corn starch, ginger garlic paste, pepper and salt to taste and let it sit for 15 minutes. Fry the chicken in hot oil till it turns golden. • In a frying pan, heat oil. Add in dry red chillis and cashews and fry till golden brown. • Add in onions and bell peppers and sauté. Then sauté ginger garlic paste in it. • Add red chilli paste, soy sauce, tomato ketchup, salt, sugar and mix well. • Cook till sauce thickens. Then add in fried chicken and toss into the sauce well. Add in chopped coriander and spring onions and mix well. SUMMARY: Fast food is rapidly rising to popularity. However, like other catering concepts, such as coffee bars in the 1950s, they are also predicted to decline in popularity and fade away. The industry is, simultaneously, looked upon as a cheap junk producing industry. These opinions are however disregarded by the fast food operators who insist that their sales are increasing and that they provide whole meals. The most important concepts in the fast food industry are service, quality and cleanliness. For all its popular appeal, brashness and junk food image, fast food has brought bright and imaginative marketing, incredibly high standards of hygiene and a youthful outlook to catering. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Answer the following: 1) What is fast food? 2) Explain the flow of work at individual outlets. 3) Give the method of preparation for pizza. 4) Define convenience foods. 5) What are subs? Essay Questions: 1) Explain the salient features of fast foods. 2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of fast foods? UNIT-7 INTRODUCTION TO BAKING OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit the students will be able to: - To understand the functions of the basic ingredients used in bakery. - To learn about cookies and their importance. - To list different varieties of cookies and its preparation. I. BASIC INGREDIENTS FLOUR Flour is the finely ground meal of wheat and is one of the most important ingredients used in bakery products. Therefore, flour quality has a major influence on the quality of the finished baked products. It is important for the following reasons: 1. It is the backbone and structure of baked goods. 2. It acts as a binding agent and an absorbing agent. 3. It affects the keeping quality of products. 4. It is important to the flavor of products. 5. It adds nutritional value to the baked product. WHEAT Wheat, from which flour is made, is the most essential grain used in bread-making because it is the only cereal that contains the proper combination of gluten in and gliadin. When flour is combined with water, they combine together to form gluten, essential for retaining the gas produced by yeast. No other grain can replace wheat in bread making. The primary types of wheat flour used in baking are hard wheat and soft wheat. Hard wheat contains a high proportion of gluten, which makes it an excellent choice for breads and bread products. There are several kinds of wheat: 1. Strong flour is preferred in the production of quality hard rolls and breads. Here it produces the best results. 2. Soft wheat generally contains less gluten than hard wheat and is commonly used for making the more delicate baked goods like cakes, pastries and cookies. EGGS Eggs are important because they add color, improve the grain and texture of baked products, increase volume, give structure to the product, adds flavor, and have considerable nutritional value. Egg whites figure largely in some of the above points as they are responsible for increasing volume, improving the grain and texture, and giving structure to the product. SALT The important functions performed by salt in baked products are as follows: 1. It brings out the desired flavor. 2. It controls yeast action. Increasing the salt content slows the yeast action but assists in preventing the development of bacteria and the wild types of yeast which are harmful to the dough. 3. It has a strengthening affect on the gluten in flour. It also helps the dough hold carbon dioxide gas more effectively. 4. It improves the texture and grain of baked products. MILK The milk solids have a binding’s effect on the flour proteins, creating a toughening effect. They also contain lactose which helps to regulate crust color. They improve the flavor and are important moisture retaining agents. It contributes towards eating qualities. The advantages of using milk solids: 1. Increases Absorption and Dough Strengthening 2. Increases Mixing Tolerance 3. Enhances the longer fermentation 4. Improves better crust color 5. Improves better grain and texture 6. Increases Loaf Volume 7. Improves keeping Quality 8. Provides Nutrition SUGAR Although flour contains natural sugar, the quantity of natural sugar is not sufficient to carry out the whole process of fermentation. Basically, sugar is used to provide food for yeast but it also improves moisture retention capacity of bread. It has softening effect on crumb and improves the crust colour and flavour of bread. In plain white bread, sugar is used at the rate of 2 to 3% based on flour. However higher quantities can also be used as in the case of sweet fermented products. Higher concentration of sugar will retard the yeast activity and hence yeast content should be increased in the formula. Dough with higher sugar and yeast content should be guarded against over fermentation to avoid any acidity in taste and flavour. YEAST Yeast is a microscopic plant or cell grown in vats containing a warm mash of ground corn, barley malt, and water. The two types of yeast are compressed yeast and dry yeast. The ideal storing temperature for yeast is 30°-45°F. When yeast is mixed with flour into dough, the yeast plants begin to grow and multiply very fast. This growth produces the leavening gas, or carbon dioxide, which forms the small bubbles that cause the dough to rise. Yeast in baked products increases the volume and improves the grain, the texture, and the flavor. FATS AND SHORTENINGS Fats used for baking purposes are all edible fats or hydrogenated oils of vegetable or animal origin such as hydrogenated shortening, lard oils, butter, and margarine. Margarine and butter are two special types of fat. Margarine is made from animal or vegetable oils or a combination of both. Whereas other types of fats are usually bland, butter and margarine are used primarily for their characteristic flavors which they impart to the products in which they are used. The physical properties of the fats of which they are composed are also somewhat different. This makes them “melt in the mouth,” and this characteristic is imparted to the products in which they are used, particularly in icings, thus improving the quality. Lard, the rendered fat of hogs, is used primarily in bread and pie dough. Oils are liquid fats used, within limits, for deep fat frying in bakeries, and also as a wash for different types of rolls, and for greasing purpose. 1. Consistency of plasticity. To permit shortening to function properly, it must be thoroughly and uniformly distributed in the dough or batter. It should be of a consistency which will mix easily into the dough or batter. It should also be easy to handle in the bake shop—not too hard or brittle in cold weather, nor too soft in warm weather. 2. Flavor, color, and odor are very important. With the exception of butter, lard, and margarine, most high grade shortenings are bland in flavor and light in color. All shortenings should be free from foreign odor. 3. Keeping quality of shortenings must be satisfactory under the storage conditions available in the bakery. The very best shortenings can be spoiled by rancidity when stored improperly or for too long. Shortenings must be kept in a cool place and tightly covered to keep out as much air as possible. Functions of Fats in Bakery Products Fats function in several ways in bakery products: 1. They increase the tenderness of the product. 2. They increase the quality of the product, both for keeping and eating. 3. They enhance the food value of the product. 4. They improve the grain and texture. II. COOKIES Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using a range of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on the time taken to bake it. The Word cookie means "small cake," and that covers a huge range of sweet, bite sized baked goods – from crisp wafers, crumbly meringues and macaroons, and light as air madelines, to buttery shortbread, chewy chocolate chip super cookies, and rich gooey bars and brownies. Cookies can be shaped, flavored and decorated in so many different ways has given rise to a large number of names for them, including some quite colorful ones such as cat tongues, Russian cigarettes and gingerbread people. The origins of cookie making are lost in the mists of time. The ancient Romans made cookie like products by boiling wheat, flour and water to a thick paste then frying it in oil and serving with lashings of honey. Cookie making probably began in earnest with the widespread cultivation and processing of sugar. Earliest cookies were made in Ancient Persia in the 7th century AD by the time of middle ages; Italian merchants were dealing in biscotti. This is the word which gave rise to the British term for the cookie “biscuit”. Most cookie formulas, however, call for less liquid than cake formulas do. Cookie dough range from soft to very stiff, unlike the thinner batters for cakes. This difference in moisture content means some differences in mixing methods, although the basic procedures are much like those for cakes. Cookies Characteristic:- Cookies come in an infinite variety of shapes, sizes, flavors, and textures. For example, we want some cookies to be crisp; others to be soft. We want some to hold their shape, others to spread during baking. In order to produce the characteristics we want and to correct faults, it is useful to know what causes these basic traits. Crispness:- Cookies are crisp if they are low in moisture. The following factors contribute to crispness: 1. Low proportion of liquid in the mix. Most crisp cookies are made from stiff dough. 2. High sugar and fat content. A large proportion of these ingredients make it possible to mix workable dough with low moisture content. 3. Baking long enough to evaporate most of the moisture. 4. Small size or thin shape, so the cookie dries faster during baking. 5. Proper storage. Crisp cookies can become soft if they absorb moisture. Softness:- Softness is the opposite of crispness, so it has the opposite causes, as follows: 1. High proportion of liquid in the mix. 2. Low sugar and fat. 3. Honey, molasses, or corn syrup included in the formulas. These sugars are hygroscopic, which means they readily absorb moisture from the air or from their surroundings. 4. Under baking. 5. Large size or thick shape, so they retain more moisture. 6. Proper storage. Soft cookies can become stale and dry if not tightly covered or wrapped. Chewiness:- Moisture is necessary for chewiness, but other factors are also important. In other words, all chewy cookies are soft, but not all soft cookies are chewy. The following factors contribute to chewiness: 1. High sugar and liquid content, but low fat content. 2. High proportion of eggs. 3. Strong flour or gluten developed during mixing. Spread:- Spread is desirable in some cookies while others must hold their shape. Several factors contribute to spread or the lack of it. Procedure for Spread Method 1. High sugar content increases spread. Coarse granulated sugar increases spread, while fine Sugar or confectioners’ sugar reduces spread. 2. High baking soda or baking ammonia content encourages spread. 3. The creaming together of fat and sugar contributes to leavening by incorporating air. Creaming a mixture until light increases spread. Blending fat and sugar just to a paste (without creaming in a lot of air) reduces spread. 4. Low oven temperature increases spread. High temperature decreases spread because the cookie sets up before it has a chance to spread too much. 5. A slack batter—that is, one with a high liquid content—spreads more than a stiff dough. 6. Strong flour or activation of gluten decreases spread. 7. Cookies spread more if baked on heavily greased pans. III. PREPARATION OF VARIETIES OF COOKIES Basic Cookies \| Ingredients \| Quantity \| \|----------------------\|----------\| \| Butter \| 225 g \| \| Castor sugar \| 110 g \| \| Plain flour \| 275 g \| \| Ground spices \| optional \| Methods: 1. Preheat the oven to 170°C. 2. Cream the butter in a large bowl or in a food mixer until soft and creamy. Add the sugar and beat until the mixture is pale and fluffy. 3. Sift in the flour and spices or grated zest (if using) and bring the mixture together to form firm dough. 4. Using your hands, roll the dough into walnut-sized balls and place them slightly apart on a baking tray (no need to grease or line). Flatten them slightly with the back of a damp fork and bake in the oven for 13-15 minutes, or until they are light golden brown and slightly firm on top. 5. Carefully transfer the cookies to a wire rack to cool. Butter Cookies Cook Time: 20 minutes Total Time: 20 minutes \| Ingredients \| Quantity \| \|---------------------------\|----------\| \| Butter \| 100g \| \| Sugar \| 100 g \| \| Vanilla extracts \| 5 g \| \| Salt \| 1 g \| \| Baking powder \| 5 g \| \| Blanched almond halves \| \| \| Flour \| 200 g \| Preparation: 1. Cream butter and sugar until light and fluffy 2. Add Vanilla. 3. Sift together flour, salt, and baking powder. 4. Stir dry ingredients into butter mixture; mixing until well blended. 5. Shape dough into small balls. 6. Place on ungreased cookies sheets; press an almond half into the top of each ball. 7. Bake butter cookies at 300 for 20m minutes, or until just lightly browned. 8. Makes 5 to 6 dozen butter cookies. Cookies are soft made from various ingredients that can be relished as tiny bites. No-Bake Cookies Simple ingredients come together to make these cookies. They are simple to make but need to be chilled a longer time, to give the ingredients time to become firm. Many of these cookies are held together with melted chocolate. It can be melted in a saucepan with butter and water or in a double boiler if it is being melted alone. - Meringue Cookies The main ingredient in most of these cookies is beaten egg whites. These cookies can either be piped into fancy shapes or spooned onto a baking sheet. - Refrigerator Cookies These cookies need to be chilled before slicing and baking them. The creaming method is used to make the dough. This dough is very sticky once prepared but after much chilling, it is firm enough to slice and bake. Most of these cookies spread so make sure to leave room between each one on a baking sheet. The dough is formed into a cylinder and wrapped in plastic wrap, waxed paper, or parchment paper. Twist the ends so the log looks like one big wrapped taffy. Chill in the fridge for a couple of hours or freeze for a couple of months. The advantage to making these types of cookies is that you can keep it in the freezer until you are ready to bake them. You can bake as many as you want at any time. Just rewrap the unused portion of the log and refreeze. Bagged: Bagged or pressed cookies are made from soft dough. The dough must be soft enough to be forced through a pastry bag but stiff enough to hold its shape. Procedure for Bagged Method - Fit a pastry bag with a tip of the desired size and shape. Fill the bag with the cookie dough. - Press out cookies of the desired shape and size directly onto prepared cookie sheets. Dropped: Like bagged cookies, dropped cookies are made from soft dough. Actually, this method can be considered the same as the bagged method, and many bakers use the term drop for both bagging out cookies and for depositing dough with a spoon or scoop. Usually, a pastry bag is faster, and it gives better control over the shape and size of the cookies. Procedure for Dropped Method - Select the proper size scoop for accurate portioning. - Drop the cookies onto the prepared baking sheets. Allow enough space between cookies for spreading. - Rich cookies spread by themselves, but if the formula requires it, flatten the mounds of batter slightly with a weight dipped in sugar. Rolled: Cookies rolled and cut from stiff dough are not made as often in bakeshops and food service operations as they are made in homes because they require excessive labor. Also, there are always scraps left over after cutting. When rerolled, these scraps make inferior, tough cookies. The advantage of this method is that it allows you to make cookies in a great variety of shapes for different occasions. Procedure for Rolled Method - Chill dough thoroughly. - Roll out dough 1/8 inch (3 mm) thick on a floured canvas. Use as little flour as possible for dusting because this flour can toughen the cookies. - Cut out cookies with cookie cutters. Place cookies on prepared baking sheets. Cut as close together as possible to reduce the quantity of scraps. Roll scraps into fresh dough to minimize toughness. - Baked cut-out cookies are often decorated with colored icing (royal icing, flat icing, or fondant) for holidays or special occasions. Molded: The first part of this procedure (steps 1 and 2) is simply a fast and fairly accurate way of dividing the dough into equal portions. Each piece is then molded into the desired shape. This usually consists of simply flattening the pieces with a weight. For some traditional cookies, special moulds are used to flatten the dough and, at the same time, stamp a design onto the cookie. The pieces may also be shaped by hand into crescents, fingers, or other shapes. Procedure for Molded Method - Refrigerate the dough if it is too soft to handle. Roll it out into long cylinders about 1 inch (21/2 cm) thick, or whatever size is required. - With a knife or bench scraper, cut the roll into 1/2 oz. (15 g) pieces, or whatever size is required. - Place the pieces on prepared baking sheets, leaving 2 in. (5 cm) space between each. - Flatten the cookies with a weight, such as a can, dipped in granulated sugar before pressing each cookie. A fork is sometimes used for flattening the dough, as for peanut butter cookies. - Alternative method: After step 2, shape the dough by hand into desired shapes. Icebox:- The icebox or refrigerator method is ideal for operations that wish to have freshly baked cookies on hand at all times. The rolls of dough may be made up in advance and stored. Cookies can easily be cut and baked as needed. This method is also used to make multi-colored cookies in various designs, such as checkerboard and pinwheel cookies. Procedure for Icebox Method - Scale the dough into pieces of uniform size, from 1 1/2 lb. (700 g), if you are making small cookies, to 3 lb. (1400 g) for large cookies. - Form the dough into cylinders 1-2 in. (2 1/2-5 cm) in diameter, depending on the cookie size desired. - For accurate portioning, it is important to make all the cylinders of dough the same thickness and length. - Wrap the cylinders in parchment or wax paper, place them on sheet pans, and refrigerate overnight. - Unwrap the dough and cut into slices of uniform thickness. The exact thickness required depends on the size of the cookie and how much the dough spreads during baking. The usual range is 1/8-1/4 in. (3-6 mm). - A slicing machine is recommended for ensuring even thickness. Dough containing nuts or fruits, however, should be sliced by hand with a knife. - Place the slices on prepared baking sheets, allowing 2 in. (5 cm) between cookies. Bar:- This procedure is called the bar method because the dough is baked in long, narrow strips and later cut crosswise into bars. It should not be confused with sheet cookies (see next procedure), which are sometimes called bars by home cooks. Procedure for Bar Method - Scale the dough into 13/4-lb (800 g) units. Units weighing 1 lb. (450 g) may be used for smaller cookies. Shape the pieces of dough into cylinders the length of the sheet pans. Place three strips on each greased pan, spacing them well apart. Flatten the dough with the fingers into strips about 3-4 in. (8-10 cm) wide and about 1/4 in. (6 mm) thick. If required, brush with egg washes. Bake as directed in the formula. After baking, while cookies are still warm, cut each strip into bars about 13/4 in. (4.5 cm) wide. In some cases, as with Italian-style biscotti (meaning "baked twice"), the strips are cut into thinner slices, placed on sheet pans, and baked a second time until dry and crisp. Sheet: Sheet cookies vary so much that it is nearly impossible to give a single procedure for all of them. Some of them are almost like sheet cakes, only denser and richer; they may even be iced like sheet cakes. Others consist of two or three layers added and baked in separate stages. The following procedure is only a general guide. Procedure for Sheet Method - Spread cookie mixture into prepared sheet pans. Make sure the thickness is even. - If required, add topping or brush with an egg wash. - Bake as directed. Cool. - Apply icing or topping, if desired. - Cut into individual squares or rectangles. Stencil: The stencil method is a specialized technique used with a particular type of soft dough or batter. This batter is often called stencil paste. It is used not only for making this type of cookie but also for making ribbon sponge cake for decorative work. Procedure for Stencil Method - Line a sheet pan with a silicone mat. If a mat is not available, use a sheet of parchment paper. - Use a ready-made stencil, or make a stencil by cutting a hole of the desired pattern in a sheet of thick plastic or thin cardboard (the cardboard used for cake boxes is suitable). - Place the stencil on the silicone mat or parchment. With an offset palette knife spread the batter across the stencil to make a thin layer that completely fills in the hole. - Lift off the stencil and repeat to make additional cookies. I. Exercise: 1. Make a study of cookies prepared in the practical class about their characteristics with picture. 2. Prepare & submit the report to the Class teacher for assessment. Review Questions: A. State whether True or False:- 1. High sugar and liquid content, but low fat content give chewiness in cookies. 2. Cookies are crisp if they are high in moisture content. B. Questions:- I. List down various cookie textures? 2. What are the various factors that contribute to the crispness of cookies? II. Exercise: 1. Make a list of 10 cookies preparations with picture & find the type of mixing method used. 2. Prepare & submit the report to the Class teacher for assessment. Review Questions:- A. Fill in the Blanks 1. Types of cookie mixing method are........... . . ................. .. & ... .............. . 2. ____________________method of mixing in cookie preparation is similar to the egg-foam methods for cakes. B. State whether True or False:- 1. In one stage mixing method of cookie mixing, the baker has less control over the mixing with this method than with other methods. 2. The amount of creaming in cookie mixing affects the texture of the cookie, the leavening, and the spread. C. Questions:- 1. Write down the procedure for Creaming method for cookie preparation? 2. Describe the Sponge method of mixing cookie mixture? III. Exercise: 1. Collect information of 2 each cookie verities using above mentioned make up methods using internet with picture. 2. Prepare & submit the report to the class teacher for assessment. Review Questions A. Fill in the Blanks 1. Making up method for cookie where the mixture is piped using a piping bag is_______________ 2. ______________________method of cookie make up is also known as refrigerator method. B. State whether True or False:- 1. In bar method the dough is baked in long, narrow strips and later cut crosswise into bars. 2. A heavily greased pan decreases the spread of the cookie. C. Questions:- 1. Give the procedure for dropping method of cookie making? 2. Write a short note on Baking procedure of cookies? UNIT- 8 MENU PLANNING OBJECTIVES: By the end of this unit, the student will be able to 1) To identify the different types of menu 2) To outline the principles of menu planning 3) To plan the menus for various occasions INTRODUCTION: A menu is a list of dishes available to be served as a meal. Menu is an important management tool since every aspect of the food service operations depends on the menu purchasing, production; costing, kitchen layout and design are all based on the menu. Planning of menu depends on the taste and preferences of the customers as they are the main reason for our business. This should be given top priority and the kind of clientele the business serves influences the form the menu takes. Menu planning can be defined as the selection or framing of a menu for consumption on various occasions. It is the process of deciding what to eat for each meal including soup, appetiser, main course, side dishes and desserts. It helps in knowing how many meals to plan for and the time period to serve them. Daily activities, scheduling variations, and various other factors affect the menu planning process. II. TYPES OF MENU: A La carte: A multiple choice menu in which each dish is separately priced. Traditionally, the original menus that offered consumers choices were prepared on a small chalkboard, a la carte in French. So food items chosen from a bill of fare are described as a la carte, “according to the board”. In an a la carte menu, all items are cooked to order including the sauces that are made from wine, cream or mustard. An extensive a la carte menu is impressive but involves a huge amount of mise-en-place. Table d’ hôte: This menu is fixed and does not offer any choices. It offers a selection of complete meals at set prices. It is the style of dividing a given number of courses with limited or no choice other than the provided set of dishes. The menu may feature 5 or 6 or even as many as 10 to 12 individual courses served in small portions. Table d’ hôte menus are still used in various forms such as buffet menus, conference packages and on special occasions. Table d’ hôte menus should be well planned and balanced. As the guest is not given a chance to plan his own meal, the meal should be interesting, without any similarity in the colour and taste of the courses as well as being palatable, delicious and well presented. If the main course is heavy, then the first course should be lighter and must act as an appetite stimulant for the courses to follow. Dishes that are heavy and hard to digest should be avoided. The colour, varieties of ingredients used and the garnishes should be different for each course. \| S.NO \| A LA CARTE \| TABLE D’ HÔTE \| \|------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 1. \| It gives the full list of all the dishes that may be prepared by the establishment. \| The menu has a fixed number of courses. There is a choice within each course. \| \| 2. \| Each dish is priced individually. \| The selling price of the menu is fixed. \| \| 3. \| A certain waiting time (preparation time) has to be allowed for each dish. \| The dishes provided will be ready at a set time. \| \| 4. \| It is cooked to order. \| The guest will be charged for the full menu whether he consumes all the items on the menu or not. \| Starters: - Bhajji Soups: - Tarnato Rasam Main Course: For vegetarians - Dal Tadka - Aloo Gobi - Bengan Bartha For non-vegetarians 1. Chicken Masala 2. Fish Curry 3. Daal Tadka Breads & Rices - Chapati - Butter Naan - Steamed Basmati Rice Raita (Yoghurt) & Other Condiments: - Cucumber Raita - Mango (keri) or Imali ki chutney - Mix achar - Pappadom - Veg Salad Dessert - Fresh fruits or Gulabjamun --- Example of a Table d’ hôte menu Fixed and Cyclic menu: A fixed menu offers the same dishes every day and this is usually adopted in the restaurants and other establishments where the customers keep changing and the dishes in the menu offer different variety. Fixed menus are prevalent in transport catering which include air, rail and sea passengers. Cruise liners may have elaborate fixed menus with multiple choices built into each course. Cyclic menu is the type of menu where the dishes are repeated periodically for each week/month. Generally all hostel menus, Railway catering, cafeterias are of this type. --- Example of cyclic menu Specialities and Plat du jour: Certain catering establishments carry a special item on their a la carte menu each day. This special item is called the plat du jour or dish of the day. III. PRINCIPLES OF MENU PLANNING: - Cold and warm dishes should be listed separately. - Appetizers, soups, starters and main courses should be separate groups. - In every group, the lighter dishes should be listed before the richer ones. - Salads should be highlighted. - Calorie content of the foods should be specially indicated, and the number of calories should be stated. - If foods are prepared with organically grown ingredients, this fact should be highlighted to the discriminating customer. - Seasonally available items should correspond to the season and should change periodically. - The dessert section should be listed separately on a colourful card. - The menu items should be numbered to avoid confusion. While planning a menu the following points should be kept in mind: Type: a) Assess the type of seal required b) Assess the type of kitchen and cooks required c) Assess the type of restaurant and its capacity Supplies: a) Seasonal supplies b) Local availability of supplies Balance: a) Light dishes to heavy dishes should be balanced b) Vary the seasoning, flavouring and presentation Food value: a) Use such methods of cooking that will preserve the natural nutritive property in raw material Language: a) Choose a language which can be clearly understood. b) Proper spellings of the dishes. Meal time: a) The time when meal is served b) Breakfast should be more nutritive and energy giving. IV. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE PLANNING A MENU: The basic consideration for planning a menu depends on various factors such as varieties of meals, budget, time, culture etc. a) Type and quantity of meals: In order for a menu to be good, one should know which meals she is in charge of, for example, breakfast, lunch, or dinner. One needs to know how many of those meals need to be planned. The Timeframe is also considered which refers to how much time is available to make the meals. b) Balanced diet Principle of nutrition is an important factor to be considered for menu planning. For example, a family may have members of all age groups like an infant, adolescent, adult, pregnant lady, old person, etc. Nutritional requirement of each member may differ. Hence it is requisite to consider the nutritional requirement of each member. During menu planning, it is important to include some food items from each nutritional group. Foods which have only one nutrition are neither nutritionally balanced nor likeable, e.g., a meal having egg curry, curd rice, and sweet will be rich in protein but deficient in minerals and vitamins because of the missing of vegetables and fruits. Food pyramid c) Variety in meals planned Nobody likes a rigid meal pattern every day. Variety is a must and this can be done by selecting different foods various food groups, variety in colour, flavour, taste, and texture into it, and by using cooking styles. (i) Selection of foods from different Food Groups A group of foodstuffs of the same nutrients are called a Food Group. If selected from a single food group are neither acceptable nor balanced. For example, a person has milk, cheese, sandwich, and milk pudding breakfast will give similar taste and nutrients but on the other hand if foods from different groups are selected like a vegetable sandwich with juice will bring variety and also enhance the taste nutritive value of the meal. (ii) Variety in colour combination Blending of different colours makes food attractive, eye appealing and also enhances appetite. On the other side the food appears dull if all foods are of the same colour. For example, a meal having dal, curd, white rice, onion and radish salad does not appeal even though it is nutritious. But if a meal has whole Brown rice, carrot cucumber salad, fried dal, sweets, and curd rice it becomes more attractive because of beautiful colours. (iii) Variety in texture The Texture in food refers to its softness, crispness and the solid or liquid state of the food. A meal won’t be nice if all the foods are either fried or boiled or full of juices and milkshakes. It should have the combination of all. So a meal should have some solid foods which can be consumed raw like salads, fruits, etc., some fried foods like chips, French fries and some soft like custard, cakes etc. (iv) Variety in taste and flavour A meal will tempt only if it has variety of flavour and aroma. All the tastes like salty, sour, sweet and bitter add value to food. One won’t be able to enjoy the meal if all the foods in it are very spicy. A bland meal is also not preferred. (v) Variety in methods of cooking Texture, taste and flavour of foods is influenced by using different methods of cooking. Apart from the traditional cooking methods like frying, boiling, roasting, baking, steaming etc., novelty to the food can also be added by fermentation and sprouting. For example, a potato can be served in different forms like french fries, cutlets, baked potato, potato masala than being served as boiled potato. d) Meals should provide satiable value Foods that do not cause hunger between two meals are known as satiable food. Protein and fat rich foods have higher satiety value than compared to carbohydrates. For example, the interval between dinner and breakfast is long. So the menu should be planned in such a way that protein rich breakfast will be more satiable. e) Should save time, energy and money Time, energy and money can be saved by using the following methods of menu planning: • Once the meals are planned for a day or week then we can prepare a list of items and they can be procured all at once on time. This saves unnecessary trips; the market and thus saves time, and money. • Foods can be purchased at reasonable prices when bought in advance. For this, market rate at different shops, provision stores can be known and compared with wholesale dealers in advance so that items to be purchased at the last moment in a hurry don’t occur. • Ingredients in bulk quantities cost less but should be purchased only when there is proper provision for its storage. • Purchasing should be made at time periods when the markets are not very crowded. • Kitchen items should be arranged properly near the workplace so as to avoid fatigue while working in the kitchen. • Time and labour saving kitchen devices like mixer, fridge, and cooker, solar cook etc. should be used. • Meal planning helps in pre-preparation and planning of food. For example, if rajma is to be cooked for lunch, then it can be soaked prior so that it is easy to cook, saves time and fuel. V. MENU PLANNING FOR VARIOUS OCCASIONS: The guidelines to keep in mind while planning meals for various occasions should include the following factors to make the menu planning effective. 1. Nutritional Adequacy This is the most important factor, which means that the nutritional requirements of all the members attending the function are fulfilled. For example, a growing child needs more protein, a pregnant or lactating woman needs calcium, and old people need more of easily digestible foods etc. While planning the menu one should include food items with various nutrients, that is, energy giving foods, body building foods and protective and regulating foods. 2. Age factor: Diet requirement of various members of different age groups differs in quantity as well as in nutrition. A new born baby drinks only milk, a small child’s meal is also of very small quantity, an adolescent eats more quantity and variety of foods. Similarly, an old man eats less food and also prefers soft and easy to digest foods. So the menu must be planned in such a way that all types of food items are included in the menu so that everyone can consume it. 3. Gender Gender is another major factor which determines the dietary nutrition intake. Dietary requirement of males and females are not the same. Men need more of quantity for more calories whereas women need comparatively less calories than men. 4. Economic Considerations Budget available to be spent on food is another major factor. Foods like milk, cheese, meat, fruits, nuts etc. are expensive. Alternative sources like toned milk, seasonal fruits and vegetables are cost effective and also nutritious. Thus the planned menu must suit the budget proposed. 5. Time, energy and skill considerations: While planning a menu, one should consider the resources like time, energy and skill available to the family. A menu can be elaborate with different dishes but proper planning, organised work schedule; proper purchase of ingredients will save time and energy. 6. Seasonal availability Some foods are available only in summer season and some in winters. The off season foods are expensive and low in quality and nutrition, and the seasonal fruits are fresh, nutritious, tasty and economical. Thus, while planning a menu seasonal fruits should be considered. 7. Religion, region, cultural patterns and traditions: Religion, region, cultural patterns and traditions are some of the major factors affecting menu and cooking styles. For example, a North Indian prefers to consume more of wheat, in the coastal region people will consume more of coconut, fish etc. and south Indians prefer more of rice. Thus the staple food of a region will affect a menu. Also families with Religious beliefs will have an influence in the menu. For example, if you are a vegetarian, your diet will not have any meat products. 8. Variety in colour and texture: Examine the following two menus - which one is sounds better? \| Menu - I \| Menu - II \| \|--------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| Chapatti \| Chapatti \| \| Rice \| Rice \| \| Plain dal \| Dal makhni \| \| Pumpkin Vegetable \| Fried ladyfinger \| \| Curd \| Curd \| \| Papad \| Carrot raita Salad \| \| Juice \| Ice cream \| The second one looks better, as it has variety in terms of colour, texture, flavour and method of preparation even though the numbers of the dishes are same in both the menu. Thus these factors help in making meals more appealing, attractive and hence more acceptable. 9. Likes and dislikes of individuals The food you serve should be flexible with likes and dislikes of the individuals. It is often better to change the form of a nutritious dish, than omitting it. For example, if someone in your family does not like milk, it can be served in the form of cheese, paneer. In case of the occasion proper communication with the host should be done about the likes and dislikes of the guests attending the occasions. Various occasions: - A sample menu (lunch/dinner) for a formal occasion ``` SAMPLE MENU Non-Veg 1 Welcome drink Soup 1 Veg 1 Non-Veg Starter 2 Non-Veg Salad 1 Veg 1 Non-Veg Main Course 1-Chicken Mughlai curry 1-Chicken Biryani 2-Veg Curry 1-Dal 1-Rice 2-Indian Breads Accompaniment Dessert 2-Desserts ``` - Sample menu for a wedding buffet Indian wedding menu Vegetarian - Salads & Soup - Garden Green Salad - Pomegranate, Beetroot and Orange Salad - Hummus - Tabbouli - Pickle Raita, Papadum - Sliced Onion, Green Chili, lemon wedges - Minestrone Soup Breads - Assorted Bread Basket - Naan/Roti Snacks - Vegetable Spring roll - Vegetable Samosa - Vegetable Tikka Main Course - Vegetable Biryani - Palak Paneer - Vegetable Jalfarezi - Gobi Masala - Dal Fry - Steamed Basmati Rice Dessert - Gajar Halwa/Kheer - Gulab Jamun - Cut Fruit Platter Non Vegetarian - Salads & Soup - Garden green salad - Aloo channa chaat - Corn bean salad - Hummus - Raita - Pickles, papadum, sliced onion, green chili, lemon wedges - Cream of cauliflower soup scented with coriander Breads - Assorted Bread Basket - Naan/Roti Snacks - Vegetable Samosa - Chicken Spring Roll Main Course - Vegetable Biryani - Butter Chicken - Madras Fish Curry - Aloo Gobi - Dal Tadka - Steamed Basmati Rice Dessert - Rice Pudding / Gajar Halwa - Chocolate Cake - Fruit Salad - Sample menu for a birthday party - Vegetable biryani - Raita - Paneer kofta - Curd rice - Birthday cake - Gulab jamun - Ice cream - Juice • Sample menu for Diwali: - Sweet Lassi - Tandoori Aloo - Tomato – Onion salad - Jeera Rice - Naan - Dal fry - Kadai paneer - Boondi Raita - Jalebi with Rabdi - Mango Kulfi • Sample menu for Christmas: - Winter Vegetable soup - Salmon Mousse - Roast Chicken (served with roast potatoes and seasonal vegetables) - Apple pie and Vanilla custard • Sample menu for Iftar (Ramadan) - Badaam Sharbat - Chicken Seekh Kebabs - Awadhi mutton biryani - Keema Samosas - Dates Halwa Apart from these occasions, The general categories of dishes offered in Indian menu are: - Salads - Soup - Indian breads - Chicken/fish/mutton - Paneer - Biryani/Pulao/Rice - Potato - Vegetables - Dal - Sweets - Ice cream Summary: Menu planning when properly done saves time, energy, provides proper work schedule, adequate nutrients etc. It is the best way to ensure that your body is getting the essential nutrients and one is consuming a balanced diet. Menu planning for various occasions helps in learning about the nutrients required for various age groups, effective menus for different occasions and the proper flow of food service in an occasion. Review questions: 1. Explain menu. 2. What do you mean by plat du jour? 3. List the factors to be considered while planning a menu. 4. What is a Food Group? 5. What are fixed and cyclic menus? Long answers: 1. Write short notes on the factors to be considered for menu planning. 2. Plan a menu for the following occasions. a) A lunch menu for an occasion of formal business meeting b) A dinner menu for a birthday party 3. Differentiate between Table d’ hôte and a la carte. UNIT- 9 FOOD COSTING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this unit the student will be able to: 1. Understand the concept of food cost 2. Analyze the elements of cost 3. Calculate the elements of cost 4. Calculate the profit I. INTRODUCTION Food cost refers to the cost of raw materials used in preparing food. It is inclusive of the decorative items or materials used to support the food e.g., silver foil, cake wrapper, etc. However some small vendors add the transportation cost to food cost as well. Food cost is the net materials purchased divided by the restaurant’s net sales. Hotel operations are business. Thus, both the cooks and managers have a great deal of responsibility for food cost controls. The cooks must be conscious of accurate measurement, portion control, and careful processing, cooking and handling of foods to avoid excess trimming loss, shrinkage and waste. Every cook must understand three areas of cost accounting: Yield Analysis, Calculating raw food cost or portion cost, and using food cost percentages. The managers, on the other hand, are concerned with determining budgets, calculating profits and expenses and so on. Advantages of food cost are as follows: 1. It discloses the net profit made by each meal produced. 2. It enables the hotelkeeper to determine the profit made on the sale of accommodation. 3. An efficient system of costing will reveal possible sources of economies and thus result in a more rational utilization of labour, stores, etc. 4. It provides valuable information necessary for the adoption of a sound price policy. 5. It must be regarded as an important instrument in the hands of management. II. COST ACCOUNTING The process of accounting for cost which begins with the recording of income and expenditure or the bases on which they are calculated and ends with the preparation of periodical statements and reports for ascertaining and controlling costs. Cost accounting may be defined as the analysis and allocation of expenditure of: A. determining the cost of each product or service and B. presenting appropriate cost information to the management. A. OBJECTIVES OF COST ACCOUNTING: 1. Ascertainment of cost: It means analysis of actual information as recorded in financial books. It is accurate and is useful in the case of “cost plus contracts” where price is to be determined finally on the basis of actual cost. 2. Determination of selling price: Cost accounting provides the information regarding the cost to make and sell the product or services produced. Though the selling price of a product is also influenced by market conditions, which are beyond the control of any business, it is still possible to determine the selling price within the market constraints. 3. Cost control: To exercise cost control, the following steps should be observed: 1. Determine clearly the objective, 2. Measure the actual performance 3. Investigate into the causes of failure to perform according to plan, and 4. Institute corrective action 4. Cost reduction: It is the achievement of real and permanent reduction in the unit cost of goods manufactured or services rendered without impairing their suitability for the use intended in the quality of the product. 5. Ascertaining the profit of each activity: The purpose under this step is to determine costing profit and loss of any activity on an objective basis. 6. Assisting management in decision making: Decision making is defined as a process of selecting a course of action out of two or more alternative courses. B. ADVANTAGES OF COST ACCOUNTING: 1. Cost determination: Cost accounting helps in identifying all expenses incurred to produce a product and determination of total cost of production. 2. Helping in cost reduction: The application of various cost accounting techniques helps in achieving the objective of the organization to reduce cost. 3. Determination of selling price: Cost accounting is quite useful for price fixation. 4. Cost comparison: Cost comparison helps in cost control. Comparison may be made in respect of costs of jobs, processes or cost centers. C. LIMITATION OF COST ACCOUNTING: - Expensive - Duplication of work. - Inefficiency: Costing system itself does not control costs but its usage does. D. IMPORTANCE OF COST ACCOUNTING: - Control of Direct and Indirect cost - Measuring efficiency and fixing responsibility - Budgeting - Price determination - Curtailment of loss during the off-season - Expansion - Arriving at decisions III. CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF COST: Fixed cost: These are the costs which are incurred for a period, and which, within certain output and turnover limits. They do not tend to increase or decrease with the changes in output. Fixed costs are expenses that have to be paid by a company, independent of any business activity. E.g., rent, insurance. Variable cost: These costs tend to vary with the volume of activity. The cost raises as production increases and falls as production decreases. Any increase in the activity results in an increase in the variable cost and vice-versa. E.g., direct labour, etc. Semi-variable cost: These costs contain both fixed and variable costs and thus partly affected by fluctuations in the level of activity. Semi-variable cost, also known as a semi-fixed cost or a mixed cost, is a cost composed of a mixture of fixed and variable components. E.g., telephone bills, gas, electricity, etc. IV. ELEMENTS OF COST: - Material cost: - Direct materials: Materials which are present in the finished product or can be identified in the product are called direct materials. Example, vegetables, meat, milk purchased for a specific job etc. - Indirect materials: Materials which do not normally form part of the finished product are known as indirect material, e.g., stores used for maintaining machines and buildings, stores used by service departments like power house, canteen, etc. - Labour Cost: - Direct Labour: Labour which can be identified wholly to a cost object is called direct labour. Eg. Labour engaged on the actual production of the product or in carrying out the necessary operations for converting then raw materials into finished product. - Indirect Labour: This cost cannot be allocated but can be apportioned to or absorbed by cost units or cost centre is known as indirect labour. Eg. Supervisors, maintenance workers, etc. - Overhead cost: It is the aggregate of indirect material costs, indirect labour costs, and indirect expenses. V. CALCULATION OF ELEMENTS OF COST: MATERIAL COST (Food cost) While calculating the material cost, the opening stock, fresh stores receipts, closing stock and the food consumed by staff or served as complementary to guests has to be taken into account. Material cost or food cost = Opening stock + Fresh indents or Purchases - Closing stock - (Food consumed by staff + food served to the guest ) ILLUSTRATION 1. Calculate the total Material (food) cost and its percentage to Net sales from the following information: Total sale Rs. 60,000 Opening stock Rs. 1,500 Fresh indents/purchases Rs. 13,000 Closing stock Rs. 1,000 Food consumed by staff Rs. 700 Food served to guests (as complementary) Rs. 500 SOLUTION: Total Material cost or Food cost : Opening stock 1,500 Add: Fresh indents or Purchases 13,000 ______________________ 14,500 Less: Closing stock 1,000 ______________________ 13,500 Less: Food consumed by staff 700 Add: Food served to guests 500 1,200 Less food consumed by staff and guests 1,200 Total Material or Food cost 12,300 The formula to calculate the Material or Food cost percentage to Net sales is= Total Material cost / Total sale * 100 = 12,300 /60,000 100 = 20.5% LABOUR COST: The labour cost include a part from wages and salaries, all other expenditure incurred on staff like Employees’s Provident fund (E.P.F.), Medical Re-imbursement, Leave Travel Concession, uniform, accommodations, telephone, interest subsidy on loan, etc. ILLUSTRATION 2. Calculate the total Labour cost and its percentage to Net sales from the following information: \| Item \| Amount \| \|-----------------------------\|----------\| \| Total sale \| 1,15,000 \| \| Wages and salaries \| 7,100 \| \| L.T.C. \| 1,300 \| \| Food worth 450, charged at \| 200 \| \| Contribution towards E.P.F. \| 800 \| \| Medical re-imbursement \| 600 \| \| Interest subsidy \| 300 \| \| Free telephone at home \| 500 \| \| Accommodation worth Rs. 700, charged at \| 300 \| 98 Uniform and washing allowance 500 SOLUTION: Wages and salaries 7,100 + L.T.C. 1,300 + Contribution towards E.P.F. 800 + Medical re-imbursement 600 + Interest subsidy 300 + Free telephone at home 500 + Uniform and washing allowance 500 + Rent for accommodation 700 Less: Charged from employees 300 _______ 400 + Food for employees 450 Less: Money charged for food 200 _______ 250 Total Labour cost 11,750 The formula to calculate the labour cost percentage to net sales is: \[ \text{Total Labour cost} / \text{Total sale} 100 \] \[ = 11,750 / 1,15,000 * 100 \] \[ = 10.2\% \] OVERHEAD COST: The costs like office expenses, rent, interest, light and power, fuel, gas, commission water charges, advertisement, marketing expenses, miscellaneous expenses, etc. are included under this head. ILLUSTRATION 3. Calculate the overheads and its percentage to Net sales from the following data: \| Item \| Amount \| \|-----------------------\|----------\| \| Total sale \| 28,000 \| \| Rent \| 4,000 \| \| Interest \| 1,000 \| \| Commission \| 600 \| \| Depreciation \| 1,000 \| \| Advertisement \| 700 \| \| Gas and Fuel \| 200 \| \| Laundry \| 300 \| \| Electricity and Power \| 500 \| \| Water \| 100 \| \| Miscellaneous expenses\| 1,000 \| SOLUTION: Rent 4,000 + Interest 1,000 + Commission 600 + Depreciation 1,000 + Advertisement 700 + Gas and fuel 200 + Laundry 300 + Electricity and Power 500 + Water 100 + Miscellaneous expenses 1,000 Total overhead cost 9,400 The formula to calculate the overhead percentage is: \[ \text{Total Overhead cost} / \text{Total sale} * 100 \] \[ = 9,400 / 28,000 * 100 \] \[ = 33.6\% \] ILLUSTRATION 4: From the following information calculate the Food cost, Labour cost and Overheads cost and also calculate Gross profit or Gross Loss and Net profit or Net Loss and their percentage to total sale. \| Description \| Amount \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| Sale \| 3,84,000 \| \| Opening stock \| 12,000 \| \| Closing stock \| 12,000 \| \| Purchases \| 1,00,000 \| \| Staff was served free food \| 2,000 \| \| Complementary food served to guest \| 2,000 \| \| Accommodation 2,000 charged at \| 500 \| \| Interest subsidy \| 500 \| \| Wages and Salaries \| 40,000 \| \| Contribution towards E.P.F. \| 5,000 \| \| Medical Re-imbursment \| 4,000 \| \| Laundry \| 500 \| \| Telephone bills \| 1,000 \| \| Rent for restaurant \| 12,000 \| \| Repair and Maintenance \| 2,000 \| \| Electricity and power \| 1,500 \| \| Water charges \| 500 \| \| Gas and fuel \| 2,000 \| \| Item \| Amount \| \|-----------------------------\|---------\| \| Office expenses \| 5,000 \| \| Printing and Stationery \| 1,000 \| \| L.T.C. \| 1,200 \| \| Depreciation \| 1,000 \| \| Miscellaneous expenses \| 800 \| SOLUTION: Total Food cost: - Opening Stock 12,000 - + Purchases 1,00,000 - - Closing stock 12,000 - Total Food Cost 96,000 Total Labour Cost: - Wages & salaries 40,000 - + Contribution towards E.P.F. 5,000 - + Medical Re-imbursement 4,000 - + Laundry 500 - + L.T.C. 1,200 - + Staff meal 2,000 - + Staff accommodation (2,000 - 500) 1,500 - + Interest subsidy 500 Total Labour cost 54,700 Total Overhead cost: Telephone bills 1,000 + Rent for restaurant 12,000 + Repair and maintenance 2,000 + Electricity and power 1,500 + Water charges 500 + Gas and fuel 2,000 + Office expenses 5,000 + Printing and stationery 1,000 + Depreciation 1,000 + Food served to guest 2,000 + Miscellaneous expenses 800 Total overhead cost 28,800 Food cost percentage = Total Food cost / Total sale * 100 = 96,000 / 3,84,000 * 100 = 25% Labour Cost percentage = Total Labour cost / Total sale * 100 = 54,700 / 3,84,000 * 100 = 14.24% Overhead percentage = Total overhead cost / Total Sales * 100 \[ = \frac{28,800}{3,84,000} \times 100 \] \[ = .5\% \] Total Cost = Total food cost + Total Labour cost + Total Overhead cost \[ = 96,000 + 54,700 + 28,800 \] \[ = 1,79,500 \] Gross profit = Total Sale - Total Food Cost \[ = 3,84,000 - 96,000 \] \[ = \text{Rs. 2,88,000} \] Net Profit = Total Sale - Total Cost \[ = 3,84,000 - 1,79,500 \] \[ = \text{Rs. 2,04,500} \] Net Loss = Total Cost - Total Sale Gross Profit Percentage = Gross Profit / Total Sale * 100 \[ = \frac{2,88,000}{3,84,000} \times 100 \] \[ = 75\% \] Net Profit Percentage = Net Profit / Total Sale * 100 \[ = \frac{2,04,500}{3,84,000} \times 100 \] \[ = 53.25\% \] COST PER PORTION = Total cost / No. of portion REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Explain cost, costing and cost accounting? 2. What is Food Cost? 3. Describe the three major elements of cost: 4. Explain Variable, Semi-variable and Fixed cost: 5. How does the Variable, Semi-Semi-Variable and Fixed cost affect the food cost? 6. How will you calculate the cost per portion? 7. The following are the figures of ABC Hotel. Calculate (a) Gross Profit Percentage and (b) Net Profit Percentage: Sales – Rs. 20,000, Food Cost – Rs. 7,000, Labour & Overhead cost – Rs. 3,500 (a. 65% and b. 47.5%) 8. Find the Food cost when Food cost percentage is 33% & Total sale is Rs. 1000/- (Rs. 330/-) 9. Calculate the Gross Profit percentage, when Total sale is Rs. 10,000 and Total Cost is Rs 7,500/- (25%) 10. From the following information you are required to calculate: The elements of cost and to express each as a percentage of sales, assuming that Rs. 800/- spent as staff meal and Rs. 500/- was spent for complementary food. Calculate the gross profit after wages and net profit. \| Rs. \| Amount \| \|--------------\|------------\| \| Sales \| 35,000 \| \| Opening stock\| 2,500 \| \| Closing stock\| 3,000 \| \| Purchases \| 15,000 \| \| Wages & Salaries \| 5,500 \| \| E.S.I. \| 300 \| \| Gas & Electricity \| 800 \| \| Depreciation \| 2,000 \| \| Repairs \| 1,000 \| \| Printing & stationery \| 300 \| \| Insurance \| 400 \| \| Postage & Telephone \| 200 \| (a. Food cost % = 65.71%, Labour cost % = 18.86%, Ocerheads % = 14.86% ) (b. Gross profit = Rs.6,300, Net profit =Rs. 0 ) UNIT-10 FOOD SAFETY OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit the students will be able to: - Identify the causes of food contamination - Explain the concept of danger zone - Identify the food borne diseases - To describe the importance of garbage separation and disposal I. INTRODUCTION The importance of food and kitchen safety should be understood as it can be detrimental to a food service establishment. The outbreak of food borne diseases can be caused due to poor hygiene conditions and applying strict food safety norms should be practiced. II. CAUSES OF CONTAMINATION The main causes of food contamination in a kitchen are due to: - raw meat and poultry - food handlers - animals, rodents, birds and insects - dust and refuse. A. Raw meat and poultry The intestines of animals and poultry frequently carry bacteria that can cause food poisoning. The animals themselves usually appear healthy when they are slaughtered, but in the slaughter house the surface of the raw meat becomes contaminated with bacteria from the animal’s intestine. Certain dos and don’ts while handling raw meat are as follows: - Raw meat should be transported in refrigerated vehicles. - Always store cooked meat above raw meat in a refrigerator. - Preparation of raw meat should be done in separate areas. Different chopping boards and utensils for the preparation of raw meat and high-risk foods should be followed. Washing of hands before and after the handling of the meat is essential. Always keep raw meat and poultry well separated from cooked food. B. Food handlers The bacteria that cause food poisoning may be present in and on the human body. Bacteria called Staphylococcus aureus are found on the hands, under the fingernails, nose, throat and mouth. As open cuts and wounds are a source of Staphylococcus aureus, they should be covered with a waterproof plaster to prevent the contamination of food. A person harboring food poisoning bacterium in the intestinal tract is called a carrier. A person who has recently recovered from food poisoning but still harbouring pathogenic bacteria in his/her intestines is a carrier. Pathogenic bacteria will be passed in the faces of carrier and are likely to be transferred to the carrier’s hand during visits to the toilet. Some of the ways to prevent contamination by food handlers - Do not sneeze or cough over food. - Use serving tongs for handling cooked food. - Do not handle food when suffering from septic cuts or boils. - Always wash your hands after visiting the toilet. - Do not handle food while suffering from or recovering from food poisoning. - Use tongs to serve high risk food. C. Animals, rodents, birds and insects Pets, rodents, cockroaches and insects frequently carry food poisoning bacteria in their intestine tract, as well as their body and feet. For this reason, the food that has been partly eaten or licked by an animal must be discarded, and any food preparation surface that has been walked on must be cleaned and disinfected. Flies spread food poisoning bacteria to food because they vomit and defecate on it while they are feeding. Some of the ways to prevent contamination by pets are: - Keep the doors and windows of the kitchen shut and be covered with mesh. - Ensure that rodents and cockroaches are not present. - Install electronic fly killers in the kitchen. - Do not allow pets into the kitchen. D. Dust and Dirt Soil and dust contain spores of food poisoning bacteria called Clostridium perfringens. It is therefore important that kitchens are cleaned regularly and kept relatively free of dust. Soil and dirt must be removed from fresh vegetables before they come into contact with other foods. Waste food in dust bins in a warm kitchen provides ideal conditions for bacteria to live and to reproduce. Some ways to prevent contamination by dust and dust. - Always clean raw vegetables in separate room. - Cover the cooked store away during cleaning of the kitchen. - Empty dustbins regularly and allow them to overflow. Bacterial growth in time due to cross contamination Cross contamination. Raw meat, food handlers, animals and dust are all sources of bacteria and bacteria are often transferred from them to high risk foods by a process known as cross-contamination. Cross-contamination is the transfer of bacteria from contaminated source to an uncontaminated food through the following ways: - - hands - utensils, chopping boards, work surfaces, cloths or other equipment - droplets of moisture during sneezing and coughing - drops of liquid from contaminated food. If the food is left to stand at a warm temperature for several hours, the bacteria transferred through cross contamination will multiply rapidly and will cause food poisoning. Colour coding of equipment Equipment such as chopping boards and knives should be used in the preparation of only one type of food to avoid cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods. A color-coding system can be used to identify which equipment can be used for which type of food. Color coding for equipment \| Colour Code \| Equipment to be used only for \| \|-------------\|------------------------------\| \| Red \| Raw meat and poultry \| \| Green \| Fruits and vegetables \| \| Blue \| Raw fish \| \| Brown \| Cooked meats \| \| White \| Dairy products \| III. CONCEPT OF DANGER ZONE Bacteria are very small and consist of only one cell. They are usually rod shaped or spherical, although a few are comma shaped or spiral. GROWTH OF BACILLUS STRAIN ON A FOOD ARTICLE Bacteria reproduce by splitting into two individual cells which increase in size and again split into two cells. This process is known as binary fission. In ideal conditions, binary fission can take place approximately every 20 minutes. Hence, this method of reproduction results in a very rapid increase in the total number of bacterial cells present in food in a relatively short time. Growth curve for a bacterium thriving on a food article. Condition necessary for bacterial growth Bacteria require the following conditions for growth and multiplication: - warmth - food - moisture - time Warmth Most bacteria need warm temperature to multiply. They will multiply at any temperature between 5°C and 63°C and this temperature range between 5°C to 63°C is known as danger zone. Food Like all living things, bacteria require a source of energy and to grow. The following foods will support bacterial multiplication if kept at temperatures within the danger zone: - cooked meat and poultry, meat pies, pate, soups, stocks, gravy and gelatin - Milk, cream, eggs, soft cheeses and foods containing them as ingredients, e.g., quiches, trifles and cream cakes - Shellfish and other seafood - cooked rice - Raw meat High-risk foods must be stored in a refrigerator. Moisture Bacteria need water for growth and multiplication. All high-risk foods contain enough water for bacterial growth. Time If bacteria are given a suitable temperature, food and moisture, they simply need time to multiply. In a relatively short time, a few pathogenic bacteria (which are often present in food) will multiply to a sufficiently large number to cause food poisoning. Therefore, when all the conditions are favorable, and the temperature is between 5°C to 63°C, bacterial contamination, will take place. Hence food when cooked at high temperatures, bacteria will not be able to survive as they do not grow or multiply. \| Bacteria Disease \| Cause/characteristics \| Source of Bacteria \| Prevention \| \|-----------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Botulism \| Caused by bacterium clostridium botulinum, this attacks the nervous system and is usually fatal, the bacteria are anaerobic (do not grow in air) and do not grow in high acid food. Most outbreaks are caused due to improper canning. \| Soil on vegetables. \| Discard without tasting any bulged or damaged cans or food with off odors. \| \| Staphylococcal Food Poisoning (staph) \| Caused by toxins produced in foods by nausea, vomiting, stomach pain diarrhea and prostration. \| Usually by food handler \| Practice good hygiene and work habits. Do not handle the food if you have an illness or infection clean and sanitize all the equipment. Keep foods below 41°F(5°C) or above 135°F(57°C). \| \| Escherichia coli \| Severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and other symptoms result from E. coli as an infection, E. coli causes intestinal inflammation and bloody diarrhea, while the illness normally lasts from one to three days, in some cases it can lead to long term illness. \| Intestinal tracts of humans and some animals, especially cattle; contaminated water \| Cook food thoroughly and avoid cross contamination and follow good hygiene practices. \| \| Bacteria \| Cause/characteristics \| Source of contamination \| Prevention \| \|----------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Clostridium perfringens \| Nausea, cramps, stomach pain, and diarrhea. The bacteria are hard to destroy because they are not always killed by cooking. \| Soil, fresh meats, human carriers \| Keep foods hot (above 135°F/57°C) or cold (below 41°F/5°C) \| \| Bacillus cereus Gastroenteritis \| Caused by Bacillus cereus. Symptoms include nausea, and stomach pain. This disease usually lasts less than a day. \| Soil & dust, grains, and cereals \| Temperature control: cook food to proper internal temperatures; chill foods quickly and properly. \| \| Campylobacteria’s \| Caused by campylobacter jejune this disease usually lasts for 2-5 days, or up to 10 and days & causes diarrhea fever, nausea, vomiting abnormal pain, muscle pain and head ache \| Meat and dairy products unpasteurized dairy products; raw poultry; contaminated water \| Cook foods to proper internal temperature use pasteurized dairy products; safe food handling practices to avoid cross contamination avoid using contaminated water \| \| Viruses \| Cause/characteristics \| Source of contamination \| Prevention \| \|---------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hepatitis A \| This is a severe disease that can lasts for several months \| Contaminated ice, shellfish from polluted waters, raw fruits and vegetables milk and milk products, infected food workers \| Practice good health and hygiene. \| \| Norwalk virus Gastro enteritis \| This disease affects the digestive tracts, causing \| Food handlers contaminated water \| Practice hygiene. Use chlorinated water to cook \| \| Parasite \| Cause/characteristics \| Source of contamination \| Prevention \| \|--------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Rotavirus Gastroenteritis\| The symptoms are vomiting and diarrhea abdominal pain and mild fever \| Human intestinal tract contaminated water \| Practice health and hygiene use sanitary chlorinated water cook foods to safe internal temperatures. \| \| Toxoplasmosis \| Caused by protozoan. Human body enlarged lymph nodes severe muscle pain and headaches, and skin rash. \| Animal feces, mammals, birds \| Good personal hygiene; cook meat to proper internal temperatures \| \| Cyclophorias \| Diarrhea, weight loss, appetite loss, vomiting muscle aches and fatigue. may last few days to more than a month and may recur every month or two. \| Contaminated water, human intestinal tract \| Good personal hygiene. Use safe water supplies wash produce properly \| \| Intestinal cryptosporidiosis \| This disease may last 4 days to 3 weeks with no symptoms or may have severe diarrhea. \| Intestinal tracts of humans and livestock; water contaminated by runoff from farms or slaughterhouses \| Good personal hygiene, wash produce properly, use safe water supplies. \| METALLIC CONTAMINANTS If metals like arsenic, lead or mercury get accumulated in the body they can be harmful. For E.g. Lead is a toxic element and contamination of food with lead can cause toxic symptoms. Sometimes Turmeric is also adulterated with lead chromate. Lead brings about pathological changes in the Kidneys, liver and arteries. The common signs of lead poisoning are nausea, abdominal pain, anaemia, insomnia, muscular paralysis and brain damage. Fish caught from water contaminated with mercuric salts contain large amounts of mercury. The organic mercury compounds methyl or diethyl is the most toxic. The toxic effects of methyl mercury are neurological. When the brain is affected, the subject becomes blind, deaf and paralysis of the various muscles makes him cripple. The other elements which are toxic in small doses are cadmium, arsenic, antimony and cobalt. \| Name \| Food commonly involved \| Toxic effect \| \|------\|------------------------\|--------------\| \| Arsenic \| Food sprayed with lead arsenate, drinking water \| Dizziness, chills, cramps, paralysis leading to death. \| \| Barium \| Foods contaminated with rat poison (barium carbonate) \| Violent peristalsis, muscular twitching and convulsions. \| \| Cadmium \| Fruit juices and soft drinks, which encounter cadmium and plated vessels. \| Excess salivation, liver and kidney damage, prostate cancer, multiple fractures. \| \| Cobalt \| Water and beer \| Cardiac failure. \| \| Copper \| Acid foods in contact with tarnished copper ware \| Vomiting, Diarrhea, abdominal pain. \| \| Lead \| Some processed foods. Lead water pipes \| Paralysis, Brain damage. \| \| Mercury \| Mercury fungicides treated seed grains or mercury. Contaminated fishes \| Paralysis, brain damage and blindness. \| \| Tin \| Canned food \| Colic, vomiting, photophobia. \| \|-----\|-------------\|-------------------------------\| \| Zinc \| Food stored in galvanized iron wire \| Dizziness, Vomiting. \| \| Pesticides \| All types of food \| Acute/chronic poisoning causing damage to the liver, kidney, brain and the nerves leading to death. \| \| Antibiotics \| Meat from animals fed with antibiotics \| Drug resistance, hardening of the arteries of the heart. \| V. IMPORTANCE OF GARBAGE SEGREGATION AND DISPOSAL Waste Water Disposal We use plenty of water in the kitchen during the food production for cooking and washing purposes. A proper disposal of used water is mandatory as this cannot be allowed to stay in the kitchen for a long time. Waste water may become a source of contamination. The water used for cleaning of surfaces, equipment’s, pots and pans should be drained off immediately. Drainage system should be planned to remove the waste water through drains. All the water from the wash up area may have a separate drain pipe as most of the fat and oil is washed and goes out of kitchen from that pipe. Choking of drains should be monitored frequently. Hot water helps in draining off extra fat or oil in the pipe. Open drains in the kitchen should have Stainless-Steel grill cover. It helps in draining off spilled water on the floor and the cleaning of the drain. The cover restricts large pieces of dust to go in the drain pipe and thus prevents chocking of drain pipe. All the sinks fitted in the kitchen or wash up area should have a mesh to restrict pieces of food, vegetable, meat and other foreign material from going into the drain. Kitchen Equipment’s All the large or small kitchen equipment need to be cleaned, wiped or washed frequently. This will check any growth of harmful bacteria in and around the surface of these equipments. Special care should be taken for Door handles of fridge, working tables, pot racks etc. as food handlers touch these surfaces frequently. Waste Disposal Kitchen waste disposal is becoming a source of contamination if not treated and disposed off quickly. The kitchen waste has different category as Organic and Inorganic. There are waste like vegetable and fruit peels, pulps, meat trimmings, bones, empty cans & bottles, spoiled food, packing material (cardboard boxes, cling films, empty poly thin packets, paper packets' used gloves etc and this must be segregated accordingly. Normally the kitchen waste is distributed into two major categories: 1. Organic or bio degradable waste: Fruit peels, pulps, meat trimmings, spoiled food' bones, paper, cardboard boxes. Organic waste is biodegradable and can be processed in the presence of oxygen by composting or in the absence of oxygen using anaerobic digestion. Both methods produce as soil conditioner, which when prepared correctly can also be used as a valuable source of nutrients in urban agriculture. Anaerobic digestion also produces methane gas an important source of bio-energy. 2. Inorganic or bio non-degradable waste: Empty cans & bottles, packing material, cling films, empty poly thin packets, and used gloves. Inorganic waste is bio non degradable which cannot be processed for composting. Glass, plastic, aluminium etc. are collected separately so that they can be segregated and sent for recycling. Different coloured dust bins are used for separate categories and the staff is trained to use them accordingly. Waste segregation means dividing of the waste into either biodegradable or non-biodegradable waste. Wet waste refers to the organic waste generated from kitchen waste like fruits/vegetable peels, tea leaves, coffee pods, egg shells, meat and their bones, food scrapes, leaves and flowers can be composted. Dry waste refers to the paper, plastic, metal, glass. There should be separate bins separate bins for dry waste and wet waste. Summary Food may cause several infections due to microorganism present in them. The food which is not stored properly, or which was already infected will certainly lead to some disorder in human body. These disorders are called Food Poisoning. Some of the major food borne diseases is Staphylococcus, Botulism, Salmonella, Streptococci and Perfringens Food Poisoning. Hence good hygiene practices, washing produce properly and usage of portable water is essential to prevent food contamination. Answer the followings: 1. Explain the causes of food poisoning. 2. What is Staphylococcus food poisoning? 3. What precautions we should take to stop the food poisoning? 4. What are metallic contaminants? 5. What is cross contamination? 6. Briefly explain effects of Clostridium Perfringens. 7. Explain the cause of contamination 8. 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FOOD PRODUCTION Student Handbook NSQF Level-1 Class IX CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110301 BUILDING SKILLS • BUILDING FUTURE FOOD PRODUCTION Student Handbook NSQF Level-1 Class IX CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110301 Food Production, NSQF Level-1 Student Handbook, Class IX PRICE : ₹ First Edition: May 2016, CBSE Copies: Paper Used: 80 Gsm CBSE Water Mark White Maplitho “This book or part thereof may not be reproduced by any person or agency in any manner.” Published By: The Secretary, Central Board of Secondary Education, Shiksha Kendra, 2 Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi - 110301 Design & Layout By: India Offset Press, A-1, Mayapuri Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110064 www.indiaoffsetpress.com Printed By: M/s. भारत का संविधान उद्देश्यका हम, भारत के लोग, भारत को एक सम्पूर्ण 'प्रभुत्व-संपन्न समाजवादी पंथनिरपेक्ष लोकतंत्रात्मक गणराज्य' बनाने के लिए, तथा उसके समस्त नागरिकों को: सामाजिक, आर्थिक और राजनैतिक न्याय, विचार, अभिव्यक्ति, विश्वास, धर्म और उपासना की स्वतंत्रता, प्रतिष्ठा और अवसर की समता प्राप्त कराने के लिए तथा उन सब में व्यक्ति की गरिमा और राष्ट्र की एकता और अखंडता सुनिश्चित कराने वाली बढ़ता बढ़ते हुए प्रयत्न के लिए दृढ़संकल्प होकर अपनी इस संविधान सभा में आज तारीख 26 नवम्बर, 1949 ईं को एतद्व्रात्रा इस संविधान को अंगीकृत, अधिनियमित और आत्माप्रित करते हैं। 1. संविधान ( बयालीसवा संशोधन ) अधिनियम, 1976 की धारा 2 द्वारा ( 3.1.1977 ) से "प्रभुत्व-संपन्न लोकतंत्रात्मक गणराज्य" के स्थान पर प्रतिस्थापित। 2. संविधान ( बयालीसवा संशोधन ) अधिनियम, 1976 की धारा 2 द्वारा ( 3.1.1977 ) से "राष्ट्र की एकता" के स्थान पर प्रतिस्थापित। भाग 4 का मूल कर्तव्य 51 क. मूल कर्तव्य – भारत के प्रत्येक नागरिक का यह कर्तव्य होगा कि वह – (क) संविधान का पालन करे और उसके आदर्शों, संस्थाओं, राष्ट्रीय और राष्ट्रीय आदर्शों का आदर करे; (ख) स्वतंत्रता के लिए हमारे राष्ट्रीय आदर्शों को प्रेरित करने वाले उच्च आदर्शों को हदय में संजोए रखे और उनका पालन करे; (ग) भारत की प्रभुत्व, एकता और अखंडता की रक्षा करे और उसे अक्षुण्ण रखे; (घ) देश की रक्षा करे और आह्वान किए जाने पर राष्ट्र की सेवा करे; (ड़) भारत के सभी लोगों में समस्तता और समान श्रान्तता की भावना का निर्माण करे जो धर्म, भाषा और प्रदेश या वर्ग पर आधारित सभी भेदभाव से परे हों, ऐसी प्रथाओं का त्याग करे जो स्त्रियों के सम्मान के विरुद्ध हैं; (च) हमारी सामाजिक संस्कृति की गौरवशाली परंपरा का महत्व समझे और उसका परिरक्षण करे; (छ) प्राकृतिक पर्यावरण को जिसके अंतर्गत वन, झील, नदी, और वन्य जीव है, रक्षा करे और उसका संवर्धन करे तथा प्राणी मात्र के प्रति दयाभाव रखे; (ज) वैज्ञानिक डूटिकोण, मानववाद और ज्ञानज्ञन तथा सुधार की भावना का विकास करे; (झ) सार्वजनिक संपत्ति को सुरक्षित रखे और हिस्सा से दूर रहे; (ज) व्यक्तिगत और सामूहिक गतिविधियों के सभी क्षेत्रों में उत्कर्ष की ओर बढ़ने का सतत प्रयास करे जिससे राष्ट्र निरंतर बढ़ते हुए प्रयत्न और उपलब्धि की नई उंचाइयों को छू ले; '(ट) यदि माता-पिता या संरक्षक है, छह वर्ष से चौदह वर्ष तक की आयु वाले अपने, यथास्थिति, बालक या प्रतिपाल्य के लिये शिक्षा के अवसर प्रदान करे। 1. संविधान ( छ्यासीवा संशोधन ) अधिनियम, 2002 की धारा 4 द्वारा प्रतिस्थापित। THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA PREAMBLE WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a 'SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC' and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. 1. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "Sovereign Democratic Republic" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977) 2. Subs. by the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act. 1976, sec. 2, for "unity of the Nation" (w.e.f. 3.1.1977) THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA Chapter IV A FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES ARTICLE 51A Fundamental Duties - It shall be the duty of every citizen of India- (a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; (b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; (c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; (d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so; (e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; (f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; (g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wild life and to have compassion for living creatures; (h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform; (i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence; (j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement; (k) to provide opportunities for education to his/her child or, as the case may be, ward between age of 6 and 14 years. 1. Subs. by the Constitution (Eighty-Sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 Since the earliest stages of human evolution man has had the desire to travel. The tourism industry is distinctly divided into two segments that of travel and hospitality. Today guests are discerning and demand the best value which has resulted in huge shift for hotels in trying to exceed customer expectations. Products and services have accordingly been redesigned. The future workforce in the hospitality shall be young and we therefore need to introduce them to the right skills, knowledge and attitude in the formative years. Food Production is the backbone of any large hotel which determines its popularity. The Student Handbook on Food Production for Level-1 (Class IX) aims to create interest and motivate students in the preparation of food and improving the standard of presentation. The nutritional aspects, safety, hygiene and a professional attitude towards food preparation will help students understand the role of a chef. The book deals with right storage techniques and essential commodities required for a kitchen and its upkeep. The kitchen hierarchy will enable a young person to identify their place in the overall organisation. The teachers are requested to regularly check for achievement of learning objectives through question and practical assessments. The Board acknowledges the contribution made by the authors and I am sure it would serve the purpose of a useful resource material for students and teachers. Chairman, CBSE Acknowledgements Advisors 1. Sh. Y. S. K. Seshu Kumar, Chairman, CBSE 2. Sh. K. K. Choudhury, Controller of Examinations & Director (V.E.), CBSE Content Developed By 1. Sh. Narinder Singh Bhuie (Consultant Academics), National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology (Ministry of Tourism, Government of India - (Convener) 2. Ms. Shalini Sachdeva, Senior Lecturer, AIHM Chandigarh 3. Mrs. R. Parimala, Senior Lecturer, IHM Chennai 4. Sh. Saurabh Modi, Senior Lecturer, IHM Kurukshetra Editing & Coordination 1. Dr. Biswajit Saha, Additional Director (V.E.), CBSE # Contents \| Unit \| Title \| Page \| \|------\|--------------------------------------------\|------\| \| \| Learning Outcomes \| viii \| \| 1 \| Introduction to Hospitality Industry \| 1 \| \| 2 \| Career Opportunities \| 13 \| \| 3 \| Introduction to Kitchen \| 19 \| \| 4 \| Protective Clothing and its Maintenance \| 28 \| \| 5 \| Personal Hygiene \| 32 \| \| 6 \| Equipments and Kitchen Tools \| 36 \| \| 7 \| Culinary History \| 42 \| \| 8 \| Kitchen Commodities \| 45 \| \| 9 \| Storage of Commodities \| 73 \| \| 10 \| Kitchen Organization \| 78 \| ## Learning Outcomes ### Unit-1 #### Introduction to Hospitality Industry \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| Session-1: Hospitality \| • To outline the important aspects of the hospitality field. \| • Explain the meaning of hospitality sector. \| • Chart showing the major hospitality providers. \| • Power Point presentation of the different sectors. \| \| \| \| • Describe the role of hospitality providers. \| \| • Flip Charts on the allied fields. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Session-2: Operations of Five Star Hotel \| • To describe the operations of the five star hotel. \| • List out the various operations of the five star hotel. \| • Chart showing the departments of the hotel industry. \| • Power Point Presentation of each department. \| \| \| \| • Explain the role of the each department. \| \| • Visit to the hotel. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Session-3: Introduction to Allied Areas of Hospitality Industry \| • Explain the allied areas and their roles. \| • Explain the various allied areas of the hospitality industry. \| • Discussion of roles played by each allied area. \| • Videos on allied areas. \| \| \| 2. Describe the key role of each field. \| \| \| 2. Role play of each allied area. \| ### Unit-2 #### Career Opportunities \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| \| Session-1: Career Opportunities \| • To outline the important aspects of career opportunities. \| • To list the job opportunities in the hotel industry. \| • Appreciate the jobs offered by the hotel industry. \| • Group Discussion on job opportunities in hotel industry. \| \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| ● Explain the job offered based on the departments of the hotel. \| \| \| \| Session-2: Career Opportunities in Allied Areas \| \| \| \| \| ● To outline the important aspects of career opportunities in allied areas. \| ● To list the job opportunities in allied areas. \| ● Analyse the importance of jobs offered based on the levels of skill. \| ● Group Discussion on job opportunities in allied areas. \| \| \| ● Explain the job offered in the allied areas. \| \| \| Unit-3 Introduction to Kitchen \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-1: Introduction to the Operations of a Commercial Kitchen \| \| \| \| \| ● Introduction to the operations of a commercial kitchen and advantages of having sections in kitchen. \| ● Describe the fundamental of kitchen operations. \| ● Chart showing major sections of a commercial kitchen. \| ● Presentation: Highlight the need of having sections for smooth functioning. \| \| ● List the various sections of a kitchen and their major functions. \| ● Describe the sections of a kitchen: Main kitchen, cold store, dish wash area, specialty kitchens, butchery, cold kitchen, bakery, etc. \| ● Listing various sections of the kitchen. \| ● Activity: Identify kitchen sections looking at picture. \| \| \| \| ● Explaining major functions of each section. \| ● Interactive session explaining major functions of that section. \| \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-2: Attitude and Behaviour in the Kitchen \| \| \| \| \| • Identify Attitudinal & behavioural traits required to work in kitchen. \| • Developing correct attitude and behaviour towards work in kitchen. \| • Explaining the attitude and behavioural traits to be developed for kitchen operations.\| • Role play emphasizing correct behaviour during busy operations. \| \| Session-3: Skills and Knowledge \| \| \| \| \| • Identify skill and knowledge components to be developed for working in commercial kitchen. \| • Differentiate between ‘skills’ and ‘knowledge’. \| • Identify the knowledge and skill set composition required to become a professional chef.\| • Interactive session on the importance and inter-relation of skills and knowledge. \| \| \| • Listing the basic skills and knowledge to be developed at foundation level. \| \| • Group discussion on the key areas of knowledge and skill set required by a professional chef. \| \| Session-4: Ergonomics in Kitchen \| \| \| \| \| • Defining Ergonomics. \| • Meaning of ergonomics \| • Techniques to minimise strains and sprains in kitchen. \| • Demonstration of correct postures of performing daily tasks such as cutting, lifting weights etc. \| \| • Illustrate role of Ergonomics in kitchen. \| • Application of Ergonomics in kitchen. \| \| \| Unit-4 Protective Clothing and its Maintenance \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-1: Importance of Protective Clothing and its Maintenance \| \| \| \| \| • Understanding the importance of protective clothing. \| • The basic knowledge of protective clothing. \| • Chart out the importance of protective clothing used in the hotel industry. \| Interactive lecture: • Highlight the importance of the protective clothing. \| \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| \| \| \| Activity: \| \| \| \| \| • Visit to the nearest star hotel’s kitchen and ask the students to make a report on protective clothing. \| Session-2: Types of Protective Clothing - Understanding the types of protective clothing. - The basic knowledge of types of protective clothing. - Chart out the different types of clothing used in the hotel industry. - Explain the various types of clothing required for kitchen. - Uses of different types of clothing. Interactive lecture: - The different types of protective clothing. Activity: - Visit to the nearest star hotel’s kitchen and ask the students to make a report on types of protective clothing. --- Unit-5 Personal Hygiene \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| \| \| \| Interactive lecture: \| \| \| \| \| • Highlight the importance of personal hygiene. \| Session-1: Importance of Personal Hygiene - Understanding the importance of personal hygiene. - The basic knowledge of personal hygiene. - The importance of personal hygiene. - Prepare a chart on methods used for personal hygiene in the hotel industry. - Explain the various uses of personal hygiene. \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Session-2: Maintenance of Personal Hygiene \| • Understanding the maintenance of personal hygiene. \| • The basic knowledge of maintaining personal hygiene. \| • Explain the various methods to maintain personal hygiene. \| Interactive lecture: • Highlight the importance of maintaining personal hygiene. \| \| Session-3: Hand Washing Techniques \| • Understanding the different methods of hand washing. \| • The idea of basic knowledge of methods of hand washing. \| • Explain the various methods to do the hand washing. \| Interactive lecture: • Highlight the different methods of hand washing techniques. \| Unit-6 Equipment and Kitchen Tools \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|------------------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Session-1: Importance of Kitchen Equipments \| • Understanding the importance of kitchen equipment. \| • The basic knowledge of kitchen equipment. • The importance of work place hygiene and maintenance of knives. \| • Prepare a chart on the different kitchen equipment- small and large. \| Interactive lecture: • Highlight the importance of kitchen equipment and their types. \| \| Session-2: Care and Maintenance of Equipments \| • Understanding the care and maintenance of kitchen equipment. \| • The knowledge of care and maintenance of kitchen equipment. \| • Prepare a chart on the different methods to maintain the kitchen equipment. \| Interactive lecture: • Highlight the care and maintenance of kitchen equipment. \| \| Session-3: Work Place Hygiene \| • Understanding the work place hygiene in kitchen. \| • The knowledge of work place hygiene. \| • Explain the various methods to maintain the work place hygiene. \| Interactive lecture: • The different methods of maintaining the work place hygiene. \| \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-4: Knife and its Maintenance \| The knowledge of kitchen knives. \| Prepare a chart on the different types of knife. Explain the various methods to care and maintain knives. \| Interactive lecture: Highlight the importance of knives and their types. \| \| Understanding the different knives their care and maintenance. \| \| \| \| \| Session-5: Safety Procedure for Handling Knives \| The knowledge about safe handling of knife. \| Prepare a chart on the different safety procedures for handling knives. \| Interactive lecture: The different methods of safety procedure for knife handling. \| \| Understanding the procedures to handle the knife safely. \| \| \| \| Unit-7 Culinary History \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-1: Historical Background \| Explain the evolution of food. \| Appraise the influence of invasions in food evolution. \| Power Point Presentation of the evolution. \| \| To outline the important aspects of culinary history. \| Discuss the influence of invasions. \| \| Flip charts on evolution. \| \| Session-2: Development of Modern Cookery \| Describe the evolution of culinary industry. \| Identify the key role played by chefs. \| Interaction session on the role of chefs. \| \| To outline the important aspects of evolution of culinary industry. \| List the role of chefs in its growth. \| \| \| ## Unit-8 ### Kitchen Commodities \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Session-1: Kitchen Commodities \| \| \| \| \| • Classifying kitchen commodities as per plant / animal origin. \| • Classification of various commodities used in kitchen based on origin. \| • Identification of commodities based on their origin and type. \| • Interactive session with students on various edible products obtained from plants and animals. \| \| • Identification and types of cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, spices and herbs. \| • Classification of various commodities used in kitchen and place them in correct sub-groups. \| • Identification of commodities with plant origin and correctly classify them in sub-groups. \| • Pictorial chart of different types of plant originated commodities. Activity: Visit to local market or identifying actual samples of various common commodities obtained from plants. \| \| Session-2: Animal Origin \| \| \| \| \| • Identification and types of dairy products, eggs, meats and seafood. \| • Classification of various commodities used in kitchen and place them in correct sub-groups. \| • Identification of commodities with animal origin and correctly classify them in sub-groups. \| • Pictorial chart of different types of animal originated commodities. Activity: Visit to local market or identifying actual samples of various common commodities obtained from animals. \| ## Unit-9 ### Storage of Commodities \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| • Importance of correct storage of commodities. \| • Narrate the need of correct storage of commodities. \| • Appreciate the need of correct storage of commodities. \| • Interactive session on need for correct storage of kitchen commodities. \| \| • Meaning of perishability. \| • Write the meanings of Perishability and Shelf life of a commodity. \| • Analyse the difference in quality of a fresh commodity than a stale one. \| • Pictures or actual samples as to how food can deteriorate with time. Discuss how it will affect the food prepared by using these commodities. \| \| • Defining shelf life of a commodity. \| \| \| \| ### Session-1: Perishability of a Product \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| • List the qualities of a good storage facility. \| • Summarise the essentials of a good storage facility. \| • Specify the requirements of a good food store. \| • Interactive session on storage of common kitchen commodities. \| \| • Storage of various kitchen commodities such as dry ingredients, vegetables and fruits, milk, eggs, meats & seafood, frozen food, fats and oils, canned and bottled products. \| • Enumerate the storage conditions required for storing various kitchen commodities. \| • Identify the conditions in which a commodity should be stored. \| • Activity: Store some common ingredients at room temperature for some days. Discuss if they can be kept usable for longer duration in refrigerator or freezers. \| ### Session-2: Techniques of Storage ## Unit-10 ### Hierarchy in Kitchen \| Learning Outcome \| Knowledge Evaluation \| Performance Evaluation \| Teaching and Training Method \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| • Defining organizational structure. \| • Draw a flowchart depicting organizational structure of a hotel kitchen. \| • Develop an organizational chart for a hotel kitchen. \| • Chart on hierarchical structure of hotel kitchen. \| \| • Listing factors affecting organizational structure of kitchen. \| • Appraise the factors that affect the organizational structure. \| • Analyse the variations affecting organizational structure. \| • Interactive session on how the number of people in organizational structure differ from one organization to other. \| \| • Hierarchy in kitchen. \| \| \| \| \| Session-1: Kitchen Organization \| \| \| \| \| • Explain the duties and responsibilities associated with each job positions in kitchen. \| • Tabulate the duties & responsibilities of each job position in kitchen. \| • Appraise the division of work among staff and the flow of authority from top to bottom of hierarchical structure. \| • Interactive session on division of work in kitchen and responsibilities associated with each job position in kitchen. \| --- xvi 1.1 Hospitality The term “hospitality is a generic word which explains all the activities that are related to the services and facilities offered for tourists and travellers. The hospitality industry is a major contributor to the nation’s economy and gives plenty of employment opportunities not only in hotel industry but also in the allied areas. Hospitality providers include: - Hotel Industry - Standalone Restaurants / Chain of Restaurants / Fast foods - Travel and Transport - Information Technology - Malls and Entertainments - Heritage Sites - Theme Parks - Human Resource Development - Tourism Industry and many more - They may be either owned by the government or private sectors The Hotel Industry Hotels provide accommodation, food and beverage and the experience of home away from home. The category of hotels will vary according to the star rating system. The star rating system is based on the facilities and services that the hotel offers to its clientele. The facilities offered by a hotel may or may not include the following facilities. - Room / Bathrooms - 24 hours Services in Departments - Radio, Television, video in Rooms - Fax / Wi-fi The guest chooses their stay based on either the tariffs or facilities offered, the location of the hotel or the size of the hotel the experience it offers. 1.2 Operations of Five Star Hotel The five star hotel operates under the following departments. The hotels’ different departments and their function all play a crucial role in ensuring the successful growth of the business. Front Office Department This is the nerve centre of the hotel as it interacts with the guests for different needs and desires as they walk into the hotel. The front office personnel should have excellent communication skills as they face both international and domestic tourists. They have to be diligent and multi task to resolve issues that may arise. Concierge Their main focus are the guests to make them loyal customers, they plan their travel routes, recommends tours, attractions found in the city and provide useful information that will positively enhance their stay. The experience they carry with them will ensure that they visit the hotel the next time as well. Housekeeping This department functions like the eye of the hotel to provide the guests spotless experience. They have an eye for detail and look into all the needs of the guest starting from the fluffy pillow and sheets in the rooms to the bathroom amenities and public areas. Maintenance Requires careful planning for the smooth functioning of equipment, electricity, water in all departments. It does preventive maintenance as well. This department performs a wide range of essential tasks to help smooth operations. Food and Beverage Service This department serves you with a smile. Be it Breakfast, Lunch or Dinner the team operates round the clock to seek satisfaction of the customers. The guest is always right and take utmost care to satisfy their needs. Stewarding department takes care of the cleanliness of the hotels cutlery and crockery’s utensils used in the hotel. Food Production The scrumptious dishes to keep the guest happy, a team works behind this spread. They work in a fast-paced environment where the experience, talent of chefs play a major role in satisfaction. Accounts (Financial controller): This plays a significant role in the managing of a hotel efficiently. They provide the hotel with relevant financial data and do forecasting to ensure sustainable business. Financial recommendations like the budgets are done by this department. Sales and Marketing: Creative selling is the keyword. The sales team promotes the brand and the amenities of the hotel. They negotiate and propose large business dealings. The Marketing Department is the analytical backbone of sales which increases the exposure of the hotel through advertisement. Various social media platforms are created to spread awareness of the facilities offered and the experience shared. Human Resource Department: For commitment and development of the staff. It looks into the staff welfare and administration. The fixation of staff salaries, compensation, and taxes are some of their duties training and development of employees. Security Department: This is the department which is responsible for protecting the guests and staff of the hotel. The security department does patrolling, monitoring CCTV, and investigating cases. Purchase Department and Stores: The main function of this department is to purchase materials and equipment from the market as per the requirements of the hotel. A liaison with the different vendors and companies for smooth supply is essential. Storing, Receiving, Issuing of the purchased items come under their purview. ### 1.3 Introduction to Allied Areas of Hospitality Industry The hospitality industry is renowned for the variety of opportunities it unfolds. It makes the persons proficient in both knowledge and skills of the trade. The hospitality sector is so vast and made of different professions. Some of the key allied areas are: 1. Travel Agency: It is a service owned either by the private or public sectors providing travel and tourism to the public on behalf of suppliers such as airlines, car rentals, cruise liners, hotels, railways, and package tours. This department makes travel plans for business travelers. Some agencies specialize in commercial and business travel. These agencies serve as general sales agents for foreign travel companies and vice versa. The modern travel agency just appeared in the second half of the 19th century. Thomas Cook is the pioneer which developed package tours establishing a chain of agencies in the last quarter of the 19th century. Travel agents grew with the advent of commercial aviation in 1920’s. Originally it catered to the middle and upper class customers but later with the introduction of package tours it made travel possible even for the lower middle class. Operations: The travel agency sells travel products and services on behalf of the supplier and makes a commission out of each sale made. Some companies agree on percentages for selling of packages. Travel agents have now their own travel websites with detailed information and online booking facilities. Travel Agency is a link between the supplier and clients. They provide business to the suppliers and services to the tourists at the same time. This demonstrates the importance of travel agency whose role is growing more and more in the modern world. As travellers mostly do not have time or the energy to organize their travel arrangement they prefer to make use of the travel agents. A travel agent should have a sound knowledge of the product he sells, knowledge of the customers and practices, information on health, visa and foreign exchange rules and communication skills. He should know the fares, schedules, costs, availability seasons regulations etc. They are responsible for the client’s safe journey and smooth experience during travel and stay. Foods that are prepared and dispensed quickly is known as fast foods. It started in 1950’s in United States. Food is prepared quickly by using already pre-cooked or pre-prepared and when ordered it is assembled, cooked to finish and served hot. Kiosks, fast food restaurants serve this quick foods most of the fast food outlets are take always often with drive in service that lets the customers to order and pick up food from their car. Common menu items are fish and chips, hamburgers French fries, chicken nuggets, dosas, chat items, ice creams etc. Pizza is also a common fast food and some of the famous chains are (Papajohns, Dominos, Pizza Hut, Mc Donald’s, KFC, Burger King, Subway are the fastest growing franchise fast food outlets). In India the concept of fastfood started as “Dhabas” and “Kalpi” popular all over the country. Nirulas in Delhi were the pioneers in fast food industry in India. The origins of fast foods are street foods. When there was urban development fast foods sprung. In the Middle Ages London and Paris were brimming with vendors that sold cooked meat, pies, flans etc. UK had a big part in development of local vendors. The past modern fast food restaurants was of course US with the development of automobile. The concept was high volume, high speed and low cost. Fast Food Emphasis on - Quickness - Uniformity - Economical Cost ![Airlines](image) Airlines provide transport services for the travelling passengers and freight as well. Airlines can be owned either private or public sectors. These companies should possess an air operating certificate or license issued by the government aviation body. Airline services can be domestic or international and operated as scheduled or charter services. An airline meal is served for the passengers. These meals are usually prepared by airline catering services. Meals are usually served in trays. Food is generally frozen and heated on the ground before take-off. Food safety is of paramount importance, any case of food poisoning amongst the passengers on the airline could have a disastrous consequence. There are approximately 600 flight kitchens world wide. The average kitchen prepares 600 to 7000 meals every day. The first recorded in flight service was offered in 1927. Some features unique to airline catering operations are - Customers and their needs - Menus has to be altered to suit consumption - It involves large scale production - Tray services predominate flight services - Adoption of cook chill process to improve the shelf life of the products made This is a secondary catering establishment. Retail is selling consumer goods or services to customers. Distribution through multiple channels get them the profits. Retailing has become online as well using electronic payments and delivery through couriers. Retail marketing is done in departmental stores, warehouse, Boutique, convenience stores, super markets, malls etc. The famous retailers are Walmart, Reliance, Wills Lifestyle etc. Customer relations is very essential for continued patronage. The customers should receive what they desire for and their needs to be fulfilled. The sales associate should greet the customers and make sure that he feels important giving him undivided attention and helping him find what he is looking. For retail owners it is extremely important to train his staff to provide excellent customer service and skills. They have to attract new customers with the help of their loyal customers and turn the new customers into regular. Customer service gives the business a good ongoing reputation and competitive advantage. Retail Emphasis on - Customer satisfaction - Selling of consumer goods or services through multiple channels - Distribution of goods to all areas Entrepreneur This is a person starting his own business, he develops a business plan acquiring human and other required resources and is fully responsible for its success or future. Entrepreneur chooses to be one when he has a clear line between work and private leisure time, a desire “to be my own boss”, to keep family together or to avoid the stressful urban corporate employment. Entrepreneurship is crucial for economic growth, job creativity, growth in productivity and stimulate competition personal development and for solving social problems, identifying opportunities, encrusting creativity and building new services. Entrepreneur originated in the 17th century in France. They should possess the skills of sensing opportunities, take risks in the face of uncertainties to open new markets, design new products, and develop innovative processes. With rapid changing customer demands and expectations constant innovation by business small or big is to meet and hopefully exceed these evolving demand expectations. Hospitality industry offers wide opportunities for entrepreneurs in travel and tourism industry. Others 1. Learning and Development Centre Human Resource, Planning, implementing, coordinating the present corporate and related training programmes to ensure that all employees under the procedures of the company to fulfil their responsibilities. 2. Events Management The role of supervising and checking on the preparation and presentation at any social gatherings such as hotels, restaurants, conferences, clubs etc., to make the event a memorable one for the clients. Summary Hospitality sector contributes to the overall development of a nation and offers opportunities in the hospitality field. The hotel industry provides accommodation, food, and beverage to all guests. The hotel has many divisions that look into the utmost satisfaction of the guests, as they consider "customers as gods". This is assisted by allied areas in the hospitality industry, making travel and tourism a smooth experience. Review Questions Answer the following in 4 or 5 lines: 1. Explain the term "hospitality sector". 2. List the four major departments of the hotel and their role in the hotel industry. 3. Explain the functioning of airline catering. 4. Elaborate the role of a travel agency in the hospitality sector. 5. Draw a chart showing the various departments of a five-star hotel. Practical 1. Make a collage of the various fields in the hospitality sector in groups of five each. 2. Draw a chart on the departments of the hotel industry and make a presentation. 1.1 Career Opportunities The hospitality sector is renowned for the variety of opportunities it unfolds. It makes a person proficient in both knowledge and skills. There are various types of catering establishments providing not only food but also services that are aimed at attaching different sectors of the public, thus widening the horizon of job opportunities. The following sectors offer various positions. Hotel Industry This industry not only requires culinary skills but also personnel in the Food and Beverage outlets, maintaining nutrition, quality control, financial controls. Starting from four main departments the job offered are: Front Office Supervisors: They are trained to perform check in / check outs, reservations, guest phone messages and any other special requests. Quality Managers: He should ensure that the operations of the hospitality sector and customer service standards are being met. Public Relations Coordinator: He maintains relationship through emails, phone calls etc. to office prompt and efficient services to keep the customers loyal to the company. Guest Relations Managers: He has to ensure that the guests utilize the products and services offered by the company. Food and Beverage Managers: He has to completely organize and manage the food and beverage outlets of the hotel. Executive Chef: He has to organize and manage the food and looks constantly into the food cost to control expenses and pilferages. Accommodation Managers: To look into the housekeeping department and other public areas. Other Job Opportunities - Restaurant Manager - Waiters / Head Waiters - Sous Chef - Chef in Charge of Each Departments of Kitchen 2.2 Career Opportunities in Allied Areas Travel Industry: Travel industry implies your major groups (1) Airlines (2) Roadways (3) Railways (4) Shipping. The services offered by these modes of transport offers various job opportunities. - Travel Agency Managers: They sell holidays and travel related products - Inbound / Domestic Travel Operators - Outbound Operators - Air Ticketing Officers - Forex Officers - Guest Relations Officers - Catering Managers - Airline Stewards / Flight Attendants - Industrial Canteen Managers - MICE Operators - Events Co-ordinations Retail Industry This fast gaining popularity as they look to catering personnel in the following categories. - Store Managers - Customer Relations Officers - Sales Associates - Sales Executives - Shift Managers Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurs are founders and owners of a hospitality business. Most typically a hotel, resort or restaurant, fast food, industrial or institutional catering he is the person who runs the business and also develops new products and services to keep the venture going over a period of time before he starts expanding his business. Food Critics and Writers: This is a platform for discussing the food served in various restaurants which can promote the food or can be detrimental as well. Some write about the prevailing food trends and interview personalities who are successful in their career. They churn out secret recipes. They are well versed in the culinary arts and contribute their finding to newspapers, magazines and media. Summary Hospitality sector is so vast it offers a wide range of job opportunities from the skilled level to management level. This sector opens the door for a person to become an entrepreneur which brings out the creativity of a person. Food critic yet another field which is gaining a lot of popularity and encourages healthy competition within restaurants for improvement. Thus the hospitality sector is one of the many untapped industry and unfolds many job opportunities for all. Review Questions Answer the following in 4 or 5 lines: 1. Give the job opportunities related to the hotel industry. 2. Explain the job of a sales and marketing personnel. 3. List the job opportunities available in the allied areas of the hospitality sector. 4. Elaborate on the job opportunities available in the allied areas of the hospitality sector. 5. Give in detail the jobs offered by the hotel industry. Practical 1. Do a role play of the various job opportunities of the hospitality sector. 2. Make chart and presentation on jobs offered by each allied area. Objectives 1. Introduction to the operations of a commercial kitchen. 2. Advantage of having sections in a kitchen. 3. List the various sections of a kitchen and their major functions. 4. Identify skill and knowledge components to be developed for working in commercial kitchen. 5. Defining Ergonomics. 6. Role & importance of ergonomics in kitchen. 3.1 Introduction to the Operations of a Commercial Kitchen Think About It! A commercial kitchen is always engaged in varied activities at any given point of time. Imagine the kitchen of a restaurant in which five families are eating dinner. Each of them has ordered separate set of four dishes. The kitchen staff is responsible for cooking twenty dishes at the same time! How can a chef or even a team of chefs cope up with this much work – and this is a simple example. In most five star hotels, there are more than three restaurants, each restaurant usually have a seating of sixty or more people and about fifty dishes in the menu from which a guest can order anything. It is thus clear that one man cannot do all the jobs. Also if every chef in the kitchen tries to prepare dish of each order what a chaos it will create. Fundamentals of Kitchen Operations: The kitchen operations begin from the time when the head chef of the kitchen checks the available ingredients in the kitchen, plans for next day’s sales forecast and places the order for ingredients in the purchase department. The purchase department further compiles orders from various kitchens and places the order with the supplier. The raw material is received next day. It is then given to various sections as per requirement and processed - or made ready to be cooked. The food is then cooked and served to the guest by the chefs. It is a prime responsibility of a chef to prepare hygienic and tasty food. Importance of Having Sections in a Kitchen: A hotel kitchen is divided into various sections. These sections can be small or large depending on the volume and type of business. Each section has its own set of responsibility. All the sections together work as a team to fulfil the guests need and prepare food in time. It is Important to Divide the Work in Sections Because: 1. Cooking is a specialization job. Every chef cannot cook every cuisine well. For example one chef may specialize in baking the best of breads or preparing delicious sweets while the other may be best at making Indian curries. Similarly one may have expertise in handling Tandoori dishes while the other chef may have expertise in preparing Chinese dishes. The division of work in sections is important to get the best of each of the chef’s expertise for tasty food and happy guests. 2. To clarify the responsibility of each chef in the kitchen and to avoid any chaos as to who does what job. The division clarifies the responsibility of each section so that work can be carried out well in time without any chaos. 3. This is also important to maintain quality and taste of the dishes. Each section has few chefs who share the responsibility of preparing a consistent quality, taste and presentation of dish to the guest. So, each time you order ‘Dal Makhani’ in your favourite restaurant, you get same taste! Whenever a new chef joins the team, he is introduced and taught the same preparation to maintain consistency. Sections in a Kitchen A large commercial kitchen can be divided into many sections. Some of them are: a) Pre-Preparation & Cooking Area b) Storage Area c) Dish wash & Pot Wash Area d) Chef’s Office a) Pre-Preparation & Cooking Area 1. Main Kitchen: This section is open and working 24 hours a day and caters to the orders of usually a Coffee Shop and In-room dining that is open round the clock. It occupies a large space and provides a wide range of food varieties such as Indian, continental, fast food etc. and has various subsections and a large pick-up counter. The dishes vary from time to time – breakfast, lunch and dinner. Hence, the chefs work in three shifts and complete required tasks. This kitchen acts as nerve centre of all the kitchens in the hotel. 2. Specialization Kitchens: These kitchens are usually designed specially to cook a particular cuisine such as Indian, Continental, Japanese, Thai, Indian, Oriental etc. and cater to a specialty restaurant in the hotel. The layout of each varies considering the kind of ingredients to be processed and equipment required to prepare special dishes. They are also called Satellite Kitchens. Presently, there is also a trend of ‘Show Kitchen’. This is usually a satellite kitchen which is partly or wholly visible to the guests dining in the restaurant through a partition panel. The guests can see the chefs working and preparing food while sitting in the restaurant. 3. Butchery: This is section which specializes in cutting of poultry, meat and all types of seafood. It is responsible for receiving and processing all types of meat products, clean and cut them as required in restaurant. It is then weighed, vacuum sealed and stored frozen till required for use. 4. Bakery: This section is responsible for preparing all baked products i.e. breads, biscuits, cakes, pastries, patties and a wide range of sweets such as pies, tarts, puddings etc. 5. Larder: This is also called ‘Cold Kitchen’. This is responsible for preparing cold dishes such as salads, sandwiches, canapés, fruit platters, cold meat platters etc. 6. Banquet Kitchen: A banquet is a large hall which is used to hold a variety of functions as per guests need. This could be a marriage, fashion show, product launch, diplomatic dinner etc. This kitchen is responsible for preparing food in large quantities. Some range from preparing food for 50 guests while others cater to 1000 guests. Depending on the guest requirement, the menu also varies with each party. Banquet chef thus has a challenging job to prepare a wide range of dishes in widely varying quantities. 7. Commissary: Some hotels have a separate section altogether to clean and cut vegetables and fruits. This section is called Commissary and it is responsible for preparing vegetables and fruits ready to use in other kitchens. They peel and cut and process vegetables and fruits, pack and supply to other kitchens for cooking dishes. b) Storage Area 1. Dry Store: Cupboards and racks are there in each section to keep dry ingredients at room temperature. This may include flour, rice, pulses, cereals, jams etc. 2. Commercial Refrigerators: Huge refrigerators are there in kitchen to 3. Walk-in: A large refrigerated room where one can walk inside and store ingredients on racks. A temperature of about $4^\circ C$ is maintained suitable to store fruits, vegetables, milk, eggs etc. 4. Deep Freezers: A room usually behind walkin with another door where sub-zero temperature is maintained. This is used to store meats, ice creams and other frozen products. c) Dish Wash & Pot Wash Area All the kitchen utensils, pots and pans must be clean and hygienic at all times. Hence, after each use they are kept in a separate pot wash area. Once cleaned, they can be kept in a pot rack and reused. Similarly, all the crockery and cutlery used in the restaurant is also kept in dish wash area. These too are cleaned and sanitized after each use. Dish washing machines are used for the task. d) Chef’s Office This is an area from where the Head Chef does all his administration tasks and paperwork. It is also used to place orders to purchase department and to check food cost data. A Sample Kitchen Layout is Given Below: There are double doors at both the entry and exit points. One door is to go in and other is to come out of the kitchen. This is a safeguard against collisions and injuries. Remember, each hotel has its own best possible layout as per their requirement. They may have some or all the sections in the kitchen. They may even have more... for e.g. a bakery can further be divided into baking area and pastry or confectionary area as colder temperatures are needed here. 3.2 Attitude and Behaviour in the Kitchen Attitude means mind-set or approach of a person towards work and society in general. Behaviour is one’s general conduct or manners. Both attitude and behaviour are inter-related. If we imbibe positive thoughts in our minds and keep a responsible attitude, it will naturally be visible in our acts, conduct and manners. A commercial kitchen is a hub of activities. Many people belonging to different regions, educational background, age groups, religion work in a kitchen. Also, during the regular shift, one is always on the toes to complete assigned tasks and responsibilities. There might also be trying times when a chef is compelled to control costs and make most judicious use of resources and ingredients given to him. Also, cooking is a continuous life-long learning. There is no end to learning new to prepare new dishes, various ways of cooking one dish, the art of presentation etc. For working in such circumstances one must develop some attitudinal and behavioural traits to work as a successful professional: - To maintain personal hygiene at all times. - To maintain workplace hygiene. - To follow safety rules and regulations in kitchen. - Being quality conscious. - Following standard operating procedures. - Being responsible, honest and committed to complete the tasks assigned. - A good team player and being responsible for one’s share of responsibility. - A keen attitude to learn new things. - A sound knowledge of the work assigned. - To apply the knowledge in daily work place. - Respecting the values of the organization. - To continually enhance one’s skill and knowledge. - Being patient to bear the work pressure in busy times. - Support the team members and encourage all to work better. - To have passion for cooking. 3.3 Skills and Knowledge Knowledge literally means know-how or understanding the fundamentals of a particular field. It may be electrical engineering, trade or commerce or Food. On the other hand skills are an application of knowledge gained. It is the ability to apply the knowledge at work to get the desired outcome. Both are equally important part of food production. A chef must know his ingredients and their taste, varieties available, season in which they are available, changes that take place on application of heat or cold, cooking in acidic or alkaline medium etc. Unless a chef knows his ingredients well, he cannot make best use of them. Similarly, the chef should also know about equipment used in kitchen. These equipment are an essential part of a commercial kitchen. They speed up the work, make it easy and also help in maintaining consistent quality. A chef must also have knowledge of market prices and costs of ingredients and dishes. A hotel is after all a business which survives on profits. A major chunk of cost is food cost. Hence, controlling food cost is an important part of being a chef. A chef in modern time is a chef, sales executive, cost controller, entrepreneur, artist and scientist. If a person is able to gain the knowledge and also apply it practically, then this profession has no dearth. 3.4 Ergonomics in Kitchen Ergonomics is the science of work in relation to the individual. By learning and following some simple techniques one can increase one’s productivity, efficiency, safety and comfort at work place. It reduces stress, increases job satisfaction and helps in preventing injuries. Following are brief notes on how to apply ergonomics in a commercial kitchen: - Always maintain straight back posture while cutting vegetables or cooking. Do not bend the back for long hours. - Do not use blunt knives. They require more force to cut and cause fatigues and sprains. More force can also tilt the knife causing cuts and injuries. If we fold our arm and rest the hand straight on the table from elbow to palm, that is elbow level. A work that requires downward force such as cutting and chopping is best done below the elbow level. While lifting a heavy pot or box, squat on the floor and grip the weight. Keep it close to body and get up with a smooth motion without jerks. When a turn is to be taken, do not twist the back, instead move with feet. Use suitable equipment following safety procedures required to use it. Use well-oiled trolleys loaded to permissible capacity to carry things from one place to another. Never run in a kitchen in haste. Even in urgency walk fast but carefully. Keep the work area clean at all times. Spillages of oil or water can cause slips and injuries. Always wear protective clothing and suitable antiskid shoes. Never carry hot oil or water. Let it cool and then transport. Allow hot equipment to cool before cleaning. Remember, it is good to employ correct procedures rather than curing injuries and dealing with accidents. Summary A commercial kitchen is divided into various sections which work in coordination with each other to ensure timely preparation of food for guests. The four major sections in a kitchen are Pre-preparation & preparation area, Storage area, Pot wash & dish wash and Chef’s office. A person needs to have both theoretical knowledge and hands-on practical skill to be a successful professional chef. While working, one should ensure safe practices to prevent accidents and injuries. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. Describe the importance of having sections in a large commercial kitchen. 2. Define Ergonomics. Why is it important? 3. Explain the role of correct attitude and behaviour in kitchen. 4. Differentiate between skill and knowledge. How are they interrelated in kitchen? II. Match the following: \| Column A \| Column B \| \|----------------\|------------------------\| \| a) Chinese kitchen \| Cookies \| \| b) Butchery \| Vegetable & Fruits \| \| c) Larder \| Round the clock work \| \| d) Commissary \| Specialty kitchen \| \| e) Bakery \| Sandwiches \| \| f) Banquet \| Coffee shop \| \| g) Main kitchen \| Fish \| III. Discuss in Class: Kitchen may become a dangerous place to work if one is not careful. Discuss the ways to prevent injuries and accidents in kitchen. Practical 1. Collect pictures of various sections of a kitchen. Identify each of them and list their major functions. 2. Draw or collect pictures of ways that help to make work in kitchen safe and easy. UNIT 4 Protective Clothing and its Maintenance Objectives 1. To know about the protective clothing. 2. To be aware of the importance of protective clothing. 3. To know about the types of protective clothing. Introduction to the Protective Clothing It is very necessary to understand about the Protective Clothing in the Food Production Department. Definition The protective clothing can be defined as the clothing which can be especially designed, fabricated or treated to protect the kitchen personnel against the different situations occurred and hazards caused by the sudden and extreme changes in physical, environmental conditions and also dangerous working conditions etc. 4.1 Importance of Protective Clothing & its Maintenance The importance of protective clothing is as follows: - To prevent from any injury - To avoid the damage occurred to clothes from grease and oil etc - To prevent any type of injury from contaminations - To have an identification of the personnel too - To protect the wearer from any infections - Helps to protect from different radiations also in some of the cases - To prevent body contact from fomits 4.2 Types of Protective Clothing There are different requirements of the protective clothing in different trades. We are going to discuss the clothing required for the food production personnel: - A white hat - A white necktie - A nametag (optional) - A white chef coat - A dish cloth - A white apron (knee length) - A check trouser - A slip resistant shoes White Hat It is one of the most important parts of the protective clothing. It is generally designed in such a way to maintain the hygiene while working. The white hat will help in protecting the hair from smoke and oil in the kitchen. It allows the air to circulate on top of the head. It absorbs the perspiration from forehead and avoids hair falls too. It is mandatory for any of the food production personnel to wear the cap while working in the kitchen. White Necktie The necktie is second protective clothing required for the food production personnel. It can be of any colour which sometimes, reveals about the designation of the personnel too. The necktie is generally a large triangular light cloth material which has to be folded and worn by the food production personnel and it can be knot like a normal tie. In modern air conditioned kitchen, the necktie might not be used but it is always regarded as respect by professionals. The actual purpose to wear this is for absorption of perspiration and guard the neck from drafts. The Nametag It is an optional part of the clothing of kitchen personnel. It is generally worn on the left of chef coat by the kitchen personnel. The White Chef Coat The most important protective clothing for any kitchen personnel is the chef coat. It can be different colours but white colour is preferred as it is very easy to identify any stains on it. The chef coat protects the most sensitive part of the human body, the chest and arms. It protects the body from heat of stoves and splashes from boiling liquids. The double breasted chef coat also protects the body from extreme cold which the kitchen personnel faces while entering the deep freezer room or walk-in room. The four layer cloth of the chef coat and full sleeved can protect from heat source and front body. A White Apron The apron is designed to protect the lower body from the different accidents which can occur in the kitchen while working. It is worn around the waist and sometimes hanged from the neck. It is very convenient to change the apron. So it also allows the kitchen personnel to help him in keeping clean. A Dish Cloth It is kind of a tea towel it is very helpful in protecting the kitchen personnel from heat while handling hot pans and pots. It is neatly folded and hanged on left side of the waist. It should be always dry, particularly while using for hot pans and pots. A Check Trouser Trouser is the protective clothing which should be comfortable to wear. It protects the lower part of the body which is not guarded by the apron also up to the knee. It can be of different pattern but the check pattern is common in the hospitality industry. A Pair of Shoes (Slip Resistant) Shoes are very necessary for the protection of the food production personnel. It should be non slippery, comfortable, protective toes and should not absorb water. Summary The students will come to know about the protective clothing and their importance. They will also learn the types of protective clothing. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. Prepare a list of the important parts of the protective clothing and draw a chart of it. 2. Submit the chart to your teacher for assessment. II. Assessment A. Fill in the blanks: 1. The shoes used in kitchen should be ....................... 2. The apron used for the kitchen personnel should be up to the length of ....................... 3. Nametag is an ...................... part of the uniform. B. State whether true or false: 1. The chef coat should be double breasted. 2. The shoes used in kitchen should be of cotton. 3. Apron protects the head part of the kitchen personnel. Practical 1. The different parts of kitchen uniform can be discussed one by one. The students can be asked to prepare a chart or draw different parts of the uniform on a chart paper. UNIT 5 Personal Hygiene Objectives 1. To learn the importance of personal hygiene. 2. To understand the maintaining of personal hygiene. 3. To learn the hand washing techniques. 5.1 Importance of Personal Hygiene It is very important for any food production personnel to maintain the personal hygiene. It is important due to so many reasons: - It can be due to the personal reasons - It can be for the social health - It is the way of living a good life too If we can maintain a good personal hygiene than it will help us to prevent the development of different infections and also the spread of illness and bad odour. The importance of personal hygiene should be taught in the early age. The health problems are the result of poor personal hygiene. 5.2 Maintenance of Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene is about keeping our body, our teeth, our hair, our clothes and also our genital area clean. It is one of the mechanisms which is used for breaking the cycle of disease transmission. It will also help the individual to have a good aesthetic value by the people he/she is living with. Personal hygiene is therefore can be explained as a measure taken at individual level which will promote personal cleanliness which will avoid the transmission of diseases from source to susceptible hosts is prevented. Many health problems will raise due to the poor hygiene behaviour of people. Following are the points are necessary for maintaining the personal hygiene: Body Image The person having depression and neglected feel will have low self esteem which is also applicable while maintaining the personal hygiene. The well maintained, hygienic body will also have charming personality and attractive impression on others and also gives confidence to. Social Reasons By ensuring that our body is clean and well presented, we become more assured of projecting a positive body image that reflects our personalities. Health Reasons Always a poor hygiene will lead to a poor health. If any type of injury is not treated properly than due to bad hygiene it can lead to infections. Some of the infections are tend to spread so they should be treated on time. Psychological Reasons A well presented person will have a confident behavior and will impress others too. Maintaining a hygienic practice helps to reduce the risks of ill health. 5.3 Hand Washing Techniques Washing of hands is the most necessary part of the personal hygiene. Now a question comes in our mind that when we should wash our hands? We should wash our hands: Before - Starting to Work: When we are going to start any work which is related to the production than it is very necessary to wash the hands. It can be done with any good hand washing liquid and then wipe your hands before the start of job. After - Handling Raw Ingredients: There are so many raw ingredients, which are purchased with dust and dirt like sometimes we find soil attached with the root vegetables, onion also have dirt on it and similar with all the raw materials. So it’s very necessary to wash hands after handling the raw ingredients. Smoking, Eating or Drinking: It is very necessary for a food production personnel to wash hands after meals or after drinking. It is not compulsory to wash hands after smoking as it can lead to contamination also. Using a Handkerchief or Tissue: Washing the hands after using a handkerchief and the tissue is very necessary as they might contain some germs which can lead to contamination. Hinging Any Part of Your Body: Our body contains lots of minute germs which are not visible with the naked eye. So if any of the food production personnel touches any part of the body, he/she should wash hands after touching any part of the body. Cleaning or Taking Out Garbage: While cleaning or taking out the garbage, we come in contact with harmful microorganisms, so it is very well suggested that after cleaning or taking out the garbage, the food production personnel should wash their hands with hand washing liquid soap. Using the Washroom: While working in the production area, the kitchen personnel come in contact with the washroom, which can lead to contamination also. It is very much required that he should wash his hands properly with water and soap after using the washroom. Washing hands is a very good way to reduce the chance of contaminating food with bacteria. Warm water is always good to use for washing hands, and it is very necessary to wash the back portion of the hands, wrists, and also between the fingers. The hands should be dried properly after every wash of hands. In case of wearing disposable gloves, they should be changed regularly, after an interval of time or depending on the type of use. Summary This chapter will help to learn the importance of personal hygiene. The students can learn the different aspects of personal hygiene. The students will be able to understand the different techniques of washing hands. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. Prepare a chart on different hand washing techniques. 2. Submit the chart to your teacher for assessment. II. Assessment A. Fill in the blanks: 1. The washing of hands is necessary ____________ and ______________ going to washroom. 2. The _______________ is most important part of the body which helps in maintaining the personal hygiene. 3. Nametag is an _________________ part of the uniform. B. State whether true or false: 1. The chef coat should be double breasted. 2. The shoes used in kitchen should be of cotton. 3. Apron protects the head part of the kitchen personnel. Practical 1. The students can be demonstrated about the different hand washing techniques. They can be asked to prepare some charts related to this. Objective 1. Making the students know about the kitchen equipments. 2. To find the care & maintenance of equipments. 3. Discussing the workplace hygiene. 4. To make the awareness about the different types of knives. 5. The students should be able to find the safety procedures for handling knives. 6.1 Importance of Kitchen Equipments Introduction to the Kitchen Equipments: Kitchen equipments can be defined as the cooking tools which will help in making the cooking effective and quick. The type, size and amount of these equipment will be depending upon the type of menu which is provided and the quantity for which the cooking will take place. Types of Equipments Large Equipments: Cooking range, electric oven, bone saw machine, deep fat fryer, buffalo chopper, salamander, kitchen table etc. Medium Size Equipments: Peeler, blender, mixer, mincer etc. Small Size Equipments: Pan, wok, spoon, ladle, grater, masher, pots etc. 6.2 Care and Maintenance of Equipments It is necessary to understand how to care for the equipments and how to maintain them. Following are the details for few of them, how to maintain and care the equipments: - Deep fat fryer should be free from debris and it should be ensured that the fat is disposed properly after frying, the fat used in fryer should be filtered properly. - Ovens should be preheated before baking and should be checked inside before turning it off or on. Water should not be sprayed in ovens. - Clean the dough sheeter with a moist cloth after the use. The machine should be fully disconnected before starting the cleaning process. - Avoid excess water use in microwaves while cleaning, don’t press any button while it is functioning. - The pulveriser should be cleaned properly after every use, where the attachments should be detached and it should be dried properly before storage. - The kitchen personnel should be trained properly, how to handle the machine and how to clean it also. - Before using the flat top grill, make sure that the surface is cleaned and correct temperature is there. - While cleaning the steam kettles use hot soapy water on the inner and wet cloth on the outer. 6.3 Work Place Hygiene Regular cleaning at workplaces, equipments and devices should be carried out to ensure the adequate level of workplace hygiene. A designated person should be appointed to oversee such operations. There should be maintaining of hygiene at all the work place. As it is going to be effective for all the work. We have already discussed about the hygiene in the previous chapters too. - At the work place, there should be proper arrangement for the washing of any perishable food item like - fruits, vegetables etc. - After the work is complete, the kitchen should be thoroughly cleaned. - There should be cleaning done after every shift, and there is also provision for weekly cleaning process, where each and everything has to be cleaned. - It is preferred to do the weekly cleaning on the day when there is minimum of work. - All the kitchen personnel should visit the doctor for periodical check up so that there should not be any effect by the communicative disease, if any, in the working of the kitchen. - Rubbish or waste should be kept in suitable containers or litter-bins which are located at convenient locations in the workplace. The containers should be emptied daily, preferably near the end of each working day. - Ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air by natural or mechanical means to and from a workplace. - It is essential to ensure that adequate ventilation is provided to a workplace, especially in an enclosed building. - In the case of activities that cause exposure to air-borne contaminants, special control measures or facilities should be considered. - An effective drainage system should be provided so that water can be removed and drained quickly from the floor. This prevents the floor from causing slips and accidents, and reduces the flourishing growth of mould and other micro-organisms. - Suitable and sufficient sanitary conveniences and wash basins should be provided at readily accessible places. 6.4 Knife and its Maintenance Apart from the tools discussed above, various kinds of knives are used in the kitchen. There are different kinds of knives used for different types of cuttings. Many other kinds of knives are used for specific purpose, for decorating fruits and vegetables, for opening oyster shells etc. Straight Edged Knives: Small (paring, turning, filleting, boning) large (chopping, pallet, carving knife and fork). Serrated Edged Knives and Saws 6.5 Safety Procedure for Handling Knives How to withdraw a Knife from its Sheath Safely Right Wrong Tips for Safe Knife Use - If you are new to knives, take small, measured pieces of wood off to start with. - Always be aware of where the fingers are and cut away from yourself and others in a clutter free area. - Never cut a piece of wood with your holding hand in the way of the blade’s direction of travel. - Prevent injury to self and others (carrying, handling), ensure quality of finished product, improved efficiency (time, waste). Holding of Knife How to hold a Chef Knife Clean, Maintain and Store of Knives Sharpening of Knife Appropriate washing/drying techniques, sharpening, safe and secure storage is required for the knives. It is well said that a sharp knife will cut the commodities but a blunt knife will cut the hand. The knife used should be sharpened properly or else it will cut the hand. The knife should be stored at safe place after using. Summary This chapter is making the students aware of kitchen equipment, care and maintenance of kitchen equipment. It also deals with workplace hygiene. The students will be able to find safety procedures. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. Prepare a chart on different types of knives. 2. Submit the chart to your teacher for assessment. II. Assessment A. Fill in the blanks: 1. Walk-in-fridge is considered to be the ________________ equipment. 2. Oven is classified as ________________ type of equipment. 3. Measuring spoon is classified as ________________ equipment. B. State whether true or false: 1. The cleaning of kitchen should be done daily after cooking is over. 2. The fish knife will be used to cut all fruits. 3. Hygiene at working place is not necessary. Practical 1. The students can make a collection of different knives and they can be demonstrated about the uses of different types of these knives. 2. They can also make a list of small, medium, and large equipment on a chart. Culinary History Objectives 1. To explain the historical background of the culinary field. 2. To describe the evolution of food. 7.1 Historical Background The origin of cooking or the advent of cooking played an important role in the evolution of human beings. It is believed by most anthropologists that cooking fires developed 1.8 to 2.3 million years ago when the primitive human first tasted meat that was cooked. due to the forest fire. He felt he was able to chew and digest the meat when it was cooked. Palaeolithic period was spit roasting of meat, a method of cooking, where food was suspended with support directly on to the flame. This was the only culinary technique they discovered. The Neolithic period saw the introduction of pottery, cooking techniques improved. The Romans were the first to introduce flat bread. They used crackled kernels and water to make a paste and flattened this on the hot stone. The Early Civilization: Mesopotamians, Aryans, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans developed the culinary techniques with the introduction of equipment, domestication of livestock, cultivation and travelling. Preservation of food was done by salting or smoking to improve shelf life. The invasions of France by the Romans and then by the Scandinavians and North Africa were predominant factors in culinary growth. The Greeks and Latins created the basics of modern cookery by fine tuning culinary preparations. They not only refined the preparation techniques but introduced new tools and equipment. Invasions and wars influenced the food habits to a large extent. In India the Turkish, Mughal invasion and wars influenced the food in certain states. British occupancy influenced the continental food served in India. Religion like Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism and Zoroastism brought about vegetarianism and non-vegetarianism. ### 7.2 Development of Modern Cookery Food no longer stays as a basic necessity; it has evolved into an artistic work and offers job opportunities due to its growth. The following factors developed food. - Economic Growth - Industrialization - Tourism - Modernization - New Equipment In the 17th and 18th century, food was famous in Europe due to the cooking techniques and standardization when compared with other worlds. In the 19th century was the age of nationalism where the cuisine gave an identity. With the movement of food from and to Europe due to travel, there was change in the society causing growth in food catering. Industrialization: This was the turning point where production, marketing, and standardization was introduced in bulk. This led to innovations and the birth of food as a catering business. Tourism: People travelling from one destination to another learnt the cooking techniques from the local chefs. People were open to sharing ideas and technology which influenced the further growth. Modernization: Chef Antonin Careme in the 17th and 18th century introduced art and science while creating his food. He was the first to record recipes in a standard manner. Chef Maitre Auguste Escoffier in the 20th century was regarded as the emperor of the world’s kitchen. He shaped the modern menu and introduced the kitchen Brigade, pushing the food industry into a profitable profession. He standardised recipes and menus, making them universal. Till date, chefs follow his book ‘Le Guide Culinaire’ as guidelines; chefs later on introduced their ideas and made food a complete delight. Today, media plays an important role in its never-ending growth of creativity and innovation. Summary The greatest discovery made by the early man was fire, which led to food evolution. This brought about better quality, many innovations, and creativity. The art and science of cooking food was considered, and the outcome of the food was its evolution. The upsurge in the market with better quality food items that was standardized due to bulk production during the industrial revolution was a breakthrough. This evolution helped in the betterment of products and continuous growth in the food industry. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. Explain the role of Chef Escoffier in culinary history. 2. Describe the growth of food during the industrial revolution. 3. List the various invasions which influenced food evolution. 4. Elaborate the historical background of food. 5. Write about the evolution of the culinary industry in the mid-17th and 18th centuries. Practical 1. Make a pictorial chart depicting the evolution of food. 2. Make presentations on the evolution of your regional cuisine. Objectives 1. Classification kitchen commodities. 2. Identification of various groups of commodities such as cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, spices, herbs, fats and oils, dairy products, eggs, meats and seafood and their role in food. 8.1 Kitchen Commodities The raw materials and ingredients used in kitchen to prepare various dishes are called kitchen commodities. Importance It is important for a chef to identify the variety of ingredients used in kitchen. It is also important to know and understand the variety of each of them and their taste, colour, texture, nutritional value and nature of product that results when cooked by different methods. Kitchen commodities can be classified as per their origin – Plant or Animals. Kitchen Commodities - Plant Origin - Pulses - Cereals - Vegetables - Fruits - Herbs / Spices - Oils & Fats - Sugar - Animal Origin - Meat - Fish & Shell fish - Eggs - Milk & milk products - Oils & Fats - Others - Salt Plant Origin Pulses A pulse is an annual leguminous crop which yields seeds within a pod. Pulses are an important source of proteins in diet. They contain about 20 – 25% protein by weight. They contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium. Pulses also provide iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc and other minerals, which play a variety of roles in maintaining good health. The seeds are dried and milled to ultimately result in the product we get in market as ‘Dal’. There are numerous varieties of pulses grown and eaten in the world. However, some common varieties of pulses eaten in India are: a) Black Gram (Urad Dal) This dal is available in three forms in market: - As whole black seed called Urad sabut or Mah ki dal which is used in dishes such as Dal Makhani. - The split form is used in preparing khichdi or dals. - The de-skinned form called urad dhuli is used in many south Indian preparations such as vada, dosa and idli. It is also cooked on its own as dal. b) Green gram (Moong) This dal is also available in three forms in market: - As whole green seed called Moongsabut dal which can be cooked on its own or sprouted to prepare salads. - The split form is used to prepare khichdi or dal. - The de-skinned form is considered to be easy to digest and light and usually takes on seasoning and spices well. c) Bengal Gram (Chana Dal) This is a versatile dried split yellow coloured lentil which when cooked gives a creamy texture, nutty flavour and is added to a lot of vegetable dishes as well. d) Red Kidney Beans (Rajma) Red kidney beans are an integral part of meal in North India. They are cooked on their own with tempering and popularly eaten with rice. e) Cowpea (Lobia) Similar to red kidney beans but little smaller and of cream colour with a big black eye, they are also boiled to prepare salads or eaten after tempering as dal along with meal. f) Red Gram (Masoorki Dal) This dal is available in two forms in market: - Whole grey coloured disc shaped dal known as masoorsabut dal. - Split red coloured dal known as masoordhuli dal. g) Chickpea (Safed Chole) Popularly cooked in India as Pindichole or the combination of ChanaBhatoor. They can also be boiled and mixed with other ingredients to form salad or sprouted. h) Pigeon pea (Arhar / Tuvar) This dal is eaten all over India and cooked & tempered on its own or mixed with vegetables such as in Sambhar. Use of Pulses - Pulses are cooked on their own as part of Indian meal and eaten as dal / dhal. They are simply boiled with water, salt and spices and are often tempered. - They are also baked / fried to make an ingredient in savouries (Namkeens). - Pulses can be sprouted and used as salads. They may also be just boiled and mixed with spices and other ingredients to yield a variety of salads. - They are also soaked and grinded to prepare a wide variety of pancakes (Dosa / Chilla), vadas, bhalla etc. - Pulses can also be soaked, made into a paste, spiced and made into dumplings called wadi or mangodi and also used to make papad / poppadums. These are sundried after preparation and can be cooked in a variety of ways later. - Pulses can also be cooked to make desserts e.g. pal payasam, moong dal halwa etc. Cereals A cereal is a grass, cultivated for the edible components of its grain. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop - they are therefore staple crops. A staple food, is a food that is eaten routinely, and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet in a given population, supplying a large fraction of the needs for energy-rich materials and generally a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well. In their natural form (as in whole grain), cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. When refined by the removal of the bran (outer skin mostly fibre) and germ (contains micronutrients), the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. Most commonly grown and eaten cereals in India are wheat and rice. However other cereals include oats, corns, maize, ragi, jowar, bajra etc. They are a rich source of carbohydrates in diet. a) Wheat: It is a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins and dietary fibre. It contains a protein gluten which is essential for bread making. Wheat is milled to produce semolina (sooji/ rava), Whole wheat flour, Refined flour (Maida) and even Porridge (Dalia). It is used to make rotis, cakes, biscuits, bread, pasta, noodles, breakfast cereal, idlis, upma etc. b) Rice: Eaten on its own or made into a flour. There are hundreds of varieties of rice grown in the world. Each varies in grain size and starch content. Thus each variety is unique in final appearance after cooking, aroma, texture, taste and nutritional value. Rice itself is cooked to prepare a wide variety of pulao and biryani. Rice flour is used to make roti, idli, dosa and sweets such as modak or phirni. c) Maize: Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitute a staple food in many regions of the world. It is popularly eaten in tacos & tortillas in Mexico, as Polenta in Italy and the flour is used to prepare Punjabi Makki di Roti. It is also popular as popcorn or boiled corn snack and as breakfast cereal cornflakes. The whole cob is char grilled to be eaten as bhutta / challi in many parts of India. d) Pearl Millet (Bajra): It is majorly grown in Rajasthan and the flour is used to prepare bajreki roti, bhakri and khakhras. It is also used as porridge and in khichdi. e) Barley: Even though wheat and barley look similar, there is difference between them - Wheat has a weaker taste whereas barley has a stronger taste. Barley has a higher fiber content than wheat and Barley can be cooked easily as rice although wheat has to be milled before cooking. Barley is thus mostly used to produce malt i.e. used in preparation of malted beverages and beer. f) Oat: Oats are most popular as porridge. However oat flour or oat meal is used in preparation of cookies, as breakfast cereal and to prepare oatmeal breads. g) Finger Millet (Ragi): A cereal majorly grown in Karnataka, it is commonly consumed in many states. Ragi flour is used to prepare dosas, bhakri or rotis. It is also used to make puttu. The grain may be malted and ground and then mixed with milk, boiled water or curd. --- Vegetables A vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a savoury course or meal. The following classification is based on the part of plant being used as vegetable: \| Types \| Description \| Examples \| \|-------\|-------------\|----------\| \| Bulbs \| They grow just below the surface of the ground and produce a fleshy, leafy shoot above the ground. Bulbs may contain layers or clustered segments. \| Onion, Garlic, Spring Onion, Leeks, Fennel. \| \| Roots \| They also grow below the ground as long or round shaped tap root and have green leafy shoots above the ground. \| Carrot, Radish, Turnip, Beet Root. \| \| Types \| Description \| Examples \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Tubers\| Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They can be root or stem. \| Potato, Sweet potato, Ginger, Elephant Yam. \| \| Flowers\| These are edible flowers of certain plants. \| Cauliflower, Broccoli, Globe Artichoke. \| \| Fruits\| Fleshy fruits of a plant eaten as vegetables. (Please remember that this is a culinary classification. Scientifically these vegetables are fruits of a plant but in cooking we use them as vegetables). \| Capsicum, Chillies, Cucumber, Egg plant (Brinjals), Pumpkin, Squash, Tomato, Gourds (Bitter gourd – Karela, Ridge gourd – Turai, Bottle gourd - Lauki). \| \| Leaves\| Edible leaves of plants. \| Cabbage, Lettuce, Mustard leaves (sarsonkasaag), Spinach (Paalak), Fenugreek leaves (methi). \| \| Pods \| A legume that opens and contain seeds. These are the pods that are eaten while seeds are still tender and pods are green. \| French Beans, Peas, Snow Pea. \| \| Types \| Description \| Examples \| \|-----------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Stems \| The edible stalks of plants when the stalk is the main part of the vegetable \| Asparagus, Celery, Kohlrabi. \| \| Fungi \| All varieties of mushrooms fall into this category. \| Button Mushrooms, Enoki, Shittake, Truffle, Oyster Mushrooms. \| Use of Vegetables - Vegetables form an integral part of daily meal as it is a source of vitamins, minerals and fibre. They are cooked in various combinations either as a dry preparation or with some gravy. - Vegetables are also used to prepare snacks. - Some vegetables are even used to prepare sweets such as ghiyakilauz, carrot halwa, petha etc. - Cooked vegetables mixed with dressings and other ingredients form a nutritious salad. They are also added to curd to form Raitas. - They are also used in stuffing the Breads or Pastries (e.g. quiche). - Juices can also be extracted from vegetables and used on their own (Carrot / Beetroot/ Bottle gourd etc.) or may be in a cocktail (e.g. tomato juice in Bloody Mary). Fruits Fruits are a very good source of Vitamins and Minerals essential to our health. Some common varieties of fruits are: \| Name \| Description \| \|---------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Papaya (Papeeta) \| Papaya has nutritional, digestive, and medicinal properties. Raw papaya contains enzyme ‘papain’ which is used as tenderizer for meats. Ripe papaya aids in digestion. \| \| Banana (Kela) \| This is most widely used fruit. Raw bananas are used as vegetable while ripe ones are used as fruits. Banana leaves are used to serve food on and flowers are used as vegetable. \| \| Melon (Tarbooz, kharbooza) \| There are many varieties such as Musk melon, Water melon, Cantaloupe and is a popular summer fruit. \| \| Peach (Aaaru) \| Peaches have a high acid content and tart flavor. Many a times they are canned in used in baked goods. \| \| Mango (Aam) \| India produces world famous Alphonso mango. It is very sweet with fibreless pulp and rich in Vitamin A and C. Apart from this there are many varieties grown all over the world. \| \| Apple (Seb) \| There are many varieties of apples grown in India. The skin of apple is rich in Vitamin A. \| \| Name \| Description \| \|---------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Pear (Nashpati) \| Pears are consumed fresh, canned, as juice, and dried. This includes varieties such as babbugosha. \| \| Oranges (Santara) \| Nagpur is famous for oranges which are sweet and have a juicy pulp. The taste of other varieties of oranges varies from sour, sweet to slightly bitter. \| \| Sweet lime (Mausami) \| ‘Citrus fruits’ i.e. oranges, lemons, limes and grapefruits are a rich source of Vitamin C which boosts our body immunity. \| \| Pineapple (Ananas) \| Pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, and preserved. \| \| Pomegranate (Anaar) \| The juice may be sweet and sour and is widely consumed. The fruit is used as garnish in many dishes. \| \| Small fleshy fruits \| These include Strawberry, Mulberry (shehtoot), Cherry, Blueberry, Grapes (Angoor), Raspberry (Rasbhari) etc \| Use of Fruits - Fruits can be eaten on their own as a good source of nutrition. - They can be made into fruit salads. - Some fruits can be used for pickling e.g. Raw mango. - Fruits are used to prepare jams, jellies, marmalade (the ‘preserves’) and chutneys. - Fruits are blended with milk and other ingredients to make a vast variety of shakes, smoothies and chilled drinks. - Fruits are widely used in flavouring and topping bakery products such as cakes, pastries, tarts etc. - Fruits are also pureed to prepare sauces called ‘Coulis’. Herbs These are leaves of certain plants that usually grow in temperate climate. They are leaves of soft stemmed non-woody plants. Most of the herbs used in cooking possess some medicinal value. Apart from the nutritional value, they act as antioxidants, antiseptic, fight cough and cold, help in digestion, are anti-bacterial and support body’s immune system to maintain health. Some of the herbs are: \| Name \| Use of Fruits \| \|---------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Coriander/Cilantro (Dhaniya) \| ![Coriander](image1.png) This is the most commonly used herb used in Indian Cookery. It is chopped or used whole to garnish and add flavour & aroma to many North Indian gravies and vegetables. It is also used to flavour soups. \| \| Mint (Pudina) \| ![Mint](image2.png) This herb is refreshingly cold and used in many dishes to add fresh aroma to dishes. It is also used to aid digestion. \| \| Basil (Tulsi) \| ![Basil](image3.png) The holy basil has long been used in India for its medicinal values of curing cough and cold, as antibiotic etc. The sweet basil is popularly used in Italian cookery to flavour various dishes. \| \| Herb \| Image \| Description \| \|---------------\|-------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Bay leaf \| ![Image] \| This strongly aromatic herb is mostly used in dried form and stored in jars. It is used to flavour gravies, rice and in many European dishes. \| \| Curry leaves \| ![Image] \| Like holy basil, curry leaves are also grown in many kitchen gardens all across the country. It is used in tempering and chopped in many dishes such as sambhar, vada, curries etc. \| \| Parsley \| ![Image] \| Mostly used in European and Mediterranean cuisines, this herb is chopped or used whole to flavour many vegetable and meat dishes. \| \| Oregano \| ![Image] \| Used in Italian cooking to flavour many dishes such as pizzas, pastas and sauces. \| \| Thyme \| ![Image] \| This herb is used in European cooking and is used to flavour lamb. \| \| Fennel \| ![Image] \| A pleasant smelling herb used in European and Mediterranean cooking. It is usually used to flavour salads or chilled drinks. \| \| Rosemary \| ![Image] \| An aromatic herb from mint family, it is used in European cuisine to flavour meats specially lamb. \| Spices These are the buds, fruits, flowers, bark, seeds and roots of plants and trees which are used in their natural / dried form to impart taste to food. Apart from this they also carry a wide range of medicinal properties, aroma and also may impart colour to the food. Some commonly used spices in Indian kitchen are: \| Name \| Description and Use \| \|--------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Cumin seed (Jeera) \| It is used for tempering dishes. It may also be roasted and powdered and used in curd, rice etc. It may even be used to flavour cookies. \| \| Coriander seed (Dhania) \| It is used whole for tempering certain dishes, roasted and powdered and put in gravies. \| \| Caraway (Ajwain) \| It is used in tempering and also put in dough of Indian breads and stuffing for flavour. It is known to aid in digestion. \| \| Turmeric (Haldi) \| Most commonly used as powder than whole, it is added to many dishes to impart flavour, yellow colour and antiseptic properties. \| \| Red Chilli (Laal Mirch) \| It is used whole or in powdered form to impart hot flavor to the food. \| \| Name \| Description and Use \| \|---------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Cinnamon (Dalchini) \| Cinnamon is a bark and is an ingredient of Garam Masala. It has a mild pleasant flavour used in sparing quantities in the food. It also has astringent and antifungal properties. \| \| Clove (Laung) \| Used in Garam masala, this possesses antibiotic and antiseptic properties. Clove oil is used in many oral care products. \| \| Asafoetida (Hing) \| This is added to many dals and vegetables and provides a typical aroma. Apart from this it is known to aid digestion and is an antibiotic. \| \| Mustard seed (Sarson) \| It is used to temper many dishes and provides a characteristic taste and aroma. It may also be made into a paste and used in fish curries or in salads. \| \| Nigella (Kalonji) \| More often used in pickles in combination with other spices. \| \| Fennel seed (Saunf) \| It is also used in pickles, for tempering and may even be powdered to flavour many dishes. It has a pleasant aroma. \| \| Name \| Description and Use \| \|---------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Mace (Javitri) \| This pink dried flower is an ingredient in Garam Masala and provides aroma. It encircles nutmeg and is part of the same plant. \| \| Nutmeg (Jaiphal)\| It should be used in sparing quantities mostly powdered and acts as stimulant and astringent. In excessive quantities it can have narcotic effect. \| \| Fenugreek (Methi) \| It is used in tempering and has a slightly bitter taste. It is known to help curing colic, dysentery and diarrhoea. \| \| Sesame seeds (Til) \| It is usually roasted and may be grinded to be used as stuffing, or in sweets. It is also used to produce sesame oil. \| \| Cardamom (Elaichi) \| Black cardamom is used in Garam Masala and spices up the dish. Green Cardamom is more often used to flavour sweets. \| Use of Spices - Spices are used mainly to enhance the flavour of a dish. Usually spices are used in combination of each other and that of main ingredient to result in a tasteful dish. - All the spices carry some medicinal properties. If used wisely, they contribute to general total health. - They may also be used to impart colour to food. Fats & Oils Fats and oils both are made up of three elements: Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen. These elements combine together to form chains known as fatty acids. Three of these chains then join together to form a molecule known as a triglyceride. The triglyceride molecule is the basis of all oils and fats. However, oils containing a greater proportion of unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature i.e. Oils (sunflower oil, rice bran oil etc.) whereas those with higher amounts of saturated fatty acids will be solid i.e. Fats (Butter, Margarine, Desighee etc.) Several edible vegetable and animal fats and oils are used for various purposes in cooking and food preparation. The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction termed “crushing” or “pressing.” The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The extracted oil is then purified, refined or chemically altered. Some of the common oils extracted from plants and used in cooking are: a) Mustard Oil: This oil has a distinctive pungent taste, characteristic of all plants in the mustard family. It is traditionally used in many parts of India for cooking. The oil makes up about 30% of the mustard seeds. It can be produced from black mustard, brown mustard and white mustard. b) Coconut Oil: Coconut oil or Copra oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Because of its high saturated fat content it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidity. c) Cottonseed Oil: Cotton seed has a similar structure to other oilseeds such as sunflower seed, having an oil-bearing kernel surrounded by a hard outer hull; in processing, the oil is extracted from the kernel. Cottonseed oil is used for salad oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing, and similar products because of its flavour stability. d) Groundnut Oil: It is often used in Chinese, South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Groundnut oil has a high smoke point relative to many other cooking oils, so is commonly used for frying foods. e) Soybean Oil: Soybean oil is mostly used for frying and baking. It is also used as a condiment for salads. f) Sunflower Oil: It is the non-volatile oil compressed from sunflower seeds. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations. g) Olive Oil: Olive oil is a fat obtained from the olive, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean region. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. h) Rice Bran Oil - Rice bran oil is the oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice after rice husk is removed. It is notable for its high smoke point of (232 °C) and its mild flavour, making it suitable for high-temperature cooking methods such as stir frying and deep frying. It is popular as a cooking oil in several Asian countries. Use of Fats & Oils - Both fats and oils are used as cooking medium – for tempering, frying, sautéing etc. While cooking they also impart flavour and aroma to the food. - Oils are used in preparing dressings of the salads. - Oils and Fats are also added to dough as shortenings. They coat the gluten proteins of flour and prevent toughness of product. The product is crumbly and soft. E.g. little oil added to poori dough to make it crumbly and soft. Similarly fats and oils are used in bakery products too. - Some vegetable fats are used as spreads in sandwiches e.g. peanut butter. Sugar Sugar is the generalized name for sweet, short-chain, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. There are various types of sugar derived from different sources. Most sugars are extracted from sugarcane and sugar beet. The juice of sugarcane or beet is collected, heated, purified, filtered and crystallized. This is the most common form of sugar we see and use at home. However, there are various forms of sugars used in cookery. Some of them are: - Granulated Sugars are used to prepare any sweet dishes. They are added to kheer, rabri, custard etc. Sugar in large quantities are also used as a preservative to prevent microorganisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling as in jams, marmalades, and candied fruits. Sugar is also used in baking as a food for yeast to grow and ferment bread doughs. In addition it gives the crust brown colour in cakes and breads. - Milled Sugars (known as powdered sugar and confectioner’s sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used as icing sugar in cakes, icings, or even for decoration on sweet products. They dissolve quickly in cake mixes and other products. - Brown Sugars are granulated sugars with the grains coated in molasses (remaining sugarcane syrup after production of sugar) to produce a light, dark, or demerara sugar. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees. - Sugar Cubes are white or brown granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks. Caster Sugars is the fine granulated sugar. Because caster sugar crystals are so fine, they dissolve very quickly, so are useful in meringues, custards, and mousses, and for sweetening cold drinks or cocktails. Caster sugar is also used in baking. Liquid Sugars are strong syrups consisting of 67% granulated sugar dissolved in water. They are used in the food processing of a wide range of products including beverages, ice cream, jams, and hard candy. A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. 8.2 Animal Origin Meat Meat is a general term for various animal flesh eaten as food. It is mostly composed of proteins and fat. It is very important to maintain hygiene during rearing of the animal, while butchering and also while cooking the meat. Various state laws control the butchering and selling of animals. Meat can be classified as: a) Game is meat which comes from wild animals and birds that are hunted for food or sport. Game is generally classified as either feathered or furred. - Furred Game: This includes animals like Deer, Goat, Hare, Rabbit, Wild pig etc. - Feathered Game: This includes feathered birds like Pigeon, Quail, Wild goose, Pheasant, Guinea fowl, Partridge etc. b) Poultry is a general name applied to a range of fowl domestically bred for human consumption. The poultry family generally includes chicken, turkey, duck and geese. Use of Meat - Meats are cooked along with spices, herbs and vegetables to prepare a dish complete in nutrition. - Meats are also preserved and eaten as ham, bacon, sausages etc. - They have a wide usage where they can be used to make salads, main dish, snacks in every cuisine in the world. Seafood This is the general term for all types of fish. There are three basic categories of seafood: fish, shellfish and invertebrates. a) Fish can be divided into various sub-categories according to habitat, shape and flesh-type. According to habitat fish is divided into two categories: - Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 0.05%. e.g. Trout, Carp, Cod, Eel etc. - Saltwater fish are those that spend their lives in saline sea water. E.g. Herring, Snapper, Mackerel etc. b) Shellfish: The main difference between fish and shellfish is their skeleton. Shellfish have an external skeleton or shell. There are two main categories of shellfish: - Crustaceans: They have a segmented body, a chitinous exoskeleton and paired jointed limbs e.g. Crabs, Crayfish, Prawns, Scampi etc. - Molluscs: They have a soft un-segmented body with a calcareous shell e.g. Clams, Oysters, Snails, Scallops, Mussels etc. c) Invertebrates: Invertebrates are spineless marine animals with no outer shell. They include the squid and octopus family. Use Fish is a very good source of proteins and is easy to digest. It also contains some amount of fat, minerals, vitamins and trace elements. This is the reason why fish is cooked in variety of ways such as frying, baking, grilling, poaching etc. to make numerous varieties of dishes and snacks. In coastal regions many curries are made with fish and coconut. River water fish are also popularly used in households in various curries or simply batter fried to prepare pakodas. Egg Bird eggs are a common food and one of the most versatile ingredients used in cooking. Eggs are a complete source of proteins specially essential amino acids. It also contains vitamins and minerals in significant quantities. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken. Other varieties of eggs used in cooking are duck, goose or even quail eggs. It is interesting to note that even fish eggs are used in both Indian and World cuisine. Fish lays thousands of tiny eggs in a jelly like form called Roe. Roe of Sturgeon fish is popularly eaten as ‘Caviar’ which is an expensive commodity. In India too fish eggs are used to prepare snacks and curries in coastal areas. Use of Egg - Eggs are cooked on their own in a variety of ways as breakfast – poached, fried, scrambled, omelettes, boiled etc. - Eggs are a popular ingredient in baking in cakes, cookies and desserts such as crème caramel or mousse. - Eggs are used to make sauces Mayonnaise and Hollandaise. - Eggs are uses as binding agents in various mixtures. - Eggs are also used to coat ingredients to give them a crispy texture. Milk Milk is an emulsion of fat globules within a water-based fluid that contains dissolved carbohydrates and protein aggregates with minerals. It also contains sugar Lactose. Cow is reared specially in many countries on cattle farms to produce milk. Apart from this many other kind of livestock are reared to provide milk. This includes buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey, horse, reindeer and yak. Most of the milk we get packaged from market is either cow or buffalo milk. To increase shelf life of milk it is often pasteurized. Pasteurization is a process in which milk is heated to at least 63°C for 30 minutes OR 71.5°C for 15 seconds (HTST - High temperature Short Time) so that harmful microorganisms are killed. It is then refrigerated. Whether pasteurized or not, the dairies print expiry dates on each container or packet after which it should be discarded. Milk may also be homogenized. This is a treatment that prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence. A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than un-homogenized milk. It is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavours. Varieties of Milk - Full Cream Milk: The milk which has minimum milk fat 6% and minimum milk solids (not fat) 9% - Toned Milk: The milk which has minimum milk fat 3% and minimum milk solids (not fat) 8.5%. - Double Toned: The milk which has minimum milk fat 1.5% and minimum milk solids (not fat) 9%. - Skimmed Milk: The milk which has milk fat not more than .5% and minimum milk solids (not fat) 8.7%. - Condensed Milk: Condensed milk is milk from which water has been removed. It is most often found in the form of sweetened condensed milk (SCM), with sugar added. Sweetened condensed milk is a very thick, sweet product which is canned. - Milk Powder: Powdered milk or dried milk is a manufactured dairy product made by evaporating milk to dryness. One purpose of drying milk is to preserve it; milk powder has a far longer shelf life than liquid milk and does not need to be refrigerated, due to its low moisture content. - Fermented Milk: Fermented milk products, also known as cultured milk products, are dairy foods that have been fermented with lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Leuconostoc. The fermentation process increases the shelf-life of the product, while enhancing the taste and improving the digestibility of milk. Milk Products Milk is used to make lots of products: a) Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, will eventually rise to the top. In the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called “separators”. It is of many types such as single cream, double cream, sour cream, clotted cream etc. b) Butter is a dairy product made by churning cream, to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, and pan frying. c) Curds are a dairy product obtained by introducing bacteria which consumes natural milk sugars and excretes lactic acid. This causes the milk proteins to curdle and create a solid mass. Little curd from previous batch is added as a starter as it contains necessary live bacteria. d) Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form. e) Ghee is prepared by simmering butter, which is churned from cream, and removing the liquid residue. Spices can be added for flavor. The texture, color, and taste of ghee depend on the quality of the butter, source of the milk used in the process and the duration of the boiling. f) Chhena: It is fresh cheese made from cow milk. A crumbly and moist form of farmers cheese or paneer, it is used to make desserts such as rasgulla. g) Khoya is a dairy product widely used in making sweets milk thickened by heating in an open iron pan. h) Paneer is a fresh cheese common in Indian cuisine. It is an unaged, acid-set, non-melting farmer cheese made by curdling heated milk with lemon juice, vinegar, or any other food acids. Use of Milk Products - Milk is a popular ingredient in daily diet in the form of milk itself or added to tea, coffee and cereals. - It is used to prepare sweets such as kheer, rabri, rasmalai, custard, ice-cream etc. - It is used to prepare numerous products used in cookery such as Butter, Ghee, Buttermilk, Curd, Cheese, Chenna etc. - It is often used in bakery for adding nutrients, moisture and fat to the product. - It is used in preparing sauces such as Béchamel in European cookery. - Milk is used to prepare chilled shakes and smoothies along with fruits and other ingredients. Animal Fats Many fats derived from animal tissues are used in cooking. Example: - Lard – Fat obtained from pig. - Suet – Fat obtained from mutton or beef. - Poultry fat This is added in European cuisines to cook meats, in preparing sausages, added as a shortening to pastry to give it a crumbly texture etc. In India animal fats are used in many minced meat preparations such as kebabs. Salt Salt does not contain any carbohydrates, proteins or vitamins but is essential in itself to life. Salt is the most common kitchen commodity. Technically table salt is a mineral primarily sodium chloride and is an essential ingredient of food. Salt can be obtained from: - Rocks: Vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit. - Brine (Salty water such as in Oceans): Produced by drying of seawater in shallow ponds. Types of salt used in cooking There is a huge variety of salts available in market. However, common ones are - - Table salt (Namak): Salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. The natural salt is usually fortified. To prevent lump formation or caking of salt, chemical agents are added in small quantities to make it ‘free flowing’. Iodine is usually added to prevent its deficiency causing Goitre or mental retardation. Salt may also be fortified with iron to prevent anemia. In some salts, even fluoride is added which prevents dental caries. - Black salt (Kala Namak): It is actually a pinkish-grey color. It has a strong sulphuric smell. Black salt is more hygroscopic than common salt and tends to absorb moisture pretty fast. Store it away from moisture and keeping the cap of the bottle or jar tightly closed. Black salt is used in preparing snacks, chaats, chutneys, raitas and is used as a flavouring for many fried snacks, by sprinkling it as a topping. It is sprinkled on fruits too. - Rock salt (Sendha Namak): Rock salt is obtained from the rock, mountains and from the vast beds of dried up ancient lakes and seas. These beds may be hundreds of metres deep. Rock salt is normally colourless to yellow in colour but may also be in various hues of blue and pink, depending on the impurities in it. This salt is mostly used in preparing food during fasting. Use of Salt - Salt is required to give taste to a dish. - It is added to breads in small quantities to control fermentation and helps in production of breads. - Salt added to water makes the water boil at a higher temperature, thus reducing cooking time. Salt is also used as a preservative e.g. in pickles, hams etc. It is also used as a cleaning agent because of its abrasive texture and ability to remove greasy or oily stuff from pans. Salt also has some medicinal qualities such as it helps in relieving tired feet or removing puffiness. Sodium is essential for nerve transmissions and pH balance. Summary The commodities used in kitchen can be classified according to their origin as the ones originating from plants (such as pulses, cereals, fruits, vegetables, spices, herbs and oils), animals (such as milk and milk products, meats, seafood, eggs, animal fats) and others (such as salt). There is a vast variety of these commodities that are used in the world in cooking. All are important sources of some nutrients and minerals for healthy life. Each ingredient is used in a variety of ways in cooking e.g. a fruit can be made into jam or jelly, eaten on its own or made into a sweet or shake. Thus each ingredient is unique and a chef must be able to identify the ingredient, know the varieties available and then suitably use them to prepare food. ### I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. List commodities obtained from Plants and Animals. 2. What are the major nutrients obtained from various commodities obtained from plants? 3. Classify Seafood and give examples of each category. 4. What is pasteurization? 5. What is homogenization? 6. Differentiate between Herbs and Spices. 7. List the uses of fruits in cookery. 8. Pulses and Cereals form a major part of our diet. Explain their role in our food. 9. What are different types of meats? ### II. Fill in the blanks: 1. Granulated sugar coated with molasses is called ..................... 2. Oils and Fats are also known as ..................... in kitchen as they make the product soft and crumbly. 3. Salt added to water makes it boil at ...................... thus ...................... cooking time. 4. Fish eggs are a delicate commodity and roe of sturgeon fish is called ....................... . 5. ________________ with higher amount of saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature and _______________ with unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature. 6. ________________ contains enzyme papain used as a meat tenderizer. 7. ________________ Fruits are a group of fruits which are sour and have a high content of Vitamin C. 8. Semolina (sooji) and Porridge (Dalia) are made from______________. 9. ________________ can be sprouted and used in salads. 10. ________________ is a protein found in wheat essential for bread making. III. Discuss in class: To understand the nature, taste and cooking of ingredient is important for a chef. Also, each ingredient comes in various varieties that differ from each other. Take an example of rice and explore the varieties available in India. Discuss how the usage differs with varieties. Practical 1. List commodities commonly available in your kitchen at home and classify them. Write their uses. Storage of Commodities Objective 1. Importance of correct storage of commodities. 2. Meaning of perishability of an ingredient. 3. Shelf life of a commodity. 4. Qualities of a good store. 5. Storage of various kitchen commodities such as dry ingredients, vegetables and fruits, milk, eggs, meats & seafood, frozen food, fats and oils, canned and bottled products. 9.1 Perishability of a Product A large number and variety of ingredients are used to prepare food. The kitchen commodities vary from dry ingredients like sugar, flour, rice etc. to fresh vegetables and fruits. They also include canned or bottled products, meats, seafood, milk and milk products etc. All these food ingredients should be of required quality to get healthy, safe and tasty meal. Importance of Correct Storage - Each ingredient is bought for a price. In hotel business, a large amount of money is involved in purchasing kitchen commodities. It is important that this money is used wisely and not wasted. The cost of all the ingredients used in preparing a dish is called its Food Cost. In case of wastages, spoilages or pilferages, the ingredient lost is money lost. - All kitchen commodities are Perishable i.e. they are spoiled or get unfit for human consumption after some period of time. The time during which the ingredient can be stored and used safely is called Shelf Life of a product. - Quality of ingredients is an important criteria to determine quality of the dish prepared using these ingredients. All the ingredients cannot be procured from market immediately as and when they are required by chef. Therefore some quantity of ingredients is always bought in advance. and stored in kitchen or general store. Thus it becomes important for a chef to correctly understand the storage requirements of various commodities. Perishability of a product - Food stuffs that are subject to decay or spoilage are called perishable products. Hence, with time and storage conditions, quality of all the food ingredients deteriorate. If such ingredients are used in cooking, they may cause diseases and may not taste well. Shelf life of an ingredient is the length of time for which a commodity may be stored in required conditions (temperature, humidity etc.) without becoming unfit for use, consumption or sale. 9.2 Techniques of Storage There is no exact method to determine how long a food will maintain quality and be safe to eat, because many conditions affect quality. The storage life of foods is affected by the: - Freshness of the food when it reached the hotel from the supplier. - Length of time and the temperature at which it was held before purchase. - Temperature of food storage areas. - Humidity level in food storage areas. - Type of storage container or packaging the food is stored in. - Characteristics of the food item. Qualities of a Good Store - A store should be at a location easily accessible from receiving area as well as by kitchen department. - Good ventilation, air circulation and sufficient lighting. It is important to have a suitable humidity control system in place as dry store such as cereals, pulses, flours etc. - Hygienic and free of pests such as flies, rats, cockroaches etc. - Safe and with sufficient racks to store ingredients. Leaving sacks or packages on floor makes them more vulnerable to infestation by pests and makes the store untidy. - Provision of deep freezers and refrigerators to suitably store kitchen commodities. - An effective store keeping system to ensure FIFO system (First in First out). This system ensures that the material received first is issued first and thus used first. - Clear labelling of ‘best before’ or ‘expiry’ dates. These should be strictly followed and ingredients must be disposed of after ‘best before’ dates. - Regular cleaning schedule is followed. Storage of Kitchen Commodities Foods can be classified into various groups for the purpose of storage: a) Dry Ingredients: Like cereals, pulses, sugar, flours, dry fruits, salt, spices and condiments – These should be stored in a food grade air-tight container or if pre-packed then sealed properly. They should be stored in dry (low humidity) area at room temperature. Many products may be in vacuum sealed packing, hence should be kept safe. However, prolonged storage makes them prone to infestation, loss of flavor and aroma in case of dry herbs and spices etc. b) Eggs, Milk and Milk Products: Dairy products are those commodities, which are derived from or based upon milk, and include creams, yoghurts, butter, cheese and ice cream. Eggs, milk and milk products should be stored in the refrigerator at a temperature between 3 to 4°C. Cream, yoghurts, butter, cheese and eggs should also be stored at between 3 to 4°C. The shelf life of these products will vary depending on their method of manufacturing, and chef should check individual ‘use by’ dates on the packaging. All dairy products need to be kept well sealed when in storage and away from strong smelling ingredients otherwise they will absorb flavor and aroma from strong smelling foods around them. c) Vegetables, Fresh Herbs & Fruits: Many vegetables need not be refrigerated and are good in dry room temperature conditions for a reasonable length of time. Depending on type of vegetable, they are stored as follows: - Cool and Dry: Onion, Potatoes, Garlic, Bananas, Pineapples etc. They should be stored at about 18°C with good air circulation around them. - Cool and Moist: Most vegetables and fruits as well as fresh herbs are stored in refrigerators. They are stored at about 5°C. - Warm and Dry: Pumpkin, sweet potatoes, dried hot peppers. d) Meats: Fresh meat and poultry should be stored between 1 and 3°C. All meat and poultry should be stored on clean trays and covered with plastic wrap. Raw and cooked food should never be stored on the same tray. Meats are also cut, vacuum sealed and labeled in butchery and stored frozen at about -18°C in deep freezers. e) Seafood: Has a very short shelf life and must be stored with extra care. It should be stored at 1°C. Seafood should be wrapped in plastic film and stored in the coldest part of the cool room on a bed of crushed ice. It may also be vacuum sealed, labeled and stored frozen at -18°C in deep freezers. f) Frozen Products such as ice-creams: Ice-creams should be stored at about -18°C in deep freezers away from strong smelling ingredients. Similarly frozen vegetables or ready to eat items should also be kept in deep freezers. g) Canned or Bottled Products: Many ingredients purchased are packed in cans or bottles such as tomato ketchup, tomato puree, pickles, pineapple tins, sauces etc. These products are labeled as per storage requirements. They should be stored as per manufacturer’s instructions – may be in a cool dry room, away from sunlight etc. Any leaky or puffed cans or ones with some mould growth should be immediately discarded. h) Fats and Oils: All oils should be sealed in airtight containers to prevent oxidation. They should be stored in a cool, dark place and not exposed to heat and sunlight. Most fats such as lard, butter, margarine should be refrigerated. Thus proper food storage helps maintain food quality by retaining flavour, colour, texture and nutrients, while reducing the chance of contracting a food-borne illness. Summary All the commodities used in kitchen are procured from market by paying a price which is an investment from business point of view. At the same time, they all become unfit for consumption after some time i.e. they are perishable. Hence they should be stored correctly to keep them in usable condition for a maximum period of time. Some commodities like dry ration – pulses, cereals, flours require dry and room temperature conditions while some others like milk, butter, curd, cheese etc and many vegetables and fruits require cooler temperatures. Meats, ice-creams etc need to be kept frozen. Correct storage is important to maintain the quality of ingredient from purchase to actual use. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. What are the salient features of a good store? 2. What do you understand by ‘Perishability’ of a product? 3. What is food cost? 4. What are the factors that determine storage life of a product? II. How should one store the following commodities? \| Commodity \| Storage \| \|---------------\|---------\| \| Banana \| \| \| Margarine \| \| \| Whole black gram \| \| \| Turmeric powder \| \| \| Milk \| \| \| Fish \| \| \| Tomato \| \| \| Ice-cream \| \| \| Sugar \| \| \| Curd \| \| III. Discuss in class: Discuss the importance of correct storage of various commodities. Also, take any packaged commodity and discuss relevance of ‘best before’ or ‘use by’ dates. Practical 1. Take different types of commodities such as any pulse, potato, butter, tomato, salt and sugar etc. Keep little at room temperature. Note observations. Can these commodities be stored differently for longer shelf life? Also, explain how they should be stored to keep away from common pests such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, ants etc. 10.1 Kitchen Organization The structural hierarchy of a kitchen is known as Kitchen organization. Hierarchy refers to the flow of authority from top to bottom in an organization and with respect to the kitchen, it refers to the flow of authority commencing from executive chef and goes to the bottom i.e. Kitchen helpers. The number of positions and also the number of employees at each position differ from hotel to hotel depending on following factors: - The variety of dishes that are offered on the menu. - Number of people expected to be dining in the restaurant. - Use of convenience foods – e.g. Readymade burger patties which need to only be deep fried not prepared. - Types of equipment available - the level of automation – e.g. if there is a machine such as a commercial food processor for cutting and chopping, less number of people are required to do the job. - Need of skill involved at the various levels – specialization jobs e.g. a cook trained to work on tandoor. The kitchen is divided into various sub-sections and each section contributes in preparation of food. The Executive Chef is the head of the kitchen department. He has a Sous Chef or Under Chef who assists him in his work and looks after everyday operations directly. The kitchen is divided into various sections and each section has a section head called CDP. The number of CDPs in each hotel varies depending on the need of the organisation. Each CDP has some assistant cooks to work under him. The assistant cooks are further divided according to seniority and experience on Commis I, Commis II and Commis III. Number of commis in a kitchen is dependent on the amount of work. Lastly there are trainees who are still learning skills to take up a career in food production department. 10.2 Duties and Responsibilities Executive Chef The Executive Chef is a manager who is responsible for all the aspects of food production, including: - An overall in-charge of the department and is responsible for quality of food prepared in the kitchen. - Responsible for developing menus for new restaurant or updating old menus. - Responsible for keeping a track on food costs and controlling them so that profit can be maximized without compensating the standard quality. - Ensures proper and timely availability of raw materials required in liaison with purchasing department. - Plays a significant role in selection of new staff and training them according to the hotel’s standard procedures. - Ensures that hygiene and safety practices are followed by all the employees in kitchen. Coordination with all other departments of the hotel to ensure smooth workflow and guest satisfaction. A team leader with positive attitude and managing the entire workforce effectively to the organization goal. Sous Chef / Underchef - The direct in-charge of production operations and work as second in command to the executive chef whose job is more administrative in nature. - Responsible for following of standard recipes, presentations and procedures in kitchen. - Train Staff on improved work procedures, quality food production, economical usage of food materials and the attractive presentation of Food items. - Account for the usage, consumption, spoilage and control of food stuff produced or stored under his supervision. - Look after the function of the executive chef during his/her Absence. Chef De Partie / Section Chef - In-charge of a section of kitchen e.g. Bakery, Indian kitchen, Chinese kitchen, Larder (cold kitchen) etc. - Directly responsible for overall working of their section and coordination with other sections of the kitchen. - Maintain food costs of their department – reducing wastages. - Indenting (preparing a list of ingredients required the next day or in near future) for their department on daily basis. - Preparing duty roasters of the staff in their section and managing leaves. - Maintaining hygiene and safety in their departments. - Following standard procedures and presentations. Assistant Cooks Usually there are three levels termed as Commis I, Commis II and Commis III. They are deputed in a department and deal with carrying ingredients from stores, pre-preparations (cutting, chopping etc.), storing raw materials properly and helping the section chef in preparing and presentation of the dishes. Trainees These are usually either new staff learning work or even students studying hotel management and willing to take up career in hotels. Thus the kitchen team works together to bring the hygienic and delicious meals for the hotel guest. Summary Organisational structure helps to clearly defines duties and responsibilities of each person in the organization. In hotel kitchen it moves from the overall in charge ‘Executive Chef’, the ‘Sous Chef’ and then various section heads depending on how many sections are there. Each section head further has a team of assistants to work in their sections. The hotels also have some trainees - the young aspirants who wish to learn the skill and be part of the hotel industry. I. Review Questions Answer the following: 1. With the help of a flow chart, explain the hierarchy levels in hotel kitchen? 2. What are the factors that affect the number of employees at each level in kitchen organization? 3. What are the duties and responsibilities of Executive Chef? II. Discuss in class Discuss the importance of having a hierarchy in an organization. How does it improve the workflow? Practical 1. Draw the organization chart of a food production department of a hotel and list the duties and responsibilities of each hierarchical level. 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Japanese Barberry – Invasive Species that Attracts Ticks You may love that attractive Japanese Barberry in your garden, with its gorgeous fall colors and leaves the deer won’t eat. But there are two important reasons not to love it. This non-native plant is invasive, and research has shown that there is a higher density of deer ticks (the ones that cause Lyme Disease) under the bushes. Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii) is native to Japan and the eastern part of Asia. It was imported as an ornamental from Russia in 1875 to the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, and was promoted as an alternative to the native barberry, which was susceptible to black stem grain rust. The plant has escaped cultivation and spread north to Nova Scotia, south to North Carolina, and east to Montana. Japanese Barberry grows 2 -8 feet high in a variety of locations – sun, shade, a variety of soil types, open fields, woodlands, and roadsides. It has an arching stem with spines under the leaf cluster. Its small leaves - green, burgundy, or chartreuse – are oval with smooth edges, in contrast to those of the native species, which have toothed edges. It has small yellow flowers followed by ½ inch red berries which last into winter and provide food for birds, who carry the seeds to new locations. Japanese Barberry seeds have a 90% germination rate, and can remain dormant for up to 10 years. Any stem that touches the ground can root, and the roots also spread underground, invading natural areas. The sharp spines make the plant deer-resistant, so when deer numbers are high, barberry moves in to replace those plants eaten by the deer. Surprisingly, although the plant repels deer, it welcomes deer ticks. In recent years scientists have discovered that under the plants there are increased numbers of ticks, and also white-footed mice, crucial to the life cycle of the tick, which have higher levels of Lyme-infected ticks than those found elsewhere. When the barberry is removed, these numbers drop. So there are two very good reasons not to have Japanese Barberry in your garden. Your first line of defense is not to plant it. If you do have it, it needs to be removed. You can dig out as many roots as possible, or cut the plant back, and bag the stems and roots in heavy duty garbage bags. If the plant returns, it can be mowed or treated with a propane torch. Small shoots can be pulled out. Treatment with glyphosphate (Roundup) is an option, although not my first choice. It is best to remove the plant before autumn when the seeds form. More information about Japanese Barberry can be found at invasivespeciesinfo.gov	c3244e3e-168d-44c7-ad82-cf75003659e7	CC-MAIN-2024-46	https://www.nl-nhcc.com/images/pdfs/japanese_barberry.pdf	2024-11-14T18:45:47+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477393980.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20241114162350-20241114192350-00344.warc.gz	837,445,772	571	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.999432	eng_Latn	0.999432	[ "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2625 ]	[ 2.6875 ]	2	0
Rashtriya Kishore Swasthya Karyakram in Uttar Pradesh An Overview In association with: RSK division, NHM-Uttar Pradesh Introduction The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched a new adolescent health program- Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram. The program envisages strengthening the health system for effective communication, capacity building, and monitoring and evaluation. Further, RSKK underscores the need for several constituencies to converge effectively and harness their collective strength to respond to adolescent health and development needs. The different stakeholders working on issues related to adolescent health and development have a lot to gain by building on each other's work both in terms of achieving program objectives as well as in the improved indicators for adolescent health and development. Target Groups The new Adolescent Health (AH) strategy focuses on age groups 10-14 years and 15-19 years with universal coverage, i.e., males and females; urban and rural; in school and out of school; married and unmarried; and vulnerable and under-served. Uttar Pradesh has an adolescent population of 487.54 lacs which is 24.40% of the total population of Uttar Pradesh, 47.31 lacs(13.5%) of the adolescent is in school, and 46.63 lacs (9.56%) of adolescents are out of school. Uttar Pradesh has 59,998 total Schools from 6th -12th class Schools, including Government, Government aided, tribal residential, and municipal corporations. Why Adolescents? - Poor knowledge & lack of awareness regarding reproductive and sexual health issues. - Unwanted pregnancy. - Sexually transmitted infections & reproductive tract infections. - Increased risk of maternal & infant mortality. - Rising incidents of HIV. - Malnutrition & anemia in adolescents, especially during pregnancy. - The above leads to increased maternal, perinatal, neonatal & infant mortality. Situation Analysis of Uttar Pradesh \| Early marriages among girls (%) \| 15.8 \| \|---------------------------------\|------\| \| Teenage Pregnancies (%) \| 2.9 \| \| CPR Modern Methods (girls married 15-19 yrs) (%) \| 20.4 \| \| Comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS Girls (15-19 yrs) (%) \| 9.3 \| \| Using hygienic methods during periods (%) \| 70.5 \| \| Girls 15-19 yrs Anemic (%) \| 52.9 \| \| Boys 15-19 yrs Anemic (%) \| 28.2 \| \| Girls/Boys 15-19 yrs Thin (%) \| 37.3/40.2 \| \| Girls/Boys 15-19 yrs Obese (%) \| 3.9/3.4 \| \| Emotional/Physical/ Sexual Violence (15-19 yrs girls) (%) \| 29.4 \| \| Low S. Ferritin-IDA (10-19 yrs) \| 17.2 \| \|---------------------------------\|------\| \| Vitamin D deficiency (%) \| 19.4 \| \| Zinc deficiency (%) \| 26.3 \| \| Vitamin B12 deficiency (%) \| 42.1 \| \| Pre-diabetics - 10 to 19 yrs (%) \| 3.2 \| \| High Cholesterol in 10-19 yrs (%) \| 1.3 \| \| Hypertensive - 10 to 19 yrs (%) \| 3.8(Girls)/4.7(Boys) \| \| Tobacco Users (%) \| 23 \| \| Accidental Deaths Rate / 1 lakh \| 9.0 \| \| Suicide Rate per lakh \| 2.6 \| Sources: NFHS-5; NCRB-2021; QYTS-2019; Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey (CNNS) Introduction The National health mission Uttar Pradesh has launched Kishor Swasthya Manch (KSM) as an event for school-going adolescents (10-19 years) targeting their Nutrition, Reproductive & sexual health, Mental health, Gender violence & Injuries, Substance abuse, and other health-related issues. “Kishor Swasthya Manch” is a one-day event organized in 2 selected schools of all blocks including urban area of all 75 districts. In the year 2013, the Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) program came under RSKK and in March 2018 Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) program was launched with the objective to reduce anaemia prevalence amongst adolescents girls and boys. All the districts of UP were not performing equally in reducing anaemia in the state. In view of the above Anaemia free Adolescent Events were planned in FY 2018 in 25 poor WIFS coverage (<10%) districts. Events were started in 2 inter colleges of each block including urban areas of the selected districts. Later on, to strengthen the RSKK program as a whole the Anaemia free adolescent event was repackaged and renamed as Kishor Swasthya Manch (KSM) under RSKK to be organized in the entire state of UP to address Adolescents health issues. In addition, components of RSKK like SRH, Menstrual health and personal hygiene, Mental health, Gender violence & Injuries, Substance abuse and other health-related issues were included. Haemoglobin test was also added in the event for further management and referral. Principal emphasis of the event Kishor Swasthya Manch is on adolescent participation and leadership in various thematic areas of RSKK. The Event envisions enabling all school-going adolescents in the state of Uttar Pradesh to realize their full potential by making informed and responsible decisions related to their own health and well-being. To guide the implementation of KSM event, NHM UP is working closely with department of Education, ICDS and PRI departments in collaboration with development partners as well as adolescents’ own families and community. The state of Uttar Pradesh has developed a detailed guideline on KSM based on our past adolescent-related initiative. Objectives of KSM Event 1. To sensitize teachers & adolescents in Inter colleges about adolescent issues. 2. To enhance access to awareness and services. 3. Strengthen interdepartmental convergence. 4. To improve the involvement of line departments, & the community. 5. To establish the referral mechanism for further management. Strategies of the KSM event Planning District & Block level planning meetings to prepare micro plan and implement activities in Government and Govt. aided Inter colleges. Convergence Event initiated in confluence & consultation with the Secondary education department, ICDS, PRI, SBM, Administration & development partners, and Community-Based Organizations involving local political leaders & Influencers. Mobilization District Information officers ensured publication about the event in local dailies for spreading news about the event, followed by coverage of the event. Reporting After completion of events physical reporting was ensured by having standard reporting format. Service Packages on KSM Day - Mobilization by the teachers to reach out to all the adolescents and their parents to communicate the date, venue, and benefits of attending KSM. - Awareness sessions by experts from the health department and Sports on Adolescent Health and nutrition topics include Painting, Rangoli, Menhdi, Quiz competitions, debates & other physical/board games for peer learning and Prize distribution. - Demonstration of various food groups through stalls to encourage diet diversity by AWWs (ICDS) - BMI, Haemoglobin testing, and referral for management - Counseling, sensitization on nutrition, Menstrual hygiene & handwash, etc. - RBSK team and Adolescent Health Counsellors act as advocates for adolescent and their parents. Outcome - Effective communication at all levels (IPC, mid-media and mass media) in all possible spaces that reach out to adolescents and their influencers is an integral part of KSM. - 6068 Inter College has hosted this activity since its inception from 2018 to 2022. - 29.3 lakh adolescents participated in the activity. - Hemoglobin of 7.8 Lakhs adolescent has been tested. - More than 45k teachers, including 6k college principals, are sensitized on AH issues through KSM. - KSM increased the footfall of Sathiya Kendra, the AH counseling centers established at DH & CHCs. - Availability of IFA tablet & WIFS coverage of inter colleges improved a lot with proper recording and reporting mechanisms in place. - School Health Programme was also supported by the teachers involved in KSM. Way Forward - Based on the impact and learnings of KSM it is being incorporated in the Population policy of UP. - Number of KSM events to be increased in urban areas. - To ease the access of adolescent counselling centers, Sathiya corners (Counselling centers at the school run by school teachers) are being established in Inter colleges of 18 divisional districts. School Health and Wellness Programme under Ayushman Bharat in Uttar Pradesh Introduction National Health Policy (NHP) 2017 envisages the attainment of the highest possible level of health and well-being for all ages through preventive and promotive healthcare. In 2014, Government of India (GoI) launched a comprehensive program called ‘Rashtriya Kishore Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK)’ to respond to the health and development requirements of the adolescent in a holistic manner. Also, in 2018, the School Health Programme (SHP), a joint initiative by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MoHRD), was launched. It has been incorporated as a part of the Health and wellness component of the Ayushman Bharat program to strengthen the preventive and promotive aspects through health promotion activities. These activities will not only combine health education, health promotion, and disease prevention but also improve access to health services in an integrated, systemic manner at the school level. Objectives To provide age-appropriate information about health and nutrition to the children in schools. To promote healthy behaviors among the children that they will inculcate for life to reduce NCD prevalence. To detect and treat diseases early in children and adolescents including identification of malnourished and anemic children with appropriate referrals to PHCs and hospitals. To promote use of safe drinking water in schools. To promote safe menstrual hygiene practices by girls. To promote yoga and meditation through Health & Wellness Ambassadors. To encourage research on health, wellness and nutrition for children. In Uttar Pradesh, School Health and Wellness Program have been implemented phase-wise. Till date, 14,332 principals were oriented, and 25,067 Health and Wellness Ambassadors were trained in 11 modules. Package of Services under School Health Programme School health promotion activities - Age appropriate incremental learning for promotion of healthy behavior and prevention of various diseases - Delivered through school teachers/Health and Wellness Ambassadors trained in each school Health Screening - The screening of children for 30 identified health conditions for early detection, free treatment and management through dedicated RBSK mobile health teams. Provision of Services - Provision of IFA and Albendazole tablets by teachers through WIFS and NDD programme respectively. - Provision of sanitary napkins - Age appropriate vaccination Electronic Health Records - Electronic health record for each child Imparting Skills of Emergency Care - Training of teachers on basic first aid Themes of Curriculum Growing Up Healthy Emotional Well-being and Mental Health Interpersonal Relationships Values and Responsible Citizenship Gender Equality Nutrition, Health and Sanitation Prevention & Management of Substance Misuse Promotion of Healthy Life Style Reproductive Health and HIV Prevention Safety and Security Against Violence and Injuries Promotion of Safe Use of Internet, Gadgets and Media Operationalization of School Health Program Age appropriate, skill-oriented, theme based, graded curriculum for the teachers to implement the activities at school level (Upper primary, high school and Inter college) Two teachers in every school designated as “Health and Wellness Ambassadors”, will be trained to transact health promotion and disease prevention information in the form of interesting activities for one hour every week 24 hour sessions will be delivered through weekly structured interactive classroom-based activities Adolescent Health and Wellness Days will be organized on a quarterly basis preferably at HWCs* for all adolescents on Nutrition & Wellness, NCD, Substance misuse, Mental Health, Sexual Health, etc. These health promotion messages will also have bearing on improving health practices in the country and students will act as Health and Wellness Messengers in the society. Regular reinforcement of messages/themes through IEC/BCC activities such as interactive activities/posters/class room/Assembly discussion Peer Education Programme Introduction The adolescents in the community are covered through Peer Education (PE) Programme. The selected Peer Educators ensure that adolescents benefit from regular and sustained peer education covering all six themes of RSK. It is envisaged that this approach would facilitate the coverage of out-of-school adolescents in addition to the school-going adolescents. Process Under the PE programme, four peer educators (two boys and two girls) are selected per village/1000 population/ASHA habitation to reach out to adolescents. Peer Educators selection is facilitated by ASHA in consultation with Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committee. Each Peer educator forms a group of 15-20 boys or girls from their community and conducts weekly one to two-hour participatory sessions using PE kits. PE also maintains a diary, including a brief overview of each session and the number of participants. They will sensitize adolescents towards their health and inform them about existing adolescent friendly health services, so that all the adolescents may optimally utilize it. PE also facilitates the organization of the quarterly Adolescent Health and Wellness Days (AHWD) and participate in the Adolescent Friendly Club (AFC) meetings also. ASHA acts as the village level PE coordinator and takes the lead in ensuring that the peer education activities are carried out smoothly at the village level. ANMs moderate the monthly AFC sessions and Medical Officer In-charge and Block Adolescent Health Coordinators provide the oversight. Uttar Pradesh PE programme Status \| Number of Districts in the States \| Number of PE Districts \| Current No. of selected Peer Educators in the State/ UT \| Trained Peer Educators in the State/UT \| Target PE to be selected for F.Y. 2022-23 till Q3 \| PE selected in F.Y. 2022-23 till Q3 \| PE Trained in F.Y. 2022-23 till Q3 \| \|----------------------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| 75 \| 25 \| 90646 \| 44514 \| 103044 \| 30103 \| 2188 \| Adolescent Health & Wellness Days (AHWD) The Quarterly Adolescent Health and Wellness Day (AHWD) is one of the interventions under RKSK to improve coverage with preventive and promotive interventions for adolescents and to increase awareness among adolescents, parents, families and stakeholders about issues and needs related to adolescent health. AHWDs are conducted at the village level at Anganwadi Centres or any other public place where adolescents and all stakeholders have easy accessibility. Block adolescent health coordinator is the focal person to coordinate for AHWD, ensuring the availability of commodities and services and ensuring that publicity is done beforehand. ASHAs engage with parents and families of adolescents to increase awareness about the unique needs of adolescents. As per RoP 2022-23 10,268 of AH&WDs approved out of which 4003 AH&WDs were conducted total coverage of 38.9 % Adolescent Friendly Club Meetings Apart from the above, Adolescent Friendly Club (AFC) meetings are also organized once a month at a sub-center level under the overall guidance of ANM. These typically cover 5 villages/5000 population composed of 10-20 peer educators each. During meetings, peer educators from different villages meet and clarify issues that they have encountered during their weekly sessions with the help of ANM. In FY 2022-23, Uttar Pradesh shows 74.69 % coverage of AFC i.e., 15339 AFCs were Conducted against 20536 AFCs approved as per RoP 2022-23. common issues discussed in AFCs are Menstrual hygiene, RTI/STI and Substance abuse Adolescent Family Health Clinic (Saathiya Kendra) Under RSK, AFHC entails a whole gamut of clinical and counselling services on diverse adolescent health issues ranging from Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) to Nutrition, Substance abuse, Injuries and Violence (including Gender-based violence, Non-Communicable Diseases and Mental Health. Adolescent Friendly Health Services are delivered through trained service providers- MO, ANM and Counsellors at AFHCs located at Community Health Centers (CHCs), District Hospitals (DHs) and Medical Colleges. These centres apart from providing the full component of services envisioned for AFHC will also act as resource centre for capacity building of health care providers and repository for Information, Education and Communication materials on Adolescent Health such as posters, banners, pamphlets, and audio-video materials; Outreach services by counsellors are carried out at schools, colleges, youth clubs and in community at least twice a week to sensitize the adolescents, caregivers and influencers on various adolescent health issues and apprise them of various available adolescent-friendly health services. Monthly Average Client Load at AFHCs is approx. 200-210 cases per month at 57 districts in FY 2022-23 \| S.No \| Indicators \| Status \| \|------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------\| \| 01 \| Total no. of health facilities ( CHC , DH and MH ) \| 435 \| \| 02 \| Current number of ModelAFHCs (M-AFHCs) \| 4 \| \| 03 \| No. of AFHS trained MOs providing services at AFHCs \| 437 \| \| 04 \| No. of AFHS trained ANM/SN providing services at AFHC \| 5848 \| \| 05 \| No. of dedicated AH Counsellors in-position \| 315 \| \| 06 \| No. of other Counsellors providing counselling services at AFHC \| 233 \| Initiatives to Strengthen the AFHCs - Branding of AFHCs as “Saathiya Kendra” - Initiated Joint training of the AH & FP counsellors for capacity building and to enhance their integrated approach of counselling skills. - Regular district review of counsellors by RSK Nodals - Poster on 6 thematic area of AFHC developed to increase the visibility - Monthly theme-based calendar for out-reach activities. - Audio & video theme-based messages developed & disseminated. Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) Introduction The high prevalence of anemia is a major public health problem in Uttar Pradesh (UP). According to the National Family Health Survey 5 (NFHS 5, 2019-21), nearly half of adolescent girls and one-third of adolescent boys are found anemic. To meet the challenges for preventing anemia in adolescent girls and boys, supervised Weekly administration of IFA Supplementation and bi-annual anti-helminthic control is ongoing in the state through National Adolescent Health Program (Rashtriya Kishor Swasth Karykram - RKSK). Weekly IFA Supplementation (WIFS) is delivered to the 10 to 19 yrs age group adolescent boys and girls who are studying in government and government-aided schools, in addition to out-of-school girls also receiving WIFS from Anganwadi Centers. In coordination with Health, Education, and Women & Child Development (WCD) Department, every year, the state reaches 13 million adolescents for WIFS through 56000 schools (Govt and Govt Aided Schools) and 1,83,000 Anganwadi Centers (AWCs). In the year 2022-23, 54% of in-school adolescents and 43% of out-of-school adolescent girls received at least 4 IFA tablets monthly across the period of one year. Planning, supply chain management, capacity building, behavior change interventions (BCI), and monitoring are the key component for the successful roll-out of the WIFS Program. Distribution of IFA to schools and AWCs is a major challenge. To overcome the challenges, GoUP adopted and facilitated the comprehensive distribution mechanism. For capacity building of teachers and AWWs, the state conducted cascading training in 2022-23 and oriented more than 2,00,000 teachers and AWWs. For recording and reporting, the state has developed registers, formats, and online reporting tools. Behavior change is one of the important aspects of the WIFS Program. To promote a healthy lifestyle, diet diversity, and consumption of IFA supplementation, various BCI activities undertaken by all concerned departments like, development of a Nutrition Health Education Module, BCI materials, organization of health assemblies in schools, Health camps, Kishor Swasth Manch events, a celebration of adolescent health day, etc. Menstrual Hygiene Scheme (MHS) Kishori Suraksha Yojna The state of Uttar Pradesh has introduced a scheme for the promotion of menstrual hygiene among school-going adolescent girls in the age group of 10-19 years: Objective • To increase awareness among adolescent girls on Menstrual Hygiene • To increase access to and use of high-quality sanitary napkins for adolescent girls in rural areas. • To ensure safe disposal of Sanitary Napkins in an environmentally friendly manner. Rationale The purpose of formation of health club is to empower, enable and motivate students to become agents of change in health, hygiene and nutrition behavior under the guidance and supervision of a trained team in schools. The purpose of the formation of a health club is manifold in the behavior of the students for better health, as well as a healthy environment and platform can be made available for adolescent health problems and their solutions. Objective - Organizing all activities related to health and healthy behavior change through adolescent health clubs in schools. - To develop cadre of trained volunteers among teachers and students, Messengers to provide counseling and referral to student-friendly health services for both physical and mental health issues. - Creating awareness among teenagers to prevent Covid-19 and other infectious diseases. And promote healthy behavior related to health and nutrition among the students. - To promote gender equality and a positive outlook on life skills. - Promotion of cleanliness, personal hygiene, and community hygiene, clean drinking water. - Early detection of diseases in children and adolescents and identification and referral of children with malnutrition and anemia. - Promotion of management of menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls. - Promoting physical education and wellness through yoga, meditation, and exercise-related activities. - Ensuring necessary medicines and information for emergency and initial treatment and management of accidental health problems such as injury, bleeding, epileptic attack, unconsciousness, sunstroke, etc. Structure of Kishor Health Club \| S.No \| Nominated Club Member \| Post \| \|------\|-----------------------------------------------------------\|------------\| \| 01 \| Community Health Officer (CHO)/ ANMs \| Chief Patron\| \| 02 \| Principal \| Club Patron \| \| 03 \| Two teacher (One male and one female) \| Health Brigadier \| \| 04 \| Two students from each class (One boy and one girl) \| Health Captain \| \| 05 \| NSS. Neharu Yova kendra, Scout and guide, and NCC member \| Health Captain \| Kishor Health Club Activities - Orientation of Kishor Health Club members - Quiz, Games, Debate, Poster/Painting Competition, Rangoli, Mehendi, Slogan, Calligraphy etc. - Availability of Fist aid box and teacher orientation. - Organized Health Camp on timely manner - Organize Yoga/Meditation/Exercise Camp - Screening of short films and videos - Hand Washing Practice Demonstration - Individual and Community Sanitation Activities - Herbal/Nutrition Garden - Activities regarding safe use of mobile and internet technology. - A "Question Box" will be established in every school to solve the queries of the students. Saathiya Corners for Adolescents in Senior Secondary Schools Inter Colleges Rationale - Adolescents Friendly Health Centre's (AFHCs) located in District Hospitals and Community Health Centre's are currently providing health information and counseling to adolescents. - However, uptake of counseling services through the AFHCs has been low due to: 1. General perception that any service located within a hospital is an “illness” 2. Mobility related costs and challenges, particularly for young girls, due to the distance of the facility from the community 3. Inability of adolescents to visit AFHCs during the day due to school 4. Heavy patient load in health facilities making it challenging for providers to give quality time and attention to adolescent Key Objectives - To increase adolescents’ access to health information and counseling on issues related to sexual and reproductive health, nutrition, mental health, substance abuse, gender based violence, cyber security, child rights etc. - To develop a pool of teacher counselors and student volunteers for wider reach of health awareness and counseling services among adolescents - To promote healthy behaviours among adolescents related to sanitation, health & nutrition - To encourage adolescents to adopt responsible sexual behavior Functioning Mechanism - Corners will be established under the supervision of the school principal - The principal will allocate at least two adjoining rooms in the school premises to be converted into the Sathiya Corner - Two teachers per college will be selected on a voluntary basis by the principal and trained by RSKK as Counselors - Two students per class (from classes 6-12) will be nominated by the principal as Health Captains and will assist in generating awareness among students regarding the Counseling Center - Corners will operate in schools only during school hours - The confidentiality of students seeking counseling will be ensured. - Girls will be counseled only by a female teacher. Likewise, boys will receive counseling only by a male teacher counselor. If required, parents will also be called for counseling. - Corners will be equipped with a computer and internet connection, and students will be able to access online BCC resource materials on AH. - In cases where required, students will be referred to appropriate health facilities for treatment or to concerned government body for assistance (e.g., Child Protection Cell) - Additionally, a question box will be kept in the college in which students can drop their questions anonymously. These questions will be addressed by teacher counselors in group sessions with students. \| Resources to be provided by the Health Department \| Resources to be provided by the Schools/Education Department \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\| \| • Register for record keeping \| • Physical space (2 adjoining rooms) for the Corner \| \| • Referral Cards \| • Tables and Chairs \| \| • Signage and notice board for Counseling Corner with branding \| • Tube lights, fans, and switch points/electricity connection in the Counseling Corner \| \| • Question Box \| • Computer and Internet connection \| \| • Digital resources on adolescent health \| \| \| • Digital weighing machines \| \| \| • Snellen box with mirror \| \| \| • Hanging spring measuring tape to measure height\| \| \| • BMI chart \| \| \| • Almira with lock and display racks \| \| \| • 6 printed posters by RSKK \| \| \| • Curtains in branding colour \| \| \| • Painting of counseling room in branding colour \| \| Follow us on: twitter.com/nhm_up facebook.com/NationalHealthMissionUttarPradesh youtube.com/c/NHMUPIEC Department of Health & Family Welfare and National Health Mission, Uttar Pradesh – Toll free No. 104	552b9151-9c3e-4c37-95db-26dccbb9ad9f	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://upnrhm.gov.in/DocsAdd/RKSK/BOOKLET%20RKSK%20An%20Over%20view%20UP_14%20June_opt.pdf	2023-09-29T19:27:21+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510528.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20230929190403-20230929220403-00711.warc.gz	659,482,668	5,829	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.908527	eng_Latn	0.992537	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "kiu_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 120, 3074, 5576, 8185, 10077, 12334, 13903, 16351, 18841, 21560, 23811, 25737, 28865, 29072 ]	[ 1.7734375, 2.171875 ]	1	0
Basic Facts About Food Insecurity Among Children in the United States, 2008* Vanessa R. Wight \| Kalyani Thampi August 2010 How many households have food insecurity among children? There are about 39.5 million households with children (approximately 34 percent of all households). - 79 percent were food secure. - 10.2 percent reported food security among adults only. - 9.6 percent reported low food security among children. - 1.2 percent reported very low food security among children. Percentage of households with children by food security status, 2008 Food secure: 79% Food insecurity among adults only: 10.2% Low food security among children: 9.6% Very low food security among children: 1.2% How have these numbers changed over time? The prevalence of food insecurity among children rose sharply in 2008 to about 11 percent after remaining between 8 and 9.5 percent for nearly a decade. Food insecurity among children, 2001–2008 Source: Nord, Mark. 2009. Food Insecurity in Households with Children: Prevalence, Severity, and Household Characteristics. (Economic Information Bulletin 56). Economic Research Service: U.S. Department of Agriculture. * The most recent year for which data are available. Measuring Food Insecurity in the United States According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), food security is defined as having, “dependable access to enough food for active, healthy living.” Conversely, food insecurity, or the lack of consistent access to adequate food, means that the “the food intake of one or more household members was reduced and their eating patterns were disrupted at times during the year because the household lacked money and other resources for food.” The USDA classifies households by the level of food insecurity they have experienced (for example, low or very low food security). The food insecurity status of households with children is further classified by whether it affects only adults or whether it affects children and by the level of food insecurity among the children. Estimates of food insecurity in this report are based on a set of 18 questions fielded in the Food Security Supplement of the Current Population Survey. Following the guidelines outlined by the USDA, households are food insecure if they respond affirmatively to at least three of the 18 questions. Children’s food security status in the household is based on responses to questions 11 to 18, which asks the main respondent in the household to report on the food security of children. Households reporting between two and four indicators of food insecurity were classified as having low food security among children. Households responding affirmatively on five or more questions are classified as having very low food security among children. The classification food insecurity among children includes both categories. The households’ food security classification generally reflects the most severe food insecurity they experienced during the year. Questions from the CPS Food Security Supplement 1. “We worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 2. “The food that we bought just didn’t last and we didn’t have money to get more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 3. “We couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 4. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in the household ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 5. (If yes to Question 4) How often did this happen – almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or 2 months? 6. In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 7. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry, but didn’t eat, because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 8. In the last 12 months, did you lose weight because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 9. In the last 12 months did you or other adults in your household ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 10. (If yes to Question 9) How often did this happen – almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or 2 months? 11. “We relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed our children because we were running out of money to buy food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 12. “We couldn’t feed our children a balanced meal, because we couldn’t afford that.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 13. “The children were not eating enough because we just couldn’t afford enough food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 14. In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children’s meals because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 15. In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn’t afford more food? (Yes/No) 16. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 17. (If yes to Question 16) How often did this happen – almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or 2 months? 18. In the last 12 months did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) What are the characteristics of households with food insecurity among children? Despite nutrition policies and food benefits targeting children and families in need, household food insecurity among children is nearly four times more common among poor households than among nonpoor households.\textsuperscript{5,7} - 28.9 percent of poor households report food insecurity among children. - 7.5 percent of nonpoor households report food insecurity among children. Unlike poverty, which hits young children the hardest,\textsuperscript{8} food insecurity appears to be more prevalent in households with older children. - 5.7 percent of households with an oldest child less than age three report food insecurity among children. - 9.6 percent of households with an oldest child aged 3 to 5 report food insecurity among children. - 10.9 percent of households with an oldest child aged 6 to 11 report food insecurity among children. - 12.2 percent of households with an oldest child aged 12 to 17 report food insecurity among children. Food insecurity is higher among households with more children. - 9 percent of households with one child report food insecurity among children. - 10.2 percent of households with two children report food insecurity among children. - 15.5 percent of households with three or more children report food insecurity among children. Food Insecurity: Lack of consistent access to adequate food Food insecurity among children by household poverty, age of oldest child, and number of children, 2008 \begin{itemize} \item \textbf{Household Poverty} - Poor (<100% FPL): 28.9% - Not poor: 7.5% \item \textbf{Age of Oldest Child} - Less than age 3: 5.7% - Age 3 to 5: 9.6% - Age 6 to 11: 10.9% - Age 12 to 17: 12.2% \item \textbf{Number of Children} - One child: 9% - Two children: 10.2% - Three or more children: 15.5% \end{itemize} Households headed by black and Hispanic individuals are twice as likely as households headed by white individuals or persons of some other race to report food insecurity among children. - 18.3 percent of black-headed households report food insecurity among children. - 18 percent of Hispanic-headed households report food insecurity among children. - 9.2 percent of households headed by persons of some other race report food insecurity among children. - 7.1 percent of white-headed households report food insecurity among children. The difference in food insecurity among children by the educational attainment of household adults is striking. Households where no one has a high school degree are nearly seven times more likely to report food insecurity among children than households where at least one adult has a bachelor’s degree. - 25.8 percent of households where no one has a high school degree report food insecurity among children. - 16.4 percent of households where the most highly educated adult has a high school diploma, but no more, report food insecurity among children. - 12 percent of households where the most highly educated adult has some college, but no degree, report food insecurity among children. - 3.7 percent of households where the most highly educated adult has a bachelor’s degree or more, report food insecurity among children. Employment, particularly full-time work, may help to minimize the risk of experiencing food insecurity among children. Children residing in households where at least one adult is working full time are about 3.5 times less likely to experience food insecurity compared with children in households where no one is employed. - 8.3 percent of households where at least one member is employed full time report food insecurity among children. - 17.2 percent of households where at least one member is employed part time, but no one is employed full time report food insecurity among children. - 28.7 percent of households where no one is employed report food insecurity among children. Food insecurity among children is higher in households where at least one member is foreign born. - 13.2 percent of households where at least one member is foreign born report food insecurity among children. - 10.1 percent of households where all members are native born report food insecurity among children. Having two parents present in the household appears to shield children from experiencing food insecurity. - 7.2 percent of two-parent households report food insecurity among children. - 18.7 percent of single-parent households report food insecurity among children. - 15.1 percent of households with children where no parent is present report food insecurity among children. The southern region leads the nation in the percentage of households with food insecurity among children. - 9.8 percent of households in the Northeast report food insecurity among children. - 9.3 percent of households in the Midwest report food insecurity among children. - 12 percent of households in the South report food insecurity among children. - 11.1 percent of households in the West report food insecurity among children. The percentage of households with food insecurity among children varies by state. Texas had the highest percentage of food insecurity among children (12.6 percent). Three additional states had rates of food insecurity among children that were above 11 percent: Arizona (11.2 percent), Mississippi (11.3 percent), New Mexico (12.4 percent). The states with the lowest rates of food insecurity among children were New Hampshire (4.8 percent), North Dakota (5.3 percent), and Minnesota (5.7 percent). ## Percentage of households with food insecurity among children by selected characteristics, 2008 (numbers are in thousands) \| Total \| Food insecurity among children \| Very low food security among children \| \|-------\|---------------------------------\|--------------------------------------\| \| \| N \| % \| N \| % \| \| Total households with children \| 39,561 \| 4,278 \| 10.8 \| 490 \| 1.2 \| \| Annual household income<sup>1</sup> \| \| \| \| \| \| Poor \| 5,935 \| 1,717 \| 28.9 \| 231 \| 3.9 \| \| Not poor \| 28,796 \| 2,157 \| 7.5 \| 217 \| 0.8 \| \| Income not reported \| 4,829 \| 404 \| 8.4 \| 41 \| 0.9 \| \| Age of oldest child \| \| \| \| \| \| Less than age 3 \| 4,246 \| 243 \| 5.7 \| 15 \| 0.4 \| \| Age 3-5 \| 4,930 \| 473 \| 9.6 \| 21 \| 0.4 \| \| Age 6-11 \| 11,567 \| 1,261 \| 10.9 \| 123 \| 1.1 \| \| Age 12-17 \| 18,818 \| 2,301 \| 12.2 \| 331 \| 1.8 \| \| Number of children \| \| \| \| \| \| One child \| 16,674 \| 1,497 \| 9.0 \| 171 \| 1.0 \| \| Two children \| 14,404 \| 1,468 \| 10.2 \| 140 \| 1.0 \| \| Three or more children \| 8,482 \| 1,312 \| 15.5 \| 179 \| 2.1 \| \| Race/ethnicity<sup>2</sup> \| \| \| \| \| \| White, non-Hispanic \| 24,186 \| 1,720 \| 7.1 \| 146 \| 0.6 \| \| Black, non-Hispanic \| 5,593 \| 1,024 \| 18.3 \| 146 \| 2.6 \| \| Other, non-Hispanic \| 2,541 \| 234 \| 9.2 \| 26 \| 1.0 \| \| Hispanic origin \| 7,241 \| 1,300 \| 18.0 \| 171 \| 2.4 \| \| Educational attainment<sup>3</sup> \| \| \| \| \| \| No one completed high school \| 2,773 \| 714 \| 25.8 \| 84 \| 3.0 \| \| Completed high school, no more \| 9,062 \| 1,482 \| 16.4 \| 190 \| 2.1 \| \| Some college, no degree \| 12,679 \| 1,527 \| 12.0 \| 178 \| 1.4 \| \| Bachelor’s degree or higher \| 15,046 \| 554 \| 3.7 \| 38 \| 0.3 \| \| Employment status<sup>4</sup> \| \| \| \| \| \| At least one person employed full time \| 33,169 \| 2,739 \| 8.3 \| 281 \| 0.9 \| \| At least one person employed part time, no full-time \| 2,551 \| 437 \| 17.2 \| 62 \| 2.4 \| \| No one in the household is employed \| 3,841 \| 1,101 \| 28.7 \| 147 \| 3.8 \| \| Nativity \| \| \| \| \| \| At least one household member is foreign born \| 8,938 \| 1,180 \| 13.2 \| 164 \| 1.8 \| \| All household members are native born \| 30,623 \| 3,098 \| 10.1 \| 325 \| 1.1 \| \| Family structure \| \| \| \| \| \| Two-parent households \| 26,661 \| 1,927 \| 7.2 \| 202 \| 0.8 \| \| Single-parent households \| 11,229 \| 2,099 \| 18.7 \| 257 \| 2.3 \| \| No parents in the household \| 1,672 \| 253 \| 15.1 \| 30 \| 1.8 \| \| Region \| \| \| \| \| \| Northeast \| 7,102 \| 694 \| 9.8 \| 79 \| 1.1 \| \| Midwest \| 8,754 \| 816 \| 9.3 \| 78 \| 0.9 \| \| South \| 14,332 \| 1,725 \| 12.0 \| 172 \| 1.2 \| \| West \| 9,373 \| 1,042 \| 11.1 \| 161 \| 1.7 \| --- 1. Households in poverty have annual income less than 100 percent of the poverty line. 2. Race/ethnicity is based on the status of the household head. 3. Educational attainment is based on the education level of the most highly educated adult living in the household. 4. Employment status is based on the employment level of the adult in the household with the highest level of employment. Endnotes This report is part of the National Center for Children in Poverty’s Who Are America’s Poor Children series. Estimates, unless otherwise noted, were prepared by Vanessa R. Wight and are based on the U.S. Current Population Survey, Food Security Supplement, December 2008. The food security supplement measures food security status at the household level. The estimates presented in this report are of households with children who completed the food security supplement and are restricted to households in which children live with at least one parent and most households with children living apart from both parents (for example, children being raised by grandparents). Households in which children live independently or live with a spouse are excluded from this analysis. Race/ethnicity in this report is based on the status of the household head. For each household member in the CPS, race could be reported as one or more of the following: “White,” “Black,” “American Indian or Alaskan Native,” or “Asian and/or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.” Hispanic origin was asked in a separate question. In the data reported, household heads who indicated their race as white, black, American Indian or Alaskan Native, or Asian and/or Hawaiian/Pacific Islander and their ethnicity as non-Hispanic are assigned their respective race. Household heads who reported to be of more than one race were assigned as Other. Those who identified themselves as Hispanic were categorized as Hispanic, regardless of their reported race. Educational attainment of the household adults is the education level of the most highly educated adult living in the household. Households are classified as either no one in the household completed a high-school degree; the most highly educated adult has a high school diploma, but no more; the most highly educated adult has some college, but no degree; the most highly educated adult has a bachelor’s degree or more. The employment status of household adults is the employment level of the adult in the household with the highest level of employment. Level of employment is based on responses to how many hours respondents usually worked at their main and other job. Households are classified as either having no employed adults; having at least one adult employed part time (less than 35 hours per week), but no adults employed full time; or having at least one adult in the household employed full time (35 or more hours per week). Appropriate weights were applied to obtain nationally representative estimates of food insecurity in the United States. This research was supported by funding from the Annie E. Casey Foundation and an anonymous donor. The author would like to thank Mark Nord at the Food Assistance Branch of the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture for his thoughtful comments and programming support during the development of this report. Special thanks also to Yumiko Aratani, Janice Cooper, Curtis Skinner, Morris Ardoin, Amy Palmisano, and Telly Valdellon. 1. Nord, Mark; Andrews, Margaret; Carlson, Steven. 2009. Household Food Security in the United States, 2008 (Economic Research Report No. 83). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2. Ibid. 3. Nord, Mark. 2009. Food Insecurity in Households with Children: Prevalence, Severity, and Household Characteristics. (Economic Information Bulletin 56). Economic Research Service: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 4. Ibid. 5. Nord, Mark; Andrews, Margaret; Carlson, Steven. 2009. Household Food Security in the United States, 2008 (Economic Research Report No. 83). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 6. Information on income is limited in the Food Security Supplement and only available in categories. Therefore, poverty status of households is calculated by comparing the midpoint of the household’s reported income to the Census Bureau’s 2008 Poverty Thresholds. Households with income that falls below the poverty threshold, given number of adults, number of children, and whether the reference person is elderly (aged 65 and older), are considered poor. 7. All estimates of food insecurity include households with very low food security among children. 8. Wight, Vanessa R.; Chau, Michelle. 2009. Basic Facts About Low-income Children, Children Under Age 18, 2008. New York, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health.	8af54d76-0bf0-4f55-80a4-adf51ac74e26	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.nccp.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/text_956.pdf	2024-04-22T18:21:58+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296818337.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20240422175900-20240422205900-00864.warc.gz	800,579,062	4,657	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997692	eng_Latn	0.99856	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1218, 5551, 7429, 9475, 10597, 11096, 19993, 24428 ]	[ 2.296875, 1.53125 ]	4	0
REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS The Puritans and “Liberty of Conscience”: Conflicting Views on Religious Freedom in Colonial New England GUIDING QUESTION: How did differing views of religious freedom impact life in the New England colonies and the legacy of religious freedom in the United States? CO-AUTHORS: Leif Liberg, Saint Mary’s Ryken High School, Leonardtown, Maryland William Turner, Cornerstone Charter Academy High School, Belle Isle, Florida OVERVIEW Many sources cite religious freedom as a primary motivator behind Europeans who settled in the Americas. Yet, colonists had very different interpretations of the meaning of religious freedom. In many cases, they wanted the freedom to practice their religions, but were not interested in letting others do the same. In New England, differing views on religion led to persecutions and banishments as well as the establishment of one of the first colonies to embody the concept of freedom of religion, Rhode Island. In this lesson, students look at this story through the lenses of critical figures—John Winthrop, John Cotton, Roger Williams, and Anne Hutchinson—and discuss how these leaders’ shaped freedom of religion in America. OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this activity, students will be able to: - Explain the meaning of religious freedom to Puritan leaders, and discuss how their concept impacted life in colonial Massachusetts; - Explain how Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson challenged the dominant views of religious freedom, and explore how their views affected life in Rhode Island; - Consider how the views of each side in these cases shaped the long-term views of freedom of religion in America; and - Create a storyboard to illustrate these multiple perspectives. STANDARDS CONNECTIONS CONNECTIONS TO COMMON CORE - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text. - CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RH.9-10.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history/social science. - CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.11-12.6 Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence. CONNECTIONS TO C3 FRAMEWORK - D3.1.9-12. Gather relevant information from multiple sources representing a wide range of views while using the origin, authority, structure, context, and corroborative value of the sources to guide the selection. Students interested in this topic might be interested in researching the following for an NHD project: - Roger Williams and the Founding of Rhode Island (c. 1631–1663) - The Trial of Anne Hutchinson (1637) - Philadelphia Nativist Riots (1844) - Scopes Monkey Trial (1925) - Engel v. Vitale (1962) TEACHER-CREATED MATERIALS - Religious Belief Source Analysis Guide - Storyboard Instructions - Religious Freedom Storyboard ACTIVITY PREPARATION - Organize the class into pairs. - Make one copy of the Religious Belief Source Analysis Guide for each student. - Make one copy of the Storyboard Instructions for each student or pair (at teacher’s discretion). - Arrange the classroom for group work. - Prepare technology (i.e., projector, computer, etc.), as needed. PROCEDURE ACTIVITY ONE (10 MINUTES) » Project the quotation from George Washington’s Letter to the Hebrew Congregation of Newport. Ask students: » What essential freedom is Washington addressing in this letter? » Was this a commonly held view in Washington’s time? » How did the idea for this freedom emerge in America? » Allow students to share their responses with the class. » Inform students that they will discuss debates over freedom of religion in the New England colonies. ACTIVITY TWO (45 MINUTES) » Distribute one Religious Belief Source Analysis Guide to each student. Organize students into pairs. Allow students time to read through the excerpts provided and answer the accompanying analysis questions. » Bring the class back together as a group. » Facilitate a class discussion of the documents by allowing students to share their responses to the analysis questions. » Teacher Tip: Allow students to debate their interpretations of the documents and clarify any misunderstandings. Guide the discussion as needed to ensure that students have a clear understanding of each document. Remind students that Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson were exceptions to the rule. The majority of Puritans desired a religious community consistent with their beliefs. ACTIVITY THREE (30 MINUTES) » Distribute a copy of the Storyboard Instructions to each student. Review the instructions and expectations. ASSESSMENT OPTIONS » Allow students to complete the storyboard independently or with a partner. » Allow students to choose to complete their storyboard by hand or computer. To access a PDF containing all of the sources and materials to complete this lesson plan, go to: nhd.org/RevIdeals. George Washington’s Letter “The citizens of the United States of America have a right to applaud themselves for having given to mankind examples of an enlarged and liberal policy—a policy worthy of imitation. All possess alike liberty of conscience and immunities of citizenship . . . May the children of the stock of Abraham* who dwell in this land continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other inhabitants—while every one shall sit in safety under his own vine and fig tree and there shall be none to make him afraid . . .” “. . . For happily the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens, in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.” the Jewish people Letter, George Washington’s Letter to the Hebrew Congregation of Newport, August 18, 1790 (excerpt) Touro Synagogue National Historic Site https://tourosynagogue.org/history/george-washington-letter/washington-seixas-letters/ THE PURITAN PERSPECTIVE The Puritans were a religious group who took issue with some of the practices of the Church of England. They were often persecuted in England, leading many to leave for the colonies. There they hoped to set up a society centered around the church where Puritans could worship according to their own beliefs. Read each excerpt below and answer the accompanying analysis questions to help clarify how the Puritans viewed the idea of freedom of religion. “... we see no rule of God for this, we see not that any should have authority to set up any other exercises besides what authority hath already set up and so what hurt comes of this you will be guilty of and we for suffering you.” Massachusetts Governor John Winthrop at the Trial of Anne Hutchinson (1637) Based on the context clues provided, what role did John Winthrop play in colonial New England? What does this suggest about his influence over people living there? Winthrop speaks of church “exercises” and points to an “authority” that establishes them. What do you think he means by exercises, and who or what is the authority he references? How does this correspond with the idea of religious freedom? How does this statement indicate how Puritans in New England viewed the concept of religious freedom? “Those who have found the presence and power of the spirit of Christ . . . will be slow to change such a ministry of faith, and holiness, for the liberty of church order.” Reverend John Cotton (c. 1649), quoted in A Platform of church discipline* . . . Based on the context clues provided, what role did John Cotton play in colonial New England? What does his position suggest about his influence over people living there? What does Cotton believe about change in the church? How does this correspond with the idea of religious freedom? How does this statement indicate how Puritans in New England viewed the concept of religious freedom? OTHER PERSPECTIVES Within Puritan-dominated New England, dissenters occasionally emerged who challenged different aspects of Puritan beliefs and practices. Those who spoke out about their beliefs often found themselves in conflict with Puritan church leaders, government officials, and others. This sometimes resulted in persecution, including public trials that could result in banishment (being forced out of the colony) or worse. Such was the case for two Massachusetts residents—Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson—who became key figures in the establishment of a new colony known as Rhode Island. Read each excerpt below and answer the accompanying analysis questions to help clarify how these individuals viewed the idea of freedom of religion. “First hee publickly taught, and teacheth . . . that body-killing, soule-killing, and State-killing doctrine of not permitting, but persecuting all other consciences and wayes of worship but his own in the civil State, and so consequently in the whole world, if the power or Empire thereof were in his hand.” Reverend Roger Williams, writing to John Cotton, in “Mr. Cottons letter lately printed, examined and ansvvered,” 1644 Based on the information provided, who was Roger Williams? What role did he play in colonial New England? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Why does Williams take issue with the ideas promoted by Reverend John Cotton? What does this suggest about Williams’s views on religious freedom? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ How do these ideas differ from the other Puritans in New England? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ “... I bless the Lord, he hath let me see which was the clear ministry and which the wrong. Since that time I confess I have been more choice and he hath left me to distinguish between the voice of my beloved and the voice of Moses, the voice of John the Baptist and the voice of antichrist, for all those voices are spoken of in scripture. Now if you do condemn me for speaking what in my conscience I know to be truth I must commit myself unto the Lord.” Anne Hutchinson, defending herself to the Massachusetts magistrates at her trial for heresy for speaking to groups of colonists about matters of religion, 1637 Based on the information provided, who was Anne Hutchinson? What role did she play in colonial New England? What does Hutchinson believe about the importance of religion? How does she approach the idea of religious freedom? How do these ideas differ from the other Puritans in New England? SYNTHESIS QUESTION How did views on religious freedom differ between the Puritan leaders in New England and those of dissenters like Williams and Hutchinson? How did this cause life in Puritan-dominated colonies to differ from life in Rhode Island? Storyboard Instructions For each storyboard panel, create a graphic that summarizes and represents your understanding of the documents and quotes you read and analyzed. \| Panel One: \| Based on the quotes you read from John Cotton and John Winthrop, create a graphic representation of your understanding of their basic views on the role of religion in society. Think about how you could show Puritans’ ideas about religious freedom. \| \| Panel Two: \| Based on your reading of John Winthrop’s “City on a Hill” sermon, create a graphic representation of Winthrop’s main purpose in helping establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Choose a key quotation that you think best represents Winthrop’s idea and rewrite it in your own words to include as part of your graphic. \| \| Panel Three: \| Create a graphic representing a modern interpretation or example of the Puritan viewpoint. Look for modern issues in religion that appear to be influenced by or similar to the ideas of the Puritans. \| \| Panel Four: \| Based on the quotes from Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, create a graphic representation of your understanding of how their views differed from Puritans like John Winthrop and John Cotton. \| \| Panel Five: \| Based on the excerpt from the Royal Charter of Rhode Island, create a graphic representation explaining why Roger Williams and other leaders created this colony. Select a key quotation that you think best represents their ideas and rewrite it in your own words to include in your graphic. \| \| Panel Six: \| Create a graphic representing a modern interpretation or example of Williams’s or Hutchinson’s ideas of religious freedom. 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To the Educator “Born This Way”, the Emmy Award-winning series on A&E, would be a great fit for a range of classes including social studies, media and current events. It would be useful to show or discuss during after-school programs and events. This series offers an excellent opportunity for students and general audiences to discuss and explore the lives of those with intellectual and developmental disabilities. “Born This Way” is appropriate for upper middle school, high school and college students. Pre-Viewing Activities 1. Watch the Born This Way trailer in preparation for watching the series. 2. Ask students to read the language guide on the next page. This will help explain Down syndrome as well as set a framework for understanding the experiences of the cast of Born This Way and others with developmental disabilities. 3. Discuss the ways labels can affect people. Why is it important to use language carefully when talking to anyone? Why is it important to use language carefully when talking to people with differing abilities, like those with Down syndrome? These tips will help provide appropriate language choices when talking about people with Down syndrome. - People with Down syndrome should always be referred to as people first. - Avoid using “a Down syndrome child”; instead, say “a child with Down syndrome.” Also avoid “Down’s child” and describing the condition as “Down’s,” as in, “He has Down’s.” - Down syndrome is a condition or a syndrome, not a disease. - People “have” Down syndrome, they do not “suffer from” it and are not “afflicted by” it. - “Typically developing” or “typical” is preferred over “normal.” - “Intellectual disability” or “cognitive disability” has replaced “mental retardation” as appropriate terms. - NDSS strongly condemns the use of the word “retarded” in any derogatory context. Using this word is hurtful and suggests that people with disabilities are not competent. NDSS uses the preferred “Down syndrome,” rather than “Down’s syndrome.” The apostrophe s connotes ownership or possession. Down syndrome is named for the English physician John Langdon Down, who characterized the condition, but did not have it. While Down syndrome is listed in many dictionaries with both popular spellings (with or without an apostrophe s), the preferred usage in the United States is Down syndrome. The AP Stylebook recommends using Down syndrome, as well. Discussion Questions 1. Each of the young adults in Born This Way™ has goals and aspirations. What are some of their aspirations? How are they working to achieve them? 2. Megan states that she does not want limits placed upon her because she has Down syndrome. What are some of the actions she’s taking to defy limits and exceed expectations? 3. In this series, we also hear a lot from the parents who talk about the joy their children bring to their lives. What are some of the notable comments shared by the parents? 4. Many people with Down syndrome want to live as independently as possible. Based on the series, what are some ways people with Down syndrome can be in control of their own lives? 5. What are some of the career goals of the cast members in Born This Way? In what ways can society support those with Down syndrome and other disabilities in their career paths? 6. What role do friendships play in the lives of those in Born This Way? Why are friendships so important in people’s lives? 7. How do you think this series might change perceptions about people with Down syndrome? How did it change your own views? 8. In what ways has society become more inclusive of people with disabilities? In what areas could there be improvement? 9. What can you do now in your school and community to be more inclusive? 10. What surprised you the most about this series? 11. What are some of the challenges faced by the cast members in Born This Way? How are their challenges unique, and how are they similar to the challenges many young people face? 12. What do you feel is the most important takeaway from this series? What impact do you hope this series has on our society? What can you do to help? Meet the Cast of Born This Way ELENA With a flair for the dramatic, this young woman embraces life. She loves to cook, dance and write poetry and takes great pride in her independence. STEVEN Working as a dishwasher at Angel Stadium and in customer service at a grocery store, Steven is a huge movie buff who knows the title and year of every Oscar®-winning film. RACHEL Rachel’s the maid of honor at her brother’s upcoming wedding. Though she’d love to get married herself, she has to find the right guy. She works in the mailroom of an insurance company. CRISTINA This loving and compassionate young adult works in a middle school. In her free time she loves talking on the phone with Angel, her boyfriend of four years and the man she plans to marry. SEAN An excellent golfer and avid sportsman, Sean is a self-professed ladies’ man who is not shy about introducing himself to every eligible woman he meets. JOHN From a very young age, John made it clear to his parents that he craved the spotlight. A born entertainer, John is committed to his music and is pursuing a career in rap. MEGAN Megan has created Megology, a clothing brand, while pursuing her dream of becoming a film producer. She’s also committed to spreading the word that society shouldn’t limit adults with disabilities. According to the U.S. Census, nearly one in five Americans have a disability. Currently 70 percent of working-age people with disabilities are not working — even though most of them want jobs and independence. The numbers are even worse for people with Down syndrome. Many studies have shown that people with disabilities, including those with Down syndrome, can work successfully and live relatively independently. Born This Way™ highlights the career hopes and dreams of seven young adults with Down syndrome. The Institute for Corporate Productivity has created a research report about the capabilities of those with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Visit cec-como.org to download the report. Spotlight on Best Buddies® A&E® is pleased to join with Best Buddies® to share information about their organization. Best Buddies® is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization dedicated to establishing a global volunteer movement that creates opportunities for one-to-one friendships, integrated employment and leadership development for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Two cast members, Rachel and Sean, have been involved in Best Buddies® friendship programs which partner peers — with and without intellectual and developmental disabilities — in one-on-one friendships. Founded in 1989 by Anthony K. Shriver, Best Buddies® is a vibrant organization that has grown from one original chapter to more than 1,900 chapters worldwide. Today, Best Buddies® eight formal programs — Middle Schools, High Schools, Colleges, Citizens, e-Buddies®, Jobs, Ambassadors and Promoters — engage participants in each of the 50 states and in over 50 countries, positively affecting the lives of more than 900,000 people with and without disabilities around the world. In many cases, as a result of their involvement with Best Buddies®, people with intellectual and developmental disabilities secure rewarding jobs, live on their own, become inspirational leaders and make lifelong friendships. For more information, please visit bestbuddies.org, and follow them on Facebook and Twitter. Recommended Reading FOR CHILDREN In My World: Down Syndrome (AuthorHouse, 2013) by Gabriella Llano and Tiziana Vazquez. With the support of her family, a girl with Down syndrome lives her life and learns to accept herself. Elementary-school age. My Brother Charlie (Scholastic Press, 2010) by Holly Robinson Peete and Ryan Elizabeth Peete. Story told from the point of view of the twin sister of a boy on the autism spectrum. Grades K–2. My Friend Isabelle (Woodbine House, 2003) by Eliza Woloson. The story of a friendship when one of the friends has Down syndrome. Grades K–2. My Sister, Alicia May (Pleasant St. Press, 2009) by Nancy Tupper Ling. What it’s like to grow up with a sister with Down syndrome. Grades 1–3. Popping Wheelies Coloring Book, Volume 1 (Popping Wheelies LLC, 2014) by Susan K. Nuenke. Coloring book featuring drawings of kids with disabilities. Elementary-school age. Sophie’s Tales: Overcoming Obstacles (Sophie’s Tales, 2012) by Melanie Patrico. A dog with a cochlear implant meets Champ, another dog who wears glasses, and they talk about disability. Ages 5 to 10. Taking Down Syndrome to School (Special Kids in School) (JayJo Books, 2002) by Jenna Glatzer. Picture book about what it is like to have Down syndrome in school. Elementary-school age. We’ll Paint the Octopus Red (Woodbine House, 1998) by Stephanie Stuve-Bodeen. A six-year-old girl learns how to be a good big sister to a baby brother with Down syndrome. Grades K–3. Wonder (Knopf Books for Young Readers, 2012) by R.J. Palacio. A story about a boy born with facial defects. Ages 8 to 12. FOR ADULTS Enabling Acts: The Hidden Story of How the Americans with Disabilities Act Gave the Largest US Minority Its Rights (Beacon Press, 2015) by Lennard J. Davis. A gripping and nuanced telling of the behind-the-scenes efforts to pass the Americans with Disabilities Act. Far from the Tree: Parents, Children and the Search for Identity (Scribner, 2012) by Andrew Solomon. A deeply touching look at how parents and children can learn to accept and embrace differences. The people featured demonstrate how lives with extreme challenges also have extreme value. No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement (Broadway Books, 1994) by Joseph P. Shapiro. A historical, in-depth look at people with disabilities as well as the advocacy efforts that led to the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act. EXPLORE Visit the Born This Way™ website to follow this series. BORN THIS WAY – EDUCATION VERSION You can purchase the classroom edition of Born This Way on Amazon.com. BEST BUDDIES® bestbuddies.org/ SPECIAL OLYMPICS specialolympics.org/ GLOBAL DOWN SYNDROME FOUNDATION globaldownsyndrome.org/ RESPECTABILITY USA RespectAbility’s website offers lesson plans and classroom explorations related to disability, respectabilityusa.com/ DOWN SYNDROME DIAGNOSIS NETWORK dsdiagnosisnetwork.org RESOURCES FOR FAMILIES EXPECTING OR RAISING A CHILD WITH DOWN SYNDROME The Human Development Institute at the University of Kentucky offers excellent publications for families who are expecting or raising a child with Down Syndrome. Visit lettercase.hdi.uky.edu to explore and learn how you can order these publications. #BornThisWay facebook.com/AETV @AETV youtube.com/watch?v=v7zIJAPFgOM&feature=youtu.be	5273d97e-688e-4588-9387-b7704b00d669	CC-MAIN-2022-27	https://cropper.watch.aetnd.com/cdn.watch.aetnd.com/sites/4/2017/05/BornThisWayGuide_5-23-17.pdf	2022-07-07T10:20:05+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104690785.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20220707093848-20220707123848-00492.warc.gz	237,739,735	2,377	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.985271	eng_Latn	0.997226	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1083, 2416, 4142, 5449, 7558, 10038, 10940 ]	[ 4.21875 ]	1	0
JOB ROLE: FIELD TECHNICIAN – OTHER HOME APPLIANCES STUDENT TEXTBOOK CLASS 9 Sector: ELECTRONICS AND HARDWARE Page number 2 to 7 for Foreword, Acknowledgment, Test Book Development committee etc. \| NAME OF CHAPTER \| PAGE NO. \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS \| 9-56 \| \| CHAPTER 2. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS \| 57-93 \| \| CHAPTER 3. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT \| 94-118 \| \| CHAPTER 4. INSTALLING AN RO WATER PURIFIER \| 119-185 \| \| CHAPTER 5. REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER PURIFIER \| 186-225 \| \| CHAPTER 6. MAINTAIN HEALTH AND SAFETY \| 226-243 \| 1.0 INTRODUCTION Electricity has an important place in modern society. In this age, we have almost all the appliances that work on electricity. Even the automobile industry has started an electric car which will run on electricity instead of fuel. When power supply in a city breaks down, hospitals, hostels, office buildings, schools, food storage plants, banks and shops etc. will stop working. In this chapter we will focus on current electricity that powers our electronic and electrical gadgets. Electricity makes no sound, does not have an odour, and cannot be seen. Learning the theory of electricity make us cautious about hazards associated with all electrical appliances. So it is very important to understand the concept of electricity for installation and troubleshooting electrical appliances. The electric elements include controlled and uncontrolled source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. The electric circuit should be designed in the correct way to perform a specific function. Analysis of electric circuits refers to computations required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage, current and power associated with one or more elements in the circuit. To work in the area of electrical engineering, the person should have the basic knowledge of electric circuit analysis and laws. Many other systems, like mechanical, hydraulic, thermal, magnetic and power system are easy to analyse and model by a circuit. To learn how to analyse the models of these systems, first one needs to learn the techniques of circuit analysis. We shall discuss briefly some of the basic circuit elements and the laws that will help us to develop the background of subject. In this chapter, students will understand the basic concepts of electricity and electrical circuits. Students can apply their knowledge to design, build, and demonstrate their own circuits. ![Natural lightning](image) Fig. 1.1: Natural lightning 1.1 ELECTRICITY Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and electrical current. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves. Electrical energy can be easily transferred from one location to another with minimum loss. 1.1.1 Source of Electricity Energy is the driving force for the universe. Energy is a quantitative property of a system. Natural electricity is generated by thunder storm and lightning as shown in figure 1.2. ![Lightning](image) Fig. 1.2: Natural discharging of charge, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/em8G1g ![Transmission Tower](image) Fig. 1.3: Transmission tower, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/f6kGNx 1.1.2 Energy Transformation There are many different forms of energy, such as thermal energy, hydel energy, solar energy, wind energy, nuclear energy, etc. According to law of conservation of energy, the energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change its form. One form of energy can be transferred to another form. Electrical energy can be generated by transforming several types of energies. Nuclear → Electrical Chemical → Electrical Hydel → Electrical Thermal → Electrical Solar → Electrical Wind → Electrical For example, figure 1.4(a) and 1.4(b) shows how electrical energy can be generated from hydel energy in hydel power plant. Fig.1.4 (a) and Fig.1.4 (b): Generation and transmission of electricity, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/Q5REKP 1.1.3 Energy Foundation To understand electricity, we need to know something about atoms. Everything in the universe solid, liquid, gases are made up of atoms. Every star, every tree, every animal and even the human body are made of atoms. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe. Atoms are so small that millions of them would fit on the head of a pin. Atoms: The centre of an atom is called the nucleus. Atoms consist of subatomic particles – protons, electrons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are very small, and electrons are much, much smaller. Protons carry positive (+) charge, electrons carry negative (-) charge, neutrons are neutral. The positive charge of the protons is equal to the negative charge of the electrons. Electrons move in its orbit around the nucleus. The positively charged protons attract negatively charged electrons and hence holding the atomic structure as shown in figure 1.6. ![Atomic Structure](image) Fig. 1.6: Atomic structure, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/hP7FhD Charge: Electric charge is a basic property of electrons, protons and other subatomic particles. Opposite charges attract each other and same charges repel each other. This makes electrons and protons stick together to form atoms. One foundational unit of electrical measurement is coulomb, which is a measure of electric charge proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced state. It was discovered by Charles-Augustine de Coulomb. One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on $6 \times 10^{18}$ (6,250,000,000,000,000,000) electrons. The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter "Q," while the symbol of coulomb is represented by the capital letter "C." Flow of charge inside a wire Inside conductor free electrons randomly moves from one point to another. Due to this random flow net electric charge of a conductor is zero. When an external power source is attached, net flow of electrons is in one direction. This movement of electrons results in a current. If there is a current of 1 ampere passing through a wire it theoretically means that $6 \times 10^{18}$ electrons are moving from one point to another in 1 second as shown in figure 1.7. ![Fig. 1.7: Flow of charges](image) 1.1.4 Conductors and Insulators When electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created. As in case of piece of wire, the electrons are passed from atom to atom, creating an electrical current from one end to another. Conductors: The material in which the electrons are loosely held, can move very easily. These are called conductors. The metals like copper, aluminium or steel are good conductors of electricity. Insulators: The materials which hold their electrons very tightly, do not allow to move the electrons through them very well. These are called insulators. Rubber, plastic, cloth, glass and dry air are good insulators and have very high resistance. 1.1.5 Type of Electricity As we have seen that electricity is a natural phenomenon. Naturally electricity is generated through lightning. This electricity is static in nature. Electricity can be generated in power plants. It is dynamic in nature. Thus electricity can be classified as: 1. Static electricity 2. Dynamic or Current electricity 1. Static electricity: Materials are made of atoms. Atoms are electrically neutral because they contain equal numbers of positive and negative charges. Static electricity requires a separation of positive and negative charges. When electrons do not move from one point to another point electricity is called static electricity. Energy stored in electric cell or battery is an example of static electricity. 2. Dynamic or Current electricity: Current electricity flows through wires or other conductors and transmits energy to devices. Flow of electricity is only possible because flow of charged particles like electrons. When electrons are in motion, electricity is called as dynamic or current electricity. Dynamic electricity cannot be stored. To store it has to be converted to static electricity. Current flowing through electrical wire and electrical AC appliances are the examples of dynamic electricity. Assignment - Discuss the source of electricity. Discuss about renewable and non-renewable source of electricity. - Prepare a data sheet in which electricity generating capacity of the five hydel power generating station are mentioned. - List out the names of top five thermal power plants in India as per their electricity generating capacity. 1.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES Current, voltage, and resistance are the three basic building blocks of electric and electronic circuit. These are called as electrical quantities. You cannot see it with the naked eye the energy flowing through a wire or the voltage of a battery. An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow free electrons to move continuously. This continuous movement of free electrons through the conductors of a circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of "flow," just like the flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe. The force motivating electrons to "flow" in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of potential energy that is relative between two points. Free electrons tend to move through conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is called resistance. The amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage available to motivate the electrons, and also the amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose electron flow. The standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance are given below: \| Quantity \| Symbol \| Unit of Measurement \| \|------------\|--------\|---------------------\| \| Current \| I \| ampere (A) \| \| Voltage \| V \| volt (V) \| \| Resistance \| R \| ohm ($\Omega$) \| The "symbol" given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity: The amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro Volta, and the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm. ### 1.2.1 Voltage Voltage is the potential difference between two points. Voltage is also the amount of work required to move one coulomb charge from one point to another point. Mathematically it can be written as, \[ V = \frac{W}{Q} \] where, - 'V' is the voltage, - 'W' is the work in joule, - 'Q' is the charge in coulomb. In an electric circuit the battery is used as an electric potential. Battery is one of the sources of voltage in electric circuit. Inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy needed to flow electrons from negative to positive terminal. When voltage is applied in electric circuit, negatively charged particles are pulled towards higher voltages, while positively charged particles are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage. A voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage (or potential difference) between two points in a system. Value of voltage is measured in volt or joules per coulomb. Symbolic representation of voltage is ‘$V$’ or ‘$v$’. Example: When one joule of work is done to move one coulomb charge from one point to other point the potential difference between two points is said to be one volt. ![Diagram showing flow of electrons and electric current](image) Fig. 1.8: Flow of electrons on application of DC supply, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/MtLkLK ![Image of a diesel AC voltage generator](image) Fig. 1.9 Diesel AC voltage generator, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2OCXheq ![Image of a DC voltage source in truck](image) Fig. 1.10 DC voltage source in truck, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2MfJgSh ### 1.2.2 Current The flow of electric charge is called electric current. The electrons carry charge. The electrons flow from one place to another. The number of moving electrons generates more charge. The amount of current flowing from one place to another is determined by the amount of charge flowing through it per unit time as shown in... Unit of current is ampere (A). Symbolic representation of current is ‘I’. Mathematically it can be written as, \[ I = \frac{Q}{t} \] Where, ‘I’ is the current, ‘Q’ is the amount of charge in coulombs ‘t’ is the time in seconds Note: Coulombs is the unit of charge. Example: If 1 coulomb charge passes through a point in 1 second, it will represent the 1 ampere current. Conventionally, the direction of current is taken as opposite to the flow of electrons. Fig. 1.11: Flow of charge through a cross section ‘A’, Courtesy: https://goo.gl/SHj3PF Fig. 1.12 Flow of electrons in the conductor, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2vyfoth Classification of current Depending upon the movement of electrons in an electric circuit, current can be classified as: 1. Direct current (DC) 2. Alternating current (AC) Direct Current Direct current is unidirectional in nature that is movement of electrons takes place only in one direction. This means that current flow only in one direction. DC voltage source (like batteries and cells) produces direct current. Direct current is used in wall clock, remote control, vehicles, automobile, cell phone etc. Alternating Current Alternating current is bidirectional in nature that is movement of electrons takes place in two directions. This means that current flow in two directions. AC voltage source (like AC generator) produces alternating current. Hydel power plants, thermal power plants etc. are the examples of alternating voltage sources. Alternating current is used in ceiling fan, cooler, washing machine etc. In India, standard AC generating frequency ($f$) of alternating current is 50 hertz. Frequency can be defined as “the number of cycles in one second”. From point A to point B represents one cycle. Hertz (Hz) is the unit of frequency. Example: 50 Hz represents 50 cycles in 1 second. The main difference between in AC and DC current is the directionality in the flow of electrons. In alternating current (AC, also ac), the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. In direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric charge is only in one direction. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. 1.2.3 Resistance We know that in conductor’s materials, electrons are loosely held and can move very easily. In insulators, electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and they do not move very easily. A very high voltage is required to move the electrons in an insulating material. On the other hand very small voltage is required to move the electrons in any conductor. In conductors the resistance is low, while in insulators the resistance is high. Resistance resists the flow of electron and hence electric current in the circuit. Conceptually, the resistance controls the flow of electric current. The resistance is represented by the symbol "R". The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω). 1.2.4 Electric Power Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit. Electric power, is the rate of doing work, means “amount of work done in one second”. The power is represented by symbol P. The SI unit of power is the watt (W). Unit of power is watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. It is named in honour of Scottish inventor James Watt (1736 - 1819). Electric horsepower (hp) is another unit of measurement of power. It is equal to 746 watts. It measures to be slightly higher than mechanical horsepower, which is 745.7 joules per second. The electric power in watts produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an electric potential (voltage) difference of V is \[ P = \text{Work done per unit time} = \frac{QV}{t} = V \times I \] Where, $ Q $ is electric charge in coulombs - $ t $ is time in seconds - $ I $ is electric current in amperes - $ V $ is electric potential or voltage in volts \[ P = \frac{W}{t} \text{ or } P = I^2 R \] Where, - ‘W’ is the work done in joules - ‘t’ is the time in seconds Power can also be defined in terms of current and voltage i.e. product of voltage and current results in power. Watt is a measure of energy flow. Since watt, is a very small unit of power, in actual practice we need a much larger unit, the kilowatt, which is equal to 1000 watts. Since, product of power and time gives electrical energy; therefore unit of electrical energy is watt hour or kilowatt hour. One watt hour of energy is consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour. The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kWh). Fig. 1.14: Domestic Efficiency Lighting Programme (DELP) 9 Watt LED Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2OGPquj 1kWh = 1000 watt x 3600 second = 3.6 x $10^6$ watt second or 3.6 x $10^6$ joule For example, the power of this LED is 9 watt. This 9 watt defines it will do 9 joules of work in 1 second. LEDs are more efficient than CFL. More to know: Government of India has launched National Programme for LED-based Home and Street Lighting in New Delhi for energy conservation by reducing energy consumption. Along with this programme, Government of India launched scheme for Light Emitting Diode (LED) bulb distribution under the Domestic Efficient Lighting Programme (DELP). Assignment: A 100 watt electric bulb is lighted for 2 hours daily, and four 40 watts bulbs are lighted for 4 hours daily. Calculate the energy consumed (in kWh) in 30 days. ### 1.2.5 Power Factor In AC circuit, various components are connected as resistor, inductor, and capacitor. These components consume power. When voltage is applied to an inductor it opposes the change in current. The current built up more slowly than the voltage, lagging in time and phase. In this way it can be stated that current lags the voltage. In case of capacitor, voltage is directly proportional to charge on it, current must lead the voltage in time and phase to conduct charge on the plates and raise the voltage. When inductor or capacitor is involved in an AC circuit, the current and voltage do not peak at same time. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks are expressed in degrees is said to be phase difference. The phase difference is <= 90 degrees. Because of this phase difference in voltage and current, power in capacitor and inductor will be minimum, in other words it can be said that this power will get lost by the circuit. This power is called as reactive power. In case of resistor both current and voltage are in phase. Therefore, power applied to the resistor will get utilized. This power is called as real power or true power. Combination of true power and reactive power is apparent power. Power factor is the ratio of real power to the apparent power. Value of power factor varies from 0 to 1. It is denoted by $\cos \phi$. Power factor = Real power / Apparent power Referring to the figure 1.16 it is observed that as the reactive power starts reducing the real power and apparent power become equal. When real power and apparent power become equal this means that AC circuit is resistive in nature i.e. it will only have a resistive component in the circuit. At this time, it can be summarized that reactive power due to Practical Activity: Form an electric circuit as shown in figure 1.17 and find out the parameter show voltage, current, resistance, power. Material Required: Battery of 9V, Fixed resistor of 3 Ohm, Bulb or LED of 5 watt. ![Figure 1.17](image) Practical Activity: Identify Live, Neutral and Earth on the power socket shown in figure 1.18. capacitor and inductor will not get utilized by circuit. Apparent power is the total power given to the circuit, reactive power is the unutilized power, and real power is utilized power by the circuit. 1.3 BASIC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT The electrical circuit supply electricity to the electrical device. These devices are called loads. Before the load will operate, electricity must have a complete path from the source to the load and back to the source. This path for electricity is called a circuit. An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task. In the figure 1.19, the voltage source $V$ on the left drives a current $I$ around the circuit, delivering electrical energy into the resistor $R$. From the resistor, the current returns to the source, completing the circuit. The components in an electric circuit can include elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, transformers and electronics. The components in the circuit can be active or passive. Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams are as follows: \| S.No. \| Components \| Symbol \| \|-------\|-----------------------------------\|--------\| \| 1 \| An electric cell \| \| \| 2 \| A battery or a combination of cells \| \| \| 3 \| Plug key or switch (open) \| \| \| 4 \| Plug key or switch (closed) \| \| \| 5 \| A wire joint \| \| \| 6 \| Wires crossing without joining \| \| \| 7 \| Electric bulb \| \| \| 8 \| A resistor of resistance R \| \| \| 9 \| Variable resistance or rheostat \| \| \| 10 \| Ammeter \| \| \| 11 \| Voltmeter \| \| 1.3.1 Active and Passive components There are two classes of electronic components – Active and Passive. Both these electronic components are different from each other. Active components: Active components produce energy in the form of Voltage or Current. These components required external source for their operation. Some of the common examples of active components are: Diode, Transistors, etc. If we connect a diode in a circuit and then connect this circuit to the supply voltage, then diode will not conduct the current until the supply voltage reach to 0.3V (in case of germanium) or 0.7V (in case of silicon). Passive components: Passive components do not produce energy in the form of Voltage or Current. These components do not require external source for their operation. Some of the common examples of passive components are: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc. Like a Diode, Resistor does not require 0.3V or 0.7V. i.e., when we connect a resistor to the supply voltage, it starts work automatically without using a specific voltage. In simple words, active components are energy donor, and Passive components are energy acceptor. 1.3.2 Open and Closed Circuit A circuit is a closed path or loop around which an electric current flows. If the circuit is complete, it is called Closed and the device will receive power and work. If this path is broken, the circuit is Open and the device will not work as shown in figure 1.20 (a), figure 1.20 (b). ![Fig.1.20 (a): Closed circuit Fig.1.20 (b): Open circuit](image-url) Practical Activity: Analysis of open and close circuit Prepare the circuit to glow the lamp as shown in figure 1.21 and 1.22. Apparatus required: 9 volts battery, connecting wire, resistor, lamp, wire stripper, wire cutter, and switch. Fig.1.21 Open circuit Fig.1.22: Close circuit Procedure: Following steps are used to form a circuit: 1. Take a battery; identify the positive and negative terminals of the battery. 2. Cut the wire using wire cutter and strip the insulation using wire stripper. 3. Connect the wire to the positive and negative terminal of the battery. 4. Connect the resistor to the wire which is connected to the positive terminal of battery. 5. Connect the other terminal of resistor to one of the terminal of lamp. 6. Connect the other terminal of the lamp to one of the terminal of switch. 7. Connect the other terminal of switch to the wire which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Result: When the switch is turned ‘ON’ lamp start glowing. Practical Activity: Construct a test lamp and use it to mains. Apparatus required: 1 bulb, 1 bulb holder, wire, wire cutter, wire stripper, plug Circuit diagram: Fig.1.23: Circuit diagram for test lamp Procedure: 1. Cut the wire into two pieces using wire cutter, making each one a meter long. 2. Now, you have two pieces of wire. Strip the insulation of the wire terminals. 3. Fix the bulb holder using one end of the two pieces of wires and install a light bulb on to the holder. 4. You have other two ends of the wire free. 5. Fix a two-pin plug on those free pairs of wires. It means you can light up the bulb if you put two-pin plug in a live two-pin socket. 6. Check the continuity of the test lamp is sure that bulb turns on when the plug is inserted in a live two-pin socket. 7. Now, pull out the plug from the socket. 8. Finally, you need to slice one of the wires in the middle and remove insulation from each of the cut-ends for half an inch so that the bare copper is clearly visible. 9. Your test lamp is ready for experimental test. Always use a cap to cover the bare copper wire to avoid any accidental electrification. 1.3.3 Series and Parallel circuits The electrical and electronic circuit are arranged in many ways. The circuit is named based on the way components are connected. There are two of the simplest form of circuit known as Series and Parallel. Series Circuits In a series circuit, electric load is connected along a single path in the circuit. So, the current flowing through each of them will remain same. Since, there is only one path for the electrical current to flow through, if a wire is cut or switch is opened, all electric loads in the circuit will stop working. If a battery has insufficient charge or energy, there is insufficient current through the circuit to make the lights glow. In this case battery may be replaced, or putting two batteries in series, may solve this problem. In the series circuit as shown in figure 1.24, arrow shows the direction of the flow of current. A Series circuit or “series-connected circuit” is a circuit having just one current path. Thus, figure 1.24 is an example of a “series circuit” in which a battery of constant potential difference V, and three resistances, are all connected “in series.” Since a series circuit has just one current path, it follows that all the components in a series circuit carry the same current $I$, a fact evident from inspection of figure 1.24. In a series circuit, the total resistance, $R_T$ is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. Thus, in the particular case of figure 1.24 the total resistance, $R_T = R_1 + R_2 + R_3$, while in the general case of “n” resistances connected in series the total resistance is as follows: $$R_T = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + \ldots + R_n$$ ![Fig. 1.24: Series circuit](image) ![Fig. 1.25 Bulbs connected in series](image) Parallel Circuits In a parallel circuit, electric load in the circuit form multiple paths. Since, there are a number of paths, even if one electric load stops working, the other electric loads in the circuit will still work. The current from the source divides, so some of the current flows through one path and the rest through other paths. This means that the power source must supply more current to power a parallel circuit than a series circuit, which may run down the battery faster. In parallel circuit shown in figure 1.27, arrows represent direction of flow of currents. Parallel circuit is one in which the battery current are divided into a number of “parallel paths.” Total resistance of the parallel circuit is as follows: \[ R_T = \frac{R_1 \times R_2 \times R_3 \times \ldots \times R_n}{R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + \ldots + R_n} \] Fig. 1.26: Parallel circuit Fig. 1.27 Bulbs connected in parallel \| Key Concept \| Diagram \| \|-------------\|---------\| \| For a series circuit, $ R_1 $ is said to be in series with $ R_2 $. For these circuits, the current flowing through each device in series is the same. Adding the voltages across each element in series is equal to the total (battery) voltage. \| ![Diagram](image1) Fig. 1.28(a) \| \| For a parallel circuit, $ R_1 $ is said to be in parallel with $ R_2 $. For these circuits, the voltage across each device in parallel is the same. Adding the current through each element in parallel is equal to the total (battery) current. \| ![Diagram](image2) Fig. 1.28(b) \| Practical Assignment: Build the series and parallel connections of resistors and calculate the resistance. Set up a circuit in which three resistors of different values are connected in series and in parallel. Then manually calculate the value of total resistance in both series and parallel connection. Verify the values using ohmmeter. ### 1.3.4 Simple Circuit Drawings Draw more than one way to light the bulb. Can you do it with one wire? Can you do it with two wires? How many different ways can you think of? Building a Bulb Holder Materials: a) Cardboard, thin, 15 cm x 6 cm b) Aluminium foil, 6 cm x 4 cm c) Scissors d) Glue stick e) Push pin f) Pen g) Light bulb h) Electrical insulation Tape Directions: 1. Cut out the shape as shown in figure 1.29. ![Figure 1.29](image) 2. Lay the shape on top of the cardboard, use the pen to trace around it, and then cut out the piece of cardboard as shown in figure 1.30. ![Figure 1.30](image) 3. Glue the piece of aluminium foil onto part B of bulb holder as shown in figure 1.31. 4. Use a push pin to poke a hole near the middle of part A as shown in figure 1.32. Part A uses a pen to widen the hole. 5. Make sure the hole is large enough for a bulb to fit into it. Then loop part A around the backside of part B. Tape it into place using electrical insulation tape in figure 1.33. Practical Activity: Using Bulb Holders Materials: 1. Bulb holder 2. Light bulb 3. Cardboard, 20 cm x 15 cm 4. Battery 5. 2 brads 6. Push pin 7. Pen 8. 2 connecting wires (stripped on each end), 15 cm long 9. Electrical insulation tape Directions: a) Attach the battery to the cardboard circuit board by moving it down towards a narrow side of the cardboard. b) Prepare to attach the bulb holder to the cardboard circuit board by using a push pin to poke holes in the bulb holder and the cardboard circuit board. c) Use the tip of a pen to widen the holes and then use brads to lock the bulb holder in place on the circuit board as shown in figure 1.34. d) Tape one end of a connecting wire to a terminal of the battery. Wrap the other end around a bulb holder brad. e) Tape one end of the other connecting wire to the battery’s other terminal. Lay the other end into the bulb holder hole as shown in figure 1.35. f) Place the bulb into the bulb holder. Make sure the bottom of the bulb is touching the aluminium foil as shown in figure 1.36. 1.4 OHM’S LAW Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854) was a German physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell. He investigated the relation between current and voltage in a resistor and published his experimental results in 1827. Ohm’s Law can be used to understand the behaviour of electricity in individual components as well as in entire circuits. 1.4.1 Ohm’s Experiment A D.C. variable supply voltage is connected with positive terminal at point ‘a’ and negative terminal at ‘b’ as shown in fig.1.37. As voltage is increased, the current recorded by the ammeter increases. For every voltage value the current is recorded and the corresponding point is plotted on the graph. With this a straight line graph passing through origin is obtained in first quadrant. Experiment Results The experimental results indicate that there is a linear relationship between the current and voltage both in the first and third quadrant. The slope of straight line is also same in both the quadrants which shows that the potential difference across the terminals of the conductor is proportional to the current passing through it i.e. V ∝ I. Also it is found that for a constant current in the conductor resistance should be changed proportional to the potential difference i.e. V ∝ R. Combining the two proportionalities, we have, V ∝ IR Or V = k (I x R) Where, k is a constant of proportionality. However, the units of voltage, current and resistance are defined, so that the value of k = 1. When the current is 1 ampere, voltage 1 volt, the resistance is 1Ω. 1 = k . 1 . 1 Thus the equation becomes V = IR Thus, Ohms law states that “Current is directly proportional to the applied voltage” or “The current in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the terminals of the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor”. It means that, if the resistance is kept constant, as the voltage increases, the current increases and if the voltage decreases, then the current decreases. Also, if the voltage remains constant, as the resistance increases the current goes on decreasing and vice versa. It means, keeping the voltage constant, the resistance is inversely proportional to current. It means that, if the resistance increases the current decreases and if the resistance decreases the current increases. Thus from the ohm’s law we have \[ V = I R \] where, ‘V’ = voltage applied to the conductor. ‘I’ = current flowing to the conductor. ‘R’ = resistance of the conductor. Practical Activity: verification of ohm’s law. Material required: A resistor of about 5 Ω, an ammeter (0 - 3 A), a voltmeter (0 - 10 V), four dry cells of 1.5 V each with a cell holder (or a battery), a plug key, connecting wires, and a piece of sand paper. Precautions: - All the electrical connections must be neat and tight. - Voltmeter and Ammeter must be of proper range. - The key should be inserted only while taking readings. Circuit Diagram: ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig.1.39 Procedure: 1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown above. 2. Arrange the apparatus as per the circuit diagram. 3. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make them shiny. 4. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight. Take care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+ve to +ve and -ve to -ve). 5. Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them. 6. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current. 7. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and voltmeter are showing deflections properly. 8. Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter. 9. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter. 10. Take at least six sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually. 11. Plot a graph with ‘V’ along x-axis and ‘I’ along y-axis. 12. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm’s law. 13. Determine the slope of the V-I graph. The reciprocal of the slope gives resistance of the wire. Observations: - Range of the given ammeter = ……………… A. - Least count of the given ammeter = ……………… A. - Range of the given voltmeter = ……………… V. - Least count of the given voltmeter = ……………… V. - Mean value of V/I from observations, R = ……… Ω. Observation from graph: - Slope of ‘I’ vs ‘V’ graph = ………… - R from graph = 1/ slope = ………… Ω. Observation table: \| Voltage across (V) \| Current through(A) \| \|-------------------\|--------------------\| \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 2 \| .5 \| \| 4 \| 1 \| \| 6 \| 1.5 \| \| 8 \| 2 \| \| 10 \| 2.5 \| \| 12 \| 3 \| \| voltage across \| current through \| \|---------------\|----------------\| \| V \| A \| \| 0 \| 0 \| \| 2 \| 0.5 \| \| 4 \| 1 \| \| 6 \| 1.5 \| \| 8 \| 2 \| \| 10 \| 2.5 \| \| 12 \| 3 \| Fig.1.40 Practical Activity: Verify ohm’s law in the given electrical circuit In this practical, verify the ohms law by observing the reading in ammeter and voltmeter, draw the graph by plotting the observed values. Apparatus required: Rheostat, Ammeter, Voltmeter, a variable voltage supply of (0-10V) D.C. Procedure: 1. Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit as shown in figure 1.41. 2. Connect the variable voltage supply to both the ends of the rheostat as shown in the circuit diagram. 3. Connect the ammeter in series of the rheostat as shown in the circuit diagram. 4. Connect the voltmeter in parallel of the rheostat as shown in the circuit diagram. 5. Now, start measuring the voltage and current by varying the position of rheostat’s knob from minimum position to the maximum position. Fig.1.41 Circuit diagram of ohms law, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2ndWS5T 6. When rheostat knob is at minimum position, maximum current will flow through the circuit and vice versa. 7. Increase the voltage from 0-10 V and measure current in each step, and then record it in table below. \| V (Volt) \| 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 \| \|----------\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|----\| \| I (mA) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| 8. Observe number of reading; fill them all in the table. 9. Now with this data plot a graph between the voltage and the current. ![Diagram](image) Fig. A, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2ndWS5T Problems on Ohm's Law Some of the solved examples to better understand the ohms law are as follows: Example 1: A 10 V battery is connected to the electric bulb of resistance of 20 Ω. Find the current flowing through the electric bulb. Solution: Here V = 10 V R = 20 Ω The current flowing through the electric bulb is given by \[ V = I R \] \[ I = V / R \] \[ I = 10 / 20 \] \[ I = 0.5 \text{ A} \] So, the current flowing through the bulb is 0.5 A. Example 2: An electric iron of resistance 40 Ω is connected to a supply voltage. The current flowing through the electric iron is 6 A. Find the voltage applied to the electric iron? Solution: Here, $ I = 6 \text{ A}, R = 40 \Omega $ Voltage equation is given by \[ V = I R \] So, Voltage is expressed as $ V = 6 \times 40 $, \[ V = 240 \text{ V} \] Example 3: A 110 V voltage source supplies power to a halogen light. The current flowing through the halogen light is 5 A. Find the resistance of the halogen light. Solution: Here, $ V=110\text{V}, I=5\text{A} $ The resistance is given by \[ R = \frac{V}{I} \] \[ R = \frac{110}{5} \] \[ R = 22 \Omega \] so, the resistance of halogen light is 22 Ω. Assignment: Solve the problems based on ohm’s law. 1. 9 V is applied across a 3 Ω resistor. What is the current flowing? 2. A 6 Ω resistor passes a current of 2 A. What is the voltage across it? 3. What is the voltage of a circuit with a resistance of 255 Ω and a current of 3 A? 4. A small electrical pump is labeled with a rating of 5 A and a resistance of 30 Ω. At what voltage is it designed to operate? 5. A 9 V battery is hooked up to a light bulb with a rating of 2 Ω. How much current passes through the light? 6. A lamp is plugged into the wall outlet, which is providing 110 V. An ammeter attached to the lamp shows 2 A flowing through the circuit. How many ohms of resistance is the lamp providing? 7. If your skin has a resistance of 9000 Ω and you touch a 9 V battery, what current will flow through you? 8. What current will flow through your body with a skin resistance of 12,000 Ω, if you touch 120 V house potential? 9. When you are soaked in seawater, your resistance is lowered to 1000 Ω. Now how much current will flow through you if you touch the 9 V battery? 10. When you are soaked in seawater, what current will flow through you if you touch the 120 V house potential? Assignment: Write the electrical symbols and units Complete the following table of electrical symbols and units: Assignment: In the following table, from the given quantities, calculate the unknown quantities. The unit ‘k’ stands for kilowatt (kW), means 1000 W. \| Voltage \| Current \| Resistance \| Power \| \|---------\|---------\|------------\|-------\| \| 100 V \| 5A \| \| \| \| 12 V \| \| 1 Ω \| \| \| \| 5A \| 8 Ω \| \| \| 230 V \| 13A \| \| \| \| \| 3A \| 150 Ω \| \| \| 50 V \| \| 20 Ω \| \| \| \| \| 40 Ω \| 1 kW \| \| \| 0.5 A \| \| 2.5 W \| \| 250 V \| \| \| 62.5 W\| Practical Assignment: Find the electrical quantities in the circuit shown in figure 1.42. 1. Calculate the equivalent resistance of this circuit. 2. Calculate the total current drawn. 3. Calculate the voltage across following: Resistor ‘A’ Resistor ‘B’ ........................................... Resistor ‘C’ ............................................ Resistor ‘D’ ............................................ 4. Calculate the amount of power consumed by the circuit. Practical Assignment: Find the following quantities for the circuit in the figure 1.43. 1. Calculate the voltage across each load when switch is open. 2. Calculate the current drawn from the battery. 3. Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor. 4. Calculate the equivalent resistance in the circuit. ![Figure 1.43](image) ### 1.5 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW Kirchhoff’s law is named after Gustav Kirchhoff, he is a German physicist. Kirchhoff defined the basic relationship between voltage (V), current (I). These laws of Kirchhoff are used for circuit analysis. Kirchhoff’s laws relate to the conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed into different forms. This can be expanded to laws of conservation of voltage and current. In any circuit, the voltage across each series component (carrying the same current) can be added to find the total voltage. Similarly, the total current entering a junction in a circuit must equal the sum of current leaving the junction. Kirchhoff laws are classified as: 1. Kirchhoff’s current law 2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law #### 1.5.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoff’s current law states that “total incoming currents at a point are equal to the total outgoing currents”. It can be understood by an example, consider that $I_1$ and $I_2$ are coming towards a point. Current $I_1$ and $I_2$ are incoming current as they are coming towards point as shown in the figure 1.44. Current $I_3$ is outgoing current w.r.t point. The sum of incoming currents $I_1$ and $I_2$ are equal to the sum of outgoing current $I_3$. ![Figure 1.44](image) Fig. 1.44, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2AYNyML Mathematically, at a point $$I_1 + I_2 = I_3$$ In a series circuit total current flowing in the circuit remains same at any point in the circuit. ![Figure 1.45](image) Fig. 1.45: Series Circuit ![Figure 1.46](image) Fig. 1.46: Analogy of current in series circuit Courtesy: https://goo.gl/VzW2Pu In a parallel circuit total current flowing in the circuit is divided in parallel branches. ![Figure 1.47](image) Fig. 1.47: Parallel circuit ![Figure 1.48](image) Fig. 1.48: Analogy of current in parallel circuit 1.5.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that “total voltage drop across the loads in the circuit are equal to the total voltage applied to the circuit” or “the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistance in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the E.M.F. in that path is zero”. In other words, $ \sum IR + \sum \text{E.M.F.} = 0 $ EMF stands for electro motive force; it is the force which exerts on the electrons to move from one place to another. Let us now write the equation for figure 1.49 in accordance with Kirchhoff’s voltage law. To do this, we start at any point and move completely around the circuit, listing the “voltage drops” and the “voltage rises” as we go. (In doing this, remember that we have defined that going from “minus to plus” constitutes a rise in voltage and going from “plus to minus” constitutes a drop in voltage.) Thus, if we agree to list all “voltage drops” on the left-hand sides of our equations and all the “voltage rises” on the right-hand sides, the Kirchhoff voltage equation for figure 1.49 is: \[ R_1I + V_2 + R_2I = V_1 \] ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig. 1.49, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2AYNyML Note that $ V_2 $ appears as a voltage drop, because we go through that battery from plus to minus (+ to -). Alternatively, putting all the battery voltages on the right hand side, the above equation becomes \[ R_1I + R_2I = V_1 - V_2 \] Hence, $ I = (V_1 - V_2) / (R_1 + R_2) $ It can be understand by an example, consider a circuit in which three loads are used i.e. $ R_1, R_2, R_3 $. Total applied voltage to the circuit is $ V $. Voltage drop across the loads are $ V_1, V_2, V_3 $. Therefore, according to Kirchhoff’s voltage law total applied voltage ($ V $) is equal to the sum of individual voltage drop ($ V_1, V_2, V_3 $) across the loads. Mathematically, \[ V = V_1 + V_2 + V_3 \] As shown in the figure 1.50 voltage drop across the loads are 5V, 2V, 3V. Total applied voltage is 10V. \[ 10V = 5V + 2V + 3V \] Fig.1.50: Series circuit Fig.1.51: Analogy of voltage in series circuit Courtesy: https://goo.gl/VzW2Pu In a parallel circuit, the total voltage provided by the source is equal to the voltage across each parallel branch. Fig.1.52: Parallel Circuit Fig. 1.53: Analogy of voltage in parallel circuit Courtesy: https://goo.gl/VzW2Pu ### 1.5.3 Analysis of Kirchhoff’s law: Circuit in figure 1.54, below with 3 A of current running through the 4 Ω resistor as indicated in the figure. 1. Determine the current through each of the other resistors. 2. Determine the voltage of the battery on the left. 3. Determine the power delivered to the circuit by the battery on the right. Fig. 1.54 • Identify the currents through the resistors by the value of the resistor ($I_1, I_2, I_3, I_4$) and the currents flowing through the batteries are $I_{\text{Left}}$ (current flowing from battery at the left side) and $I_{\text{Right}}$ (current flowing from battery at the right side). • Start with the 2Ω resistors. Apply the loop rule to the circuit on the lower right. \[ 20 \text{ V} = I_2(2\Omega) + (3A)(4\Omega) \] \[ I_2 = 4 \text{ A} \] • Start the circuit analysis from 3 Ω resistors. Apply the junction rule at point A in the center of the circuit. \[ I_2 = I_3 + I_4 \] \[ 4 \text{ A} = I_3 + 3 \text{ A} \] \[ I_3 = 1 \text{ A} \] • The current through the 1 Ω resistor certainly runs from right to left. If we apply the loop rule to the top circuit, we will have to run against that current. This changes what is normally considered a potential drop into a potential increase. \[ I_1(1\Omega) = (4A)(2\Omega) + (1A)(3\Omega) \] \[ I_1 = 11 \text{ A} \] • Apply the loop rule to the outer circuit to get the voltage of the battery on the left (continuing with the assumption that the current is running counterclockwise). We find ourselves running through the left battery backwards. This changes what is normally considered a higher potential into a lower potential. \[ 20 \text{ V} = (11A)(1\Omega) + V_L \] \[ V_L = 9 \text{ V} \] • Let’s verify this result by repeating the procedure for the bottom circuit. \[ 20 \text{ V} = (4A)(2\Omega) + (1A)(3\Omega) + V_L \] \[ V_L = 9 \text{ V} \] • The power delivered to the circuit by the battery on the right is the product of its voltage times the current it drives around the circuit. We already have the voltage (it’s given in the problem) all that remains is to determine the current. Apply the junction rule to the junction on the left. \[ I_L = I_1 + I_3 \] \[ I_L = 11A + 1A \] \[ I_L = 12A \] and again to the junction at the bottom \[ I_R = I_L + I_4 \] \[ I_R = 12A + 3A \] \[ I_R = 15A \] - To find the power of the battery on the right \[ P = VI \] \[ P = (20V)(15A) \] \[ P = 300W \] Practical Assignment: Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit shown below. ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig.1.55 ### 1.5.4 Kirchhoff’s Law practical In this practical, verify the Kirchhoff’s law by observing the reading in ammeter and voltmeter as shown in figure 1.56. Apparatus required: Resistance of 30 Ω, 50 Ω, 82 Ω and 100 Ω, connecting cords, power supply. Procedure a) Using the DC circuit trainer, Connect the circuit shown below: b) Measure the values of voltage and current of each resistor in circuit and record it in the table below. \| \| R₁ (ohm) \| R₂ (ohm) \| R₃ (ohm) \| R₄ (ohm) \| \|-------\|----------\|----------\|----------\|----------\| \| I (mA)\| \| \| \| \| \| V (Volt) \| \| \| \| \| c) Measure the voltage and current values across the resistor R₁, resistor R₂, resistor R₃, and resistor R₄ note the reading in the table. Observe the total voltage applied in the circuit and the voltage drop across the individual resistor. Practical Activity: Energy use in Home Appliances Calculation of energy To calculate the energy consumption in home appliance following technique is used. We know that: Power = Energy / Time or Energy = Power x Duration of Usage (Time) By modifying this formula slightly, we can determine Energy Consumption per Day: Energy Consumption / Day = Power Consumption x Hours Used / Day Where: 1. Energy Consumption will be measured in Kilowatt hour (kWh) - like on your utility bills. 2. Power Consumption will be measured in Watt 3. Hours used per Day will be the actual time you use the appliance. Since we want to measure energy consumption in kilowatt hour, we must change the way power consumption is measured from Watt to Kilowatt (kWh). We know that 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 1,000 watt hours, so we can adjust the formula above to: \[ \text{Energy Consumption / Day (kWh)} = \frac{\text{Power Consumption (Watt)}}{1000} \times \text{Hours Used / Day} \] Example 1: Calculating energy use of a ceiling fan Solution: If you use a ceiling fan (200 W) for four hours per day, and for 120 days per year, what would be the annual energy consumption? Use this formula: \[ \text{Energy Consumption / Day (kWh)} = \frac{\text{Power Consumption (Watts)}}{1000} \times \text{Hours Used / Day} \] \[ \text{Energy Consumption per Day (kWh)} = \left( \frac{200}{1000} \right) \times 4 \text{ (Hours used per day)}. \] \[ \text{Energy Consumption per Day (kWh)} = \left( \frac{1}{5} \right) \times 4 \text{ Energy Consumption per Day (kWh)} = \frac{4}{5} \text{ or } 0.8, \text{ So the energy consumption per day is } 0.8 \text{ kWh. To find out energy for 120 days, do simple multiplication: } 0.8 \times 120 = 96 \text{ kWh} \] d) If total applied voltage in the circuit and the voltage drop across the individual resistor are equal, then we can say that Kirchhoff’s voltage law is verified. e) BASIC ELECTRICAL TERMS AC and DC: Abbreviations for alternating current and direct current respectively. Current: A movement of electricity analogous to the flow of a stream of water. Direct Current: An electric current flowing in one direction only (i.e. current produced using a battery). Alternating Current: A periodic electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals. Ampere: The unit of electrical current (the measure of electrical flow), is abbreviated A. Circuit Breaker: A device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined over current without damaging itself when operated according to its rating. Circuit: A complete path from the energy source through conducting bodies and back to the energy source. Conductor: A substance or body capable of conducting electricity. Equipment: A general term including material, fittings, devices, appliances, fixtures, apparatus, and similar items used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation. Fuse: An over current protective device with a circuit opening part that is heated and broken by the passage of an over current through it. Kilowatt-hour: Work done at the steady rate equivalent to 1000 watt in one hour. Power utility companies’ base their billing upon the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) consumed. Lamp: A general term for various devices for artificially producing light. Ohm: The unit of electrical resistance and impedance, abbreviated with the symbol omega, W. Resistance is the opposition offered by a substance to the passage of electrical current. Impedance is the apparent resistance in a circuit to the flow of alternating current. Ohm’s Law: A statement of the relationship, discovered by the German scientist G. S. Ohm, between the voltage, amperage and resistance of a circuit. It states the voltage of a circuit in volts is equal to the product of the amperage in amperes and the resistance in ohms, V=IR. Over current: Any current in excess of the rated current or ampacity. It may result from overload, short circuit or ground fault. Transformer: An apparatus for converting an alternating electrical current from a high to a low potential (voltage) or vice versa. Transformers only change voltage and amperage. Volt: It is a unit of electric potential and is abbreviated as ‘V’. Watt: The unit of power or rate of work represented by a current of one ampere through a potential difference of one volt (abbreviated w or W). CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q1. Choose the correct option from those given below 1. Which of the following component is used to close or break the circuit a) Bulb b) Switch c) Wire d) Electric Cell 2. Which of the following component is used to provide resistance a) Heat b) Energy c) Product d) Resistor 3. Frequency (f) of alternating current is ………hertz in India. a) 45 b) 60 c) 50 d) 55 4. In series circuit current remains ……… and voltage ………. a) Divide, same b) Same, same c) Divide, divide d) Same, divide 5. In parallel circuit current remains ………… and voltage ………. a) Divide, same b) Same, same c) Divide, divide d) Same, divide 6. Amount of work in one second is called as……. a) Power b) Current c) Voltage d) Charge 7. Ohms law states that……. a) Voltage is directly proportional to the applied voltage. b) Voltage is directly proportional to the applied current. c) Current is directly proportional to the applied voltage. d) Current is directly proportional to the applied current. 8. Amount of charge flowing through a point in one second is called as……. a) Voltage b) Current c) Power d) Charge 9. Amount of work required to move a unit coulomb charge from point A to point B called as........... a) Current b) Charge c) Voltage d) Power 10. What are the basic building blocks that all matter composed of? a) Electrons, neutrons, and protons b) Electrons, proton and ions c) Neutrons, protons and ions d) Electrons, neutrons, and charged ions 11. Electric charge can be produced by a) Sticking b) Rubbing c) Oiling d) Passing ac current 12. An electron has ...... charge. a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Sometime positive, sometimes negative 13. A proton has ...... charge. a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Sometimes positive, sometimes negative 14. A neutron has.........charge. a) Positive b) Negative c) Zero d) Sometimes positive, sometimes negative 15. Unit of electric current is……. a) Ampere b) Volt c) Watt d) Joule 16. Unit of electrical power is……. a) Volt b) Watt c) Joule d) Ampere 17. The term used to designate electrical pressure is a) Voltage b) Watt c) Joule d) Ampere 18. The statement which correctly represents ohm’s law: a) $ V = IR $ b) $ V = R/I $ c) $ R = VI $ d) $ I = R/V $ 19. If $ V = 50 \text{ V} $ and $ I = 5 \text{ A} $, then $ R = \_\_ $: a) $ 50 \Omega $ b) $ 5 \Omega $ c) $ 10 \Omega $ d) $ 2 \Omega $ 20. If $ P = 50 \text{ watt} $ and $ R = 2 \Omega $, then $ I = \_\_ $ a) $ 50 \text{ A} $ b) $ 5 \text{ A} $ c) $ 10 \text{ A} $ d) $ 2 \text{ A} $ 21. A current of 3A flow through a conductor whose end are at a potential difference of 6V. Calculate the resistance of the conductor. a) 4 Ω b) 5 Ω c) 1 Ω d) 2 Ω 22. Combination of three resistances in series then it is given as: a) $ R_1 + R_2 + R_3 $ b) $ \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3} $ c) $ R_1 \times R_2 \times R_3 $ d) $ R_1 + R_2 \times R_3 $ 23. A current of 2A flows through a 12V bulb then Calculate the resistance. a) 6 b) 16 c) 24 d) 20 24. Conductors which do not obey the ohms law are called as: a) Un-ohmic conductor b) Non-ohmic conductor c) Low-ohmic conductor d) Less-ohmic conductor 25. A complete electric circuit is called as: a) Open b) Close c) Incomplete d) Complete 26. Why are copper wires used as connecting wires? a) Low resistivity b) Low conductivity c) High resistivity d) None of the above 27. Electrical conductors are materials which contain: 27. What is electric charge? a) Only positive charge b) Movable electric charge c) Only negative charge d) None of the above 28. How many terminals an electric cell consists of? a) One b) Three c) Two d) Four 29. An electric cell converts the ............... energy into .................. energy. a) Electrical to mechanical b) Mechanical to electrical c) Chemical to electrical d) Electrical to chemical 30. Why is a battery used in the circuit? a) Measure current b) Maintain potential difference c) Oppose the current d) Measure potential Q2. Fill in the blanks with correct words. 1. In........ circuit, current remains same and voltage divides. 2. In........ circuit, current divides and voltage remains same. 3. Amount of ........... in one second is called as power. 4. A component which is used to close or break a circuit is..... 5. Proton has ....... charge. 6. Unit of electrical ........... is watt. 7. “Current is directly proportional to the applied voltage” this law is given by......... 8. 1kWh = ........ watt x ...... second 9. Switch is used for ........... and ........... of circuit. 10. Electrons have ........... charge. 11. The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance by Ohm’s Law. Voltage = Current x Resistance This will mean that: \[ I = \frac{V}{R} \] Current = ............... ÷ ............... and $ R = \frac{V}{I} $ = ............... ÷ ............... Q3. State whether the statement given below are True or False a) Frequency (f) of alternating current is 60 hertz in India. ( ) b) Electrons are electrically neutral. ( ) c) Due to rubbing of two bodies, electric charge is produced. ( ) d) Relation between voltage, current, resistances is given by Kirchhoff’s law. ( ) e) Unit of current is ampere. ( ) f) Resistor easily passes current. ( ) g) Unit of voltage is watt. ( ) h) Unit of power is joule/second. ( ) i) Current in a circuit is instantly established. ( ) j) 1kWh = 1000 watt x 3600 second. ( ) Q4. Short answer type question: a) What is the supply voltage at home? b) What is one volt? c) What is the supply frequency of supply voltage? d) What is electric current? e) What does 10 A mean? f) Explain diagrammatically, how the components are connected in series circuits? g) Explain diagrammatically, how the components are connected in parallel circuits? h) Explain diagrammatically, how the components are connected in complex circuits? i) What will happen to the series circuit if a bulb gets fused? Will the circuit be close in this case? j) List the appliance where resistors are used. k) What are the different variable resistors? l) How AC and DC currents are different from each other? m) List the appliances which use DC power. n) Calculate the current ‘I’ flowing through the circuit (figure 1.56). ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig.1.57 a) Calculate the Resistance ‘R’ in the circuit (figure 1.57). ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig. 1.58 b) Calculate the voltage ‘V’ in the circuit (figure 1.58). ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig. 1.59 c) Verify the KCL and KVL and find $I_1$, $I_2$, $I_3$ for the figure 1.46. Fig. 1.60 2.0 INTRODUCTION There are several important basic electrical components that are commonly found in the circuits. These components are the fundamental building blocks of electrical and electronic circuits, and can be found in great numbers on control panel, printed circuit board etc. They can be used and combined with each other in so many different ways that it will form a new circuit. Still, it is useful to know a bit about how they work, and this chapter will provide you with a basis for recognizing some of what you see on those boards, and perhaps understanding the fundamentals of circuit schematics. Electrical control system includes number of components these components are assembled to form a circuit as shown in figure 2.1. It is important to know the detail of the components. Components which are assembled in the control panel must have specific rating. Each component has its data sheet on which details of a component are mentioned. Before assembling the electrical circuit, technician should have detail knowledge of component and its identification. Technician should able to distinguish the components physically. There are some common components which are used in almost every control system such as resistor, capacitor, integrated circuit, light emitting diode, etc. Technician must know the characteristics of each component, dependence of each component on different parameters, basic construction of each component. ![Basic circuit components](image) Fig. 2.1: Basic circuit components 2.1 RESISTOR Resistor is one of the fundamental components of an electrical and electronic device as shown in figure 2.2. In a simple way resistor opposes movement of electric charge. This opposition is called as resistance. It has two-ends, resistor controls the current flow, and it also drops the voltage across it, thus lowers the voltage levels within circuits. High-power resistors are used to dissipate electrical power. Resistors can have fixed resistances value. This fixed resistance value can change slightly, only when there is change in temperature, time or operating voltage. Resistors whose value can be changed are called as variable resistors. These variable resistors can be used to control different parameters. For example, in radio circuit variable resistor is used as a volume control component. Practical Activity: Identification of resistor Resistors are the fundamental component of electrical and electronics industry. Resistor opposes the flow of current in the circuit. Amount of opposition is measured in ohm. Ohmic value mostly printed on the resistor in the form of code. In surface mount resistor ohmic value is printed on the surface, whereas in carbon film resistor ohmic value of resistor is printed in the form of bands of colour code. Learning the codes, along with using a helpful mnemonic device, one can identify resistors easily. There are two methods for manually reading and identifying the value of a resistor. These are: a) Colour Coded Resistors (Axial Resistors) b) Alphanumerically Coded Resistors (Surface Mounted Resistors) Colour Coded Resistors (Axial Resistors) Axial resistors are cylindrical with leads extending at each end. Axial resistor is colour coded. The basic shape of axial resistor is shown in figure 2.3(a). While, axial resistor colour coded form with 4 or 5 bands is shown in figure 2.3(b). In figure 2.1 (b), in case of 4 band resistor first two bands represent significant digit, third band represents multiplier and forth band represent tolerance. In case of 5 bands resistor first three bands represent significant digit, forth band represents multiplier and fifth band represent tolerance. ![Fig. 2.3(a) Basic structure of axial resistor](http://bit.ly/2uVGOc9) ![Fig. 2.3(b) Colour code band of axial resistor](http://bit.ly/2uVGOc9) Resistors are colour coded, mainly because of the difficulties of writing a value on the side of the resistor and the many errors that would occur. Each colour represents a number according to the following scheme: \| Colour \| Number \| \|----------\|--------\| \| black \| 0 \| \| brown \| 1 \| \| red \| 2 \| \| orange \| 3 \| \| yellow \| 4 \| \| green \| 5 \| \| blue \| 6 \| \| violet \| 7 \| \| grey \| 8 \| \| white \| 9 \| Fig. 2.4 Colour Code Specification of Four Band Resistor 1. The resistor is read this way, with the three colour bands on the left of the resistor and the single band to the right. 2. The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the first number of the resistor value. For the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first number is 4. ![Four band Resistor Specification](image) Fig. 2.5 Four band Resistor Specification 3. The second band gives the second number. This is a violet band, making the second digit 7. 4. The third band is called the multiplier and gives the number of zeros, in this case 0 range which is 3. 5. So the value of the resistor is $47000\Omega$ or $47k\Omega$. 6. The fourth colour gives the tolerance. 7. The tolerance gives an upper and lower value the resistor must be in, take the following example for a $100\Omega$ resistor: \| Tolerance \| Colour \| Stated Resistor Value \| Allowed Upper Value \| Allowed Lower Value \| \|-----------\|--------\|-----------------------\|---------------------\|---------------------\| \| ±1% \| brown \| 100Ω \| 101Ω \| 99Ω \| \| ±2% \| red \| 100Ω \| 102Ω \| 98Ω \| \| ±5% \| gold \| 100Ω \| 105Ω \| 95Ω \| \| ±10% \| silver \| 100Ω \| 110Ω \| 90Ω \| Fig. 2.7 Tolerance value Calculation of resistor value Read the colour bands from left to right. The colours on the first 2 or 3 bands correspond to numbers from 0 to 9, which represent the significant digits of the resistor's ohmic value, the last band gives the multiplier (as shown in figure 2.8). For example, a 4 bands resistor with brown, brown, yellow and gold bands is rated at $11 \times 10^4$ or 110 kilo-ohms with 0.1 tolerances. The code is as follows: a) Brown: 1 significant digit. b) Brown: 1 significant digit. c) Yellow: Multiplier of $10^4$. d) Gold: Tolerance of $1/10$ e) Silver: Tolerance of $1/100$ The last colour band represents the tolerance value of resistor. To calculate the tolerance value of resistor read the colour on the last colour band, which is farthest right. This represents the tolerance of the resistor. If there is no colour band, the tolerance is 20 percent as shown in figure 2.8. Most resistors have no band, a silver band or a gold band, but you may find resistors with other colours. Fig. 2.8 Colour coding chart of resistor Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2uVGOc9 Practical Activity: Alphanumerically Coded Resistors (Surface Mounted Resistors) identification Surface mounted resistors are rectangular in shape as shown in figure 2.9(a). Surface mount resistor have leads which are coming out from the resistor, these leads are used for mounting of resistor on the printed circuit board. Some surface mount resistor uses plates on the bottom side of resistor. The first 2 or 3 numbers printed on the surface mount resistor represents significant digits and the last digit represents the number of zero that should follow. For example, as shown in figure 2.9 (b), a resistor reading 1252 indicates a value 125200 ohm, for tolerance value use the letter at the end of the code. Compare the letter at the end of the code with the tolerance it represents. Practical Activity: Calculate the value of resistors by using color code. - Brown-black-yellow-yellow - Yellow-violet-red-yellow - Red-red-brown-yellow - Orange-white-orange-yellow When numbers of resistors are combined together to connect in series or parallel or both, relation between voltage, current and resistance can be derived using ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law, Kirchhoff’s current law. 2.1.1 Series connection of resistors: \[ R_{\text{equivalent}} = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + \ldots \] Series key idea: Current is the same in each resistor by current law. 2.1.2 Parallel connection of resistors: \[ \frac{1}{R_{\text{equivalent}}} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3} + \ldots \] Parallel key idea: Voltage is the same in each resistor by voltage law. Practical Activity: Calculating Resistance, Current, Voltage Drop, and Power Dissipation of a Series Circuit. Suppose the voltage output of the battery in figure 2.12 is 12.0 V, and the resistances are $ R_1 = 1.00 \, \Omega $, $ R_2 = 6.00 \, \Omega $, and $ R_3 = 13.0 \, \Omega $. (a) What is the total resistance? (b) Find the current. (c) Calculate the voltage drop in each resistor, and show these add to equal the voltage output of the source. (d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor. (e) Find the power output of the source, and show that it equals the total power dissipated by the resistors. Solution for (a) The total resistance is simply the sum of the individual resistances, as given by this equation: \[ R_s = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 = 1.00 \, \Omega + 6.00 \, \Omega + 13.0 \, \Omega = 20.0 \, \Omega \] Solution for (b) The current is found using Ohm’s law, $ V = IR $. Entering the value of the applied voltage and the total resistance yields the current for the circuit: \[ I = \frac{V}{R_s} = \frac{12.0 \, V}{20.0 \, \Omega} = 0.60 \, A \] Solution for (c) The voltage or $ IR $ drop in a resistor is given by Ohm’s law. Entering the current and the value of the first resistance yields \[ V_1 = IR_1 = (0.600 \, A)(1.0 \, \Omega) = 0.600 \, V. \] Similarly, \[ V_2 = IR_2 = (0.600 \, A)(6.0 \, \Omega) = 3.60 \, V \] And \[ V_3 = IR_3 = (0.600 \, A)(13.0 \, \Omega) = 7.80 \, V. \] Discussion for (c) The three $ IR $ drops add to 12.0 V, as predicted: \[ V_1 + V_2 + V_3 = (0.600 + 3.60 + 7.80) \, V = 12.0 \, V. \] Strategy and Solution for (d) The easiest way to calculate power in watts (W) dissipated by a resistor in a DC circuit is to use Joule’s law, $ P = IV $, where $ P $ is electric power. In this case, each resistor has the same full current flowing through it. By substituting Ohm’s law $ V = IR $ into Joule’s law, we get the power dissipated by the first resistor as \[ P_1 = I^2 R_1 = (0.600 \, A)^2(1.00 \, \Omega) = 0.360 \, W. \] Similarly, \[ P_2 = I^2 R_2 = (0.600 \text{ A})^2 (6.00 \text{ } \Omega) = 2.16 \text{ W}. \] and \[ P_3 = I^2 R_3 = (0.600 \text{ A})^2 (13.0 \text{ } \Omega) = 4.68 \text{ W}. \] Discussion for (d) Power can also be calculated using either $ P = IV $ or $ P = V^2 R $, where $ V $ is the voltage drop across the resistor (not the full voltage of the source). The same values will be obtained. Solution for (e) The easiest way to calculate power output of the source is to use $ P = IV $, where $ V $ is the source voltage. This gives \[ P = (0.600 \text{ A})(12.0 \text{ V}) = 7.20 \text{ W}. \] Discussion for (e) Note, coincidentally, that the total power dissipated by the resistors is also 7.20 W, the same as the power put out by the source. That is, \[ P_1 + P_2 + P_3 = (0.360 + 2.16 + 4.68) \text{ W} = 7.20 \text{ W}. \] Power is energy per unit time (watts), and so conservation of energy requires the power output of the source to be equal to the total power dissipated by the resistors. Major Features of Resistors in Series 1. Series resistances add: $ R_s = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + \ldots $. 2. The same current flows through each resistor in series. 3. Individual resistors in series do not get the total source voltage, but divide it. Practical Activity: Calculating Resistance, Current, Power Dissipation, and Power Output: Analysis of a Parallel Circuit. Let the voltage output of the battery and resistances in the parallel connection in figure 2.13 are the same as the previously considered series connection: $ V = 12.0 \text{ V}, R_1 = 1.00 \text{ } \Omega, R_2 = 6.00 \text{ } \Omega, $ and $ R_3 = 13.0 \text{ } \Omega $. (a) What is the total resistance? (b) Find the total current. (c) Calculate the currents in each resistor, and show these add to equal the total current output of the source. (d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor. (e) Find the power output of the source, and show that it equals the total power dissipated by the resistors. Solution for (a) The total resistance for a parallel combination of resistors is found using the equation below. Entering known values gives \[ \frac{1}{R_p} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3} = \frac{1}{11.00 \, \Omega} + \frac{1}{16.00 \, \Omega} + \frac{1}{113.0 \, \Omega} \] Thus, \[ \frac{1}{R_p} = \frac{1}{1.00 \, \Omega} + \frac{1}{0.1667 \, \Omega} + \frac{1}{0.07692 \, \Omega} = 1.2436 \, \Omega \] (Note that in these calculations, each intermediate answer is shown with an extra digit.) We must invert this to find the total resistance $ R_p $. This yields \[ R_p = \frac{1}{1.2436 \, \Omega} = 0.8041 \, \Omega \] The total resistance with the correct number of significant digits is $ R_p = 0.804 \, \Omega $. Discussion for (a) $ R_p $ is, as predicted, less than the smallest individual resistance. Solution for (b) The total current can be found from Ohm’s law, substituting $ R_p $ for the total resistance. This gives \[ I = \frac{V}{R_p} = \frac{12.0 \, V}{0.8041 \, \Omega} = 14.92 \, A \] Discussion for (b) Current $ I $ for each device is much larger than for the same devices connected in series (see the previous example). A circuit with parallel connections has a smaller total resistance than the resistors connected in series. Strategy and Solution for (c) The individual currents are easily calculated from Ohm’s law, since each resistor gets the full voltage. Thus, \[ I_1 = \frac{V}{R_1} = \frac{12.0 \, V}{1.00 \, \Omega} = 12.0 \, A \] Similarly, \[ I_2 = \frac{V}{R_2} = \frac{12.0 \, V}{6.00 \, \Omega} = 2.00 \, A \] and \[ I_3 = \frac{V}{R_3} = \frac{12.0 \, V}{13.0 \, \Omega} = 0.92 \, A \] Discussion for (c) The total current is the sum of the individual currents: \[ I_1 + I_2 + I_3 = 14.92 \text{ A}. \] This is consistent with conservation of charge. Strategy and Solution for (d) The power dissipated by each resistor can be found using any of the equations relating power to current, voltage, and resistance, since all three are known. Let us use $ P = V^2 R $, since each resistor gets full voltage. Thus, \[ P_1 = V_2 R_1 = (12.0 \text{ V}) 21.00 \Omega = 144 \text{ W} \] Similarly, \[ P_2 = V_2 R_2 = (12.0 \text{ V}) 26.00 \Omega = 24.0 \text{ W} \] and \[ P_3 = V_2 R_3 = (12.0 \text{ V}) 213.0 \Omega = 11.1 \text{ W} \] Discussion for (d) The power dissipated by each resistor is considerably higher in parallel than when connected in series to the same voltage source. Strategy and Solution for (e) The total power can also be calculated in several ways. Choosing $ P = IV $, and entering the total current, yields \[ P = IV = (14.92 \text{ A}) (12.0 \text{ V}) = 179 \text{ W}. \] Discussion for (e) Total power dissipated by the resistors is also 179 W: \[ P_1 + P_2 + P_3 = 144 \text{ W} + 24.0 \text{ W} + 11.1 \text{ W} = 179 \text{ W}. \] This is consistent with the law of conservation of energy. Overall Discussion Note that both the currents and powers in parallel connections are greater than for the same devices in series. There are numbers of factors which affects the Resistance value of a wire as discussed below: - Fig.2.14: Material used for wire - Fig.2.15: Thickness of wire - Fig.2.16: Length of wire - Fig.2.17: Temperature of wire Practical Assignment: Calculate the value of equivalent resistance in parallel and series, where value of resistors are $R_1 = 10$ & $R_2 = 20$ ohms. ### 2.2 CAPACITOR The word capacitor specifies the capacity. It represents the capacity to store the energy. In a capacitor, energy is stored in the form of electric field. Capacitor have two parallel sections, between these section energy is stored. It consists of two metallic conducting sections (plates) separated by an insulator (dielectric material) as shown in figure 2.18. Metallic conductor can be made up of aluminium, copper, etc. A dielectric can be ceramic, mica, electrolyte, air, paper etc. It store the charges on its metallic plates, this will generate the electric field between the plates. In this way it stores energy in the form of electric field. Capacitor is one of the fundamental components of electrical and electronic devices. The parameters of capacitor are maximum voltage it can withstand without damage, charge store capacity, polarity of terminals i.e. positive and negative terminals as shown in figure 2.19. Mathematically, $$Q = C \times V$$ Where, $Q =$ Charge in coulomb $C =$ Capacitance in farad $V =$ Voltage in volt Smaller unit of capacitance are mili farad (mF), Micro farad ($\mu$F), Nano farad (nF), Pico farad (pF). For example: When the 250V is applied across the capacitor of capacitance value 10 $\mu$F, the amount of charge stored by it is given by: \[ Q = C \times V \] \[ Q = 10 \times 10^{-6} \times 250 \] \[ Q = 2.5 \text{ mC} \] Practical Assignment: Calculate the following for a capacitor. 1. Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capacitor to charge it with $2C$. 2. The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6 mC when the potential between them is 2.4 kV. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor. 3. For how long must a charging current of 2 A be fed to a 5 F capacitor to raise the potential difference between its plates by 500 V. (Hint: $I = \frac{Q}{t}$) 4. A direct current of 10 A flows into a previously uncharged 5 μF capacitor for 1 mS. Determine the potential difference between the plates. (Hint: $I = \frac{Q}{t}$). Practical Activity: Identify the different types of capacitors and read its specification mentioned on it. \| Capacitor Picture \| Capacitor Name \| \|-------------------\|----------------\| \| ![Ceramic capacitor](image) \| Ceramic capacitor \| \| ![Axial electrolytic capacitor](image) \| Axial electrolytic capacitor \| \| ![Radial electrolytic capacitor](image) \| Radial electrolytic capacitor \| List the following parameters of capacitors - Operating temperature - Maximum operating voltage - Maximum capacitance storage - Supply type 2.3 INDUCTOR The word inductor defines induction. Induction is the process or action of bringing about the rise. In Inductor this rise takes place in the form of energy. Inductor is constructed, when a (conductor) material is wound on the magnetic material. Inductor is like a coil as shown in the figure 2.20. When current flows through the coil, magnetic field appears around the wire. This way we can say that inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field along the coil. If the current flowing through an inductor changes, a changing magnetic field appears across wires. This changing magnetic field develops ![Fig. 2.20: Inductor, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2JMiM8R](image-url) induces) a voltage across the two ends of the wires. Inductor opposes the change in the electric current passing through it. This property of opposition is known as inductance. \| Inductor Picture \| Name of inductor \| \|------------------\|------------------\| \| ![Air gap inductor](image1.png) \| Air gap inductor \| \| ![Ferrite core inductor](image2.png) \| Ferrite core inductor \| \| ![SMT inductor](image3.png) \| SMT inductor \| ### 2.4 SEMICONDUCTOR Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity is between conductors and insulators. Electronics devices are made up of semiconductor material. In semiconductor industry silicon and germanium are widely used. Semiconductors materials are of two types which are as follows: #### 2.4.1 Intrinsic (pure) It is a pure form of a semiconductor. The pure word here specifies that this semiconductor does not contain any other impurity atom. For example, pure form of silicon contains only the atoms of silicon; no other impurity atom is present in the silicon. Absence of impurity atom results in less conductivity of semiconducting material. To improve the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor impurity atom has to be added which is discussed in the extrinsic semiconductor. #### 2.4.2 Extrinsic (impure) When impurity atoms are added in the pure (intrinsic) form of semiconductor, then that semiconductor is called as extrinsic. semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors are also known as impure semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are classified as N-type and P-type semiconductor. For example, presence of impurity atoms (ex. Arsenic (As)) in the pure silicon semiconductor. Process of adding of an impurity atom in a semiconductor is called as doping. Doping will increase the conductivity of a semiconductor. Since, the atomic number of silicon is 14; electronic configuration of silicon is 2, 8, and 4. Thus, silicon has 4 electrons in the outer most shell. In order to increase the conductivity more and more free carriers has to added. As silicon has 4 electrons in its outermost shell, so it is better to add an impurity atom having valence (number of atoms in outermost shell) either 5 (penta) or 3 (tri). The atoms which have 5 electrons in its outermost shell are known as pentavalent. The atoms which have 3 electrons in its outermost shell are known as trivalent. - When pentavalent impurity atom is added an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is known as N-type semiconductor. - When trivalent impurity atom is added an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is known as P-type semiconductor. ![Classification of semiconductor](image) Fig. 2.21: Classification of semiconductor ### 2.5 DIODE When two semiconductors i.e. P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor are combined to form new component which is known as diode. “Di” defines two, thus diode have two terminals as shown in figure 2.22, figure 2.23, figure 2.24. ![Diode symbol](image) Fig. 2.22: Diode symbol Diode can be used in switching application. Diode passes current only in one direction. The P-side is called anode and the N-side is called cathode. When the anode and cathode of a PN-junction diode are connected to external voltage source such that the positive end of a battery is connected to the anode and negative end of the battery is connected to the cathode, diode is said to be forward biased or we can say that diode will acts as a close switch (it will turned “ON”). In a forward-biased condition, diode will pass the current through it. When the P-side of diode are connected to the negative terminal of the battery and N-side of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the battery, diode is said to be reverse biased or we can say that diode will acts as an open switch (it will turned “OFF”). In reverse-biased condition, diode will not pass the current through it. ![Diode](image) Fig. 2.23: Diode ![Diode Circuit Symbol and Physical Appearance](image) Fig. 2.24: Terminals of diode If the anode of PN diode is connected to the positive terminal of battery and cathode of diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery, in this case diode is said to be in forward bias and current will flow through the diode. ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig. 2.25: In this circuit current will flow If the anode of PN diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery and cathode of diode is connected to the positive terminal of battery, in this case diode is said to be in reverse bias and current will not flow through the diode. ![Circuit Diagram](image) Fig. 2.26: In this circuit current will not flow ### 2.6 TRANSISTOR Transistor is a three layer semiconducting device. These three layers have three terminals emitter, base, and collector respectively. It has two junctions, where the two layers touch each other is called as junction. The junction where emitter layer and base layer touch each other is named as emitter base junction. The junction where collector layer and base layer touch each other is named as collector base junction. Transistor will act as switch or can be used for amplification. An easy way to understand transistor is that it is a switch which is controlled by an electrical signal. Transistor can also be used for enhancing the applied signal strength. To understand the functioning of a transistor, we can relate it with the water supply system in our home. Storage tank which is kept at the roof of the building is similar to emitter in transistor which acts as source of charge carrier (i.e. electrons and holes in semiconductor). The tap at the ground is similar to the base of transistor; this tap controls the flow of water likewise base control the flow of charge carrier. Bucket at the ground collect the water coming from the storage tank likewise collector of transistor collects the charge carriers coming from emitter. There are two junction in the transistor i.e. emitter-base junction and collector-base junction. Identifying BJT Terminals: Keep the transistor such that the flat surface facing towards you as shown in the below figure: We know that the bipolar junction transistor has three terminals namely 1. Emitter (E) 2. Base (B) 3. Collector(C) The schematic symbol of the BJT is given below: ![Fig. 2.28 BJT symbol](image) Practical Activity: Identification of Bipolar junction transistor terminal using multimeter. NPN and PNP are the two types of BJT. Both are similar in physical appearance. Physically, they cannot be differentiated. Multimeter is used to identify the type of BJT. Following points illustrate the steps for the identification of BJT types: - If we see transistor internally, BJT has two junctions (NPN = N - P - N = NP Junction + PN Junction and PNP = P - N - P = PN Junction + NP Junction). - Emitter to base is one PN junction (diode) and Base to collector another PN junction (diode). When multimeter is set to diode mode, then the multimeter will show the voltage when we keep the positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of the diode and negative probe to the cathode. When multimeter is set to diode mode, then the multimeter will not show the voltage. When we keep the positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of the diode and negative probe to the cathode. Steps to identify the NPN type transistor: a) Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point. b) Connect the black cord to the common point. c) Turn the multimeter in the diode mode. d) Touch the red probe to the centre pin (Base) of the transistor, black probe to the either of the two pin-1 (Emitter) or pin-3 (collector) of BJT. e) Look at the display of multimeter. f) It will NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in NPN transistor. - Emitter (E) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode - Base (B) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode - Collector (C) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode g) If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value. Steps to identify the PNP type transistor: a) Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point. b) Connect the black cord to the common point. c) Turn the multimeter in the diode mode. d) Touch the black probe to the centre pin (Base) of the transistor, red probe to the either of the two pin – 1 (Emitter) or pin- 3 (collector) of BJT. e) Look at the display of multimeter. f) It will be PNP transistor. The logic behind this is, in PNP transistor. - Emitter (E) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode, - Base (B) – N type material – Equivalent to cathode of the diode, • Collector (C) – P type material – Equivalent to anode of the diode. g) If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value. More to know: Switch is a device which has two operations i.e. ON and OFF. When switch is closed (ON) current flows in the circuit. In this case circuit is said to be complete. When switch is open (OFF), current will not flow in the circuit. In this case circuit is said to be incomplete. Amplification is the process of increasing the level of voltage and current. Transistor is used in such a way that it will increase the voltage and current level of the input signal which is given to the transistor. Transistors have three terminals. In transistors major current flows between any two terminals while third terminal is used for controlling the flow of current between terminals. ### 2.7 TRANSFORMER A transformer is a static unit. It simply transforms the voltage level of an AC signal. It either step-up or step down the AC voltage. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Transformer does not change the frequency of applied AC signal. Transformers play an important role in the electrical systems. ![Transformer Parts](image) Fig. 2.43: Transformer Parts 1. Transformers are available in number of sizes, for example transformer used in mobile charger is very small, whereas transformers used in substation of an electricity board are bulk or big. 2. High voltage is used for transmission and low voltage is used in office and home. 3. Transformers are used to increase or decrease AC voltage in transmission and distribution of electricity. 4. Basic construction of transformer includes two coil, wind on the magnetic frame or core. 5. Both the coils are magnetically coupled, whereas they are electrically insulated from each other. 6. The primary or input coil is connected to the energy source, while secondary or output coil supplies power to load. 7. Electromagnetic induction is used in a transformer. In power grids large transformers are used. These transformers are used in the generation, distribution, transmission system of electrical system. Transformer is present in every location from the generator and to the user. Fig. 2.44: Input output terminals of transformer Fig. 2.45: Electrical network, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2OdX1Cs Practical activity: Identify different types of transformer and read the specification mentioned on the transformer. \| Transformer \| Name of transformer \| Specification mentioned on the transformer \| \|-------------\|---------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| \| Simple step-down transformer \| Input voltage: Output voltage: Operating Frequency: \| \| \| Centre-tape transformer \| Input voltage: Output voltage: Operating Frequency: \| \| \| High frequency transformer \| Input voltage: Output voltage: Operating Frequency: \| Practical Activity: Visit the nearest power distributing substation and identify and name the different parts of high voltage transformer as shown in figure below. ![High Voltage Transformer Diagram](image) Practical activity: Perform an experiment to identify the primary and secondary winding of transformer. Material Required: Transformer (230V to 12V), multimeter, input supply, Bulb of 200 watt, wire, wire stripper, wire cutter, insulation tape. Circuit diagram: Procedure: a) Connect the wire to the primary winding of the transformer. b) Connect the wire to the secondary winding of the transformer. c) Connect the primary winding wire to the input supply carefully. d) Connect the wire of secondary winding to the load. e) Turn ON the power supply. f) Measure the voltage using multimeter at primary and secondary winding. g) Note down the reading displayed on the screen of multimeter. h) Note the observed reading in the following table: \| S.No. \| Reading at primary winding \| Reading at secondary Winding \| \|-------\|----------------------------\|------------------------------\| \| 1. \| \| \| \| 2. \| \| \| \| 3. \| \| \| \| 4. \| \| \| \| 5. \| \| \| 2.8 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC) An integrated circuit is a combination of electronic components on single piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material as shown in figure 2.46. Integrated circuit has large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip and results in circuits that are smaller, cheaper, and faster. Integrated circuit has number of pins. Each pin defines an input or output. Datasheet is required when working with an integrated circuit chip. Datasheet gives complete information about a particular integrated circuit. The internal structure of IC is shown in figure 2.47. Fig. 2.47: Internal structure of IC, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2NFMDSb ### 2.9 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE Light-Emitting Diode (LEDs) comprises of several layers of semi-conducting material. When the diode is being utilized with DC, the active layer produces light. The LED emits light in a particular colour and this colour is dependent on the type of semiconductor material used in it. LEDs are made of semiconductor crystals as shown in figure 2.48. Fig. 2.48: Light emitting diode, Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2A5q1cr When current flows through them, they emit light in red, green, yellow, or blue colours depending on the composition of the crystal compounds. Blue LEDs also emit white light by using a yellowish fluorescent layer or by creating a mix of red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs. Powerful fact: Why LEDs are good choice? 1. Long life 2. Durable 3. High efficiency 4. Low energy use 5. Compact size 6. No UV issue CHECK YOUR PROGRESS A. Choose the correct option from those given below 1. A diode _______ a) Is the simplest of semiconductor devices b) Has characteristics that closely match those of a simple switch c) Is a two-terminal device. d) All of the above 2. Which of the following is a semiconductors material? a) Silicon b) Germanium c) Both A and B d) None of these 3. A LED produces light when a) Forward biased. b) Reverse biased. c) Unbiased. d) None of the above. 4. Two terminals semiconductor device is a) Diode b) Triode c) Transistor d) Integrated circuit 5. Resistance of variable resistors can be changed and hence they are called a) Rheostat b) Fixed Resistor c) Variable Resistor 6. …………consist of a coil or a wire loop. a) Inductor b) Capacitor c) Resistor d) Diode 7. Three terminals semiconductor device is a) Diode b) Transistor c) IC d) All of the above 8. Different colour emitted by LED is because of - a) Applied Voltage b) Due To Forward Or Reverse Bias c) Due To Different Compounds Formation d) None of these 9. LED requires…… supply. a) AC b) DC c) AC or DC d) None of these 10. Transformer is used to a) Step up the voltage b) Step down the voltage c) Both A and B d) None Of These 11. Transformer works on a) AC b) DC c) both AC and DC d) None of these 12. Transistor has …… layers and ……junctions. a) Two, Three b) Three, Two c) Three, Three d) Two, Two 13. Diode is forward biased when…… a) Cathode is connected to positive and anode is connected to negative terminal of battery b) Cathode is connected to negative and anode is connected to positive terminal of battery c) No specific polarity is required d) None of these 14. Diode is reverse biased when…… a) Cathode is connected to positive and anode is connected to negative terminal of battery. b) Cathode is connected to negative and anode is connected to positive terminal of battery. c) No specific polarity is required. d) None of these 15. Device which store energy in the form of electric field. a) Capacitor b) Inductor c) Resistors d) Diode 16. Device which store energy in the form of magnetic field. a) Capacitor b) Inductor c) Resistors d) Diode 17. Resistance of material is affected a) Length b) Temperature c) Thickness d) All Of These 18. Pentavalent impurities in extrinsic semiconductor have ….. electrons in its outermost orbit. a) 3 b) 5 c) 4 d) 2 19. Trivalent impurities in extrinsic semiconductor have ….. electrons in its outermost orbit. a) 3 b) 5 c) 4 d) 2 20. Pure form of semiconductor is called as…….. a) Intrinsic semiconductors b) Extrinsic semiconductors c) both A and B d) None of these 21. Impure form of semiconductor is called as…….. a) Intrinsic semiconductors b) Extrinsic semiconductors c) both A and B d) None of these 22. What are the two major categories for resistors? a) Low and high power value b) Commercial and industrial c) Low and high ohmic value d) Fixed and variable 23. What is the ohmic value for the colour code of orange, orange, orange? a) 22 k Ω b) 33 k Ω c) 3300 Ω d) 44000 Ω 24. Which of the following is true for resistance? a) symbolized by R, measured in ohms, and directly proportional to conductance b) represented by the flow of fluid in the fluid circuit c) directly proportional to current and voltage d) the opposition to current flow accompanied by the dissipation of heat 25. Resistor tolerance is either printed on the component, or is provided by: a) company b) keyed containers c) colour code d) size 26. For a fixed voltage if resistance decreases, then current will: a) decrease b) double c) increase d) remain the same 27. Resistance in a circuit is: a) The same as current b) Opposition to current c) The same as voltage d) Opposition to voltage 28. A colour code of Brown, Brown, Red, Gold is for what ohmic value? a) 1.2k Ω 5% b) 1.1k Ω 5% c) 1.3k Ω 5% d) 1.5k Ω 5% 29. A colour code of Black, Brown, green, Gold is for what ohmic value? a) 1x10^5 Ω 5% b) 1x10^4 Ω 5% c) 1x10^5 Ω 10% d) $1 \times 10^4 \, \Omega$ 10% 30. A colour code of Brown, Red, orange, silver is for what ohmic value? a) $12 \times 10^3$ 10% b) $21 \times 10^3$ 10% c) $14 \times 10^3$ 5% d) $12 \times 10^2$ 5% 31. A colour code of Red, yellow, grey, Gold is for what ohmic value? a) $23 \times 10^8 \, \Omega$ 5% b) $24 \times 10^8 \, \Omega$ 5% c) $25 \times 10^7 \, \Omega$ 5% d) $22 \times 10^7 \, \Omega$ 5% B. Fill in the blanks with correct word a) Transformer work on……… voltage b) Extrinsic semiconductor is ……… form of semiconductor. c) Intrinsic semiconductor is ……… form of semiconductor. d) Capacitor stores energy in the form of …… field. e) Inductor stores energy in the form of …… field. f) Diode has….. terminals. g) Silicon is…….. material. h) Transistor has …… terminals. i) When LED is forward biased it will turn…….. j) A three terminals semiconducting device is…….. C. State whether the statement given below are true or false. a) Transformer is used to step up the voltage. b) LED emits light in a particular colour and this colour is dependent on the type of semiconductor material used in it. c) Transistor is used as an amplifier and switch. d) The electromagnetism in a transformer is the energy source for the transformer. e) Low voltage is used for transmission and High voltage is used in office and home. f) Transformer changes the frequency of the applied signal. g) The junction where emitter layer and base layer touch each other is named as emitter base junction. h) Amplification is the process of increasing the level of voltage and current. i) The base unit of capacitance is the farad. j) Green, Orange, Orange, Violet colour coded resistor is 62kΩ 5%. k) Violet, Green, Orange, Silver colour coded resistor is 75kΩ 10%. l) Blue, Red, Orange, Gold colour coded resistor is 62kΩ 5%. m) Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is 330kΩ 5%. n) Red, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is 330kΩ 5%. o) Black, Red, green, Silver colour coded resistor is 300kΩ 5%. p) Brown, green, orange, Silver colour coded resistor is 15kΩ 10%. q) Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is 330kΩ 5%. r) Orange, Orange, Yellow, Gold colour coded resistor is 330kΩ 5%. s) Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lie between conductors and insulators. t) Inductor store energy in the form of electric field. D. Short answer type question a) Write short notes on: Diode, Transistor, LED, Capacitor, Inductor b) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit in figure 2.30. ![Figure 2.30](image) Fig. 2.30 c) Calculate the total resistance of the figure 2.31. ![Figure 2.31](image) Fig. 2.31 d) What is an extrinsic semiconductor? e) What is an intrinsic semiconductor? f) What are the applications of transistor? g) Write down the specification of capacitor. h) Why LEDs are good choice? i) What is an inductance? j) What is a capacitor? B. Fill in the blanks by calculating the value of colour code a) Red, Brown, Red, and Silver colour coded resistor has value............... b) Orange, Yellow, Red, and Silver colour coded resistor has value............... c) Blue, Yellow, Orange, Gold colour coded resistor has value............... d) Violet, Green, Orange, and Silver colour coded resistor has value............... e) Grey, Red, Yellow, and Gold colour coded resistor has value resistor has value............... f) Red, Red, Yellow, and Gold colour coded resistor has value has value ............... g) Blue, Red, Orange, and Gold colour coded resistor has value............... h) Green, Orange, Orange, and Violet colour coded resistor has value ............... i) Red, brown, Yellow, Green colour coded resistor has value............... j) Brown, brown, Yellow, Green colour coded resistor has value is............... D. Find the value of resistance for the following. 1. A resistor has a colour band sequence: yellow, violet, orange and gold. 2. A resistor has a colour band sequence: red, red, orange and silver. 3. A resistor has a colour band sequence: orange, red, green and gold. 4. A resistor has a colour band sequence: orange, orange, black and gold. 5. A resistor has a colour band sequence: red, green, orange and gold. 6. A resistor has a colour band sequence: orange, red, green, red and gold. 7. A resistor has a colour band sequence: red, red, green, black and gold. 8. A resistor has a colour band sequence: red, red, black, red and gold. 9. A resistor has a colour band sequence: brown, red, yellow, red and gold. 10. Find the resistance value of the resistor whose code is Practical Exercise: Identify and name the parts of transformer in the figure below. Practical Exercise: Identify and name the P type and N type terminal of diode in the following figure below. Also specify the anode and cathode terminals of diode. Practical Exercise: Identify the parts of Light Emitting Diode (LED) in the above figure. Practical Exercise: Identify and name different types of inductor listed in the following table. \| Types of inductor \| Name of inductor \| \|-------------------\|------------------\| \| ![Image](image1.png) \| \| \| ![Image](image2.png) \| \| \| ![Image](image3.png) \| \| Match the column \| Name of components \| Related terms \| \|--------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| Semiconductor \| Magnetic field \| \| Capacitor \| Opposition in the flow of current \| \| Resistor \| Unidirectional device \| \| Inductor \| Electric field \| \| diode \| Three terminal device \| \| Transistor \| Trivalent and pentavalent \| Chapter 3 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION Electrical quantities such as voltage, current, resistance and other quantities can be accurately measured with instruments called meters. Although we cannot see electricity, the meter is designed to react to these electrical quantities and we can read this reaction on the calibrated scale of meters. A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument. Various tools and equipments are used for the installation of the equipments in the control panel such as screwdriver, phase tester, stripper, plier etc. These basic tools and equipments are discussed in the following session. 3.1 MULTIMETER Multimeters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the choice of AC or DC. Some multimeters have additional features such as transistor testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency. Multimeters are available in digital and analogue types. Practical activity: Use multi-meter to measure the various electrical quantity. Apparatus required: Digital Multimeter, resistor, AC and DC power source, connecting cords. a) Measuring the resistance using digital multimeter. Procedure: 1. Digital multimeter has two probes. Using these probes measurement of resistance can be done. Insert the black probe into the common terminal and the red probe into the terminal marked for measuring volts and ohms. The terminal may also be marked for testing diodes. 2. Twist the selector knob to set the multimeter to measure resistance. This may be represented by the Greek letter Omega, which stands for ohms, the unit of measurement for resistance. 3. Touch the tips of the probes to each side of the resistor. 4. Read the display, taking care to note the units. A reading of 10 may indicate 10 ohms, 10 kilo-ohms or 10 mega-ohms. b) Measuring AC and DC voltage using digital multimeter. Procedure: 1. Digital multimeter has two probes. Using these probes measurement of resistance can be done. Put the black probe in the common terminal and the red probe in the terminal marked for measuring volts and ohms. 2. Set the multimeter for the voltage you are measuring. You can measure volts DC (direct current), millivolts DC or volts AC (alternating current). If your multimeter has an auto-range function, it is not necessary to select the voltage you are measuring. 3. Measure AC voltage by placing the probes across the component. In case of AC it is not necessary to observe polarity. 4. Observe polarity when measuring DC voltage or millivoltage. Place the black probe on the negative side of the DC source and the red probe on the positive side of the DC source. 5. Read the display, taking care to note the units. If you prefer, you can use the touch-hold feature to keep the reading on the display after you remove the probes. The multimeter will beep each time a new voltage is detected. c) Measuring AC and DC current using multimeter. Procedure: 1. Choose either the terminal marked for measuring 10 amps or the one marked for measuring 300 milliamps (mA). If you are not sure of the current, start in the 10 amp terminal until you are sure the current is less than 300 milliamps. 2. Set the multimeter to measure current. This may be represented by the letter A. 3. Turn off power to the circuit. 4. Break the circuit. To measure current, you must place the multimeter in series with the circuit. Place the probes on either side of the break, observing polarity (black probe on negative side, red probe on positive side.) 5. Turn the power on. The current will run through the circuit, up the red probe and through the multimeter, then out the black probe and into the circuit. 6. Read the display, remembering whether you are measuring amps or milliamps. You can use the touch-hold feature if required. Practical Activity: Identification of Bipolar junction transistor terminal using multimeter. Apparatus required: Multimeter, NPN transistor, PNP transistor, connecting cords. Procedure: NPN and PNP are the two types of BJT. Both are similar in physical appearance. Physically, they cannot be differentiated. Multimeter is used to identify the type of BJT. Following points illustrate the steps for the identification of BJT types: - If we see transistor internally, BJT has two junctions (NPN = N - P - N = NP Junction + PN Junction and PNP = P - N - P = PN Junction + NP Junction). - Emitter to base is one PN junction (diode) and Base to collector another PN junction (diode). - When multimeter is set to diode mode, then the multimeter will show the voltage when we keep the positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of the diode and negative probe to the cathode. - When multimeter is set to diode mode, then the multimeter will not show the voltage. When we keep the positive probe of the multimeter to the anode of the diode and negative probe to the cathode. Steps to identify the NPN type transistor: 1. Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point. 2. Connect the black cord to the common point. 3. Turn the multimeter in the diode mode. 4. Touch the red probe to the centre pin (Base) of the transistor, black probe to the either of the two pin-1 (Emitter) or pin- 3 (collector) of BJT. 5. Look at the display of multimeter. 6. It will be NPN transistor. The logic behind this is, in NPN transistor. - Emitter (E) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diode - Base (B) - P type material - Equivalent to anode of the diode - Collector(C) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diode 7. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value. Steps to identify the PNP type transistor: 1. Connect the red cord to the voltage measuring point. 2. Connect the black cord to the common point. 3. Turn the multimeter in the diode mode. 4. Touch the black probe to the centre pin (Base) of the transistor, red probe to the either of the two pin – 1 (Emitter) or pin- 3 (collector) of BJT. 5. Look at the display of multimeter. 6. It will be PNP transistor. The logic behind this is, in PNP transistor. - Emitter (E) - P type material - Equivalent to anode of the diode • Base (B) - N type material - Equivalent to cathode of the diode • Collector(C) - P type material - Equivalent to anode of the diode 7. If the multimeter positive probe is connected to anode and negative probe is connected to cathode, then it will show voltage. If the connections are interchanged it will not show any value. Practical activity: To study and verify the functionality of diode. Apparatus required: Diode, Resistor, Breadboard, Digital multimeter as a Voltmeter, Digital multimeter as a Ammeter, DC Power Supply, Connecting wires. Circuit diagram: ![Circuit Diagram](image1) Fig.3.16 Diode is in forward bias mode ![Equivalent Circuit of Diode](image2) Fig.3.17 Diode in forward bias acts as a close switch ![Circuit Diagram](image3) Fig.3.18 Diode is in reverse bias mode ![Equivalent Circuit of Diode](image4) Fig.3.19 Diode in reverse bias acts as an open switch Procedure: (a) Forward Bias Condition: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1 (PN Junction diode with milliammeter in series with the diode). 2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 0.1 V. Once the current starts increasing vary Vs in steps of 0.02V and note... down the corresponding readings forward voltage of diode ($V_f$) and forward current of diode ($I_f$). 3. Note down different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages in table. 4. Plot the V-I characteristics. 5. Compare the theoretical and practical values. (b) Reverse Bias Condition: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.2. 2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V and note down the corresponding readings of reverse voltage of diode $V_r$ and reverse current of diode $I_r$. 3. Note down different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages in table. 4. Plot the V-I characteristics. 5. Compare the theoretical and practical values. \| Forward bias \| Reverse bias \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| $V_D$ (Volts) \| $I_D$ (mA) \| $V_D$ (Volts) \| $I_D$ ($\mu$A) \| \| \| \| \| \| Ideal characteristics graph between $V_D$ and $I_D$ Forward Characteristic Reverse Characteristic Result: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode are studied. 3.2 LINE TESTER OR PHASE TESTER Phase or Line Tester is a tool which is used to identify or test the Phase/Live/Hot or Positive wire/Conductor. Phase or Line Tester is also called Neon Screw Driver or Test Pin. (Phase, Line, Hot, Live and Positive are the same terms) 3.2.1 Construction of Phase or Line Tester Following are the main parts of a typical Phase or Line Tester. 1. Metallic Rod and Mouth It is a cylindrical metal rod. The flat end (mouth) is used as a screw driver or touch electrical conductors/wires to find phase or live wires and the other end is connected to the resistance, neon bulb, element and metallic cap screw respectively. The flat end of cylindrical metal rod is also covered with transparent insulated plastic for insulation proposes except mouth. 2. Body and Insulation All these components (Resistance, Neon bulb, Element or metallic spring, and Metallic Cap screw) are covered in a transparent insulated body which made of plastic. The flat end of cylindrical metal rod is also covered with transparent insulated plastic for insulation proposes except mouth. 3. Resistor Resistor is an element which opposes the flow of current through it. In a Phase or Line Tester, Resistor is connected between cylindrical metal rod and Neon bulb to prevent high current and reduces it to a safe value for Neon bulb. Without a resistor, high current may damage the neon bulb. Moreover it would not be a safe to use this tool without resistor. 4. Neon Bulb Neon bulb is connected between Resistance and Element (metallic spring). It is used as phase indicator bulb. When a small current flows through it, then it glows. Due to neon bulb, a Phase or Line tester is also called a Neon Screw driver. 5. Element (Metallic Spring) Element (metallic spring) is used to make connection between neon bulb and metallic cap screw. 6. Metallic Cap Screw and Clip Metallic Cap screw is used for tight all the components inside the Phase tester slot. In addition, Metallic cap screw is connected with spring (element) and spring (element) is connected with neon bulb. Moreover Clip is used for holding the phase tester in pocket. ![Diagram](image) Fig. 3.21 Image source: http://bit.ly/2OebcqC ### 3.3 SCREWDRIVER A screwdriver is a basic tool used in electrical panel installation. It is manual or powered, for inserting and removing screws. A typical simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft. The ending tip of the driver is put into the screw head by the user before turning the handle. The shaft is usually made of tough steel. It is used to resist bending or twisting. The tip may be hardened to resist wear. Handles are made up of wood, metal, or plastic. Handle is usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip. This will help while twisting the screwdriver and will prevent the tool from rolling on the head of screw. Some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on the end of the shaft and are held in mechanically or magnetically. These often have a hollow handle that contains various types and sizes of tips. 3.4 COMBINATION PLIER Combination pliers as the name suggest perform various operations. It enables the user to perform the combine operation i.e. cutting and gripping. Some combination pliers have other additions, especially if they are designed for use in particular industries or for specific tasks. - Handles The handles of combination pliers will usually have a plastic coating, for added comfort and grip. The size and length of the handles will depend on the size of the pliers. Pliers designed for use by electricians and linemen have insulated handles. - Jaws The jaws of combination pliers open and close along with the handles. They have flat edges for general gripping, which are often serrated for extra grip, although sometimes they are smooth. They usually have squared tips. - Cutter The cutters built into the jaws of combination pliers are usually designed to cut cables and wire. - Pipe grip The pipe grip is a rounded, cut-out in the jaws. It is primarily used for gripping rounded stock, like pipes and cables. - Pivot point The pivot point is a kind of hinge that allows the handles and tips to open and close so the jaws can grip or cut, and then be opened again. 3.5 DRILL BITS Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes. Drill bits are used in circular motion. Drill bits come in many sizes and shapes. Different size of holes can be made by using different size of bits. In order to create holes drill bits are usually attached to a drill machine, which powers them to cut through the work piece, typically by rotation. - Insert the chuck key. If your drill came with a chuck key, you will need to use this in order to loosen the chuck. To insert the chuck key, line up the teeth so that they match the teeth on the chuck and insert the tip into one of the holes on the side of the chuck. ![Image source: http://bit.ly/2KBznwG](image) Fig. 3.24 - Turn the chuck key counterclockwise. As you turn the key, the jaws on the chuck will begin to open. Continue turning until the chuck opens enough to easily slide the drill bit out. The jaws are the three or four pieces in the mouth of the chuck that extend to hold the bit in place. ![Image source: http://bit.ly/2KBznwG](image) Fig. 3.25 - Remove the bit. Pull the bit out using your thumb and index finger once the chuck is loosened. If the chuck is opened wide and you turn the drill face down, it may just fall out. - Inspect the bit. Check for damage. If the bit is dull, replace it. If it is bent or shows signs of cracking, throw it out. ![Image source: http://bit.ly/2KBznwG](image) Fig. 3.26 • Insert a bit. While the jaw on the chuck is open wide, insert new bit. Hold the bit with your thumb and index finger so that the smooth part of the bit (the shank) is facing the jaws of the chuck and insert it. • Keep your fingers on the bit and the chuck since the bit is not secured and could fall out. 3.6 WIRE LUGS Wire lugs are a connecting terminal used to connect the conductor wire to the external world. Wire lugs are a class of electrical connector which is used to transfer electrical current from a power or grounding source to a user. Terminals "terminate" by using crimping or soldering technique. In which conductor of wire is connected to the metallic connector which called as a lug. 3.7 WIRE STRIPPER A wire stripper is a portable handheld tool used by workers, especially electricians, for removing the protective coating of an electric wire in order to replace or repair the wire. It is also capable of stripping the end portions of an electric wire in order to connect them to other wires or to terminals. A wire stripper is often considered an important tool for professional electricians and other related personnel. Wire strippers can be categorized into two types: manual wire strippers and automatic wire strippers. A manual wire stripper is considered the most versatile; to use it, the user needs to manually rotate it while applying pressure around the insulation in order to cut or adjust the wires. In the case of an automatic wire stripper, one side is held tight and, simultaneously, the other side is cut and removed. An automatic wire stripper can help even a novice cut and strip most wires quickly. However, it only works for certain size ranges of wires. It could break small wires, and large wires may not fit into its jaws. Wire strippers are available in various shapes and sizes and are usually made of steel. They usually have serrated teeth, which comes handy while stripping wires. The handles can be either straight or curved and, in most cases, are covered with rubber coating to provide a secure grip. Wire strippers often have a wire cutter as well. 3.8 WRENCH The pipe wrench is an adjustable wrench/spanner used for turning soft iron pipes and fittings with a rounded surface. The design of the adjustable jaw allows it to lock in the frame, such that any forward pressure on the handle tends to pull the jaws tighter together. Teeth angled in the direction of turn dig into the soft pipe. They are not intended for use on hardened steel hex nuts or other fittings because they would ruin the head; however, if a hex nut is soft enough that it becomes rounded beyond use with standard wrenches, a pipe wrench is sometimes used to break the bolt or nut free. Pipe wrenches are classified by the length of the handle; they can be available in any size from as small as 3 inches up to 48 inches or larger. They are usually made of cast steel. Today, aluminium is also used to construct the body of the wrench, while the teeth and jaw remain steel. Teeth, and jaw kits (which also contain adjustment rings and springs) can be bought to repair broken wrenches, as this is cheaper than buying a new wrench. 3.9 HAMMER A tool consisting of a piece of metal with a flat end that is fixed onto the end of a long, thin, usually wooden handle, used for hitting things, shaping of metal sheets etc. 3.10 LADDER A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of steps. There are two types: rigid ladders that are self-supporting or that may be leaned against a vertical surface such as a wall, and rollable ladders, such as those made of rope or aluminum that may be hung from the top. The vertical members of a rigid ladder are called stringers or rails. Rigid ladders are usually portable, but some types are permanently fixed to a structure, building, or equipment. They are commonly made of metal, wood, or fiberglass, but they have been known to be made of tough plastic. Practical activity: Identify and name the various tools and its parts. \| Tool \| Parts \| \|------\|-------\| \| ![Image 1](image1.png) \| ![Image 2](image2.png) \| \| ![Image 3](image3.png) \| ![Image 4](image4.png) \| \| ![Image 5](image5.png) \| ![Image 6](image6.png) \| 104565/2022/DSE Practical activity: Use the general tools for given task. List the name of general hand tools and write down the use of listed tools. 3.11 TONG TESTER A clamp meter is a tool for measuring current on a wire. In comparing with multi-meter, the clamp meter does not need to be connected to the circuit in order to read current. Clamp meter does not require unnecessary procedure of breaking the circuit to measure current. The clamp on the device is simply placed around a live wire. This allows one to measure the current on a wire without interrupting the operation of the electrical appliance. A clamp meter uses digital technology to bring instantaneous readings. Practical activity: Measure the current using clamp meter. Steps for measuring AC or DC current use a clamp meter's jaws are as follows: - Choose an electrical conductor to test The clamp can easily measure the current on a load without the need to disconnect the electrical conductor from the circuit. To get a reading, the electrical wire should be connected to an electrical appliance that is running or operating. - Choose the appropriate function and range Set the rotary selector on the clamp meter to the correct function and range. Measuring current that is higher than that specified in the range can damage the device. If you are not sure about the range of current which is to be measured, choose a high range and decrease it as needed. - Clamp the conductor Push the trigger on the device to open the jaw. Clamp the device around the conductor and close it. If the electrical conductor is not yet connected to a power source, connect it. Note the reading on the display of clamp meter. - Use an AC line separator When measuring AC current, the device may give a false reading. Hot and neutral current cancel each other out, which causes the device to display nothing on the LCD screen. To correct the problem, connect the AC line separator between the electrical conductors i.e. phase and neutral. - Measure Voltage Set the clamp meter to the voltage symbol “V” to read the voltage on the conductor. Plug the probes to the meter as well. Connect the black probe to the COM jack and the red probe to the V/O jack. Select the correct range and make sure not to measure voltages above than the maximum range of the clamp meter. Touch the tips of the probes to the electric conductor to get a voltage reading. Read the voltage on the LCD screen. A clamp meter will save you time during an electrical repair work, will help you get more efficient with your wiring projects, and will protect you from electrical-related accidents. 3.12 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS) METER Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is about the purity of water. It defines total amount of mobile charged ions, including minerals, salts or metals dissolved in a given volume of water. It is expressed in units of mg per unit volume of water. (mg/L). Also, referred to as parts per million (ppm). TDS is directly related to the purity of water and the quality of water purification systems. 3.13 MEGGER Insulation resistance IR quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment condition, i.e., temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also gets impacted negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so it’s become very necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock. Megger meter is used as a measuring instrument for insulation resistance tester. 3.13.1 Uses of Megger The device enables us to measure electrical leakage in wire, results are very reliable as we shall be passing electric current through the device while we are testing. The equipment basically uses for verifying the electrical insulation level of any device such as motors, cables, generators, windings, etc. This is a very popular test being carried out since very long back. Not necessary it shows us exact area of electrical puncture but shows the amount of leakage current and level of moisture within electrical equipment/winding/system. 3.13.2 Types of Megger This can be separated into mainly two categories:- - Electronic megger (Battery Operated) - Manual megger (Hand Operated) But there is another type of megger which is motor operated type which does not use battery to produce voltage; it requires an external source to rotate an electrical motor which in turn rotates the generator of the megger. Electronic Megger Important parts: - Digital Display: A digital display to show IR value in digital form. - Wire Leads: Two wire leads for connecting megger with electrical external system to be tested. - Selection Switches: Switches use to select electrical parameters ranges. - Indicators: To indicate various parameters status i.e. On-Off. For Example Power, hold, Warning, etc. Manual Megger Analog display: Analog display provided on front face of tester for IR value recording. Hand Crank: Hand crank used to rotate helps to achieve desired RPM (rotation per minute) required generate voltage which runs through electrical system. Wire Leads: Used same as in electronic tester i.e. for connecting tester with electrical system. 3.14 SOLDERING Soldering is the process of melting a metal onto other metal components in order to bind them. Soldering differs from welding. In welding, the component pieces are melted together; in soldering, a softer metal with a lower melting point is used to connect them. Because soldering doesn't melt components, it is useful for more delicate applications, such as electronics work, or plumbing. The purpose of soldering is to bind two other components. Solder can be thought of as a sort of “metal glue.” It can be used to fill in gaps or hold pieces in place, but doesn't serve any more complicated purpose. Since solder is metallic, it conducts electricity, which is another reason it's so popular for connecting electronic components. ![Image](http://bit.ly/2APAU2E) Fig. 3.36 Image source: http://bit.ly/2APAU2E Practical activity: Demonstrate the soldering and de-soldering techniques. To practice soldering and de-soldering for the given electronic circuit in a general purpose printed circuit board (PCB). Apparatus required: PCB board for given circuit, soldering iron, solder, copper plate, flux, connecting wires, lead, and nose plier. Procedure: Soldering: 1. Clean the given PCB board. Fig.3.36 2. Clean the tip of the soldering iron before heating and also clean the components which are to be soldered. 3. Heat the soldering iron and apply solder to the tip as soon as it is hot to melt on it. Fig.3.37 4. Considering given circuit and the components are to be soldered in their respective place by applying hot tip to the joints. 5. Trim excess component lead with side cutter. Fig.3.38 De-soldering: 1. Hold the component to be unsoldered by a nose plier. Fig.3.39 2. Place the tip of the soldering iron on the joint until the solder is melt. Fig.3.40 3. When the solder is melted, remove the component with a tweezer and brush away the molten solder. Fig.3.41 4. Clean the components so that they can be used to make other circuits. Fig.3.42 Result: Thus the soldering and de-soldering practice is done for the given electronic circuit successfully. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS A. Choose the correct option from those given below 1. A screw is made up of ___ wrapped around a post or rod. a) treads b) springs c) threads d) strings 2. Which of the following tool is used for shaping the metal into a sheet. a) Hammer b) Screwdriver c) Stripper d) Wrench 3. Pipe wrenches are available in size from ……. inches up to …… Inches. a) 1, 50 b) 3, 48 c) 4, 58 d) 1, 45 4. Wire stripper is categorized as ……… and ………. a) Vertical and horizontal b) Straight and aligned c) Manual and automatic d) Fix and movable 5. Which of the following is used as a wire connector. a) Lugs b) Screwdriver c) Stripper d) Hammer 6. Which of the following meter is used for insulation resistance testing. a) Ammeter b) Voltmeter c) Wattmeter d) Megger meter 7. Which of the following equipment is used to measure the AC voltage. a) Tachometer b) Multimeter c) Ammeter d) Megger meter 8. Which of the following meter is used to measure insulation resistance. a) Tachometer b) Multimeter c) Ammeter d) Megger meter 9. Which of the following tool is used for turning soft iron pipes and fittings with a rounded surface. a) Wrench b) Plier c) Wire stripper d) screwdriver 10. Which of the following tool is used for the removal of the insulation of wire. a) Plier b) Wrench c) Wire stripper d) Hammer B. Fill in the blanks with correct word 1. Combination plier is used for ........... and ........... 2. Pipe wrench is classified by the length of the handle; they can be available in size from .......... inches up to ...... inches. 3. The process of melting a metal onto other metal components in order to bind them is called as ............ 4. Tong meter is also known as ............ meter. 5. Megger meter is classified as ............. and ............ 6. Soldering is also known as .......... 7. Ladder is classified as ............ and ......... 8. In line tester ...... Bulb is used for the indication of live wire. 9. In drilling practise ....... is used for making hole on the wall or wood. 10. Multimeter is used for the measurement of resistance, voltage, and ............ C. State whether the statement given below are true or false 1. Soldering is known as glue. 2. Clampmeter is used to measure the current flowing inside the wire. 3. Multimeter is used for the testing of diode. 4. Combination plier is used for the stripping of the insulation in the wire. 5. Line tester is used for testing diode. 6. Multimeter can measure AC and DC voltage. 7. Lugs are used as a wire connector. D. Match the column \| 1. Hammer \| a) To check the line or Live wire \| \|-----------\|----------------------------------\| \| 2. Screwdriver \| b) grip and twist the pipe \| \| 3. Phase tester \| c) Tighten the screw \| \| 4. Plier \| d) Shaping of metal sheet \| \| 5. Wrench \| e) Used for cutting, stripping of wires, holding wire. \| E. Short answer type question Write short note on: 1. Screwdriver 2. Megger meter 3. Multi meter 4. Combination plier 5. Line tester Chapter 4 INSTALLING AN RO WATER PURIFIER INTRODUCTION We mostly associate diseases with a change in weather or having food in unhygienic locations. But we tend to overlook the fact that even water can cause these diseases. Through tap water you might be unknowingly consuming substances like chlorine, Trihalomethanes (THMs), pesticides and much more. All it takes is one simple step to avoid this problem, installing a water purifier. Make sure to choose water purifiers with an extensive filtering process so that something as simple as drinking water can be consumed without a worry. RO water purifiers feature advanced purification process and even provide you with a digital advance alert system that reminds you before the Germ Kill Kit expires. These purifiers use RO and UV technology to make water potable for you. A complete package for absolute health assurance. PRE-INSTALLATION REQUIREMENT 4.1 BASICS OF WATER– BASED APPLIANCES Water is a chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life. Water is the most abundant compound found on Earth. It is the basics requirement of living being. Water is essential for the survival. More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water in the form of snow, glaciers, oceans, rivers and lakes. However, very little of this water is drinkable. This is because 96% of the earth’s water is salt water. Approximately, 98% of the remaining fresh water is in the form of glaciers and polar ice caps. This leaves just about 1% of the freshwater on the surface in the form of rivers and lakes. Not all of this fresh water is safe for human consumption as it is contaminated with bacteria. To make fresh water safe for drinking, it needs to be cleaned so that its intake does not cause any harm. The various properties of water make it a necessity or supporting life. 4.1.1 Properties of Water Water is a transparent, odorless, tasteless and colorless liquid. Its chemical name is $H_2O$ and it is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom joined together by covalent bonds. Characteristics of the water - Water has no smell - Water has no taste - Water has no colour Fig. 4.1: Percentage of water on earth Fig. 4.2: Properties of water The following figure lists the various properties of water: - Universal Solvent Water forms hydrogen bonds. These bonds make it a powerful solvent. Water can dissolve different chemicals. Water contains various minerals, nutrients and chemical. This property of water helps to support the life on Earth. 4. THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT A solution is a homogeneous mixture. The most abundant part is called the solvent, and the less abundant part is called the solute. Fig. 4.3: Water as a universal solvent - High Specific Heat Water is helpful in maintaining the moderate temperature of earth. As water has capacity to absorb the heat. Water has high specific heat. Specific heat is the property of substance which represents the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of each molecule by one degree. Each molecule of water has specific heat with them this will help to maintain the temperature of earth. Fig. 4.4: Specific heat of water • Strong Surface Tension Water has a high surface tension. Molecules of water have high adhesive property. High surface tension is responsible for the capillary action of water. This capillary action helps to move water through the plant roots and stems and even blood vessels in animals. ![Surface tension of water](image) Fig. 4.5: Surface tension of water • Neutral pH Water is neither acidic nor basic; it has a neutral pH value 7. ![pH of water](image) Fig. 4.6: pH of water • High Polarity A water molecule consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen has a very high electronegativity, meaning it has a very high affinity for electrons. The oxygen in water molecules pulls the electrons from the hydrogen atoms closer to it, creating two poles in the molecule, where the hydrogen end is partially positive and the oxygen end is partially negative. ![Polar nature of water](image) Fig. 4.7: Polar nature of water partially negative. Water has a high polarity. The difference in the electronegativity of oxygen and hydrogen atoms makes a strong polar compound. - Lower Density of Ice The density of ice is lower than the density of water. Water expands when it freezes. Its molecules form a crystalline structure. The density of ice is lower than the density of water. Water expands when it freezes. Its molecules form a crystalline structure. As the density of ice is less than water, ice starts floating on the surface of water. Prevent oceans, lakes, and rivers from freezing, thereby allowing life to exist on Earth. ![Density of Water](image) Fig. 4.8: Density of water Activity: Group discussion More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water in the form of snow, glaciers, oceans, rivers, and lakes. Still, there is a lack of water. Discuss. ### 4.2 WATER TREATMENT METHOD #### 4.2.1 Water Treatment In everyday life, clean and safe water is essential. But, contaminants like germs, virus, bacteria, and parasites etc. are present in the water. Therefore, for making the water drinkable, treatment of water is necessary. Water treatment is the process of removing microorganisms from water. The following figure lists the purpose of water treatment: ![Purpose of Water Treatment](image) Fig. 4.9: Purpose of water treatment 4.2.2 Water Treatment Methods There are four common types of contaminants that are generally found in water. These are shown in the following figure: Fig. 4.10 (a): Contaminants in water Fig. 4.10 (b) Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2yHzKSz a) Bacteria Bacteria are a group of very small organisms. Generally, bacteria are harmless but some of them harm humans. Bacteria cause sickness and disease in human. Diseases which are caused by the bacteria are vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal infection. b) Minerals Minerals are substances that are formed naturally in the Earth. Minerals are usually formed by geological processes. Minerals like calcium, potassium, and magnesium are considered good for the human. While some such as lead, arsenic, and aluminum are considered harmful for the human. Water has both types of mineral dissolve in it. Level of mineral dissolve in water determines the content of hardness. c) Particulates Particulates are the small particles. They are present in the environment due to air pollution. They are dust sand sediment rust found in the water. Particulates carry harmful diseases with them that will harm the human. They are measured in microns where one micron is one millionth of a meter. d) Chemicals Chemical contain in the water can be natural or man-made. Mainly chemicals added into water through pollution industrial discharge, urban activities, agriculture, and disposal of waste. Water treatment methods remove contaminants from the water to make it safe for human consumption. Water treatment is done at two levels: \| Community water treatment \| Surface water treatment plant is used for the removal of contaminants from \| \|---------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| 4.2.3 Different types of agents Different types of agents are used for the water treatment. This will make water safe for drinking. These water treatment agents are classified into three categories which are as follows: Fig. 4.11: Water treating agent a) Chemicals Chemicals are used for the treatment of water. Commonly used chemicals for water treatment are chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone. These chemicals kill unwanted small organisms or microorganisms present in the water. This will improve the taste, odor, clarity of the water. Excessive use of chemicals for water treatment may damage the human body. b) Filters Filters reduce contamination of water by removing impurities. Filter acts as a physical barrier or a biological process for the impurities. There are four main types of filters as shown in the following: 1. Sediment filter 2. Carbon block filter 3. TFC/TFM Membrane filter 4. Inline carbon filter 1. Sediment filter Sediment filters are used to reduce solid particulate. Sediment filters remove suspended matter such as sand, silt, loose scale, clay, or organic material from the water. Untreated water passes through sediment filter, these filters can remove insoluble or suspended particles. In drinking water treatment sediment filtration can be an option for treatment of water problems. Sediment filters do not remove dissolved material that may be harmful. They do not remove contaminants such as chlorine, lead, mercury etc. Fig.4.12: Sediment filter 2. Carbon filter Carbon uses chemical absorption for filtration of water. Carbon is activated by adding positive charge which enhances the surface area as well as the ability of the filter. Carbon filter removes chlorine, arsenic, lead, asbestos, salts or metals. Fig.4.13: Carbon filter 3. TFC/TFM Membrane filter TFC/TFM is semi-permeable membrane used in the reverse osmosis (RO) water purification system. Untreated water is forced through the membranes which acts like a strainer and allow pure water to pass through leaving the dissolved contaminants behind. Fig. 4.14: TFC/TFM membrane filter 4. Inline carbon filter Carbon filters can also be installed inline as part of the reserve osmosis water purification system. They are used as pretreatment to safeguard other water treatment unit such as TFC/TFM membranes, from any damage due to organic pollutant or oxidation. ![Inline carbon filter](http://bit.ly/2Ouax8L) Fig. 4.15: Inline carbon filter Courtesy: [http://bit.ly/2J0QlQz](http://bit.ly/2J0QlQz) c) Purifiers Water purifiers remove contaminants such as excess salts, suspended particles and microbes dissolved in water and preserve its necessary vitamins and minerals. Purifier deactivating deadly bacteria and viruses making the water safe for consumption. These unique water purifiers also come with a storage tank. They are ideal for purifying tap and municipal water. Water purifiers are based on patented Mineral RO technology. Purifier uses double purification to combine Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Ultraviolet (UV) / Ultra Filtration (UF) in a multistage filtration process. It removes even dissolved impurities and retains essential minerals giving pure and safe drinking water. The difference between water filters and purifiers is the type of impurities removed by each one of them. The following figure lists the main differences between the two: ![Water Filters vs. Water Purifiers](http://bit.ly/2Ouax8L) Fig. 4.16: Water Filters vs. Water Purifiers Practical activity: Identify the structural requirements. Discuss the terms considered for structural requirement of the water purifier. 4.3 WATER FLOW DIAGRAM AND ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW DIAGRAM OF RO WATER PURIFIER The following figure shows the flow of water in an RO purifier: ![Water flow in an RO water purifier](image) Fig. 4.17: Water flow in an RO water purifier Courtesy: [http://bit.ly/2EoyBFh](http://bit.ly/2EoyBFh) The following figure shows the flow of electric current in an RO purifier: ![Electrical circuit diagram of an RO Water Purifier](image) Fig. 4.18: Electrical circuit diagram of an RO Water Purifier Courtesy: [http://bit.ly/2CPen6e](http://bit.ly/2CPen6e) 4.4 WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS AND DIFFERENT LAYERS OF FILTER 4.4.1 Water Purification Process Water purification is the process of removing contaminants from untreated or raw water to get pure water that is safe for consumption. It consists of three different processes as shown in the following figure: \| Physical process \| Filtration sedimentation and distillation \| \|------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| Biological process \| Slow sand filters or biologically active carbon \| \| Chemical process \| Flocculation, chlorination and the use of ultraviolet light \| ![Water purification processes](image) Fig.4.19: Water purification processes 4.4.2 Steps of the Purification Process The water purification process consists of four major steps as shown in the following figure: - Coagulation - Sedimentation - Filtration - Disinfection Fig.4.20: Water purification processes a) Coagulation Coagulation in water purification is a process of transforming small particles to bigger particle. In impure water very small particles are present, these particles are not be able to filter using strainer. To filter out these small particles chemical are added. Most common form of chemical is alum. Alum is positively charge which neutralized the negative charge of small particles. Then the particles can stick together, forming larger particles which are more easily removed. When the water from ground, lakes, or river enters a water treatment plant, it is coagulated by the addition of alum and other chemicals. These heavy particles will get sink to the bottom. b) Sedimentation Sedimentation is a physical process of water treatment. Sedimentation uses force of gravity to settle down the small particles. All the suspended particles are settle down at the bottom under the effect of gravity. c) Filtration Filtration is the process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid. This is performed by passing the water through pores of some substance, called a filter. The filtration tanks consist of layers of gravel and sand which filter out the remaining contaminants. Fig.4.23: Filtration a) Disinfection The water is passed into a closed reservoir containing disinfectants such as chlorine. These disinfectants kill the bacteria or microorganisms present in the water. The purified water then flows through pipes to homes. Fig.4.24: Disinfection Activity: Identification Game Label all the parts of standard carbon black filter in the following image. Fig.4.25 4.5 DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES IN WATER PURIFICATION 4.5.1 Water Purifiers Pure, clean and safe drinking water is a necessity for human life and health. Water that is supplied in homes is contaminated with organic and inorganic particles. It becomes critical to purify the tap water to ensure it is safe for consumption. Also to make sure it must have any adverse effect on health. A water purifier removes contaminants such as excess salts, suspended particles and microbes dissolved in water. In purification it preserves the necessary vitamins and minerals of water. The following image shows a common water purifier: ![Fig.4.26: A water purifier](image) 4.5.2 Types of Water Purifier There are five major categories of water purifiers, depending on the purification methods they use. The following figure lists these categories: ![Classification of Purifier on the basis of the purification method](image) - Reverse Osmosis (RO) - Ultrafiltration (UF) - Ultraviolet (UV) - Gravity Based - Activated Carbon Fig.4.27: Types of purifiers 1. RO Water Purifiers RO water purifiers are the most commonly used purifiers and is based on the principle of reverse osmosis. They make use of the membrane technology to eliminate contaminants such as salts, heavy metals and germs dissolved in water. The following image shows an RO purifier membrane: Fig.4.28: An RO purifier membrane The main advantages of using an RO purifier are as follows: - Removes impurities such as lead, arsenic, mercury and germs from water - Environmental friendly - Suitable for hard water - Suitable for water with high total dissolved salts (TDS) - Easy to install and maintain There are certain disadvantages of an RO purifier such as: - Removes essential minerals along with dissolved impurities - Change the taste of water - Wastes large quantity of water - Requires electricity to purify water - Requires special care and maintenance for its membrane 2. UF Water Purifiers UF water purifiers use membranes similar to an RO membrane but with larger pores. They remove all germs and bacteria from water but do not remove dissolved salts or solids. They are suitable in homes where the water supplied is not very hard and has less dissolved salts. The process of purification in a UF purifier is shown in the following image: Fig.4.29: Process of purification in a UF purifier Courtesy: http://bit.ly/2Aey7gV The main advantages of using a UF purifier are as follows: - Removes impurities and germs from muddy water - Environmental friendly - Does not require electricity to purify water - Retains the taste and odor of water - Easy to install and maintain There are certain disadvantages of a UF purifier such as: - Unable to remove dissolved impurities such as arsenic, lead, nitrates and fluorides - Ineffective as compared to an RO water purifier as it cannot block dissolved salts and solids - Good only for water with low TDS 3. UV Water Purifiers UV water purifiers use ultraviolet rays to kill all germs, bacteria and microbes dissolved in water. A small mercury lamp is placed inside the purifier, which produces high frequency short wave UV radiations. When water passes through this element, it is exposed to the UV light which kills all the living organisms. Separate filters then remove the dead germs. UV purifiers are used in residences, breweries, water stores, restaurants and municipalities. The following image shows the working of UV water purifiers: ![UV water purifier](image) Fig.4.30: UV water purifier The main advantages of using a UV purifier are as follows: - Removes viruses, bacteria and germs from water - Environmental friendly - No chemicals added to water - Retains the taste and odor of water - Easy to install and maintain There are certain disadvantages of a UV purifier such as: • Unable to remove dissolved impurities such as arsenic, lead, nitrates and fluorides • Requires electricity to purify water 4. Gravity Based Water Purifiers Gravity based water purifiers are based on the principle of gravity. The water flows from a higher compartment over the filters to a lower compartment. They do not require electricity and use either chemical based, UF based or ceramic cartridge based filters to purify water. The following figure shows the parts of a gravity based purifier: ![Gravity Based Purifier](image) Fig. 4.31: A gravity based purifier The main advantages of using a gravity based purifier are as shown in the following: • Removes impurities and germs from muddy water • Environmental friendly • Does not require electricity to purify water • Suitable for soft water • Portable and easy to install There are certain disadvantages of a gravity based purifier such as: • Unable to remove dissolved impurities such as arsenic, lead, nitrates and fluorides • Ineffective as compared to an RO water purifier as it cannot block dissolved salts and solids • Good only for water with low TDS 5. Activated Carbon Water Purifiers Activated carbon is carbon with a positive charge added to it. When water flows over it, the negative ions of contaminants get attracted to the surface of the activated carbon filter. Activated carbon water purifiers can remove volatile organic compounds, pesticides, herbicides, chlorine and other chemicals found in tap water. This makes the water safe to drink. The following images show the process of purification in an activated carbon water purifier: Activity: Identification Game Match the following. \| 1. Gravity Based Water Purifiers \| a) Removes impurities such as lead, arsenic, mercury and germs from water \| \|----------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 2. UV Water Purifiers \| b) Removes volatile organic chemicals, radon and chlorine \| \| 3. RO Water Purifiers \| c) Removes viruses, bacteria and germs from water \| \| 4. Activated Carbon Water Purifiers \| d) Removes impurities and germs from muddy water \| 4.5.3 DIFFERENT FEATURES AND FUNCTIONALITIES OF PURIFIER a) RO Water Purifier RO water purifiers work on the principle of Reverse Osmosis (RO). In this process, pressure is applied on contaminated water to force it through a semi-permeable membrane. The water is purified by filtering and flushing out the impurities as shown in the following image: Fig.4.33: Reverse osmosis process b) Properties of RO Water Purifier The properties of an RO water purifier are shown in the following figure: - Suitable for hard water - Removes dissolved salts and organic and inorganic particles - Removes dissolved impurities such as sulfates, fluorides - Improves taste, odor and appearance of water - Economical to purchase and easy to maintain - Simple operation and control Fig.4.34: Properties of an RO water purifier c) Component of RO Water Purifier The following table lists the basic components of an RO system: \| Component \| Description \| \|----------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Supply line valve \| Attaches the inlet of the RO pre-filter to the water source through a tube \| \| Pre-filter Sediment \| Removes sand, dirt and other sediments \| \| Carbon filter \| Adsorbs chemical impurities such as chlorine and pesticides and improves odor and taste of water \| \| RO membrane \| Removes almost all dissolved salts, impurities and bacteria \| \| Water tank \| Stores water before 'post filtration' \| \| Post filter \| Also known as 'polishing' filter as it removes the remaining taste and odor from the treated water \| \| Shut-off valve \| Automatically shuts-off the water supply to the membrane when the storage tank gets full \| \| Check valve \| Prevents backward flow of water from the tank to the membrane \| \| Flow restrictor \| Maintains pressure on the inlet of the membrane to ensure \| \| Fig.4.35(i) \| \| \|------------\|----------------\| \| \| re the highest quality of water \| \| Drain line \| Connects one outlet of the membrane to the drain to dispose off waste water \| \|------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| Fig.4.35: Components of an RO water purifier d) Functioning of RO Water Purifier The following steps explain the functioning of an RO water purifier: \| Step1 \| Water enters from the supply line \| \|-------\|----------------------------------\| \| Step2 \| Water enters the sediment filter which strains out sand, dirt and sediments \| \| Step3 \| Water enters the carbon filter which removes chlorine and other contaminants \| \| Step4 \| Water enters the RO membrane which filters out all additional contaminants \| \| Step5 \| Water enters the storage tank Waste water containing impurities is drained out \| \| Step6 \| Water enters post filter to remove any remaining odor and taste in water \| Step 7 \| Water leaves the filter and goes to faucet --- Activity: Role Play A customer asked you to tell the components of RO Water Purifier. List all the components that you will tell her/him. --- Practical activity: Visit the site and identify the place for installation. Role play: Suppose, you got a call regarding the installation of the purifier. List the factor which has to be considered for while selecting the site for installation. --- Practical activity: Maintaining adequate water pressure at the inlet source. For maintaining of suitable pressure in the inlet of purifier following steps has to be considered: Apparatus required: Pressure gauge, pipe, pressure regulator Procedure: 1. To measure the pressure of water flowing in the pipe of water purifier, firstly turn off water supply. 2. Locate the main water supply, there is threaded spigot. 3. This spigot has a valve or a lever next to it. 4. Screw the end of the pressure gauge in the threaded spigot. 5. Twist the valve to turn ON the water supply in the pipe. 6. This will allow water to flow through the spigot and will give you a reading on your pressure gauge. 7. The needle on the gauge should move to a number that represents your water pressure in pounds per square inch or PSI. 8. Note down the reading on the pressure gauge. 9. The average pressure for the purifier is 50-70 psi (Pound per inch). 10. If the reading is greater than this average value of pressure, release the pressure using the pressure regulator to the appropriate value. Practical activity: Make necessary markings for placement of the water purifier unit. Following steps have to be considered for the marking of water purifier unit: Practical activity: Demonstrate the point that has to consider for the site inspection and preparation. Following points have to be in mind while selecting the site for the installation of water purifier: 1. Locating the water purifier near a source of water. 2. Locating the water purifier near an electrical point. 3. Make sure the socket through which the purifier is going to be powered should have earthing. 4. Distance between the purifier and the water source should be within 3 m. 5. Distance between the purifier and the electrical supply should be within 3 m. 6. Distance between the purifier and the drainage system should be within 3 m. 7. Keep the purifier away from direct heat or sunlight. 8. Remember that there are needs to change the membrane periodically, keeping in mind this step; select a location in which the membrane can be easily replaced. 9. If there is an issue of space, the purifier can be mounted on the wall. 4.6 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE 4.6.1 Specification for installation of water purifier 1. System location The RO system should be located on a level surface. The area where the water purifier is going to be installed must be sheltered from sun, wind, and rain. The temperature in this area should be maintained, and should not fall below 35°F. or greater than 95 F. If these limits are exceeded, damage to components may result and the warranty may be considered void. It is important to allow sufficient space around the unit so maintenance can easily be performed. 2. Plumbing The membranes and high pressure pumps used require a continuous and stable flow of water to the system. Please refer the manual for minimum flow rate and minimum feed pressure. 3. Feed water Piping used for feed water to the RO system should be either copper or plastic. Iron and carbon steel pipe will increase the iron content of the feed water. This will adversely affect the RO system’s performance. Temperature of the feed water must not exceed 95 F. Important: It is recommended to install a pressure gauge on the feed water line. This will help to maintain the pressure of the feed water. 4. Concentrate (waste) line connection Connect the waste line to the back side of the system. The tubing or piping used for discharge of the concentrate should be run to an open drain in a free manner. Any blockage in the drain can cause backpressure, which will increase the system operating pressure. This may result in damage to the system components. 5. Electrical supply A properly sized electrical service must be provided by the customer. Motors and electrical requirements must be according to the supply voltage. Electrical supply to the system must be compatible with the requirements for each model. Install system in accordance with local and national electrical codes. 6. Pre-filtration Most RO systems come with particulate pre-filters to remove suspended particles down to five (5) micron in size. Change pre-filter cartridges at least every month. Additional pretreatment may be required, depending on feed water parameters. Caution: If the pre-filters become blocked and the water flow to the pump is reduced or interrupted. This will result in the formation of an empty space within a pipe. This may damage the pump. 7. Inspections Prior to start-up, carefully inspect system. Check plumbing, electrical connections and make sure no connections have become loose during shipment. 4.6.2 Guideline for the installation of water purifier The following figure lists the guidelines that should be followed before installing an RO water purifier: - Avoid exposure to direct sunlight or heating devices - Avoid placing the rejected water pipe at a higher level than the purifier - Avoid sharp bends in the pipe - Avoid bending or blocking the rejected water pipe - Ensure that the purifier is connected to the normal water supply only - Ensure that the purifier is installed within 3 meters of the water source - Avoid confining the purifier in a cabinet Fig.4.45: Pre-installation guidelines The installation process begins with site preparation. The recommended site preparation steps are shown in the following: \| Ensure single phase connection is within 3m of the point of installation \| \| Ensure raw water supply is within 3m \| \| Ensure raw water supply tank is at least 10 feet above the purifier \| \| Ensure there is a sink near the purifier \| \| Ensure waste water drain is within 3m \| \| Ensure enough space is there as per the dimensions of the purifier \| The following steps should be performed when installing RO water purifier: STEP1: UNPACKING OF THE PURIFIER 1. Carefully place a water purifier packing box on the plane surface. 2. Cut the packing strips on the packing box with the help of knife. 3. Open the water purifier packing box. 4. Take out all the accessories from the packing box. 5. Take out RO water purifier from the packing box carefully. 6. Place the water purifier on the plane surface. 7. Remove the thermocol packing and remove the polythene cover from the water purifier. Fig.4.52: Practical activity: Remove the packaging of water purifier and dispose the packaging material waste as per norms. Write the steps to unpack the water purifier and discuss the precaution has to be taken while un-packaging the water purifier. Also discuss the dispose packaging material waste as per norms. Items in the box - Water purifier - 3 way connector - SS ball valve - Grade pipe (white and blue) - Screw and plastic inserts - Instruction manual - Drilling sticker Fig.4.53: (a) Practical activity: Check that the product specifications and other supporting accessories. List the items which are present in the box and note it down their specification. \| Items in the box \| Name \| \|------------------\|------\| \| ![Image](image1) \| ........................................ \| Fig.4.54 Practical activity: Arrange tools and fitments required for the installation. List the tools required for the installation and maintenance of the water purifier. \| Tool and equipment \| Name \| \|-------------------\|------\| \| ![Tool Image](image1) \| .................................................. \| \| Fig.4.60 \| \| \| ![Tool Image](image2) \| .................................................. \| \| Fig.4.61 \| \| \| ![Tool Image](image3) \| .................................................. \| \| Fig.4.62 \| \| \| ![Tool Image](image4) \| .................................................. \| \| Fig.4.63 \| \| STEP2: SETTING UP THE WATER CONNECTION 1. Keep all the plumbing accessories and tools ready before turning off the main water supply line, so that it gets interrupted for a minimum time. 2. Turn off the main supply line. 3. Always install purifier on the normal water supply and not on the hot water supply. 4. Take out the tap from water supply line carefully, using pipe wrench. 5. 3 way connector with an external thread. 6. Use a Teflon tape to create a leak-free joint. 7. It should be wrapped tightly on a 3 way connector in a clockwise direction only otherwise it may loosen during tightening on water supply line. 8. Insert external thread end of the 3 way connector into the water supply line. 9. Use Teflon tape on the tape to create a leak free joint. 10. Now insert the tap into the hex end of the three way connector and tighten it using pipe wrench. 11. Use SS ball valve; use Teflon tape again on the SS ball valve thread to create a leak free joint. 12. Insert the SS ball valve into the $ \frac{1}{4} $ inch port of the 3 way connector. 13. Take a white pipe broaden it up its mouth from one end by inserting a screw driver into it. 14. Move a hex nut present on the SS ball. Insert this hex nut into the white pipe from the non-broadened end. 15. Push the broaden end of the white pipe onto the SS ball valve. Make sure that pipe completely slips over the nipple of SS ball valve. 16. Tighten securely the hex nut on the SS ball valve to lock the pipe in its place. 17. The water supply remains OFF when the lever is perpendicular to the SS ball valve body. 18. The water supply remains ON when the lever is parallel to SS ball valve body. STEP3: MAKING PREPARATION TO MOUNT THE PURIFIER 1. Every purifier has a drilling sticker with measured marking. 2. Check for the proper horizontal level which should be plane even surface. 3. The drilling sticker not be pasted inclined as water may overflow. 4. Stick the drilling sticker in a proper horizontal straight line. 5. Drill carefully two holes into the sticker making using the 8 mm drill bit. 6. Drill to such a depth that the plastic inserts could go completely inside the hole. 7. Push plastic inserts into the hole using a hammer. 8. Insert two self-taping screws in both the holes using screwdriver. Do not use a hammer. Practical activity: Before starting the installation, check whether the pre-installation requirements are fulfilled. Practical activity: Make measurements and drill holes without damage internal wiring. Following steps have to be considered while performing drill practice. 1. Firstly, when the technician unpacks the purifier, she/he will find the drill sticker in the box of the purifier. 2. Use this drill sticker for the horizontal alignment of the water purifier. 3. Stick the drilling sticker in a proper horizontal straight line. 4. Drill carefully two holes into the sticker making using the 8 mm drill bit. 5. Drill to such a depth that the plastic inserts could go completely inside the hole. 6. Push plastic inserts into the hole using a hammer. 7. Insert two self-taping screws in both the holes using screwdriver. Do not use hammer. Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps for the installation of filter as per the installation guide. Following steps shows the installation of filters: 1. First step to install filter is to turn off the water supply. 2. Next, open a tap to release any remaining water in the line and the pressure in the pipes. 3. Select a location to set up the filter. 4. Mark the spot where you are going to install filter. 5. Selected location should be visible and accessible. 6. Make two cuts and remove part of the pipe. 7. But, before removing the cut piece of the pipe, make sure that bucket is kept nearby to catch any water that may not have been drained. 8. Now, tighten the fittings but do not tighten too much.. 9. Now that the fittings are installed, the next step is to install the filter. When you place it on the pipe, you have to ensure that it is positioned on the right side and not backward. 10. If filter is working properly, leave the pipe running for several minutes. 11. Sometimes, there may be dirt and sediments in the pipe that need to come out. 12. Once these are expelled and water appears clear, then it is safe for drinking and consumption. Practical activity: Write down the steps, while installing the inlet water supply line before connecting it to the water purifier. Hand tools required: Bucket, Adjustable wrench, Pipe cutter Following point illustrate the steps for the installation of inlet supply to the water purifier: 1. Drain the System by turning off the water supply. 2. Now, release the pressure from the lowest point of the water supply system. 3. Drain the remaining water from that lowest point of the water supply system. 4. Locate the place of purifier, once it is finalized. Cut the pipe as per the measurement. 5. Use the template provided with the kit to mark the pipe for exact placement. 6. Attach the Fittings 7. Check the water pressure using pressure gauge. Practical activity: Discuss the power requirement of the water purifier. Hint: Point to be discuss are as follows: - Input voltage of power supply: ....................... - Output voltage of power supply: ....................... - Current capacity of power supply: ....................... - Operating frequency of power supply: ............... - Overload protection: ........................................ - Over temperature protection: ............................ STEP4: INSTALLING THE PURIFIER 1. Place the purifier on a flat surface and remove transparent tank tray of the purifier, front transparent tank. ![Image](image1) Fig.4.98: 2. Remove mounting plate cover by opening the three side screw as well as two side screws. ![Image](image2) Fig.4.99: 3. Cut the tie wires holding the sediment filter, activated carbon block, RO membrane housing and UV chamber in place. 4. These components are so tied as to save them getting damaged or dislocated from their position during transportation. 5. Fix the mounting plate cover back. 6. Remove dead plug from rejected water outlet by pressing elbow collet with one hand and pulling the dead plug with the other. 7. Remove dead plug from raw water inlet by pressing elbow collet with one hand and pulling the dead plug with the other. ![Image](image1) Fig.4.104: 8. Fix one end of the blue pipe into rejected water outlet of water purifier. Push the pipe into the elbow to avoid any leakage. ![Image](image2) Fig.4.105: 9. Lead the other end of the blue pipe into the drain. ![Image](image3) Fig.4.106: 10. Fix the end not fixed to SS ball valve of the white pipe into the water inlet of water purifier. 11. Clamp both white and blue pipe on the flat surface. 12. Make sure that the rejected water pipe is not placed at a level higher than the purifier, otherwise the rejected may flow backward into the purifier. 13. Avoid sharp turns in the pipe fitting. Do not bend or block the rejected water pipe. 14. Put the transparent tank as well as tank tray on the mounting plate cover. ![Image](image1) Fig. 4.111: 15. Insert the power plug into the three pin socket. Clamp the electric cable on the wall. ![Image](image2) Fig. 4.112: 16. Turn ON the water supply with the help SS ball valve lever. ![Image](image3) Fig. 4.113: 17. The water supply remains OFF when the lever is perpendicular to the SS ball valve body. 18. The water supply remains ON when the lever is parallel to SS ball valve body. 19. Wait for 2-3 minutes after turning on the water supply to pre-soak the filters. 20. Switch the electric supply. 21. UV lamp will take three seconds to glow to ensure that it is pre-heated and it is working at its optimum level before it starts disinfecting water. 22. SV and pump will start operating after 5 seconds of the glowing of UV lamp to ensure that the idle water lying in the internal pipes and in the UV chamber is disinfected before being passed into the storage tank. 23. To check for leakage, shift the mounting plate cover. 24. Take out post carbon outlet pipe, check and fix the leakage, if any. 25. After checking the leakage, place the mounting plate cover on its previous position. 26. Let the purifier operate till the storage tank gets filled. 27. The purifier shuts off automatically. This shows that the float sensor is working properly or not. 28. Switch off the purifier. Completely drain the storage tank into a container because the first few liters of water purified by the RO membrane are not fit for drinking water. 29. Recheck the TDS (Total dissolved solids) level of raw water supply (TDS level – 974 PPM). 30. Check the TDS level of the water coming out from the outlet of the post carbon filter and not the tap water. 31. The purified water level should reduce by approximately 90% of raw water TDS and should not be less than 50 PPM. 32. The recommended TDS level is 50-75 PPM. However, it could be adjusted to the customer’s choice of raw water TDS. STEP5: ADJUSTING TDS LEVEL 1. First remove transparent tank as well as mounting plate cover. 2. To adjust the TDS levels unscrew the locking nut first. 3. To increase the TDS level of the purified water, slightly turn the adjustment knob in the anti-clockwise direction. 4. To decrease the TDS level of the purified water, slightly turn the adjustment knob in the clockwise direction. 5. After adjustment screw the locking nut. 6. The adjustment roughly take 3-4 minutes to reflect in the purified water, so wait before checking the TDS level of the purified water. 7. Recheck over all functioning of the purifier and also any leakage, sound, etc. 8. Now fix the mounting plate by screwing all the screws taken out earlier. 9. Before leaving clean the stains on the purifier with a moist cloth and mild soap or detergent. 10. Installation is now complete. 4.7 POST-INSTALLATION PROCESS OF RO WATER PURIFIERS Once the purifier has been successfully installed, it is time to follow the post-installation process to ensure completion of the installation process. The post-installation process consists of tasks as shown in the following figure: ![Post-installation process](image) Fig. 4.140: 4.7.1 Checking the Function of System Perform the checks as shown in the following figure to ensure that the purifier is working properly: 4.7.2 Providing Guidance to the Customer After installing the purifier, the field technician should give a demonstration of the working of the purifier. It is a way of promoting or showing the operation of purifier to the users. The goal of demonstrating is to show the customer how to operate and use the purifier. There are a few rules which must be considered while preparing for the demo. The following point list out these rules: - Customize your demo. - Rehearse before presenting. - Test everything beforehand. - Take customer feedback. 4.7.3 Inform the Customer about the Dos and Don’ts of Maintenance Inform the customers that an RO water purifier lasts for many years if it is maintained properly. The following figure shows the various Dos and Don’ts that should be followed: Fig. 4.142: Do and don’ts of maintenance Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps for checking the filter installation alignment as per instructions in the installation manual. Practical activity: List the point where leakage can occur in the purifier. Also discuss the steps to identify the leakage in the purifier. Hint: Point where probability of leakage is high are as follows: - At the inlets of water supply. - At the joint of pressure gauge and main water supply pipe. - At the joint of carbon filter, sediment filter, membrane filter. - At the joint of drainage pipe. - At the faucet. - At the joint of water tank Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps which technician must explain to the customer after completion of installation. Following points must be explained to the customer: 1. Do not place heavy or sharp objects on the purifier. 2. Replace the water of the purifier after a day. 3. Do dusting at regular intervals. 4. Periodically monitor the pressure gauge. 5. Use genuine spare parts in case of replacement. 6. Change the membrane and filter regularly. 7. Check the specification of power supply. 8. Periodically check the total dissolved solids (TDS) of water. Practical activity: Role play: Suppose, you are a water purifier technician after completion of installation. What point you must communicate to the customer for maintaining the water purifier. Practical activity: Visit the nearby installed purifier assembly note down the desired standard parameters such as the water pressure, power supply, connection as per the water flow diagram. 4.8 DOCUMENTATION REQUIRED IN THE INSTALLATION OF WATER PURIFIER 4.8.1 Documentation The last task of the post-installation process is to fill in all the details in the installation report clearly and get feedback from the customer. Figure 4.143 shows a typical template of the installation form that the field technician should fill-in after installing an RO system: ![Installation Report](image) Fig.4.143: A sample installation report 4.8.2 Customer acknowledgment form Customer acknowledgement form is the documentation in which feedback of customer is taken. Acknowledgement form act as a documental proof of getting served by the water purifier executive at the customer premises. This defines the satisfactory service of the executive to the customer. Every company has their own format of acknowledgement form. 4.8.3 Call centre number Customer care is the monitor and complaint registering authority of the company. A customer can directly contact to the company to file their complaint and give feedback. Customer care is bridge between the customer and company. \| RO Customer Service Locations \| Contact number \| \|-------------------------------\|----------------\| \| Service number \| \| \|----------------\|---\| \| Complaint number \| \| \| Toll free number \| \| \| RO call centre number \| \| \| RO help line number \| \| \| RO customer service number \| \| Practical activity: Understand and discuss the parameters mentioned on the customer acknowledgment form. Also discuss the need of customer acknowledgement form. Practical activity Role play: Suppose you are a water purifier installation technician, after installation, list out the other document that has to be collected for installation of water purifier. Practical activity Role play: Suppose you are a water purifier installation technician, you have successfully installed the water purifier. Discuss the points that have to be informed to the customer care regarding the completion of job. Activity: Role Play Install a RO Water Purifier CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q1. Choose the correct option from those given below 1. Which of the following is not the type of water purifier? a) RO Water Purifiers b) UF Water Purifiers c) UV Water Purifiers d) UAV Water Purifier 2. Which of the following is not the purification process of water purifier? a) Coagulation b) Sedimentation c) Filtration d) Carbonization 3. Water treatment agent are classified as a) Chemical, filters, purifiers b) Chemical, membrane, purifiers c) Carbon, membrane, purifiers d) Sedimentation, filters, chemical 4. Which of the following are not the types of common contaminants that are found in water? a) Bacteria b) Minerals c) Particulates d) Protozoa 5. Which liquid is known as universal solvent a) Ethanol b) Water c) HCL d) kerosene 6. What is the pH value of water. a) More than 7 b) Less than 7 c) Equal to 7 d) 14 7. Ice starts float on the surface of water because: a) Density of ice is lower than the density of water. b) Density of ice is greater than the density of water. c) Density of ice is equal to the density of water. d) Density of ice is greater than equal to the density of water. 8. Which of the following is not the type of water purifier filter? a) RO water purifier b) UV water purifier c) Gravity based water purifier d) Carbon stone water purifier 9. Ensure waste water drain is within ........ form the water purifier. a) 3m b) 4m c) 5m d) 6m 10. Ensure raw water supply tank is at least .......... above the purifier. a) 10 feet b) 15 feet c) 20 feet d) 25 feet 11. Raw water TDS should not be less than ....... a) 50 PPM b) 100 PPM c) 110 PPM d) 120 PPM 12. Full form of TDS a) Total dissipated substance b) Total dissolved solid c) Total dissolved substance d) Total dissipated solid 13. The average pressure for the purifier is 50-70 psi a) 70-80 psi b) 60-50 psi c) 50-70 psi d) 40-50 psi 14. The water supply remains ON when the lever is parallel to SS ball valve body. a) ON b) OFF c) ON or OFF d) Water supply do not depend upon the SS ball valve 15. The water supply remains OFF when the lever is perpendicular to the SS ball valve body. a) ON b) OFF c) ON or OFF d) Water supply do not depend upon the SS ball valve Q2. Fill in the blanks with correct word 1. Water purification process in which transforming small particles to bigger particle ................... 2. In ............ process of water treatment all the suspended particles are settling down at the bottom under the effect of gravity. 3. Purifier based on the principle of reverse osmosis is ........... 4. UV water purifiers use .................. to kill all germs, bacteria and microbes dissolved in water. 5. In UV water purifier small mercury lamp is placed inside the purifier, which produces ............... short wave UV radiations. 6. In water purifier installation raw water supply is within ...... from the water purifier. 7. To create a leakage free joint ............. used on the tap and pipe. 8. Purifier based on the principle of gravitational force of earth is ........... 9. Disinfectants kill the .............. present in the water. 10. TFC/TFM is semi-permeable membrane used in the reverse osmosis (RO) water purification system. Q3. State whether the statement given below are true or false 1. At the time of installation of water purifier sharp turns in the pipe fitting are avoided. ( ) 2. Drill carefully two holes into the sticker making using the 8 mm drill bit. ( ) 3. Stick the drilling sticker in a proper horizontal straight line. ( ) 4. Temperature of the feed water must not exceed 100 F. ( ) 5. Most RO systems come with particulate pre-filters to remove suspended particles down to five (5) micron in size. ( ) 6. The temperature in this area should be maintained, and should not fall below 20 F. 7. Water treatment methods remove contaminants from the water to make it safe for human consumption. 8. In purification process necessary vitamins and minerals of water are preserved. 9. Gravity based water purifier works on the principle of reverse osmosis. 10. Total dissolved solid level of raw water supply is approximately 974 PPM. Q4. Short answer type question: 1. Write down the steps to replace the membrane. 2. List the type of water purifier. 3. Discuss the water purification process. 4. Write down the specification for power supply in the water purifier. 5. List the items present in the packing box of the water purifier. Chapter 5 REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER PURIFIER 5.1 UNDERSTAND THE SYMPTOMS 5.1.1 Identify the concerns of the customers A field technician is responsible for the maintenance and repair of RO systems installed at customer’s premises. It is very important for her/him to clearly understand the concerns of the customer. The following figure represents the various activities which should be done before scheduling a visit to the customer’s premises: ![Diagram](image) Fig.5.1: To-do list for a technician 5.1.2 Interact with the Customers on Phone Prior to visiting a customer’s premises for repairing/servicing, it is important to call the customer and ask about the problem in detail. ![Diagram](image) Fig.5.2: Interacting with customer on Phone 5.1.3 Interact with the Customer at their Premises It is a good practice to be humble and respectful towards the customer. The following figure represents how to interact with a customer when visiting the premises for service/repair: ![Interacting with customer](image) Fig.5.3: Interacting with customer 5.1.4 Identify the Fault It is very important for a technician to identify the fault correctly. Wrong identification of fault will lead to wrong solution which will be waste of time and money and can also cause damage to the appliance. ![How Our Service Center Work?](image) Fig.5.4 When visiting a customer for a repair/servicing request, it is important to know the details of the problem and accordingly suggest a corrective measure. The customer should be satisfied with the suggested solution. The following figure highlights the to-do list to be followed at a customer’s premises: \| At customer's premises \| Enquire about the symptoms and history of problem \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Ask about the year of purchase, service and warranty \| \| \| Identify the problem based on customer's information and examination \| \| \| Communicate the problem identified to the customer and inform about possible reasons \| \| \| Inform the customer regarding the costs involved and hand over the invoice after task is completed \| \| \| Ensure service is provided to achieve 100% customer satisfaction \| Fig.5.5: To-do list to be followed at a customer’s premises ### 5.1.5 Suggest a Solution to the Customer After identifying the issue, the field technician needs to offer solutions. She/He should explain all the possible solutions along with the cost associated. She/He should then propose the best solution and let the customer decide whether to go ahead with the given solution or not. The following table shows the steps involved in offering solutions to a customer: 1. Suggest solutions to the customer 2. Explain the time for fixing the issue 3. Explain the service method repair or replacement of part 4. Explain the costs involved 5. Seek the customer's approval for further action Fig. 5.6: Suggesting a solution to the customer for an issue Activity: Role Play You are a home appliance repair technician. You just received a phone call from a customer who is very angry about a poor service done by one of your colleagues. She/he is threatening to charge you for the bad service. How should the situation be handled? Practical activity: Diagnose and list the fault based on customer interaction and initial inspection. Following table defines the common faults and diagnoses for water purifiers based on initial inspection and customer interaction. \| Common fault \| Diagnose \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Problem of leakage \| Check and tighten the joints of the water purifier \| \| Increase in TDS level \| TDS level can be decreased by replacing the membrane or by changing the filters \| \| Rise in water pressure \| This can be diagnosed by releasing the extra pressure using a pressure regulator \| \| Interrupted power supply \| Proper earthing is required for uninterrupted power supply \| \| Improper flow of water, Slowdown of water supply \| This can be diagnosed by replacing the filter or membrane, by maintaining the proper inlet flow of water in the water purifier \| Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps for maintaining the water pressure as per company standards. Following steps are implemented to maintain the pressure of the water supply: Step 1: Check the pressure of the inlet water supply using a pressure gauge. ![Pressure Gauge](image) Fig.5.7 Step2: If reading in the pressure gauge exceeds the average value of water flow pressure. Step3: Use the spanner to release the pressure of the water flow by un-screw the nut. Step4: Again, check the pressure gauge note down the reading; make sure that it has reached the specified average value of the water flow pressure. Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps for shut off the system by turning off water supply and unplug the unit. Following points shows the shut off steps of the water purifier supply: Step1: SS ball valve is used to control the flow of water in the water purifier. Step2: The water supply remains OFF when the lever is perpendicular to the SS ball valve body. Step3: The water supply remains ON when the lever is parallel to SS ball valve body. ![Water Supply "ON"] Fig.5.13 Step4: To unplug the unit remove the plug from the socket. ![Unplugging the unit] Fig.5.14 Practical activity: Discuss the points which should be followed in order to avoid spilling on the floor. Practical activity: List the point which is to be considered while inspecting the feed water valve, and tank valve. Practical activity: Separate and inspect every part of the unit if the fault is not identified through basic inspection Practical activity: Visit and perform the identification of problem, for in depth knowledge technician must visit the un-identified problem, send to factory for in depth diagnosis. 5.1.6 Replace dysfunctional part in the water purifier unit a) Troubleshooting Troubleshooting refers to repair of faulty products or processes. It begins with searching for the source of a problem and ends with finding the solution for that problem to ensure that the product or process functions properly. Good troubleshooting consists of the following four steps: - Identification of the symptoms - Elimination of the causes of a problem - Verification of the solution - Restoration of the product or process The field technician should follow some simple steps for troubleshooting as shown in the following figure: ![Steps for troubleshooting](image) Fig. 5.15: Steps for troubleshooting b) Troubleshooting Chart The following table lists some common problems and their solutions: \| Issue \| Reason for fault \| Solution \| \|------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\|------------------------\| \| Not Enough /No water from Tap\| Blocked or closed feed water input\| Open or unblock valve \| \| \| Blocked sediment/carb- \| Replace filters \| \| Issue \| Cause \| Solution \| \|--------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Low pressure from water outlet tap/faucet \| Incorrect air pressure in storage tank \| Empty storage tank Pressurize the tank to 8 PSI Reinstall the tank Turn on the feed supply \| \| \| Blocked post carbon filter \| Replace post carbon filter \| \| \| Partially closed tank valve \| Open valve \| \| \| Faulty faucet \| Replace faucet \| \| High TDS in output water \| Blocked pre-filter \| Replace pre-filter \| \| \| Incorrectly sealed membrane \| Install the membrane correctly \| \| \| Exhausted membrane \| Replace membrane \| \| \| Output and drain water lines reversed \| Swap the connections \| \| \| Malfunctioning automatic shut-off valve \| Replace automatic shut-off valve \| \| \| Dirty post-carbon filter \| Clean/replace post-carbon filter \| \| Bad taste or odor \| Blocked post carbon filter \| Replace post carbon filter \| \| \| Exhausted membrane \| Replace membrane \| \| \| Dirty storage tank \| Clean storage tank \| \| Issue \| Cause \| Solution \| \|--------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Water in storage tank left for a long time \| Drain and clean storage tank \| \| \| Leaking membrane housing \| Leak in threaded end cap \| Lubricate O-ring and tighten cap Replace O-ring if leak continues \| \| \| \| Leak in cap or body of housing \| Check housing/ cap for cracks Replace if cracked or damaged \| \| \| Leaking filter housing \| Improper O-ring seating \| Seat O-ring in groove If dirty, clean and lubricate O-ring Replace if cracked or damaged \| \| \| \| Housing cap loose \| Hand tighten cap properly \| \| \| Damaged housing \| Replace if cracked or damaged \| \| Leaking fitting \| Damaged or cracked fitting \| Replace fitting \| \| \| Improper tubing or thread installation \| Check and correct tubing and thread installation \| \| System continuously running \| Automatic shutoff valve not working \| Replace Automatic shutoff valve \| \| \| Low incoming water pressure \| Increase water pressure to 40 psi \| \| \| Low air pressure in storage tank \| Increase air pressure to 5 - 7 psi when empty Damaged storage tank \| \| \| Replace storage tank Worn out flow restrictor \| Replace flow restrictor \| \| \| Incorrectly installed membrane \| Check membrane installat \| \| \| membrane \| ion \| \|----------------\|----------\|------------------------------------------\| \| Milky way \| New System or filters \| Air in lines - will go away with use \| \| \| Water supply \| High oxygen content - will go away with use \| \| \| Bad membrane \| Check TDS of water \| \| \| \| Replace membrane \| \| Noisy drain/faucet \| Air gap faucet \| Check air gap is properly installed \| \| \| Drain tube \| Check drain line for loops, bends, dips or kinks \| Activity: Identification Game A technician needs to take TDS measurement of a water sample? Fill in the blank steps to complete the procedure. Steps1: Collect water in a __________ Steps2: Remove the __________ on Steps3: ____________ the water Steps4: Lightly ____the water to _____any ________ Steps5: Wait for the display to __________ Steps6: Press the __________ to view the reading Steps7: Remove the meter and shake off excess water __________the cap Activity: Identification Game Match the RO system with the recommended duration for changing them. \| 1. Carbon post filter \| a. Changes every 6 – 12 months \| \|-----------------------\|-------------------------------\| \| 2. Reverse Osmosis membrane \| b. Changes every 6 – 12 months \| \| 3. Carbon filter \| c. Changes every 12 months \| \| 4. Sediment filter \| d. Changes every 24 months \| Practical activity: The water purifier is giving low water pressure from dispensing faucet. How would you fix this? Equipment: Wrench, Spanner Hints: - Empty the water from holding tank. - Shut off feed water. - Remove holding tank from under sink. 5.2 MAINTENANCE OF RO WATER PURIFIERS To ensure that the water purifier provides the same quality water, it is essential to do periodic maintenance of the system. The following figure lists the components of the maintenance of an RO system: 5.2.1 Check TDS of Water Water is often called the universal solvent because it picks up impurities easily. The impurities can be minerals, salts, metals or ions and are also known as ‘Dissolved solids’. These dissolved solids increase the electrical conductivity of water. TDS is used as a measure to determine the purity of water and the quality of water purification systems. a) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are the total amount of dissolved solids present in water. It is the sum of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) in the water. It is measured in units of mg per unit volume of water (mg/L) and is also referred to as parts per million (ppm). The maximum contamination level advised for TDS is 500 mg /L and a high level of TDS indicate the possibility of toxic ions such as lead, arsenic, cadmium and others dissolved in water. The following figure shows the various levels of TDS in water: ![Levels of TDS in water](image) Fig.5.17: Levels of TDS in water It is important to monitor the TDS regularly to ensure that the water purification system is effective in removing unwanted particles from water. The following figure lists the reasons for testing water for high TDS: ![Reasons for testing water for high TDS](image) Fig.5.18: Reasons for testing water for high TDS b) TDS Meter TDS of water or any solution is measured with the help of TDS meter. It is a small hand held device that measures the electrical conductivity of water and estimates the TDS from that reading. The following figure shows a commonly used TDS meter: ![TDS meter](image) Fig.5.19: TDS meter c) Taking TDS Measurements A TDS meter is very easy and simple to use. The following figure lists the steps of taking TDS measurements using a TDS meter: Step 1: Collect water in a clean glass Step 2: Remove the cap and turn the TDS meter on Step 3: Insert the meter into the water Step 4: Lightly stir the water to displace any air bubbles Step 5: Wait for the display to stabilize Step 6: Press the HOLD button to view the reading Step 7: Remove the meter and shake off excess water Step 8: Replace the cap ![Fig.5.20: Using a TDS meter](image) 5.2.2 Check valves An RO system has two types of valves – Auto-shut-off valve (ASV) and check valve (CV). If either of the two is defective then the RO system will not shut-off and the water will be running constantly. The following figure lists the steps involved in checking auto-shut-off valve and check valve: ![Fig.5.21: Steps to check valves of an RO system](image) 5.2.3 Clean and Sanitize RO System An RO system should be cleaned and sanitized at least once every year. The steps to sanitize an RO system are listed in the following figure: ![Sanitize RO System Steps](image) Fig. 5.22: Steps to sanitize an RO system 5.2.4 Changing Filters and Membrane It is recommended to change the filters/membrane of an RO system as per the following schedule: \| Filter \| Duration \| \|-------------------------\|-------------------\| \| Sediment filter \| Change after 6-12 month \| \| Carbon filter \| Change after 6-12 month \| \| Carbon post filter \| Change after 12 month \| \| Reverse osmosis filter \| Change after 24 month \| An RO system should be cleaned and sanitized at least once every year. The steps to sanitize an RO system are listed in the following figure: a) Changing filter The following figure lists the steps involved in changing the filter: ![Image](image) Fig.5.24: Steps of changing the filter b) Changing Membrane Membrane is one of the filtering stages of purification. All membranes are shipped loose. They should be installed prior to start-up. They are also shipped dry to better handle extreme temperatures during shipment and storage. - Monitoring of membrane Membrane can be monitored by checking the TDS (Total dissolved solid) level of purified water. TDS meter is used for checking the TDS level in the water. TDS level chart is shown in table... which represent the quality of water. Table 1 \| TDS level \| Water Hardness \| \|-----------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| 0-80 ppm \| Very soft (Ideal for drinking) \| \| 80-150 ppm \| Soft (might be used for drinking) \| \| 150-400 ppm \| Hard (use RO purifier) \| \| Above 400 ppm \| Very hard (use RO + UV purifier) \| Constant TDS level of water in the range 0-150 ppm is a good indication that RO water purifier is working properly. It is highly recommended to replace the membrane when the TDS level increase above 150ppm. For this reason, it is essential to monitor the TDS level of the purified water. The timing of membrane replacement depends on feed water quality and a number of other factors. Practical activity: Demonstrate to replace the damaged components – membrane, filter, valve, water tank. Replacement of membrane Following steps are used for the replacement of membrane in purifier: 1) To install membrane, unscrew the membrane housing by removing the blue clip as shown in fig. ![Image](image) Fig.5.25 2) Once the membrane housing is unscrewed, remove old membrane by pulling membrane upward using pliers if necessary as shown in fig. 3) Install the new membrane by inserting it downward into the housings, with the seal at the top end of the membrane. Be sure to push each membrane as far down into the housing as possible, as shown in fig. 4) Make sure the black ring on the membrane must be at top end of the membrane housing as shown in fig. 5) When installing membranes, orientation of black ring must be proper. Black ring do not fold over when inserting them into the membrane housings as shown in fig. 6) Now, again tighten the cap of the membrane housing using membrane wrench as shown in fig. The following figure explains the steps involved in changing the membrane: Replacement of filter Following steps are used for the replacement of filter in purifier: 1. Turn off the feed water line using the SS ball valve. 2. Turn the SS ball valve off by turning the lever in perpendicular to the SS ball valve body. 3. Release the excessive pressure using the pressure release valve. 4. Put the wrench to first filter housing, open the housing by rotating the wrench in clockwise direction. 5. Remove the filter from the housing and discard the filter if necessary. 6. Put the new filter into the housing. 7. Ceramic filter is used in stage one and carbon black filter in stage two and three. 8. Before closing the housing make sure that every housing has a black O ring. 9. Tighten the housing by tightening the housing in the counter-clockwise direction. Replacement of valve Following steps are used for the replacement of valve in purifier: 1. Turn off the main water supply. 2. Release the excessive pressure using the pressure release valve. 3. Cut the water supply pipe using pipe cutter over which the SS ball valve has to be placed. 4. SS ball valve has two ends having threads, one lever at the top to turn OFF or ON the supply. 5. Fit the SS ball valve at the appropriate place on the main water supply pipe. 6. Used thread tape for tightening the SS ball pipe. 7. After properly tighten the SS ball valve, turn the SS ball valve ON by turning the lever in parallel to the SS ball valve body. 8. Check for any leakage at the joint. Replacement of water tank Water tank must be replaced when there is not enough air pressure in the water tank. As there is compressed air between rubber bladder and steel housing. Following steps are used for the replacement of storage water tank in purifier: 1. Turn off the SS ball valve by turning the lever in the perpendicular position w.r.t to the SS ball valve body. 2. Release the excessive pressure using the pressure release valve. 3. Disconnect the storage tank pipe using pipe wrench which is connected to the filter unit. 4. Wait for the water to flow out through the pipe of water tank. 5. Replace the water tank, connect the replace water tank to the filter unit using pipe wrench. Practical activity: Discuss the steps for the maintenance of RO water purifier. 5.3 CONFIRM FUNCTIONALITY OF THE REPAIRED UNIT 5.3.1 Reassembling of components / module of the water purifier After detecting faulty component or module, these faulty components are replaced by new component or module. On completion of replacement of components / module reassembling of components / module is performed. Reassembling is the relocation of components /module at their respective place of same rating. Reassembling is a very critical task. All the components must be located at their respective place. Reassembling is performed via certain steps which are discussed in the practical activity. 5.3.2 Confirmation of functionality of the repaired module Once the purifier has been repaired, ensure that the unit is functioning properly with the repaired or replaced parts. The following figure lists the checks that should be performed after repairs are complete: 5.3.3 Take Feedback from Customer The last step of understanding customer’s concerns is to take feedback from the customer as this is the most important thing for an organization. The procedure as shown in the following figure should be followed. ![Diagram showing the process of taking customer feedback](image) Fig. 5.55: Procedure to be followed for taking customer feedback The time taken to resolve an issue and the difficulties that a customer encountered while communicating the problem should be understood. The misunderstandings observed during the interaction should be clearly documented. The methods of interaction and behavioral aspects also need to be considered in drawing conclusions after each task or problem handling routine. Getting honest feedback from the clients helps to improve the organizational functioning. The field technician can get a feedback form filled by the customer at the facility. The following figure shows a typical template for a customer feedback form: Customer Feedback Form Please fill the form. We value your feedback. Date: __________________________ Location: __________________________ Service: Complaint ☐ New Connection ☐ 1. How would you rate our service? ☐ Very Good ☐ Good ☐ Poor 2. Did the technician come with all the necessary tools and equipment to do the job? ☐ Yes ☐ No 3. Did the technician behave politely with you? ☐ Yes ☐ No 4. Did the wireman have knowledge of the work to be done? ☐ Yes ☐ No 5. Any suggestion which you would like to share. Fig. 5.56: A sample customer feedback form Practical activity: Demonstrate the steps for the reassembling the unit and start the water supply and confirm the functioning. RO+UV water purifier: Items in the assembly 1. Sediment filter 2. Pre carbon filter 3. Post carbon filter 4. Membrane housing 5. UV filter 6. Pump 7. Adapter 8. Water tank 9. Connecting pipe 10. Pipe Cutter Following steps are used for the reassembling of RO+UV water filter. 1. Connect the output wire of adapter to provide the supply to the pump. 2. Connect the sediment filter which is connected to the inlet of the water supply. 3. Next, connect the inlet of pre-carbon filter to the outlet of sediment filter. 4. Outlet of the pre-carbon is connected to the inlet of pump. 5. Now, outlet of pump is connected to the inlet of membrane housing. 6. As membrane housing has two outlets, one is connected to the reject pipe through which waste water gets drained out, other outlet of membrane housing through which mineral water pass to next stage, which is the post carbon filter. 7. Outlet of post-carbon is connected to the UV filtration. 8. UV filtration is the last stage of the filtration process. ![UV filter](image) Fig.5.64 9. Outlet of the UV filter is connected to the inlet of water storage tank. ![Storage tank](image) Fig.5.65 10. Connect the UV lamp power supply in the terminals of UV filter. 11. Now, start the water supply by turning the SS ball valve. ![SS ball valve](image) Fig.5.67 12. After turning ‘ON’ the water supply, feed water is enter into the sediment filter and from there on water pass through the different stage of filter as explained above. 13. Check for the proper functioning of different filtering stage, power supply, pump, UV lamp, SS ball valve etc. Practical activity: Demonstrate and confirm functionality of the unit, Following steps are implemented to check the functionality of the water purifier. 1. Check for any leakage in the water purifier unit. 2. Read and note down the reading in pressure gauge. 3. If the reading of pressure gauge found greater than average value of predefined pressure of feeded water, then regulate the pressure of water flow by using pressure regulator. 4. Check the TDS level of the purified water using the TDS meter. 5. If the TDS level is higher than the recommended value, adjusted the TDS level of the purifier. 6. Check for the power supply and pump. 7. Check for the proper working of sediment filter, pre-carbon post, carbon filter, membrane housing, UV filter etc. Practical activity: Demonstrate the cleaning procedures and other best practices. Following steps are used for the cleaning of the purifier unit: 1. Clean the purifier after reassembling the purifier unit. 2. Clean the different filter of purifier. 3. Check for proper functioning of drainage system. 4. Clean the floor where water purifier is installed. 5. Regularly check the filter and membrane. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q1. Choose the correct option from those given below: 1. Which of the following is not step of maintenance of RO Water Purifier? a) Check TDS of Water b) Check valves c) Clean and Sanitize RO System d) Draining of waste water 2. Which of following meter is used to measure the TDS level of the water? a) Multimeter b) Clamp meter c) TDS meter d) Purifier meter 3. Where is the compressed air present in water tank? a) Between rubber bladder and steel housing b) Between plastic housing and steel housing c) Between rubber bladder and plastic housing d) Between plastic bladder and plastic housing 4. Which form is filled by customer at the premises? a) Customer complaint form b) Customer suggestion form c) Customer acknowledgement form d) Customer service form 5. Which of the following is type of impurity? a) Minerals b) Salts c) Metals or ions d) All of the above 6. TDS greater than 500 ppm indicate the possibility of which of the following toxic ions: a) Lead b) Arsenic c) Cadmium d) All of the above 7. PPM stands for…….. a) Parts per meter b) Particle per million c) Particle per milli d) Parts per million Q2. Fill in the blanks with correct word 1. An RO system has two types of valves ………… and …………… 2. An RO system should be cleaned and sanitized at least once......... 3. The maximum contamination level advised for TDS is ........ mg /L. 4. These dissolved solids increase the ............. conductivity of water. 5. Rise in water pressure can be diagnose by releasing the extra pressure using.................. Q3. State whether the statement given below are true or false 1. Improper O-ring seating causes not enough water from tap. ( ) 2. Blocked post carbon filter causes bad taste or odor. ( ) 3. Incorrect air pressure in storage tank causes low pressure from water outlet tap. ( ) 4. Incorrectly sealed membrane causes high TDS in output water. ( ) 5. Leak in threaded end cap causes leaking membrane housing. ( ) 6. Dirty storage tank causes leaking filter housing. ( ) 7. Damaged or cracked fitting causes leaking fitting. ( ) 8. PPM stands for parts per million. ( ) 9. Water will be soft if the PPM level is 80-150 PPM. ( ) 10. Water will be very hard if the PPM level is above 400 PPM. ( ) Q4. Match the column \| PPM \| Level of Hardness \| \|--------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| 1. 0-80 ppm \| a) Hard (use RO purifier) \| \| 2. 80-150 ppm\| b) Very hard ( use RO + UV purifier) \| \| 3. 150-400 ppm\| c) Very soft (Ideal for drinking) \| \| 4. Above 400 ppm\| d) Soft (might be used for drinking) \| Q5. Short answer type question: 1. Write down the steps for maintaining the water pressure as per company standards. 2. Write down the steps for the replacement of valve. 3. Write down the steps for the replacement of filter. 4. What are the steps for checking the TDS level of the water? 5. Discuss the steps for reassembling the water purifier unit. Chapter 6 MAINTAIN HEALTH AND SAFETY 6.0 INTRODUCTION Workplace hazardous system designed to protect the health and safety of workers. Information must be provided about the safe handling, use, storage, and disposal of hazardous. Workplace hazard is something that can have potential to harm the technician. There are hazards in every type of job and every type of workplace. Everyone at the workplace share the responsibility to identify and control hazards. Technician must first recognized workplace hazard at the workplace. When technician install or assemble the components, she/he may have to face hazards which are related to workplace. These hazards are associated with the installation and assembly process of water purifier. Technician should be aware of the hazards associated with installation of water purifier. Many of the hazards can be avoided by being aware and taking appropriate precautions. 6.1 HAZARDS RELATED TO WATER PURIFIER INSTALLATION Following points shows the hazards associated with the water purifier installation: - Accident Hazards - Physical Hazards - Psychological, psychosocial and Organizational factors - Chemical Hazards \| Accident hazards \| Falls, slips, and trips on the level on floors made wet and slippery during the handling of water. \| \|------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Falls from ladder due to mounting the water purifier at height. \| \| \| Electric shock caused by contact with “live” wires or defective electrical installations (the danger is especially high because the work is done in a wet and humid environment). \| \| \| Exposure to hazardous substances due to the sudden release of toxic materials as a result of an accident or human error. \| \| Physical Hazards \| Fire hazard due to contact of a very strong oxidizer (disinfectant) with a flammable substance, as a result of improper storage of chemicals, human error. \| \|-----------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| When drilling from a ladder, do not try to overreach, this can cause the ladder to slide or tip. Never stand on the top step of a stepladder. Stand at least two steps down from the top. \| \| \| Exposure to high noise levels, from electro-mechanical equipment and a noisy environment. \| \| \| Exposure to adverse weather conditions, risk of catching a cold as a result of working in windy weather, at low temperatures and while raining; or as a result of over-sweating in the summer; and suffering heat and/or cold strokes. \| \| \| Exposure to UV radiation during water disinfection may damage eyes and skin. \| \| Psychological, psychosocial and Organizational factors \| Musculoskeletal injuries caused by awkward working postures during the cleaning/inspection of the pipe system and/or of the installation. \| \| Overexertion while moving or handling heavy and bulky equipment or big packages of chemicals may affect various systems of the body. \| \| Psychological stress and pressure due to environmental factors: annoying noise, water splashing, odors, high humidity, etc. \| \| Psychosocial problems due to increased workload, requirements of improving work output, constant need of high skill levels etc. \| Chemical Hazards - If chemical are improperly stored causing a chemical leak. - If technician not taking any safety measure. These chemical may cause damage. - Mishandling of chemicals due to inadequate training or negligence. - Diseases and environmental illnesses that can be caused by exposure to toxic substances in the workplace. - After a person has been exposed to chemical hazards in the workplace, Some of the symptoms of exposure to toxins can include: - Chemical burns - Itchy burning eyes 6.2 POSSIBLE ERRORS DURING CLEANING THE FILTERS Following points defines the error in cleaning the filters: 1. Cap of the filter housing is not properly tightened. 2. O-ring is not present in the filter housing, this will result in leakage. 3. While replacing the membrane, it should be correctly inserted in the filter housing. 4. While reassembling the filter unit, filter sequence is not followed properly i.e. sediment filter, pre-carbon filter, post-carbon filter, membrane are not connected in proper sequence. 6.3 ELECTRICAL HAZARD An electrical hazard defines a dangerous condition. This dangerous condition related to energized equipment or a conductor at workplace. If technician comes in contact with these energized equipment, these equipment may injured the technician. There is a possibility of getting the shock or receive an arc flash burn, thermal burn, or blast injury. When assembling the components in a unit. Many of the hazards can be avoided by being aware and taking appropriate precautions. This will ensure safety at workplace. Points which may result to electrical hazard are as follows: - Exposure to high electromagnetic fields. - Electrical fires due to improper and out-dated wiring and faulty outlets. - Electric shock due to improper grounding or earthing of electrical equipment. - Defective or inadequate insulation on electrical cables. To avoid electrical hazards, follow the precautions such as: - Ensure the power tools to be used in the assembly process include extension cord of proper rating. - Do not use damaged electric tools. - Inspect and test the installed electrical equipment and system at a regular interval. - Check the rating and physical condition of the components and cables. - Use the standard techniques for assembling the components. - Use protective equipment for safety purpose. 6.4 ELECTRICAL RESCUE TECHNIQUES 6.4.1 Approaching the accident place - Never rush into an accident situation. - Call 108 as soon as possible. - Get the aid of trained electrical personnel if possible. - Cautiously approach the accidental place. 6.4.2 Examining the accident place - Visually examine victims to determine if they are in contact with energized conductors. - Metal surfaces, objects near the victim or the earth itself may be energized. - Do not touch the victim or conductive surfaces while they are energized. Else you may become a victim if you touch an energized victim or conductive surface. - De-energize electrical circuits if at all possible. 6.4.3 Methods to de-energize - An extension or power cord probably powers portable electrical equipment. Unplug portable electrical equipment to remove power. • De-energize fixed electrical equipment by using circuit breaker or by disconnecting the device. 6.4.4 Hazards and solutions Following points illustrate the cause of hazards: • Be alert for hazards such as stored energy, heated surfaces and fire. • Technician or person must be more cautious, if the power source cannot be de-energized. • Ensure that hands and feet are dry. • Wear protective equipment such as protective gloves, rubber shoes etc. • Stand on a clean dry surface. • Use Insulating material to remove a victim from the conductor. 6.4.5 High voltage rescue • Working with high voltage requires special training for rescue. • Protective equipment such as high voltage gloves and overshoes must be used. • Highly insulated tools should be used. 6.4.6 Insulated tools - Insulated tools are lifesaver. - These tools must have high voltage rating. - Use wooden stick to remove a victim from energized conductors. - In some cases, nonconductive rope or cord may be used to remove a victim from a conductor. 6.4.7 Rescuing the victim - Stand on a dry rubber mat or other insulating material if possible. - Do not touch the victim or conductive material near the victim until the power is off. - Once power is off, examine the victim to determine if they should be moved. Give “First Aid.” 6.4.8 First Aid - A victim may require Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) or artificial respiration. - If the victim is breathing and has a heartbeat, give first aid for injuries and treat for shock. - Ensure the victim gets medical care as soon as possible. - Provide medical personnel with information on voltage level, shock duration & entry/exit points. The treating/attending physician must have detailed specific information to properly diagnose and care for the victim. 6.5 HAZARD DUE THE TOOLS The following list of tools does not include all the tools. When introducing any tool, technician should follow the points to using tools and equipment safely. 6.5.1 Hand drill A hand drill is a small hand-operated drill. It is used to bore holes in materials. Handle operates a gear mechanism that turns a drill bit. Hand drills are safe enough for technician to use if the follow safety procedures. \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hair and clothing can become caught in the drill \| Don’t wear loose dress and cover hairs while drilling \| \| Dust and particles can enter eyes while drilling \| If there is a risk of dust or particles getting into eyes, technician should wear safety glasses or goggles. \| \| Work can injure hands if it catches in the drill and spin \| Always secure the material to be drilled to the workbench using clamps or a vice. Place scrap wood underneath the material so the drill can pass through without damaging the work surface. \| \| The drill bit can snap due to excessive force \| Warn students not to force the drill bit. They should drill at a speed suited to the materials and the size of the drill. Smaller drills can be rotated at a faster speed. The drill bit should be sharp. \| \| The drill bit and work being drilled will become hot \| Allow time for the drill bit to cool between uses. \| 6.5.2 Tap and dies Taps and dies are used to create a thread in metals. ![Tap and Dies](image) Fig. 6.12 \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Punching out a broken tap can cause fragments to be propelled into eyes. \| Students must wear safety goggles or a face shield when punching out a broken tap. \| \| Sharp threads and metal fragments can cut hands. \| Students should avoid handling fragments and cut the thread slowly. \| ### 6.5.3 Pliers Pliers come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each with a different function. Their main purpose is to bend, hold or curve metal. They are also used to hold materials or components while soldering or hammering and as a heat sink in electronics. Combination pliers have jaws for gripping and cutting a section. They are suitable for primary students to use. ![Pliers](image) Fig.6.13 \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| The main hazard is pieces of wire shooting off when cut. \| Students should wear safety glasses, if the processes used could cause small pieces to be propelled into eyes. \| ### 6.5.4 Screwdrivers A screwdriver is used to tighten and loosen screws. There are two types – slotted head and Phillips head. Slotted head screwdrivers have a flat-edge blade that fits into the slot on a screw. Phillips head screwdrivers fit into the cross-shaped screw heads. Choice of screwdriver will depend on the screw. \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Screwdrivers can be hazardous, if used for the wrong purpose. \| Do not use a screwdriver as a cold chisel, punch or to open joints. \| \| The point of a screwdriver can cause an injury if carried incorrectly.\| Students should carry screwdrivers with the point facing down. \| \| Screwdrivers can break suddenly if used with force. \| Do not use excessive force to turn a screw. \| \| Screwdrivers can slip if used incorrectly. \| When choosing a screwdriver, ensure the tip edges fit neatly in the screw slot. Soap can be used to help the screw enter materials more easily. Students should keep their free hand away from the blade. \| \| The metal of the screwdriver can conduct electricity, causing an electric shock if it contacts a live surface. \| Insulated screwdrivers should be used in electronic activities. \| 6.5.5 Spanners and wrenches Spanners and wrenches are designed to turn different types of nuts and bolts. Spanner generally refers to a tool that turns nuts and bolts, while wrench refers to a tool that grips cylindrical work. Ensure that students know how to choose suitable spanner for their task. 6.5.6 Hammers A variety of hammers are used in technology. Some are used with metal (ball peen), others with wood (claw). Hammers pose a number of hazards. Ensure that technicians use hammers suitable for their job. \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Loose heads can fly off while in use. \| Warn students never to use a hammer with a loose head and not to hit \| \| \| hammer faces together. They should check hammers before using them. \| \| The item being hammered can chip and pieces fly off. Nails can fly \| Students should wear safety glasses when using hammers. \| \| out of \| \| Fig. 6.16 materials when using a claw hammer to remove them. Hammers can fall if not used or carried properly. Hands can be injured if near the point of impact of the hammer. Hammers pose a noise hazard when striking tools or materials. \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hammers can fall if not used or carried properly. \| Hold the hammer tightly by its handle \| \| Hands can be injured if near the point of impact of the hammer. \| Technician should properly hold materials to avoid injury. Secure work with a clamp or vice hold the object with pliers. \| \| Hammers pose a noise hazard when striking tools or materials. \| Use ear protection wear to protect the ears. \| 6.5.7 Soldering irons A soldering iron has a pointed copper head attached to a steel rod with a wooden handle. It is used for soft soldering, a technique where soft solder is heated and used to join metals. Note: Lead-free solder can be used with electric soldering irons. Fig. 6.17 \| Hazard \| Precaution \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Heated soldering iron can cause burns or damage work surfaces. \| Technician should position hot soldering irons on a heatproof surface. \| \| Fluxes and solders can be hazardous. Solder and flux fumes may contain lead or other substances harmful if inhaled. \| Soldering irons must be used in a well-ventilated area. Technician should avoid skin contact with solders and fluxes and wash hands after use. Cotton gloves can be used. \| \| Solder fumes can affect eyes. \| Students should wear safety glasses when using soldering irons. \| Practical activity: List the safety precautions to be observed while installing, repair and maintenance. Practical activity: List the safety rules, policies and procedures. Practical activity: Demonstrate the packaging waste and its disposal Following points represents the packaging waste and its disposal: 1. During unpacking of water purifier, the box of purifier must be disposed in the dustbin. ![Fig.6.18](image) 2. During the unpacking of filters, box of purifier must be dispose in the dustbin. ![Fig.6.19](image) 3. While installing the filter, small pieces of the particles coming out from filter. These may get scattered on the floor. They must be properly cleaned otherwise they may damage the skin of the customer and technician. ![Fig.6.20](image) 4. Water which is been drained out of the purifier can be utilized. 5. Drained water can be utilized for gardening, floor cleaning, for washing clothes etc. Practical activity: List the hazards during repairs. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q1. Choose the correct option from those given below 1. Which of the following tools is used for making threads? a) Tap and dies b) Screwdriver c) Hammer d) Drill machine 2. Which of the following tools is used for making holes on the wooden and wall? a) Screwdriver b) Drill machine c) Plier d) Wrench 3. Which of the following tools is used for cutting bending of wire? a) Screwdriver b) Soldering iron c) Plier d) Wrench 4. Which of the following tools is adjustable tool for unscrew the sanitary pipe? a) Screwdriver b) Soldering iron c) Wrench d) Plier 5. Which of the following tools is used to turn different types of nuts and bolts? a) Hammer b) Soldering iron c) Plier d) Spanner 6. Which hand tool is used to convert the metal into thin sheet (malleable)? a) Screw driver b) Hammer c) Wrench d) Spanner 7. Which hand tool is used to connect the two metal wires? a) Hammer b) Soldering iron c) Wrench d) Spanner 8. Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation is a .... a) Natural respiration b) Artificial respiration c) Study of respiratory system d) Study of heart 9. ......................... pliers have jaws for gripping and cutting a section. a) Combination plier b) Wrench c) Solder iron d) Screwdriver 10. Handle of a tool must be made up of ............ material. a) Conductor b) Insulator c) Semiconductor d) All of the above Q2. Fill in the blanks with correct word 1. While working on electricity, the technician must wear …… gloves and shoes. 2. Keep stretching your arms, legs, neck and back while working to ensure that they are not …… 3. The unconsciousness due to electric shock may cause damage to his/her……. 4. In case of electric shock, a child or infant should give a pressure of ……… 5. Exhale the breath from your mouth into the nose of person slowly so that air enters his…….. 6. One of the causes of electric shock may be to improper ……….. of electrical equipment. 7. Defective or inadequate insulation may result ……………. 8. Faulty current can be transfer to ground using ….. Q3. State whether the statement given below are true or false 1. Circuit breaker is used to protect the circuit from faulty and large current flowing through an appliance. 2. Fire extinguishers for use on electrical fires will have a C, BC or ABC on the label. 3. Artificial Respiration is Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. 4. Fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish a fire. 5. Common injuries that can be caused due to lifting heavy loads include back ache, neck strain, wrist sprain, back sprain, shoulder pain. 6. The aim of first-aid treatment is to cool down the affected area rapidly to minimize damage and loss of body fluids, and therefore reduce the risk of developing shock. 7. Rubber is a good conductor of electricity. 8. Fire extinguisher is used in case of an earthquake. 9. 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The fall hawk migration is one of the great wonders of the natural world, and we’re fortunate to have one of New England’s premier locations for watching this spectacle right here in our backyard: the Pack Monadnock Raptor Observatory, celebrating more than a decade of hawk migration data collection near the summit of Pack Monadnock in Miller State Park in Peterborough. The Observatory not only provides valuable, long-term data on migrating raptors, but it also reaches thousands of people annually as the Monadnock Region’s most vibrant outdoor classroom. We welcome you during the fall migration season (September 1 to November 15), when Harris Center biologists and volunteers staff the observatory daily to count raptors and talk to visitors about the project. You’re also invited to join us for special events, including our annual Raptor Release Day, when we return a rehabilitated bird of prey to the wild. Why Study Raptors? Raptors are particularly good indicators of environmental health because they inhabit most ecosystem types, occupy large home ranges, feed at the top of the food web, and are highly sensitive to chemical contamination and other human disturbance. Spring and fall are ideal times to collect data on raptors because they congregate during migration along coastlines, prominent mountain ridges, and river valleys, making it easy to tally them. Conducting standardized long-term counts of migrating raptors can provide important information on their migration patterns and behaviors, as well as changes to their populations. What Are Migratory Raptors? Diurnal (or day-active) raptors are sometimes referred to simply as “hawks.” However, in addition to hawks, this group also includes eagles, falcons, ospreys, vultures, kites, and harriers. Of the 32 raptor species that occur in North America, at least 20 are migratory – moving seasonally in search of food. We regularly observe up to 15 of these species at the Pack Monadnock Raptor Observatory. The Raptors of Pack Monadnock Merlin photo: Andre Moraes @avendodigital Why Pack Monadnock? Many raptors migrate long distances to their wintering grounds in South and Central America. In order to conserve energy for the journey, they soar on updrafts created by favorable winds and thermals produced by heat rising from the landscape below. (With the wind at their backs, many raptors can travel distances of 250-300 miles in a single day!) It is this combination of geography and weather patterns that brings raptors to Pack Monadnock. Because of its high elevation, location along a north-south ridgeline, and prominent views to the north and west, Pack Monadnock has long been known as an excellent vantage point for observing raptor migration. The formal Observatory was founded by Iain MacLeod and NH Audubon in 2005, and has been staffed each fall since then. What Have We Learned? Accurate knowledge of population status and trends is fundamental to wildlife conservation, but reliable information is lacking for many raptor species. Counts of migrating raptors may be the key to filling these gaps. The Pack Monadnock Raptor Observatory’s long-term data set provides vital information on migratory raptors, as well as other bird species and even monarch butterflies and dragonflies. On average, more than 11,000 raptors are tallied from Pack each fall. The vast majority of these are Broad-winged Hawks, which migrate in large groups known as “kettles” during mid- and late September. Our data have demonstrated healthy rebounds in Bald Eagle and Peregrine Falcon populations, which were once in decline due to the use of DDT. We have also recorded population declines in the American Kestrel and the Northern Harrier, signaling the need for local and regional conservation actions on behalf of these species. Follow the Migration on HawkCount! During the migration season, detailed daily reports are posted on hawkcount.org, an online database managed by the Hawk Migration Association of North America (HMANA). You Can Help The Observatory relies on donations from individuals and community partners, as well as the support of many volunteers who help with everything from tallying raptors to teaching visiting school groups. To volunteer or donate to the Pack Monadnock Observatory, visit harriscenter.org. Visiting the Pack Monadnock Raptor Observatory Dates The Observatory is staffed every day from September 1 through mid-November. Peak hawk migration runs from mid-September through mid-October, but raptors move through early and late in the season, as well. Location The Observatory is located at Miller State Park, near the summit of Pack Monadnock Mountain in Peterborough, NH. Reservations The Observatory operates in partnership with NH State Parks and the Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. It’s open to the public, but reservations are required for large groups. If you’d like to bring a group to the Observatory, please contact Miller State Park in advance at (603) 924-3672. A Kettle of Broad-winged Hawks photo: © Lillian Stokes Fall Migration Patterns September 1 October November 20 Turkey Vulture Osprey Bald Eagle Northern Harrier Sharp-shinned Hawk Cooper’s Hawk Northern Goshawk Red-shouldered Hawk Broad-winged Hawk Red-tailed Hawk Golden Eagle American Kestrel Merlin Peregrine Falcon Migratory flyway for Broad-winged Hawks heading past the Pack Monadnock Observatory to wintering grounds in South America. map illustration and chart: Dyanna Smith, NH Audubon	6c434ce5-fcca-4300-9705-302281878df1	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.nhaudubon.org/wp-content/uploads/HC-NHA_PackMonadnockObservatoryBrochure_2018_web.pdf	2024-04-18T00:15:39+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817184.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20240417235906-20240418025906-00789.warc.gz	846,686,500	1,151	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.996378	eng_Latn	0.996345	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1986, 5519 ]	[ 3.015625 ]	2	1
Yoga Student Handbook Class XI Acknowledgements Central Board of Secondary Education would like to express their gratitude to all the individuals and organizations who have contributed in the preparation of this trainee manual. Special thanks are extended to the persons who collaborated in the preparation of the different modules. Sincere appreciation is also extended to all who have provided subject matter and review for the individual modules. The preparation of this manual would not have been possible without the support of the Beauty and Wellness Industry. The Industry feedback has been extremely encouraging from inception to conclusion & it is with their inputs that we have tried to bridge the skill gaps existing today in the industry. We would especially like to thank in random order, Bapu Nature Cure & Naturopathy, Art of Living, S-VYASA, Talwalkar's and Zorba who have reviewed and given input for this trainee manual. This participant manual is dedicated to all the aspiring youth who desire to achieve special skills which would be a lifelong asset for their future endeavours and help them make a bright career in the Beauty and Wellness Sector. Special thanks to Mr. Gautam Sinha and Inspiredge India for helping with content creation. Also a special mention of Mr. Sarvesh Shashi, Mr. Om Prakash Kuriyal, Ms. Vidhu & Ms. Aananya Sharma for agreeing to be part of the photo shoot done for content creation. The beauty and wellness industry in India is growing at a CAGR of 18.6% and is likely to reach the 100,000 crore mark soon. The sector is thriving on the increasing section of the affluent and middle-class population that has started considering beauty and wellness as a necessity. Increased emphasis on holistic wellbeing with people's desire to look good and young are other motivators for the beauty and wellness industry. Employment in Beauty Sector was estimated to grow at a CAGR of 20%, with 23% in organised and 15% in unorganised segments with a shortage of over 600,000 skilled personnel by the end of 2016. With a shift in focus towards the quality of service, the industry has been looking to hire a skilled workforce to sustain growth. This Yoga Student Handbook - XI is designed to enable theoretical and practical training to become a Yoga Instructor. The Qualification Pack of a Yoga Instructor includes the following National Occupational Standards which have all been covered in this Trainee Manual: 1. Prepare and maintain work area. 2. Conduct the basic yoga sessions. 3. Maintain health and safety at the workplace. 4. Create a positive impression at the workplace. This Yoga Student Handbook - XI is designed considering the minimum education qualification of Yoga Instructor to be preferably Class VIII pass. The key learning objectives and the skills gained by the participant are defined in their respective units. We would like to thank Ms. Vandana Luthra, Chairman of Beauty and Wellness Sector Skills Council for her constant guidance and support. We would also like to acknowledge the efforts put in by the BWSSC team, master trainers, consultants and our Industry Partners who give their valuable inputs in making this Participant Handbook. We hope that this Yoga Student Handbook - XI will be able to provide a sound learning support to our friends to aspire to build their career in the beauty and wellness industry. # Table of Contents ## Modules and Units \| Unit 1: Introduction to Yoga and Yogic Practices \| Page No \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|---------\| \| 1. Yoga: Etymology, definitions, aim, objectives and misconceptions \| \| \| 2. Yoga: Its Origin, history and development \| \| \| 3. Rules and regulations to be followed by Yoga Practitioners \| \| \| 4. Introduction to major schools of Yoga (Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Patanjali, Hatha) \| \| \| 5. Introduction to Yoga practices \| \| \| 6. Shatkarma: meaning, purpose and their significance in Yoga Sadhana \| \| \| 7. Introduction to Yogic Sukshma Vyayama, Sthula Vyayama and Surya Namaskar \| \| \| Unit 2: Introduction to yoga Texts \| Page No \| \|-----------------------------------\|---------\| \| 1. Introduction and study of Patanjala Yoga Sutra including memorization of selected Sutras (P.Y.S. 1/2,14,2/1,27,29, 46,47,49) \| \| \| 2. Introduction and study of Bhagavad Gita including memorization of selected Slokas (B.G. 2/47,48,50 3/13) \| \| \| 3. Concept of Aahara (Diet) according to Yogic texts \| \| \| 4. Significance of Hath Yoga practices in Health promotion \| \| \| 5. Concept of mental well being according to Patanjali Yoga \| \| \| 6. Yogic practices of Patanjali Yoga: Bahiranga and Antaranga Yoga \| \| \| 7. Concept of healthy living in Bhagwad Gita \| \| \| 8. Importance of subjective experience indaily Yoga Practice \| \| \| Unit 3: Yoga for Health Promotion \| Page No \| \|-----------------------------------\|---------\| \| 1. Brief introduction to Human Body \| \| \| 2. Role of Yoga for health promotion \| \| \| 3. Yogic attitudes and practices \| \| \| 4. Introduction to Yogic Diet and its relevance and importance in Yoga Sdhana \| \| \| 5. Dincharya and Ritucharya with respect to yogic life style \| \| \| 6. Holistic approach of Yoga towards Health and Diseases \| \| \| 7. Introduction to First aid and CPR \| \| \| 8. Yogic management of stress and its consequences \| \| \| 9. Yoga in prevention of common disease \| \| \| 10. Yoga and Personality development \| \| PRACTICAL I. To introduce Yogic postures and Practices. II. To introduce the practices of Shatkarmas, Surya namashkara, Asanas, Breathing Practices and Pranayama Practice of the following Yogic practices with brief theoretical knowledge about their importance of name, technique, salient points, precautions to be taken and advantages of each of the following Yogic practices, e.g Shatkarma, Yogic Sukshma Vyayama & Sthula Vyayama, Surya Namaskara, Yogasanas, Pranayama, Bandhas, Mudras and Practices leading to Dhyana. A. Demonstration Skills a) Prayer: Concept and Recitation of Pranava and Concept and Recitation of Hymns b) Yoga Cleansing Techniques - Knowledge of Dhauti, Neti and Kapalbhati c) Yogic Sukshma Vyayama and Sthula Vyayama I. Yogic Sukshma Vyayama - Griva Shakti Vikasaka I & II - Bhuja Valli Shakti Vikasaka - Purna Bhuja Shakti Vikasaka - Vaksha Sthala Shakti Vikasaka I & II - Kati Shakti Vikasaka I, II, IV & V - Jangha Shakti Vikasaka I & II - Pindali Shakti Vikasaka II. Yogic Sthula Vyayama - Sarvanga Pushti - Hrid Gati (Engine Daud) d) Yogic Surya Namaskara e) Yogasana - Tadasana, Vrikshasana, Ardha Chakrasana, Padahastasana, Kati Chakrasana - Dandasana, Bhadrasana, Padmasana, Vajarasana, - Mandukasana, Ushtrasana, Shashankasana, Uttana Mandukasana, Kagasana - Paschimottanasana, Purvottanasana Vakrasana, Gomukhasana Bhujangasana, Shalabhasana, Makarasana Pavanamuktasana, Uttanapadasana, Ardha Halasana, Setubandhasana Vipareetkaraniasana, Saralmatsyasana, Shavasana, f) Preparatory Breathing Practices and Pranayama I. Preparatory Breathing Practices - Sectional Breathing (Abdominal, Thoracic and Clavicular) - Yogic Deep Breathing - Anulmoa Viloma/Nadi Shodhana II. Pranayama - Concept of Puraka, Rechaka and Kumbhaka - Shitali (Without Kumbhaka) - Bhramari (Without Kumbhaka) g) Understanding of Bandha and Mudra I. Bandha - Jalandhara Bandha - Uddiyana Bandha II. Mudra - Hasta Mudras - Kaya Mudras h) Practices leading to Meditation and Dhyana Sadhana - Recitation of Pranava Mantra - Recitation of Hymns in vocations and prayers - Breath Meditation - Om Dhyana A. Field Training (Methods of Teaching Yoga) - Essentials of Good Lesson Plan: concepts, needs, planning of teaching Yoga (Shatkriya, Asana, Mudra, Pranayama & Meditation) - Practice of Yoga at different levels (Beginners, Advanced, School Children, Youth, Women and Special attention group) - Class management in Yoga: its meaning and need 1. Introduction to Yoga and Yogic Practices - Yoga: Etymology, definitions, aim, objectives and misconceptions - Yoga: Its Origin, history and development - Rules and regulations to be followed by Yoga Practitioners - Introduction to major schools of Yoga (Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Patanjali, Hatha) - Introduction to Yoga practices - Shatkarma: meaning, purpose and their significance in Yoga Sadhana - Introduction to Yogic Sukshma Vyayama, Sthula Vyayama and Surya Namaskar - Introduction to Yogasana: meaning, principles, and their health benefits - Introduction to Pranayama and Dhyana and their health benefits - Identify career opportunities in Yoga UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO YOGA AND YOGIC PRACTICES Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Explain the meaning of Yoga 2. Describe why Yoga is so relevant in today’s fast-paced world 3. Explain different definitions of Yoga 4. Describe different streams of Yoga 5. Explain eight limbs of ‘Ashtanga Yoga’ 6. Explain major benefits of doing Yoga 7. Describe the significance of ‘International Yoga Day’ What is Yoga? The word Yoga is derived from Sanskrit word ‘Yog’, which means ‘Jod’ in Hindi or ‘Joining’ in English. This is joining of ‘Jivatam’ (Human) with ‘Parmatma’ (God). Through the practice of Yoga, one can have Self-realisation and achieve God. ‘Yog’ word became Yoga in English. For a simple person, Yoga is another form of physical exercise. By doing physical exercises, one can develop only body muscles. But through Yoga, one achieves the conditioning of even all the internal organs like - heart, brain, spleen, liver, lungs, intestines, etc. Apart from these vital organs, through Yoga all the glands, like - thyroid, pituitary and pineal gland of the brain, function better. Fig. Yoga Pose Yoga Yoga is practical aid, not a religion. Yoga is an ancient art based on a harmonizing system for development of the body, mind, and spirit. The regular practice of yoga will not only lead you to a sense of peace and well-being, but will also give you a feeling of being at one with the nature. In the present time, more and more people, especially the Westerners, are resorting to Yoga to find a cure for chronic health problems and attain a peace of mind. They are also curious about knowing what exactly is Yoga and what all are included in it. Although many of us are well aware of the health benefits of Yoga, not everyone knows about the origin and exact definition of Yoga. It is a popular belief that Yoga merely includes stretching and warm up exercises. Fig. Dhyan Mudra in Yoga Originated in ancient India, Yoga typically means 'union' between the mind, body, and spirit. It involves the practice of physical postures and poses, which is also referred to as 'asana' in Sanskrit. As the name suggests, the ultimate aim of practising Yoga is to create a balance between the body and the mind and to attain self-enlightenment. To accomplish it, Yoga makes use of different movements, breathing exercises, relaxation technique, and meditation. Yoga is associated with a healthy and lively lifestyle with a balanced approach. The oldest physical discipline in existence known to humanity, the Yoga brings stability to the body and the wavering mind. It increases the lubrication of joints, ligaments, and tendons of the body. Studies in the field of medicine suggest that Yoga is the only form of physical activity that provides complete conditioning to the body because it massages all the internal organs and glands. It reduces the risk of many diseases. Yoga can create a permanently positive difference to the lifestyle of anybody practicing it on a regular basis. Yoga is a perfect way to ensure overall health and physical fitness. Through meditation, breathing exercises (called pranayams); you can banish all your stress and lead a healthy life. In fact, it is one of the best remedies known to humankind, for curing chronic ailments that are otherwise difficult to be cured by other medications. People suffering from backaches and arthritis are often suggested to do asanas that concentrate on the exercise of the muscles at the strategic locations. Pranayamas are the best breathing exercises to increase the capacity of lungs. The amazing thing about Yoga is that its positive effects on the health and mind are visible over time. Another specialty about Yoga is its wide choice of asanas. Depending upon the stamina and overall health, you can choose from the mild pranayamas and asanas to high-intensity asanas. It is a medication without the actual use of medicines. Moreover, no visible side effects are associated with the practice of Yoga on a regular basis. All you need to know is the most appropriate asanas according to the ability and structure of your body. Also, you need to know the right way of performing the asanas, because any wrong attempt can cause sprains and injuries. Conscious connection to something allows us to feel and experience that thing, person, or experience. The experience of connection is a state of yoga, a joyful and blissful, fulfilling experience. There is no single definition of yoga. To experience truth through yoga, we must study its classical definitions and reflect on our understanding of it. If we wish to connect to the intuitive, creative part of us and realize the eternal Self, we need to consider what yoga really is. Each definition of yoga reveals a part of the ocean of knowledge and experience that forms the yogic path. ![Bhujangasana](image) Fig. Bhujangasana in Yoga YOGA : ITS ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Explain the roots of Yoga in India 2. Describe the history & evolution of Yoga 3. Describe the journey of Yoga from India to the World 4. Explain the contribution of Yoga Gurus in spreading Yoga to the World The land of Yoga The science of Yoga has its origin thousands of years ago, long before the first religion or belief systems were born. According to Yogic lore, Shiva is seen as the first yogi or ādiyogi and the first guru or ādiguru. Several thousand years ago, on the banks of Lake Kanisarovar in the Himalayas, ādiyogi poured his profound knowledge into the legendary saptarishis or "seven sages". These sages carried this powerful Yogic science to different parts of the world including Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa and South America. Interestingly, modern scholars have noted and marvelled at the close parallels found between ancient cultures across the globe. However, it was in India that the Yogic system found its fullest expression. Agastya, the saptarishi who travelled across the Indian subcontinent, crafted this culture around a core Yogic way of life. ![Fig. India - Land of Yoga](image) Yoga is widely considered as an "immortal cultural outcome" of the Indus-Saraswai Valley Civilization dating back to 2700 BC – and has proven itself to cater to both material and spiritual uplift of humanity. A number of seals and fossil remains of Indus-Saraswai Valley Civilization with Yogic motifs and figures performing Yoga sādhana suggest the presence of Yoga in ancient India. The seals and idols of Mother Goddess are suggestive of Tantra Yoga. The presence of Yoga is also available in folk traditions, Vedic and Upanishadic heritage, Buddhist and Jain traditions, Darshanas, Ramayana, epics of Mahabharata including Bhagawad Gita and theistic traditions of Shaivas, Vaishnavas and Tantric traditions. Though Yoga was being practiced in the pre-Vedic period, the great sage Maharishi Patanjali systematised and codified the then existing Yogic practices, its meaning, and its related knowledge through Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. After Patanjali, many sages and Yoga masters contributed greatly to the preservation and development of the field through well-documented practices and literature. Yoga has spread to all over the world by the teachings of eminent Yoga masters from ancient times to the present date. Today, everybody has conviction about Yoga practices towards the prevention of disease, maintenance, and promotion of health. Millions and millions of people across the globe have benefited from Yoga, and the practice of Yoga is blossoming and growing more vibrant with each passing day. History and Evolution of Yoga There are many theories associated with Yoga. It is mentioned in Rig Veda, and its evidence was found in the oldest civilization of Indus-Saraswati, which is considered to be more than 5000 years old (3000 B.C.), it means Yoga is older than 5000 years. It was invented by ‘Rishi Munis’ for doing meditation, but apart from that, it has a very good effect on the body. During the journey of more than 5000 years, Yoga evolved in many forms. As explained earlier, mainly it has following four paths – - Janan Yoga - Bhakti Yoga - Karma Yoga - Raj Yoga After Veda Period, the great ‘Maharishi Patanjali’ created systems in Yoga. He created text which was named as ‘Patanjali Yog Sutras’. Although many other Sages or ‘Rishis’ contributed in the development of Yoga, but the effect of ‘Maharishi Patanjali’ is greatest. Due to that evolution of Yoga is divided into the following periods – 1. Pre-Patanjali Period (Before 500 BC) 2. Patanjali Period (500 BC to 800 AD) 3. Post Patanjali Period (800 AD onwards) 1- Pre-Patanjali Period (Before 500 BC) - It is also called as Veda Era since all Veda and Upanishads were written during this period. Veda - These are the text which contains hymns, philosophy, and guidance for life. These are written in Sanskrit, which is considered to be the mother of all languages. The writer of Vedas are unknown, and it is considered to be the oldest written documents by a human. There are four Vedas - 1- Rigveda 2- Yajurveda 3- Atharvavda 4- Samveda Upanishads - Meaning of Upanishads is ‘Sitting down on feet’ which means getting ‘shiksha’ or education. These are the essence of Vedas. There are more than 200 Upanishads available. ![Fig. 1.2.3. 'Pandulipi' of Veda](image) 2- Patanjali Period (500 BC to 800 AD) - Maharishi Patanjali compiled all Yoga in a book called ‘Yog sutras’. This book has total 196 sutras or formula. The Book has four segments, called - Samadhi Pada, Sadhana Pada, Vibhuti Pada, Kaivalya Pada. Samadhi Pada - In this segment Patanjali explains about Samadhi. Sadhana Pada - In this segment he explains about meditation. Vibhuti Pada - In this segment Patanjali explains about yoga. Kaivalya Pada - In this segment Patanjali explains the connection of yoga with Body, mind, and soul. There are many exercises explained in this segment which can unite all of these. 3- Post-Patanjali Period (800 AD onwards) - Period after Patanjali Period, which covers current period also, is called Post-Patanjali period. After Patanjali, there were many Yogis and Sants, who developed Yoga. With their own personal style, they created a new form of Yoga, but the basic form of Yoga is same in all the styles. Modern Yoga is also called ‘Hath Yoga’ or physical Yoga. This is also related to ‘Kundalini Yoga’ which is part of ‘Raja Yoga’. Modern Yoga is a mix of all the four paths of Yoga and gives more stress on postures. For getting complete benefits of Yoga, one should have a holistic approach towards it, even without any religious inclination. ![Garudasana](image) Fig. 1.2.4. Garudasana Journey of Yoga from India to the World For many, the practice of yoga is restricted to Hatha Yoga and Asanas (postures). However, among the Yoga Sutras, just three sutras are dedicated to asanas. Fundamentally, hatha yoga is a preparatory process so that the body can sustain higher levels of energy. The process begins with the body, then the breath, the mind to the inner self. Yoga is also commonly understood as a therapy or exercise system for health and fitness. While physical and mental health is natural consequences of yoga, the goal of yoga is more far-reaching. "Yoga is about harmonizing oneself with the universe. It is the technology of aligning individual geometry with the cosmic, to achieve the highest level of perception." Yoga does not adhere to any particular religion, belief system or community; it has always been approached as a technology for inner well-being. Anyone who practices yoga with involvement can reap its benefits, irrespective of one's faith, ethnicity or culture. Traditional Schools of Yoga: Different Philosophies, Traditions, lineages and Guru-shishya traditions of Yoga lead to the emergence of different Traditional Schools of Yoga e.g. Jnan-yoga, Bhakti-yoga, Karma-yoga, Dhyana-yoga, Patanjali-yoga, Kundalini-yoga, Hatha-yoga, Mantra-yoga, Laya-yoga, Raja-yoga, Jain-yoga, Buddha-yoga, etc. Each school has its own principles and practices leading to ultimate aim and objectives of Yoga. Contribution of Yoga Gurus in Spreading Yoga Yoga has spread all over the world by the teachings of great personalities like Swami Shivananda, Shri T.Krishnamacharya, Swami Kuvalayananda, Shri Yogendra, Swami Rama, Sri Aurobindo, Maharshi Mahesh Yogi, Acharya Rajanish, Pattabhi Jois, BKS. Iyengar and Swami Satyananda Sarasvai. B.K.S. Iyengar was the founder of the style of yoga known as "Iyengar Yoga" and was considered one of the foremost yoga type. In modern days, Sri Sri Ravishankar & Swami Ramdev has contributed a lot in spreading Yoga to the common household. Yoga Terminology and Their Meaning Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Describe the common Yoga terms 2. Explain the meaning of common terminology of Yoga Common Terminology used in Yoga Asana: Body Posture in Yoga Ashtanga: One of the major Yoga path, which has eight limbs Ayurveda: Ancient Indian Science of medicines Bandha: Internal Lock which is used during yoga Chakra: Seven energy centers of Body Fig. 1.3.1. Seven Chakras Dosh: Body types as per Ayurveda, Pitta (Fire), Vata (Air) and Kapha (Earth) Hatha Yoga: A type of Yoga Path Mudra: Hand Gesture during Yoga Practice. Mantra: Groups of words, chanted for creating positive environment Meditation or Dhyan: Practice of controlling and focusing the mind and process of self-awakening Nadi: This is an Energy channel as per Vedic Believes, in which ‘Prana’ flows Ojus: The subtle energy created in body by discipline of chastity Om or AUM: The original universal syllable as per Vedic believes Patanjali: Indian Sage who compiled all Yoga Sutras, which was earlier scattered in different forms Pranayama: Types of Breathing exercises in Yoga Practices Props: Tools which are used for assisting yogis in doing yoga practice - for ex. Mat, Straps, etc. Power Yoga: It is a type of Ashtanga Yoga which has more focus on Fitness Sacrum: A triangular shaped Bone situated at the base of Spine Samadhi: A state of meditation Sadhana: Spiritual discipline for getting Sidhhi Shani: it means Peace and very frequently chanted during Yoga Practice Shodhna: A purification process in Hatha Yoga Sutras: Classical text for Yoga created by Yogis Sushma Nadi: The Central Prana Current Svadhyaya: Self Study Ujjayi: Sound of breath, taken from a slightly constricted throat Upanishad: Ancient Vedic Text written by Indian Sages Vinyasa: A body movement linked with breath Yogi or Yogini: Disciple of Yoga Basic Rules of Yoga Like any other activity, Yoga also has some basic rules. These rules should be followed in order to get optimum results from yoga. Some of the basic rules are stated below. Age for yoga Yoga has no age limitation. Person of any age can perform Yoga. Only some types of Yoga are associated with age. Ideal Place for Yoga It is advisable to practice Yoga in a quiet and properly ventilated room. You can also practice Yoga outdoors, amidst trees and flowers. Avoid practicing Yoga during colds, strong winds, smoky or dirty atmosphere. Make sure your Yoga mat is surrounded by much space to avoid any sort of accidents while practicing Yoga poses like Sirshasana. Refrain from practicing under an electric fan, if it is not too hot. Ideal Clothes for Yoga Wear loose, light and comfortable clothes during yoga practice. It should be ensured that clothes are covering the body appropriately as per your cultural beliefs. Remove your spectacles, watches or any jewelry before starting the Asanas. It can harm you while doing yoga. Yoga Mat for Exercise Yoga mats made of natural materials as well as folded blankets can be used for doing Yoga. Blankets work as good insulators between your body and earth. We should avoid spongy or air-filled mattresses as they do not provide the required support to the spine. Ideal Diet for Yoga There is no specific diet or dietary rule for Yoga. Eat natural food filled with nutrients. It does not require one to be vegetarian to practice Yoga. However, in the advanced level of yoga, it is recommended to lead a vegetarian life. It is advised to fill half of the stomach with food, one-quarter with water and to keep the remaining quarter empty. This practice keeps the body fit and active. Details on diet are given in Yogic Diet. Participant Handbook Condition of Stomach It is highly recommended that your stomach is empty while doing yoga. That is why Yoga is normally practiced during morning hours after emptying the stomach. If that is not possible, then at least give 3-4 hour gap after your last meal for doing yoga. In the morning create a schedule of waking up at fixed time and empty your bowl before doing yoga. After some time it would become natural, and you would need not to force your body for that. Way of breathing During Yoga, you should breathe through your nose, not from the mouth. It is very important in order to get full benefits of Yoga. Body Condition While Doing Yoga While doing Yoga, one’s body should be free from fever or any other disease. If he/she is suffering from any disease, he/she should consult his/her doctor before practicing Yoga. While doing Yoga one’s body should be relaxed and calm. Asans in Inverted Position The female practitioner should avoid doing any type of inverted position yoga, such as Shirshasan or Sarvangasana, during periods. This can harm their body. Pain in Body while Doing Yoga Initially, the body tends to pain since it would be in stiff condition. But if pain is unbearable then you should immediately stop yoga and inform your instructor about that. Do’s of Yoga - “Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise” is a universal adage. Yoga practitioners should go to bed early, have a sound sleep and get up early in the morning, attend to nature’s call, wash the mouth and teeth thoroughly, take a bath and start yoga in fasting mode. It is advisable that one should wake up and practice Yoga in ‘Brahm Muhrat’ which is from 4:24 am to 5:24 am. - Yoga can also be practiced 1 hour after a liquid diet, 3 hours after refreshments or 5 hours after full meals. - One could practice yoga even before bath but, after practice one should wait for some time and then take a bath. - Yoga should be practiced on a leveled floor in a room where doors and windows are kept open for air and light. It is helpful in many ways to practice yoga in a place, where morning tender sunrays fall. One should not practice yoga directly on the ground, on cement or mortar floor. One should spread a carpet, a blanket or a clean cloth, sit on it and start yoga practice by facing east or north in the morning, west or south in the evening. Streams of Yoga Primarily, Yoga has four paths. Bhagavad Gita has details on these four paths. These four paths are listed below: 1- Raj Yoga, 2- Bhakti Yoga, 3- Janan Yoga, 4- Karma Yoga All the four paths have their own renowned followers. We will discuss the same in detail. Raj Yoga The great sage Patanjali was a follower of Raj Yoga. In Raj Yoga, Yoga is practiced to gain mastery over the mind through will power. There are further two branches under Raj Yoga: 1- Bahiranga Yoga 2- Antaranga Yoga Bahiranga Yoga Bahiranga means external. So Bahiranga Yoga means External or Outer Path of Yoga. It is controlled by four limbs of Ashtang yoga - yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama. Sometimes the fifth limb - pratyahara, is also associated with this. Antaranga Yoga Antaranga means internal. So Antaranga Yoga means internal or inner Path of Yoga. It is controlled by last three limbs of Ashtang yoga - dharana, dhyana, and samadhi. As the name suggests, benefits of this yoga is internal rather than external. It awakens the mind and soul of Yogi. Bhakti Yoga Ramanuja was a main follower of Bhakti Yoga. Bhakti yoga aims to help a person evolve emotional maturity, love for society and to spread the message of universal brotherhood and oneness. It helps in transformation of the conditional and desirous form of love into true unconditional love. Kama (desire), combined with tyaga (sacrifice) forms prema (love). Prema along with saranagati (surrender) results in bhakti. The path of bhakti yoga leads to satisfaction and calmness of mind. It is considered to be the easiest path among four, as the practice is not very rigorous. Bhakti yoga is similar to the interpersonal relation between humans but here the relation is between soul and super soul (ultimate soul). Bhagavad purana provides us with nine forms of bhakti: 1. Sravan (listening) 2. Kirtana (praising) 3. Smarana (remembering) 4. Pada-sevasna (rendering service) 5. Archana (worshipping) 6. Vandana (paying homage), 7. Dasya (servitude) 8. Sakhya (friendship) 9. Atma-nivedana (complete surrender of self). Fig. 1.1.6. Bhakti Yoga Janan Yoga One of the famous followers of this stream was Shankara. This path helps in developing a logical mind with intuitive knowledge and immense awareness. There are three phases in janan yoga: 1. Sravana, the first exposure to knowledge in any form (reading a book, listening to a lecture, watching a video). 2. Manana, revisiting the knowledge for further understanding. 3. Nididhyasana, the phase of experimentation. In janan yoga, the ultimate aim is to understand the reality of atma (soul) and the ability to differentiate it from the body. A person truly established in the path of janan yoga becomes free from all worldly desires and achieve contentment. Though the four paths of yoga seem to be completely different from each other, they lead to the same goal of self-realization, and the union of the individual with the universal self. Karma Yoga The Bhagavad gita remains the main source for the conceptual basis of karma yoga; it was later elaborated by Swami Vivekananda. This path emphasizes on performing actions with detachment without worrying about the results. Actions are categorized as: - Tamasik - they are binding, deteriorating, violent and is a result of state of delusion and confusion - Rajasik - when performed with craving for desires, with egoism and a lot of efforts - Sattvik - when it is free from attachment and done without love or hatred The essence of karma yoga is to convert kamya karma (action with desires) into yogic karma by inculcating detachment and committing one's energy to unceasing work. Eight Limbs of Ashtang Yoga The meaning of Ashtanga yoga is 'Eight-limbed yoga'. According to Patanjali, the path of internal purification for revealing the Universal Self consists of the following eight spiritual practices: - Yama: Universal morality - Niyama: Personal observances - Asanas: Body postures - Pranayama: Breathing exercises and control of prana - Pratyahara: Control of the senses - Dharana: Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness - Dhyana: Devotion, Meditation on the Divine - Samadhi: Union with the Divine The first two limbs that Patanjali describes are the fundamental ethical precepts called yamas and the niyamas. These can also be looked at as universal morality and personal observances. The Yamas and niyamas are the suggestions given on how we should deal with people around us and our attitude toward ourselves. The attitude we have towards things and other people is yama, how we relate to ourselves inwardly is niyama. Both are mostly concerned with how we use our energy in relationship to others and ourselves. The yamas are broken down into five "wise characteristics." Rather than a list of dos and don'ts, "they tell us that our fundamental nature is compassionate, generous, honest and peaceful." They are as follows: Yamas (Universal Morality) 1. Ahimsa – Compassion for all living things The word ahimsa literally means not to injure or show cruelty to any creature or any person in any way whatsoever. Ahimsa is, however, more than just lack of violence as adapted in yoga. It means kindness, friendliness, and thoughtful consideration of other people and things. It also has to do with our duties and responsibilities too. Ahimsa implies that in every situation we should adopt a considerate attitude and do no harm. 2. Satya – Commitment to Truthfulness Satya means "to speak the truth", yet it is not always desirable to speak the truth on all the occasions, for it could harm someone unnecessarily. We have to consider what we say, how we say it, and in what way it could affect others. If speaking the truth has negative consequences for another, then it is better to say nothing. Satya should never come into conflict with our efforts to behave with ahimsa. This precept is based on the understanding that honest communication and action form the bedrock of any healthy relationship, community or government, and deliberate deception, exaggerations, and lies harm others. 3. Asteya - Non-stealing: Steya means "to steal"; while Asteya is -to take nothing that does not belong to us. This also means that if we are in a situation where someone entrusts something to us or confides in us, we do not take advantage of him or her. Non-stealing includes not only not taking what belongs to another without permission, but also using something for a different purpose to that intended, or beyond the time permitted by its owner. The practice of asteya implies not taking anything that has not been freely given. 4. Brahmacharya - Sense control: Brahmacharya is used mostly in the sense of abstinence, particularly in relationship to sexual activity. Brahmacharya suggests that we should form relationships that foster our understanding of the highest truths. Brahmacharya does not necessarily imply celibacy. Rather it means responsible behavior with respect to our goal of moving towards the truth. Practicing Brahmacharya means that we use our sexual energy to regenerate our connection to our spiritual self. It also means that we don't use this energy in any way that might harm others. 5. Aparigraha - Neutralizing the desire to acquire and hoard wealth: Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary and not to take advantage of a situation or act greedy. We should only take what we have earned; if we take more, we are exploiting someone else. The yogi feels that the collection or hoarding of things implies a lack of faith in God and in himself to provide for his future. Aparigraha also implies letting go of our attachments to things and an understanding that impermanence and change are the only constraints. The Yoga Sutra describes what happens when these five behaviors outlined above becomes part of a person's daily life. Thus, the yamas are the moral virtues which if attended to, purify human nature and contribute to the health and happiness of the society. Niyama (Personal Observances): Niyama means "rules" or "laws." These are the rules prescribed for personal observance. Like the yamas, the five niyamas are not exercises or actions to be simply studied. They represent far more than an attitude. Compared with the yamas, the niyamas are more intimate and personal. They refer to the attitude we adopt toward ourselves as we create a code for living soulfully. 1. Sauca - Purity - The first niyama is sauca, means purity and cleanliness. Sauca has both an inner and an outer aspect. Outer cleanliness simply means keeping ourselves clean. Inner cleanliness has as much to do with the healthy, free functioning of our bodily organs as with the clarity of our mind. Practicing asanas or pranayama are essential means for attending to this inner sauca. Asanas tone the entire body and remove toxins while pranayama cleanses our lungs, oxygenates our blood and purifies our nerves. But more important than the physical cleansing of the body is the cleansing of the mind of its disturbing emotions like hatred, passion, anger, lust, greed, delusion and pride. 2. Santosa - Contentment: Another niyama is santosa, modesty and the feeling of being content with whatever we have. To be at peace within and finding contentment with one's lifestyle, even while experiencing life's difficulties through all kinds of circumstances. We should accept that there is a purpose for everything - yoga calls it karma – and we cultivate contentment 'to accept what happens'. It means being happy with what we have rather than being unhappy about what we don't have. 3. Tapas – Disciplined use of our energy: Tapas refers to the activity of keeping the body fit or to confront and handle the inner urges without an outer show. Literally, it means to heat the body and by doing so, to cleanse it. Behind the notion of tapas lies the idea that we can direct our energy to enthusiastically engage life and achieve our ultimate goal of union with the Divine. Tapas helps us burn up all the desires that stand in our way of this goal. Another form of tapas is paying attention to what we eat. Attention to body posture, attention to eating habits, attention to breathing patterns - these are all tapas. 4. Svadhyaya – Self study: The fourth niyama is svadhyaya. Sva means "self" adhyaya means "inquiry" or "examination". Any activity that cultivates self-reflective consciousness can be considered svadhyaya. It means to find self-awareness in all our activities and efforts, even to the point of welcoming and accepting our limitations. It teaches us to be centered and non-reactive to the dualities, to burn out unwanted and self-destructive tendencies. 5. Isvarapranidhana - Celebration of the Spiritual: Isvarapranidhana means "to lay all your actions at the feet of God." It is the contemplation of God (Isvara) to become attuned to god and god's will. It is the recognition that the spiritual suffuses everything, and through our attention and care, we can attune ourselves with our role as a part of the Creator. The practice requires that we set aside some time each day to recognize that there is some omnipresent force larger than ourselves that is guiding and directing the course of our lives. --- Unity in Diversity Unity in diversity is a concept of 'unity without uniformity and diversity without fragmentation' that shifts focus from unity based on a mere tolerance of physical, cultural, linguistic, social, religious, political, ideological and/or psychological differences towards a more complex unity based on the understanding that difference enriches human interactions. - One should practice yoga calmly without any haste or exhaustion. If one is tired, he or she should rest for a while in a comfortable posture. - One should try to practice yoga everyday regularly, preferably at the same time. - While practicing yoga, one should concentrate on yoga alone and try to keep away the other thoughts. - During the practice of Yoga asanas, the dirt in the internal organs of the body is directed towards the urinary bladder. So soon after completing yoga, one should pass out the urine. - During yoga practice, if anyone feels to attend nature's call, he must go and attend to it immediately. One should not hold it back forcefully for a long time. One should also not try to suppress sneezing, cough, etc. If one feels thirsty one can drink a little water as well. - If one sweats during yoga practice, he or she should slowly wipe it out either with a cloth or with the palms. It is better if it dries up automatically in the air. - Pranayama should follow the asanas and meditation should follow Pranayama. Always lay on your back for 2 to 5 minutes with relaxed breathing, after finishing Yoga postures. Movements should be slow in every case. Sudden movements should be avoided. Don’ts of Yoga - Women should refrain from regular yoga practice during their menses or pregnancy. However, for them there are a specific set of asanas to be done. - Don’t have a full tummy while doing yoga, wait until 2 to 3 hours after large meals. - Don’t take a shower or drink water for 30 minutes after doing yoga. - During illness, after operations, when there is a bandage either for sprains or fractures, one should refrain from Yoga Practice. They can resume yoga after consulting experts. - Don’t do strenuous exercises after yoga. - One should not practice yoga in unclean/smoky place and areas with a foul smell. - Yoga should not be practiced in storm winds either. Major Benefits of Yoga Following are some of the benefits of doing Yoga. We will discuss effects of Yoga on different parts of the body in detail in subsequent chapters - 1- Improvement in immunity - Protection from diseases 2- Healthy Heart - Protection from Heart Problems 3- Improved body flexibility - Protection from Injury 4- Improved Body posture - Better personal image 5- Positivity in mind - Protection from Hypertension, depression, etc. 6- Weight reduction / Weight increase - Body attain ideal Body weight 7- Improved Muscle Strength 8- Improved Vitality ![Fig. 1.1.8. Healthy Body & Mind Through Yoga](image) Exercise Q1. The Meaning of Yoga is the union of: a. Human & God b. Human & Yoga c. Body & Yoga d. All of the above Q2. Following is the organ which gets benefitted by Yoga: a. Heart b. Brain c. Backbone d. All of the above Q3. Which of following is not a stream of Yoga: a. Janan Yoga b. Ved Yoga Q4. Ancient Indian medicine system is called: a. Allopathy b. Homeopathy c. Ayurveda d. Unani Q5. Following is not Dosh as per Ayurveda: a. Vata b. Pitta c. Kapha Q6. Which of these area of Yoga Center should be maintained well: a. Reception Area b. Yoga Room c. Toilets d. All of the above Raj Yoga c. Bhakti Yoga 2. Introduction to Yoga Tests - Introduction and study of Patanjala Yoga Sutra including memorization of selected Sutras (P.Y.S. 1/2, 14; 2/1, 27, 29, 46, 47, 49) - Introduction and study of Bhagavad Gita including memorization of selected Slokas (B.G. 2/47, 48, 50 3/13) - Concept of Aahara (Diet) according to Yogic texts - Significance of Hath Yoga practices in Health promotion - Concept of mental well being according to Patanjali Yoga - Yogic practices of Patanjali Yoga: Bahiranga and Antaranga Yoga - Concept of healthy living in Bhagwad Gita - Importance of subjective experience in daily Yoga Practice Key Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, you will be able to: 1. Describe Yoga principles 2. Explain various important ancient texts 3. Explain about human body anatomy 4. Explain Yogic diet 5. Demonstrate key Yoga exercises Describe the benefits and the precautions for each Yoga Asana UNIT 2.1: Yoga Principles and Knowledge of Ancient Texts Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Describe Yoga principles 2. Explain various important ancient texts 3. Describe the Bhagavad Gita 4. Describe the Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra 5. Describe the concept of Veda & the Upanishad 6. Describe the Ramayana 7. Describe the Narada Bhakti sutra 2.1.1. Yoga Principles Following are the ten Yoga Principles - 1. Non-violence (Ahimsa) 2. Truthfulness (Satya) 3. Righteousness (Asteya) 4. Wisdom (Brahmacharya) 5. Simplicity (Aparigraha) 6. Worship of the spiritual goal (Ishvara-pranidhana) 7. Sacrifice the ego (Shaucha) 8. Self-discipline (Tapas) 9. Reading (Svadhyaya) 10. Contentment (Santosha) 18.104.22.168 Meaning of Yoga Principle Non-violence (Ahimsa) No killing of other beings. To be meek and peaceful. Truthfulness (Satya) Live in the truth. Basically, be honest with yourself and others. Also there should be no little lies of convenience. A lie is permissible only in well-justified situations, for example, if you can save the life of another human being with a lie. A Yogi is silent whenever in doubt. Those who consistently live in the truth, radiate truth. Their fellow men trust them. Righteousness (Asteya) Neither stealing nor cheating. A Yogi is always honest. He does not seek unwarranted advantages, but he is looking for a fair trade. Wisdom (Brahmacharya) Live in the spiritual light. Do not serve the money but your inner happiness. Be centered in your inner happiness and peace. Simplicity (Aparigraha) Be moderate in external enjoyment and consumption. A spiritual person lives modestly outwardly and inwardly rich. A Yogi uses his energy, not in outer actions but lives so peaceful that it turns inward and cleanses his body from the inside. One day, he lives permanently in the spiritual light. Worship of the spiritual goal (Ishvara-pranidhana) So that we do not lose our spiritual path, it is necessary that we remind ourselves again and again about our spiritual goal. We can worship any image (Goddess, Shiva, Patanjali), we can bow before a statue (Buddha, Jesus, Shiva) or speak a mantra (prayer). Sacrifice the ego (Shaucha) Purification/cleaning. The way into the light passes through the crucifixion of the ego. Without a crucifixion, there is no enlightenment. True sacrifice is an art. He who sacrifices too much braces them internally. Who sacrifices too little, does not solve his tensions. Self-discipline (Tapas) A clear goal, a clear life plan and a clear way of practicing. Tapas means to lead a disciplined life. Reading (Svadhyaya) Daily reading (mantra, meditation) keeps us on the spiritual path, cleanses our spirit, connects us with the enlightened masters and makes us spiritual victors. Contentment (Santosha) Satisfied with what one has. 2.1.2 Knowledge of Ancient Yoga Text In order to have a deeper knowledge of Yoga, one should have a good understanding of ancient Yoga texts. Some of the important Yoga texts are given below - 1- Bhagavad Gita 2- Patanjali Yoga Sutra 3- The Ramayana 4- Narad Bhakti Sutra Bhagavad Gita The Geeta is the linchpin of a great epic, and that epic is the Mahabharata or Great Story of the Bharatas. With nearly one hundred thousand verses divided into eighteen chapters, it is one of the longest epic poems in the world—seven times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or three times longer than the Bible. It is, in fact, a whole library of stories that exerted a tremendous influence on the people and literature of India. The central story of the Mahabharata is a conflict over succession to the throne of Hastinapura, a kingdom just north of modern Delhi that was the ancestral realm of a tribe most commonly known as the Bharatas. (India was at that time divided amongst many small, and often warring kingdoms.) The struggle is between two groups of cousins, the Pandavas or sons of Pandu, and the Kauravas, or descendants of Kuru. Because of his blindness, Dhritarashtra, the elder brother of Pandu, is passed over as king, the throne going instead to Pandu. However, Pandu renounces the throne, and Dhritarashtra assumes power after all. The sons of Pandu—Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva—grow up together with their cousins, the Kauravas. Due to enmity and jealousy, the Pandavas are forced to leave the kingdom. During their exile, they jointly married Draupadi and befriend their cousin Krishna, who from then on accompanies them. They return and share sovereignty with the Kauravas, but have to withdraw to the forest for thirteen years when Yudhishthira loses all his possessions in a game of dice with Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas. When they return from the forest to demand their share of the kingdom back, Duryodhana refuses. This means war. Krishna acts as counselor to the Pandavas. The Gita is found right here, with the two armies facing each other and ready for battle. The battle rages for eighteen days and ends with the defeat of the Kauravas. All the Kauravas die; only the five Pandava brothers and Krishna survive. The six set out for heaven together, but all die on the way, except Yudhishthira, who reaches the gates of heaven accompanied only by a small dog, who turns out to be an incarnation of the god Dharma. After tests of faithfulness and constancy, Yudhishthira is reunited in heaven with his brothers and Draupadi in eternal bliss. It is within this enormous epic, which is less than one percent of the Mahabharata, that we find the Bhagavad Geeta, or the Song of the Lord, most commonly referred to simply as the Gita. It is found in the sixth chapter of the epic, just before the great battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. The greatest hero of the Pandavas, Arjuna, has pulled up his chariot in the middle of the battlefield between the two opposing armies. He is accompanied by Krishna, who acts as his charioteer. In a fit of despondency, Arjuna throws down his bow and refuses to fight, deploring the immorality of the coming war. It is a moment of supreme drama: time stands still, the armies are frozen in place, and God speaks. ![Fig. 2.1.1. The Bhagavad Geeta](image-url) The situation is extremely grave. A great kingdom is about to self-destruct in internecine warfare, making a mockery of dharma, the eternal moral laws, and customs that govern the universe. Arjuna's objections are well-founded: He is the victim of a moral paradox. On the one hand, he is facing persons who, according to dharma, deserve his respect and veneration. On the other hand, his duty as a warrior demands that he kill them. Yet no fruits of victory would seem to justify such a heinous crime. It is, seemingly, a dilemma without a solution. It is this state of moral confusion that the Gita sets out to mend. When Arjuna refuses to fight, Krishna has no patience with him. Only when he realizes the extent of Arjuna's despondency does Krishna change his attitude and start teaching the mysteries of dharmic action in this world. He introduces Arjuna to the structure of the universe, the concepts of prakriti, primordial nature, and the three gunas, the properties that are active in prakriti. Then he takes Arjuna on a tour of philosophical ideas and ways of salvation. He discusses the nature of theory and action, the importance of rituals, the ultimate principle, Brahman, all the while gradually disclosing his nature as the highest god. This part of the Gita culminates in an overwhelming vision: Krishna allows Arjuna to see his supernal form, the Vishvarupa, which strikes terror into Arjuna's heart. The rest of the Gita deepens and supplements the ideas presented before the epiphany—the importance of self-control and faith of equanimity and unselfishness, but above all, of bhakti or devotion. Krishna explains to Arjuna how he can obtain immortality by transcending the properties which qualify not only primordial matter but also human character and behavior. Krishna also emphasizes the importance of doing one's duty, declaring that it is better to do one's duty without disinction. In the end, Arjuna is convinced. He picks up his bow and is ready to fight. Knowing a couple of things will make your reading easier. The first is that the Gita is a conversation within a conversation. Dhritarashtra begins it by asking a question, and that is the last we hear out of him. He is answered by Sanjaya, who relates what is happening on the battlefield. (Dhritarashtra is blind. Vyasa, his father, offers to restore his sight so he can follow the battle. Dhritarashtra declines this boon, feeling that seeing the carnage of his kinsmen would be more than he could bear. So instead, Vyasa bestows clairvoyance and clairaudience upon Sanjaya, Dhritarashtra's minister, and charioteer. As they sit in their palace, Sanjaya relates what he sees and hears on the distant battlefield.) Sanjaya pops up now and again throughout the book as he relates to Dhritarashtra the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna. This second conversation is a bit one-sided, as Krishna does almost all of the talking. Thus, Sanjaya describes the situation, Arjuna asks the questions, and Krishna gives the answers. The eighteen chapters of the Bhagavadgita are classified as 'yogas', starting with the 'yoga' of Arjuna's depression and ending with the yoga of 'liberaion through renunciaion'. The eighteen chapters are: Chapter 1: Arjunavishadayoga - The Yoga of The Despondency of Arjuna Chapter 2: Sankhyayoga - The Yoga of Knowledge Chapter 3: Karmayoga - The Yoga of Action Chapter 4: Jyanakarmasannyasyayoga - The Yoga of Knowledge as well as the Disciplines Of Action and Knowledge Chapter 5: Karmasannyasyayoga - The yoga of Action and knowledge Chapter 6: Atmasayamayoga - The yoga of Self-Control Chapter 7: Gyanavigyanayoga - Knowledge of manifest Divinity Chapter 8: Aksharabrahmayoga - The Yoga of The Imperishable Brahman Chapter 9: Rajavidyarajaguhyayoga - The yoga of Sovereign Science and the Sovereign Secret Chapter 10: Vibhuiyoga - The Yoga of The Divine Glories Chapter 11: Visvarupadarshanayoga - The Yoga of The Vision of the Cosmic Form Chapter 12: Bhakiyoga - The Yoga of Devoion Chapter 13: Kshetrakshetrvibhagayoga - The Yoga of The Disinction Between the Field and the Knower of the Field Chapter 14: Gunatrayavibhagayoga - The Yoga of The Division of the Three Gunas Chapter 15: Purushottamayoga. - The Yoga of The Supreme Spirit Chapter 16: Daivasurasampadvibhagayoga - The Yoga of The Division Between the Divine and the Demonical Chapter 17: Sraddhatrayavibhagayoga - The Yoga of The Division of the Threefold Faith Chapter 18: Mokshasannyasyayoga - The Yoga of Liberaion By Renunciaion Patanjali's Yoga Sutras For most people, the word "yoga" brings to mind the image of a yoga model that appears on the cover of a yoga magazine in a pose. Yoga is commonly practiced as a routine which helps in improving physical fitness and sometimes as a means to stress management. There is growing awareness that yoga can be effectively used as therapy in treating a variety of ailments, including hypertension, diabetes, heart conditions, etc. Those who have been practicing yoga for a while can attest to the physical and physiological benefits that the practice brings. While all the above-mentioned benefits of yoga are certainly desirable, as a Yoga Instructor you should know about the true meaning and purpose of yoga which is "the ability to control the fluctuations of the mind". This brief and succinct definition was given by Sage Patanjali, more than three thousand years ago, in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali has provided a very scientific and practical exposition of the philosophy and practice of yoga. One very important section of the book describes what is commonly called "ashtanga yoga" or the Eight Limbs of Yoga which provides practical guidelines for achieving the goal of yoga, i.e., controlling the mind. Most of the yoga as it is practiced today, called Hatha Yoga, includes physical postures (asanas) and some breathing techniques (pranayama). As you can notice from the eight limbs which are listed below, asana and pranayama are only two of these eight limbs and help establish a strong foundation towards achieving the objectives of yoga. However, to develop a fully integrated practice of yoga and achieve the final objectives of yoga, one needs to include in their routine all the eight limbs of yoga in some form. Overview of Yoga Sutras Even though yoga has been mentioned in various ancient texts, including the Vedas, Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, etc., the credit for putting together a formal, cohesive philosophy of yoga goes to Sage Patanjali. In his Yoga Sutras, Patanjali has provided the very essence of the philosophy and teachings of yoga in a highly scientific and systematic exposition. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (YSP) are one of the six darshanas of Hindu schools of philosophy and a very important milestone in the history of Yoga. The book is a set of 195 aphorisms (sutras), which are short, terse phrases designed to be easy to memorize. Though brief, the Yoga Sutras is an enormously influential work that is just as relevant for yoga philosophy and practice today as it was when it was written. The sutras are divided into four chapters (pada) as follows: Samadhi Pada: The first chapter provides a definition and the purpose of yoga. Various approaches that can be used to achieve the objectives of yoga are provided. Sadhana Pada: The second chapter contains the practical approach to achieve the goals of yoga. In this chapter, the author gives a description of the eight limbs of yoga called Ashtanga Yoga, which is how the yoga sutras are sometimes referred to. Vibhuti Pada: The third chapter focuses on some of the supernatural powers that an adept yogi may be able to attain. Kaivalya Pada: In the fourth chapter the nature of the mind and mental perceptions, desire, bondage and liberation and what follows it are discussed. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are also sometimes referred to as "Raj Yoga" or the "Royal Yoga". In sutra 2 of the first chapter, Patanjali has defined yoga as - योगः वृत्तिनिरोधः \|\| २ \|\| “yogaschitta vritti nirodhah” (Sanskrit) “Yoga is the restraint of the modifications of the mind-stuff” – translation by Swami Vivekananda In subsequent sutras, Patanjali explains that once the mind is properly restrained, then the “seer” or the “soul, the true self” can rest in its own true nature. Further, as long as the mind is not under control, it continues to assume the form of the “vrittis” or the perturbations in mind, and these vrittis become the cause of human suffering. In simpler terms, what this definition tells us is that we can be peaceful and happy when we can control the mind; else, the mind continues to control us, and we stay in a state of suffering. 22.214.171.124.1 Ashtanga Yoga (Eight Limbs of Yoga) The eight limbs of yoga as defined in the second chapter are as follows: Yamas (self-restraints): The yamas are guidelines for how to interact with the outside world at a social level. The five yamas are: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (abstinence), Aparigraha (non-hoarding). Niyamas (observances): The niyamas represent guidelines for self-discipline. The five niyamas are: shoucha (cleanliness), santosha (contentment), tapas (austerity), swadhyaya (the study of the scriptures and self-study), and Ishwara pranidhana (surrender to God). Together, yamas and niyamas provide an ethical and moral code to be followed so that the aspiring yogi can establish an adequate moral foundation for his/her spiritual journey. Asana (posture): Asana refers to the seated posture which should be steady and comfortable so the yogi can sit and meditate for long periods of time. Pranayama (breath control): Pranayama, which literally means stretching or expansion of prana, the vital life force, involves breath control and helps train and prepare the mind for dharana (concentration). Pratyahara (sense withdrawal): Through pratyahara one gains the ability to withdraw the senses from their objects thus achieving perfect control over the senses. Dharana (concentration/focus): Dharana involves focusing the mind on a single object of concentration for long periods of time. Dhyana (meditation): When there is an uninterrupted flow of the mind toward the object of focus, the yogi enters the state of meditation. Samadhi (total absorption): Finally when even the self-awareness of the mind disappears, and only the object of meditation shines through, it is called the state of samadhi. It is only in the highest stage of “Samadhi”, called the “nirbeeja Samadhi” (seedless Samadhi) when the mind is fully under control and brings the yogi to a state of perpetual peace and tranquility. 3. Yoga for Health Promotion - Introduction and study of Patanjala Yoga Sutra including memorization of selected Sutras (P.Y.S. 1/2, 14, 2/1, 27, 29, 46, 47, 49) - Introduction and study of Bhagavad Gita including memorization of selected Slokas (B.G. 2/47, 48, 50 3/13) Concept of Aahara (Diet) according to Yogic texts Significance of Hath Yoga practices in Health promotion Concept of mental well being according to Patanjali Yoga Yogic practices of Patanjali Yoga: Bahiranga and Antaranga Yoga Concept of healthy living in Bhagwad Gita Importance of subjective experience in daily Yoga Practice Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Explain about human body anatomy 2. Explain various internal organs and glands 3. Define role of organs and glands in a person’s health 4. Describe the benefits of Yoga on human body ### 3.1 Human Body Human Body is a very complex machine. It works well when all of its components work in tandem and remain in good condition. We can divide Human Body into following systems - 1. Skeletal System 2. Cardiovascular System 3. Muscular System 4. Digestive System 5. Endocrine System 6. Nervous System 7. Respiratory System 8. Immune & Lymphatic System 9. Urinary System 10. Female Reproductive System 11. Male Reproductive System #### 3.1.1 Skeletal System The skeletal system in an adult body is made up of 206 individual bones. These bones are arranged into two major divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton runs along the body's midline axis and is made up of 80 bones in the following regions: - Skull, Hyoid, Auditory ossicles, Ribs, Sternum and Vertebral column The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones in the following regions: Upper limbs, Lower limbs, Pelvic girdle and Pectoral (shoulder) girdle 126.96.36.199 Skull The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible. These 21 fused bones are separate in children to allow the skull and brain to grow, but fuse to give added strength and protection as an adult. The mandible remains as a movable jaw bone and forms the only movable joint in the skull with the temporal bone. The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the brain from damage. The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as facial bones and support the eyes, nose, and mouth. 188.8.131.52 Hyoid and Auditory Ossicles The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the mandible. The hyoid is the only bone in the body that does not form a joint with any other bone—it is a floating bone. The hyoid’s function is to help hold the trachea open and to form a bony connection for the tongue muscles. The malleus, incus, and stapes—known collectively as the auditory ossicles—are the smallest bones in the body. Found in a small cavity inside of the temporal bone, they serve to transmit and amplify sound from the eardrum to the inner ear. 184.108.40.206 Vertebrae Twenty-six vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body. They are named by region: Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae Sacrum- 1 vertebra Coccyx (tailbone) - 1 vertebra With the exception of the singular sacrum and coccyx, each vertebra is named by the first letter of its region and its position along the superior-inferior axis. For example, the most superior thoracic vertebra is called T1, and the most inferior is called T12. 220.127.116.11 Ribs and Sternum The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior side of the thoracic region of the skeleton. The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the costal cartilage. There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the ribcage of the thoracic region. The first seven ribs are known as “true ribs” because they connect the thoracic vertebrae directly to the sternum through their own band of costal cartilage. Ribs 8, 9, and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage that is connected to the cartilage of the seventh rib, so we consider these to be “false ribs.” Ribs 11 and 12 are also false ribs but are also considered to be “floating ribs” because they do not have any cartilage attachment to the sternum at all. 18.104.22.168 Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton and consists of the left and right clavicles and left and right scapulae. The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder with the scapula and forms the elbow joint with the lower arm bones. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The radius allows the forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint. The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals, a group of eight small bones that give added flexibility to the wrist. The carpals are connected to the five metacarpals that form the bones of the hand and connect to each of the fingers. Each finger has three bones known as phalanges, except for the thumb, which only has two phalanges. 22.214.171.124. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Formed by the left and right hip bones, the pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg) bones to the axial skeleton. The femur is the largest bone in the body and the only bone of the thigh (femoral) region. The femur forms the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone and forms the knee joint with the ibia and patella. Commonly called the kneecap, the patella is special because it is one of the few bones that are not present at birth. The patella forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling. The ibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. The ibia is much larger than the fibula and bears almost all of the body's weight. The fibula is mainly a muscle attachment point and is used to help maintain balance. The ibia and fibula form the ankle joint with the talus, one of the seven tarsal bones in the foot. Fig. 3.2.7. Pelvic Girdle & Lower Limb The tarsals are a group of seven small bones that form the posterior end of the foot and heel. The tarsals form joints with the five long metatarsals of the foot. Then each of the metatarsals forms a joint with one of the sets of phalanges in the toes. Each toe has three phalanges except for the big toe which only has two phalanges. 126.96.36.199 Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and the approximately 5 liters of blood that the blood vessels transport. Responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body, the cardiovascular system is powered by the body's hardest-working organ — the heart, which is only about the size of a closed fist. Even at rest, the average heart easily pumps over 5 liters of blood throughout the body every minute. Fig. 3.2.8. Cardiovascular System 188.8.131.52 The Heart The heart is a muscular pumping organ located medial to the lungs along the body's midline in the thoracic region. The bottom tip of the heart, known as its apex, is turned to the left so that about 2/3 of the heart is located on the body's left side with the other 1/3 on the right. The top of the heart, known as the heart's base, connects to the great blood vessels of the body: the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins. There are 2 primary circulatory loops in the human body: the pulmonary circulation loop and the systemic circulation loop. Fig. 3.2.9. The Heart Pulmonary circulation transports de-oxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and returns to the left side of the heart. The pumping chambers of the heart that support the pulmonary circulation loop are the right atrium and right ventricle. Systemic circulation carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to all of the tissues of the body (with the exception of the heart and lungs). Systemic circulation removes wastes from body tissues and returns de-oxygenated blood to the right side of the heart. The left atrium and left ventricle of the heart are the pumping chambers for the systemic circulation loop. ### 184.108.40.206 Blood Vessels Blood vessels are the body’s highways that allow blood to flow quickly and efficiently from the heart to every region of the body and back again. The size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of blood that passes through the vessel. All blood vessels contain a hollow area called the lumen through which blood is able to flow. Around the lumen is the wall of the vessel, which may be thin in the case of capillaries or very thick in the case of arteries. ![Fig. 3.2.10. Blood Vessels](image) ### 220.127.116.11 Muscular System The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body. Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that make up roughly half of a person’s body weight. Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels. In these organs, muscles serve to move substances throughout the body. There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal. ![Fig. 3.2.11. Muscular System](image) ### 18.104.22.168 Visceral Muscle Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle issues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle—it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The term “smooth muscle” is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth, uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance starkly contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles. ### 22.214.171.124 Cardiac Muscle Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle issue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle simulates itself to contract. The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of cardiac muscle issue that simulates other cardiac muscle cells to contract. Because of its self-stimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be autorhythmic or intrinsically controlled. The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striated—that is, they appear to have light and dark stripes when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike visceral muscles. The cells of cardiac muscle are branched X or Y-shaped cells tightly connected together by special junctions called intercalated disks. Intercalated disks are made up of finger-like projections from two neighboring cells that interlock and provide a strong bond between the cells. The branched structure and intercalated disks allow the muscle cells to resist high blood pressures and the strain of pumping blood throughout a lifetime. These features also help to spread electrochemical signals quickly from cell to cell so that the heart can beat as a unit. ### 126.96.36.199 Skeletal Muscle Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body—it is controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g., speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other. Skeletal muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump themselves together to form long, straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac muscle, these skeletal muscle fibers are very strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the fact that these muscles always connect to the skeleton in at least one place. ### 3.1.4 Digestive System The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines. In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs that help your body to digest food. Following are the main parts of the Digestive System. ![Fig. 2.2.12. Digestive System](image) #### 188.8.131.52 Mouth Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the digestion of food—the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into small pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the tongue and other muscles push the food into the pharynx. ![Fig. 2.2.13. Mouth](image) #### 184.108.40.206 Teeth The teeth are 32 small, hard organs found along the anterior and lateral edges of the mouth. Each tooth is made of a bone-like substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel—the hardest substance in the body. Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and nerves under the dentin in a soft region known as the pulp. The teeth are designed for cutting and grinding food into smaller pieces. ![Fig. 2.2.14. Teeth](image) 220.127.116.11 Tongue The tongue is located on the inferior portion of the mouth just posterior and medial to the teeth. It is a small organ made up of several pairs of muscles covered in a thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the tongue contains many rough papillae for gripping food as it is moved by the tongue’s muscles. The taste buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste information to the brain. The tongue also helps to push food toward the posterior part of the mouth for swallowing. 18.104.22.168 Salivary Glands Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The salivary glands are accessory organs that produce a watery secretion known as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of carbohydrates. The body also uses saliva to lubricate food as it passes through the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus. 22.214.171.124 Pharynx The pharynx, or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth. The pharynx is responsible for the passing of masses of chewed food from the mouth to the esophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the respiratory system, as air from the nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs. Because the pharynx serves two different functions, it contains a flap of tissue known as the epiglottis that acts as a switch to route food to the esophagus and air to the larynx. 126.96.36.199 Esophagus The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food along its length. At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular ring called the lower esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter. The function of this sphincter is to close off the end of the esophagus and trap food in the stomach. 188.8.131.52 Stomach The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just inferior to the diaphragm. In an average person, the stomach is about the size of their two fists placed next to each other. This major organ acts as a storage tank for food so that the body has time to digest large meals properly. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes that continue the digestion of food that began in the mouth. 184.108.40.206 Small Intesine The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long that is part of the lower gastrointestinal tract. It is located just inferior to the stomach and takes up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The entire small intestine is coiled like a hose, and the inside surface is full of many ridges and folds. These folds are used to maximize the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. By the time food leaves the small intestine, around 90% of all nutrients have been extracted from the food that entered it. 220.127.116.11 Liver and Gallbladder The liver is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right of the stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the small intestine. The liver weighs about 3 pounds and is the second largest organ in the body. The liver has many different functions in the body, but the main function of the liver in digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ located just posterior to the liver. The gallbladder is used to store and recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of food. 18.104.22.168 Pancreas The pancreas is a large gland located just inferior and posterior to the stomach. It is about 6 inches long and shaped like short, lumpy snake with its “head” connected to the duodenum and its “tail” pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine to complete the chemical digestion. 22.214.171.124 Large Intesine The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5 feet long. It is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the superior and lateral border of the small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and contains many symbiotic bacteria that aid in the breaking down of wastes to extract some small amounts of nutrients. Faeces in the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal. 126.96.36.199 Endocrine System The endocrine system includes all of the glands of the body and the hormones produced by those glands. The glands are controlled directly by stimulation from the nervous system as well as by chemical receptors in the blood and hormones produced by other glands. By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these glands help to maintain the body's homeostasis, cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual development, sugar and mineral homeostasis, heart rate, and digestion. ![Endocrine System](image) Fig. 3.2.24. Endocrine System 3.1.5 Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and anterior to the brain stem and inferior to the thalamus. It serves many different functions in the nervous system and is also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus contains special cells called neurosecretory cells—neurons that secrete hormones: 1- Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 2- Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) 3- Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) 4- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 5- Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 6- Oxytocin 7- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 188.8.131.52 Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a small pea-sized lump of tissue connected to the inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain. Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry the hormones it releases throughout the body. Situated in a small depression in the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, the pituitary gland is actually made of 2 completely separate structures: the posterior and anterior pituitary glands. 184.108.40.206 Pineal Gland The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue found just posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin that helps to regulate the human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian rhythm. The activity of the pineal gland is inhibited by stimulation from the photoreceptors of the retina. This light sensitivity causes melatonin to be produced only in low light or darkness. Increased melatonin production causes humans to feel drowsy at nighttime when the pineal gland is active. 220.127.116.11 Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3 major hormones: Calcitonin Triiodothyronine (T3) Thyroxine (T4) Calcitonin is released when calcium ion levels in the blood rise above a certain set point. Calcitonin functions to reduce the concentration of ions in the blood by aiding the absorption of calcium into the matrix. Hormones T3 and T4 work together to regulate the body's metabolic rate. Increased levels of T3 and T4 lead to increased cellular activity and energy usage in the body. Fig. 3.2.28. Thyroid Gland 18.104.22.168 Parathyroid Glands The parathyroid glands are 4 small masses of glandular tissue found on the posterior side of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands produce the hormone parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium ion homeostasis. PTH is released from the parathyroid glands when calcium ion levels in the blood drop below a set point. PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the calcium-containing bone matrix to release free calcium ions into the bloodstream. PTH also triggers the kidneys to return calcium ions filtered out of the blood back to the bloodstream so that it is conserved. Fig. 3.2.29. Parathyroid Glands 22.214.171.124 Adrenal Glands The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly triangular glands found immediately superior to the kidneys. The adrenal glands are each made of 2 distinct layers, each with their own unique functions: the outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low levels in the adrenal cortex to regulate the growth and activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones. In adult males, the amount of androgens produced by the testes is many times greater than the amount produced by the adrenal cortex, leading to the appearance of male secondary sex characteristics. The adrenal medulla produces the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine under stimulation by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Both of these hormones help to increase the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the “fight-or-flight” response to stress. These hormones also work to increase heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure while decreasing the flow of blood to and function of organs that are not involved in responding to emergencies. ![Adrenal Glands](image) Fig. 2.2.30. Adrenal Glands 126.96.36.199 Pancreas The pancreas is a large gland located in the abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior to the stomach. The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue. The endocrine cells of the pancreas makeup just about 1% of the total mass of the pancreas and are found in small groups throughout the pancreas called islets of Langerhans. Within these islets are 2 types of cells—alpha and beta cells. The alpha cells produce the hormone glucagon, which is responsible for raising blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers muscle and liver cells to break down the polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose into the bloodstream. The Beta cells produce the hormone insulin, which is responsible for lowering blood glucose levels after a meal. Insulin triggers the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, where it is added to glycogen molecules for storage. ![Pancreas](image) Fig. 3.2.31. Pancreas 188.8.131.52 Gonads The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in males—are responsible for producing the sex hormones of the body. These sex hormones determine the secondary sex characteristics of adult females and adult males. Testes: The testes are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males that produce the androgen testosterone in males after the start of puberty. Testosterone has effects on many parts of the body, including the muscles, bones, sex organs, and hair follicles. This hormone causes growth and increases in strength of the bones and muscles, including the accelerated growth of long bones during adolescence. During puberty, testosterone controls the growth and development of the sex organs and body hair of males, including pubic, chest, and facial hair. In men who have inherited genes for baldness, testosterone triggers the onset of androgenic alopecia, commonly known as male pattern baldness. Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped glands located in the pelvic body cavity lateral and superior to the uterus in females. The ovaries produce the female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens. Progesterone is most active in females during ovulation and pregnancy where it maintains appropriate conditions in the human body to support a developing fetus. Estrogens are a group of related hormones that function as the primary female sex hormones. The release of estrogen during puberty triggers the development of female secondary sex characteristics such as uterine development, breast development, and the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also triggers the increased growth of bones during adolescence that leads to adult height and proportions. 184.108.40.206 Thymus The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus produces hormones called thymosins that help to train and develop T-lymphocytes during fetal development and childhood. The T-lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on to protect the body from pathogens throughout a person's entire life. The thymus becomes inactive during puberty and is slowly replaced by adipose tissue throughout a person's life. ![Fig. 3.2.33. Thymus](image) 3.1.6 Nervous System The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs to the rest of the body. Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its parts. The brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the central nervous system (CNS), where information is evaluated and decisions made. The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor. 220.127.116.11 Respiratory System The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body's cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to accumulate. There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior. Fig. 3.2.35. Respiratory System 18.104.22.168 Immune and Lymphatic Systems The immune and lymphatic systems are two closely related organ systems that share several organs and physiological functions. The immune system is our body's defense system against infectious pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as parasitic animals and protozoa. The immune system works to keep these harmful agents out of the body and attacks those that manage to enter. The lymphatic system is a system of capillaries, vessels, and nodes. ![Immune & Lymphatic System](image) Fig. 3.2.36. Immune & Lymphatic System 22.214.171.124 Urinary System The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra together form the urinary tract, which acts as a plumbing system to drain urine from the kidneys, store it, and then release it during urination. Besides filtering and eliminating wastes from the body, the urinary system also maintains the homeostasis of water, ions, pH, blood pressure, and calcium. 3.1.10 Female Reproductive System The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, mammary glands, and breasts. These organs are involved in the production and transportation of gametes and the production of sex hormones. The female reproductive system also facilitates the fertilization of ova by sperm and supports the development of offspring during pregnancy and infancy. 3.1.11 Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system comprises of many organs, whose main function is to produce and supply sperms for reproduction. The male sex system is formed by testosterone secreted from the fetal testes; on reaching puberty, the secondary sex organ gets developed and become fully functional. Its main function is to produce Sperm in the testes and to send it by the epididymis, ejaculatory duct, and urethra. The sperms are released from the penis during ejaculation. 3.2.2 Benefits of Yoga on Human Body Unlike other physical exercises, which give benefits to the body only, Yoga benefits Body, mind, and soul. Also, no other exercise gives benefits to internal organs and glands, while for good health it is very essential that they all should work properly. Below are some of the benefits of yoga - 3.2.1 Improves flexibility Improved flexibility is one of the first and most obvious benefits of yoga. During your first class, you probably won’t be able to touch your toes, never mind do a backbend. But if you stick with it, you’ll notice a gradual loosening, and eventually, seemingly impossible poses will become possible. You’ll also probably notice that aches and pains start to disappear. That’s no coincidence. Tight hips can strain the knee joint due to improper alignment of the thigh and shinbones. Tight hamstrings can lead to a flattening of the lumbar spine, which can cause back pain. And inflexibility in muscles and connective tissues, such as fascia and ligaments, can cause poor posture. 3.2.2 Builds Muscle Strength Strong muscles do more than looking good. They also protect us from conditions like arthritis and back pain and help prevent falls in elderly people. And when you build strength through yoga, you balance it with flexibility. If you just went to the gym and lifted weights, you might build strength at the expense of flexibility. 3.2.3 Improves Body Posture Your head is like a bowling ball—big, round, and heavy. When it’s balanced directly over an erect spine, it takes much less work for your neck and back muscles to support it. Move it several inches forward, however, and you start to strain those muscles. Hold up that forward-leaning bowling ball for eight or 12 hours a day, and it’s no wonder you’re tired. And fatigue might not be your only problem. Poor posture can cause back, neck, and other muscle and joint problems. As you slump, your body may compensate by flattening the normal inward curves in your neck and lower back. This can cause pain and degenerative arthritis of the spine. 3.2.4 Prevents cartilage and joint breakdown Each time you practice yoga, you take your joints through their full range of motion. This can help prevent degenerative arthritis or mitigate disability by “squeezing and soaking” areas of cartilage that normally aren’t used. Joint cartilage is like a sponge; it receives fresh nutrients only when its fluid is squeezed out, and a new supply can be soaked up. Without proper sustenance, neglected areas of cartilage can eventually wear out, exposing the underlying bone like worn-out brake pads. 126.96.36.199 Protects Spine Spinal disks—the shock absorbers between the vertebrae that can herniate and compress nerves—crave movement. That’s the only way they get their nutrients. If you’ve got a well-balanced asana practice with plenty of backbends, forward bends, and twists, you’ll help keep your disks supple. 3.2.6 Better your bone health It’s well documented that weight-bearing exercise strengthens bones and helps ward off osteoporosis. Many postures in yoga require that you lift your own weight. And some, like Downward and Upward-facing dog, help strengthen the arm bones, which are particularly vulnerable to osteoporotic fractures. 3.2.7 Increases your blood flow Yoga gets your blood flowing. More specifically, the relaxation exercises you learn in yoga can help your circulation, especially in your hands and feet. Yoga also gets more oxygen to your cells, which function better as a result. Twisting poses are thought to wring out venous blood from internal organs and allow oxygenated blood to flow in once the twist is released. Inverted poses, such as Headstand, Handstand, and Shoulderstand, encourage venous blood from the legs and pelvis to flow back to the heart, where it can be pumped to the lungs to be freshly oxygenated. This can help if you have swelling in your legs due to heart or kidney problems. Yoga also boosts levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the tissues. And it thins the blood by making platelets less sticky and by cutting the level of clot-promoting proteins in the blood. This can lead to a decrease in heart attacks and strokes since blood clots are often the main cause behind them. 3.2.8 Drains your lymphs and boosts immunity When you contract and stretch muscles, move organs around, and come in and out of yoga postures, you increase the drainage of lymph (a viscous fluid rich in immune cells). This helps the lymphatic system fight infection, destroy cancerous cells, and dispose of the toxic waste products of cellular functioning. 3.2.9 Ups your heart rate When you regularly get your heart rate into the aerobic range, you lower your risk of heart attack and can relieve depression. While not all yoga is aerobic, if you do it vigorously or Ashtanga classes, it can boost your heart rate into the aerobic range. But even yoga practices that don’t get your heart rate up that high can improve cardiovascular conditioning. Studies have found that yoga practice lowers the resting heart rate, increases endurance, and can improve your maximum uptake of oxygen during exercise—all reflections of improved aerobic conditioning. One study found that subjects who were taught only pranayama could do more exercise with less oxygen. 3.2.10 Drops your blood pressure If you’ve got high blood pressure, you will get benefited from yoga. When compared the effects of Shavasana (Corpse Pose) with simply lying on a couch, after three months, Savasana was associated with a 26-point drop in systolic blood pressure (the top number) and a 15-point drop in diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number)—and the higher the initial blood pressure, the bigger the drop. 3.2.11 Regulates your adrenal glands Yoga lowers cortisol levels. If that doesn’t sound like much, consider this. Normally, the adrenal glands secrete cortisol in response to an acute crisis, which temporarily boosts immune function. If your cortisol levels stay high even after the crisis, they can compromise the immune system. Temporary boosts of cortisol help with long-term memory, but chronically high levels undermine memory and may lead to permanent changes in the brain. Additionally, excessive cortisol has been linked with major depression, osteoporosis (it extracts calcium and other minerals from bones and interferes with the laying down of new bone), high blood pressure, and insulin resistance. In rats, high cortisol levels lead to what researchers call “food-seeking behavior” (the kind that drives you to eat when you’re upset, angry, or stressed). The body takes those extra calories and distributes them as fat in the abdomen, contributing to weight gain and the risk of diabetes and heart attack. 3.2.12 Makes you happier Feeling sad? Sit in Lotus. Better yet, rise up into a backbend or soar royally into King Dancer Pose. While it’s not as simple as that, one study found that a consistent yoga practice improved depression and led to a significant increase in serotonin levels and a decrease in the levels of monoamine oxidase. 3.2.13 Creates a healthy lifestyle Move more, eat less—that’s the adage of many a dieter. Yoga can help on both fronts. A regular practice gets you moving, and burns calories and the spiritual and emotional dimensions of your practice may encourage you to address any eating and weight related disorders on a deeper level. Yoga may also inspire you to become a more conscious eater. 3.2.14 Lowers blood sugar Yoga lowers blood sugar and LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and boosts HDL (“good”) cholesterol. In people with diabetes, yoga has been found to lower blood sugar in several ways: by lowering cortisol and adrenaline levels, encouraging weight loss, and improving sensitivity to the effects of insulin. Get your blood sugar levels down, and you decrease your risk of diabetic complications such as heart attack, kidney failure, and blindness. 3.2.15 Helps you focus An important component of yoga is focusing on the present. Studies have found that regular yoga practice improves coordination, reaction time, memory, and even IQ scores. People who practice Transcendental Meditation demonstrate the ability to solve problems and acquire and recall information better—probably because they’re less distracted by their thoughts, which can play over and over like an endless tape loop. 3.2.16 Relaxes your system Yoga encourages you to relax, slow your breath, and focus on the present, shifting the balance from the sympathetic nervous system (or the fight-or-flight response) to the parasympathetic nervous system. The latter is calming and restorative; it lowers breathing and heart rates, decreases blood pressure, and increases blood flow to the intestines and reproductive organs. 3.2.17 Improves your balance Regularly practicing yoga increases proprioception (the ability to feel what your body is doing and where it is in space) and improves balance. People with bad posture or dysfunctional movement patterns usually have poor proprioception, which has been linked to knee problems and back pain. Better balance could mean fewer falls. For the elderly, this translates into more independence and delayed admission to a nursing home or never entering one at all. For the rest of us, postures like Tree Pose can make us feel less wobbly on and off the mat. 3.2.18 Regulates your nervous system Some advanced yogis can control their bodies in extraordinary ways, many of which are mediated by the nervous system. Scientists have monitored yogis who could induce unusual heart rhythms, generate specific brain-wave patterns, and, using a meditation technique, raise the temperature of their hands by 15 degrees Fahrenheit. If they can use yoga to do that, perhaps you could learn to improve blood flow to your pelvis if you're trying to get pregnant or induce relaxation when you're having trouble falling asleep. 3.2.19 Releases Tension From Your Limbs Do you ever notice yourself holding the telephone or a steering wheel with a death grip or scrunching your face when staring at a computer screen? These unconscious habits can lead to chronic tension, muscle fatigue, and soreness in the wrists, arms, shoulders, neck, and face, which can increase stress and worsen your mood. As you practice yoga, you begin to notice where you hold tension: It might be in your tongue, your eyes, or the muscles of your face and neck. If you simply tune in, you may be able to release some tension in the tongue and eyes. With bigger muscles like the quadriceps, trapezius, and buttocks, it may take years of practice to learn how to relax them. 3.2.20 Helps you sleep deeper Simulation is good, but too much of it taxes the nervous system. Yoga can provide relief from the hustle and bustle of modern life. Restorative asana, yoga nidra (a form of guided relaxation), Savasana, pranayama, and meditation encourage pratyahara, a turning inward of the senses, which provides downtime for the nervous system. Another by-product of a regular yoga practice, studies suggest, is better sleep—which means you'll be less tired and stressed and less likely to have accidents. 3.2.21 Boosts your immune system functionality Asana and pranayama probably improve immune function, but, so far, meditation has the strongest scientific support in this area. It appears to have a beneficial effect on the functioning of the immune system, boosting it when needed (for example, raising antibody levels in response to a vaccine) and lowering it when needed (for instance, mitigating an inappropriately aggressive immune function in an autoimmune disease like psoriasis). 3.2.22 Gives your lungs room to breathe Yogis tend to take fewer breaths of greater volume, which is both calming and more efficient. A 1998 study published in The Lancet taught a yogic technique known as “complete breathing” to people with lung problems due to congestive heart failure. After one month, their average respiratory rate decreased from 13.4 breaths per minute to 7.6. Meanwhile, their exercise capacity increased significantly, as did the oxygen saturation of their blood. In addition, yoga has been shown to improve various measures of lung function, including the maximum volume of the breath and the efficiency of the exhalation. Yoga also promotes breathing through the nose, which filters the air, warms it (cold, dry air is more likely to trigger an asthma attack in people who are sensitive), and humidifies it, removing pollen and dirt and other things you’d rather not take into your lungs. 3.2.23 Prevents IBS and other digestive problems Ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, constipation—all of these can be exacerbated by stress. So if you stress less, you’ll suffer less. Yoga, like any physical exercise, can ease constipation—and theoretically, lower the risk of colon cancer—because moving the body facilitates more rapid transport of food and waste products through the bowels. And, although it has not been studied scientifically, yogis suspect that twisting poses may be beneficial in getting waste to move through the system. 3.2.24 Gives you peace of mind Yoga quells the fluctuations of the mind, according to ‘Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. In other words, it slows down the mental loops of frustration, regret, anger, fear, and desire that can cause stress. And since stress is implicated in so many health problems—from migraines and insomnia to lupus, MS, eczema, high blood pressure, and heart attacks—if you learn to quiet your mind, you’ll be likely to live longer and healthier. 3.2.25 Increases your self-esteem Many of us suffer from chronic low self-esteem. If you handle this negatively by taking drugs, overeating, working too hard, sleeping around—you may pay the price in poorer health physically, mentally, and spiritually. If you take a positive approach and practice yoga, you’ll sense, initially in brief glimpses and later in more sustained views, that you’re worthwhile or, as yogic philosophy teaches, that you are a manifestation of the Divine. If you practice regularly with the intention of self-examination and betterment—not just as a substitute for an aerobics class—you can access a different side of yourself. You’ll experience feelings of gratitude, empathy, and forgiveness, as well as a sense that you’re part of something bigger. While better health is not the goal of spirituality, it’s often a by-product, as documented by repeated scientific studies. 3.2.26 Eases your pain Yoga can ease your pain. According to several studies, asana, meditation, or a combination of the two, reduced pain in people with arthritis, back pain, fibromyalgia, carpal tunnel syndrome, and other chronic conditions. When you relieve your pain, your mood improves, you’re more inclined to be active, and you don’t need as much medication. 3.2.27 Gives you inner strength Yoga can help you make changes in your life. In fact, that might be its greatest strength. Tapas, the Sanskrit word for “heat,” is the fire, the discipline that fuels yoga practice and that regular practice builds. The tapas you develop can be extended to the rest of your life to overcome inertia and change dysfunctional habits. You may find that without making a particular effort to change things, you start to eat better, exercise more, or finally quit smoking after years of failed attempts. 3.2.28 Connects you with guidance Good yoga teachers can do wonders for your health. Exceptional ones do more than just guiding you through the postures. They can adjust your posture, gauge when you should go deeper in poses or back off, deliver hard truths with compassion, help you relax, and enhance and personalize your practice. A respectful relationship with a teacher goes a long way towards promoting your health. 3.2.29 Helps keeping you drug free If your medicine cabinet looks like a pharmacy, maybe it’s time to try yoga. Studies of people with asthma, high blood pressure, Type II diabetes (formerly called adult-onset diabetes), and obsessive-compulsive disorder have shown that yoga helped them lower their dosage of medications and sometimes get off them entirely. The benefits of taking fewer drugs? You’ll spend less money, and you’re less likely to suffer side effects and risk dangerous drug interactions. 3.2.30 Builds awareness for transformation Yoga and meditation build awareness. And the more aware you are, the easier it is to break free of destructive emotions like anger. Studies suggest that chronic anger and hostility are as strongly linked to heart attacks as are smoking, diabetes, and elevated cholesterol. Yoga appears to reduce anger by increasing the feelings of compassion and interconnection and by calming the nervous system and mind. It also increases your ability to step back from the drama of your own life, to remain steady in the face of bad news or unsettling events. You can still react quickly when you need to—and there’s evidence that yoga speeds reaction time—but you can take that split second to choose a more thoughtful approach, reducing suffering for yourself and others. 3.2.31 Benefits your relationships Love may not conquer all, but it certainly can aid in healing. Cultivating the emotional support of friends, family, and community has been demonstrated repeatedly to improve health and healing. A regular yoga practice helps develop friendliness, compassion, and greater equanimity. Along with yogic philosophy’s emphasis on avoiding harm to others, telling the truth, and taking only what you need, this may improve many of your relationships. 3.2.32 Uses sounds to soothe your sinuses The basics of yoga—asana, pranayama, and meditation—all work to improve your health, but there's more in the yoga toolbox. Consider chaning. It tends to prolong exhalation, which shifts the balance toward the parasympathetic nervous system. When done in a group, chaning can be a particularly powerful physical and emotional experience. 3.2.33 Guides your body's healing in your mind's eye If you contemplate an image in your mind's eye, as you do in yoga nidra and other practices, you can effect change in your body. Several studies have found that guided imagery reduced postoperative pain, decreased the frequency of headaches, and improved the quality of life for people with cancer and HIV. 3.2.34 Keeps allergies and viruses at bay Kriyas, or cleansing practices, are another element of yoga. They include everything from rapid breathing exercises to elaborate internal cleansings of the intestines. Jala neti, which entails a gentle lavage of the nasal passages with salt water, removes pollen and viruses from the nose, keeps mucus from building up, and helps drains the sinuses. 3.2.35 Helps you serve others Karma Yoga (service to others) is integral to yogic philosophy. And while you may not be inclined to serve others, your health might improve if you do. A study at the University of Michigan found that older people who volunteered a little less than an hour per week were three times as likely to be alive seven years later. Serving others can give meaning to your life, and your problems may not seem so daunting when you see what other people are dealing with. 3.2.36 Encourages self-care In much of conventional medicine, most patients are passive recipients of care. In yoga, it's what you do for yourself that matters. Yoga gives you the tools to help you change, and you might start to feel better the first time you try practicing. You may also notice that the more you commit to practice, the more you benefit. This results in three things: You get involved in your own care, you discover that your involvement gives you the power to effect change, and seeing that you can effect change gives you hope. And hope itself can be healing. 3.2.37 Supports your connective tissue As you read all the ways yoga improves your health, you probably noticed a lot of overlap. That's because they're intensely interwoven. Change your posture, and change the way you breathe. Change your breathing, and you change your nervous system. This is one of the great lessons of yoga: Everything is connected—your hipbone to your anklebone, you to your community, your community to the world. This interconnection is vital for understanding yoga. This holistic system simultaneously taps into many mechanisms that have additive and even multiplicative effects. This synergy may be the most important way of all that yoga heals. 3.2.38 Uses The Placebo Effect, To Affect Change Just believing that you will get better can make you better. Unfortunately, many conventional scientists believe that if something works by eliciting the placebo effect, it doesn't count. But most of the patients who just chanted a mantra, like you might do at the beginning or end of a yoga class or throughout a meditation, they felt better. UNIT 3.3: Food Habits & other Instructions as per Yoga Philosophy Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 188.8.131.52.3.1 Explain Yogic diet 184.108.40.206.3.2 Differentiate between Satvic food, Rajasic food, and Tamasic food 220.127.116.11.3.3 Define effect of food on human body 18.104.22.168.3.4 Describe benefits of Fasting 22.214.171.124.3.5 Describe Do’s and Don’ts of Yoga 3.3.1 What is Yogic Diet? The Yogic view on diet begins with the metaphysical or energetic concept known as “the three gunas.” As per Yogic concept, by looking at the world of matter, there are three basic types of energy – rajas, tamas, and sattvas—which can be seen in all objects, experiences, and even thoughts. Rajas is fiery energy or agitation, which in its most negative form manifests as anger. Tamas is inertia, and in its most negative form manifests as laziness. Sattvas, finally, is lightness, peacefulness, and harmony. Again, as per Yoga all three can be seen in every aspect of the material world, including our bodies, our thoughts, and our feelings, and food, of course is no exception. Some foods, such as meat, spicy foods, and caffeine, are seen to be simulating or rajasic. Others, such as fatty, fermented, and overcooked foods, are seen as sedating or tamasic. And some, such as raw or lightly-cooked fruits and vegetables, grains, and legumes, are seen as healthy, nourishing or sattvic. Any person practicing Yoga should consume Sattvic food for getting quick and better results from Yoga. 126.96.36.199 Sattvic Foods Following are included in Sattvic foods – - Raw fruits - Vegetables - Lightly cooked vegetables, legumes & whole grains - Raw milk 188.8.131.52 Rajasic Foods Following are included in Rajasic foods - Meat, Spices Garlic, Refined sugar, Simulants (coffee, tea, etc.) 184.108.40.206 Tamasic Foods Following are included in Tamasic foods - Fermented foods, Fried foods Onions, Fish Eggs, Reheated foods Alcohol, Frozen Foods Fatty Foods. 3.3.2 Importance of Good Eating Habits in Yoga In Yoga, not only food selection is important but its preparation is also important. Further, the way we eat and our mindset while eating are equally significant in good eating habits – that is, even the most healthful food can have a negative impact if consumed in a state of agitation or depression. This latter point is especially important – normally we pay great attention to our diet but are far less aware of our mental state when we eat. As per Yoga belief, eating calmly, mindfully, and in silence greatly enhanced the quality of nutrition as well as the mental state fostered by that meal. Another important aspect of the gunas is that we often make the mistake of thinking that by combining rajasic and tamasic amounts to the same as sattvic – that is, we tell ourselves if we combine stimulating activities with sedating ones, we will somehow generate “balance” – and nowhere is this more common than diet, where for example we consume spicy foods which stimulate us with fatty foods or alcohol to “calm us back down”. This mistake has several powerful negative consequences. To begin, since rajasic and tamasic foods are less-than-ideal fuel sources, we get very little energy from them. Further, because the two are sending conflicting messages to body and mind, the inner effect is profoundly taxing and draining. To get an idea of this, imagine having two bosses, one who is always praising you and one who is always criticizing – the end result might seem to balance, but the internal turmoil would be great, and our bodies and nervous systems are exactly the same. By contrast, when we eat sattvic foods we not only provide much better nourishment but also help our mind remains calmer and clear, which in turn helps us make better choices in all areas of life, including diet. There are other nuances to Yogic diet, but one last element that deserves emphasis is how food influences our world-view. As you may have noticed, sattvic foods are generally simple and readily available, while rajasic and tamasic foods require greater effort both to obtain and prepare. The Yogis realized when our food is easy to obtain, can be enjoyed with little adornment, and leaves us feeling good physically and mentally; we tend to feel nourished by and connected to our world. On the other hand, if the struggle to obtain and expense to make pleasurable, we tend to feel “at odds” with nature – that life is hard, and the world is something that we must “conquer” in order to survive, let alone enjoy. In other words, the more we choose sattvic foods, the more we support not just our physical and emotional health but also our sense of connection with the world, in turn fostering our desire to support and care for it. 3.3.4 Importance of Fasting in Yoga The Yogis believe fasting can be a useful tool for all of us and even in the simplest and “mildest” form can have profound benefits. Again, given the amount of time we invest in food, they realized if every now and then we take a break from eating and invest that time in our growth – for example, time with family, serving our community, or simply reflecting on our lives – these brief periods can have great impact on our personal development. Again, it’s worth noting this doesn’t have to be long – even just a day or a portion of a day can be powerful. And if even that feels daunting, we can practice a “relative fast” – choosing a form of eating that’s simpler but still comfortable for us, like a day of just fruits and vegetables or just juice and broth, so we free up our time while still honoring our “comfort zone.” Even at the ashram where I lived, on our weekly “fasting day” the kitchen was still open with juice, soup, and simple dishes being available throughout the day for those who felt it was a better fit for them at the moment. We can also apply the idea to other areas of our lives where we realize we invest more time than might be ideal, such as television, the news, or social media. Think of what you could accomplish if, once a week or month, you took a break from an activity that consumes a lot of your time and invests it in a “greater purpose,” however you might define that. This is the idea behind spiritual fasting and fasting on holy days in general – in both the cases, we’re choosing to briefly put aside certain worldly things, not giving them up, of course, but simply taking a break to invest that energy in something more important to us that is often pressed out by daily routine. 3.3.5 Steps for Putting Spiritual Nutrition Into Practice So those are the basics of Yogic diet and fasting. As you can see, the fundamentals are actually quite simple: the Yogis realized that by focusing on natural foods in their natural state, we could foster greater health and peace of mind, and by eating mindfully and in moderation we can further support that process. Ultimately, eating this way not only can give us the best health possible but also the best mental focus and outlook for living our spiritual values. To offer a closing reinforcement, below are five simple steps we can use each time we eat to take even greater advantage of the powerful link between food and our ideals: 1. Consider your greater goals – Of course, every meal is a wonderful and important chance to experience pleasure – something the Yogis felt shouldn’t be denied or missed out on in any way – but it’s also a chance to foster health and build our capacity to serve others. Before each meal, take a moment to look at how you’d like this meal to support your long-term goals while still providing pleasure and joy. 2. Think of connection – As you prepare your food or wait to receive it, use the time to think of the connection between you and the world that meal represents. Think of the people who grew or prepared it, the plants or animals nourishing you, the people with whom you are sharing, and of course all those who support your work, making the meal possible. 3. Express gratitude – Before eating, take a moment to express, silently or out-loud, your appreciation of the nourishment and pleasure you are about to receive. Even a moment of silent thanks can greatly enhance our mindfulness and enjoyment, in turn dramatically enhancing the physical and psychological nourishment we receive from each meal. 4. Actively enjoy – We all know what it’s like to finish a meal with little recollection of how it actually tasted. As you eat, take as much time as you can to truly savor it. Ideally, consider eating in silence, or at least try to allow at least a few moments of calm within the meal, really observing and appreciating the smells, tastes, textures, and social connections of your meal. 5. Observe & reflect – At the end, take at least a moment simply to reflect: how does the meal feel for you? In retrospect, how were the choices you made? Are there things you’d like to be more aware of or do differently next time? This process of observing and reflecting will help reinforce good choices and allow us to be even more mindful and aware of our next meal. - One should practice yoga calmly without any haste or exhaustion. If one is tired, he or she should rest for a while in a comfortable posture. - One should try to practice yoga everyday regularly, preferably at the same time. - While practicing yoga, one should concentrate on yoga alone and try to keep away the other thoughts. - During the practice of Yoga asanas, the dirt in the internal organs of the body is directed towards the urinary bladder. So soon after completing yoga, one should pass out the urine. - During yoga practice, if anyone feels to attend nature’s call, he must go and attend to it immediately. One should not hold it back forcefully for a long time. One should also not try to suppress sneezing, cough, etc. If one feels thirsty one can drink a little water as well. - If one sweats during yoga practice, he or she should slowly wipe it out either with a cloth or with the palms. It is better if it dries up automatically in the air. - Pranayama should follow the asanas and meditation should follow Pranayama. - Always lay on your back for 2 to 5 minutes with relaxed breathing, after finishing Yoga postures. - Movements should be slow in every case. Sudden movements should be avoided. 3.3.9 Prayer During Yoga There are some prayers which one can offer during practicing Yoga. 1. OM saha navavatu saha nau bhunaktu saha viryam karavavahai tejasvi navadhitam astu ma vidvishavahai OM shani, shani, shani May we be protected together. May we be nourished together. May we create strength among one another. May our study be filled with brilliance and light. May there be no hostility between us. Om peace, peace, peace. 2. Gayatri Mantra Om bhur bhuvah svaha Tat savitur varenyam Bargo devasya dhimahi Dhiyo yona prachodayat I reflect on the unity of Divine Spirit, which pervades everything in the earth, the atmosphere, and heavens. May this Supreme Consciousness protect me and illuminate my intellect that I may realize my inherent Oneness with That. I meditate on the great luminous light that enlightens all three worlds. May it enlighten all. 1. Dincharya & Ritucharya with respect to yoga lifestyle 2. Hathya Pradiopika 3. Prasthana travel Practital – Demonstration & Practice skill Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Describe the clothing to wear during Yoga 2. Demonstrate how to get ready for Yoga 3. Demonstrate the key ‘Yoga Kriyas’ 4. Demonstrate the key Yoga exercises 5. Describe the benefits and the precautions of each Yoga 6. Describe situations when Yoga practice should be avoided 4.1 Clothing to Wear During Yoga One should wear comfortable clothes (preferably cotton clothes), during Yoga Exercises. The clothes should be loose enough which allow you to do all the stretching exercises and Yoga poses. Since one does Yoga exercises in the group in Yoga Center, so the Yoga clothing should be such that it should not show off private body parts during practicing different Yoga poses, specially shirshasana or similar upside down poses. Fig. 2.4.1. Ideal Clothing for Yoga 4.2 Getting Ready for Yoga One should not straightway start doing yoga after coming to class. To get proper results from Yoga, you should do following preparatory exercises – 1- Breathing Practices 2- Body Loosening Exercises 3- Sithili Vyayam 4.3 Breathing Practices Following are the breathing practices: Hand in and out 2- Hand Stretch Breathing 3- Ankle Stretch Breathing 4- Rabbit Stretch Breathing 5- Tiger Breathing 6- Dog Breathing 4.3.1 Steps for Hand in and out Step-1: Stand Straight Step-2: Stretch out your arms in front of you, in level with your shoulders and bring the palms together Step-3: While breathing in, spread your arms sideways in the horizontal plane Step-4: While breathing out, bring the arms forward with palms touching each other. Repeat the procedure five times synchronizing breathing with arms movements Relax: Relax in standing position, hands by the side of the thighs Tip Feel the changes in the breath and the body, especially the arms, shoulders and the back of the neck. 4.3.2 Steps for Hand Stretch Breathing Starting Position 1- Stand erect with feet together (heels together and toes 4 to 6 inches apart) hands relaxed by the side of the body. 2- Gently bring your hands in front of the chest. Interlock the fingers and place the palms on the chest. 3- Relax your shoulders. 4- Close your eyes. Stage-1 (At 90°) Step-1: Starting Position Step-2: While breathing in, stretch the arms in front of your body keeping your fingers interlocked. Ensure that the arms are at shoulder level. Twist the hands so that the palms face outwards. Fully stretch the arms, but do not strain. Step-3: Now, while exhaling reverse the process and bring the palms back on to the chest. Relax: Relax your shoulders again Instructions: This is one round. Repeat five times. Stage-2 (At 135°) Step-1: Repeat the same movements now stretching the arms above the forehead at an angle of 135° Instrucions: Repeat five times Stage-3 (At 180°) Step-1: Repeat the same movements, this time stretching the arms vertically above the head Instrucions: Repeat five times Step-2: While moving up and down the palms may gently touch the nose tip Tip 1- Relax the shoulders at the beginning and end of each cycle. 2- Maintain perfect awareness of the breathing. 3- Exhalation (breathing out) should be longer than the inhalation (breathing in). 4- If required, it can be practiced sitting on a chair too. 5- Properly synchronize the breathing with hand movements. 220.127.116.11 Steps for Ankle Stretch Breathing Starting Position 1- Stand erect with feet together in Tadasana Position with feet close together, knees together. 2- Hands along the thighs with fingers stretched out. 3- The legs, trunk and the head aligned in a straight line. Step-1: Open the eyes and fix your gaze on a point on the wall ahead. Place the palms in front of your thighs. Step-2: While inhaling, raise your hands and stretch the ankles. Feel yourself growing taller and firm. Step-3: As you exhale, bring your hands and heels down and Repeat five times keeping the movements of hands and ankles, continuously breathing in synchronization. Step-4: Feel the stretch, from your ankles to your fingers as you reach upwards. Relax: Relax in standing position, hands by the side of the thighs. Observe your breath and enjoy the stability for a few seconds. 4.3.4 Steps for Rabbit Breathing Staring Position 1- Sit back on the heels, keeping them apart and well tucked in under the buttocks (as in Vajrasan) 2- Keep the head, shoulders, and buttocks in a straight line. 3- Place your palms on the respective thighs and Breathe normally. 4- Keeping the knees together, bend forward and rest the forearms on the floor, with the elbows by the side of the knees and palms flat on the ground (Rabbit Pose). 5- Maintain the head at a distance of one hand length from the ground to the chin. Open your mouth partially and protrude the tongue with its tip just touching the lower lip. 6- Gaze at a point about two feet on the ground in front of you and start the practice. Procedure: Pant quickly like a rabbit, using only the upper part of the chest. Feel the air going in and out of the lungs. Feel the expansion and contraction of the chest muscles. Continue for 20-40 breaths. Relax: To finish, close your mouth and relax in Shashank asana. Stretch your hands forward with the forehead resting on the ground. Feel the relaxation of chest and thorax. Allow your breath to return to normal. Tip 1- Breathe rapidly through the mouth only, using the chest (thoracic) muscles. 2- Make sure that the abdomen presses on your thighs, preventing any abdominal movement. 3- Do not drop your head onto the floor. 4.3.5 Steps for Tiger Breathing Staring Position 1- Sit in Vajrasan. 2- Kneel on knees, and place the palms on the floor in front of you. 3- Keep the spine, neck and head erect. 4- Close the eyes. Step-1: While inhaling lift your head up, gaze at the ceiling, arch your spine down, making it concave. Step-2: While exhaling bring your head down, chin touching the chest, arching your back upwards, and making it convex. Step-3: Hold this position for a while, feeling the expansion of the chest, shoulders and stretch of the belly. Keep the eyes open. Relax: To finish, relax in Shashankasana, bring your knees and toes together and sit on the heels. Relax by stretching out your arms flat on the ground, fingers stretched outwards. Try to place the forehead on the ground if possible. Feel the breath getting shallow due to the compression of the abdominal muscles. 18.104.22.168 Precautions 1. Before starting the practice ensure that you are comfortable while standing on two hands and two knees. 2. Properly synchronize the breathing with movements. 3. Do not bend the elbows. Make sure that the thighs do not move forward and backward. 4.3.6 Steps for Dog Breathing Staring Position 1- Sit back on the heels, keeping them apart and well tucked in under the buttocks (As in Vajrasan) 2- Keep the head, shoulders and buttocks in a straight line. 3- Place your palms on the respective thighs and Breathe normally. 4- Now, place your hands before your knees, palms resting on the ground with fingers facing forward. 5- Keep the arms straight. 6- Lower the spine to a concave arch so that the line of your vision is parallel to the ground. 7- Open the mouth wide and stretch out your tongue as much as is possible and close your eyes. Procedure: Start breathing rapidly through the mouth by flapping the abdomen forcefully. The belly (abdomen) is drawn in while breathing out and bulge it out while breathing in making a panting sound, like a dog after a run. Keep the face and neck muscles relaxed. Feel the movement of the belly and the sensation of the air going into your lungs. Feel the tingling sensation in your throat and neck. Relax: Relax in shashankasana with your forehead and elbows on the ground, arms stretched outwards. Observe the sensations in the throat and the abdomen. Instructions: Practice for at least nine times initially. Over the next few days (about a week) you may increase it gradually. But it should not be beyond your capacity. Tip 1- Feel the free smooth flow of air, in and out through the throat and the air passages. 2- Breathe uniformly and as rapidly as possible. 4.4.4 Types Sithili Vyayam Following are the Types of Sithili Vyayam - 1- Toe Bending 2- Ankle Bending 3- Ankle Rotation 4- Knee Bending 5- Knee Rotation 6- Knee Cap Tightening 7- Half Butterfly 8- Full Butterfly 9- Waist Rotation 10- Wrist Rotation 11- Shoulder Rotation 12- Neck Bending 13- Neck Rotation 14- Elbow Stretching 4.4.1 Steps for Toe Bending Step-1: Set yourself in the primary position. Set apart the legs maintaining some distance. Concentrate on toes. Step-2: Inhale deeply and move the toes backward with ease. Keep your eyes close while practicing. Step-3: Exhale when moving the toes forward. Be conscious about the toe's movement. Step-4: Don't move your ankle. Initially repeat this exercise for 10 times. Open your eyes after the practice. 4.4.2 Steps for Ankle bending Step-1: Get into the base position Set apart the legs maintaining Step-2: Inhale deeply while moving the Step-3: Exhale when moving the feet Step-4: Stretch your toes outward. Close your eyes during the exercise. Instrucions: Repeat this exercise for ten times. 4.4.3 Steps for Ankle Rotation Step-1: Get yourself in the primary position. Set the legs little apart Step-2: Rotate your feet clockwise and anti-clockwise, with the heels Step-3: Rotate your foot simultaneously or alternatively Instrucions: 1- Repeat this exercise for ten times. 2- Do not allow the knees to be stirred, Keep your body straight and erect. Keep your eyes closed. 4.4.4 Steps for Knee Bending Step-1: Sit in Primary Position. Bend the Step-2: Interlocking the fingers below the thighs. Hold the thighs up to the chest level and keep the heel near the thighs. Keep your arm as straight as possible while bending your elbow. Step-3: Inhale deeply and slowly while straightening your legs. Do not allow the heel or toes to touch the floor. The thighs should get back to the chest level. Instruccions: 1- Practice this ten times with both the legs alternately. 2- Remain attentive of your breathing pattern and the thighs. 3- Apply more thigh pressure on your abdomen when you exhale out and carry your thighs close to the chest. 4- Set both the legs back in the basic position after the completion of exercise. 4.4.5 Steps for Knee Rotation Step-1: Sit in the base position. Bend the right leg at the knee. Place the hands under the right thigh and interlock the fingers or cross the arms holding the elbows. Raise the right foot from the ground. Rotate the lower leg from the knee in a large circular movement. Try to straighten the leg at the top of the Step-2: Rotate 10 times clockwise and then 10 times anti-clockwise. 4.4.6 Steps for Knee Cap Tightening Procedure: Slowly pull the kneecaps upwards and then release them. 4.4.7 Half Butterfly Pose (Ardh Titali Asana) Step-1: Remain in the primary position Step-2: Bending the right knee put the right leg on the left thigh as up as possible Step-3: Allow the right heel to touch the waist Step-4: Put the right palm on the thigh. Grasp the right toe firmly with the left hand. Keep the spinal chord and the neck straight. Hold the left leg straight with the heel touching the floor. Inhaling deep, effortlessly press the knee downward. Now exhale deep but slow, raise the knee up to the chest & Avoid forward bending Step-5: This is the first cycle of the practice, Repeat 20 times each with alternate legs Instructions: You may also perform this exercise with rhythmic breathing 4.4.8 Steps for Full Step-1: Remain in the primary pose. Keep the spinal chord and the neck straight. Step-2: Bend both the knees. Bring the soles of the feet together and place them up to the crotch area. Grasp both the paws firmly with your hands. Step-3: Place the elbows on the thighs. Inhale deep and press both the palms firmly on the thighs. Step-4: Remove your hands from thighs and try to raise the knees without bending. Instructions: 1. Initially attempt this for 20-30 seconds. 2. Get back to the primary position after the practice. 3. Closing your eyes remain focused on the hip joints and the waist area. 4. Open your eyes after a while. --- 4.4.9 Steps for Waist Rotation Step-1: Keep both the legs one meter apart. Step-2: Keep your both palms on your waist. Step-3: Make a circle by rotating your waist starting from the right side. Step-4: Start rotating your waist anti-clockwise. Instructions: Repeat above steps 10-30 times. 4.4.10 Steps for Wrist Rotation Step-1: Sit in Sukhasan. Keep the spinal chord and neck straight. Step-2: Stretch forward both the hands to your shoulder level. Keep the elbow straight and erect. Step-3: Now form a clenched fist with the right hand, placing the thumb inside. Step-4: Grasp firmly the wrist joint of the right hand with the left palm. Step-5: Keep the left thumb on the upper part and the rest four fingers on the lower part. Step-6: Now rotate the clenched fist clockwise and then anti-clockwise. Instructions: 1- Repeat this ten times with alternate hands. 2- Later simultaneously rotate both the hands in a circular motion without any grip. 3- Do not allow the elbows to bend. --- 4.4.11 Steps for Shoulder Rotation Step-1: Place the fingers of the left hand on the left shoulder and the fingers of the right hand on the right shoulder. Fully rotate both elbows at the same time in a large circle. Step-2: Try to touch the elbows in front of the chest on the forward movement and touch the ears while moving up. Stretch the arms back in the backward movement and touch the sides of the trunk while coming down. Practice slowly 10 times clockwise and then 10 times anticlockwise. --- 4.4.12 Steps for Neck Bending Step-1: Sit in the base position or a cross-legged pose with the hands resting on the knees in Gyan or chin mudra. Close the eyes. Slowly move the head forward and try to touch the chin to the chest. Step-2: Move the head as far back as comfortable. Do not strain. Try to feel the stretch of the muscles in the front and back of the neck, and the loosening of the vertebrae in the neck. Practice 10 times. 4.4.13 Steps for Neck Rotation Step-1: Sit in the base position or a cross-legged pose with the hands resting on the knees in Gyan or chin mudra. Gently turn the head to the right so that the chin is in line with the shoulder. Feel the release of tension in the neck muscles and the loosening of the neck joints. Step-2: Slowly turn the head to the left as far as is comfortable. Do not strain. Practice 10 times on each side. 4.4.14 Steps for Elbow Stretching Step-1: Remain in the base position or a cross-legged pose. Stretch the arms in front of the body at shoulder level. The hands should be open with the palms facing up. Step-2: Bend the arms at the elbows and touch the fingers to the shoulders. Straighten the arms again. Step-1: Sit in any meditative pose. Keep the spine erect and your head and neck straight. Eyes should be closed. Relax the muscles of the body and become aware of your breath. Do not control your breath forcefully. Step-2: Place the thumb on one nostril and the tip of the ring finger against the other nostril. The thumb and ring finger will be used to close alternate nostrils as you breathe. Begin the exercise by blocking your left side nostril and breathe out with your right nostril. Step-3: Continue to block your left nostril and breathe in using your right nostril. Open your left nostril as you simultaneously cover and block your right nostril. Breathe out slowly using the open left nostril. Once this is done go ahead and breathe in with your left nostril that is open. Close the left nostril and let the air move out through your right nostril that you now leave open. 22.214.171.124.1 Benefits Following are the benefits of Nadi Suddhi - 1- As pure oxygenated air is breathed into the lungs with each cycle, the blood gets purified, and circulation improves. 2- This pranayama helps strengthen the lungs and increases overall lung capacity. 3- Alternate Nostril breathing can help treat disorders of the respiratory system. 4- Due to the improvement in blood circulation, the functioning of other organs in the body also improves. 5- As circulation improves, energy levels also increase. 6- Nadi Suddhi pranayama can help with weight loss as it increases the rate of metabolism. 7- It helps calm the nervous system. 8- Regular practice helps reduce stress. 9- It can improve mental health. 10- Alternate Nostril breathing can help remove excess body heat. 11- It can help improve appetite. 12- Alternate Nostril breathing can help reduce body odour. 126.96.36.199 Steps for Sithili Pranayama Step-1: Sit in any meditative pose. Keep the spine erect and your head and neck straight. Make Gyan Mudra. Curl your tongue by curving the sides upward. Let your tongue stick out just past your lips. If your tongue doesn't curl, bend the sides up as much as you can and make a slight “o” with your mouth. Step-2: Inhale deeply through the tongue and mouth. You'll feel a cooling sensation as the air glides through your tongue. Breathe into the belly, filling yourself up. Step-3: Exhale fully through your nose. ### 188.8.131.52.1 Benefits Following are the benefits of Sithili Pranayama - 1- It relaxes all the muscles. 2- It gives soothes eyes, ears and purifies the blood. 3- It quenches the thirst, appease hunger. 4- Reduces the tension. 5- Makes teeth and gum healthy. 6- Reduces blood pressure. 7- Improves indigestion. 8- Improves skin disease. 184.108.40.206.1 Benefits Following are the benefits of Ujjayi Pranayama - 1- Ujjayi Pranayama aerates the lungs, removes phlegm, gives endurance, soothes the nerves and tones the entire system. 2- Ujjayi Pranayama without Kumbhaka, done in a reclining position, is ideal for persons suffering from high blood pressure or coronary troubles. 3- Ujjayi Pranayama involves shallow breathing aimed at flexing diaphragm. This type of breathing is good for health as it improves oxygenation needed in many body functions. 4- Ujjayi Pranayama helps calm the body as it increases the circulation of blood. Ujjayi provides meditative effects by allowing maintaining the tempo of workout session, without any distractions. 5- Ujjayi Pranayama helps strengthen the digestive and Nervous system. It helps reduce risk to diseases that are caused by the accumulation of bile, wind or phlegm. 6- Ujjayi Pranayama allows eradicating a large amount of wastes from the body, as it improves the circulatory system needed to purify the nerves and tissues. 7- Ujjayi Pranayama also clears the lungs and nasal cavity. In addition to that, it has proven an effective remedy against diseases of the respiratory system. 220.127.116.11 Chanting of Om Procedure: For meditation and relaxation you can chant Om by sitting in any meditative pose, like Sukhasan, Padmasan or Vajrasan. 2.4.9 Sitting Pose Asanas Following are the Asanas which can be practiced in Sitting Position - 18.104.22.168 Steps for Paschimottanasana Step-1: Sit down straight with your legs together by stretching them in front of you. Keep your head, neck, and spine erect. Step-2: Now bend your head and trunk slowly forward to catch the toes with the thumb, index, and middle fingers without bending knees. Take a deep breath and exhale slowly. Step-3: Try to touch your head to your both knees. Bend the arm and try to touch the elbow to the floor. Exhale completely and holding out your breath stay in this posture for a few seconds. Step-4: After a few seconds, slowly return to your starting position and breathe normally. Repeat this for 3-4 times. 22.214.171.124.1 Benefits of Paschimottanasana Following are the benefits of Paschimottasana - 1- It acts as a stress reliever. Remove anxiety, anger, and irritability. Calms the mind. 2- Reduces fatty deposits in the abdomen. 3- Stretches the spine and brings flexibility. 4- Good for constipation and digestive disorder. 5- Useful for increasing height. 6- Regular practice cures impotency and enhances the sexual power. 7- Tones the abdominal-pelvic organs. 8- Balances the menstrual cycles. 9- This asana is recommended especially for women after delivery. 126.96.36.199.2 Precautions 1- Pregnant women should not practice Paschimottasana. 2- Person suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem, asthma should avoid Paschimottasana. 3- Ulcer patient should not practice. 188.8.131.52 Steps for Gomukhasana Step-1: Sit with the legs straight Step-2: Bend the left leg and place it over the right thigh so that the left heel touches the outer side of the right buttock Step-3: Bend the right leg and place the right heel beside the left buttock. Both buttocks remain on the floor Step-4: Bring the left arm behind the back from below and clasp the fingers of both hands together Step-5: The head remains upright and straight and rests on the right forearm. Look up breathing normally hold the position. Return to the starting position & Practice the exercise on the other side 184.108.40.206.1 Benefits 1. Promotes mobility of the shoulders and hips. 2. Strengthening the muscles of the chest and back. 3. Improves a rounded back and sideways curvature of the spine. 4. Facilitates deeper breathing. 5. Simulates kidney function, 6. Activates the bladder and the digestive system. 7. Counters diabetes. 8. Strengthens the finger joints and wrists. 220.127.116.11 Steps for Vakrasana Step-1: Sit down stretching your legs forward on the ground. Step-2: Keep your hands beside your thighs or buttocks. Bend your right leg straight and stretched. Keep the Right foot beside the Left knee and the Right knee raised upward. Step-3: Inhale and raise the arms to shoulder height, keeping the elbows straight. Exhaling, twist to the Right, place the Left arm by the outer side of the Right knee and hold the Right ankle with the Left hand. Step-4: Take the Right hand behind the back keeping the palms on the floor. Look backward towards the left side. 18.104.22.168.1 Benefits 1. Increases the elasticity of the spine and tones the spinal nerves. 2. Stretches the muscles. 3. Helps to get relief in stiffness of vertebrae. 4. Massages the abdominal organs. 5. Reduces belly fat. 6. Regulates the secretion of digestive juices useful for different digestive disorders. 7. Loosens the hip joints, relieving stiffness. 8. Flab on the lateral side of the abdomen gets reduced. 9. Specifically, simulates Navel chakra or Manipur chakra. 22.214.171.124 Steps for Ustrasana (Camel Pose) Step-1: Sit on the floor stretching your leg and keeping your spine erect keeping palms on the ground side by the buttocks. Step-2: Bend your leg by the knees and sit on your heels placing the buttocks between the heels. Step-3: Kneel on the floor keeping your knees in line with the shoulders and sole of the feet facing the ceiling. Keep your hand on waist. Step-4: Inhale and arch your back and place your palms on the heels of the feet. Keep your arms straight. Do not strain your neck, keep it neutral. Let your neck be free. Stay in this final position for a couple of breaths or as much longer as you can. Step-5: Breathe out and slowly come to the normal position withdrawing your hands from the feet. 126.96.36.199.1 Benefits 1. Ustrasana stretches the anterior muscles of the body. 2. Improves flexibility of the spine and strengthens it. 3. Camel Pose improves digestion. 4. Gives relaxation to the lower back. 5. Useful as an initial practice for back bending. 188.8.131.52.2 Precautions People suffering from severe back and neck injury, high or low blood pressure, migraine should not practice this asana. 184.108.40.206 Steps for Mandukasana (Frog Pose) Step-1: Comfortably sit in Vajrasana. Close the fists of your both hands. While clinching the fists press your thumb inside with the fingers. Step-2: While pressing the navel with your both fists exhale and bend forward. Hold the breath when you are in the position of bend forward and keep looking straight. Instructions: Stay in this position for some time, inhale and come back to starting position (Vajrasana). Repeat this for three to four times. 220.127.116.11.1 Benefits 1. Increases the quantity of insulin, so it is beneficial for curing diabetes. 2. Cure the problems related to stomach. 3. It is beneficial in cardiovascular diseases. 4. Useful for flexibility of thighs and legs. 5. Reduces extra fat from thighs and hips. 6. It improves the functioning of digestive system and excretory system. 7. It cures the pain of ankles, knees, and back. 18.104.22.168.2 Precautions 1. Those people who are suffering from abdominal injuries and any kind of back pain do not perform the Manduk asana. 2. In the case of knee injury avoid this. 22.214.171.124 Steps for Shankasana Step-1: Sit in Vajrasana. Place your hands on the thighs and breathe in a relaxed manner. Step-2: Raise both your hands above the head, palms facing forward. The arms should be in line with the shoulders. Step-3: Slowly bend down and bring the hands forward, till the hands and forehead touched the ground. Exhale while you are bending forward. Step-4: In the final position the forehead and hands rest on the ground. Rest in this position for as long as you are comfortable. In the final position slow rhythmic and relaxed breathing can be done. Exhale slowly and come back to the starting position (kneeling pose). Instruccions: Repeat this process for 5 to 10 rounds depending on time and comfort. ### 126.96.36.199.1 Benefits 1. This asana relaxes the mind and relieves depression. 2. It tones the pelvic muscles and relieves sciatic pain. 3. It can help in sexual disorders. 4. It gives a good relaxing stretch to the upper body. 188.8.131.52 Steps for Janusirasana Step-1: First of all sit down in a basic pose with both the legs broadened in front. Keep your toes and heels together. Step-2: Slowly curve your left leg such that the left leg foot touches the thigh. Step-3: While breathing out, bend in the forward direction to place your palms ahead of your toes. Hold your right leg toe with both the hands and bow more so that your frontal bone touches the right knee. Hold this position and have normal breathing as long as you're at ease. Step-4: While breathing in, get back to sitting and resting position. Step-5: Repeat the same process for Left leg. 184.108.40.206.1 Benefits 1. Constipation is cured. 2. Meliorates tractableness of sciatic nerve and ankle, knee and hip joints. 3. The ribs become progressively elastic and flexible. 4. Raises functionality capacity of the kidney. 5. Janusirasana increases the stretchable capacity of venous blood vessel and sinews of the backbone. 6. This asana is the most vivid stretching out pose and such poses increments circulation to liver, spleen, and pancreas. 7. This asana provides rest in cases of sciatica. 8. It arouses thymus gland secretory organ, digestion and immune system. 9. All the troubles of ankle joint, calf-muscles, knees and second joint i.e., thigh disappear by janusirasana. 10. Step-ups flexibleness of the trapezius muscle, deltoid muscle, thighbone and biceps muscular issue and provide strength to last five vertebrae of the backbone. 11. The joints also become flexible and strong. 12. Elongates and forifies hip, ariculaion coxae, shoulders, and backbone. 13. Complete disorderliness of the seminal fluid are healed. 14. Energizes and strengthens the digestive organs, step-ups vermiculaion, remedies consipaion and other troubles. 15. Janusirasana is very beneficial for patients with diabetes. 16. Summons ariculaions and increments snap in the lumbar vertebral column. 17. Troubles of short temper, liver, and bowels are recovered and also improves the digestion process. 18. Provide adequate flexibility to back bone and back muscles. 19. Janusirasana helps oneself to balance the level of blood sugar and also the metabolic process. 20. Relieves compression of the spine and sciatica. 21. It tones up and stretches out the hamstring tendon. 22. This asana holds healthful consequence on nervus ischiadicus (sciatic nerve). 23. This asana improves concentration capacity and intellectual endurance of the body. 2.4.10 Asans in Prone Condition Following are the Asanas which can be practiced in Prone or lying on stomach position - 220.127.116.11 Steps for Bhujangasana Step-1: Lie down on the floor on your stomach in a comfortable level preferably on yoga mat. Keep your feet together with the tops of them against the floor. Step-2: Now spread your hands on the floor under your shoulders and hug your elbows against your rib cage. After doing this close your eyes, and inhale slowly but deeply. Imagine the stability in your pelvis, thighs and your feet tops. Imagine, that part rooted to the ground. Step-3: Exhale gradually before opening your eyes, continue breathing process (Inhale - exhale) slowly and deeply. As you inhale, your arm should be steadily straightened. Extend through and deepen your stretch to create a graceful arc in your back. Use the stretch in your legs and back, in place of exerting yourself to gain height and risk overarching the spine. Step-4: Now press your tail bone towards your pubis and lift your pubis toward your navel, in this, trying to narrow your hips. Instruccions: Keep your shoulders broad but in a relaxed position, with the blades low on your back. Now lift from the top of your sternum, but try to avoid pushing the front of your ribs forward. Puff your side ribs forward and keep your lower back in relaxed, and trying to distribute the stretch evenly along your spine. In the process of up and down, inhale when you bent upwards and hold your breathe for few seconds, and in the down position exhale. In upward position trying to hold your breathe for some seconds, and release your breathe while getting back to starting position or lying down position. 18.104.22.168.1 Benefits 1. This Asana helps to stretch muscles in the shoulders, chest and abdominal also. It decreases the stiffness of the lower back, and it gives strength to arms and shoulders. 2. It increases flexibility, improves menstrual irregularities in women. Elevate mood, and this can also help in stress, depression, anxiety keep away from our mind. It firms and tones the butt area. 3. Improves the blood circulation and oxygen in body, heart and throughout the spinal and pelvic region especially, and it simulates organs in the abdomen, like kidneys. It also opens the chest and helps to clear the passages of the heart and lungs. 4. Improves digestion. Gives strengthens to the spinal cord. Help to soothes sciatica. It also helps to cure the symptoms of asthma. 22.214.171.124.2 Precautions People who are suffering from back injury are advised not to do this. Also, people having Carpal tunnel syndrome, headache and in the case of Pregnancy do not try this asana. 126.96.36.199 Steps for Shalabhasana (Locust) Step-1: Lie down on your Stomach; place Step-2: Breath in (inhale) and lift your Both leg up, (your leg should not bend at the knee). Your chin should Step-3: After that exhale and take down Instruccions: 1- Repeat this for five to seven 188.8.131.52.1 Benefits 1. It is beneficial in all the disorders at the lower end of the spine. 2. Most helpful for a backache and sciatica pain. 3. Useful for removing unwanted fats around abdomen, waist, hips and thighs. 4. Daily practice of this Asana can cure cervical spondyliosis and spinal cord ailments. 5. Strengthening your wrists, hips, thighs, legs, buttocks, lower abdomen and diaphragm. 6. Toughens back muscles. 184.108.40.206.2 Precautions Don’t practice this asana in case if any surgery has been done. First practice Nilabh Shalabhasana then only practice Shalabhasana. Control your breathing while doing this pose. 2.4.11 Supine Following are the Asanas which can be practiced in Supine or ‘lying on back’ position - 220.127.116.11 Steps for Straight Leg Raising Step-1: Lie flat on your back Step-2: Bend one knee, one leg straight, tighten your abs and raise the straightened leg off the floor. Tighten the muscle on the top of your thigh as you slowly lift your leg, keeping your knee straight. Step-3: Lower it and repeat several times with both legs. 18.104.22.168 Steps for Both Leg Raising Step-1: Lie flat on your back. Step-2: Bend one knee, one leg straight, tighten your abs and raise the straightened leg off the floor. Tighten the muscle on the top of your thigh as you slowly... 22.214.171.124 Steps for Halasana Step-1: Lie on the yoga mat or carpet and join the legs together. Step-2: Raise your legs to make an angle of 90 degree. Step-3: Thrust the palms, raise the waist and legs, bending forwards curving the back and resing the legs on the floor above head. Step-4: Try to place the big toe on the floor and keep the legs straight. Step-5: Balance the whole weight on the shoulder blade, shift both the hands over the head, join the fingers and hold the head with it and relax the elbows on the floor. Step-6: Try to remain in the position till the count of 100. Step-7: Then release the fingers above the head, pressing the palms on the floor taking back thumb toe gently bring the body and legs to the floor. Step-8: Relax and practice for 2 rounds more. 126.96.36.199.1 Benefits 1. Practicing this asana regularly can avoid diseases like diabetes, obesity, constipation, stomach disorder, blood pressure, and menstrual disorders. 2. It makes your back bone elastic and flexible. 3. Halasana helps to reduce both belly and body fat. 4. It improves memory power. 188.8.131.52.2 Precautions 1. Those having neck pain, spondylosis, and high blood pressure should not practice this yoga pose. 2. Pregnant ladies should not try this asana. 184.108.40.206 Steps for Pawanmuktasan Step-1: Lie in the base position. Bend the right knee and bring the thigh to the chest. Interlock the fingers and clasp the hands on the shin just below the right knee. Keep the left leg straight and on the ground. Step-2: Inhale deeply, filling the lungs as much as possible. Holding the breath, raise the head and shoulders off the ground and try to touch the right knee with the nose. Remain in the final position for a few seconds, retaining the breath and counting mentally. While slowly exhaling, return to the base position. 220.127.116.11.1 Benefits Pawanmuktasana strengthens the lower back muscles and loosens the spinal vertebrae. It massages the abdomen and the digestive organs and is, therefore, very effective in removing wind and constipation. By massaging the pelvic muscles and reproductive organs, it is also useful in the treatment of impotence, sterility, and menstrual problems. 18.104.22.168.2 Precautions Not to be performed by persons suffering from high blood pressure or serious back conditions, such as sciatica and slipped disc. 22.214.171.124 Steps for Straight Leg Up Down Step-1: Lie on the ground. Leg together. Keep your both palm under your buttock. Step-2: Inhale lift your right leg in 45 degree and left leg 35 degree. Now take your legs up and down movement with normal breath. Repeat 10 counts. 2.4.12 Asanas in Standing Pose Following are the Asanas which can be practiced in Standing Position - 126.96.36.199 Steps for Virkshasana Step-1: Stand erect. Spread both arms at shoulder level. Lift Right leg and join it with the Left leg at the thigh. Step-2: Raise both hands over head and join them. 188.8.131.52 Steps for Padahastasana Step-1: Stand straight. Legs together, hands by the side of your thighs. Chest must be opened. Now slowly inhale and raise your hand straight upwards over to your head. Your biceps must touch your ears keeping the elbows straight. While stretching do not bend your neck forward. Turn your palms forward. Step-2: Now slowly exhale and start bending forward with the lower back. Keep your legs straight, do not bend your knees. Keep bending forward. First your abdomen touches your thighs and then your chest. Step-3: Now your hold your heels of the feet with respective hands and touch your forehead to the knees. Keep your breath out as much as possible or if you can also start normal breathing in the final position. Remain in this position at least for 15-30 seconds. Step-4: Now first lift up your forehead and the hands from the heels. Then while inhaling slowly start raising up and stand straight. Keep your hands stretched upwards with biceps touching your ears. Step-5: Slowly start exhaling and bring back your hands down keeping the palm on your thighs. Apart your legs and relax yourself. 184.108.40.206 Steps for Suryanamaskar Suryanamaskar is a very important yogasan. It has 12 poses, which give benefit to complete body. If someone has less time to do different Yoga, he/she can practice this to get complete benefit of Yoga. Step 1 (Prayer pose) Stand at the edge of your mat, keep your feet together and balance your weight equally on both the feet. Expand your chest and relax your shoulders. As you breathe in, lift both arms up from the sides and as you exhale, bring your palms together in front of the chest in prayer position. Step 2 (Raised Arms Pose) Breathing in, lift the arms up and back, keeping the biceps close to the ears. In this pose, the objective is to stretch the whole body up from the heels to the tips of the fingers. To get maximum benefits, you may pull the pelvis forward and ensure reaching up with your fingers rather than going backward. Step 3 (Hand to Foot Pose) Breathing out, bend forward from the waist, keeping the spine erect. As you exhale completely, bring the hands down to the floor, beside the feet. Step 4 (Equestrian Pose) Breathing in, push your right leg back, as far back as possible. Bring the right knee to the floor and look up. Step 5 (Sick Pose) As you breathe in, take the left leg back and bring the whole body in a straight line and keep your arms perpendicular to the floor. Step 6 (Saluting with eight points or parts) Gently bring your knees down to the floor and exhale. Take the hips back slightly, slide forward, rest your chest and chin on the floor. Raise your posterior a little bit. The two hands, two feet, two knees, chest and chin (eight parts of the body) should touch the floor. Step 7 (Cobra Pose) Slide forward and raise the chest up into the cobra posture. You may keep your elbows bent in this pose, the shoulders away from the ears. Look up. As you inhale, make a gentle effort to push the chest forward; as you exhale, make a gentle effort to push the navel down. Tuck the toes under. Ensure you’re stretching just as much as you can; do not force. Step 8 (Mountain Pose) Breathing out, lift the hips and the tail bone up, chest downwards in an ‘inverted V’ (/) posture. If possible, try and keep the heels on the ground and make a gentle effort to lift the tailbone up, going deeper into the stretch. Step 9 (Equestrian Pose) Breathing in, bring the right foot forward in between the two hands, left knee down to the floor, press the hips down and look up and place the right foot exactly between the two hands and the right calf perpendicular to the floor. In this position, make a gentle effort to push the hips down towards the floor, to deepen the stretch. Step 10 (Hand to Foot Pose) Breathing out, bring the left foot forward. Keep the palms on the floor. You may bend the knees, if necessary. Gently straighten the knees and if you can, try and touch your nose to the knees. Keep breathing. Step 11 (Raised Arms Pose) Breathing in, roll the spine up, hands go up and bend backward a little bit, pushing the hips slightly outward. Ensure that your biceps are beside your ears. The idea is to stretch up more rather than stretching backward. Step 12 As you exhale, first straighten the body, and then bring the arms down. Relax in this position; observe the sensations in your body. 220.127.116.11 Benefits of Surayanaskar Following are some of the main benefits of Suryanamskar - 1. Improves Blood Circulation of the Body Due to the active process of inhalation and exhalation, the lungs are constantly ventilated, and the blood remains oxygenated. It’s a great way of detoxing your body and helping it get rid of excess carbon dioxide and other toxic gases. 2. Your Mantra to Weight Loss When done at a fast pace, it is a great cardiovascular workout that stretches the abdominal muscles while simultaneously helping you reduce excess weight around your stomach. The asanas also result in toning your arms, abs and giving great flexibility to your spine. Moreover, it helps to strengthen your entire skeletal system including your ligaments. 3. Promotes a Regular Menstrual Cycle If you’re facing the problem of an irregular menstrual cycle, these asanas will help you suppress this irregularity and if practiced daily, it ensures an easy childbirth. 4. Benefits your Skin and Hair By incorporating it into your routine, it will keep you youthful and healthy even in old age. It improves your blood circulation that aids in bringing back the glow on your face; preventing the onset of wrinkles, making your skin look ageless and radiant. It also prevents hair loss and the aging of hair. 5. Anti-anxiety and Calming Properties Surya Namaskar helps to improve memory and the nervous system. Moreover, it stabilizes the activity of the endocrine and thyroid glands, thereby reducing anxiety and inducing the sensation of complete calmness and tranquility. 2.4.13 Kriyas Kriyas are cleansing practices. In that sense, we all practice kriyas daily. Bathing, washing the face, brushing the teeth all are kriyas. But yoga kriyas refer to special yoga techniques developed by the yogis, meant to cleanse the inner organs. They are: 1. Trataka for eyesight. 2. Nei for upper nasal track (from throat to nostrils) 3. Kapalabhati for lower respiratory track (from nostril to lungs) 4. Dhoui for upper gastro intestinal tract (GIT) up to the stomach. 5. Nauli for abdominal viscera (Agnisara is the preparatory phase for nauli) 6. Basif for lower gastro intestinal (GIT) especially the rectum. 4.13.1 Steps of Kapalbhai Procedure: Sit in any meditating posture. Keep your head, neck, and spine erect. Close your eyes and collapse the shoulder. Normalize your breath. Relax the whole body completely. Practice rapid breathing with active and forceful exhalation and passive inhalation. During each exhalation, blast out the air by vigorous flapping movements of the abdomen in quick succession. Inhale passively by relaxing the abdominal muscles at the end of exhalation. Repeat the exhalation as quickly as possible at the rate of 60 strokes in 1 minute. At the end of one minute, stop the practice. 18.104.22.168 Benefits 1. Brain cells are invigorated. 2. It brings brightness to the face. 3. It balances and strengthens the nervous system. 4. It aids digestion and removal of acidity and gas-related problems. 5. Regular practices of kapalabhai is also beneficial for belly fat loss. 6. It activates the body and removes lethargy. 7. It is good for asthma patients. 22.214.171.124 Precautions Practice of kapalabhai is to be avoided in the following conditions - 1. Moderate and severe high blood pressure or Ischemic heart disease 2. Vertigo 3. Epilepsy 4. Hernia or Gastric ulcer 5. Slip disc or Spondylosis 6. Women during menses or Pregnancy 4.13.2 Sukhma Tratka – Jathru Tratka Palming: Sit quietly and close the eyes. Rub the palms of the hands together vigorously until they become hot. Place the palms gently over the eyelids, without any undue pressure. Feel the warmth and energy being transmitted from the hands into the eyes and the eye muscles relaxing. The eyes are being bathed in a soothing darkness. Remain in this position until the heat from the hands has been absorbed by the eyes. Then lower the hands, keeping the eyes closed. Again rub the palms together until they become hot and place them over the closed eyes. (Make sure the palms and not the fingers cover the eyes). Repeat this procedure at least 3 times. Benefits: Palming relaxes and revitalises the eye muscles, and simulates the circulation of the aqueous humour, the liquid that runs between the cornea and the lens of the eye, aiding the correction of defective vision. Precautions: The benefits are enhanced if the exercise is practiced in front of the rising or setting sun. Be aware of the warmth and light on the closed lids. Never look directly at the sun except for a few initial moments when it is just rising or when it is about to set. Blinking: Sit with the eyes open. Blink the eyes 10 times quickly. Close the eyes and relax for 20 seconds. Repeat the blinking 10 times quickly and then again close the eyes and relax. Repeat 5 times. Benefits: Many people with defective eyesight blink irregularly and unnaturally. This is related to the state of habitual tension in the eyes. This exercise encourages the blinking reflex to become spontaneous, inducing relaxation of the eye muscles. 126.96.36.199 Nei Nei is for cleansing of the nasal passage. It is of two types – 1- Jal Nei (with water) & 2- Sutra Nei (with Rubber tube) 188.8.131.52.1 Steps of Jal Nei 1- Take 1 mug of lukewarm water. Add 1-2 teaspoon of salt. Put salt water in neipot. 2- Stand with leg apart and hold the neipot in right hand. 3- Inserts the nozzle of neipot into right nostril. 4- Keep the mouth open and breathe through the mouth. Breathe freely through the mouth. 5- Bend forward from the lower back, slightly bend your head left side and put the nozzle in right nostril and come out through left nostril (lukewarm water) by gravity. 6- Allow the flow till the pot is empty. 7- Repeat the same procedure from the left side. 8- To clear the nasal passage of the remaining water blow out the water by active exhalation through alternate nostril as in kapalabhati. 184.108.40.206.2 Steps of Sutra Nei 1- Insert the end of a thin and soft rubber catheter horizontally into the right nostril. 2- Slightly lift your head back. 3- Insert the right index and right middle finger inside your mouth and catch the catheter at the back of the throat. 4- Take out the last part of the catheter through the mouth and give a gentle massage to the whole nasal passage. 5- Then slowly remove the catheter from the nose. 6- Repeat same practices from the left side. Fig. 2.4.14. Performing Sutra Neti 4.13.4 Steps for Jalandhar Bandhas Step-1: Assume the meditative pose like Padmasana or Siddhasana. Keep the spine straight. Place the palms on the knees and make sure that the knees are firmly touching the floor. Close your eyes and relax the body. Breathe normally. Now inhale slowly and deeply and then hold the breath. Instructions: Step-2: Contract the throat muscles and bend the head forward so that the chin touched the chest. Adjust the chin position so that it rests between the two collar bones in the pit of the throat. Straighten the arms and press the knees down with the palms to create a kind of locked position. The shoulders are slightly hunched forward to make sure the arms stay locked. 1- Hold this position for as long as you are comfortable. Remember the breath is held inside. 2- Do not strain or overdo the holding of breath. Beginners should hold the breath for just a few seconds. Later it can be increased to a minute or more depending on your capacity. Experienced yogis, however, can maintain the chin lock for three minutes or more. 3- To release the lock bend the arms, raise your head and exhale out. Come back to the straight position and take few normal breaths. 4- Repeat the process as many times as you feel comfortable. Once you have mastered the Jalandhara Bandha with breath held inside, you can experiment with the breath held outside. This requires a little practice and should be achieved slowly without straining. Hold the breath outside for just a few seconds initially. Later you may increase it to minute depending on your capacity. Experienced practitioners can even hold the breath outside for two minutes or more. But this has to be done with caution. One should not feel any suffocation while holding the breath either inside or outside. Release the lock when you feel the slightest discomfort and breathe normally. 4- The duration of the practice should be increased very gradually. 5- Kumbhaka or holding of breath should not be practiced by those suffering from high blood pressure. Hence they should not do the practice of Jalandhara Bandha. Also, those suffering from cervical spondyliis and heart diseases should avoid Jalandhara Bandha. Stop the practice if dizziness or vertigo is felt. The Gheranda Samhita says that the Jalandhara Bandha can be perfected in a period of 6 months and that it gives psychic powers or siddhis to the practitioner. ### 220.127.116.11 Benefits 1. The Jalandhara Bandha effectively closes the air passage and blocks the flow of air. This is used in the practice of Kumbhaka or holding of breath by yogic practitioners. 2. Jalandhara Bandha presses against two important glands – the thyroid and the para thyroid glands. These two glands regulate the body metabolism. 3. The throat region is the seat of the Vishuddhi Chakra. Jalandhara Bandha helps to activate the throat chakra. When activated, it is said to give immortality. The Gheranda Samhita says that Jalandhara Bandha gives victory over death. Here the meaning of death is not the death of the body. Rather it means that the yogi can control the physical changes that happen in the body. It can mean that an anti-aging process is achieved by activation of the Vishuddhi Chakra. This is the meaning of immortality in this context. It is also said that a fluid called Amrita or nectar falls from a center in the brain called Bindu Visarga. This nectar falls through the throat and gets burned at the Manipuraka Chakra. Yogis use the Jalandhara Bandha to prevent the nectar from going down the throat, thereby attaining immortality. 4. Jalandhara Bandha prevents the prana Shakti from moving upwards. When practiced with moola bandha, it can create a lock of the prana (upward moving energy) and apana (downward moving energy) in the body. The two energies mix and awakens the Navel Center or the Manipuraka Chakra. 5. Jalandhara Bandha is one of the three yogic locks that have to be mastered before attempting the Maha Bandha or the triple lock. ### 4.14 Mudras In Yoga, there are various mudras used for meditation purposes. Following are some of the main mudras – (PLEASE MENTION, HOW MANY MUDRA SHOULD BE COVERED) 18.104.22.168 Gayan mudra Procedure: Sit down in a meditative pose such as the Sukha Asana (Easy Pose), Vajra Asana (Diamond Pose), or Padma Asana (Lotus Pose). You may even perform the Gyan Mura while standing in the Tada Asana (Mountain Pose) or sitting comfortably on a chair. Ensure that your back is held straight and your chest and head held up high. Rest your hands on your knees with your palms facing upwards. Touch the tip of the index finger to the tip of the thumb. The rest of the finger should be held straight and parallel to each other. This Mudra is performed with both hands. Close your eyes and focus on your breath. Tips To further enhance the effectiveness of the Gyan Mudra, you may chant the word Om (Aum) in conjunction with every exhale. 22.214.171.124.1 Benefits One of the main benefits of the Gyan Mudra is its ability to relax the body and focus the mind on the task of meditation. It also helps to relieve stress and transcend worldly problems. 126.96.36.199 Steps for Chin mudra Step-1: Form a circle by joining your thumb and your forefinger. Place the nail of your index finger against the soft pad of the thumb. Step-2: Extend the last three fingers of your hands, the palm-side facing upward. Fig. 2.4.15. Chin Mudra 188.8.131.52.1 Benefits 1. Creation of a Pranic circuit, which maintains and redirects the “Prana” or the flow of energy within your body 2. Improvement and increase in concentration, even during meditation 3. Increasing energy and stamina 4. Promotion of better sleep patterns 5. Reduction of common ailments like lower back pain 6. Relieving stress and any unnecessary tension in the body 7. Simulation of the energies based on the Mooladhara Chakra (three fingers of your hands, the palm-side facing upward). 184.108.40.206 Chinmaya Mudra Procedure: Create Chin Mudra. Place your palms on the upper thighs. Keep the eyes closed and breathe through the nose. Instructions: Start practicing the mudra for 10 minutes and gradually increase the duration for up to 45 minutes. 220.127.116.11.1 Benefits 1. Promotes flow of prana 2. Positively impacts the energy in the thoracic region 3. Promotes breathing in the mid section of the lungs 4. Improves digestion 18.104.22.168 Steps for Adi mudra Adi mudra is formed by placing the thumbs into the palms and curls the other fingers over the thumbs. Step-1: Place the 'fists' down onto the thighs, with the backs of the hands higher. Step-2: Slow rhythmic breathing in a 4:3:6:3 ratio (Inhale: 4, keeping air inside: 3, Exhale: 6, Keeping belly empty without air: 3). Step-3: Repeat this cycle for 7 times. ![Fig. 2.4.16. Adi Mudra (close-up)](image) ![Fig. 2.4.17. Sitting in Adi Mudra](image) ### Benefits 1. Increases the vital capacity of the lungs 2. It helps the organs to function actively 3. Increases oxygen flows to the throat and head area 4. It quiets the nervous system 22.214.171.124 Steps for Brahm Mudra Step-1: Place the thumb at the base of the small finger, and the remaining fingers curl over the thumb, forming a light fist. Step-2: The palms are placed on the thighs facing upwards. 2.4.15 Meditaion Meditation is a practice for mind by which we make mind thoughtless so that we can attain peace. As we know that mind always thinks something no matter how much we try to control it. By regular practice of meditation, we can control the mind, which gives us a lot of peace, calmness, and power over our self. 126.96.36.199 Dharna Dharna is part of Raj Yoga. It means the concentration of mind. This is required for dhyana or meditation. We can consider it as a base of meditation also. \| Q1. \| Following is not a famous Indian Ancient Text: \| \|-----\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. The Ramayana \| \| \| b. The Mahabharata \| \| \| c. The Bible \| \| \| d. The Geeta \| \| Q2. \| Which Indian Sage consolidated Yoga Asans as Yoga Sutras: \| \|-----\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Ved Vyas \| \| \| b. Patanjali \| \| \| c. Bhardwaj \| \| \| d. Dayanand Saraswai \| \| Q3. \| Which of following is a Part of Veda: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Rig Veda \| \| \| b. Sama Veda \| \| \| c. Atharv Veda \| \| \| d. All of above \| \| Q4. \| Which of the following is also the book of rituals: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Rig Veda \| \| \| b. Sama Veda \| \| \| c. Yajur Veda \| \| \| d. Atharv Veda \| \| Q5. \| The Ramayana is story of which God: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Krishna \| \| \| b. Rama \| \| \| c. Shiva \| \| \| d. None of the above \| \| Q6. \| Human Body has ---- bones: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. 206 \| \| \| b. 306 \| \| \| c. 106 \| \| Q7. \| The main function of Heart is to: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Pump blood to all parts of body \| \| \| b. Inhale Oxygen \| \| \| c. Digest the food \| \| \| d. Move the body parts \| \| Q8. \| The main function of Muscle to: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Pump blood to all parts of body \| \| \| b. Inhale Oxygen \| \| \| c. Digest the food \| \| \| d. Move the body parts \| \| Q9. \| Which of these is not a part of Sattavic Diet: \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Milk \| \| \| b. Fried patatos \| \| \| c. Raw Fruit \| \| \| d. Vegetables \| \| Q10. \| Which of following is not part of Body loosening exercises: \| \|------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| a. Hip Rotaion \| \| \| b. Side Bending \| \| \| c. Halasan \| \| \| d. Frog Jump \| 3. Maintain Health & Safety at the Work Place Unit 3.1 - Work Place Safety Unit 3.2 - Safety During Yoga Unit 3.3 - Handling Fire and Other Emergencies Key Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, you will be able to: 1. Explain what is hazard 2. Describe safety hazards associated with Yoga. 3. Explain various safety precautions to be taken during Yoga practice. 4. Describe various emergency situations at work place. 5. Describe common injuries at work place 6. Describe First Aid box and its constituents 7. Demonstrate how to handle Fire Emergencies UNIT 3.1: Workplace Safety Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Explain what is hazard 2. Identify Hazards at a Yoga Center 3. Describe Safety Precautions to be taken at a Yoga Center 3.1.1 What is Hazard? 'Hazard' is a set of conditions, which can be a risk to health or life. It can be an atmosphere of workplace or construction of a machine or working procedure. Anything out of these can be a Hazard. For understanding it better, we can see Examples of various hazards and threats possessed by them. Oil on the floor creates a Slip hazard. Use of Asbestos causes Cancer and other breathing problem hazards. Use of broken electric wires creates electrocution hazard and fire hazard by potential sparking out of it. ![Hazard Sign](image) Fig. 3.1.1. Hazard 3.1.2 Hazards at a Yoga Center Apart from some common hazards of working areas, Yoga industry has some exclusive hazards, which are associated with making postures during Yoga. First, we will learn common hazards of workplace in detail – 188.8.131.52 Manual Handling Around 40% of the total accident at workplaces is reported due to this cause. Fig. 3.1.2. Hazard of manual handling 184.108.40.206 Accident by Moving or Falling Objects This is one of the other big hazards at the workplace. There are many big and heavy things at workplaces which are difficult to manage manually. During transportation also, if they are not secured properly then there is a chance that they may fall from moving the vehicle or can fall on the person who opens the door of the closed transportation vehicle. Special safety arrangement should be made to load heavy objects. Fig. 3.1.3. Accident by moving / falling object 220.127.116.11 Slips and Falls This is also one of the biggest reasons for workplace accidents. The floor of the workplace should be free from any oil or slippery material. Also, aisles should be clutter free so that movement of persons and trolleys remains smooth. Fig. 3.1.4. Slip or fall 3.1.3 Other Hazards Apart from above hazards, there are some other hazards which are very dangerous. These are following- 1- Physical Hazard 2- Chemical Hazard 3- Ergonomic Hazard 18.104.22.168 Physical Hazard Physical hazards are the type of energies that may be hazardous to workers. Following are examples of physical hazards – 1- Noise 2- Vibration 3- High Temperature 4- Very Low Temperature Fig. 3.1.5. Noise from Music 22.214.171.124 Chemical Hazard There are many chemicals that are used in workplaces. Prolonged exposure to these chemicals without using effective PPEs can affect human body adversely. There are 3 ways of getting affected by chemicals. 1- Inhalation 2- Ingestion 3- Absorption Fig. 3.1.6. Affects from chemical 126.96.36.199 Ergonomic Hazards Ergonomic hazards can cause painful and disabling injuries to joints and muscles. These can occur from: - Heavy, frequent, or awkward lifting - Repetitive tasks - Awkward grips, postures - Using excessive force - Overexertion - Using wrong tools for the job or using tools improperly - Using improperly maintained tools - Hand-intensive work Correct Lifting Position - Chin tucked in - Comfortably straight back - Leaning slightly forward - Arms close to body - Secure grip - Bent knees & Proper foot position. Fig. 3.1.7. Ergonomic hazard due to difficult postures in Yoga 3.1.4 Special Hazards in Yoga Center Following are some special Hazards associated with Yoga Center - - Falling hazard while doing upside down Yoga poses, like - Shirshasana or Sarvangasana. - Ergonomic hazard of Muscle pulling while doing difficult poses with a stiff body, like Paschimottanasana. - Neck pain hazards while doing difficult poses like - Sarvanangsana. - Severe Back pain or Slip disc hazard while doing difficult poses like - Halasana. - Tearing ligament while doing some special asanas. - Sprained ankle hazard while doing some asanas, like - Vajrasana. 3.1.5 Safety Precautions during Yoga Following are the precautions to be taken while doing yoga - 1- First and foremost precaution is to do Yoga in the supervision of some trained Yoga Instructor only. 2- Get doctor’s advice before starting Yoga, especially after the age of 30 years. 3- Do not push yourself beyond your body’s flexibility limit. 4- Never compete with anybody while doing difficult poses or holding a yoga pose for longer durations. Every person has different ability to do yoga, and everyone should respect its own body’s endurance limit. 5- Do not attempt Yoga immediately after eating or drinking something, there should be a gap of minimum 3 to 5 hours after your last meal. Fig. 3.1.8. Assistance from Yoga Instructor for avoiding injury TIP A board detailing the above precautions can be put up in Yoga Room so that all practitioners should remember these. Notes UNIT 3.2: Safety during Yoga Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Describe Safety Hazards associated with Yoga. 2. Explain various safety precautions to be taken during Yoga practice. 3.2.1. Safety Hazard During Practicing Yoga Although Yoga is for improving one’s health, but if not done correctly it may cause harm to the body also. During Shirshasana, one may fall and get injured. Similarly, Sarvangasana has the same hazard. In some asanas, like Halasana - one may overstretch one’s back and may get injured. The threat of Back injury is also present in forward and backward bend and during Paschimottasana. New practitioners may pull their muscles if warm up is not done properly or difficult posture asana is done without precautions. One may get dehydrated if one is sweating too much during Yoga. There is a chance of vomiting if yoga is practiced immediately after having a meal. There is also a risk of Heart attack if a person is suffering from Heart disease and he/she does very exhaustive Yoga, which increases their heart rate very high. fig. 3.2.1. One of the difficult poses of Yoga (Dhanurasana) 3.2.2 Safety Precautions While Practicing Yoga There are many threats present while practicing Yoga, but these all can be avoided if it is done under supervision and with some precautions. Following are the precautions one must take during Yoga exercises - 188.8.131.52 Medical Condition of Yoga Practitioner New Practitioner must get him / herself medically checked completely. One must take one’s doctor’s advice before taking up Yoga exercises. There are certain Yoga exercises, which should not be done by Heart patients or persons suffering from other diseases. On review of medical reports, Yoga Instructor can advise properly which exercises need to be avoided. Participant Handbook Staring Yoga, without knowing your medical condition may harm you very severely. We need to understand that all yoga postures are not advisable to all the persons. 184.108.40.206 Yoga Under Supervision New Practitioner must start yoga under good supervision only. Yoga Instructor is required to give continuous advice for improvement. Yoga Instructor is also helpful in giving initial support while taking up difficult yoga postures. It is ok to practice some easy Yoga Postures after reading the book or by seeing the video. But difficult postures, such as Shrisasana or Halasana must be done under Yoga Instructor supervision only. 220.127.116.11 Don’t Push Body Too Much Initially, the body of Yoga Practitioner would be stiff, and he / she might be over enthusiastic for doing difficult yoga postures by seeing videos or fellow yoga practitioner. In that scenario, he / she might want to push his / her body to its limits of bending or straining. But you should not let him/her cross the limit and should allow his / her body to adjust. You should increase the intensity of Yoga Posture, gradually. You should continuously counsel them to have patience in doing difficult yoga postures. 18.104.22.168 Practicing Yoga with Empty Stomach You should ensure that yoga should be practiced with an empty stomach. There are many yoga postures in which you pose upside down or put pressure on your stomach. If you are not empty stomach, you could vomit, or there could be a pain in stomach. Ideally, you should keep a gap of 3 to 5 hours after your last meal. 22.214.171.124 Do not Drink Too Much Water during Yoga Practice You should avoid drinking too much water during Yoga practice. The temperature of the room plays a great role in this. If there is too much heat in the Yoga room, then you tend to sweat more and feel more thirsty. Hence you should do yoga at a comfortable temperature. If you really have to drink water then take only a few sips of water. 126.96.36.199 Take Precautions in Practicing Yoga During Pregnancy You can practice Yoga during pregnancy, but you need to take expert Yoga Instructors advice on the type of Yoga to be done and for other precautions. If precautions are not taken, there could be complications in pregnancy and person may face abortion also. 188.8.131.52 Precautions in Practicing Yoga During Menstruation You should avoid asanas in which you have to elevate your pelvis higher than your heart. You should also avoid the postures which put pressure on your lower abdomen. 184.108.40.206 Precautions During Back Bending Yoga Never bend your back too much in initial attempts. Gradually increase the intensity. Bending your back too much or bending it with a jerk may cause harm to your back. 220.127.116.11 Precautions During Upside Down Yoga Poses Initially, always take support doing upside down yoga. There is a big risk of falling ill the time you master these poses. Also always do these asanas under supervision. 18.104.22.168 Precautions For Heart Patients There are some yoga poses which are prohibited for Heart patients. Persons undergone Bypass Surgery or Angioplasty must avoid all upside down poses and yoga postures which put Heart under strain. 22.214.171.124 Duration of Yoga Poses You should immediately leave a Yoga pose if you are feeling uncomfortable or feeling unbearable pain in any of your body part. Putting your body under undue stress may cause more harm than benefit. 126.96.36.199 Avoid Competition When doing Yoga in a group, it is natural to have a feeling of competition in doing difficult poses or doing it for a longer period. You need to understand one thing that everybody has the different ability for bending or enduring the pain. Everyone gets the benefit of yoga (some less and some more), even if it is done for a shorter period. You should give your body some time to adapt to Yoga. In competition, you may harm your body. UNIT 3.3: Handling Fire and Other Emergencies Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Define what is emergency 2. Describe various emergency situations at workplaces 3. Describe common injuries at workplaces 4. Describe First Aid box and its constituents 5. Demonstrate how to handle Fire Emergencies 6. Demonstrate how to use a multipurpose Fire Extinguisher 7. Describe type and class of Fires 8. Describe suitable fire extinguisher as per fire type and class 3.3.1 What is Emergency? An Emergency is a sudden or unexpected state of the situation, which, if not tackled properly, will lead to loss of property, health or life. In cases where any mitigation is not possible, immediate evacuation is needed. 3.3.2 Emergency Situation at Work Place There are various emergency situations at workplace. Some of them are – 1- Accident Emergency 2- Electric shock Emergency 3- Medical Emergency 4- Natural Disaster Emergency – Flood, Earthquake, Tsunami, etc. 5- Fire Emergency For first 3 emergencies, we need to give first aid and immediately call Ambulance. For Natural Disaster we should take shelter at a safe place or follow company's emergency procedure. For Fire Emergencies we will discuss in detail. First, we will understand about common Injuries at the workplace and their First Aid. 3.3.3 Common Injuries at work and How to deal with them As per nature of workplace, it is very difficult to eliminate the threat of accidents at workplaces. However, by using safety precautions, we can minimize the occurrence of accidents. Following are common injuries and their First Aid instructions - 188.8.131.52 Abrasions and Small Cuts Clean wound with soap and water. Apply antibiotic cream or Providone-iodine solution. Bandage and check dressing daily. See your doctor if there are signs of infection: increased redness, pus or red lines running from the wound. Fig. 3.3.1. Abrasions 184.108.40.206 Splinters Remove with sharp, pointed tweezers. (They should be sharp enough to pick up a single hair.) If the splinter is completely under the skin, expose splinter end with sewing needle doused in alcohol, and then remove with tweezers. Fig. 3.3.2. Splinters 220.127.116.11 Lacerations Clean wound with soap and water. Assess damage: If the laceration is gaping or more than 1/4 inches deep, seek emergency help. Otherwise, apply pressure to stop bleeding. Close wound with butterfly closures or adhesive strips. Check dressing daily. Fig. 3.3.3. Lacerations 18.104.22.168 Fractures Signs include extreme pain, swelling, bruising and an inability to move an adjacent joint. If you have any of these signs, you should be seen by a doctor to see whether you need an X-ray to evaluate for a fracture. Fig. 3.3.4. Fractures 22.214.171.124 Amputations Apply pressure to wounded area with a clean bandage. Don’t panic. Call for help. Raise wounded area above the heart. Wrap amputated appendage in a plastic bag. Keep appendage cool, not directly on ice. Sit in a chair near the door, and await help. Fig. 3.3.5. Amputation 126.96.36.199 Eye Injuries Look in the mirror to assess eye. If foreign matter is embedded in the eye, go to the emergency room. If foreign matter is on the surface, flush it out with water, or use eye wash and cup. For chemical splashes, flush with running water for five to 10 minutes. If it hurts too much to open your eye, go to the emergency room. Fig. 3.3.6. Eye injury 188.8.131.52 Fumes and Dust If you feel dizzy or are having trouble breathing, leave the area, and go to fresh air. If normal breathing doesn’t return in 15 minutes, go to the emergency room. Fig. 3.3.7. Fumes and dust 3.3.4 Basic Things in First Aid Box Top shelf: An asthma inhaler to counteract allergic reactions of fumes and dust; sharp scissors for cutting bandages; adhesive tape for bandaging; an elastic bandage for securing dressings. Middle shelf: Needles for splinter removal are stored in sterile alcohol; splinter tweezers, precise enough to pick up a single hair; 4-inch by 4-inch gauze pads for bandaging; assorted adhesive strips for small cuts; a clean plastic bag for amputated parts; sterile rolled gauze for bandaging; butterfly bandages for drawing together larger lacerations. Bottom shelf: Providone-iodine solution for killing germs; eyewash and cup; a small mirror for eye inspections; instant ice packs to reduce swelling or for transporting amputated parts to the hospital; latex gloves for eye examinations. 3.3.5 Handling Fire Emergencies Fires and explosions can severely damage or destroy premises or plant. There have been cases numerous fires started due to either badly maintained cables at the workplace, electric sparks, or due to open wood burning stoves and cigarettes. Make sure that all electric equipment are cleaned, and that dust is not allowed to accumulate. Report any defects you see in equipment. TIP Although workplaces, especially office area or Yoga Center, have a low risk of fire because the workplace has very few inflammable substances like wood, petrol, and chemicals, etc. Sill, it is necessary to have fire-exinguishing equipment inside the workplace, and all employees should be trained properly to use these equipment. 3.3.6 Type of Fire Exinguishers Water Exinguishers: It is used to extinguish the fire on wood, paper, cloth, etc. It should not be used to extinguish the fire over electrical equipment. Foam Exinguishers (Foam Exinguishers): It is used to extinguish the fire caused by kerosene, spirit, thinner, etc. It also should not be used to extinguish the fire caused by electrical equipment. Dry Powder Exinguishers (Dry Powder Exinguishers): This is used to extinguish – the fire evolving due to flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel, etc. Carbon di oxide Fire Extinguisher: Carbon Dioxide evolves from this fire extinguisher, and it can be used to extinguish fire over electric equipment, liquid gases, or fluids. These fire-extinguishing equipment should be installed at the proper place, and it should be inspected, repaired and refilled regularly. 3.3.7 Fire Exinguishers Chart \| Extinguisher \| Type of Fire \| \|--------------\|--------------\| \| \| Solids (wood, paper, cloth, etc) \| Flammable Liquids \| Flammable Gasses \| Electrical Equipment \| Cooking Oils & Fats \| \| Water \| Yes \| No \| No \| No \| No \| \| Foam \| Yes \| Yes \| No \| No \| Yes \| \| Dry Powder \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| No \| \| Carbon Dioxide (CO2) \| No \| Yes \| No \| Yes \| Yes \| Fig. 3.3.9. Fire extinguisher chart ### 3.3.8 Class and Type of Fires \| Class \| Type \| \|-------\|------\| \| A \| Wood, Paper, Ordinary Combustibles Exinguished by Cooling and Quenching Using Water or Dry Chemicals \| \| B \| Gasoline, Oil, Grease, Other Greasy Liquids Exinguished by Smothering, Cooling or Heat Shielding using Carbon Dioxide or Dry Chemicals \| \| C \| Electrical Equipment Fires Exinguished with Non-conducting Agents such as Carbon Dioxide or Dry Chemicals. DO NOT USE WATER. \| \| D \| Fires in Combustible Metals Exinguished by Using Specialized Extinguishing Powders \| 3.3.9 Class and Type of Fire Extinguisher to be used \| Class of Fire \| Fire Extinguisher Type \| \|---------------\|-----------------------\| \| B or C \| Regular Dry Chemical \| \| A, B, C, or D \| Multi-Purpose Dry Chemical \| \| D \| Purple K Dry Chemical \| \| B or C \| KCL Dry Chemical \| \| D \| Dry Powder Special Compound \| \| B or C \| Carbon Dioxide (Dry) \| \| B or C \| Halogenated Agent (Gas) \| \| A \| Water \| \| A \| Water With Anti-Freeze \| \| A or B \| Water, Loaded Steam Style \| \| B, \| Foam \| 3.3.10 How to Respond in Case of Fire When fires occur, the role of a person is to minimize the damage, he/she should be - - Extinguishing small fires - Assisting in evacuations - Notifying the local Fire Brigade promptly TIP 1- Do not use water on Types B, C or D fires. 2- If it is used on Type B fire, it can spread the flames. 3- Water conducts electricity, so if it is used on Type C fire, it can cause a major shock. 4- If it is used on Type D fire, it will react violently causing an explosion. 3.3.11 How to Operate a Multipurpose Fire Extinguisher Remember PASS - P - Pull the pin: In some models, you may have to remove a locking pin. - A - Aim: Aim low. Direct the hose or cone to the base of the fire. - S - Squeeze: Squeeze the handle. This will release the contents of the extinguisher. - S - Sweep: Sweep from side to side. Don’t lessen the pressure on the handle. Try to keep it constant. ![Diagram showing how to operate an extinguisher](image) Fig. 3.3.10. Method of operating Fire extinguisher TIP It is important that you get fire extinguisher training before you have to use one. You don’t want to waste valuable time trying to read directions or figure out how to remove a pin in an emergency situation. Other important information, like how far to stand away from a fire, when to move towards it, and how long the extinguisher contents last can only be understood by actually operating one. Make sure your employer and your Safety and Health Representative know that you need this training. Exercise \| Q1. Which of these is correct meaning of hazard? \| \|--------------------------------------------------\| \| a. It is a set of good conditions at work place \| \| b. ‘Hazard’ is a set of conditions, which can be a risk to health or life \| \| c. The condition of no production is called hazard \| \| d. None of the above \| \| Q6. Which of these is not part of the Safety procedure of an Organisation? \| \|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| a. Safety Equipment to be used in organisation \| \| b. Maximum leave an employee can take in a month/year \| \| c. Emergency Evacuation plan \| \| d. Hazards of different processes of organisation \| \| Q2. Which if these is the main hazard of any workplace: \| Q7. Water cannot be used for dousing which type of Fires: \| \|--------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| a. Manual Handling \| a. ‘B’ Type fire \| \| b. Accident by moving or falling object \| b. ‘C’ Type fire \| \| c. Slips and falling \| c. ‘D’ Type fire \| \| d. Dust and Fumes \| d. All of the above \| \| Q3. Which of these is the type of hazards: \| Q8. Electric fires should be extinguished by ---- fire extinguisher: \| \|--------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| a. Chemical hazard \| a. Water \| \| b. Physical hazard \| b. Foam \| \| c. Ergonomic hazard \| d. None of the above \| \| d. All of above \| \| \| Q4. Which of these is a way of getting affected by chemicals: \| Q9. Which of these should be part of First Aid box: \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| a. Inhalation \| a. sharp scissors \| \| b. Ingesion \| b. adhesive tape \| \| c. Absorption \| c. Providone-iodine solution \| \| d. All of the above \| d. All of the above \| \| Q5. Which of these is not a reason for Ergonomic hazard? \| Q10. Which of these is Class A Fire: \| \|---------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------\| \| a. Heavy, frequent, or awkward lifting \| a. Wood, Paper, Ordinary Combustibles \| \| b. Awkward grips, postures \| b. Gasoline, Oil, Grease, Other Greasy Liquids \| \| c. Noise \| c. Equipment Fires \| \| d. Hand-intensive work \| d. Fires in Combustible Metals \| 4. Create a Positive Impression at Work Area Unit 4.1 - Personal Health & Hygiene Unit 4.2 - Communication Skills Unit 4.3 - Following Organization’s Rules & Instructions At the end of this module, you will be able to: 1. Describe what is Hygiene 2. Explain how to maintain good Hygiene 3. Describe Grooming Tips for men and women 4. Describe communication process 5. Define points of good writing skill 6. Define meaning of Policies and Guidelines 7. Explain Organisational procedures for reporting and documentation UNIT 4.1: Personal Health & Hygiene Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, you will be able to: 1. Describe what is Hygiene 2. Explain how to maintain good Hygiene 3. Explain about Grooming 4. Describe Grooming Tips for men and women 5. Define consequences of not grooming well 6. Describe importance of grooming 4.1.1. What is Hygiene? Hygiene, It is the process of maintaining good health through maintaining a clean body and environment around us. Good hygiene is one of the most important practices to help with the prevention and spreading of infections and diseases. Good physical and emotional health helps our bodies and minds to function properly without pain, anxiety, depression or discomfort. Improper hygiene can cause diseases, which can negatively impact our physical & mental well-being. Poor hygiene causes us to smell bad (due to bacteria), develop infections, and contract diseases such as flu, common cold, e-coli, Salmonella, and skin diseases such as ringworm, and scabies. Other problems such as tooth decay, lice in the hair, and foot infections are also caused due to poor hygiene. 4.1.2 How to Maintain Good Hygiene? Following are the ways to maintain good hygiene - - Washing hands, face, hair and other parts of body, frequently - Brushing/cleaning teeth at least once a day - Cleaning the living quarters including frequent change of bed sheets, pillow covers, and changing personal clothes and undergarments frequently - Taking care to avoid soiling of clothes and body parts, when urinating, vomiting or relieving oneself in toilet - Washing hands before eating - especially after touching animals - Holding a tissue/handkerchief over the mouth when coughing or sneezing. If you use hands, make sure to wash them afterward - Suppression of habits such as nose-picking, touching the face, etc. - Not biting nails - Washing hands after using toilet - Shower every day with soap/body wash. Remember to also wash under armpits and feet with soap. It's important to be clean. Always clean your private areas (the hair traps sweat and can sink if not washed regularly). - Shampoo and condition hair as needed. Most people have to wash their hair every day to prevent smell and grease. Remember to scrub your scalp and rinse all the product out of your hair until it is "squeaky" clean. Use a good smelling hair product. Keep it nice and neat. - Use roll-on, not spray deodorant to prevent armpit odor. [Use the deodorant when you are clean, not instead of getting clean.] Put deodorant on in the morning or any time you get sweaty. - Use a lotion to smooth out dry skin. This is optional and isn't essential, but it's good for your skin and to prevent the look of ugly, dry, cracked skin. - Make sure to clean and clip your fingernails whenever they start getting white ends. Girls especially will notice if you have long, dirty nails. This counts for toenails, too. - Brush your teeth after every meal and floss them at least once a day. If you're a student, be sure to brush your teeth thoroughly every morning before school. They will look much cleaner and your breath will be more fresh. Make sure to thoroughly brush your teeth AND your tongue to get all the bacteria out. Using mouthwash is also highly recommended. - Take off your shoes as soon as you get home so they can air out and dry out. - Wear socks when you wear shoes. Each foot sweats a lot during the day, so your shoes will smell pretty bad if you don't wear socks. - Wear undershirts to help keep your regular shirt smelling fresher. - Cover your nose and mouth when you cough or sneeze. (best to do it with a tissue) - If you’re around animals of any kind, don’t touch them before eating. If you do, be sure to wash your hands before eating. - Don’t lick your fingers (such as when turning pages in a book). - Menstruating women should take care to change pads or tampons frequently. - Carry some mints around if you have a problem of bad breath. If the problem persists, then visit a doctor; you could be suffering from halitosis. - Hair on your chin, upper lip, ears, and nose can make you look unsightly. So remember to pluck it out when they start becoming visible on your face. Women should visit the salon every 15 days to shape up the eyebrows. Another safe and effective way is to opt for a laser surgery for removing facial hair only if it fits your pocket. - Wear clean socks and apply some talcum powder before wearing shoes. Give your shoes some room to breathe especially after any strenuous activity. Own 2-3 pair of shoes and rotate their use. Buy a foot deodorant to help get rid of your foot odors. - Makeup clogs up your skin pores and gives germs a chance to multiply. If you do not remove the makeup before you hit the bed, you will surely have a couple of pimples sprouting out the next day. So no matter how tired you are, you must remove your makeup before you sleep. 4.1.3 Grooming Grooming oneself includes washing, cleansing, combing, regularly cutting and styling the hair. It also includes cosmetic care of the body, such as shaving and other forms of depilation. 184.108.40.206 Grooming Tips - For Men 1. Trim the nose hairs: This is something very basic that makes a world of difference. Many companies make nose hair clippers for a moderate price. 2. Trim the eyebrows: actually even recommend getting them professionally cleaned (not shaped) to open up the eyes. Remember to brush them up before you leave for the day as this opens up the eye, keeping the face more alert. 3. Clean the hair off your ears and neck: This is something your barber can do for you monthly that gives the appearance of good grooming. The sight of long ear hairs, or neck hair going into the collar of your shirt, is never appealing. 4. Keep your nails short and clean: Dirty, long fingernails require no explanation as to why they don’t work. If your budget or schedule permits, try a monthly manicure/pedicure to have someone take care of this for you. I also recommend buffing your nails as a way to keep the healthy shine without looking artificial. 5. Brush and floss your teeth daily: It doesn’t matter if your teeth are not perfectly straight and white, but please keep them clean. It is rather unappealing to talk to someone and see built-up plaque or food stuck between their teeth. I know this one seems simple, but trust me when I tell you to take nothing for granted. 6. Have your clothes tailored to fit your body: This is a big one, as no matter what your shape is, the right fit makes everything look so much better. 7. Stand up straight: Posture is very important. You create a sense of confidence and pride when standing tall, showing everyone you are secure in the man you are. 8. Cleanse your face on a regular basis with a facial soap: I have so many male friends who use the same soap on their body that they use on their face. Most body soaps are too strong for the face. You must invest in a cleanser that is just for the face. 9. Remember less is more when it comes to fragrance: It’s all right to smell good, but everyone doesn’t have to smell it. Fragrance is such a personal preference, and you really must find the one that works best for you. Just remember not to bathe in it. 10. Match your belt to your shoes: This one is really simple and makes a world of difference. If you are wearing black shoes, you don’t wear a brown belt. I’m not saying you need to be a fashion plate, but this basic tip makes everything you wear look that much better. ### 220.127.116.11 Grooming Tips - For Women It is not just your work that talks for you, it is your gestures and how you bring yourself. Individual self-care or Personal self-care for females is as essential as it is to men. How to sit, how to talk, when to talk, what to talk, may all seem fundamentals, but keep a lot of significance. 1. Look Fresh: The first thing is to look fresh. This is the primary phase of your grooming. Have your nails nicely maintained. Prevent dressing in fancy shades that are too shiny or appealing. 2. Using Perfume: Use a mild fragrance. Too much of a fragrance may be frustrating to the individuals around you. Also, you must take care not to put on intensely fragrant products when you are in a business conference. 3. Using Makeup: Cosmetics should be easy and mild for official places of work. Use makeup that is not too little and neither too large. Do not wear too much lipstick that it propagates on the paper napkin or the cup when you take a sip of water. 4. Using Jewellery: You must not wear a lot of jewellery. Jewellery that is loud and too huge would irritate individuals around a serious conversation. Use easy jewellery to avoid clinging earrings, huge wristbands, etc. 5- Hair Style: Your hair style should be easy and neat looking. 6- Wearing proper dress: Normally when you are at work place, you need to be presentable. At work place, with business individuals around, you should dress rather cautiously. 7- Eating in Public: Self-care also includes how you eat. Put the paper napkin on your lap. Make the lowest disturbance with the cutlery while you are consuming food. 8- Choosing Footwear: Wear comfortable and elegantly designed footwear. --- ### 4.1.4 Consequences of Not Grooming Well One of the most effective ways we have to protect ourselves and others from illness is good personal hygiene. This means washing your hands and having a bath too. It means being careful not to cough or sneeze on others, cleaning things that you touch if you are unwell, putting items such as issues (that may have germs) into a bin, and using protection (like gloves or condoms) when you might be at risk of catching an infection. Personal hygiene, such as bathing, is very much dependent on the culture in which you live. In some cultures, it is expected that you will wash your body at least every day and use deodorants to stop body smells. Other cultures have different expectations. --- ### 4.1.5 Importance of Grooming Keeping clean is an important part of staying healthy. For example, the simple act of washing hands before eating and after using the toilet is a proven and effective tool for fighting off germs and avoiding sickness. Being clean and well-presented is also an important part of confidence for teenagers. If your child’s body and breath smell OK, his clothes are clean, and he’s on top of his basic personal hygiene, it can help him fit in with other people. The following health-related problems can occur if one does not maintain good personal hygiene: 18.104.22.168 Body Odor Fresh perspiration, when allowed to evaporate does not cause body odor. An offensive smell is caused when bacteria that are present on the skin get to work on the sweat and decompose it. This is especially so in the groin, underarms, and feet or in clothing that has absorbed sweat. Diet influences the odor too. Bathing every day and changing of clothes that are in close contact with the body should take care of the problem. Talcum powders, of the non-medicated kind, can be used under the armpits. The addition of perfumes masks the odor. Excessive perspiration can lead to the scaling of the skin or inflammation (Dermatitis). Usually, this is no cause for worry. Some people sweat more than others due to hereditary and body composition factors. Excessive perspiration may also be a symptom of diabetes, anemia, and hyperthyroidism. Body smells are caused by some factors working in combination, including: - Chemicals in sweat, including pheromones, which are made by the body and sexually attract (or repel) other people. - Wastes excreted through the skin, such as metabolized alcohol. - The actions of bacteria that live on the skin and feed on dead skin cells and sweat. - Unwashed clothes, such as underwear and socks. 22.214.171.124 Hand Washing Most infections, especially colds and gastroenteritis, are caught when we put our unwashed hands, which have germs on them, to our mouth. Some infections are caught when other people's dirty hands touch the food we eat. Hands and wrists should be washed with clean soap and water, using a brush if your fingernails are dirty. Dry your hands with something clean, such as paper towels or hot air dryers. You should always wash your hands: - After using the toilet - Before making or eating food - After handling dogs or other animals - If you have been around someone who is coughing or has a cold. 126.96.36.199 Bad Breath Good dental hygiene includes regular brushing and flossing. Bad breath can be caused by diseases of the teeth, gums, and mouth, such as infections. Most people have bad breath first thing in the morning because saliva is not made while you're asleep. Bad breath proves another easily recognizable consequence of poor hygiene. It commonly develops from not regularly brushing and flossing your teeth. Bad breath results because of two main reasons. First, bacteria thrive on particles of food that can stick to your teeth. As the bacteria digest this food, their byproduct results in odor. Food can also get stuck in your teeth and rot over time, producing a foul odor. Some foods that can cause bad breath include garlic and onion. Mouthwashes, mouth sprays, and flavored chewing gum can make your breath smell better for a while, but if you have a health problem in your mouth, you need to see your dentist. 188.8.131.52 Smelly Feet & Shoes Smelly feet and shoes can also be a problem for you, whether you are sporty or not. You can avoid this by giving your feet extra attention in the shower, and make sure they're completely dry before putting your shoes on. It's a good idea to alternate your shoes and to wear cotton socks instead of socks made of synthetic fibers. 184.108.40.206 Traveling Hygiene When traveling overseas, take special care if you're not sure whether the water is safe. Suggestions include: - Drink only bottled water. - Don't use tap water to clean your teeth. - When you wash your hands, make sure they are totally dry before you touch any food. - Don't wash fruit or vegetables in unsafe water. - If you have no other water source, make sure the water is boiled before you drink it by holding it at a rolling boil for one minute. - Make sure any dishes, cups or other utensils are totally dry after they are washed. 220.127.116.11 Building Good Hygiene Habits Building good hygiene habits is not a work of a day, it takes continuous efforts. The following activities should be included in daily routine – washing hands, covering mouth when coughed and having regular baths or showers. 18.104.22.168 Dental Disease Not only can poor dental hygiene lead to bad breath, but it can also lead to dental diseases. As you allow food particles and bacteria to build up on the teeth, a coating called plaque begins to form. The bacteria in this plaque release acid, which break down the enamel on your teeth. As this process continues over time, a hard substance called calculus can form on the teeth, irritating the surrounding gums. This irritation can progress into gingivitis, leading to inflammation of the gums, which can later lead to gum disease. Gum disease causes infection and eventually may destroy your teeth. 22.214.171.124 General Disease Hygiene practices, such as washing your hands, prove the most effective ways to prevent contracting disease and spreading disease, according to the Mayo Clinic and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Your hands are in constant contact with both the environment and your face, providing easy transportation from the surface of an infected object or person to your nose or mouth. Washing your hands with clean running water and soap helps reduce the amount of bacteria on your skin, lessening your chances of contracting diseases such as the common cold, influenza (flu), salmonellosis, hepatitis A, typhoid, streptococcus and staph infections. 126.96.36.199 Gender Specific Men and women have unique hygiene needs that, if ignored, may lead to health problems. For example, men who have an uncircumcised penis need to regularly retract the foreskin and clean beneath to prevent inflammation, phimosis (where the penis cannot fully retract the foreskin), or penile adhesions. Women must take care to keep the genitalia clean, and always wipe from front to back after using the restroom to prevent introducing infections from the rectum to the urethra. 188.8.131.52 Traveling Hygiene Lice are tiny insects that live on the human scalp; they make a pin prick-like puncture on the scalp, emit an anti-clotting substance and feed on the blood as nourishment. Lice thrive on unclean hair. Children are especially prone to lice infestation. Lice spread from one head to another when there is close contact, such as in school environments. Lice eggs are wrapped in a shiny white sheath and show upon the upper layers of hair as the infestation increases. They make the scalp itchy and are a cause of annoyance and embarrassment. In infants, they may cause disturbed sleep and bouts of crying. Unchecked, they can produce scalp infection. 184.108.40.206 Ear Wax Ear wax accumulates in the ear canal that leads from the outer ear to the eardrum. As the secretion comes out of the ear, it collects dust particles. Do not reach farther than you can with your little finger into your ear to clean it. Putting in hair pins, safety pins or blunt-edged objects for cleaning inner parts of the ear might harm the ear. Ear wax should be cleaned by your doctor. 220.127.116.11 Urinary Infection The urinary infection causes pain or a burning sensation during urination. Chances of urinary infection increase during pregnancy and after major surgery. The urine can be discolored; itching, frequent urination, fever, and chills can also result from urinary infection. To avoid this infection, improve overall hygiene, both—toilets and personal parts. Wash or wipe front to back after urinating or defecating. Remember this when wiping or washing babies too, as a general rule. Do not wear tight-fitting synthetic underwear. Drink plenty of water. Do not hold back when you have the tendency to urinate. If the condition persists, consult a doctor. 18.104.22.168 Pinworms These worms come out of the anal opening to lay eggs at night causing intense itching disturbed sleep; mild pain and diarrhea are possible consequences. When scratching, eggs stick to the hand and under the nails and infect anything the person touches. The eggs can pass through air or by contact with infected food or bed linen. The eggs cannot be killed by disinfectants and remain active in the dust for a long period. Bedclothes, undergarments, and nightwear of the infected person must be washed thoroughly in hot water. A doctor has to be consulted to treat the worm infestation; sometimes all members of the family may be asked to take de-worming medication when one member is affected. Those infected must scrub hands well with soap before eating. 22.214.171.124 Athlete Foot (Ringworm of the Foot) A certain fungus that breeds in warm wet places causes this infection, resulting in scaly skin or sores or blisters between toes - often spreading to the soles. Sometimes these skins cracks and sores become the site for other infections. Rub off peeling gently. Wash feet well and apply powder. A mild fungicidal ointment at bedtime will help. Keep feet exposed. If you have to wear shoes, wear cotton socks; if the blisters begin to ooze seek professional help from your doctor. Q1. Hygiene is key to ----: a. Good Health b. Various diseases c. Bad personality d. None of the above Q2. Which of these is not a way to hygiene: a. Keeping hands washed b. Keeping hair clean and combed c. Keeping big and dirty nails d. Wearing clean clothes Q3. Which of these is part of practice: a. Trimming nose hair b. Trimming eyebrows c. Wearing ironed clothes d. All of the above Q6. Which of these is not a type of communication: a. Verbal Communication b. Simple Communication c. Written Communication d. Non-Verbal Communication Q7. Which of these is not a symptom of Poor Communication: a. Poor planning or workload b. Lateness c. Poor work quality Q8. Which of these is part of good writing skill: a. Be convincing b. Be complete c. Be brief d. All of the above Q5. Which of these should be part of the organizational procedure for reporting: a. The format of report b. Who will create c. To whom it should be submitted d. All of the above Q9. Which of these is not a communication barrier: a. Assumption b. Use of jargon c. Clear pronunciation d. Language Difference Q10. Which of these is part of active listening: a. Listen for ideas b. No clarity in content c. Accuracy in spellings d. All of the above Bhiya Valli Shakti Vikasaka: - Feet together, stand erect with the arms by the sides. - Inhale, raise both arms straight up with the palm facing outward. Palm must not touch the head. - Exhale, bring the arms down. Palm must not touch the things. Benefit: Regular practice gives great strength to the arm muscles and shoulder joint. - Vaksha Sthala Shakti Vikasaka I Techniques: - Feet together stand erect, arms by the sides. - Place the palm on the thigh. - While inhaling raise your hands up and bend backward as far as possible. - Five times to begin with. Vaksha Sthala Shakti Vikasaka-II - Feet together, stand erect, arms by the sides. - Raise both arms up to the shoulder level, keep the palms opposite to each other. - Inhale, no bound backwards as far as possible and stretch your arms behind so that palms face each other. - Exhale, come back to starting position. - Five times to begin with. Benefit: - This practice helps to expand the chest and becomes gives vitality to the back and neck. - It is good for arm strengthening. Saruanga Pushti - Feet wide apart, first with thumbs tucked in. - With are wrist upon the other, bond to ward the ankle of right leg. - Inhale through nose, raise arms backward forward with a ajemicircle and bringh them down towards left ankle. - Inhale when coming down & exhale while rising. - It is to be done way slowly. Pusna Bhija SHakti Vikasaka: - Feet together, stand erect and clench your first with thymes inside - Inhale and retaom, rotate both arms from forward to backward. - Exhale with juk arm bent at elbow and breath - Repeat from backward to forward. Pindali shakti Vikasaka: - Feet together, stand erect, your hand clenched into first - Inhale through nose, squat with your arms held out in front of the knee. - Hold the breath come up standing position rotate the arms from forwarding to backward bending at elbow, Exhale sharply while pealing the arms - Benefit Developing the strength of the calves downward - Hard ghati (Eggan Daus) - Stand erect - Bend the right hand and weight leg. - With exhale change the hand and leg posititing with - While jumping feet must touch the buttocking by bending the knees - Breath in aid out sharpy and deeply thorough wase to produce the hissing sound of engine. - One should do this for 5 minutes to obtain energy.	d930c296-aad4-4bb9-8824-7de01ac17852	CC-MAIN-2023-40	https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/Curriculum20/publication/srsec/YogaXI.pdf	2023-10-03T00:56:18+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511023.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20231002232712-20231003022712-00000.warc.gz	174,946,356	52,411	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.971074	eng_Latn	0.995252	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 30, 1434, 3387, 5587, 7000, 8179, 8835, 9973, 10768, 13736, 15429, 17531, 18875, 21624, 22095, 23016, 24999, 27444, 29774, 31414, 34525, 38151, 40597, 42103, 42787, 43700, 44939, 47129, 49919, 52935, 54441, 57898, 60951, 62444, 63933, 65959, 68378, 71287, 74603, 76971, 79055, 80269, 81314, 82629, 84972, 86199, 87471, 87987, 88020, 89107, 90031, 92109, 95371, 98848, 101719, 104915, 107708, 110947, 112599, 115673, 119249, 121678, 122240, 123436, 124174, 124968, 125927, 126522, 127885, 129027, 130517, 131288, 131972, 133161, 134010, 135010, 136708, 137962, 139234, 140138, 141588, 142252, 143029, 143634, 144611, 145087, 146103, 147328, 148314, 149450, 150919, 151397, 152504, 153786, 154855, 155090, 155910, 157480, 158058, 159218, 160417, 161524, 162613, 164731, 165986, 168499, 171060, 173229, 174493, 175451, 176865, 180701, 181266, 182304, 183251, 183986, 185167, 186064, 187475, 189451, 191070, 191768, 193095, 193402, 194256, 195181, 196232, 196979, 198570, 199142, 200269, 201998, 204917, 206382, 208727, 210557, 213911, 215878, 218686, 220502, 223457, 225611, 227164, 227491, 228444 ]	[ 1.875, 3.65625 ]	1	0
SECTION - I (40 Marks) Attempt all question from this Section. Question 1 (a) When a body is placed on a table top, it exerts a force equal to its weight downwards on the table top but does not move or fall. (i) Name the force exerted by the table top. (ii) What is the direction of the force? (b) (i) Name one factor that affects the lateral displacement of light as it passes through a rectangular glass slab. (ii) On reversing the direction of the current in a wire, the magnetic field produced by it gets ________. (c) (i) On what factor does the position of the centre of gravity of a body depend? (ii) What is the SI unit of the moment of force? (d) Name the factors affecting the turning effect of a body. (e) (i) Define equilibrium. (ii) In a beam balance when the beam is balanced in a horizontal position, it is in _____ equilibrium. Question 2 (a) How is work done by a force measured when the force: (i) is in the direction of displacement? (ii) is in an angle to the direction of displacement? (b) State the energy in the following while in use: (i) Burning of a candle. (ii) A steam engine. (c) (i) A scissor is a ______ multiplier. (ii) 1 kWh = ______ J. (d) Explain the motion of a planet around the Sun in a circular path. (e) Rajan exerts a force of 150 N in pulling a cart at a constant speed of 10 m/s. Calculate the power exerted. Question 3 (a) (i) Give the expression for mechanical advantage of an inclined plane in terms of the length of an inclined plane. (ii) Name a common device where a gear train is used. (b) The speed of light in glass is $2 \times 10^5$ km/s. What is the refractive index of glass? (c) (i) Draw a graph between displacement and the time for a body executing free vibrations. (ii) Where can a body execute free vibrations? (d) (i) What happens to the resistivity of semi-conductor with the increase of temperature? (ii) For a fuse, higher the current rating ______ is the fuse wire. (e) (i) Name the high energetic invisible electromagnetic waves which help in the study of the structure of crystals. (ii) State an additional use of the waves mentioned in part (e)(i). Question 4 (a) Rishi is surprised when he sees water boiling at 115°C in a container. Give reasons as to why water can boil at the above temperature. (b) (i) Why does a current carrying, freely suspended solenoid rest along a particular direction? (ii) State the direction in which it rests. (c) Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B. (d) Give two similarities an AC generator and a DC motor (e) (i) Why is a cathode ray tube evacuated to a low pressure? (ii) What happens if the negative potential is changed on a grid? SECTION - II (40 Marks) Attempt any four questions from this Section. Question 5 (a) Draw a simplified diagram of a lemon crusher, indicating of load and effort. (b) (i) Name the physical quantity measured in terms of horse power. (ii) A nut is opened by a wrench of length 20 cm. If the least force required is 2N, find the moment of force needed to loosen the nut. (iii) Explain briefly why the work done by a fielder when he takes a catch in a cricket match is negative. (c) A block and tackle system has V.R. = 5. (i) Draw a neat labelled diagram of a system indicating the direction of its load and effort. (ii) Rohan exerts a pull of 150 kgf. What is the maximum load he can raise with this pulley system if its efficiency = 75%? Question 6 (a) (i) Where should an object be placed so that a real and inverted image of the same size as the object is obtained using a convex lens? (ii) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image as specified in the part a(i). (b) (i) Why does the Sun appear red at sunrise? (ii) Name the subjective property of light related to its wavelength. (c) Jatin puts a pencil into a glass container having water and is surprised to see the pencil in a different state. (i) What change is observed in the appearance of the pencil? (ii) Name the phenomenon responsible for the change. (iii) Draw a ray diagram showing how the eye sees the pencil. Question 7 (a) [2] (i) State the safe limit of sound level in terms of decibel for human hearing. (ii) Name the characteristic of sound in relation to its waveform. (b) A person standing between two vertical cliffs and 480 m from the nearest cliff shouts. He hears the first echo after 3s and the second echo 2s later. Calculate: [3] (i) The speed of sound. (ii) The distance of the other cliff from the person. (c) In the diagram below, A, B, C, D are four pendulums suspended from the same elastic string PQ. The length of A and C are equal to each other while the length of pendulum B is smaller than that of D. Pendulum A is set in to a mode of vibrations. [5] (i) Name the type of vibrations taking place in pendulums B and D? (ii) What is the state of pendulum C? (iii) State the reason for the type of vibrations in pendulum B and C. Question 8 (a) [3] (i) Name the device used to increase the voltage at a generating station. (ii) At what frequency is AC supplied to residential houses? (iii) Name the wire in a household electrical circuit to which the switch is connected. (b) The relationship between the potential difference and the current in a conductor is stated in the form of a law. [3] (i) Name the law. (ii) What does the slope of V-I graph for a conductor represent? (iii) Name the material used for making the connecting wire. (c) A cell of Emf 2 V and internal resistance 1.2 Ω is connected with an ammeter of resistance 0.8 Ω and two resistors of 4.5 Ω and 9 Ω as shown in the diagram below: (i) What would be the reading on the Ammeter? (ii) What is the potential difference across the terminals of the cell? Question 9 (a) (i) Name a gas caused by the Greenhouse effect. (ii) Which property of water makes it an effective coolant? (b) (i) Water in lakes and ponds do not freeze at once in cold countries. Give a reason is support of your answer. (ii) What is the principle of Calorimetry? (iii) Name the law on which this principle is based. (iv) State the effect of an increase of impurities on the melting point of ice. (c) A refrigerator converts 100 g of water at 20°C to ice at −10°C in 35 minutes. Calculate the average rate of heat extraction in terms of watts. Given: Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.1 J g⁻¹°C⁻¹ Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g⁻¹°C⁻¹ Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 J g⁻¹ Question 10 (a) [2] (i) What is thermionic emission? (ii) Name the unit in which the work function of a metal is expressed. (b) [5] (i) Complete the diagram as given above by drawing the deflection of radioactive radiations in an electric filed. (ii) State any two precautions to be taken while handling radioactive substances. (c) An atomic nucleus A is composed of 84 protons and 128 neutrons. [3] (i) The nucleus A emits an alpha particle and is transformed into nucleus B. What is the composition of nucleus B? (ii) The nucleus B emits a beta particle is transformed into nucleus C. What is the composition of nucleus C? (iii) Does the composition of nucleus C change if it emits gamma radiations? (a) (i) Normal reaction force is exerted by the table top. (ii) The force is in the upward direction. (b) (i) The thickness of the glass block, angle of incidence and refractive index of glass (any one) are the factors which affect the lateral displacement of light as it passes through a rectangular glass slab. (ii) On reversing the direction of the current in a wire, the magnetic field produced by it gets reversed. (c) (i) The position of the centre of gravity of a body depends on its shape, that is, on the distribution of mass. (ii) The SI unit of moment of force is newton × metre (Nm). (d) The following are the factors which affect the turning effect of a body: - Magnitude of the force applied - Distance of line of action of the force from the axis of rotation (e) (i) When several forces acting on a body produce no change in its state of rest or motion, the body is said to be in equilibrium. (ii) In a beam balance, when the beam is balanced in a horizontal position, it is in static equilibrium. (a) (i) When force is in the direction of displacement $\theta = 0^\circ$, then $\cos 0 = 1$. Hence, the work done by a force measured in the direction of displacement is \[ W = F \times S \] The work done is maximum and positive. (ii) When the displacement is in the direction making an angle $\theta$ with the direction of force, Work done = Component of force in the direction of displacement $\times$ displacement \[ \therefore W = F \cos \theta \times S \] (b) (i) Burning of a candle: Conversion of chemical energy to light energy. When a candle burns, it gives light. (ii) A steam engine: Conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy. In a steam engine, chemical energy of coal first changes to heat energy of steam, and then heat energy changes to mechanical energy. (c) (i) A scissor is a force multiplier because the effort applied is less than the load. (ii) 1 kWh = 1 kilowatt $\times$ 1 hour \[ = 1000 \text{ J s}^{-1} \times 3600 \text{ s} \] \[ = 3.6 \times 10^6 \text{ J} \] (d) A planet moves around the Sun in a nearly circular path for which the gravitational force of attraction on the planet by the Sun provides the necessary centripetal force required for circular motion. (e) Given that Force = 150 N Velocity = 10 m s$^{-1}$ \[ \therefore \text{Power} = F \times v \] \[ = 150 \text{ N} \times 10 \text{ m s}^{-1} \] \[ = 1500 \text{ W} \] (a) (i) M.A. = \frac{1}{\sin \theta} = \frac{1}{h} = \frac{l}{h} (ii) A clock is a common device where a gear train is used. In a clock, the gear system is used to obtain gain in torque. (b) Given: Speed of light in glass = $2 \times 10^5$ km/s = $2 \times 10^8$ m/s Refractive index of glass is \[ \mu_{\text{glass}} = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{2 \times 10^8} = 1.5 \] (c) (i) The displacement-time graph for a body executing free vibrations is given below: ![Displacement-Time Graph](image) (ii) The free vibrations of a body actually occur only in vacuum because the presence of a medium offers some resistance due to which the amplitude of vibration does not remain constant and decreases continuously. Thus, we define free vibrations as the periodic vibrations of a body of constant amplitude in the absence of any external force on it. (d) (i) The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature. (ii) For a fuse, higher the current rating, thicker is the fuse wire. (e) (i) X-rays are used in the study of structure of crystals. (ii) X-rays are used in the detection of fracture in bones and teeth. (a) The water boils at the higher temperature because of the reasons given below: - The water used by Rishi might be impure. The boiling of a liquid increases with the addition of impurities. - Rishi might have used a container which creates a pressure within. The boiling point of a liquid increases with an increase in pressure. (b) (i) A current-carrying freely suspended solenoid acts as a bar magnet, and thus, due to the Earth’s magnetic field, it rests along a particular direction. (ii) It rests in the North–South direction. (c) Let $R_p$ be the equivalent resistance of the resistors 12 $\Omega$, 6 $\Omega$ and 4 $\Omega$ connected in parallel. Hence, we have $$\frac{1}{R_p} = \frac{1}{12} + \frac{1}{6} + \frac{1}{4}$$ $$= \frac{1+2+3}{12} = \frac{1}{2}$$ $$R_p = 2\Omega$$ Therefore, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is $$2\Omega + R_p + 5\Omega = 2\Omega + 2\Omega + 5\Omega = 9\Omega$$ Thus, the equivalent resistance between points A and B is 9 $\Omega$. (d) Two similarities between an AC generator and a DC motor are a. A coil rotates in a magnetic field between the pole pieces of a powerful electromagnet. b. The external circuit is connected to two carbon brushes $B_1$ and $B_2$. (e) (i) The cathode ray tube is evacuated to a low pressure to avoid collisions of electrons with air molecules. (ii) If the negative potential on the grid is changed, then the number of electrons reaching the anode and striking the screen changes which ultimately changes the brightness of the pattern of the screen. (a) The diagram below shows a lemon crusher indicating the direction of effort (E) and load (L). (b) (i) Power is measured in horse power. 1 HP = 746 W (ii) According to the principle of moments, we have \[ \text{Moment of load about the fulcrum} = \text{Moment of effort about the fulcrum} \] \[ \text{Load} \times \text{Load arm} = \text{Effort} \times \text{Effort arm} \] Given that the effort arm = 20 cm = 0.2 m, the minimum force $ E = 2 $ N Therefore, the moment of load or the moment of force = $ 0.2 \times 2 = 0.4 $ Nm The moment of force needed to loosen the nut = 0.4 Nm (iii) The work done by a fielder when he takes a catch in a cricket match is negative because the force applied by the fielder is in the direction opposite to the displacement of the ball. The angle between the force applied and the displacement of the ball is 180°. We know that work done = $ F.s \cos \theta $ Therefore, work done = $-F.s$ (c) (i) A block and tackle system whose velocity ratio is 5 is as shown below: (ii) Given that Velocity ratio, $ \text{VR} = 5 $ Effort = 150 kgf Efficiency = 75% We know that efficiency, $ \eta = \frac{\text{Mechanical Advantage}}{\text{Velocity Ratio}} $ \[ \frac{75}{100} = \frac{\text{MA}}{5} \] $ \text{MA} = 5 \times \frac{75}{100} $ $ \therefore $ Mechanical advantage = 3.75 But, Mechanical advantage $ = \frac{\text{Load(L)}}{\text{Effort(E)}} $ $ \therefore $ Load = Mechanical advantage $ \times $ Effort $ = 3.75 \times 150 \text{ Kgf} $ $ = 562.5 \text{ Kgf} $ Therefore, Rohan can raise a maximum load of 562.5 kgf with this pulley system. 6. (a) (i) When an object is placed at $ 2F_1 $ of a convex lens, a real and inverted image of the same size as that of the object is formed at $ 2F_2 $. (ii) The ray diagram for the same is as shown below: (b) (i) The Sun appears red at sunrise because of the scattering of light by the atmospheric particles. During sunrise, the light from the Sun has to travel a longer distance through the atmosphere to reach the observer. During this, most of the shorter wavelengths present in it are scattered away from our line of sight by the molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere. So, the light reaching us directly from the rising Sun consists mainly of longer wavelength red colour due to which the Sun appears red. (ii) The subjective property of light related to its wavelength is colour. (c) (i) The immersed part of the pencil appears to be shortened and raised. (ii) The phenomenon responsible for the above observation is the refraction of light in passing from water to air. (iii) The ray diagram for the same is as shown below: 7. (a) (i) The safe limit of sound level for human hearing is 30 decibels (30 dB). (ii) The characteristic of sound in relation to its waveform is quality or timbre. (b) (i) Let $d_1$ be the distance of the nearest cliff and $d_2$ be the distance of the farther cliff. The time for the first echo is $t_1 = 3$ s The first echo will be heard from the nearest cliff. The total distance travelled by sound before reaching the person is $2d_1$. We know that \[ \text{Speed of sound} = v = \frac{2d}{t} = \frac{2d_1}{t_1} \] \[ v = \frac{2 \times 480}{3} = 320 \text{ m/s} \] Hence, the speed of sound is 320 m/s. (ii) The second echo is heard 2 s after the first one. Hence, $t_2 = 3 + 2 = 5$ s Again the sound travels a total distance $2d_2$ before reaching the person. So, we get \[ v = \frac{2d_2}{t_2} \] \[ \therefore d_2 = \frac{vt_2}{2} = \frac{320 \times 5}{2} = 800 \text{ m} \] Hence, the distance between the other cliff and the person is 800 m. (c) (i) The vibrations which occur in pendulums B and D are called forced vibrations. (ii) Pendulum C is in the state of resonance with pendulum A as it is of the same length. (iii) The pendulums vibrate because the forced vibration from A is transferred due to string PQ. Pendulum B is of a different length as compared to pendulum A. Hence, it will continuously vibrate with a frequency which is different from that of pendulum A. Its amplitude will also be very small. Pendulum C is of the same length as compared to pendulum A. Hence, it will vibrate in phase with pendulum A. Its amplitude will be equal to that of pendulum A as it will attain resonance. 8. (a) (i) The device used to increase voltage at the generating station is the step-up transformer. (ii) The residential houses are supplied with AC of frequency 50 Hz. (iii) The switch is connected to the live (or phase) wire in a household electric circuit. (b) (i) The relationship between the potential difference and the current in a conductor is given by Ohm’s law. (ii) The slope of the V–I graph gives the resistance of the conductor. \[ \text{Slope} = \frac{V}{I} = R \] (iii) The material used for making connecting wires is copper. (c) Given that \[ \varepsilon = 2 \text{ V}, \ r = 1.2 \Omega, \ R_A = 0.8 \Omega, \ R_1 = 4.5 \Omega, \ R_2 = 9 \Omega \] (i) We know that for the circuit \[ \varepsilon = I R_{\text{total}} \] Now, the total resistance of the circuit is \[ R_{\text{total}} = r + R_A + R_p \] \[ \frac{1}{R_p} = \frac{1}{4.5} + \frac{1}{9} = \frac{3}{9} \] \[ \therefore R_p = 3 \Omega \] \[ \Rightarrow R_{\text{total}} = 1.2 + 0.8 + 3 = 6 \Omega \] Hence, the current through the ammeter is \[ I = \frac{\varepsilon}{R_{\text{total}}} = \frac{2}{6} = 0.33 \text{ A} \] (ii) The potential difference across the terminals of the cell is \[ V_{\text{cell}} = Ir = 0.33 \times 1.2 = 0.396 \, \text{V} \] 9. (a) (i) A gas caused by the greenhouse effect is carbon dioxide. (ii) The high specific heat capacity of water makes it an effective coolant. (b) (i) The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is sufficiently high (=336 J g$^{-1}$), and so to freeze water, a large quantity of heat has to be withdrawn. Hence, it freezes slowly and thus keeps the surroundings moderate. (ii) Principle of calorimetry: If no heat energy is exchanged with the surroundings, i.e. if the system is fully insulated, then the heat energy lost by the hot body is equal to the heat energy gained by the cold body. (iii) The principle of calorimetry is based on the law of conservation of energy. (iv) Increasing the impurities causes the melting point of ice to decrease. (c) Given that Mass of water converted to ice = $ m = 100 \, \text{g} $ Temperature of water $ t_w = 20^\circ \text{C} $ Temperature of ice $ t_i = -10^\circ \text{C} $ Total time $ t = 35 \, \text{min} = 2100 \, \text{s} $ Specific heat capacity of ice = $ 2.1 \, \text{J g}^{-1} \text{C}^{-1} $ Specific heat capacity of water = $ 4.2 \, \text{J g}^{-1} \text{C}^{-1} $ Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = $ 336 \, \text{J g}^{-1} $ Amount of heat released when 100 g water cools from 20°C to 0°C is \[ Q_1 = mc\Delta T \] \[ = 100 \times 4.2 \times 20 \] \[ = 8400 \, \text{J} \] Amount of heat released when 100 g water converts to ice at 0°C is \[ Q_2 = mL \] \[ = 100 \times 336 \] \[ = 33600 \, \text{J} \] Amount of heat released when 100 g ice cools from 0°C to −10°C is \[ Q_3 = mc\Delta T \] \[ = 100 \times 2.1 \times 10 \] \[ = 2100 \, \text{J} \] Hence, the total heat released is \[ Q = Q_1 + Q_2 + Q_3 \] \[ Q = 8400 + 33600 + 2100 \] \[ Q = 44100 \text{ J} \] Therefore, the average rate of heat extraction is \[ P = \frac{Q}{t} = \frac{44100}{2100} = 21 \text{ W} \] 10. (a) (i) The emission of electrons from a metal surface when heat energy is imparted to it is called thermionic emission. (ii) Work function of a metal is expressed in terms of electron volt (eV). (b) (i) Deflection of radioactive radiations $ \alpha $, $ \beta $ and $ \gamma $ in an electric field is as shown below: ![Diagram showing deflection of $ \alpha $, $ \beta $, and $ \gamma $ rays in an electric field](image) (ii) The two safety precautions to be taken while handling radioactive substances are (any two): i. Radioactive substances should be kept in thick lead containers with a very narrow opening so as to restrict the radiations coming out from other directions. ii. Radioactive materials should be handled with long lead tongs. iii. People working with radioactive substances should put on special lead lined aprons and lead gloves. (c) Given that the nucleus contains 84 protons and 128 neutrons, i.e. the atomic number of the nucleus is 84 and the mass number is $128 + 84 = 212$. The atomic nucleus A can be represented as $\text{^{212}_{84}A}$ (i) When the atomic nucleus A emits an alpha particle, the atomic number of the transformed nucleus B decreases by two and the mass number decreases by four. The transformation of nucleus A to B during alpha decay can be represented as $$\text{^{212}_{84}A \rightarrow ^{4}_{2}\text{He} + ^{208}_{82}\text{B}}$$ (ii) When nucleus B emits a beta particle, the transformation can be shown as $$\text{^{208}_{82}\text{B} \rightarrow ^{0}_{-1}\text{e} + ^{208}_{83}\text{C}}$$ During beta decay, the atomic number increases by 1, while the mass number remains the same. (iii) There will not be any change in the mass number and atomic number of nucleus C if it undergoes gamma emission. 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IPU KUHA and IPU ‘AINA Both ipu kuha (spittoon) and ipu ‘aina (scrap bowl), as the word ipu (lagenaria siceraria) suggests, take their names from the shape of the gourd used for a variety of containers by the common folk of Hawaiian society. Wooden ipu kuha and ipu ‘aina, however, were exclusively made for ali‘i (chiefs) as the symmetry and smooth surface of the item required intense labor that was achieved, remarkably, with only the use of stone tools. According to Bishop Museum Curator Sir Peter Buck (1957, p. 53), “Scrap bowls and spittoons ipu ‘aina were made for chiefs, who deposited fish bones and scraps of food during meals in the former, and spittle, hair and nail parings in the latter.” Because it was feared that the chief could be assassinated by use of sorcery, the attendants of the ipu ‘aina carefully disposed of food scraps and bodily remains lest the material fall into the hands of a kahuna ‘anā anā (sorcerer). Both food scraps and bodily remains could be used as maunu, or bait, to cast spells to cause death to the person from whom the remains came. Another feature of many ipu ‘aina, is the “curious method of or ornamentation by the insertion of superb human molar teeth” (Brigham, 1906, p. 177). The use of human bones for fishhooks was well known and meant to capitalize on the mana (spiritual power) of the deceased - and in many instances to insult the dead. “This is also shown in the insertion of teeth and bones in vessels of dishonor, such as spittoons (ipu kuha), slop basins (ipu aina) and the like” (p. 177). The ipu kuha from the Ulster Museum collection contains both teeth and a bone fragment. The Belfast Art Gallery and Museum accession book lists this item (1910.74) as a bowl of wood with a diameter of 4 inches and a depth of 3-3/8 inches. A label attached to it identified it as an ipu kuha. Küpeʻe is the Hawaiian word for bracelet and also the name of the shell (Nerita polita). The küpeʻe (wristlet) that Gordon Thompson acquired is rare as the shells are threaded on plaited human hair, very reminiscent of the lei niho palaoa (whale tooth necklace) that were strung on loops of braided hair, thus suggesting that the küpeʻe belonged to an aliʻi (chief). Most küpeʻe in the Bishop Museum are strung with natural fiber like olonā (Louchrdia latifolia) although other samples are strung on string, silk ribbon and even copper wire. The largest type of küpeʻe (shell) on the bracelet, with its red and white stripes, is called mahiole. Other küpeʻe (shell) types according to Titcomb, Gellows, Pukuʻi, and Devaney (1978), include: ʻula (red) which were red; ānuenue (rainbow) which were red or black striped; palaoa (whale tooth ivory) which were creamy white; ʻeleʻele (black, dark) which were black; kāniʻo (vertical stripes) which were black with white streaks; mahiole (warrior’s helmet) which were white with red stripes; and puna, a rare variety for which there is no color description. Pukuʻi (1986) wrote that the rarest, palaoa and puna, were reserved for the aliʻi. Of the bracelets and necklaces made of küpeʻe, perhaps the most well-preserved specimen in Bishop Museum belonged to Queen Kapiʻolani, which displays almost every küpeʻe color and pattern type. Those shells were gifted to Kapiʻolani on her many Hoʻoulu Lāhui visits with her people throughout the island chain. Other notable küpeʻe collections in the Bishop Museum also come from those of aliʻi lineage: The Queen Liliʻuokalani Collection; the Kapiʻolani-Kalanianaʻole Collection; the Keʻelikōlani Collection; the Lucy Kaopaulu Peabody Collection; and the Edgar and Kalani Henriques Collection. LEI NIHO PALAOA Lei niho palaoa, or whale-tooth necklaces, such as the one collected in the 19th century by Gordon Thompson, were symbols of nobility and power in Hawaiian society. The hook-shaped ivory pendant that is suspended upon cords of the braided hair of esteemed ancestors, was thought to represent the tongue, and by association, the mouth and the power of the spoken word as evidenced in the proverb: “I ka alelo ke ola, i ka alelo ka make. In the tongue is life, in the tongue is death.” The “niho palaoa” refers to the tooth of the sperm whale, a highly prized resource obtained when a sperm whale beached itself or was found dead onshore. Kualoa, Oʻahu, was once coveted by Kahekili of Maui for access to this highly prized resource, presumably for fashioning the lei niho palaoa. The earliest written account of the pendant by westerners was by James King, the second lieutenant of the Resolution which James Cook captained until he was killed at Kealakekua, Hawaiʻi. King described the lei niho palaoa in a journal entry of 1779 as “an ornament in the form of a handle of a cup, about two inches long and half an inch broad, made of wood, stone, or ivory, finely polished, which hung about the neck by fine threads of twisted hair, doubled sometime an hundred fold” (pp. 134-135). The distinct hook or tongue shape of the niho palaoa was prevalent in the 19th century when walrus ivory was often substituted for sperm whale ivory, according to Cammann (1954). While the shape is clearly pre-European, the style on O‘ahu was uncarved and, thus, called ‘ōpu‘u (bud). Peleiholani, paramount chief of O‘ahu, gifted his son, Kalani‘ōpu‘u, with such a lei. Hence, the ‘ōpu‘u in his name refers to the O‘ahu style of lei niho palaoa. The other unique material used in fashioning the lei were the cords of human hair braided in eight-ply weave. As an example of the tremendous amount of work required to braid the fine filaments of hair, is a classic lei specimen in the W. O. Oldman collection of London that described a lei niho palaoa composed of “580 closely-braided square cords of human hair on each side of the ornament in the form of a hook carved from a whale tooth, very finely shaped and finished. Braided tapering cords at ends for fastening around the neck” (Oldman, 1940, p. 72). The fastening cords were usually of olonā (Louchrdia latifolia), an endemic plant that produced fibers recognized to be “the strongest and most durable fiber in the world” (MacVaughay, 1918, p. 236). LEI NIHO PALAOA Pe‘ahi (fan) that were fashioned in this unique, curved rainbow shape were reserved for the ali‘i. The Belfast Art Gallery and Museum accession book lists this item (1910.346) as a fan whose upper portion is “plaited cane,” probably ‘ie‘ie (Freycinetia arborea), the rattan-like roots used for basketry and wickerwork like mahiole (helmets) or ki‘i akua hulu (feathered god-image). The ledger describes the bottom portion as being composed of “intermixed hair & wool.” The width is 20-3/8 inches and the length is 9-¾ inches. Other museum notes state that “a pattern of human hair and red and purple wool is woven into the handle portion. These fans were used by Hawaiian chiefs and held by special attendants.” The innovative practice of incorporating western fabric and fiber into the fan can also found in similar fans in the Peabody and British Museums. A fan of feathers in the Belfast Museum itemized as 1910:345, the returning pe‘ahi (pictured above) states that it belonged to Princess Bokee [sic Boki Kama‘ule‘ule], probably Kuini Liliha, the wife of Boki and governor of O‘ahu from 1829 to 1831. She died in 1839. The Thompson family of Ireland were in the Pacific during Liliha’s time in Honolulu and may have acquired the fan at that time. It could also be possible that the repatriated pe‘ahi was part of Liliha’s estate. ABOUT THE DONOR: GORDON AUGUSTUS THOMPSON Gordon Augustus Thompson was born in 1799 in Belfast, Antrim, Ireland, to a wealthy family with ties to the estates of Castleton and Lowood in Scotland. Gordon, the youngest son, was named for the governor of St. Vincent, Colonel Robert Gordon, to whom he became the sole heir of his uncle’s Spring Estate in the West Indies. His travels took him to many parts of the world and were captured in the book, In the Wake of Captain Cook: The Travels of Gordon Augustus Thompson (1799-1886), by Winifred Glover. Being one of Cook’s stops, Hawai‘i was certainly one of Thompson’s destinations and the source of his Hawaiian artifact collection. He and his family may have visited Hawai‘i at around the same time that their round-the-world tour took them to Melbourne, Australia, in 1836. Thompson’s mansion in Belfast housed the many curiosities and relics he collected from his travels. He donated his collection to the museum in his native Belfast in the 1850s before he retired to Melbourne, Australia, where he died at his home, Bedeque House, in 1886 at the age of 86. He published a memoir in The Argus called “Early Australian Reminiscences,” a poignant story of his early days in the city of Melbourne and the state of Victoria. In 1884, he donated a portrait of himself to the city of Melbourne. FIGURE 3. Presented by Mr Gordon Augustus Thomson, 1884. City of Melbourne art and heritage collection. REFERENCES Brigham, W. T. (1906). Old Hawaiian carvings found in a cave on the island of Hawaii. Honolulu: Hawai‘i: Bishop Museum Press. Buck, P. H. (1957). Arts and Crafts of Hawai‘i. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press. Cammann, S. (1954, June). “Notes on ivory in Hawai‘i.” In The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 53, 2, pp. 133-140. Retrieved on April 28, 2021: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20703427 Glover, W. (1992). In The Wake of Captain Cook: The Travels of Gordon Augustus Thompson (1799-1886). Cook, J. & King, J. (1728-1779). A voyage to the Pacific Ocean; for making discoveries in the northern hemisphere; performed under the direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore, in the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, 1780. New York: Tiebout and O’Brien. Retrieved on April 28, 2021: http://name.umdl.umich.edu/N22930.0001.001 “Death of one of Melbourne’s Oldest Residents.” (June 1886). The Argus, p. 6. Melbourne Retrieved April 28, 2022 from: https://oa.anu.edu.au/obituary/thomson-gordon-augustus-13917 MacCaughhey, V. (1918, Sept). “The Olona, Hawaii’s Unexcelled Fiber-plant.” In Science, 48: 1236, pp. 236-238. Oldman, W. O. (1940, Dec.). Memoir no. 15. “The Oldman collection of Polynesian Artifacts,” Installment Nos. 12 and 13. In The Journal of the Polynesian Society, 49: 4(106). Pp. 65-77. Retrieved on April 28, 2021 at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20702853 Pukui, M. K. 1986. Hawaiian Dictionary. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i Press. Titcomb, M., Gellows, D. B., Pukui, M. K., and Devaney, D. M.(1978). “Native Use of Marine Invertebrates in Old Hawai‘i.” Pacific Science 32 (4): 325–86. OHA RESEARCH DISCLAIMER: The information presented has been vetted for accuracy; however, there is no warranty that it is error-free. The data itself does not represent or confer any legal rights of any kind. Please use suggested citation and report discrepancies to the OHA Research Division. SUGGESTED CITATION: Akana, K. (2023). Ka Ho‘iho‘i ‘ana o ke Kāuna Mea Makamae Pili Ali‘i Information Sheet. Honolulu, HI: Office of Hawaiian Affairs, Research Division.	993b127f-ee61-4231-b930-fe6ce15663b4	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://www.oha.org/wp-content/uploads/v3-Ka-Hoihoi-ana-o-ke-Kauna-Mea-Makamae-Pili-Alii-Repatriation-Info-Sheet-I.pdf	2024-04-17T19:49:55+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817171.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20240417173445-20240417203445-00046.warc.gz	822,440,886	2,968	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.922488	eng_Latn	0.98933	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1844, 5104, 8937, 11052 ]	[ 2.421875 ]	2	0
A System for Learning LEGO education \| Contents \| Page \| \|--------------------------------\|------\| \| Our Manifesto \| 4-5 \| \| LEGO® Education \| 6-7 \| \| LEGO System for Learning \| 8-9 \| \| The Digital and Creative Era \| 10-11\| \| Delivering Learning Experiences \| 12-13\| \| LEGO Education in Practice \| 14-17\| \| Conclusion \| 18 \| \| Bibliography \| 19 \| Our Manifesto We believe children must be supported to be: • Systematically Creative Learners • Active Learners • Collaborative Learners Children become Systematically Creative Learners through: • Learning by combining logic and reasoning with playfulness and imagination. • Learning by mastering a tool and giving form to thoughts. • Learning by combining, exploring and transforming ideas and objects. Children become Active Learners through: • Learning by constructing things in the real world, and in this way constructing knowledge in their minds. • Making their mark and expressing their originality in the learning environment. • Feeling ownership and taking charge, being proactive and internally driven. Children become Collaborative Learners through: • Learning from interpreted experiences and explanations of other people, including peers and experts. • Learning through reflecting upon an experience, discussing why and how things worked in the accomplishment of a goal. • Helping each other to learn, each according to their ability, through the shared language of LEGO® bricks. LEGO® Education Learning is at the very core of the LEGO Group’s most heartfelt values, and the company’s education division has invested many years in cooperation and research with child development specialists and teaching professionals to build a rich understanding of what it takes to provide truly effective learning experiences. While teaching to curriculum subjects and assessment through exam scores may continue to dominate political agendas, research into effective learning techniques and a growing understanding of the needs of 21st century learners show that individuals benefit more by applying knowledge as a means to expand their understanding than they do by simply acquiring knowledge in order to pass examinations. The focus of education and the role of educators are changing. Twentyfirst century learning is about providing children with opportunities to experiment with their surroundings as a form of problem solving. It is about creativity and collaboration, motivation and self-direction. It is about improvisation and discovery, and interacting with meaningful tools that expand mental capacities. New technology: computers, digital information and online communication, are helping to expand the way we acquire and use knowledge, and this too is paving the way for more dynamic and effective teaching and learning experiences. LEGO® Education has been creating solutions for kindergartens and classrooms for 30 years. The skills and techniques that the LEGO System for Learning embodies meet many of the needs of 21st century learners. LEGO Education solutions enable students to be active, creative and collaborative solution-seekers. In this way their instinct to learn is stimulated, and they are motivated to apply their learning in new contexts, which means that they embark on a self-directed learning process. LEGO students use LEGO bricks and digital tools to solve problems creatively and to excel at working with others and thinking critically. By working in this way, they develop their understanding and ability to retain knowledge of key curriculum concepts, and therefore do well in school and on high-stakes tests. LEGO® System for Learning Systems are essential for learning because they are used by the mind to generate meaning from the endless onslaught of stimuli from the outside world. They help us to make sense of things and to build knowledge and understanding. Through systems we also channel creativity into ideas or artefacts in a way that can be understood and valued by ourselves and others. They help us to express ourselves. Systems that allow us to build knowledge and understanding, as well as express it, are crucial for learning. We call this Systematic Creativity: the ability to think creatively and reason systematically. It is about making sense of, and leveraging, human experience. It is marked by a strong push to put imagination and creativity at the service of knowledge and reasoning. The LEGO® System for learning is unique because it provides endless opportunities to make sense of things and express new ideas. Hands-on learning The effectiveness of hands-on learning, for example through construction, has been well documented for many years. Today neuroscience is able to document even more precisely how physical and active involvement in experiences stimulates the brain and improves the quality of learning. There is a growing recognition that people primarily think and learn through experiences they have had, rather than through abstract calculations and generalisations. We store our experiences in memory and use them to run simulations in our minds to prepare for problem-solving in new situations. These simulations help us form hypotheses about how to proceed in the new situation based on past experiences. It is difficult to store and reflect upon abstract thoughts, as the brain does not have a memorable experience to retain and work with. And yet a significant proportion of teaching efforts still rely on delivering knowledge in this disconnected way. While the LEGO System for Learning cannot solve all of the challenges that educators face, it is a fact that building representations of ideas, problems, and knowledge with LEGO bricks and digital tools provides students with an experience that is concrete and with learning that is memorable. The Digital and Creative Era New technologies have brought easy access to knowledge and greater opportunities for collaboration and creativity. As James Paul Gee emphasises in Learning Games, technology eases information sharing, co-creation and the crossing of new and more distant borders, not just geographically, but also between physical and digital realms. Digital interfaces give us new ways to express ourselves, new ways to research ideas, new ways to experiment. They allow us to take risks safely, to make and remake, to repurpose, recycle and trade in ways we could barely have imagined just a few decades ago. Young people’s combination and recombination of LEGO® bricks and models, both physically and digitally, nurtures non-linear forms of learning, where they move between rule acquisition and rule modification, between the familiar and the foreign. By working in this way, students gain opportunities to immediately reflect on the choices they make, to intuitively or collaboratively modify their ideas, and to collectively achieve better results with their classmates. These developments and opportunities are changing the way teaching and childcare professionals view their roles. As one newly qualified teacher said: “I was looking at all these tools and thinking, ‘How can I get good at using them in order to teach?’ But then I realised that what I needed to do was to give them to the children and let them learn by using them.” Delivering learning experiences through a framework LEGO® Education teaching resources embody a ‘Four C’ framework through which students are free to experiment and explore in order to gain new knowledge. All LEGO tasks are designed to deliver a learning experience through this framework. The success of the Four C process is also dependent on the role of the facilitator in enabling students to achieve a state of Flow and to work collaboratively. Flow To achieve a state of Flow, a balance must be struck between the challenge of the task and the skill of the performer. If the task is too easy, it leads to boredom; but if it is too difficult, it only creates anxiety, and Flow cannot occur. An educator’s greatest responsibility is to facilitate the learning process in a way that allows children to stay within such a balance. In this way their creativity and engagement naturally flourish and Flow can be experienced. This is true of the entire Four C process. By providing open-ended tasks and extension ideas, LEGO Education resources help students to achieve and maintain a state of Flow. Collaboration Acknowledging collaboration is about recognising that while we learn on an individual basis, we need others in order to develop and complete our learning. Collaboration is about personal leadership and mastering the dynamics of teamwork. Learning to engage effectively in dialogue with peers, sharing ideas, and building on top of contributions by others while crediting the originator, are essential skills to master in all the phases of the Four Cs model. Being collaborative involves building trust and empathy, and building strong bonds with others whilst remaining true to one’s own identity. Collaboration entails sharing ideas and feelings through dialogue, and learning to negotiate differences. Connect Learners are presented with a challenge or task that is open-ended and that places them in the position of solution-seekers. The active engagement of students always takes its starting point in questions asked by the learners themselves, thereby building on the students’ own initiative and interests. In the Connect phase the facilitator encourages learners to ask questions and explore ideas around the task before they get started. Their curiosity is awakened, and the task is within their reach. It builds on existing knowledge and areas of interest. Construct Every LEGO task involves a building activity. Active learning (or learning by doing) involves two types of construction: when children construct artefacts in the world, they simultaneously construct knowledge in their minds. This new knowledge then enables them to build even more sophisticated artefacts, a process which yields yet more knowledge, and so on, in a self-reinforcing cycle. To construct with others collaboratively extends this learning even further. Solutions that we create together are generally better than those we are able to create as individuals, due to the opportunities made available by the process. Contemplate Students are given the opportunity to consider what they have learned and to talk about and share insights they have gained during the Construct phase. In the Contemplate phase everyone is encouraged to ask facilitating questions about the process and learning so far. Facilitating questions are designed to help learners gain awareness of the process they are in and explore new ways to go about finding solutions to the task that has been set. Continue Every LEGO task ends with a new task that builds on what has just been learned. This phase is designed to keep the learner in ‘a state of Flow’. The Flow state is an optimal state of intrinsic motivation, where a person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing. LEGO® Education in Practice For the Sciences and the Arts LEGO® Education has developed a broad portfolio of teaching resources that can be applied to both the sciences and the arts. Some resources tap directly into Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects, and allow students to engage with these subjects authentically. Practicing STEM in the classroom calls for problem- and project-based lessons as well as considerable social interaction – allowing students to refine one another’s ideas, to articulate their own and to achieve new and valuable insights. Other resources are powerful tools that children use to create and tell stories as well as to express emotions and responses to their own experiences. How LEGO Education resources are used at schools A group of 4-year-olds use LEGO® DUPLO® bricks to build the caterpillars Shorty and Stretch. They find things in the room that are “longer than”, “shorter than” and exactly the same length as their caterpillar friends. Then they build their own caterpillars and use them to invent caterpillar stories. A class of 8-year-olds engages in creating their own stories in groups, building a beginning, a middle and an end with the use of the LEGO® Education StoryStarter set. To inspire the story creation the teacher sets the scene by, for example, reading an engaging text from the teachers curriculum pack. The students build their stories thinking about the characters involved, the action taking place, and how the story can express their main idea and end in a way that serves their story right. They illustrate their story with photos of their building set-ups and add written text to it using the software StoryVizualiser. After a 2 x 45 minutes lesson, each group in this class has a well communicated story of their own creation to bring out of the classroom and an experience of themselves as good storytellers and storywriters. Each lesson has a clear learning objective linked to the national curriculum standards to build the students literacy skills in speaking, listening, reading and writing. A class of 10-year-olds uses the LEGO Education BuildToExpress method to talk about caring for the environment. The children build models that metaphorically represent their ideas and understanding. This is a skill they have been trained in and is a deliberate deviation from the more traditional use of LEGO sets to reconstruct real-world objects. The method improves their ability to reflect on their thoughts and participate in constructive dialogue. Primary and middle school physics students build LEGO models and use them to examine techniques such as capturing wind energy for transport or transforming energy by gearing down and concepts such as forces and wind resistance. They practice making accurate predictions and measurements, recording observations and findings. Secondary mathematics students are asked to find a way to accurately control the speed at which a LEGO robot moves by logging the distance it travels over a period of time at varying speeds. The computer software includes a data logging component, so that when the robot moves, data is gathered and stored in a way that allows students to analyse and interpret it later. They are then able to calculate precisely how far, how fast and for how long a robot should travel to carry out a specific task. Each year, children around the world form teams (representing schools, clubs and families) to build and programme robots to complete a robotics challenge using LEGO® MINDSTORMS® sets. Teams compete in regional, national and international contests. The FIRST LEGO League challenge includes a research project on a given subject. Team performance is measured on the quality of the research, the robot design, the team’s programming skills and the ability of the team to work together. In all of these contexts the use of LEGO materials consistently helps to foster collaboration, imagination, resourcefulness, and equality. When everyone is building with LEGO bricks, they are on a level playing field, sharing their worldviews in the same international language. Conclusion Twenty-first century learning is about providing children with opportunities to experiment with their surroundings as a form of problem solving; it is about improvisation and discovery, constructing dynamic models of real world processes and interacting with meaningful tools that expand mental capacities. It is about being active, creative and collaborative. Educators no longer need to bear the burden of teaching predominantly through knowledge dissemination, but must instead become creators and leaders of effective learning experiences. Bibliography Bruner, Jerome: The culture of education, Harvard University Press, 1996 Czikszentmihalyi, Mihaly: Flow: The psychology of optimal experience, Harper & Row, 1991 Drotner, Kirsten: ‘Leisure is hard work: Digital practices and future competencies’, in Buckingham, David (ed.), Building the field of digital media and learning, The MacArthur Foundation Digital Media and Learning Initiative, 2008 Duschl, Richard, Schweingruber, Heidi, and Shouse, Andrew (eds): Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8, The National Academies Press, 2007 Dweck, Carol: Mindset: The new psychology of success, Random House, 2006 Edwards, David: Artsclience – Creativity in the post-Google generation, Harvard University Press, 2008 Forman, G. and Fleet, H: Constructive play: Applying Piaget in the preschool, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1984 Gauntlett, David: Creative explorations: New approaches to identities and audiences, Routledge, 2007 Gee, James Paul: ‘Learning and Games’, in Salen, Katie (ed), The ecology of games: Connecting youth, games and learning, MIT Press, 2008 Jenkins, Henry: Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century, MIT Press, 2009 OECD: The creative society of the 21st century, 2000 Papert, Seymour: Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas, Basic Books, 1980 Pink, Daniel: A whole new mind, Marshall Cavendish, 2008 Rogers, Carl (1967): ‘The interpersonal relationship in the facilitation of learning’, in Kirschenbaum, H. and Henderson, V. L. (eds), The Carl Rogers Reader, Houghton Mifflin, 1989 Vygotskij, Lev S: Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, eds Michael Cole et al. [transl. from Russian], Harvard University Press, 1978 Published by LEGO® Education in cooperation with LEGO Learning Institute LEGOeducation.com LEGO, the LEGO logo, DUPLO, the DUPLO logo, MINDSTORMS and the MINDSTORMS logo are trademarks of the/sont des marques de commerce du/son marcas registradas de LEGO Group. ©2014 The LEGO Group. 6106744.	<urn:uuid:689c8fe3-c700-4166-a81f-820767322805>	CC-MAIN-2019-04	https://cdn.webshopapp.com/shops/128280/files/239911589/le-manifesto-2014-uk-low.pdf	2019-01-24T10:42:57Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547584520525.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20190124100934-20190124122934-00148.warc.gz	470,845,448	3,489	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.946157	eng_Latn	0.997279	[ "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 37, 453, 1552, 3717, 5909, 7370, 11154, 11892, 15294, 17671, 17966 ]	[ 4.4375 ]	3	0
Dear Vyasa International School Parents and Community, As a Principal of Vyasa International School, myself Vidhya U R who has been inducted recently into Vyasa family, takes great pleasure to welcome you all back for another great academic year (2023-24) ahead. We are all excited to have students back in our classrooms and corridors filling them with energy and enthusiasm for learning. It is our mission to help every child feel welcomed, connected and to be a part of Vyasa family. Additionally, we strive to challenge each student to grow in his or her academic abilities and to be college ready. At Vyasa, we have great teachers who spend hours planning and creating classroom activities to engage our students in learning. Our teachers utilize research based best practices and analyze academic data to determine current skill levels and set goals for growth and improvement. We believe that all students should graduate from higher secondary school, prepared for the demands of meaningful careers and effective citizenship. We are a welcoming community where the diverse gifts of each are cobbled together in the spirit to produce a vibrant congregation. I feel that open lines of communication between the parent, student and teacher are the key to promoting an educational climate that is conducive for learning. I am truly honoured to serve as a principal of Vyasa International School. It is indeed a privilege to be a part of a community where parents, students and teachers care for each other and strive to build a positive relationship that support academic and social growth. Let’s make another successful academic year together in Vyasa International School!!! Sincerely, Vidhya U R Principal Vyasa International School Dear Parents, We are delighted to present the third edition of our Newsletter for the AY 23-24. The month of July has been a resounding success with students demonstrating exceptional dedication to their studies and actively participating in various academic and extra-curricular activities. As we move forward, we have an exciting line up of events and activities planned from academic competitions to cultural celebrations. Our neighbourhood is not just a place where we live in; it is a community where we can come together to make a positive impact on the environment. Each one of us play a crucial role in creating a greener and healthier neighbourhood for ourselves and future generations. Let’s join hands and take action to protect our environment preserve the beauty of our surroundings. “Clean Neighbourhood, Happy Community: Spread the word and Keep it Green” Create a poster or a slogan and spread the word in your community. Send a picture of the poster or slogan displayed in your apartments or areas to win a Vyasa Eco-Warrior Badge. We would like to wish all the students celebrating their birthday this month an awesome one. A sneak peek into the month gone by......... Stars of July Shivansh Kumar Daksha Prasad Goalla Grade 3 Sprouts Pot competition winners Class Monitors Diya Ravindra & Shrish M Mali July Class activities ## Our month of learning ### Theme for the Month - My School and My Neighbourhood Children will learn about My School; My Neighbourhood and all other subjects will be integrated into this theme. \| Subject \| Topic \| Activities \| Resources Required by the Students \| \|---------\|-------\|------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| English \| Heidi in the City, Safe Again, Syllabification, Phonics Group 3, Listening, Writing, Subject Pronouns and Object Pronoun, Action Words, Helping Verbs, describing words, Speaking, Carousal, Reading Comprehension \| Draw a carousal, Action words drawing, Dumb charades, Helping verbs chart, Pictionary, drawing of the cityscape, making a bird’s nest. \| Coloured sheets, A4 size white sheets \| \| Math \| Chapter 3: Subtraction of Numbers. \| Subtraction dice game, Subtraction with and without borrowing activity using sketch pen colour dots. \| A4 size white sheet, coloured sheet, crayons or colour pencils, colour sketch pen set, scale etc. \| \| My Neighbourhood \| Chapter: Our School Chapter 8: The Games We Play Chapter 7: Children at Work \| School tour, Make your own Board-game, Games in the past-Presentation and Talk about your Famous Sports Personality. \| A-4 sheets, coloured sheets, crayons or colour pencils, scale, etc. \| \| Activity \| Description \| Equipment \| Materials \| \|----------\|-------------\|-----------\|-----------\| \| Art \| Elements of art - colour, primary colours, Independence Day drawing, Theme based drawing - house, hospital, Origami fish and Rakhi making. \| - \| Colours: crayons, colour pencils or oil pastels, A4 colour paper, colour thread \| \| Yoga \| Group of Padmasanas and Pranayama \| Cotton ball challenge \| Yoga Mat, straw \| \| Music \| Nvaella Bharathiyaremba \| - \| - \| \| PE \| Football Skills \| receiving, dribbling, shooting \| balls & cones \| A gentle reminder… 1. Students must be punctual to school. 2. Students must come well-groomed and in proper uniform to school every day. 3. Students must carry their books only as per the timetable. Accolades and Achievements Sprout Pot competition winners Vidrut Tej (3 B – 1st prize), Jnaan B H (3 A – 2nd Prize), Adwika Ramesh (3 B – 2nd prize), Sanvitha G V (3 A – 3rd prize) Upcoming Events \| Date \| Event \| \|------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 07-08-23 \| Grades 3 to 5 Inter-House Music and Tableau Competition \| \| 08-08-23 \| Grades 3 to 5 Inter-House Dance Competition \| \| 09-08-23 \| Grades Pre-K to 5 Art Competition \| \| 12-08-23 \| PTM (Grades Pre-K to 5) \| \| 15-08-23 \| Independence Day Celebrations (Grades 3 to 10) (7.45 a.m. to 10.00 a.m.) \| \| 19-08-23 \| Literary Day \| Holiday List \| Date \| On Account of \| \|------------\|------------------------\| \| 15-08-23 \| Independence Day \| \| 25-08-23 \| Varamahalaxmi \| \| 26-08-23 \| Non-Working Saturday for teachers \| We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the parent community for their continued support and dedication. Together, we can look forward to a rewarding and fulfilling month ahead. Regards, Class Teacher Ms. Ambika D Mohan Email: firstname.lastname@example.org email@example.com Phone: Front Desk /General Enquiries: 080 23451899/080 23454777 Accounts: 6366155859 Uniform and transport:6366135859 Admissions:7337796644 Entrar: firstname.lastname@example.org Broadcast :6366145859 (Kindly save this number to receive the message).	d019ebc0-7755-4497-94bb-9d4e9e4ffbe0	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.vyasainternationalschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Grade-3A_Newsletter_-August-23-24.pdf	2023-12-02T19:01:07+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100448.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202172159-20231202202159-00017.warc.gz	1,205,346,395	1,512	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.976117	eng_Latn	0.996205	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1745, 2895, 3103, 4384, 5342, 6823 ]	[ 2.171875 ]	4	0
Dear Parents, It has been a joy to witness the smooth transition and seamless integration of our students into their new academic environments. During the initial weeks we have focused on building strong relationships, establishing routines and fostering positive culture in the classroom. As we move forward, we have an exciting array of activities and learning opportunities lined up for this month too. Our planet is a remarkable place, filled with incredible beauty and diverse ecosystems that support life in all its forms. However, it is essential for us to understand that the Earth needs our help to thrive and sustain its delicate balance. Each one of us can make a difference by taking small steps towards protecting our environment. Together, we can create a greener, cleaner and more sustainable future. Eco-Friendly pledge As a family create a personalized Eco-Friendly pledge by writing or drawing a commitment to take specific actions for the benefit of the environment. Kindly send in your entries by 20th of July to win a “Vyasa Eco-Warrior Badge”. We would like to wish all the students celebrating their birthday this month an awesome one. A sneak peek into the month gone by.......... Yoga Day Listening Activity Countable and uncountable nouns Environment Day Activity – Origami Show and tell. Math Activity Healthy Bites – Sandwich making competition. Our month of learning The theme for the Month - My Family and My Home Children will learn about My Family, My Home, and all other subjects will be integrated into this theme. \| Subject \| Topic \| Activities \| Resources Required by the Students \| \|---------\|-------\|------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| English \| Grandpa Farouk’s Garden, Singular and plural, Possessive Noun, Punctuation (comma and question mark), Rhyming Words, Phonics Group 2 and Listening Skills and reading comprehension Speaking, Picture Composition. \| Greeting card making, Information on insects, punctuation games, rhyming words games, Pictionary \| 5 Colour papers and colour pencils \| \| Maths \| "Chapter 2: Addition of 2-digit numbers Chapter 10: Shapes and Patterns" \| The addition dice game, Addition regrouping activity using popsicle sticks and paper bits and tracing objects and identifying the flat and solid shapes, drawing patterns of shapes, numbers, letters etc. \| Two dice, popsicle sticks, paper bits, A4-size colour sheets, glue, colour pencils and colour crayons etc. \| \| Social Science \| "Chapter 3: My Family and I, Chapter 11: Houses People Live In" \| "Discussing family relations, Making a family tree, Model making of any house, Chart activity on Safety Rules at Home." \| Family Photograph, A4-size colour sheets, Chart paper, Colour pencils, glue etc. \| \| Hindi \| अँ की मात्रा, अँब घर चल, माता का कहना मान, मेरा घर मेरा परिवार (गतिविधि) \| परिवार वृक्ष \| A4 size sheet, family members photos, glue \| \| Activity \| Description \| Instructions \| Materials \| \|--------------\|-----------------\|-----------------\|---------------\| \| Sanskrit \| अविनं रामं वादे, तत्वम् पद्ये, कृतार्थं भरी शिष्यस्येऽहि। \| संगमध्ये चतुर्वन्ध्य विकल्पान्तः। \| A4 size sheet, family members photos, glue \| \| Computer \| working of a computer and keyboard \| 1) students to draw or get pictures of the types of computers 2) Build your own Keyboard on chart paper by using different colour paper \| A4 size colour sheet, glue, chart paper, sketch pen \| Co-Scholastic \| Activity \| Description \| Instructions \| Materials \| \|--------------\|-----------------\|-----------------\|---------------\| \| Art \| Elements of art - shapes, Theme based drawing, Warli art, Collage activity and Origami activity \| ----------------------------- \| A4 colour sheet (1), Newspaper, glue, colours \| \| Yoga \| Surya Namaskara, Asanas and Pranayama \| Pair Exercise \| Yoga Mat \| \| Music \| Shlokas and Thayi Sharade \| ----------------------------- \| ----------------------------- \| \| PE \| Drill & March Past \| ----------------------------- \| ----------------------------- \| \| Dance \| Warmups and Magenta Riddim \| Free Style \| ----------------------------- \| Class Library We believe that reading plays a vital role in a child’s development and fosters a lifelong love for reading. To create a rich and diverse reading experience for all the students in the class, we request each one of you to contribute used age-appropriate children’s books towards the setting up of the Class Library. Kindly ensure that the books are covered using a transparent wrapper and labelled too. This will help us to make sure that the books are maintained well. We will be sending a book during the weekend. Parents are requested to use the book as a part of their family reading time. Please see that the book is returned to the class teacher on Monday every week. Timetable for the First Periodic Test \| Date \| Day \| Subject \| Topic \| \|------------\|---------\|-----------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 21-07-23 \| Friday \| ENGLISH \| Prose - Too big, too small; Grandpa Farouk’s Garden) Grammar- Naming words, common and proper nouns, countable and uncountable nouns, sentence structure and punctuation. Writing - Picture comprehension Reading comprehension \| \| 24-07-23 \| Monday \| MATHS \| Ch1: Numbers up to 200 Ch2: Addition of 2-digit numbers \| \| 25-07-23 \| Tuesday \| II Lang (KANNADA) \| ಸುಂದರ್ಗಳು, ನೆಲೆಯುಗಳು, ಮೈದಾನಗಳು, ಗಂಡುಗಳು, ಬಾವಿಗಳು, ಹಾಸುಗಳು ಎಂದು ಪರಿಚಯಿಸಿದೆ. \| \| 26-07-23 \| Wednesday \| III LANG (HINDI) \| समयात्मा, विषय देखकर उसके नाम लिखिए, कविता को चित्रों से जोड़िए, , चित्रों के नाम पूरे करो। पाठ - 1 अच्छा चल, पाठ - 2 माता का कहना मान, शब्दार्थ कविता को बोड़कर शब्द लिखो सबको को मात्रा लगाकर लिखिए। \| \| 27-07-23 \| Thursday \| EVS \| 1. About Myself 2. Our Body 3. My Family and I \| Upcoming Events \| Date \| Event \| \|------------\|--------------------------------------------\| \| 07-07-23 \| First Round Class wise Vyasa’s Got Talent \| \| 07-07-23 \| 5A Assembly \| \| 14-07-23 \| Final Round Grade wise Vyasa’s Got Talent \| \| 20-07-23 to 27-07-23 \| Grades 1 to 5 Periodic Test I \| Holiday List \| Date \| On Account of \| \|------------\|--------------------------------------\| \| 15-07-23 \| Non-Working Saturday for teachers \| \| 29-07-23 \| Muharram \| Together let us create an enriching environment that fosters the development of confident, compassionate and lifelong learners. Regards Ms. Mathangi Ganesh	f43c085d-2d7d-454b-b4d8-6075e8676dcf	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.vyasainternationalschool.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Grade-2B_Newsletter_July-2023-24.pdf	2023-12-02T18:09:39+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100448.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20231202172159-20231202202159-00589.warc.gz	1,205,478,405	1,709	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.990282	eng_Latn	0.997389	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 1166, 1312, 1389, 2906, 4169, 5955, 6726 ]	[ 3.578125 ]	1	0
History & Description The genus Hamamelis (from the Greek hama = together and melon – fruit, ie, flowers and fruits at the same time) comprises three North American species (H. virginiana, H. vernalis, H. ovalis) and two Asian species (H. mollis, H. japonica). The genus received its name from Linnaeus who noted its habit of blooming and fruiting at the same time. A cross between the two Asian species (H. x intermedia) is used by nurseries to produce cultivars that flower in yellow to pinks, reds, and purples. Fossils dating to the Eocene (c. 33.5 million years ago) have been found in the Warman Clay Pit in northwestern Tennessee that appear to be closely related to our Hamamelis. Witch hazel is a deciduous shrub or small tree with a short trunk, often multi-stemmed, with numerous spreading, crooked branches. At maturity, it is 15 to 25 feet tall. It has thin bark and shallow roots. The fruit is a woody capsule containing two seeds. An inflorescence usually consists of 3 spicy sweet flowers, each with 4 slender strap-like yellow petals with 4 short yellow stamens in the center. The petals range from neatly flat to charmingly crumpled. The flowers of witch hazel open in late Autumn at about the same time the fruits from the prior year ripen. Some Native Americans believed witch hazel was a magical plant because it defied the usual order of nature, blooming just when other plants are preparing for winter. Culture & Habitat Witch hazel is found on a variety of sites but is most abundant in mesic woods and bottoms. In the western and southern parts of its range, it is found in moist cool valleys, moist flats, on north and east slopes, in coves, and ravines. In the northern part of its range, it is found on drier and warmer sides of slopes and hilltops. Slightly acidic soil that drains easily assures a healthy plant though it will also grow in red clay. There are few pests that bother Hamamelis species, but among them are the spiny witch hazel bud gall aphid (Hamamelisites spinosus). The spiny gall is produced from bud tissue and houses the aphids until they mature. It does not harm the shrub in limited numbers. There are also reports of successful propagation by layering and softwood cuttings. Plants damaged or cut can resprout from the roots. They are pollinated by bees and small flies. Hamamelis virginiana has a markedly low (<1%) fruit set. This is attributed to the flowering time and consequent limited number of available pollinators, the breeding system of the plant, clumped nature of the distribution of plants, and limited seed dispersal. Even so, this is not a rare species, and it is a delight to find in the woods. Autumn is, of course, a special time as the flowers frequently start to come into bloom as the fall leaf color, a bright golden yellow, comes into its glory. Witch hazel is an understory plant that provides nesting sites for various bird species that prefer to build nests in low lateral branches of trees and shrubs. They are lovely planted against the backdrop of dark evergreens, planted along the edges of native hedges, woodland, and naturalized borders and as wildlife plantings. Uses Medicinal extracts, lotions, and salves are prepared from the leaves, twigs, and bark of witch hazel. The distillate is used to reduce inflammation, stop bleeding, and check secretions of the mucous membranes. Its attributes were long known to Native American tribes and quickly adopted by colonists. Forked branches of Witch hazel were, and still are, used as divining rods to locate underground water. Some claim the name Witch hazel is taken from the Old English name for Wych Elm, a tree of England with bendable stems and leaves that resemble Hamamelis vernalis, which is an old Saxon word for bend. When divining, the branch is held perpendicular to the ground, and while walking slowly across the property, if the branch bends toward the ground, water is to be found below and a well is dug. The fruits of Witch hazel are eaten by ruffed grouse, northern bobwhite, ring-necked pheasant, and white-tailed deer. The fruit is also frequently eaten by beaver and cottontail rabbits. Plant Sources Many nurseries carry Hamamelis species, especially the new cultivars. If you want the species, ask for it. There are also online sources available. Look for sources close to your area. References Anderson, Gregory J. and Hill, James D. Many to Flower, Few to Fruit: The Reproductive Biology of Hamamelis virginiana, American Journal of Botany 89(1): 67–78. 2002 Dirr, Michael. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL. 1975, revised 2009. Fire Effects Information System, USDA. Species: Hamamelis virginiana. Online: [https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/hamvir/all.html](https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/hamvir/all.html) Accessed January 28, 2019. Mione, Thomas and Bogle, A. Linn. Comparative Ontogeny of the Inflorescence and Flower of Hamamelis virginiana and Loropetalum chinense (Hamamelidaceae), American Journal of Botany, 77(1): 77-91. 1990. Accessed online by subscription from JSTOR, February 2, 2019. USDA Plants Database. Hamamelis www.plants.usda.gov Wang, Hongshan, Blanhard, Jane, Dilcher, David L. Fruits, seeds, and flowers from the Warman clay pit (middle Eocene Claiborne Group), Western Tennessee, USA. Palaeontologia Electronica Vol. 16, Issue 3; 31A; 73p. Online: [https://doi.org/10.26879/320](https://doi.org/10.26879/320) Accessed: March 3, 2019. This fact sheet was produced by the members of the Native Herb Committee of The Herb Society of America, Inc.	<urn:uuid:3cf3a75d-1b7c-4701-8ab2-02f803468126>	CC-MAIN-2019-35	https://www.herbsociety.org/file_download/398292ff-b14f-4563-8a64-d270b6220bc3	2019-08-17T14:41:21Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027313428.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20190817143039-20190817165039-00309.warc.gz	806,136,024	1,401	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991008	eng_Latn	0.994423	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2714, 5677 ]	[ 2.796875 ]	3	0
All about kindergarten Children go to a kindergarten program in the year before starting school, usually when they are four years old. Some services also offer kindergarten programs for three-year-olds. Go to page 6 for advice about choosing the best time for your child to start kindergarten. What is kindergarten? Kindergarten (also called preschool) is a program for young children delivered by a qualified early childhood teacher. Why should my child go to kindergarten? Kindergarten is an important step for young children and is strongly recommended for all children. Research shows that kindergarten improves children’s health and wellbeing, helps them to develop strong social skills and encourages a love of learning. Children who go to a kindergarten program are more independent and confident and are more likely to make a smooth transition to primary school (Prep). What happens at a kindergarten? A high-quality kindergarten program will offer your child a range of learning experiences and activities that are both stimulating and fun. Your child’s learning and curiosity will be encouraged through experiences and activities, such as exploring the natural world, being exposed to new ideas and solving problems. Your child will be able to: - learn to work with others and make friends through group activities and cooperative play - express their creativity, for example, through dance, movement and art - build their communication skills by listening to and having conversations with the educators and other children - develop the skills that they need for reading, writing and mathematics. Where can I find a kindergarten? Some kindergartens run as stand-alone services (for example, community kindergartens). Other kindergarten programs are run through long day care centres or schools. To find a kindergarten program in your local area (or area of choice) visit www.education.vic.gov.au/findaservice/Home.aspx or contact your local council, which you can find by visiting www.dtpi.vic.gov.au Go to page 4 for advice about choosing a kindergarten program that suits your family. All children can attend kindergarten Kindergarten is for all children. If your child has a disability or learning difficulty, the educators will talk with you about how the program and environment can support your child. If you need support to enrol your child in a kindergarten program or to find a program that suits your family contact your local council. How much does kindergarten cost? The Victorian Government provides funding to services to contribute to the cost of running a funded kindergarten program, which helps keep fees for four-year-old kindergarten as low as possible. Look for this certificate, which shows that a kindergarten program receives funding from the Victorian Government and is delivered by a qualified early childhood teacher. Services that offer kindergarten programs often charge fees to help meet the cost of running the programs. Fees are set by individual services and can vary depending on how many hours your child attends, group size and extra costs such as excursions. How many hours a week can my child go to kindergarten? Most four-year-old kindergarten programs are offered for 15 hours a week. Free or low cost kindergarten for children in the year before school The Victorian Government subsidises fees for some children so they can attend kindergarten for free or at low cost in the year before they start primary school, usually when they are four years old. Your child is eligible if they: - are an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander - are a triplet or quadruplet - hold (or have a parent or guardian who holds) an eligible concession card or refugee, humanitarian or asylum seeker visa. Ask your child’s kindergarten educator or service manager if you think your child may be eligible for a fee subsidy. Free kindergarten for three-year-olds The Victorian Government subsidises fees for some children so they can attend kindergarten for free two years before they start primary school, usually when they are three years old. Your child is eligible to attend free kindergarten if they are at least three years old by 30 April and: - are an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander, or - are known to Child Protection, or referred by Child Protection to Child FIRST. If your child has had a free program two years before school, they can attend a four-year-old program the next year for free or at low cost. Ask your child’s kindergarten educator or service manager for more information about free kindergarten programs for three-year-olds. Choosing a kindergarten program Every family is different. This means the kindergarten program you choose should be a good fit with your child and family. It’s a good idea to start looking for a kindergarten program early, as enrolment processes vary across Victoria. Some services accept applications when children turn two. Once you have a shortlist of kindergarten programs, contact the services to find out if they are holding open days or information sessions, or make an appointment to visit. This is a great way to get a ‘feel’ for each program, to ask questions and to share information about your child. You can also find out about the days and times the kindergarten program runs, how to enrol your child and any fees charged and subsidies available. Visit more than one program if you can. Try not to rely only on what other families say. What to look for when you visit a service - Were you made to feel welcome? High-quality kindergarten programs are based on a partnership between families and educators. Did the educators ask questions about your child and your family? Were the educators interested in your questions and concerns? - If your child was with you, did the educators engage directly with your child (rather than speaking to your child through you)? - Are there a variety of fun and challenging learning opportunities that celebrate the cultures of the children who use the service? - Do the indoor and outdoor areas offer the children stimulating learning experiences – for example, the opportunity to explore and discover new things? Is there space for the children to play with others or alone? Are there spaces where children can go to be quiet? Have your questions ready - How will the educators work with you to support your child’s learning? - How will the educators include your child’s interests? - What opportunities will there be to discuss your child’s progress? - If your child has additional needs, how will the service support you and your child? - How does the program encourage positive behaviour? - What will happen if your child becomes unwell or upset? - Does the service have a kindergarten certificate on display? This certificate shows that a kindergarten program receives funding from the Victorian Government and is taught by a qualified early childhood teacher. - What is the service’s rating against the National Quality Standard (part of an Australia-wide quality system of education and care services)? Can you see the written assessment? - Is there a waiting list for places? Do you need to pay a deposit to enrol or to be put on the waiting list? Tell the service if you are not able to pay the deposit. How old should my child be when they start kindergarten? It is usual for children to attend a kindergarten program in the year before they start primary school. This is often called ‘four-year-old kindergarten’. Your child can start school if they turn five years old by 30 April of the year they start school. Your child must be enrolled in school by the age of six, unless they have an exemption. So, if your child’s birthday falls before 30 April in the calendar year, you have a choice about whether to enrol your child in school in the year they turn five or the next year. Children learn at different rates, in different ways, and at different times. In some cases, your child may benefit from starting a kindergarten program later. Where can I get advice on the best time to start kindergarten? If you are unsure about the best time for your child to start a kindergarten program, ask a kindergarten educator for advice. Find out how the kindergarten program can support your child. Meet with the principal or a teacher at the school that your child is likely to attend. Talk about the best time for your child to start Prep. Find out how the Prep program can support your child. As well, you can talk with your child’s Maternal and Child Health nurse, family doctor and any other professionals your child sees (for example, speech therapist, physiotherapist or paediatrician). Go to page 4 for more information about free kindergarten for three-year-olds. Some children with developmental delays who complete four-year-old kindergarten may benefit from completing a second year of funded kindergarten before going on to school. Talk to a kindergarten educator if you would like to know more about these options. Do you need an interpreter? The Victorian Government provides a free interpreter service for families attending funded kindergarten programs. Ask your child’s kindergarten educator or service manager to call the free interpreter service. Related links Free or low cost kindergarten – www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/parents/kindergarten/Pages/fees.aspx Free kindergarten for three-year-olds – http://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/parents/kindergarten/Pages/earlystart.aspx Second year of kindergarten for children with developmental delays– http://www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/parents/kindergarten/Pages/secondyear.aspx	dce6f39f-7f3c-40d9-b108-525256545357	CC-MAIN-2021-39	https://greatershepparton.com.au/assets/files/documents/community/childrens/childcare/allaboutkinder.pdf	2021-09-22T09:14:54+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057337.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20210922072047-20210922102047-00115.warc.gz	342,004,620	1,852	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997269	eng_Latn	0.99801	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 22, 1618, 3529, 5490, 8059, 9687 ]	[ 2.828125 ]	3	0
Year 5 Beech Class Week Beginning 1/2/2021 Work should be photographed or scanned and returned to me at email@example.com. Thanks for not printing this page! \| Time \| Activity \| \|------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| 9.00-9.30 \| Wider curriculum \| \| 9.30-10.00 \| Walk/Exercise \| \| 10.00-10.30\| Call with Miss Swainson/Spellings \| \| 10.30-11.00\| Call with Miss Swainson/Spellings \| \| 11.00-12.00\| English \| \| 12.00-1.00 \| Lunch and Free Time \| \| 1.00-1.30 \| Video call with Miss Swainson /VIPERS \| \| 1.30-2.00 \| Video call with Miss Swainson /VIPERS \| \| 2.00-3.00 \| Maths \| Click me to get a great tune to start the day! We start with Coldplay - Orphans Click on me to login to TTRS. Have you played a new gig yet? Monday 1/2/2021 Children’s Mental Health Week Express Yourself This week is Children’s Mental Health Week and this year’s theme is ‘Express Yourself’. Click here to find the ongoing activity of the week. Click here to find your activity for today. Fill a puzzle piece full of pictures and words all about you. Our video calls English - We will be looking at modal verbs Maths - We will be recapping how to find the perimeter. English LO: To use modal verbs in my sentences. Look at what modal verbs are here (We will be looking at these on our call). Activity 1 - Group the modal verbs Activity 2 - Rank the modal strength of the word Activity 3 - Write 5 sentences as if you are Sophie or Charles after reading the letter. Click on the activity to find the resources. Stuck? Need some ideas? Look at our working wall for VIPERS. Click here Rooftoppers Chapter 5 page 59 - 67 Read to the end of Chapter 5 We are going to update our working wall. We have now met a new character in this chapter. What can you tell me about him? In no more than 5 sentences, what happened in Chapter 5? Flick through the pages again to help you. Maths LO: To find the perimeter of a shape using a grid. Please follow the links to the White Rose website to find today’s lesson. Lesson Video Link Lesson Activity Sheet online Link or click here for the Activity Sheet Today’s answers Stuck? Need some ideas? Look at our working wall for Maths. Click here Spellings Click here to go to spellings Match the suffixes with the root of the word. We will write what has happened so far together on our call. Setting - Charles’ house - Messy - Not safe for a child - White - 4 Hours away - Trees on the outside - The Sea-English Channel - Boat sank in the sea - Baby found in a cello case Characters - Charles Maxim - 36 years old - Tall - Scholar - Sophie’s ward - Bookish, generous, awkward, stubborn - Loves Shakespeare - Unconventional - Aristocratic face - Sophie - 3 years old - Strong, awkward, bantshin - Ward of Charles - Wants to wear trousers - No parents: thinks her mum is dead - Thinks she remembers her mum - Likes to be perfect - Shy smile - Hair like lightning - Sleeps on a wardrobe - Drinks a gallon of milk for breakfast - Miss Eliot - Works for the childcare agency - Comes to check up on Sophie - Doesn’t believe Sophie’s mother is alive - Very serious - Worries for Sophie’s welfare with Charles - Successful in her profession - Slightly mean - Wants everyone to be perfect and conventional: a man shouldn’t raise a child, and girls shouldn’t wear trousers - Strict - Large and has grey hair Plot so far... Chapter 1: A boat is found in the English Channel sinking and a baby is rescued by a man called Charles Maxim. Chapter 1: Charles takes the baby home and calls her Sophie. Miss Eliot then arrives to take Sophie away to the Childcare agency but Charles says she is his responsibility. Chapter 2: It is Sophie’s 7th birthday. She is trying to be perfect at handstands. Miss Eliot comes to the house to check on Sophie and disapproves of her trousers and what Charles is feeding her. Chapter 2: Miss Eliot says Sophie can’t remember her mother as she was little and her mother is not alive anymore. Sophie does not believe her. Chapter 3: Charles buys Sophie a boys shirt. Miss Eliot disapproves. Miss Eliot is worried Sophie doesn’t know about being a lady. Charles thinks she knows the important things like reading. Chapter 3: Sophie has her birthday. Charles takes her to a classical music concert and Sophie thinks its boring. Chapter 3: Sophie then hears a cello and thinks it sounds like a thousand birds. Chapter 3: Charles buys Sophie a cello and she plays it on the rooftop so she won’t be disturbed. Chapter 4: Sophie painted her old cello case red. Charles and Sophie argued that her mother did play the cello. Every night Sophie looked for her mother. Courteous – Polite Resolved – determined- decided Bewildered – confused Unintelligent- not very clever Profoundly- greatly extremely Improbable-not likely to happen We will write what has happened so far together on our call. \| Chapter 5: \| Chapter 5: \| Chapter 5: \| Chapter 5: \| \|------------\|------------\|------------\|------------\| \| \| \| \| \| Characters - Charles Maxim - 36 years old - Tall - Scholar - Sophie’s ward - Barbarish, generous, awkward, stubborn - Loves Shakespeare - Unconventional - Anisotropic face - Sophie - Strange, awkward, barbarish - Ward of Charles - Wants to wear trousers - No parents – thinks her mother is alive - Thinks she remembers her mum - Likes to be perfect - Shy smile - Hair like lightning - Sleeps on a wainscote - Drinks a gallon of milk for breakfast - Miss Elliot - Works for the childcare agency - Comes to check up on Sophie - Doesn’t believe Sophie’s mother is alive - Very serious - Worries for Sophie’s welfare with Charles - Suspects Charles has a profession - Slightly mean - Wants everyone to be perfect and conventional – a man should look after a child and girls shouldn’t wear trousers - Strict - Large and has grey hair Setting - Charles’ house - Messy - Not safe for a child - White - 4 Hours away - Trees on the outside Plot so far continue… Courteous – Polite Resolved – determined- decided Bewildered – confused Unintelligent- not very clever Profoundly- greatly extremely Improbable-not likely to happen These words are known as modal verbs. Modal verbs work with another verb to describe how likely things are to happen or to what degree of certainty something is known. One day he might be King. Because the modal verb is not the main verb in the sentence, it is sometimes called just the ‘modal’ or the auxiliary verb. ACTIVITY 1 - GROUP THE MODAL VERBS Can you see any way to organise these modal verbs into smaller groups that have something in common? Hint for groups: • These words indicate that something might or might not happen. • These words indicate that something needs to happen but still might not. • These words indicate a degree of certainty that something will happen. Thanks for not printing this page! Write out the modal verbs from below and rearrange them on the line in order of strength! not happening ___________________________ definitely happening may should would ought to must might could will can ACTIVITY 3 - WRITING SENTENCES WITH MODAL VERBS You are going to be in the role of Charles Maxim or Sophie. Using the modal verbs below, write 5 sentences in the role, reacting to the letter that they have been sent. e.g. In the role of Charles- I should have looked after Sophie better. I ought to be strong for Sophie so she doesn’t get too upset. may \| should \| would \| ought to \| must \| might \| could \| will \| can Watch this space to see our learning journey 1. Work out the perimeter of each rectangle. a) \[ \text{perimeter} = \square \] b) \[ \text{perimeter} = \square \] c) \[ \text{perimeter} = \square \] 2. Which of the hexagons has the greatest perimeter? Show all your workings. Shape ___ has the greatest perimeter. 3. Draw two different rectangles with a perimeter of 14 cm. 4. Work out the perimeter of the shape. 5. Draw two shapes with a perimeter of 20 cm. Your shapes should not be rectangles. 6. Work out the perimeter of the rectangle. 7. A shape is drawn on a square grid. Part of the shape is hidden. What could the perimeter of the shape be? Is there more than one answer? Use -ant if there is a related word with /a/ or /ei/ sound in the right position; -ation endings are often a clue. E.g observant, (observation), expectant (expectation), hesitant, (hesitation), tolerant, (toleration), substance (substantial) Draw the line between the beginning and the ending of the word. The words have been split and scrambled. A few of the words have similar endings so double check your choice! Your spellings have been split and scrambled. Draw a straight line to match the two parts of each spelling or write them on your whiteboard. CLICK HERE TO GO BACK TO HOMEPAGE Handwriting Click here to watch Miss Swainson’s video about handwriting! Click on the O to watch a silly video! Top tips • Sit on a chair at a table. • All legs on the ground (2 humans legs and 4 chair legs) • Touch your tummy on the table and pull your chair in • Pincer grip • Supporting hand • Go slow • Don’t forget to start on the line • Write on lined paper only only out out onto onto open open abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1. Make non-cook playdough, then have a Dough Disco 2. Paint our families portrait 3. Have a tea party 4. Draw flowers or fruit bowl 5. Look at the stars and sing www.robertrivest.com 6. Find a treasure map 7. Make a band from kitchen pots and pans 8. Find a hidden object 9. Have a dance alarm every 30 minutes 10. Have a sleepover II. Send a video message to family and friends to say hello 11. Have a birthday party for a pet or cuddly toy 12. Have an indoor picnic 13. Have a family favourite story and share it together 14. Order books alphabetically 15. Have an outdoor treasure hunt 16. Have an indoor treasure hunt 17. Have a race in your house 18. Find a fairy door in your house or garden 19. Have a tea party with dolls 20. Take a selfie through a toilet roll tube and pretend you are on holiday 21. Make cards for everyone at home 22. Get some sheets to flap and pretend they are wings 23. Make cakes 24. Cut out paper or cardboard and make mermaid or merman’s tails 25. Use cardboard boxes and make a bus, play conductor’s and drivers 26. Make a camp in your bed 27. Have a treasure hunt with a torch 28. Write a letter to a neighbour or friend 29. Have a tea party with dolls or draw a picture 30. Have a cool or string hair over a chair 31. Have a pamper day 32. Make a fun, recycled up paper flight (from recycling) 33. Make ice lollies with cordial and water 34. Make sandwitches in strange shapes 35. Make a tent out of boxes/furniture 36. Learn a rhyme or poem 37. Have a tea party 38. Have a pirate adventure, make boats from cardboard and explore 39. Blow bubbles and catch them 40. Make a number frieze for the wall, decorate VI. Read Pirate George series available on Kindle 42. Make a giant mache sculpture over a balloon 43. Keep a balloon in the air game 44. Play a board game 45. Have a teddy bear’s teat 46. Play dominos 47. Learn a card game 48. Make a collage 49. Perform a puppet show 50. Do some finger puppets 51. Make finger/sock puppets 52. Choreograph a dance or learn a dance routine 53. Have an upcycled picnic, play, lunch for breakfast etc 54. Make something for Spread the Happiness TV 55. Learn to cook something new 56. Learn Brilliant Brains Song on Spread the Happiness TV YouTube Channel 57. Leave happy notes all around the house 58. Make a fitness routine and put your family through it 59. Use vegetables, make characters 60. Dance and sing to ‘Knock, Mother Brown 61. Play Spa 62. Close your windows and sing out a song 63. Learn Days of the Week song 64. Play with statues 65. Learn a Beatles song 66. Learn a Queen song 67. Pretend an indoor restaurant and serve your family 68. Have a tea party 69. Have a tea party with dolls 70. Be superheroes with capes 71. Have a race using a gigantic spoon 72. Have an ice cream 73. Enter an online competition to win a prize 74. Have a tea party 75. Polish your home 76. Fold up sheets 77. Make a parachute to fluff up and hide under and play parachute games 78. Make a rocket out of toilet rolls and look out the window at the birds 79. Make a night light telephone 80. Make a monster mask as large as you can 81. Create a comedy show 82. Create a comedy orchestra to music 83. Hide up your stairs like it is a mountain, so high 84. Roll around a large space in your home 85. Learn to play a board game 86. Learn to play sleeping bunnies 87. Learn and act out 5 Little Monkeys 88. Fill out a sheet of ideas of 10 things in your home as you can 89. Dance to a favourite 90. Sing in the shower 91. Have shaving foam in your hands 92. Make a list of 100 things to do, write things people 93. Put socks in the box in a large cardboard box 94. Have a themed party 95. Stay late to look at the stars with a night time picnic 96. Play apple bobbing 97. Have a tea party 98. Blow a pinata 99. Have a drawing with paper and crayons 100. Play pass the parcel Why not have a go at one of these indoor challenges? How many can you complete this week? On going weekly task! Thanks for not printing this page! This week is Children’s Mental Health Week and this year’s theme is ‘Express Yourself’ What is self-expression and why is it important? Self-expression is about communicating your individuality. This can be through words, clothing and hairstyle, or through art forms such as writing, drawing, music and dance. Self-expression can help you to showcase your true self – your story, your thoughts, feelings and emotions. But this can also make us feel vulnerable, so you might want to take things one step at a time. We often get told by our family, friends, school, communities and through social media how we ‘should’ look, think, speak, and act. These constant messages about what we ought to do, and who we ought to be, can make it difficult to let go of expectations and express our true selves. Self-expression is a great way to relieve yourself of stress and free your mind. 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ALASKA Презентация выполнена Гончаровой А.М. 9-10 класс Alaska is the largest state of the United States of America located in the extreme northwest portion of the North American continent. It is situated on Alaska Peninsula, the largest peninsula in the Western Hemisphere. Alaska does not border any U.S. state. Alaska lies on the Arctic Circle. ALASKA ©1997 MAGELLAN Geographix™ Santa Barbara, CA (805) 685-3100 www.maps.com State Nickname - The Last Frontier Motto: North To The Future Origin of the Name Alaska - The word Alaska is from the Aleut Indian word "alaxsxaq" that mean the mainland or shore. Alaska adopted the flag for official state use in 1959. The blue field represents the sky, the sea, and mountain lakes, as well as Alaska's wildflowers. Emblazoned on the flag are eight gold stars: seven in the constellation the Big Dipper. The eighth being the North Star, representing the northern most state. THE SEAL OF THE STATE OF ALASKA The moose, the largest member of the deer family is a large animal with long legs and distinctive antlers. The front legs are longer than the rear legs. Alaska's state flower is the alpine forget-me-not. It was chosen in 1949. The alpine forget-me-not is a perennial that grows 5 to 12 inches high in alpine meadows. The best time to see the alpine forget-me-not is midsummer, from late June to late July. Alaska is the least densely populated state in the U.S. with 0.4247 people per square kilometer. The Alaska Native population includes Eskimos, Indians, and Aleuts. About half of all Alaska Natives are Eskimos. State Capital - Juneau Juneau is Alaska's capital and its third largest city. It has a population of over 30,000. Located at the foot of Mount Juneau, across from Douglas Island, Juneau is accessible only by air and sea, but was a pivotal part of the Gold Rush of the late 1800s. Juneau offers travelers a wide variety of attractions such as the Alaska State and Juneau-Douglas City Museums, the Mt. Roberts Tram, the Mendenhal glacier and the Tongass National Forest. It has been the capital of Alaska since 1906. Alaska’s largest city, Anchorage is a modern city set in the south-central area of the state. Surrounded by glaciers, shoreline and mountains, the city of 200,000 offers a unique mix of wildlife and city life. Russian culture was an early and prominent influence as can be seen by the Russian Orthodox churches scattered throughout many of Alaska's cities. One of the attractions is Alaska's official sport: dog-sledding or "mushing".	<urn:uuid:58d8a4f4-ce60-4af0-952f-779554b105bd>	CC-MAIN-2019-39	https://gymnasium4br.ru/images/education_process/distant/english/ALASKA.pdf	2019-09-20T01:00:28Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573801.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20190920005656-20190920031656-00508.warc.gz	497,755,529	605	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.905526	eng_Latn	0.99647	[ "rus_Cyrl", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 56, 351, 433, 497, 616, 929, 962, 1116, 1370, 1583, 2102, 2313, 2461, 2540 ]	[ 2.578125 ]	1	0
Jockey Club Water Caretakers of Tomorrow Programme Water as Source -- Lifeblood of an Ecosystem Unit 4 Organised by Ocean Recovery Alliance Funded by The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust 同心同步同進 RIDING HIGH TOGETHER About The Jockey Club Water Caretakers of Tomorrow Programme: Jockey Club Water Caretakers of Tomorrow Programme is organised by Ocean Recovery Alliance, Ltd and funded by The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust. There are eight units in this program, and each of them is designed with you, a student in Hong Kong, in mind. These are the goals for your lessons, to: - Understand and appreciate how our water systems function on a local and global scale. - Understand how watersheds function, and the interconnections of life within and between these watersheds. - Be able to assess threats, such as pollution and habitat destruction, and learn how to lessen these effects. Student introduction - You will need access to the internet. - In some activities using the camera in your smart phone or tablet will be useful. - Your teacher will tell you if you work will be done on your computer, printed paper or notebooks. \| Start of a new activity. \| A new amazing fact. \| \|--------------------------\|---------------------\| \| Get ready to do an experiment. \| Fast forward to make your contribution to improving our world. \| \| Identify your misconceptions before your move on. \| Data will be used to solve problems. \| \| Identify your prior learning. \| These are the goals for this unit. \| \| An extension activity \| A cross-curricular activity \| Student aims: At the end of this unit I will be able to: - Describe a freshwater ecosystem and the factors that affect it. - Compare differences in natural and polluted ecosystems. - Understand appropriate conservation and management strategies for freshwater ecosystems. - Be able to identify most common flora and fauna in Hong Kong freshwater ecosystems. - Understand how organisms are adapted to their unique environments. - Collect data in the field for studying a freshwater environment Glossary Adaptation Changes in an organism's structure or function that enable it to better survive and reproduce in its environment. Amphibian An organism that is able to live in water and on land. Biodiversity How rich in different lifeforms a system is. Ecology The study of the relationship of organisms to each other and to their surroundings. Ecosystem A biologically interconnected community. Endemic Species An organism found only in a particular place. Estuary Partially enclosed coastal body of slightly salty water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, with connection to the open sea. It is a transition area between freshwater and marine environments. Flora/ Fauna/ Biota Plants/ animals/ all manner of life forms. Food Chain A linear feeding connection typically but not always starting with a plant, and ending with an animal. Food Web The feeding connections of all plants, herbivores, predators, prey and decomposers within a given ecosystem. Indicator Species An organism that reveals the state or health of an ecosystem. Invasive Species An organism that has been introduced to another system other than its own, that starts to rapidly outcompete local species. Microhabitat A small home specific to a certain organism. Niche The specific position and role of an organism in an ecosystem. Nutrients Substances that nourish life, enabling survival and growth. Organism An individual living thing, such as a plant, animal, bacterium, protist or fungus. Physical Factors (Dissolved Oxygen, Temp, Humidity) Refers to the measurable characteristics of an environment or system. Turbidity Measure of the murkiness or clarity of water. Velocity flow Speed and direction at which something is moving. What do you know? Skipping from stone to stone Answer these questions: \| Why do frogs need clean water? \| ![Frog](frog.jpg) \| \|-------------------------------\|------------------\| \| Why are amphibians generally an indicator species for pollution? \| ![Polluted water](polluted_water.jpg) \| \| Name some organisms you would find in a freshwater system in Hong Kong. \| ![Organism](organism.jpg) \| Lesson 1. Ecology of freshwater ecosystems An ecosystem is a community of all the living animals, plants and bacteria interacting in their physical environment. This includes the process of decay which recycles nutrients in that environment. Water is essential for all living things in an ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystems derive their food from living plants as well as dead, organic materials such as leaves that enter the waterway. Many people use the word wetland when they are thinking of a marsh or swamp, but they are generally areas of land covered with water long enough to support unique vegetation and have characteristic wetland soil. They include some wetlands which have water for a portion of the year, drying out when there has been little rain for a while. There are many kinds of wetlands that include both flowing water and stagnant water. They can be freshwater or salty. Activity 1. Spot the different freshwater ecosystems For each of these freshwater ecosystems, write three things that help to describe it. \| River \| Fast moving stream \| Lake \| \|-------\|-------------------\|------\| \| \| \| \| \| Pond \| Marsh or wetland \| Mudflat \| \|------\|------------------\|---------\| \| \| \| \| Activity 2. Physical characteristics of a river While watching this video, take notes about the physical characteristics of the river [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVUyBJqJneY](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVUyBJqJneY) Physical characteristics that I observed were: _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ How did the physical conditions of the river change? This might include the dimensions of the river, speed of the water, its colour, volume, the bottom and banks of the river, etc. Amazing fact: Colder water can hold higher concentrations of oxygen. Studies show that some creatures can’t breathe fast enough in warmer water. What you couldn’t see in the video These are the main physical characteristics that are measured to find out how clean or polluted rivers and other wetlands are: Oxygen: When the oxygen level drops many of the animals with gills will die. Aquatic plants and cascading water oxygenates the water. Nutrients: Most of the nutrients in water come from land sources. Rotting leaves adds to the nutrients along with fertilisers, detergents, human and animal feces etc. The amount of phosphorus and nitrogen chemicals are measured to estimate the amount of nutrients. High nutrients can cause an explosion of bacteria and plant growth that reduces oxygen levels. Bacteria: The measure of bacteria indicates the amount of human and animal feces that get into the water and the likelihood of dangerous (to humans and other living things) bacteria species. Conductivity: By finding out how well electricity is conducted by a water sample, the amount of salt can be estimated. Temperature: When water has unusually high temperatures, there will be less oxygen. Also, different organisms are adapted to living in specific temperature ranges. If the temperature of their water gets too high, they can sicken or die. Turbidity: This is a measure of how far light can pass through the water. When water looks very dirty, light can’t penetrate very deep. There is less opportunity for aquatic plants to grow with less light. pH: pH is a measure of how acidic or basic the water is. The pH affects many biological chemical reactions. The preferred pH is neutral. World’s most polluted rivers This website suggests which 15 rivers in the world are most polluted. These rivers have high readings for bacteria and most polluting chemicals. They will have low readings for oxygen. http://listovative.com/top-15-most-polluted-rivers-in-the-world/ Look at the website. What do these rivers have in common? Which of the rivers are in watersheds that have very high populations? ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Which continents are not represented in the list? ____________________________________________________________________________________ Activity 3. Freshwater ecosystems There are more animals besides fish in a freshwater ecosystem. Most fish rely on eating small invertebrate animals. Invertebrates are those animals that don’t have a backbone. Look at these videos to get an idea of some of the life in freshwater and the ways people go about monitoring these invertebrates. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F6RKxeREHLc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67G5jr_t_iM Simple food chain A food chain is a simplified way of showing how energy passes through an environment. All forms of life need energy to survive and to grow. They get this energy either directly from sunlight or simple chemicals, or from eating other living things. \| Algae needs sunlight to make food and grow \| Tadpoles use their grinding teeth to eat plants \| Larger fish may eat tadpoles \| Herons eat fish \| \|------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------\|----------------\| \| ![Algae](image) \| ![Tadpole](image) \| ![Larger Fish](image) \| ![Heron](image) \| In this food chain we start with a plant. It has obtained its energy from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. Plants can use the energy from the sun and convert carbon dioxide and water into a simple sugar, called glucose and oxygen. Why did the food chain start with a plant? ____________________________________________________________________________________ What else might eat a fish? ____________________________________________________________________________________ In freshwater, food also comes from decomposing plants. So we can make a food chain that starts differently. \| Bacteria decomposing leaves \| Mayflies eat decomposing plants \| Fish eating mayfly larvae \| Heron eats fish \| \|-----------------------------\|---------------------------------\|---------------------------\|----------------\| \| ![Image](image1) \| ![Image](image2) \| ![Image](image3) \| ![Image](image4) \| Or we could make a longer food chain: \| ![Image](image5) \| ![Image](image6) \| ![Image](image7) \| ![Image](image8) \| ![Image](image9) \| \|------------------\|------------------\|------------------\|------------------\|------------------\| Draw a food chain using these organisms, mayfly adult (flies), decomposing plants, heron and a frog. ____________________________________________________________________________________ Activity 4. Freshwater community and food web Compared with a food chain, a food web is a more detailed way to see how plants and animals are interconnected. We can show more than one plant in a food web and also include decomposers. In a food web we can draw how many animals eat many different foods. It allows for many interconnections and that’s why it starts looking a bit like a web. Materials: Large sheet of paper (art paper) Drawing materials Scissors Paper glue What is an invertebrate? Birds, mammals, fish, amphibians and reptiles have backbones. The backbone is made up of vertebrae. Animals that don’t have backbones are often referred to as invertebrates. The majority of animals in the animal kingdom are invertebrates which include insects, spiders, shrimps, snails, segmented worms, sea stars and sponges. Name some of the invertebrates you are likely to encounter around Hong Kong. Designing a food web Look at this website to see a generalised food web of a river. http://www.lifeinfreshwater.org.uk/web%20pages/rivers/CarnivorFdWeb.htm What does the direction of arrows in a food web indicate about the energy flow within a food web. Use the images on pages 11 and 12. Read the text for each box to find out how each organism obtains its energy (food). Cut out each photo. Arrange the photos to make a food web. Connect the photos using arrows showing the flow of energy through the food web. Use the diagram on page 13 for help. \| Azolla (fern) - makes its food from sunlight and carbon dioxide. \| Plants emerging from the water - makes its food from sunlight and carbon dioxide \| Algae - makes its food from sunlight and carbon dioxide \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\| \| ![Azolla](image1.png) \| ![Plants](image2.png) \| ![Algae](image3.png) \| \| Duck weed - makes its food from sunlight and carbon dioxide \| Shrimp - eats algae and decaying plants \| Mosquito (larva) - filter feeder of bacteria, algae and microscopic creatures \| \| ![Duckweed](image4.png) \| ![Shrimp](image5.png) \| ![Mosquito](image6.png) \| \| Tadpole - eats plants \| Snail - eats plants \| Bloodworm (fly larva) - eats other invertebrates \| \| ![Tadpole](image7.png) \| ![Snail](image8.png) \| ![Bloodworm](image9.png) \| \| Cyclops - eats algae \| Seed-shrimp - filter feeder of bacteria \| Damselfly - eats smaller invertebrates \| \| ![Cyclops](image10.png) \| ![Seed-shrimp](image11.png) \| ![Damselfly](image12.png) \| \| Water boatman - eats smaller invertebrates \| Caddisfly - eats smaller invertebrates \| Mayfly - eats algae and rotting material \| \|------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| ![Water boatman](image1) \| ![Caddisfly](image2) \| ![Mayfly](image3) \| \| Beetle larva - eats smaller invertebrates \| Backswimmer - eats smaller invertebrates \| Spider - eats smaller invertebrates \| \|------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------\| \| ![Beetle larva](image4) \| ![Backswimmer](image5) \| ![Spider](image6) \| \| Most fish eat smaller fish and invertebrates \| Purple Heron - catches fish, frogs and larger invertebrates \| White-breasted waterhen - mostly eats invertebrates \| \|---------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------\| \| ![Fish](image7) \| ![Purple Heron](image8) \| ![White-breasted waterhen](image9) \| \| Pied kingfishers catch fish \| Black Kite catches smaller animals such as frogs, reptiles, and insects \| Bacteria and decomposing plants. These are a major source of food for filter feeders and other invertebrates \| \|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| ![Pied Kingfisher](image10) \| ![Black Kite](image11) \| ![Decomposing Plants](image12) \| Wetland food web Activity 5. Messing with the web Materials Around 60 pieces of string or wool 5 metres long 24 photos cut out You will get your own card and then sit in a circle. String will be used to connect you to other students holding photos of things that your organism would eat and those that eat you. Keep going making links until you have run out of string. You should now have a complex web inside the circle. Gently tug on your string to feel your connection with other organisms. Below are three scenarios of how a river could be affected by outside impacts. Each scenario states which organism dies. Students holding these photos drop their string. Other students drop all of their strings if they no longer hold a string that is a source of food. Keep doing this until the full effect of the scenario is completed. Think about how the impact flows through the web. Reset the web and do the next scenarios: 1. Herbicide gets into the river killing all the plants 2. An introduced fish eats all the insects 3. An oil spill kills all the species that eat rotting material as well as the fish Lesson 2. Who are you and what do you do? A quick investigation into aquatic classification, biodiversity and adaptation. Activity 1. Twenty questions Materials - Print and cut out images from Activity 4 (Freshwater Community and Food Web). - Large paper clips. 1. Place an animal or plant on another student’s collar with a paper clip. The student must not see the image. Make sure you don’t scratch the student with the paperclip. 2. You are to think about questions you can ask about the plant’s or animal’s features, habitat and behaviours so you can quickly narrow down what is on your back. 3. You can ask questions of any other students, but they can only reply yes or no. You only have up to 10 questions. Each time you ask a question, they put a line on your card. 4. How many questions will it take for you to find out your plant or animal? Could you only get close to what it was? Use the animal and plant photos from Lesson 1. Use a paper clip to place one of the pictures on the back collar of every student without them seeing the picture. Students then ask other students questions about the features of the animal. The answer can only be in the form of yes or no although the student being asked can pass if they can’t answer. Each student counts the number of questions until they can name the animal or get as close as they can. Activity 2. Animal and plant keys Aquatic plant key To identify plants and animals, experts design dichotomous keys. They provide two choices that use features that can separate the organism into two groups. More and more choices are made until all the organisms are separated out into the desired groups. In this plant key you are using some major features to find out which major group of plants the six photos of plants in Lesson 2, Activity 3 belong to. Once you have worked through the key, write the name of the plant below the name of the group. Makes food through a process called photosynthesis Plant has no specialised structures Go to 1 Has specialised structures such as leaves and roots. Go to 2 1. Algae 2. Reproduces using spores Go to 3 2. Reproduces using flowers and seeds Go to 4 3. Fern 4. Flowering plant Vertebrate key This key will divide the vertebrates in Activity 3 into major groups. An animal with a backbone Has feathers Go to 1 Does not have feathers Go to 2 1. Bird 2. Body covered in scales Go to 3 2. Body covered in skin Go to 4 3. Reptile 4. Amphibian Invertebrate key This key will divide the invertebrates in Activity 3 into major groups. Often invertebrate keys are difficult because to find all the features, you would need to look at the animals under a microscope. Another thing that sometimes makes identification difficult is that some organisms look very different at different points in their lives. For example, some animals have no legs in their larval stage and some only have six legs when they are an adult. Animal without a backbone Has a shell Go to 2 Has an exoskeleton Go to 2 1. Mollusc (snail, clam) 2. Has eight legs Go to 3 2. Does not have eight legs Go to 4 3. Spider 3. Has walking legs Go to 4 3. If they have legs they are used for swimming Go to 7 4. Has 10 legs Go to 5 4. Has less than 10 legs Go to 6 5. Crustacean 6. Insect 7. Round, ball shaped body Go to 8 7. Long body Go to 9 8. Crustacean 9. Microscopic Go to 10 9. Is easy to see without a microscope go to 11 10. Crustacean 11. Insect Activity 3. Major invertebrate groups Do some research to find out what the main observable features are of these groups of invertebrate animals. Make some notes in the boxes in the next page. You might want to include such information as approximate numbers of species, physical characteristics, habitat, food. Use your biology textbook references or this website to fill in the gaps of your knowledge: http://ecolinc.vic.edu.au/sites/default/files/uploaded_files/discovering_wetlands/objects/L11700/index.htm \| Category \| Image \| \|---------------\|-------\| \| Flatworms \| ![Flatworm](image) \| \| Segmented worms \| ![Segmented worm](image) \| \| Molluscs \| ![Mollusc](image) \| \| Crustaceans \| ![Crustacean](image) \| Activity 4. Biodiversity Biodiversity is an important new way of understanding and managing our environment. Biodiversity is broken into three parts: Genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity refers to the many different plants, animals, fungi, bacteria etc that live in a region. Usually high species diversity is good for an ecosystem. Rainforests and coral reefs are regions with very high diversity of species. The Antarctic naturally has a much lower diversity of species. Often, in cities, many if not most of the plants and animals are introduced and interfere with the natural ecosystem. Genetic diversity refers to the amount of variation in the species’ genes. Genetic diversity is important for the future survival of species. There can be variation in genes from region to region. When a population of organisms is wiped out it usually reduces genetic diversity. Small conservation projects have the potential to maintain some of the local genetic diversity. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a region or on our planet. Ecosystems are the combination of all the living organisms and nonliving factors which interact with each other. Wetland ecosystems, for example, depend on land ecosystems for their health. Humans are affecting biodiversity There are many ways people have affected biodiversity. These are some examples: - Clearing land reduces habitat and prevents many animals and plants from moving around. - Large construction leaves almost no habitat for plants and animals. - When plants are introduced from other regions, the local animals may not be able to eat them and the introduced plants may compete with the local plants for habitat. - When animals are introduced they might compete for food, eat too many of the local plants or animals or even spread disease. - Agricultural practices modify or destroy many types of habitats. - Different types of pollution can affect habitats as well as animal and plant species. Can you think of ways plants and animals can be accidentally introduced into an ecosystem? Ecosystem and species diversity These are some ecosystems around Hong Kong. Explain why you think some of these ecosystems might have high or low species diversity. \| Small wetland surrounded by natural vegetation \| Concrete-lined river \| Large wetland lined with natural vegetation \| \|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------\|------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| \| Buildings in an estuary \| ![Image](image1) \| \|-------------------------\|-----------------\| \| Mangroves in an estuary \| ![Image](image2) \| \| Hong Kong forest \| ![Image](image3) \| \| Hong Kong park. Pond is lined with concrete and kept looking clean through the application of chemicals. \| ![Image](image4) \| Quick species audit of school grounds: Make a rough map of the school grounds. Put in features such as pavements, grass, garden beds, trees, buildings and lights. Assign groups of students to different parts of the school ground so they concentrate on just one school ground feature. Look for the number of different species you can observe. Those looking at garden beds could use a ruler to poke around in the soil. Besides looking for the animals, look for evidence of their presence, e.g. chewed leaves, deformed leaves and stems due to insect action. Each group has the same amount of time to look for species of plants and animals. Helpful tools are a ruler or a spoon for digging in the garden soil. Look in the grass, in pavement cracks and building cracks. Be aware small flies will escape in seconds. Hints: - Pavement - look for things living in cracks, look for snail trails - Trees - look for webs, things living under bark, galls, chewed leaves - Garden beds - poke around the soil using a ruler for worms, pill bugs, millipedes etc. You might find snail shells - Grass/lawn - look for small piles of tiny dirt balls on the grass. These belong to earthworms. Look for flies, snails and slugs among the grass. Use a portable vacuum to suck up insects. - Buildings and their walls and lights - look at cracks and windows. Look around outdoor lights which attract nocturnal invertebrates. Safety - Do not climb off the ground. Never handle animals that look like bees and wasps. Predict which survey area will have the greatest diversity of species and give your reasons why. Area being surveyed by your group: ____________________________ What are the physical features of the survey area? After the survey, complete the table below using the class’ data. If you had more than one set of data for any survey area, use the data with the highest score. \| Survey area \| Highest number of different plants \| Highest number of different animals \| \|-----------------\|-----------------------------------\|------------------------------------\| \| Pavement \| \| \| \| Trees \| \| \| \| Garden beds \| \| \| \| Grass/lawn \| \| \| \| Building and lights \| \| \| \| Other \| \| \| Which survey area had the greatest diversity of plants? ____________________________ Which survey area had the greatest diversity of animals? ____________________________ Activity 5. Adaptation All living organisms have their own way of surviving in their home. The way they survive is called adaptation. Physical adaption When we look at animal and plant features we can often see how their features are adapted to the way they live. Some features will help them obtain food and water, while other features may help in their protection. We can often work out how animals move, for example, by looking at their physical features. Behavioural adaption Animals and plants might do things that help their survival. For example, the time of year that they reproduce maximises the chance of their young’s survival. Some animal species huddle together in large groups to keep warm. This is another behavioural adaptation. Look at the animal features below. How do these organisms move? Note that some may have more than one way of moving. \| Freshwater grayfish \| Snail \| Waterboatman \| Kingfisher \| \|---------------------\|-------\|--------------\|------------\| Look at the animal features. How do these organisms protect themselves? Note that some may have more than one way of protecting themselves. \| Freshwater crayfish \| Caddisfly \| Freshwater clam \| Mayfly \| \|---------------------\|-----------\|-----------------\|--------\| Think about what these animals might do if they see danger. What can they do to best protect themselves? \| Caddisfly \| Frog \| Kingfisher \| Fish \| \|-----------\|------\|------------\|------\| Where do these animals prefer to feed and where do they prefer to rest? \| Kingfisher \| Tadpole \| Heron \| Snail \| \|------------\|---------\|-------\|-------\| Activity 6. Microscope Meet your microscope 1. Familiarize yourself with the parts of the microscope. Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions about how to handle the microscope. They are fragile and expensive items. ![Microscope Diagram](image) 2. Care and use of microscope: Follow your teacher’s instructions, using the worksheet provided to practice the steps in using the microscope. 3. Preparation of slides: Follow these basic steps to prepare a wet mount slide from the aquarium or pond water you are provided with: a. With your dropper, stir up the liquid, trying to get as many “dirty” drops of liquid as possible. These will likely contain the most organisms to observe. b. Place one or two drops on the middle of the slide. Avoid flooding the slide. You want the drops to be contained to a small area in the center of the slide. c. Apply the coverslip very gently to avoid the formation of air bubbles. Slowly lower the cover down at an angle. d. Carefully soak up any excess water outside the coverslip with the edge of a tissue. 4. Looking at stuff under the microscope a. For each organism you observe, divide a paper into three sections. b. Make a drawing at low, medium and high magnifications, noting the total magnification for each. c. Write down anything you observe about the movement or feeding behaviour of the organism(s) on your slide. d. Use your drawings and observations to try to identify what you are looking at. What is it? Use the websites below to come up with some possible identification of your organism(s): https://au.pinterest.com/pin/436356651368838841/ www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/11055554/guide-to-identification-of-fresh-water-microorganisms Extension: Pillbugs and slaters Pillbugs are common and have many names including wood lice, slaters and butcher boys. Pillbugs and slaters are similar but belong to different groups. When gently prodded, pillbugs roll into a ball, but slaters will try to run away. The photo is of a slater. You can purchase pillbugs and slaters from outside Hong Kong. However these animals are very common in gardens, parks and even in compost bin. They are most likely to be found in damp leaf litter, near the soil surface, under things left on the ground and among the roots and base of large thick grasses. It is most likely that the pillbugs and slaters that you will find are not native to Hong Kong. These animals are easily transported in the soil of potted plants. You will be doing experiments on slaters. Before you go out and catch them you must make sure you can look after them properly. This includes considering the following: - Where and how will they be kept so they don’t escape - if they escape in a building they will die. - How will the animals be kept damp - the thing that will kill them quickest is drying out. Too much water will allow their home to go mouldy. Do not worry about lack of oxygen, they will go to sleep. Drying out is lethal. If they were in a large jar, you only need to open it every second day. - You must never do anything cruel to animals. If in doubt ask your teacher. - Any experiment you want to do must first be designed and your teacher must evaluate if the experiment could harm the animals. - The home you make them must also have food and places for them to hide under. - Figure out what will happen to the animals after they are not being used in experiments. Designing your experiment In your experiment you need to test just one thing. In many experiments it’s essential that nothing else changes. You can do your experiment by providing your slater with a choice. Examples of choices you could give a pillbug are: - If they prefer to hide or stay in the open - Preference for two different things they can hide under - Choice of two foods - Choice between a damp and dry place - How fast they can move - Trace where they move and see if the go in a straight line - Observe how they use their antennae to interact with their environment - Whether they prefer to be in groups or remain on their own (need to make sure their environment is the same all over) What do you want to test in your experiment? ____________________________________________________________________________________ What kind of container will be used in the experiment? _______________________________________ How many animals will be needed? _________________________________________________________ What else will you need? ________________________________________________________________ How will the animals be kept safe? _________________________________________________________ What do you predict your animal will do? _________________________________________________ Describe and illustrate your experiment Submit your experimental design to your teacher for feedback. Record your observations in your notebook. What did you conclude? Lesson 3 - Wetland field trip or excursion Wetlands are very productive ecosystems. They are a source of fish, prawns and shellfish for people. Healthy wetlands host a wide range of microscopic plants and animals, incredible life cycles of various insects and frogs and many visiting and permanent birds. Hong Kong Wetland Park has been developed to conserve, maintain and expand many habitats for plants and wildlife and for the enjoyment and education of people. Excursion to Hong Kong Wetland Park If your school does not have the ability to run a field trip to a couple of river sites, then the Hong Kong Wetland Park is a good alternative to explore wetlands. There are extensive walking tracks around the wetlands looking at many of the expected wetlands along with mangroves, and tidal mudflats. It has an amazing diversity of wetland birds. The park also has extensive graphic panels. Use the Hong Kong Wetland Park website http://www.wetlandpark.gov.hk/en/ to find out how to get there by train and plan a visit. Cameras to photograph habitats, plants and graphic panels and binoculars would be useful. Gathering data Use the information panels to gather data. Design a plant, plant, animal and ecosystem datasheet using word or another application. Making your own data recording sheets will allow you to insert photos back at school. The data to be gathered could have these headings for plants: \| Name of plant \| Adaptations to a wetland \| Insert photo, make drawing or write description \| \|---------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| Dragonflies and damselflies feed on plants, such as mosses. Their larvae are aquatic and are being named "winged ones". The larvae of dragonflies and damselflies are aquatic. The data to be gathered could have these headings for animals: \| Name of animal \| Adaptations to a wetland \| Insert photo from graphic panel, make drawing or write description \| \|----------------\|--------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| The data to be gathered could have these headings for ecosystems: \| Physical appearance of ecosystem \| How plants grow in the ecosystem (waterbody) \| How plants grow outside of the ecosystem (outside waterbody) \| \|---------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| \| These photos will help you in your preparation. These are some of the ecosystems and species you might see when you visit. ![Image 1](image1.png) ![Image 2](image2.png) ![Image 3](image3.png) ![Image 4](image4.png) ![Image 5](image5.png) ![Image 6](image6.png) ![Image 7](image7.png) ![Image 8](image8.png) ![Image 9](image9.png) Gathering data on a field trip Introduction: In this activity students help to design a field trip and fieldwork activities. It is preferable if students can visit an urbanised site and a more natural site, to see the contrast. Hong Kong with its small size and variety of landscapes, offers many possibilities. To organise the field trip you will need to: 1. Identify two locations to visit. 2. How the students will safely arrive at the sites and return back to school. 3. How students will remain safe and the safety procedures they will follow. 4. Who will be responsible for gathering and returning equipment. 5. If there will be any cost to students. To gather fieldwork data: 1. Decide which data activities students will do (some activities will depend on the availability of equipment) 2. Review and modify fieldwork activities. 3. Collect and make equipment for the activities that will need them. 4. Ask chemistry teachers for training for chemistry equipment. 5. Design data gathering sheets for each activity. Equipment: - Thermometers. - If your school has the following chemistry equipment for measuring pH, nitrates, phosphates and conductivity would be useful. - Stockings and wire coat hangers for making dip nets. - Turbidity tube or tin lid, black pen permanent marker, drill, string, ruler to make a secchi disk. - Writing materials. - Cameras. Safety: Consider doing a safety audit before going on a fieldwork trip. Things that need to be considered include: 1. School safety policy. 2. Getting to and from the transport you will be using. 3. Avoiding students falling into the water and having a plan if a student does. Seek locations where students will not be in danger if they were to slip into the water. 4. How to avoid dangerous litter. 5. How to avoid harmful bacteria in the water eg wear rubber gloves, use hand disinfectant after water sampling, no eating food or drinking without cleaning hands with hand disinfectant. 6. Plan for wet weather and a plan B if the weather is really harsh. 7. Waders that are waist high or longer are not suitable for student to use in water half a metre or more. 8. First aid kit. \| Location suggestions: \| Description \| \|-----------------------\|-------------\| \| Big Wave Bay \| Beach environment heavily used by people \| \| Bride’s Pool \| Area rich in geomorphological features of a natural river course \| \| High Island Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Hong Kong Wetland Park\| Tourist and information centre with abundance of estuarine birds and animals in a wetland setting \| \| Kam Tin River \| River that drains surrounding mountains, with sections that have been channelised \| \| Kowloon Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Lake Egret Nature Park\| Connected to Tai Po Kau Country Park dotted with streams and rock pools that are mostly in a natural state. The Lake Egret Nature Park is run as a tourist attraction and information centre \| \| Lam Tsuen River \| Flows out into Tolo Harbour, the river courses change from natural stretches to modified ones \| \| Mai Po Nature Reserve \| Large wetland nature reserve \| \| Plover Cove Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Pok Fu Lam Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Pui O \| Marsh and estuarine environments that have been affected by human activities \| \| Shek Pik Reservoir \| Large water storage and supply on Lantau Island. \| \| Shing Mun Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Shing Mun River \| Channelised urban river \| \| Tai Mo Shan Waterfall \| Highest peak in HK, part of Country Park with natural waterways including Ng Tung Chai waterfall, HK’s biggest waterfall \| \| Tai O \| Estuarine environment with traditional stilt village, some modified and natural coastline and wetland \| \| Tai Tam Reservoir \| Freshwater storage and supply \| \| Tung Chung River \| Upper and middle courses are more natural with some modifications in the lower course \| \| Wang Tong River \| Example of channelisation \| \| Waterfall Bay \| Waterfall into the sea, lower course runs through villages that discharge into the river affecting water quality \| \| Wong Lung Hang \| Medium sized rocky river, easy access next from roads with some well-known aquatic animals and plants occurring here. \| \| Yan Chau Tong Marine Park \| Some natural and some channelised estuarine environment \| 1. Sampling for water creatures Equipment - Dip net or wire coat hanger and stockings to make a net - Large shallow white tray - Magnifiers - Specimen jars with lids Making a dip net If you don’t have a pond sampling net then make a net a net using a wire coat hanger and a pair of stockings 1. Bend the wire coat hanger so make it into a square. Bend the coat hanger hook so it is straight. 2. Place the waist of the stockings around the rim of the coat hanger 3. Tie the two legs together into a tight knot at the crotch 4. Cut off the ends of the legs below the knot. 5. You have a dip net. Sampling technique: 1. Place one to two centimeters of river water into the bottom of the white tray. 2. Sweep the dip net through the water. Make sure that only one side of the net has water entering it otherwise any animals already caught will be swept out. If the dip net fills with mud, swish the net so its free of mud and start again. 3. When you think you have a sample, wash the inside of the net into the white tray. 4. Look for the movement of animals swimming, crawling and walking. Interpreting data The diversity of animals is a key indicator of ecosystem health. Try and record as many species as you have found. The absence of animals could mean several things: - Reservoirs often have almost no animals because in clean water there is very little food. - It may not have been possible with your nets to make a good collection of the animals. - In rivers many of the animals are under rocks and to sample the animals people kick the rocks and gravel to collect the animals in their nets. It may not be safe you for to do so in deeper rivers. The table below will indicate the quality of the water in a river wetland or a river. \| Sensitivity to pollution \| Invertebrate groups \| Score \| \|--------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------\|-------\| \| Extremely sensitive and require excellent water quality \| Some beetles (screech beetle) Mayfly \| 10 \| \| \| \| 8 \| \| Sensitive to tiny amounts of pollution \| Caddisfly Water mites Damselfly Dragonfly Water fleas \| 7 \| \| \| \| 7 \| \| \| \| 6 \| \| \| \| 6 \| \| \| \| 6 \| \| Survive small amounts of pollution \| Mosquito larvae Some beetles (diving beetle) Water striders Backswimmers Shrimps Snails Amphipods Leech \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| \| \| 5 \| \| Survive in moderately polluted water \| Water boatman Cyclops Seed shrimp Some fly larvae \| 4 \| \| \| \| 4 \| \| \| \| 4 \| \| \| \| 4 \| \| Survive in very polluted water \| Red coloured fly larvae Flatworms Segmented worms \| 3 \| \| \| \| 3 \| \| \| \| 1 \| Total Tick off which animals were found on page 34 and add up the total score. Rivers 0 to 44 = poor water quality 44 to 55 = fair water quality 56 to 73 = good water quality 74 to 110 = very good water quality 110+ = excellent water quality Ponds and other still water 0 to 40 = poor water quality 41 to 50 = fair water quality 51 to 70 = good water quality 71 to 100 = very good water quality 100+ = excellent water quality Below are examples of aquatic species recorded around Hong Kong (Taken from Kadoorie Farm education display boards) - Broken-band Hillstream Loach (Linipharhomaloptera disparis). The loaches’ slim and flattened body can allow it to withstand strong water flow in the upper course, especially during the summer monsoon. - Sucker-belly Loach (Pseudogastromyzon myersi). A common fish with a sucker-like adhesive disc (modified fin) used to attach onto the surface of rocks in fast-flowing streams. - Rose Bitterling (Rhodeus ocellatus). Mainly inhabits reservoirs and some stream meanders. A highly restricted native species relies on a freshwater mussel (Anodonta woodiana) to complete its reproductive cycle. - Chinese Barb (Puntius semifasciolatus). Once common native fish has suffered from stream pollution and habitat damage. - Predaceous Chub (Parazacco spilurus). The commonest native freshwater fish in local hill streams. A voracious predator of invertebrates and small fish. - Marsh Shrimp (Macrobrachium vietnamense). Normally nocturnal, this long-armed shrimp predates organisms in rock pools. Territorial species. - Freshwater Snail (Brotia hainanensis). A common freshwater snail in the upper course of local streams. Small snails of this species are eaten by Big-headed Turtles and the Blue Whistling Thrush. - Freshwater Minnow (Opsariichthys acutipinnis). Widespread and common species primarily found in the New Territories. - Freshwater Goby (Rhinogobius duospilus). Most common freshwater goby in Hong Kong, it lives and feeds on the stream floor. - Atyid Shrimp (Caridina cantonensis). A small, widely distributed freshwater shrimp, it is good at merging into the background to avoid predation. 2. Frog calls The presence of frogs and tadpoles indicates that the environment must be healthy because polluting chemicals will quickly soak through the frogs’ skin. Animals like frogs are called indicator species. The easiest way to monitor frogs is to listen for their calls. They don’t call all the time and are more likely to call during and after heavy rain. Tadpoles can be distinguished from small fish by looking for fins on the side, back and under the body. Only fish have these fins and tadpoles need to make do with their tail. Some species of frogs lay white frothy masses of eggs. If you are lucky enough to hear frog calls, record the number of different calls. Only the males call and they call when it’s the best time to attract females and mate. Calling varies due to weather, season, flooding, and time of day and night. 3. Litter Equipment Recording materials including clipboard and data sheet Camera, e.g. smartphone or tablet Review safety before you start doing your litter survey. Stay well away from syringes. Litter survey Classification of litter into types of material. The types of materials and their use include: - Aluminium cans - Steel cans and steel products - Other metal - Glass - Plastic wrapping and wrappers - Plastic bottles - Plastic containers - Other plastic - Paper and cardboard - Items made from rubber - Clothing - Other Gathering data - Walk along a stretch of the water way - Measure the distance walked - Make a separate count for litter found: - In the water including among the plants in the water - Along the water edge - Along the bank above the water edge - Count the total number of each type of litter in the water, along the water edge and along the bank - Record the times it took to complete the count Using a camera: - Take photos of the area being surveyed for litter. - Photograph examples of litter. - Photograph the worsts examples of litter in the water, water edge and along the bank. - Photograph any rubbish bins and litter around rubbish bins. - Photograph any structures along the bank including picnic areas. Interpreting data: - What proportion of the litter was. - Industrial. - Waste from kitchens and shops. - From fast food, food wrappers and drink bottles. - Fishing waste. - What proportion of the litter. - Was swept down the river (litter in the water and along water edge). - Dumped along the bank as waste from home, shops or industry (pile of litter). - Litter from people using the river or wetland (spread along the bank). 4. Litter hotspots There may be litter hot spots in the areas you are doing your survey: - Photograph any litter hotspots. If your camera or smartphone can record GPS coordinates make sure it is turned on. - Record what type of litter is in the hot spot. - Identify why the location is a hot spot eg. - Bend in a river or due to the current. - Around a rubbish bin and litter has blown out, pulled out by an animal eg cat, bird etc. - Convenient place to dump rubbish. - Caught in aquatic vegetation. Interpreting data Distinguish litter hotspots due to: - The forces of nature e.g. water currents, wind etc. - Being caught in plants. - The actions of people using the area. 5. Stormwater outlets If there are any stormwater outlets along the river or wetland: 1. Observe if the water appears different around the outlet. Describe how the water is different and if their is an oily scum on the surface. 2. Check if there is more litter on the bank and in the water downstream from the outlet. 3. Record any other impacts the stormwater drain seems to have on the river, 4. Photograph the outlet and around the outlet. a. Describe the location. b. Do you notice any Impact(s) on water. 6. Basic water quality measurements Equipment Secchi disk or turbidity tube (see materials for making secchi disk) Thermometer Tape measure Temperature Measure and record the temperature of the water near the water’s edge using a thermometer or other temperature measuring device. Interpreting the data The temperature of the water should be cooler than the temperature of the air. If the temperature is over 25 degrees celsius then there may not be enough oxygen for animals with gills. Warm water holds less dissolved oxygen compared with cold water. Bacteria and other organisms have higher metabolisms, thereby using up the oxygen. Very warm water is often the result of the river water being used for industrial cooling processes. Flow Time and record how fast the water flows in a minute. - Find a stick. - Mark your starting point. - Throw the stick out into the water. - Walk along the bank as the stick moves for one minute. - Mark the spot after a minute. - Use the measuring tape to find the distance in metres the stick moved in a minute. - Divide the distance by 60 to find out the speed of the water in metres per second. Turbidity If you don’t have a turbidity tube at your school, make a secchi disk: You will need a metal lid with a hole drilled into the centre, string (or a ball of wool), black permanent marker and ruler - Use the permanent marker and ruler to draw two lines through the centre at 90 degrees to each other to make four equal segments. Using the maker pens darken two of the opposite segments. - Thread string that is around two meters long through the hole - Under the lid (opposite to the area coloured in) tie a large knot so the string can’t pull though. - On the string opposite to the knot, mark the string every 10 cm using the permanent marker. To use the secchi disk, lower the disk into the water. Allow it to go down until it can no longer be seen. Record that distance. Using a turbidity tube: - Look down the tube and observe that grid at the bottom. - Get a sample of water from the river/wetland. - Pour it into the tube. - Remove water from the tube until you can just see the grid. - Record the height of the water in the tube. Interpreting the data: The shorter the distance the secchi disk or the amount of water in the turbidity tube, the higher the turbidity. High turbidity means little light can penetrate the water so plants growing in the water have less chance to grow. Turbidity is a measure of how much dirt is being washed into the waterway. It is usually higher after rain. 7. Using field chemistry equipment It will be up to your teachers to find out if your school has equipment for measuring dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrates, phosphates and conductivity. There is a range of equipment and methods for doing these measurements. Teachers will either train you to use the equipment or use it as a demonstration. Some equipment requires calibration. If the calibration is wrong, the settings on the equipment aren’t correct or the units of readings are misinterpreted, the data recorded can be significantly incorrect. Interpreting data: Oxygen: When the oxygen level drops many of the animals with gills will die. Aquatic plants and cascading water oxygenates the water. Nitrates and phosphates: Most of the nutrients in water come from land sources. Rotting leaves adds to the nutrients along with fertilisers, detergents, human and animal feces etc. The amount of phosphorus and nitrogen chemicals are measured to estimate the amount of nutrients. High nutrients can cause an explosion of bacteria and plant growth that reduces oxygen levels. Conductivity: By finding out how well electricity is conducted by a water sample, the amount of salt can be estimated. pH: pH is a measure of how acid or basic the water is. The pH affects many biological chemical reactions. The preferred pH is neutral. Report of your data Make a report of your data. Present your data in a form that is easy to communicate. Use the photos taken during the field trip. Interpret your data and draw conclusions. Use word, powerpoint or another application to produce your report. 8. Data sheets Date of field trip _______________________ Location ____________________________________________________________ Weather Temperature ____________________ Sun/cloud cover ______________________ Wind ___________________________ Humidity ____________________________ Rain _____________________________ Air pollution _________________________ Freshwater animals ☐ Fish ☐ Turtles ☐ Tadpoles ☐ Beetles ☐ Mayfly ☐ Caddisfly ☐ Water mites ☐ Damselfly ☐ Dragonfly ☐ Water fleas ☐ Mosquito larvae ☐ Water striders ☐ Backswimmers ☐ Shrimps ☐ Snails ☐ Amphipods ☐ Leech ☐ Water boatman ☐ Cyclops ☐ Seed shrimp ☐ Fly larvae ☐ Red coloured fly larvae ☐ Flatworms ☐ Segmented worms Frog calls ☐ None ☐ 1 species ☐ 2 species ☐ 3 species ☐ Lots of frogs calling ☐ A few frogs calling ☐ No frogs calling Litter Location ____________________________________ Time spent collecting data ________________ Distance along water body ___________________________ \| Material \| In the water \| Water edge \| On the bank \| Total \| \|---------------------------------\|--------------\|------------\|-------------\|-------\| \| Aluminium cans \| \| \| \| \| \| Steel cans and other steel \| \| \| \| \| \| Other metal \| \| \| \| \| \| Glass \| \| \| \| \| \| Plastic wrapping and wrappers \| \| \| \| \| \| Plastic bottles \| \| \| \| \| \| Plastic containers \| \| \| \| \| \| Other plastic \| \| \| \| \| \| Paper and cardboard \| \| \| \| \| \| Items made from rubber \| \| \| \| \| \| Clothing \| \| \| \| \| \| Fishing line or fishing net \| \| \| \| \| \| Other \| \| \| \| \| Litter hotspots ☐ Bend in a river or due to the current ☐ Around a rubbish bin and litter has blown out, pulled out by an animal eg cat, bird etc ☐ Convenient place to dump rubbish ☐ Caught in aquatic vegetation ☐ Other _____________________________ Describe and photograph litter hotspots _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ \| Property \| Measurement \| \|---------------\|-------------\| \| Temperature \| \| \| Flow \| \| \| Turbidity \| \| \| Dissolved oxygen \| \| \| Nitrates \| \| \| Phosphates \| \| \| Conductivity \| \| \| pH \| \| \| \| \| Lesson 4. Conservation and management Activity 1. Improve one of your field study sites with your recommendations How can the ecosystem be improved in one of the locations where you did your field studies? What aspects of the ecosystem would be difficult or maybe impossible to change? Is it possible to: - Grow trees on the bank. - Grow shrubs and grasses along the bank. - Grow aquatic plants on the water edge. - Grow aquatic plants in the water. - Completely remove constructed edges along the river. - Replace constructed edges with a rocky edge with plenty of places for animals and plants to live. - Have shallow pools coming out of the side of the river. - Reduce litter. - Have a path for people. - Have more rubbish bins. Find a photo of what you would like the river to look like. Are there nurseries in Hong Kong where you could buy suitable plants? List recommendations that you think would improve the area and make it a more natural ecosystem. Make a map of the area and show where your recommendations would be done. Activity 2. Design a litter trap Some countries place litter traps in their rivers. These traps catch the litter as it floats down the river. They are often placed in river bends where the litter floats towards the bank. The traps are regularly cleaned and the litter is sent to a landfill. Design a litter trap that could be used in Hong Kong. In your design: - How will it float? What material will be used to make it float? - How will the trap be fixed to the bank so it doesn’t float away? - How will litter be channelled into the trap? - How will the litter be caught in the trap so it doesn’t float away? What material will be used that allows water through? - How will the litter trap survive flooding water? - What features will it have so it is easy to remove the litter? Activity 3. Design your own wetland pond or aquarium Design a wetland pond Your school may have enough land to install their own wetland pond. Once the pond is constructed, aquatic plants are placed in the pond. It only requires a few plants, because they grow and reproduce quickly. It is more important to have a variety of plants. Smaller ponds need to be lined by a thick plastic sheet, concrete or another surface to stop the water from leaking away. It will also need to be topped up by rain or from a tap. Chlorine is used in tap water to kill harmful bacteria. This chlorine can be harmful to aquatic animals. The water needs to sit around for a couple of days before its used in the pond so the chlorine evaporates. Usually many animals find their own way to the pond. You could also catch some pond animals and put them in. To design your pond. 1. Where will it be placed? 2. How large would it be? 3. How will it be lined? 4. If there is extra soil from digging a hole, what will happen with the soil? 5. Where will you get aquatic plants? 6. What will be planted around the outside of the pond? 7. How will the pond be kept filled with water? 8. If aquatic animals will be placed into it, where will they come from? Your pond should not have fish purchased from an aquarium shop. Compare designs produced by the class. - Which designs make the best habitats? - Which designs would be the most practical at your school? - Which designs are the easiest to build? Design and make a wetland aquarium Materials if you actually make a wetland aquarium: - Large container for the aquarium. It could be a fish tank or a large sturdy plastic container - Some aquatic plants. - Dip net to catch some freshwater animals. - A second container to let tap water sit for a couple of days. To make a wetland aquarium your class will need to decide: 1. What kind of container or aquarium will be used. 2. Where it will be kept. 3. How long it can stay there before it has to be moved. 4. How the aquarium will be looked after. Your aquarium will need plants. If it just has floating plants then you won’t need anything on the bottom. If your plants have roots then you will need clean gravel or if they come in a flower pot, keep them in the flower pot. Aquarium shops will sell you aquarium plants. You may also be able to find a nursery that sells aquatic plants, but most of these are too large for an aquarium. You will need to catch some aquatic animals to place in your aquarium once it has been set up. Allow the aquarium with its plants around a week to settle down. Once the animals are in, observe the changes. It’s normal for some of the animals to die out and others to multiply quite quickly. It’s also fascinating how two similar tanks can end up with different animals dominating the tanks. To look after the aquarium 1. Set tap water aside for 2 days before placing it into the aquarium to allow the chlorine to disappear. 2. In a normal wetland, large amounts of nutrients eventually soak down into the muddy bottom. In an aquarium there is nowhere for the water to soak down. Do not place anything in the aquarium that will rot. 3. Do not place many predators into the water. There will be carnage with lots of dead rotting animals upsetting the balance. 4. If the aquarium is shallow and has a large surface, it may not need aeration. Only use an aerator pump to oxygenate the water. Do not use a water pump, as these pumps will chop up any small animals that pass through them. 5. Usually it’s best not to do anything to the aquarium once it’s established. Algae growing on the glass or plastic is natural. 6. Do not have fish in the aquarium. Quick alternative: Sea monkeys The common name given to the brine shrimp, a small crustacean is the sea monkey. It is easy to buy kits or just the eggs online. Do a search for sea monkey eggs or sea monkey kits. You can watch the life cycle and the quick growth of these crustaceans and appreciate how the different features of sea monkeys are adapted to an aquatic environment. Activity 4: Fish and culture If you do a search on google images using Chinese fish as your search words, you will see an interesting selection of images. In this activity you will choose a culture. You will then explore different aspects of how the culture has embraced fish. Besides researching information, illustrate what you have learned. What ancient myths and stories about fish have been passed down through the generations? - How have past artists used fish in their images, sculptures and textiles? - How have current artists used fish in their images, sculptures and textiles? - In what ways are fish kept as pets in aquariums or ornamental ponds? - What is the role of fish in the culture’s diet? Which culture have you chosen? _______________________ Do some research about the fish and the culture you have chosen. Describe what you have found out. Make an illustration or drawing. \| Aspect of the culture \| Illustration/drawing \| \|-----------------------\|----------------------\| \| Ancient myths about the fish \| \| \| Historical artistic inspiration \| \| \| Modern artistic inspiration \| \| \| Fish as pets and in ornamental ponds \| \| \| Fish as staple food \| \| \| Anything else you can add? \| \| Activity 5: Looking forward - Monitoring a local waterway Is there a waterway near your school? Do some students walk over a bridge on their way to school? It may be possible to monitor your local waterway for unusual pollution. Unusual pollution are things like: - Oil covering the water - Sudden increase in greasy substance covering the water - Larger amount of litter in water when there hasn’t been any rain - Large amounts of litter and greasy substance from drains when there hasn’t been any rain. - Many dead fish floating in the water - In these situations it is likely that people are purposely pouring their waste down stormwater drains. Activity 6. Looking forward Monitoring a local waterway Hong Kong citizens can report pollution to the Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (EPD). Information about pollution reporting can be found on this website. http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/report_pollution/reportpollution.html Monitor your waterway for pollution for at least a week. Discuss what you observed. How much litter and other polluting materials was normally observed? Take into account that after rain oil and grease along with litter from roads and gutter will be washed into the stormwater. Decide what your class believes is water pollution caused by people pouring their waste into the stormwater pipes or along the river. Decide when the EPD should be contacted and who should make the contact. Plant a mini ecosystem Materials: - A square metre of garden bed. - Small log. - A few stones, around 1 to 2 kg. - A few local grasses, herbs and one small bush. - Leaf litter. - Spade or garden fork. You will find suitable plants from a local nursery or, for example, the Flower Market in Kowloon. Method 1. Dig over the square metre of soil. 2. Dig into the soil half of the leaf litter. 3. Place rocks and small log in garden 4. Dig holes for each of the plants. The holes need to be larger than the pots but the same depth as the pots that hold the plants. 5. Squeeze the plastic pots to loosen the grip of the soil and then gently slide out the plant supporting the weight of the stem. 6. Place the plant in the hole and fill the rest of the hole with soil. Lightly press the soil down. 7. Give the plants a long watering. 8. If it hasn’t rained, water the plants each week. 9. Monitor your mini ecosystem once each month record what you see. Look under the log and rocks for animals. Look among the plants and for evidence the plants have been chewed. Can you see insects visiting flowers? 10. Remove weeds as they start growing. Acknowledgements The Ocean Recovery Alliance thanks The Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities Trust for their generous funding support on this education programme. Project manager: Doug Woodring Writer, photography and design: Bob Winters Curriculum manager and editor: Charlotte Charny Nielsen Editor and school outreach: Alex Hale Additional thanks: Jasmine Nunns and Sandra Merazzi © 2017 Ocean Recovery Alliance and Authors. Outside the school environment, the text, photos and artwork may not be reproduced, except where permitted by the relevant Copyright Act. These materials may not be modified and distributed by print or electronic means without written permission. Teachers may modify these education materials for the use of their students and school provided it is not distributed any further. 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The story of the Albuquerque Wildlife Federation begins with a meeting of local sportsmen on July 21, 1914 at the Commercial Club in downtown Albuquerque. The group had come together out of a shared concern: that unregulated hunting was decimating the populations of many wild game species in the area, and that something had to be done before they disappeared forever. The group’s concerns were driven by the history they had witnessed. American bison had been reduced from millions of animals to fewer than 1,000 by 1890. The last wild passenger pigeon was killed in 1900; the final animal died in captivity the year AWF was founded. Here in New Mexico, bison, elk, and bighorn sheep had vanished from the state by 1909, and mule deer, pronghorn antelope, and wild turkeys were growing scarce. In response to this situation, a “game protective movement” had developed. The first game protective organization in New Mexico was the Sportsmen’s Association of Southwestern New Mexico, which was founded in Silver City in early 1914. The Albuquerque Game Protective Association (AGPA, which would eventually become AWF) followed closely behind. A key organizer in both groups was Aldo Leopold, who had come to the Southwest in 1909 to work for the U.S. Forest Service and ended up serving as the Supervisor of the Carson National Forest. By 1914, Leopold was living in Albuquerque and focusing on game management for the Forest Service. Although he played a central role in organizing the group, Leopold was not among the first officers of the AGPA. continued on page 7 Inside this Issue: AWF’s 100th Birthday Party..........................pg 2 July Restoration Service Project....................pg 3 Recap of June Project.....................................pg 4 Events of Interest...........................................pg 5 Blast from the Past.........................................pg 6 History of AWF continued..............................pg 7 Membership Form.........................................pg 14 JULY 19, 2014 3:00 p.m. to Sunset 7851 2nd St SW (south on 2nd from Rio Bravo) Join us for a Festival at the Valle de Oro Wildlife Refuge in the South Valley of Albuquerque in Celebration of the Albuquerque Wildlife Federation’s 100th Birthday! Tours of the refuge and bosque Games and family activities Booths from local conservation group partners Food from the Street Food Institute food truck and Food Karma Live Music by Annette Ahlander and Brad Bartlett & Estella Moore Keynote speech by Jack Loeffler at 6:00 p.m. Free birthday cake from A Cake Odyssey Spread the word and bring your friends and family to share in this once-a-century celebration! JULY 25-27, 2014 SERVICE PROJECT: Valles Caldera LOCATION: Valles Caldera National Preserve THE PROJECT: AWF is teaming up with Los Amigos de Valles Caldera for a restoration service project in the Valle Jaramillo in the center of the Valles Caldera. The creek in this narrow valley has been heavily impacted by grazing and logging, and sediment from headcuts and eroding streambanks has degraded water quality. Volunteers will build Zuni bowls and one-rock dams to control erosion in headcuts, as well as transplanting sod tiles to plug ditches that are draining adjacent wetlands. Children are welcome but no pets are permitted on the Preserve. Tents, pickup campers, small RV’s and tent or travel trailers are allowed. We will be camping in the Preserve, and access will be arranged through the main gate in the Valle Grande on Highway 4. SCHEDULE: Friday, July 25 - Sunday, June 27 GEAR: Bring everything you need for a weekend of camping. For the work, don’t forget gloves, hat, long sleeves, long pants, sturdy boots, and sunscreen. Warm clothes for the evenings and plenty of water are essential. FOOD: AWF will provide breakfast burritos on Saturday morning and bison or veggie burgers on Saturday evening. Please bring a dish to share for the Saturday potluck dinner, along with your own lunches, Friday dinner, Sunday breakfast, and lots of water! AWF will have some water available during the work days, but please bring your own water bottle. TO SIGN UP: Contact Scial at firstname.lastname@example.org or 505-480-2906. Directions and details will be sent to you after you sign up. 2014 SERVICE PROJECTS CALENDAR March 22.............Day project at Los Padillas Wildlife Sanctuary April 25-27..........Cebolla Canyon near Grants, NM May 16-18............Zuni Mountains near Gallup, NM May 30-June 1......Valles Caldera I June 27-29..........Glorieta Mesa near Santa Fe, NM July 19..................AWF 100th Birthday Celebration! Valle de Oro Wildlife Refuge, Albuquerque July 25-27...........Valles Caldera II August 22-24.......Valles Caldera III September 26-28...Rio Mora National Wildlife Refuge October TBD.......Day project in the Sandia Mountains AWF BOARD 2014 OFFICERS President – Michael Scialdone Vice President – Kristina G. Fisher Treasurer – Laurie Marnell Secretary – Toby Rosenblatt DIRECTORS Stephen Bohannon Kurt Menke Dennis Muirhead Glenda Muirhead Bob Tilley Kristin Van Fleet Bill Zeedyk At the end of June, AWF volunteers spent a weekend working on Glorieta Mesa, near Pecos, NM. The project took place on the 500-acre Glorieta Freedom Ranch, which was purchased by Brad and Kathy Holian who permanently protected the land with a conservation easement. As restoration project designer Jan Willem-Jansens explained, this area is an essential part of a network of wildlife corridors connecting the Sangre de Cristo mountains through the Galisteo Basin to the Sandia and Manzano Mountains. Volunteers built a series of one-rock dams and Zuni bowls in a riparian area downstream from an old pond that is being enhanced to create a larger wetland area for the benefit of species from bears to bats. More structures were built in a meadow downstream from a road crossing, where AWF had worked a year ago. It was very rewarding to see how well the structures built last year were performing—all were successfully collecting sediment and growing thick grasses. The weekend was made extra special by the culinary talents of Scial and Rodney Conant, who not only prepared AWF’s signature Saturday breakfast burritos and bison burgers but also cooked dinner on Friday, lunch on Saturday, and breakfast on Sunday! UPCOMING EVENTS & OPPORTUNITIES OF INTEREST Fire on the Mountain THURSDAY, JULY 10, 2014, 9:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m. Valles Caldera National Preserve Dr. Doug Cram, Extension Wildland Fire Specialist, leads a tour of the Preserve with an eye for how past fires behaved on the landscape based on fuel conditions, weather, and topography. Participants will get to compare how vegetation communities have responded following different fires. More information: http://www.vallescaldera.gov/calendar/ViewCal.html Family Star Party TUESDAY, JULY 29, 2014, 8:30 p.m. PAJARITO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CENTER (PEEC), Los Alamos, NM During this family star party, PEEC Director Chick Keller will explain what we know of the galaxy’s spiral shape and point out age-old remnants, clusters, nebulae, and more. This event is free and open to the public. More info: https://www.z2systems.com/np/clients/peecla/event.jsp?event=2992 Gila Wilderness Inventory AUGUST 9-10, 2014 NEW MEXICO WILDERNESS ALLIANCE, Gila Wilderness This two-day workshop will train participants on how to conduct wilderness inventories in the Gila National Forest, as well as how to conduct citizen monitoring in wilderness areas. As a part of the workshop, participants will be provided with a detailed handbook in advance and will spend a full day conducting fieldwork in the Gila National Forest in order to gain a better understanding of the training. More info: https://app.etapestry.com/cart/NewMexicoWildernessAlliance/default/item.php?ref=836.0.598801537 Volunteer Restoration Weekend on Comanche Creek in the Valle Vidal AUGUST 8-10, 2014 QUIVIRA COALITION, Valle Vidal Join the Quivira Coalition for a weekend of camping and riparian restoration work in New Mexico’s beautiful Valle Vidal, near the Colorado border. More info: http://quiviracoalition.org/Land_Water_Program/2014_Restoration_Workshops/index.html Celebrate the New Mexico Wildlife Federation’s Birthday, too! AUGUST 16, 2014, Albuquerque The NMWF is holding its 100th Anniversary Banquet on Saturday, August 16th in Albuquerque. Tickets are $25, and include dinner and dessert, a chance to win door prizes including a $500 gift certificate to Sportsman’s Warehouse, exciting silent auction items and special presentations about the life and times of Aldo Leopold. More info: http://www.nmwildlife.org/nmwildlife/newsletter/july2014 Send your event information to: email@example.com! My dear Mr. Leopold: Through you, I wish to congratulate the Albuquerque Game Protective Association on what it is doing. I have just read the Pine Cone. I think your platform simply capital, and I earnestly hope that you will get the right type of game warden. It seems to me that your association in New Mexico is setting an example to the whole country. Sincerely yours, Theodore Roosevelt Mr. Aldo Leopold, Secretary, Albuquerque Game Protective Ass'n, Albuquerque, N. Mex. Those were: Henry Westerfeld, President; Charles Quier, Vice President; Kenneth Baldrige, Secretary; and R. Fred Pettit, Treasurer. Other active early members included E.J. Strong, Ross Merritt, Jack Shehan, Mike Nash, Frank C. W. Pooler, and Raymond Stamm. Immediately after their first meeting that July, the group set to work recruiting members and reaching out to other sportsmen across the state in the hopes of creating a statewide movement. Their rallying cry was “Remember the Buffalo!” as they sought to prevent other species from meeting the sad fate of the American bison. The AGPA received a major boost the following year. Nationally prominent conservationist William T. Hornaday, author of Our Vanishing Wild Life, came through Albuquerque on a national speaking tour and gave a well-attended talk to the AGPA on October 13, 1915. He also donated several hundred dollars to the AGPA from his Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund. Hornaday’s talk and support lit a fire under Leopold and the other AGPA members. Six days later, they organized a meeting and elected Aldo Leopold as their Secretary, after which he embarked on a statewide organizing effort, meeting with existing game protective associations and helping organize new ones in places like Magdalena. On December 2, 1915, the AGPA held its first annual meeting and, on a motion by Aldo Leopold, officially adopted its founding platform. That platform stated: 1) We stand for vigorous enforcement of the State Game Law. 2) We stand for the Federal Migratory Bird Law. 3) We stand for cooperation with stockmen in a systematic campaign against the predatory animal menace to game and livestock. 4) We stand for the Hornaday Plan of Game Refuges. 5) We stand for such an increase in game and fish as will furnish legitimate sport of every citizen and a new and material source of wealth for New Mexico. 6) We are pledged individually and collectively to observe the letter of the law and the spirit of good sportsmanship, and to report for prosecution, through and in the name of this Association, violations of the law which come to our notice. During the December meeting, members heard presentations about wild game in Alaska, the proposed federal Migratory Bird Law, and the Hornaday plan for a system of national wildlife refuges. The state game warden, the Forest Supervisor of the Manzano National Forest (now the Cibola National Forest), and Aldo Leopold also spoke to the group. AGPA elected a slate of officers for the coming year—including Aldo Leopold as Secretary—and discussed plans for creating a statewide organization. Leopold urged the group to maintain its own identity but affiliate with other groups into a statewide coalition. December 1915 also marked the launch of Leopold’s quarterly bulletin for the AGPA, which he named the Pine Cone after the newsletter he had written and distributed during his time in charge of the Carson National Forest. His mission for the paper was lofty: “The aim and purpose of this little paper is to promote the protection and enjoyment of wild things. As the cone scatters the seeds of the pine and the fir tree, so may it scatter the seeds of wisdom and understanding among men, to the end that every citizen may to learn to hold the lives of harmless wild creatures as a public trust for human good, against the abuse of which he stands personally responsible. Thus, and thus only, will our wild life be conserved. Be this not done, and that quickly, it must forever vanish from the earth.” AGPA members went on their first game patrol on February 17, 1916. The members paired up and spent that Sunday patrolling areas around Albuquerque, from the Sandia foothills to what is now Tingley Beach, looking for violations of game laws to report to the state game warden. The following month, on March 10-11, 1916, all of the game protective associations that Leopold had inspired across the state gathered in Albuquerque for the first conference of the New Mexico Game Protective Association. Joining the AGPA were game protective organizations from Carlsbad, Magdalena, Roswell, Santa Fe, Silver City, the Sacramento Mountains, and Taos, with a total membership of around 1,200. Leopold was elected Secretary of the New Mexico Game Protective Association, and he continued to serve in that role for the AGPA as well. Toward the end of 1916, Hornaday praised New Mexico’s efforts, writing: “It is a pleasant diversion for a tired man to look at the map of the United States, and behold New Mexico shining like a star beside the dark and bloody ground of Texas, and think that there, in the far Southwest, on the edge of the deserts, there are 1,200 red-blooded men who are unafraid, alert, and on guard in the defense of distressed wild life, determined that so far as in them lies all the wild life of their country and our country shall have a square deal. … It is my prediction that New Mexico will bring back her big game, and that she will be the last of the western states to possess game on a basis of legitimate sport. If New Mexico does not win out on that basis, no other state ever will.” In January 1917, AGPA received an even more impressive accolade. Former President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to Leopold: “My dear Mr. Leopold: Through you, I wish to congratulate the Albuquerque Game Protective Association on what it is doing. I have just read the Pine Cone. I think your platform simply capital, and I earnestly hope that you will get the right type of game warden. It seems to me that your association in New Mexico is setting an example to the whole country.” Later that year, the AGPA was awarded the Gold Medal of Hornaday’s Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund. Leopold addressed the Albuquerque Rotary Club about the award, stating: “We have hitched our wagon to a star, but we are using just ordinary axle grease to speed it on its stony way. Let me illustrate what I mean. The G. P. A. ideal is to ‘restore to every citizen his inalienable right to know and love the wild things of his native land.’ We conceive of these wild things as an integral part of our national environment, and are striving to protect, restore, and develop them not as so many pounds of meat, nor as so many live things to shoot at, but as a tremendous social asset, as a source of democratic and healthful recreation to the millions of today and the tens of millions tomorrow.” Throughout the next seven years, the AGPA met regularly, organized game patrols, and collaborated with the other game protective associations across the state to advocate for policies that would protect game species, such as bag limits, closed seasons, and the creation of refuges. The groups also advocated for the appointment of a qualified, “nonpolitical” state game warden who would rigorously enforce the state’s hunting laws. In 1920, the AGPA helped draft legislation to create a state game commission and distributed the proposed bill in the July 1920 edition of the Pine Cone; the New Mexico Legislature enacted a version of that bill the following year. In August 1918, the AGPA passed a resolution calling for the creation of a public park to protect the Rio Grande bosque through Albuquerque, “being convinced of the inestimable value of such a park to the town as a whole.” In March of 1920, the AGPA held its first monthly “smoker” to brainstorm ideas for future actions. Following the tradition of the December 1915 meeting, the AGPA continued to hold annual rabbit dinners (serving rabbits supplied by the members), and in 1920 the group inaugurated its famous “Liar’s Contests,” which continued until at least the 1970’s. Sportsmen competed to tell the best “fish story,” with the winner receiving a golden bull trophy. Aldo Leopold left New Mexico in May of 1924, but the work of the AGPA continued. The group helped raise funds to create the first trout hatchery in the state, successfully advocated for a revision of the state game laws so that the Game Warden was appointed by the Game Commission (which was viewed as less subject to political influence than the Governor) and assisted in the creation of a biological survey of the wildlife of New Mexico. In 1936, Elliott Barker, who had worked under Aldo Leopold in the Forest Service and become an active member of the New Mexico Game Protective Association, represented New Mexico at the founding of the National Wildlife Federation in Washington, D.C. Along with continued efforts to ensure that protective hunting and fishing regulations were enacted and enforced, two areas of focus for the organization through the 1930’s and 1940’s were ensuring public access to hunting and fishing areas and restoring native species that had been lost. In 1930, AGPA worked for the reintroduction of bighorn sheep to the Sandia Mountains (several sheep were eventually brought in from Banff, Canada). Elk, beavers, and the tassel-eared Albert gray squirrel were also reintroduced to parts of the state from which they had disappeared years before. In 1943, AGPA was active in calling for the opening of the Conchas Dam lakefront to public access for fishing and recreation, and in 1946, the group called upon the state legislature to formally recognize the right of public access to all waters in the state for recreation purposes. Doc Burnett, a longtime leader of both the Albuquerque and New Mexico game protective associations, played a key role in developing Tingley Beach to provide fishing opportunities in the Albuquerque area. During the 1930’s-1940’s, the national discourse was shifting from a focus on game protection to a focus on wildlife management. Thanks to the efforts of Aldo Leopold, among others, there was a growing public understanding of scientific concepts of ecology, and a realization that more needed to be done than simply limiting hunting. Instead, whole interconnecting networks and communities of species—even the predators that the AGPA had initially supported exterminating—needed to be protected in order to maintain the desired animals. One of the key strategies for this was the protection and improvement of habitat. In 1949, AGPA members participated in some of their earliest habitat restoration projects. Although some of the early restoration techniques were not ideal in hindsight—such as planting non-native Russian Olives along the Rio Grande to provide food and shelter for wildlife—the tradition of habitat improvement became a key component of the group’s work. On January 10, 1952, the Albuquerque Game Protection Association was formally incorporated as a nonprofit corporation under the laws of the State of New Mexico. Consistent with the national shift from a focus on game to one on wildlife, in the following years the group came to be known as the Albuquerque Wildlife & Conservation Association, and eventually the Albuquerque Wildlife Federation (AWF), which it remains to this day. (The name was not officially changed to AWF until 1991.) The 1960’s brought an even more transformative change than the expansion of interest from game species to all wildlife. With the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, a national environmental movement blossomed across the nation. Two years later came the passage of the Wilderness Act, fulfilling a dream of Leopold’s, followed by the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and Endangered Species Act. Interestingly, Leopold had hinted at this transformation many years before, in a 1919 article in the AGPA bulletin titled “Wild Lifers vs. Game Farmers,” in which he wrote: “the Wild Lifer regards the perpetuation of native species as an end in itself, equal if not greater in importance than the perpetuation of ‘something to shoot.’ It may be safely concluded that as to this point the Wild Lifer enjoys the advantage of an ethical as well as of a utilitarian objective.” AWF’s activities and interests expanded along with the growing national environmental consciousness. In 1976, AWF’s first female board president, Roberta Dye, launched the Conservation Action League. The Conservation Action League was designed to help young people build stronger connections with wild lands through activities such as hunting, fishing, and orienteering. It aimed to teach the next generation to become “spokespeople for wildlife and protectors of wildlife habitat.” Among other activities, Conservation Action League members participated in hikes, orienteering courses, wildlife watching, ice fishing, and restoration projects. Another AWF board member, C. K. Collins, also focused many of his efforts on educating young people. Collins had worked in the Forest Service, and along with Aldo Leopold he became concerned about the long-term consequences of fire suppression. In 1967, he pushed “Fire and Forest Management in the Southwest,” describing how fire helps to maintain grasslands and pine forests. Collins developed educational materials to teach fifth grade students about the importance of fire in forest management, and AWF partnered with the Albuquerque Junior Woman’s Club to create filmstrips of Collin’s presentation, which were distributed to Albuquerque Public Schools. In 1978, Collins and AWF went on to develop and distribute films including, “You and Wildlife in the Wildlands,” for grades 4-7, “Little Friends Around a Mountain Cabin,” for young elementary school children, and “The Changing Wildland Environment,” for high school students and adults. Collins was honored as the KOB-TV 1976 Conservationist of the Year and became one of only six New Mexicans—and the only environmentalist—to receive a national Jefferson Award in 1978. From 1974-1979, AWF and Albuquerque Junior Woman’s Club members distributed environmental educational materials in celebration of the National Wildlife Federation’s annual Wildlife Week every April. In 1979, AWF distributed 900 Wildlife Week kits and loaned five different filmstrip and slide programs to teachers at 18 schools. During this same time, AWF’s participation in restoration activities was growing. Starting in 1973, AWF published annual activities reports reviewing everything that had been accomplished during the year, from public policies that the group had supported (or opposed) to the educational presentations that it had hosted. The first activities report describes AWF’s work assisting with a springs cleaning project in the Carson National Forest to make more water available to wildlife, and the following years brought projects at Three Gun Spring in the Sandia Mountains, the Sargent Wildlife Management Area near Chama, and the Rio Chamita, among other locations. In 1982, AWF’s restoration projects ramped up as AWF member Jose Padilla volunteered to become the group’s official projects coordinator. AWF became the first organization allowed to work in the Valle Vidal, which the Forest Service had just acquired from Pennzoil. Volunteers removed old fences blocking wildlife corridors, planted native vegetation to stabilize streambanks, and built structures to remedy stream downcutting in the valley. Over the next decade, Padilla would organize 5–6 projects a year, with as many as 200–300 volunteers participating. He coordinated with groups like the Sierra Club, Nature Conservancy, Girl Scouts, Boy Scouts and others to get people out on the land, not only in the Valle Vidal but also in locations like the Manzano Mountains and Bluewater Lake in the Zuni Mountains. AWF’s work helped bring many federal conservation dollars into New Mexico, as the expansion in restoration projects coincided with new requirements that federal funding be matched by volunteer hours. In 1988, AWF’s restoration work received two major recognitions: first, in January New Mexico Governor Garrey Carruthers recognized AWF at the First Annual Governor’s Community Achievement Awards ceremony. Then on July 26, 1988, Jose Padilla traveled to the White House to accept a national “Take Pride in America” award from the U.S. Department of the Interior. The following year AWF received a “bronze beaver” award from the Izaak Walton League of America. AWF also made a big impact on restoration activities by campaigning for the creation of New Mexico’s Habitat Stamp program throughout the 1980’s. In 1991, the State Game Commission gave its final approval to the program, which imposes a $5 fee on sportsmen who hunt, fish, or trap on Bureau of Land Management (BLM) or Forest Service lands in New Mexico. The funds collected—about $1 million a year—are matched by federal dollars and dedicated to habitat improvement programs on public lands across the state. The New Mexico Game Commissioner reports that as of 2014, Habitat Stamp projects have “improved over 594,000 acres of habitat, enhanced over 10,500 acres of riparian habitat, built 690 places for wildlife to obtain water, completed 680 wildlife population/habitat surveys, completed 17 wildlife transplants (bison, pronghorn, and turkey), improved 74 fishing areas, and maintained previously built structures 6,400 times.” Throughout the 1980s, 1990’s, and 2000’s, one of the key leaders of AWF’s restoration work was Bill Zeedyk, who had worked with the Forest Service and been an active AWF board member since the late 1970’s. In the 1980’s and 1990’s, Zeedyk began developing riparian restoration techniques designed to hold water in the landscape by inducing stream meandering. The structures and techniques Zeedyk developed became the backbone of much of AWF’s restoration work in the years that followed, and he continues to be a core member of AWF’s projects committee. AWF’s restoration efforts were foreshadowed by some of the work that Aldo Leopold did while still living in New Mexico. In late 1923, he published the Watershed Handbook, which focused on the serious land degradation he was seeing as a result of human activities, and proposed remedies like maintaining grass and willows along streambanks, and even damming some small channels—not too far from some of the structures that AWF members regularly build nearly a century later. Along with its on-the-ground work to improve wildlife habitat, AWF continued a longstanding tradition of participating in the policy discussions that govern how wildlife is managed in New Mexico. AWF board members flew to Washington, D.C. to advocate for the protection of the Valle Vidal during the negotiations with Pennzoil, and AWF regularly made extensive comments to the State Game Commission on wildlife policy and to the Forest Service and BLM on land management decisions. Longtime AWF president Dave Weingarten was the leader of much of AWF’s advocacy work during the 1970’s-1980’s. In 1991, AWF president Cliff Mendel and past-president Joyce Mendel reviewed the organization’s bylaws and found that they still included as one purpose “to aid in the destruction of predatory animals.” This language was a holdover from the earliest days of AWF, and no longer reflected the organization’s understanding of the key role that predators play in maintaining healthy ecosystems. The Mendels brought the issue to the attention of the rest of the board and they filed paperwork with the state to remove the language from AWF’s organizing documents. On October 21, 2010, AWF took one more step toward formalizing its structure when board leaders Glenda Muirhead, Gene Tatum, and Kristina Fisher successfully applied for 501(c)(3) certification from the IRS, making AWF a standalone own tax-exempt nonprofit organization. Today, AWF continues to engage in many of the activities that have marked it throughout its long history. The group continues to organize monthly educational meetings, the current incarnation of the original “smokers,” during which speakers provide educational presentations on issues affecting wildlife, land, and water in New Mexico. From March-October, AWF organizes well-attended volunteer restoration service projects on public lands across New Mexico, led by Bill Zeedyk and current president Michael “Scial” Scialdone. Because the group returns to many of the same locations year after year, it has recorded impressive improvements in areas like Cebolla Canyon in El Malpais National Conservation Area, where the work of AWF volunteers has resulted in a wetland growing from nonexistent in 2000 to over 100 acres in 2014. Similarly, in Limestone Canyon in the San Mateo Mountains, AWF volunteers were able to raise the level of a streambed so successfully that cottonwood seedlings germinated for the first time in decades, and conditions may soon be wet enough to allow for the reintroduction of Chiricahua leopard frogs. AWF also continues to monitor and weigh in on public issues that affect wildlife and wild lands, recently joining many other sportsmen’s and conservation organizations in opposing a proposed diversion of the Gila, the last undammed river in New Mexico, and joining with the Leopold Foundation in urging that the needs of wildlife be considered in the proposed development of the Rio Grande bosque. Finally, AWF continues to communicate about all these issues and activities with its approximately 400 members and friends via a monthly newsletter—which this year was renamed the Pine Cone in honor of Leopold’s original publication. In reflecting on AWF’s century of history, what is perhaps most impressive is that all of its accomplishments have been the work of volunteers. It is rare for a nonprofit organization to last this long; rarer still for one with no paid staff or fundraisers to keep it going from year to year. In every generation, AWF’s mission has inspired individuals to come together and keep it going. The focus and work of the organization have evolved as the understanding of what is needed has changed through the years, but the essential ingredients remain the same as they were on that July day a century ago: New Mexicans who are passionate about wildlife and wild lands and are willing to put in the time to do what is needed to see that they are protected and restored. On July 19, 2014, AWF’s members and friends will gather at the Valle de Oro National Wildlife Refuge, adjacent to the now-protected Rio Grande bosque, to celebrate this momentous anniversary and rededicate ourselves to this important work. MAKE THE NEXT 100 YEARS POSSIBLE: JOIN THE ALBUQUERQUE WILDLIFE FEDERATION! The Albuquerque Wildlife Federation has survived and thrived for a full century thanks to the dedication and generosity of generations of members who responded to the call to contribute. We encourage you to join this proud legacy by becoming a contributing member and helping support AWF’s restoration service projects, monthly conservation education presentations, and this year’s special 100th anniversary events. Along with becoming a member, you can support AWF’s work by purchasing one of our Valles Caldera commemorative T-shirts, designed by graphic artist and AWF board member Stephen Bohannon. It is printed on an organic cotton shirt and available in sizes S, M, L, & XL. Price: $25 Shipping: $5 To order, mail in the form below or email your order to: firstname.lastname@example.org AWF MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION Albuquerque Wildlife Federation \| P.O. Box 20225 \| Albuquerque, NM 87154 ☐ Yes, I’d like to join AWF! ☐ This is a gift membership from: _______________________________________ name(s): ____________________________________________________________________________________________ address: _____________________________________________________________________________________________ city, state, zip: _______________________________________________________________________________________ phone: ________________________________________________ email: _______________________________________ ☐ Student (under 18) ____$10 ☐ Individual ___________ $25 ☐ Family _____________ $35 ☐ Sustaining __________ $50-99 ☐ Patron ______________ $100 ☐ Lifetime ____________ $500 (one-time payment) Dues: $_____________ Extra Contribution: $_____________ T-shirt & Shipping: $_____________ TOTAL ENCLOSED: $_____________	929862d6-fb87-4476-9195-38bb48d5d0d5	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://abq.nmwildlife.org/uploads/6/7/7/6/6776981/july2014pinecone.pdf	2024-04-25T01:10:42+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296820065.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20240425000826-20240425030826-00494.warc.gz	70,439,516	7,145	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991577	eng_Latn	0.99697	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2022, 2682, 5106, 6324, 8755, 9238, 12637, 16056, 19672, 23223, 26747, 30515, 31522, 33341 ]	[ 2.09375, 1.71875 ]	1	0
Healthy Relationship Skills For Teens Safer Relationships People that encourage us to be and become our best are safer to be in a relationship with. A relationally safer person is able to be connected yet gives space for both people to be themselves and knows they are responsible for their own emotional wellbeing, not the other person. Below are traits of safer or healthier people to have a relationship with compared to those who are less safe. It’s helpful to think of this as a spectrum from less safe to more safe. \| Unsafe/Less Safe \| Safer \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 1. Think or presents as having it all together \| 2. Admits their weaknesses \| \| 3. Is defensive \| 4. Are open to feedback \| \| 5. Is self-righteous \| 6. Are humble \| \| 7. Apologizes but keeps repeating the same mistakes \| 8. Apologizes and seek to change their behavior \| \| 9. Avoids working on their problems \| 10. Deals with their problems \| \| 11. Demands trust \| 12. Earns trust \| \| 13. Acts perfect \| 14. Admits their faults \| \| 15. Blames others \| 16. Takes responsibility for their actions \| \| 17. Lies \| 18. Tells the truth even when it hurts \| \| 19. Is stagnant \| 20. Grows \| \| 21. Avoids emotional closeness in relationships \| 22. Seeks for emotional closeness \| \| 23. Concerned mostly about the needs of self \| 24. Concerned also about the needs of others \| \| 25. Unsympathetic to others’ pains or emotions \| 26. Sympathetic to others’ pains or emotions \| \| 27. Can’t or doesn’t set or respect boundaries \| 28. Allows people to say “NO” and respect it \| \| 29. Confronts with guilt, shame or not at all \| 30. Confronts with truth in love and grace \| \| 31. Condemns \| 32. Forgives \| \| 33. Creates parent/child, superior or inferior relationships \| 34. Desires and creates equality inter relationships \| \| 35. Unstable overtime (more and more unreliable) \| 36. Consistent overtime (very reliable) \| \| Unsafe/Less Safe \| Safer \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 37. Negative influence on those in relationship \| 38. Positive influence on those in relationship \| \| 39. Gossips \| 40. Keeps others’ secrets confidential \| \| 41. Envious \| 42. Genuine happiness for others’ success \| \| 43. Relationally independent or dependent \| 44. Relationally interdependent \| \| 45. Entitled \| 46. Humble, giving and serves others \| \| 47. Self-harming or self-destructive \| 48. Practices healthy self-care \| \| 49. Struggles with intimacy (closeness) \| 50. Pursues healthy intimacy (closeness) \| \| 51. Insecure with attachment \| 52. Feels secure with attachment \| \| 53. Lives in Law \| 54. Lives in Grace \| \| 55. Seeks to control others or be controlled \| 56. Controls self \| \| 57. Rejects bad parts of self and good parts of others. Or focuses on good parts of self and bad parts of others. \| 58. Accepts self/others as whole with both good and bad parts. \| From: Safe People by Dr. Henry Cloud & John Townsend Discussion Guide Read through the traits and chat about: - What stands out the most? - What emotional reactions do you have when reading this? - Do any of these traits seem similar to relationships in your life? - What types of body sensations do you get in any of these unsafe dynamics? (Does your heart beat faster? Do you fidget more?) This is your body telling you something to listen to. - What would you like to do different in connecting with others? - What are warning signs you want to watch for? Guiding Truths As part of preparing to find people who are safer to form healthier relationships with and to be healthier people the following principles apply: Having Boundaries Without Guilt The perspectives below and recognizing truth helps us not feel as guilty. (Remember guilt does not mean we did something wrong it is a reminder to ask ourselves if we are acting in line with our values). - It’s okay to have a boundary - It’s part of being a safer person. - How other’s respond to your boundaries helps you discern who are safer people. - We can be okay if everyone doesn’t like us. We are still of worth. We don’t need everyone to like us. - We can speak up with boldness. (Examples: Jesus, Mother Theresa, Gandhi, Buddha.) - Boundaries are healthy! It is understanding of what we will allow in our lives. It is our job to hold our boundaries. Boundaries are not controlling people. In Relationships 1. To see red flags, we have to be willing to look at situations from different perspectives. 2. Character Discernment is a skill to be developed. It is the skill of discerning if someone is a safer or less safe person. THIS TAKES TIME and being watchful. 3. Are you the romantic, trusting, naive type, and unwilling to put people through the test of time? You are especially vulnerable to being with an unsafe person. Character comes out over time. 4. In relationships, including dating, it needs to be good, feel good and make sense in both feeling and logic. 5. Safety breeds safety. Safe people make us better people for being around them. Consider, does the relationship make us more critical? Aloof? When around that person do your other relationships suffer? 6. The first theme of a relationship is Connection. 7. The second theme in a relationship is separateness. It builds healthy loving relationships. “We” is still you and me, two individuals. We want to protect the separateness. Separateness is the ability to maintain emotional, physical and spiritual property lines between you and others. Separate people take ownership for what is theirs and do not take ownership for things that are not theirs. When we are separate we bring good things close and keep away those things that aren’t good. 8. Love withers and dies without separateness. It is simply impossible to connect if we are not free to disagree. That type of love would be compliance and people pleasing. It is not real love. It’s trying to win love. We need to be able to respectfully disagree. Test the safety of a relationship. Try it out by disagreeing respectfully and see what happens. 9. A piece of staying safe in relationships is dealing with any fears of aloneness and becoming assertive. From: Safe People by Dr. Henry Cloud & John Townsend Boundaries are Healthy! A boundary is a property line (think of your home’s property area), recognizing where we begin and end, and where the other people begin and end. Having a boundary is about creating safety and wellness for yourself. Your boundaries are yours. Control is different. It is about getting others to do things they don’t want (often for your gain.) Boundaries Include: 1. Taking OWNERSHIP of what is yours to own (not that of others). 2. Taking RESPONSIBILITY for your emotions and actions. 3. Learning and setting LIMITS with self. Myth: “Boundaries are BAD because they keep people apart or make them feel bad!” Fact: Healthy boundaries are for keeping bad elements (such as cruelty, abuse, harassment, and manipulation) out of your life and relationships. 1. Identifying what you are okay and not okay with. 2. Communicate with others what you are okay and not okay with. It is okay to make a request that they change their behavior. They also have the right to say no. 3. Identify what you will do to take care of yourself if the others are not responding as you would hope. DEAR MAN Describe Describe the current situation (if necessary). Stick to the facts. Tell the person exactly what you are reacting to. “You told me you would be home by dinner but you didn’t get here until 11.” Express Express your feelings and opinions about the situation. Don’t assume that the other person knows how you feel. “When you come home so late, I start worrying about you.” Use phrases such as “I want” instead of “You should,” “I don’t want” or “You shouldn’t.” Assert Assert yourself by asking for what you want or saying no clearly. Do not assume that others will figure out what you want. Remember that others cannot read your mind. “I would really like it if you would call me when you are going to be late.” Reinforce Reinforce (reward) the person ahead of time (so to speak) by explaining positive effects of getting what you want or need. If necessary, also clarify the negative consequences of not getting what you want or need. “I would be so relieved, and a lot easier to live with, if you do that.” Remember also to reward desired behavior after the fact. (Stay) Mindful Keep your focus ON YOUR GOALS. Maintain your position. Don’t be distracted. Don’t get off the topic. “Broken record” - Keep asking, saying no, or expressing your opinion over and over and over. Just keep replaying the same thing again and again. Ignore attacks - If another person attacks, threatens, or tries to change the subject, ignore the threats, comments, or attempts to divert you. Do not respond to attacks. Ignore distractions. Just keep making your point. “I would still like a call.” Appear Confident Appear EFFECTIVE and competent. Use a confident voice tone and physical manner; make good eye contact. No stammering, whispering, staring at the floor, retreating. No saying, “I’m not sure,” etc. Negotiate Be willing to GIVE TO GET. Offer and ask for other solutions to the problem. Reduce your request. Say no, but offer to do something else or to solve the problem another way. Focus on what will work. “How about if you text me when you think you might be late?” Turn the tables - Turn the problem over to the other person. Ask for other solutions. “What do you think we should do? . . . I can’t just stop worrying about you [or I’m not willing to].” Apply DEAR MAN Skills ..... It is to help turn around really difficult situations, focus the skills on the other person’s behavior right now. Use When other people have really good skills themselves, and keep refusing your legitimate requests or pestering you to do something you don’t want to do. 1. Describe the current interaction. If the “broken record” and ignoring don’t work, make a statement about what is happening between you and the person now, but without implying motives. Example: “You keep asking me over and over, even though I have already said no several times,” or “It is hard to keep asking you to empty the dishwasher when it is your month to do it.” Not: “You obviously don’t want to hear what I am saying,” “You obviously don’t care about me,” “Well, it’s obvious that what I have to say doesn’t matter to you,” “Obviously you think I’m stupid.” 2. Express feelings or opinions about the interaction. For instance, in the middle of an interaction that is not going well, you can express your feelings of discomfort in the situation. Example: “I am sorry I cannot do what you want, but I’m finding it hard to keep discussing it,” or “It’s becoming very uncomfortable for me to keep talking about this, since I can’t help it. I am starting to feel angry about it,” or “I’m not sure you think this is important for you to do.” Not: “I hate you!”, “Every time we talk about this, you get defensive,” “Stop patronizing me!” 3. Assert wishes in the situation. When another person is pestering you, you can ask him or her to stop it. When a person is refusing a request, you can suggest that you put the conversation off until another time. Give the other person a chance to think about it. Example: “Please don’t ask me again. My answer won’t change,” or “OK, let’s stop discussing this now and pick it up again sometime tomorrow,” or “Let’s cool down for a while and then get together to figure out a solution.” Not: “Would you shut up?” “You should do this!”, “You should really calm down and do what’s right here.” 4. Reinforce. When you are saying no to someone who keeps asking, or when someone won’t take your opinion seriously, suggest ending the conversation, since you aren’t going to change your mind anyway. When trying to get someone to do something for you, you can suggest that you will come up with a better offer later. Example: “Let’s stop talking about this now. I’m not going to change my mind, and I think this is just going to get frustrating for both of us,” or “OK, I can see you don’t want to do this, so let’s see if we can come up with something that will make you more willing to do it.” Not: “If you don’t do this for me, I’ll never do anything for you ever again,” “If you keep asking me, I’ll get a restraining order against you,” “Gosh, you must be a terrible person for not doing this/for asking me to do this.”	7ecb3a52-82ba-4c40-9b58-3be5d4d9fd64	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://www.innerpeacecounselingutah.com/_files/ugd/050ba4_341ead6925ff44d08cbf3b5491c61b00.pdf	2023-01-27T04:03:01+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764494936.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127033656-20230127063656-00098.warc.gz	835,286,078	2,969	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.998261	eng_Latn	0.998208	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 37, 6282, 9041, 9847, 10170, 12451, 15389 ]	[ 3.5 ]	1	0
Emotional Regulation for Coaches: What You Need/Want to Know L. Kevin Chapman, Ph.D., A-CBT, HSPP Licensed Psychologist Team Psychologist, Racing Louisville FC and Louisville City FC Director, The Kentucky Center for Anxiety and Related Disorders Truesport Expert Question 1 Is it important as a coach to navigate and manage your own emotions? Why or why not? Question 2 Do you feel equipped to manage and regulate your own emotions as a coach? Question 3 What have been your biggest challenges as a coach as it relates to navigating your own emotions? I want you to avoid burnout and have an emotionally healthy team culture (emotions and burnout?) Burnout is not a result of what you do as a coach, it is the result of how you do what you do as a coach. Coach Emotional Regulation: What You Need to Know Coach Emotion Regulation: Know the Triad Thoughts “What I say to myself” Physical Sensations “What I feel in my body” Behaviors “What I do” (How I perform in the moment) Coach’s Emotional Key Emotions at the core aren’t the problem but rather, how we have learned to respond to these emotions is the problem. Examples of Problematic Responses Coaches Often Use to Manage Emotions - Internalizing anger or “stonewalling” - Throwing Equipment - Going off on a Player - Spending "too much time" on Film What are other examples? Coaches and Emotions What is the purpose of emotions? To get us to pay attention to both internal and external events so that we can navigate our world successfully. Coach Translation (1) Trying to get you to pay attention to thoughts and physical sensations in your body so that you can (2) shift your attention to the environment as it relates to sport. Understanding Common Emotions in Sport: Their Nature and Purpose ANGER ANXIETY SADNESS FRUSTRATION anger Anger is the result of perceived intentional injury, victimization, or mistreatment. Common Thoughts “Are you freaking kidding me, you know that’s not fair?!” Takeaway Anger prompts defending oneself or loved one and is usually directed at the source. Anxiety Anxiety Anxiety is a future oriented emotion that involves thoughts of uncontrollability and unpredictability of future events. Common Thoughts “What if we lose this game?” “What if we have another losing season?” Takeaway Anxiety is a normal part of coaching and trying to avoid it makes it more intense. Sadness Sadness Sadness is the result of a loss or personal setback. Common Thoughts “I didn’t want it to end this way.” “I will never get that back” Takeaway Sadness should be processed carefully so that you can move forward afterwards. Frustration Frustration Frustration is the result of unmet expectations. Common Thoughts “I shouldn’t have called that play!” “Why did I do that?!” Takeaway IF directed toward a person, frustration can become anger Do I need to alter my expectations? Strategy 1 for Coach Emotion Regulation Anchoring Use this card to train yourself to respond to intense emotions as a Coach 1. Anchor in the present (inhale through nose for 4, exhale out mouth for 6) 2. "Shoot the three": What am I thinking right now? What am I feeling in my body right now? What am I doing/feel the need to do right now? Ask yourself: How should I respond to what’s happening right now? Make your response line up to what’s happening right now *Practice this Twice per day on your terms and AS NEEDED! Strategy 2 for Coach Emotion Regulation Challenging Thinking Traps - Jumping to Conclusions - Fortune Telling and Mind Reading - Ex: “She is not going to execute this play.” - Ex: “His parents don’t think I’m a good coach.” - Catastrophizing - Blowing things out of proportion - EX: “This always or never goes as planned.” - Ex: “This is the worst game I’ve ever coached in my life!” Challenging Thinking Traps: Disputing Questions • Do I know for certain that _______________ will happen? • What has happened in the past? • So what? • Do I have a crystal ball? • Does ____________ mean ________________? • What is another explanation? • If this happens, can I cope with that? • Am I 100% sure that this negative outcome will occur? Memorize and integrate these questions yesterday** Question 3: Did We Answer This Question? What have been your biggest challenges as a coach as it relates to navigating your own emotions? 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DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM Friday, May 3, 2019 10:30 AM — 12:00 PM Chrysler Hall, Norfolk What’s Inside: VAF Education Sponsors 2 Dance Theatre of Harlem 3 Ballet for Everybody 4-5 Battling Discrimination with Ballet 6 Timeline of the Civil Rights Era 7 It Happened in Harlem 8-9 A New Dance to Commemorate a New Nation 10 Shall We Dance? 11 Elements of Dance 13 Ballet Basics 14 Ballet Glossary 15 Resources 16 vafest.org THANK YOU TO ALL OF OUR DONORS AND THESE SPONSORS OF VIRGINIA ARTS FESTIVAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS SPECIAL SUPPORT OF SELECT 2019 PROGRAMS CORPORATE SPONSORS AMERICAN BORATE COMPANY and its employees PRA Group Bank of America CAPITAL GROUP SUNTRUST Clark Nexsen, Enterprise Holdings Foundation, Nordstrom, Queen of Virginia Skill & Entertainment, USAA, Wells Fargo FOUNDATIONS The Dalis Foundation THE ANDREW W. MELLON FOUNDATION The Aaron Copland Fund for Music MID ATLANTIC ARTS FOUNDATION D. Baker Ames Charitable Foundation, East Beach Institute, Leah S. Wohl Musical Arts Fund of the Hampton Roads Community Foundation, ODU Hixon Community Engagement Fund, Ruth Brown Memorial Fund GOVERNMENT SUPPORT NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS VIRGINIA COMMISSION FOR THE ARTS The following cities and/or their Arts and Humanities Commissions: Chesapeake, Newport News, Norfolk, Portsmouth, Virginia Beach, and Williamsburg. Celebrating its fiftieth anniversary this year, Dance Theatre of Harlem is a leading dance institution of unparalleled global acclaim, encompassing a performing ensemble, a leading arts education center, and Dancing Through Barriers, a national and international education and community outreach program. Each component of Dance Theatre of Harlem is solidly committed to enriching the lives of young people and adults around the world through the arts. Founded in 1969 by dancer Arthur Mitchell and dance teacher Karel Shook, Dance Theatre of Harlem was considered “one of ballet’s most exciting undertakings,” according to The New York Times. Shortly after the assassination of Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Mitchell was inspired to start a school that would offer children—especially those in Harlem, the community in which he was born—the opportunity to learn about dance and the allied arts. Now in its fifth decade, Dance Theatre of Harlem has grown into a multicultural dance institution with an extraordinary legacy of providing opportunities for creative expression and artistic excellence that continues to set standards in the performing arts. Through performances, community engagement, and arts education, Dance Theatre of Harlem brings innovative and bold new forms of artistic expression to audiences around the world, and delivers its important message of empowerment through the arts for all. SOURCE: Adapted from [www.dancetheatreofharlem.org](http://www.dancetheatreofharlem.org) HISTORY OF DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM For centuries, ballet was a white, aristocratic art form. Ballet dancers of color were a rarity. Dance Theatre of Harlem changed all that. From its official debut in January 1971 at New York’s Guggenheim Museum—three small ballets performed by twenty dancers—to its zenith three decades later as an internationally acclaimed touring company of forty dancers with more than a hundred works in its repertory, Dance Theatre of Harlem demolished color barriers in the ballet world. The company and its school were launched by former New York City Ballet dancer Arthur Mitchell and ballet teacher Karel Shook. The pair started the school in a church basement in the inner-city neighborhood of Harlem. At the time, Harlem was a rough place to live, with widespread poverty, joblessness, and crime. Dance in Harlem—once a hotbed of African American creative culture, including jazz music—might be understandable. But ballet? Mitchell thought, why not? “Many people ask, ‘Is ballet relevant?’” he said. “But any sequence of steps put together in time with music becomes a ballet.” At first, ballet was a hard sell in Harlem. “People would be walking by, and they’d see this man inside screaming and yelling and these kids dancing around. I said, ‘Come on in and try,’ and I remember the fellows said, ‘I’m not going to wear those things;’ meaning leotards. I said, ‘Well, put on [jeans] or put on a bathing suit.’ And that’s how I recruited dancers.” While Mitchell was looking for promising dancers to train for his new ballet company, more important to him was jump-starting self-esteem and social change within the community where he was born and raised. “The whole point when I started Dance Theatre was to make it accessible to people who were culturally deprived because they could not financially afford it,” Mitchell recalled. “If someone came to me with five kids, all five kids could study, not just the ‘talented’ one.... From that they develop a sense of ‘I am and I can do.’” Soon hundreds of students flocked to the school, which moved to larger facilities and expanded its offerings to include classes in modern, ethnic, jazz, and tap dance; acting; music appreciation and theory; choreography; percussion; even sewing, tailoring, and costume and set design. From its earliest years, Dance Theatre of Harlem regularly opened its doors to the community, offering free or nearly free lecture-demonstrations, as well as outreach programs to senior citizens and children with special needs. Mitchell’s commitment to arts education expanded with the 1992 launch of the Dancing Through Barriers initiative, which to this day brings Dance Theatre of Harlem programming to schools across the country and around the world. As Dance Theatre of Harlem’s academy grew, so did the company’s reputation for creative excellence and innovation. DTH dazzled audiences far and wide with its bold, dynamic performances incorporating brilliant costumes and elaborate sets. In 1988 Dance Theatre of Harlem became the first American ballet company to tour and perform in Russia. Another historic tour followed in 1992, this time to South Africa, which struggled with its own system of racial segregation, called apartheid. In 2000 the company performed in the People’s Republic of China. Despite its enduring popularity, Dance Theatre of Harlem’s company was forced into an extended hiatus in 2004 due to financial difficulties. Still, the school continued to offer classes, and its performance arm, the DTH Ensemble, continued to thrill audiences. In 2009 Arthur Mitchell invited former DTH principal ballerina Virginia Johnson to become artistic director, and the performing company was revived in 2013. Sadly, Arthur Mitchell passed away in September 2018; this year, the company dedicates its fiftieth anniversary season to its beloved founder. From its church-basement beginnings bringing ballet to anyone who wanted to give it a try to its status today as a major artistic force, Dance Theatre of Harlem remains committed to creating and sharing world-class ballet for all. As Mitchell once said, “The arts ignite the mind, they give you the possibility to dream and to hope.” ACTIVITY: TO THINK AND TALK ABOUT... Grades 3-12 Share and discuss with a partner, group, or your class: Before the performance: What is your experience with dance? Have you ever attended a live dance performance? What was it like? What do you expect to see at the Dance Theatre of Harlem performance? After the performance: What were your feelings about the Dance Theatre of Harlem performance? What did you see? Did anything surprise you? How did the dancers move, and what do you think they were trying to convey with their movements? ACTIVITY: ACTIVISM THROUGH THE ARTS Grades 6-12 Imagine you’re launching your own dance company, school for the arts, or other arts organization. What social or cultural cause might you support or explore? How would your organization support that cause or advocate for change through your art? DID YOU KNOW? Norfolk native Lorraine Graves was a member of Dance Theatre of Harlem from 1978 to 1996, a principal dancer for most of those years. With DTH, she performed for kings, presidents, princesses, and other notables. She graduated from Lake Taylor High School. Though she lives in Hampton Roads, she’s still connected to DTH as a teacher. She’s also deeply involved in the Hampton Roads arts community as an instructor, coach, and arts advocate. SOURCES: Mitchell quotes from “Dance Theatre of Harlem, Real People, George Schlatter,” https://youtu.be/SIWXklM8qtk. DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Dance Theatre of Harlem shares deep roots with the civil rights movement of the 1950s and ‘60s. It was the death of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, in fact, that gave birth to the world’s first black classical ballet company. “With [Dr. King’s] assassination…I felt it was very important that I come back to my community and do what I do well, which is teach dance,” said company cofounder Arthur Mitchell. After studying on full scholarship at the School of American Ballet, in 1955 Mitchell had been invited to join the acclaimed New York City Ballet, becoming the first male African American member of a major ballet company. Mitchell would dance for New York City Ballet for fifteen years, rising to the rank of premier danseur, or the company’s lead male dancer. But King’s assassination had a profound impact on Mitchell, awakening in him a need to give back to the African American community of Harlem in New York City, where Mitchell was born and raised. “I felt the discipline, the focus, and the technique young people would learn through the arts would transcend to their everyday life, and I’d be helping to make better human beings,” he said. Just as the civil rights movement sought to end segregation and discrimination, Mitchell had to fight against prejudice and stereotypes to become a dancer with New York City Ballet and to launch a black ballet company and school. “There was a perception that black people could not do classical ballet, that the body was not fit for it,” he remembered. “When I got to New York City Ballet, [people] could say, ‘Oh, you’re the exception.’ No, I had the opportunity,” thanks to New York City Ballet director Lincoln Kirstein and choreographer George Balanchine, who believed in Mitchell’s abilities; the color of his skin was irrelevant. Still, the stereotype lingered that ballet couldn’t be performed by black dancers. “Rather than argue,” Mitchell explained, “the best thing to do was provide the opportunity—make a company and school so that people could see that given the opportunity, anyone can excel.” When Mitchell launched Dance Theatre of Harlem with his mentor and ballet teacher Karel Shook, “it was two dancers and thirty children,” he recalled. Over the years, as the company became internationally renowned for its artistic excellence, the school’s enrollment swelled to over a thousand dancers, sixty percent of whom lived in Harlem. The rest of the students came from countries and cultures around the globe, underscoring Dance Theatre of Harlem’s wholehearted embrace of diversity, which continues to this day. Dr. King and his fellow defenders of civil rights—of equal rights for all—would surely approve. And that would surely please Mitchell. “When I go home at night, I can sleep. I can rest [knowing] I’ve given back and done something,” he said. SOURCES: Mitchell quotes from A Walk Through Harlem, Thirteen/WNET New York, 2000. 1954 Brown v. Board of Education. US Supreme Court rules against public school segregation, though many remain segregated. 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat, triggering a year-long boycott of the Montgomery, Alabama, bus system. Arthur Mitchell joins New York City Ballet, the first African American male dancer in a major ballet company. 1956 US Supreme Court rules segregation on Montgomery, Alabama buses unconstitutional. 1957 Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. helps found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to work for full equality for African Americans through nonviolent protests. Military soldiers escort nine African American students, the “Little Rock Nine,” to desegregate a school in Arkansas. 1960 Four African American college students hold a sit-in at a Woolworth’s “whites only” lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, sparking similar sit-ins in other cities. 1961 The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organizes Freedom Rides throughout the South in an effort to desegregate interstate public bus travel. 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. gives his “I Have a Dream” speech in front of 250,000 people at the March on Washington, at that time the largest civil rights demonstration ever. Four African American girls are killed before Sunday services in the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama. 1964 President Lyndon Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act, prohibiting discrimination in employment, voting, and education. Martin Luther King Jr. is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 1965 Dr. King organizes a protest march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, for African American voting rights. A shocked nation watches on TV as police brutally club and teargas the protestors. Congress passes the Voting Rights Act, outlawing practices used to keep African Americans from voting. 1968 Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. 1969 Arthur Mitchell founds Dance Theatre of Harlem. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. speaking at the Civil Rights March on Washington, DC, in 1963 ACTIVITY: I HAVE A DREAM Grades 3-12 Read or listen to all or part of Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous “I Have a Dream” speech of 1963. What was Dr. King’s vision for America? In the years since his death in 1968, how have American ideas about race changed? What is your dream for America? ACTIVITY: BREAKING BARRIERS Grades 6-12 Dance Theatre of Harlem helped break down barriers for African Americans in the dance world. What other barriers were challenged during the civil rights era and afterward? What other groups have benefited from changes in attitudes in American society? Are there still attitudes that need to be changed? Located at the northern end of Manhattan, the neighborhood of Harlem has long been an important African American residential, business, and cultural center. The area was founded in 1685 by the Dutch and named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Over the centuries, the region became farmland, a Revolutionary War battlefield—1776’s Battle of Harlem Heights marked General George Washington’s first victory over the British—and a wealthy suburb. In the nineteenth century, industrialization brought infrastructure—the railroad, streets, gas and sewer lines, piers—to Harlem, along with an influx of poorer residents, mostly people of color and immigrants looking for work. Closely packed row houses replaced the once sprawling estates of the rich, and urban development in Harlem exploded in the years after the Civil War. As development in other parts of New York City squeezed out black residents, they migrated north to Harlem, where housing costs had fallen sharply due to the construction glut. Large black churches relocated uptown as well. The Great Migration of African Americans from the South seeking a better life in the North followed in the early twentieth century, solidifying Harlem’s status as an African American hub. The African American protest movement, which sought racial equality, soon blossomed in Harlem. The community was home to black sociologist and historian W. E. B. DuBois and the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), founded to advance the rights of people of color. Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey and his Universal Negro Improvement Association, advocating racial pride, were also based in Harlem. Artistic expression flourished too from the 1920s through the 1940s in what’s known as the Harlem Renaissance, a precursor of the civil rights movement. Instead of direct political action, African American artists working in literature, dance, music, theatre, and visual arts used their creativity to celebrate black culture and to call for civil rights and equality. For the first time, African American poetry, jazz, painting, and other creative arts were enjoyed and assimilated into mainstream culture, transcending racial lines. In literature, poet Langston Hughes wrote in the rhythms of the blues and jazz he heard around him, while Claude McKay in his poetry encouraged African Americans to stand up for their rights. Novelist Zora Neale Hurston’s novel Their Eyes Were Watching God emphasized independence and empowerment. Stage actors like Paul Robeson set new benchmarks for electrifying dramatic performance. In music, swinging jazz brought nightly crowds, both black and white, to venues such as the Cotton Club, Apollo Theater, and Savoy Ballroom to hear the likes of pianists Duke Ellington and Jelly Roll Morton and trumpeter Louis Armstrong. Singers like Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday helped popularize jazz and blues vocals, drawing fans of all races. The Great Depression of the 1930s and the shrinking jobs market after World War II took their toll on Harlem. Unemployment, poverty, and crime rose. Unrest, sometimes violent, between black Harlem residents and white owners of Harlem businesses resulted in middleclass African Americans leaving Harlem for other areas of New York City and white business owners relocating elsewhere. The civil rights movement of the 1950s and ‘60s saw heightening, often violent, tensions between black Harlem residents and the largely white New York police force. Once stately row houses and apartment buildings fell into disrepair or were abandoned entirely by their owners, creating havens for drug dealing and other illegal activities. In this unlikely environment, Arthur Mitchell launched his dance company in 1969, blending classical ballet’s grace and elegance with the grit and soul of Harlem’s city streets. With Dance Theatre of Harlem, Mitchell echoed the Harlem Renaissance’s powerful messages of cultural celebration and empowerment. Conditions in Harlem brightened in the late 1980s and early ‘90s when New York City made major upgrades to the area, installing new water mains and sewers, sidewalks, curbs, traffic lights, and streetlights, and planting trees. These and other improvements lured businesses, arts groups, and residents back to historic Harlem. Today Harlem is once again a vibrant, exciting, one-of-a-kind neighborhood. This year marks the four-hundredth anniversary of important events in Virginia that shaped a new nation and continue to define it. To help recognize this anniversary, Dance Theatre of Harlem will be performing a brand new work. This world-premiere dance is inspired by the American history of four centuries ago. Here’s what happened in Virginia in 1619: • First Representative Legislative Assembly in the New World The first “General Assembly,” made up of men representing each of Virginia’s eleven major settlements, met for the first time at Jamestown from July 30 to August 4, 1619, planting the seed of democracy in what would eventually become the United States of America. • Arrival of the First Recorded Africans to English North America The first enslaved Africans arrived at Point Comfort (now Fort Monroe in Hampton) in late August 1619. The “20 and odd” Africans were from West Central Africa and were traded in exchange for provisions. • Recruitment of English Women In November 1619, 147 English women were recruited to join Jamestown’s male settlers, further establishing the Virginia colony as they arrived over the next two years. • First Official English Thanksgiving in North America Upon their safe landing on December 4, 1619, at what would become the Berkeley Hundred plantation on the James River, a group of English settlers held a ceremony of Thanksgiving which was to be observed annually. • Entrepreneurial and Innovative Spirit of the Virginia Colony A series of new laws passed in 1619 allowed Virginia’s colonists to experiment with various industries—like agriculture, milling lumber, and ironworking—helping to set the groundwork for America’s free enterprise system. Commissioned by the Virginia Arts Festival and American Evolution, the state-sponsored 2019 commemoration organization, Dance Theatre of Harlem’s new ballet features an all-female creative team. “This is our way of breaking new ground, just as this time in history broke new ground,” company director and founding member Virginia Johnson told the Virginian Pilot newspaper. To accomplish that, she brought in Claudia Schreier, an award-winning young choreographer who’s drawn attention for new work from American Ballet Theatre, the Vail Dance Festival, and more. This new piece, created for a dozen dancers and performed in three parts, is set to a score composed by Jessie Montgomery, whose music the Washington Post hails as “wildly colorful and exploding with life.” This ballet—featuring astonishing bursts of strength, flexibility, and precision from the company’s dancers—is not literally about the historic events, Schreier explained to the Virginian Pilot, but inspired by them. “We are looking more to pull out the essence of what can be gleaned from studying the past, rather than just duplicating it.” Whether for religious reasons, social celebrations, as entertainment for others, or for their own enjoyment, people have always danced, historians believe. Pictures on pottery and stone show dances from thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt and Greece. When people dance, they move their bodies—usually accompanied by music—to express emotions or ideas. In this way, dance is a language. People might dance alone or with others. When people dance to entertain an audience, they often do so as part of a performing group called a dance company. Dance companies usually specialize in a certain type of dance, such as modern, jazz, tap, or ballet. Choreography is the art of creating dances. A choreographer envisions how a dance will look. Choreographers arrange steps and movements into dances. Choreographers not only have to be knowledgeable in their chosen dance form, but they must select music and work with set, lighting, and costume designers. Choreographers are usually dancers or former dancers too, like Arthur Mitchell of Dance Theatre of Harlem. ACTIVITY: LET’S DANCE Grades 3-8 Explore the elements of dance by demonstrating an example of each one yourself. Now become a choreographer by creating your own original work set to your choice of music using your classmates as your dancers. You and your classmates don’t need to know any specific dance steps; as Arthur Mitchell said, any sequence of steps set to music becomes a ballet. Perform your new dance for your class. Can your classmates identify the dance elements in your work? ACTIVITY: LET’S DANCE Grades 6-12 Think of types of contemporary dancing people do or have done in social settings, rather than to entertain an audience, such as disco, moshing, break dancing, hip-hop, line dancing. How do these dance styles reflect the culture from which they emerged? Which elements of dance do they use and how? What does the dance style’s language—its movement vocabulary—communicate to others? SOURCE: Adapted from The Elements of Dance, https://www.elementsofdance.org. --- ELEMENTS OF DANCE All forms of dance can be broken down into its most basic parts. The acronym BASTE can help you remember these dance building blocks. As you watch a dance performance, keep these elements in mind. They can help in your analysis and understanding of the performance. BODY A dancer uses parts of the body or the entire body in various ways. Example: Dancers might use their arms, legs, hands, feet, even their necks and heads. Ask yourself: How did the dancers use their bodies? What shapes did their bodies make? ACTION A dancer moves or makes actions in various ways. Example: A dancer might bend, sway, or leap. Ask yourself: What movements or actions did the dancers make? SPACE A dancer moves through space in various ways. Example: A dancer might move forward, backward, diagonally, up, or down. Ask yourself: What patterns in space did the dancers use? TIME A dancer moves in time in various ways. Example: A dancer might move at a quick tempo or in a certain rhythm. Ask yourself: What aspects of time—speed, rhythm, accent—did the dancers use? ENERGY A dancer moves with varied energy. Example: A dancer might move smoothly or suddenly. Ask yourself: What kind of energy did the dancers use? Ballet began in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the royal court of France. These court dances were part of lavish entertainment extravaganzas presented by the monarchy to show the ruler’s greatness. In the eighteenth century, ballet spread across Europe, coming into its own as a performance art, with a well-defined vocabulary of steps, movements, and poses. Ballet was further refined in the nineteenth century with the evolution of dancing en pointe, in which a ballerina dances on the tips of her toes with special shoes. Innovations in the twentieth century, especially from Russian ballet companies, included fresh ideas about movement and expression. Ballet often tells a story or expresses an idea or emotion, the dancers’ movements combined and ordered in a way that conveys meaning without words. Music, costumes, lighting, and scenery help set the mood or communicate the story line. Early ballet dancers were not as skilled as they are now. Modern ballet dancers are athletes as well as artists, capable of amazing technical feats. Professional dancers spend long hours in training, often up to eight hours a day, six days a week. BALLET’S SEVEN MOVEMENTS Just as all dance can be broken down into its basic elements, the specific dance form of ballet can be broken down into seven basic categories of movement. The names of ballet steps are French, as ballet began in France. BEND: A plié (plee-AY) is a bending of the knees, with the feet and knees turned outward. The plié helps the dancer’s legs function like a spring, preparing her for jumps and cushioning her landings. A demi-plié is a small bending; a grand plié is deeper, like a deep knee bend. STRETCH: Etendre (eh-TAHND) is the stretching of the entire body, giving it lightness and lift. A tendu (tahn-DEW) is a stretching of the leg, where one leg is extended straight out from the supporting leg—to the front, side, or back—with the foot fully pointed. RISE UP: Relevé (rel-eh-VAY) is when a dancer rises up to the balls of her feet or to the tips of her toes. LEAP: A sauté (so-TAY) is a jump or leap. Successfully executed jumps seem to defy gravity, with the dancer descending softly to the floor. Jumps are often used in the faster, livelier dance passages called allegro (al-LAY-groh). DART: Elancé (ay-lan-SAY) means to move in a different direction while in the air, the dancer altering his body in a darting manner. Any jump performed elancé is done just above the floor. GLIDE: A glissade (glee-SAHD) is a smooth, gliding movement often used to prepare for jumps. Glissé (glee-SAY), or gliding, steps are used in slower passages known as adagio (a-DAHZH-ee-o). TURN: Tourné (toor-NAY), or turns, such as chainé (shen-AY) and pirouette (peer-o-WET) are performed in a fixed position. Chainés are a series of quick, successive turns done with alternating feet. In a pirouette, the dancer makes a complete turn of the body balanced on one foot. ARABESQUE (ah-ra-BESK): the position where the dancer stands on one leg with the other leg stretched out to the back, usually at a right angle to the body. The arms usually correspond to the position. There are many types of arabesques depending on the direction of the body, height of the leg, and position of the arms. ARTISTIC DIRECTOR: the person at a ballet company who is in charge of choosing ballets to perform, hiring dancers, rehearsing the company for performances, and other artistic decisions. BALLERINA (bahl-lay-REE-nah): the female dancer in a ballet company who is usually an exceptional performer and performs many leading roles. The best ballerina is called the prima ballerina. CORPS DE BALLET (core duh bal-LAY): the group of dancers, other than principals and soloists, who make up a ballet company. They work much like a chorus would for an opera. JETÉ (zhuh-TAY): a jump in the air. There are many different types, but the most common is the grand, or big, jete. In this movement, both of the dancer’s legs are split in midair. PAS DE DEUX (pah de duh): a dance for two people, usually a man and a woman. Deux in French means two. POINTE (pwent): the tip of the toe. Most female ballet dancers dance on the tips of their toes wearing special shoes, called pointe shoes. PORT DE BRAS (poor duh brah): the five basic positions of the arms corresponding to each of the five positions of the feet. PREMIER DANSEUR (pruh-MYAY dahn-SUHR): a male ballet star or leading dancer of the ballet company. He is the male version of the prima ballerina. TOUR EN L’AIR (toor ahn lehr): a step in which the dancer jumps straight up in the air and performs one or more turns of the body. TUTU (TOO-too): a ballet costume made of a bodice and layers of netting. Ballet at the French court, 1573 ACTIVITY: BECOME A BALLET DANCER Grades 3-5 Research some of the ballet steps listed here. Can you find pictures or video showing how these steps are performed? Try executing the steps. Which are the most challenging? Which are easiest? See if you can identify any of the steps during the Dance Theatre of Harlem performance. ACTIVITY: ATHLETE OR ARTIST? Grades 6-12 Dance Theatre of Harlem dancers train as intensely as professional athletes, yet dancers are perceived as artists. Make comparisons and draw contrasts between professional athletes and professional dancers. How do they train? What do they wear? What personality characteristics does each professional need to achieve his or her goals? How are athletes and dancers similar? How are they different? Organize your thoughts graphically with a chart or table. Dance Theatre of Harlem http://www.dancetheatreofharlem.org Website of Dance Theatre of Harlem providing in-depth information on the company, its dancers, repertoire, and history, and the DTH school. Particularly fascinating is the Alumni Stories section, featuring videos of former DTH dancers reflecting on what the company has meant to them, in both their professional and personal lives, and how they were changed by their DTH experience, https://www.dancetheatreofharlem.org/alumni. Civil Rights Movement, University Musical Society https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/b243b601-a18f-432c-84ff-1d0ca77e8020/the-civil-rights-movement-virtual-learning-journey/ Virtual learning journey of the civil rights movement from Georgia Public Broadcasting and the Georgia Department of Education, including comprehensive cross-curricular multimedia content. Harlem 1900–1940: An African American Community http://exhibitions.nypl.org/harlem Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture at the New York Public Library Online exhibition retracing the most dynamic years in the political, social, cultural, and economic life of Harlem, one of the most famous neighborhoods in the world. Features photos, information, timeline, bibliography, and teacher resources. Elements of Dance https://www.elementsofdance.org Online teacher resources for dance featuring lesson planning and downloadable worksheets, graphic organizers, posters, and other tools for use in the classroom. Virginia to America, 1619–2019 https://www.americanevolution2019.com State-sponsored commemoration of the four-hundredth anniversary of key historical events in Virginia that continue to influence America today. Lesson plans and other resources explore themes of democracy, diversity, and opportunity. VIRGINIA STANDARDS OF LEARNING Dance Art: DM.1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 15; DI.3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 19; DII.12, 13; DIII.11, 12 English: 3.1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10; 4.1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9; 5.1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9; 6.1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9; 7.1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9; 8.1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9; 9.1, 3, 5, 6, 8; 10.1, 3, 5, 6, 8; 11.1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8; 12.1, 3, 5, 6, 8 History and Social Science: 3.11, 12; USI.1, 5; USII.1, 4, 6, 9; VSUS.1, 3, 8; GOVT.1, 3 We need your feedback to make our Education Programs even better! Please take a moment to complete this form and either return it to the Virginia Arts Festival office at 440 Bank Street, Norfolk, VA 23510, fax it to (757) 605-3080, or e-mail your answers to email@example.com. WorldClass® Event: __________________________________________________________ How did your students respond to the performance? How did you prepare your students for this performance? Did you use the Education Guide? If so, how? Did students enjoy the materials? How did this performance contribute to experiential learning in your classroom? What role do the arts play in your school? In your classroom? If you could change one thing about this experience, what would it be? Please include quotes and comments from your students as well! (Optional) Name: _______________________________________________________________________ School: _________________________________ City: ________________________________ Would you like to be part of our database? □ Yes □ No Virginia Arts Festival 440 Bank Street Norfolk, VA 23510 Soweto Gospel Choir December 2018 Charlotte Blake Alston February 2019 The Comedy of Errors February 2019 Rhythm Live! February 2019 Virginia International Tattoo April 2019 Dance Theatre of Harlem May 2019 The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (abridged) May 2019 Pilobolus May 2019	de930c13-e38d-459e-ab47-a67144d35148	CC-MAIN-2023-50	https://www.vafest.org/media/haijh1eh/dance-theatre-of-harlem-education-guide.pdf	2023-12-11T05:58:00+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679103558.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20231211045204-20231211075204-00044.warc.gz	1,135,174,524	7,504	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.932248	eng_Latn	0.996543	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 421, 1355, 2870, 5901, 8528, 11506, 14225, 17441, 18613, 21472, 24824, 27809, 30446, 32652, 33704, 34058 ]	[ 3.375, 3.78125 ]	2	0
LOUGH CARRA Fionnloch Ceara - A GEM WORTH PRESERVING LCCA Lough Carra Catchment Association In early 2018 the association was formed by local people who agreed the goal To restore, protect and conserve the ecological integrity of Lough Carra and its lakeshore habitats and to ensure the quality of drinking from the Lough by Promoting and encouraging truly sustainable and environmentally sensitive land use practices in the catchment; and Seeking and promoting ways of reducing the nutrient inputs to the Lough from all sources, including agriculture, forestry and septic tanks; and Pursuing methods to prevent any form of pollution of the Lough; and Raising awareness of the unique values of the Lough and promoting the enjoyment of its environment by all sectors of society \| CONTENTS \| PAGE \| \|---------------------------------\|------\| \| Introduction \| 4 \| \| Geology \| 10 \| \| Archaeology \| 12 \| \| History \| 16 \| \| Art & Literature \| 20 \| \| Lakeshore Habitats \| 22 \| \| Map of the Lough \| 26 \| \| Underwater Environment \| 36 \| \| Aquatic Life \| 44 \| \| Leisure \| 46 \| INTRODUCTION The Corrib system comprises three great freshwater bodies They are Lough Carra, Lough Mask and Lough Corrib Together these three Great Lakes are the well providing drinking water for thousands of people in Mayo and Galway The restoration and protection of water quality in Lough Carra is a core objective of the Lough Carra Catchment Association On the 1610 map by cartographer John Speed, the lake is named Fin Lough Garogh In 1937 in ‘The Way that I Went’ the naturalist Robert Lloyd Praeger referred to it as ‘Lough Carra (Fionnloch Ceara, fair lake of Ceara)’ These names probably refer to the pale colour of the marl lake bed and the Barony of Carra. Lough Carra is a limestone lake (marl) of 4,000 acres (16km²) Lough Carra lies along the western edge of the plains of Mayo Between Ballinrobe to the south and Castlebar to the north The Lough’s catchment covers 115km² Water from this catchment drains into the lake A shallow channel joins the north and south basins Maximum depth is around 19 metres (60 feet) Average depth is around 1.75 metres (6 feet) 1968 Lough Carra became a ‘Wildfowl Refuge’ It has also been designated as a: Natural Heritage Area (NHA) Special Protection Area (SPA) Special Area of Conservation (SAC) Carra empties into Lough Mask via the Keel river There is a weir and sluice on the Keel river There are around 73 islands Some island names are: Hog, Castle, Otter, Cow etc Previously some of the islands were grazed by livestock Wild ducks and gulls breed on some of the islands The lake and its catchment lie on a bed of grey Carboniferous limestone This was formed about 350 million years ago from corals The limestone contains fossilized remains of corals, molluscs and other marine creatures Carra’s water is saturated with calcium carbonate - the main component of limestone The drumlins in the catchment are made up of clays and gravels deposited by glacial action In some places the limestone contains chert nodules. These are flint-like quartz appearing smooth and black Erosion of the limestone by cyanobacteria causes little holes in the rock known as ‘egg-box pitting’ Another type of erosion is ‘tube karren’ which looks like small tapering tubes The Moytura Project (1987 - 1992) surveyed and documented sites of interest Evidence of Bronze Age habitation: - Doon Peninsula Promontory Fort - Crannogs e.g Lady Island - Standing Stones - Ancient cooking sites fulachta fiadh Two Bronze Age timber causeways were found near Kilkeeran The remains are visible on the lake bed as lines of wooden stumps in shallow water Queen’s University Belfast date the stumps at about 1,570BC through dendrochronology Church Island has probably been occupied for 3,000 years St Finian is said to have founded a church there in the 6th century There is a restored 14th century church on the Island It is owned by Ballintubber Abbey since 1992 Evidence of early medieval habitation: Several Ringforts such as Rocksborough and Doon These are circular, earthen embankments and ditches which surrounded human habitations In the 13th century there were several castles and other stone buildings constructed in the Carra Catchment, for example: Ballintubber Abbey in 1216 by King Cathal Crovderg O’Connor. Castle Carra by Anglo-norman Adam de Staunton in 1230 Burriscarra Friary by Adam de Staunton in 1298. Initially home to Carmelite and later Augustinian ‘mendicants’ who devoted themselves to a life of poverty Castle Burke A Norman Tower House built around 1238 In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries several grand houses were built, including: Partry House built by the Lynch family in the 17th century Cloonee House built as a hunting lodge in 1757 by the Brownes of Westport. Later owned by the Ruttledges who also owned Cornfield House Moore Hall Built in 1796 by George Moore, the grandfather of the well-known author George Augustus Moore In 2010 George Augustus Moore’s, description of Lough Carra in “The Lake” 1921 “The Lake lay like a mirror that somebody had breathed upon, the brown islands showing through the mist faintly, with gray shadows falling into the water, blurred at the edges. The ducks were talking in the reeds, the reeds themselves were talking, and the water lapping softly about the smooth limestone shingle” www.abcnoteation.com/tunres LAKESHORE HABITATS Mixed natural deciduous woodlands, such as Derrinrush and Dooh, Oak, Ash, Hazel, Aspen, Holly, Downy Birch, are the main tree species found. Some plant species, such as Bird’s Nest Orchid, Wood Sorrel and Wood Anemone, are indicators of ancient woodland. FEN, MARSH AND REEDSWAMP HABITAT These areas rely on annual flooding when the water level rises and submerges the vegetation. Fen is formed when a layer of peat builds up on an alkaline bed such as the marl lakebed. Reedswamps are dominated by the Common Reed. Devil’s Bit Scabious, food plant of the caterpillar, one of Ireland’s rarest butterflies, the Marsh Fritillary, occurs in Fen. LIMESTONE PAVEMENT The grikes of limestone pavement are home to many stunted shrubs, herb species and to the Broad leaved Helleborine (an orchid species) LICHENS Lichens are plant-like growths They are made up of microscopic alga and fungus Many species of Lichen occur only on limestone They appear as white, yellow and black growths on the rocks around Lough Carra LOUGH CARRA - Ballintubber stream - Castleburke - Quinn’s Bay - Burriscana Priory - Castle Carra - Doon peninsula - Church Island - Port Royal - Clydagh Bay - Heneghan’s Bay - Kilkeean peninsula - Ballyally - Derrinush - Oyster point - Leamnahe - Creggaun - Parry House Estate - Moynish - Bridge Park - Cloonee - Rocksborough - Liskillen - Brownstown - Rinneen - Cloondaver - Annes river - Cahoir Island This map does not show the large number of islands scattered throughout the lough. The OSI Discovery map (No 18) or OSi search map provide further details, see p15. NATURAL GRASSLAND Natural ‘unimproved’ grassland is rich in wildflowers, grasses and sedges. Some of the richest flora occurs in these grasslands including several types of wild orchid and the Spring Gentian. Flower rich grassland provides food for pollinators like bees. FARMLAND Much of the farmland around the lake and in the catchment is of ‘improved’ grassland. It has been ploughed and resown with perennial rye-grass for grazing livestock. Fields of perennial rye-grass have virtually no value for pollinator species such as bees and butterflies. FLORA There are over 400 species of trees and plants There are several rare plant species such as the Yellow Bird’s Nest and Dense-flowered Orchid There are 19 wild orchid species Spring Gentian Pyramidal Orchid Early marsh Orchid Lesser butterfly Orchid Red Squirrels occur in several woodlands Otters, Pine Marten, Stoats and Badgers are found throughout Carra has eight of the nine bat species that occur in Ireland Bank Voles have arrived in the catchment in recent years Swallows roost in their tens of thousands in Carra’s reedbeds in late summer There were 2,500 Mallard ducks in the 1970s but this has declined to just a few hundred Twenty five species of butterfly can be found in the catchment. This includes the rare Marsh Fritillary, Grayling and Dingy Skipper. Butterflies depend on high-quality terrestrial habitat. Over 200 moth species have been recorded but more research is needed. Many beetle species occur including the very rare Crucifix Ground Beetle. Fifteen species of dragonfly occur in the catchment. The most special of Lough Carra’s dragonflies is the Black-tailed Skimmer. Dragonflies depend on high-quality aquatic habitat. Marsh Fritillary Six-spot Burnet moth Black-tailed Skimmer Common-blue Damselfly UNDERWATER ENVIRONMENT Lough Carra is a very important example of a shallow marl lake. The marl lake bed consists of calcium carbonate (lime). There are underwater plants called ‘stoneworts’ which feel crispy to the touch because they are encrusted with lime. Boulders on the lake bed are coated with a layer of ‘krustenstein’. This is a layer of cyanobacterial crust. It is sensitive to the increased pollution in the lake. And is now breaking down in some places where water quality has declined. Carra’s aquatic environment was very high quality in the past It had crystal-clear water and white marl on the lake bed The marl on the lake bed is no longer white in most places It has been declining over recent decades The decline is a result of increased nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous that cause algae to grow faster than the lake can handle Green algae are now found across the lake bed In 2002 Trinity College Dublin analysed the marl They extracted a core from the lake bed It showed huge increases in nutrient levels since 1960 Nutrient pollution is caused by an excess of nitrogen and phosphorous Human activities are the main cause of nutrient pollution Water-milfoil is a native plant. BUT it is proliferating and smothering the stoneworts (Chara). This is because of the increase in nutrients reaching the lake. The True Bulrush is a native plant But the area it covers has increased rapidly This is because of increased nutrients in the water Converting natural habitats and draining wetlands results in increased nutrient enrichment of the lake AQUATIC LIFE In the past Carra was once famous for its Mayfly They are sensitive to increased nutrients The Mayfly population has dramatically declined Long-standing boatman and angler, Joe Conroy, gazes across his beloved Lough Carra with fond memories of the once prolific Mayfly hatches which drew hundreds of anglers from far and wide to fish this area. LEISURE Birdwatching at Moorehall Kayaking from Castle Burke, Brownstown and Moorehall Woodland walk at Moorehall Cycling at Moorehall Angling Trout, Pike, Perch WE CAN ALL HELP THE LAKE Join or support the Lough Carra Catchment Association, see page 50 Adhere to ‘Leave No Trace’ practices - don’t litter! Householders - help reduce nutrient inputs into the water Ensure proper maintenance of septic tanks Limit the use of detergents and bleaches in the home Use eco-friendly cleaning products Kayaks/Paddleboards - before using on Lough Carra Clean, Dry and Check your equipment Fishermen - clean your boat before putting it into the lake to prevent Zebra Mussel, Crayfish Plague and other invasive alien species getting into Lough Carra Don’t bring in boats from other lakes, borrow a boat already on the lake Farmers could use environmentally friendly farming practices Reduce nutrient input Plant native trees Leave buffer zones on field margins where wild flowers can grow and birds can nest Sign-up to agri-environment schemes [www.agriculture.gov.ie/ruralenvironmentsustainability/](http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/ruralenvironmentsustainability/) JOIN OR SUPPORT THE LOUGH CARRA CATCHMENT ASSOCIATION The Association usually meets once a month Meetings are open and everyone is welcome to attend and participate Notification of meetings are posted on the Lough Carra facebook page and website All Association meeting minutes and reports can be found on www.loughcarra.org MORE INFORMATION www.loughcarra.org www.leavenottraceireland.org www.catchments.ie www.fisheriesireland.ie www.npws.ie www.teagasc.ie/environment/water-quality/farming-for-water-quality-assap/assap-in-detail/ Produced by Lynda Huxley Contact: Lynda Huxley 094 9032422 Design: firstname.lastname@example.org Cover photo: ©xxx Print: www.kpscolourprint.com © Carra Books 2019	4afb83ae-785e-4deb-924c-f8b2db64d926	CC-MAIN-2024-18	https://natureofireland.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/lough-carra-booklet.pdf	2024-04-21T17:06:57+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-18/segments/1712296817790.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20240421163736-20240421193736-00631.warc.gz	366,207,265	3,125	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.924834	eng_Latn	0.994631	[ "por_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 93, 1304, 1985, 2399, 2853, 3541, 4002, 4407, 4873, 5280, 5697, 6367, 6741, 7313, 7875, 8138, 8530, 9146, 9653, 10340, 10503, 10742, 11105, 11269, 12292, 12830, 12991 ]	[ 2.828125 ]	2	0
NATIONAL TECHNICAL GUIDELINES ON ANTI RETROVIRAL TREATMENT National AIDS Control Programme Care Support and Treatment Services October 2018 Ministry of Health Government of India National AIDS Control Organisation India’s Voice against AIDS Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India www.naco.gov.in NATIONAL TECHNICAL GUIDELINES ON ANTI RETROVIRAL TREATMENT October 2018 National AIDS Control Organization Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India For additional information, please contact: Care Support and Treatment Division National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Government of India 6th and 9th Floor, Chanderlok Building 36, Janpath, New Delhi-110001 FOREWORD HIV/AIDS, which was considered a virtual death sentence just a few decades ago is now a chronic manageable disease. The key factor responsible for this transformation is introduction of “Anti Retro Viral Therapy” (ART) which has bought hope and confidence to the life of thousands of families. Over the years ART has become more accessible, safer and robust. National AIDS Control Programme under Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India is committed to work towards ensuring universal access to comprehensive, equitable and stigma free HIV treatment to all people living with HIV along with standard care and psycho-social support. Programme is providing free Anti Retro viral Therapy since April 2004 and has scaled it up significantly since then. Currently more than 12 lakh PLHIV are availing standard HIV care through 540 ART centers and 1100 Link ART centers across the country. The arena of HIV care and treatment is developing at a fast pace in light of newer scientific evidences and experiences. National AIDS Control Programme has kept its tempo with the advancements and moved in hand to hand with global recommendations. There have been regular updates in guidelines regarding “when to start”, “what to start” and “how to monitor”. Programme has taken landmark steps recently, keeping benefit of people living with HIV in focus. Adoption of “Test and Treat” policy, availability of simpler and safer regimens, viral load monitoring, HIV Act 2017 are few examples. With these recent progresses, need was felt for an updated and comprehensive guideline, covering all the aspects and advances of National HIV treatment programme. I congratulate CST Division NACO and team of experts who have dedicatedly worked on this and have put together all the aspects effectively. I hope that this updated “Technical guidelines for Anti-Retroviral Treatment” will serve as a guiding document for ART centers and clinicians providing HIV care both in public as well as private sector, health care workers and programme managers. (Sanjeeva Kumar) Since the identification of first case of HIV in year 1986, the Government of India (GOI) has achieved many remarkable milestones in the field of HIV/AIDS care with the help of strong political commitment, active engagement with the civil society and network of positive people and partner agencies. Over the years with four phases of NACP, we have been able to reverse the epidemic in most parts of country with 80% reduction in the estimated incidences of new infections since 1995 (global decline is 47%), and 71% decline also in the number of AIDS-related deaths since 2005 (global average 51%). A major boon to the programme has been launch of free Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) initiative on 1st April, 2004 which has changed the face of National AIDS Control Programme. The National programme has kept pace with international guidelines and scaled programme in phased manner in light of newer evidences. India has adopted Test and Treat policy and currently we are providing free ART to more than 12 lakh PLHIVs through 540 ART centres. In addition to providing free treatment and saving lives of thousands of PLHIVs, NACO is committed to provide quality and stigma free care support and treatment services. India is signatory to UN strategy of 90:90:90 and aims at ending HIV/AIIDS by 2030. Need of the hour is not only to identify hidden cases but to retain all those who have been initiated on ART. In view of newer initiatives and changing spectrum of disease revision of guidelines was felt across country. This revised Technical Anti-Retroviral guideline provide a comprehensive care package covering clinical monitoring, prophylaxes & treatment of opportunistic infections, ART for adolescents & adults and children. It will help health care workers, programme managers, and all stakeholders to understand the programme and provide rationale treatment to all PLHIVs which further will decrease the transmission and hence end AIDS by 2030. (Alok Saxena) 9th Floor, Chandralok Building, 36 Janpath, New Delhi - 110001 Tele.: 011-23325343 Fax : 011 - 23325335 E-mail : email@example.com Know your HIV status, go to the nearest Government Hospital for free Voluntary Counselling and Testing Preface Starting from launch of free ART programme in April 2004, the Programme has introduced a number of new initiatives for scale up, easy access to services and improving quality of care. The journey during these three decades has been tremendous with evidences of best practices and optimal utilization of resources. As the programme has evolved, in evidence of new scientific advancement few concepts have become obsolete while newer challenges are spiraling. Along with universal access to comprehensive, equitable, stigma-free care support and treatment services need for providing quality and client satisfaction was felt. This has emanated into adoption of “Test and Treat” policy, simpler and safer regimens, routine viral load monitoring and differentiated care service delivery model. These recent guidelines are the updated version of the ART technical guidelines including all recent technical updates. These technical ART guidelines will serve as a guiding tool to all service providers and healthcare professionals in public and private sector to deliver the quality care services to people living with HIV/AIDS. Eminent experts in the field of HIV care across country from various organizations and program managers have made immense contribution in the National Technical ART guidelines. NACO acknowledges the valuable contributions made by all experts and partners and stakeholders and would like to express gratitude for their unremitting support and association with the program. Thus the present updated “National ART technical guidelines” is contained in this document for implementation of ART services in our country and encourage all health care professionals to use this for delivery of ART services. (Dr. R S Gupta) The Technical ART guidelines serve as a guiding document which help the healthcare professionals under various settings to deliver the quality Anti-Retroviral Treatment services to PLHIV in alignment with the vision of the National Programme. With the recent changes in the treatment strategy, the program felt the need to update the guidelines for better management and sustainable care and treatment for PLHIV with improved services. This document presents recent expansion and innovations in the ART service delivery. The development and framing of the principles for technical provisions in the guidelines has been carried under the guidance of Technical Resource Group (TRG) for ART. National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) wishes to thank all stakeholders, experts, program managers and scientists who have contributed to the development and framing of these guiding principles for technical provisions. The Technical Guideline was developed under the excellent leadership of Shri Sanjeeva Kumar, Addl. Secretary & DG (NACO & RNTCP) and constant support and guidance from Shri Alok Saxena, Joint Secretary, NACO. We place on record our gratitude for Dr. Naresh Goel (DDG Lab Services, IEC & Mainstreaming), Dr. S. Venkatesh (the then Addl-DG, NACO and now DGHS, Officer –In-Charge, MoHFW, Govt of India) and Dr. K S. Sachdeva (the then DDG, NCO and now DDG RNCTP) for their support during development of this Guideline. The contribution by Dr. Shobini Ranjan, (ADG, BTS) is deeply appreciated. Support received from various Programme Division, specially Dr. K. Singh Bhawani, Dr. Asha Hegde and Dr. Pradeep Kumar is highly appreciated. The Organization is sincerely grateful to the eminent doctors/experts in the field of HIV/AIDS - Dr. S. Rajasekaran who was instrumental in providing vision and insight in drafting the revised guidelines, Dr. S. K Guha (Professor, STM, Kolkata), Dr. S Anuradha (Professor, MAMC, Delhi), Dr. Anju Seth (Professor, Kalawati Saran Children Hospital, Delhi), Dr. Sanjeeva G N (Associate Professor, IGICH, Bangalore) and Dr. Noopur Bajjal (Ex- Medical Officer, Kalawati Saran Children Hospital, Delhi) for the stewardship, technical assistance and support in timely completion of the guidelines. The invaluable contribution and continued support of Dr. Sudhir Chawla (Joint Director, Gujarat SACS) and Dr. Jasjit Singh Malhi (Regional Coordinator, Northern states) in completing the guideline are also acknowledged. National AIDS Control Programme is ever grateful to Dr. B. B Rewari (Scientist, HIV/Hepatitis, WHO, SEARO) for the technical assistance and overall guidance right from conceptualization till the completion of the guidelines. The organization also acknowledge Dr. Nicole Seguy and Dr. Vimlesh Purohit (WHO Representative) for their valuable contribution in these guidelines. NACO is thankful to leadership of Dr. Timothy Holtz, (Captain, US Public Health Service) Director, Division of Global HIV and TB US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), India office, for persistent contribution in planning and printing of these technical guidelines. The critical technical guidance and assistance was provided by Dr. Reshu Agarwal (Public Health specialist, CDC India) in developing these guidelines, Dr. Sukarma Tanwar (ex-official, CDC India) and Dr. Anwar Parvez (Director Clinical Programs, I-TECH). The contribution by I-TECH team (Dr. Madhuri Mukherjee, Ms. Aarti Chettri, Dr. Malay Shah and Ms. Divya Gulati) and Dr. Rohini Gupta (Ex- Medical Advisor, I-TECH) during the various stages in completion of the guidelines is appreciated. These guidelines were developed under the overall guidance of Dr. R. S Gupta, Deputy Director General, NACO and would not have been possible without the valuable contribution by all the members of the “CST Division” - Dr. Manish Bamrotiya, Dr. Suman, Mr. Archit Sinha, Dr. Neha Garg, Mr. Mathew Sebastian and Dr. Alice Noreen R. Marak. \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| 3SD \| 3 Standard Deviation \| \| 3TC \| Lamivudine \| \| 4S \| 4 Symptoms TB screening \| \| AAY \| Antyodaya Anna Yojana \| \| ABC \| Abacavir \| \| ADR \| Acquired Drug Resistance \| \| AEB \| Accidental Exposure to Blood \| \| AFB \| Acid Fast Bacilli \| \| AFP \| Alpha-fetoprotein \| \| AGs \| Aminoglycosides \| \| AIC \| Airborne Infection Control \| \| AIDS \| Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome \| \| AKI \| Acute Kidney Injury \| \| ANC \| Ante-natal Care \| \| Anti- TB \| Anti-Tubercular \| \| Anti-HBcAg \| Antibodies to Hepatitis B core Antigen \| \| anti-HBs \| Antibodies to Hepatitis B surface Antigen \| \| Anti-HCV IgG \| Antibodies to Hepatitis C Virus Immunoglobulin \| \| APV \| Amprenavir \| \| ARSH \| Adolescent Reproductive and Sexual Health \| \| ART \| Anti-retroviral Treatment \| \| ARV \| Anti-retroviral \| \| ASHA \| Accredited Social Health Activists \| \| ASPRI \| Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)-to-platelet ratio index \| \| AST \| Aspartate Transaminase \| \| ATV \| Atazanavir \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| ATV/r \| Ritonavir boosted Atazanavir \| \| AUC \| Area under the plasma drug concentration versus time curve, \| \| AZT/ZDV \| Zidovudine \| \| BCC material \| Behaviour Change Communication and Advocacy material \| \| BCG \| Bacilli Calmette Guerin \| \| BF \| Breast Feeding \| \| BID \| Twice Daily Dose \| \| BMI \| Body Mass Index \| \| BSA \| Body Surface Area \| \| CAP \| Community Acquired Pneumonia \| \| cART \| Combination ART \| \| CBC \| Complete Blood Count \| \| CBNAAT \| Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test \| \| CBO \| Community Based Organisations \| \| CCC \| Community Care Centres \| \| CCR - 5 \| C-C chemokine receptor type 5 \| \| CD4 \| Cluster of Differentiation 4 \| \| CD4 T cells \| Cluster of Differentiation T-lymphocyte cell \| \| CD8 \| Cluster of differentiation 8 \| \| CDC \| Centre for Disease Control \| \| CG Formula \| Cockcroft and Gault Formula \| \| CHB \| Chronic Hepatitis B \| \| CKD \| Chronic Kidney Disease \| \| CLHIV \| Children Living With HIV/AIDS \| \| CMV \| Cytomegalovirus infection \| \| CNS \| Central nervous system \| \| COE \| Centre of Excellence \| \| CP \| Continuation Phase \| \| CPT \| Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy \| \| CrCl \| Creatinine Clearance \| \| CSC \| Care and Support Centre \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| C-section \| Caesarean section \| \| CSF \| Cerebro-Spinal fluid \| \| CT Scan (CAT scan) \| Computerized Axial tomography scan \| \| CTX \| Co-trimoxazole \| \| CYP \| Cytochrome P450 \| \| d4T \| Stavudine \| \| DAAS \| Directly Acting Antivirals \| \| DBS \| Dried Blood Sample/Spot \| \| ddC \| Zalcitabine \| \| ddI \| Didanosine \| \| DLC \| Differential Leucocyte Count \| \| DLV \| Delavirdine \| \| DNA PCR \| Deoxyribonucleic Acid Polymerase Chain reaction \| \| DPT \| Diphtheria-Pertussis-Tetanus \| \| DPV \| Darunavir \| \| DR-TB \| Drug Resistant Tuberculosis \| \| DST \| Drug Sensitivity Testing \| \| DTG \| Dolutegravir \| \| EBF \| Exclusive Breast Feeding \| \| EBV \| Epstein–Barr Virus \| \| EC1 \| Exposure Code-1 \| \| EC2 \| Exposure Code-2 \| \| EC3 \| Exposure Code-3 \| \| EDTA \| Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid \| \| EFA \| Essential Fatty Acids \| \| EFV \| Efavirenz \| \| eGFR \| Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate \| \| EID \| Early Infant Diagnosis \| \| ELISA \| Enzyme-linked Immune Sorbent Assay \| \| ERF \| Exclusive Replacement Feeding \| \| ETV \| Etravirine \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| EVG \| Elvitegravir \| \| FDA \| Food and Drug Administration \| \| FDC \| Fixed-dose Combinations \| \| FI \| Fusion Inhibitors \| \| FIB \| A simple index for estimating hepatic fibrosis \| \| fIPV \| Fractional Inactivated Polio Vaccine \| \| FNAC \| Fine-needle Aspiration Cytology \| \| FPV \| Fosamprenavir \| \| FS \| renal Fanconi syndrome \| \| FSW \| Female Sex Worker \| \| FTC \| Emtricitabine \| \| G6PD \| Glucose-6-phosphate Dehydrogenase deficiency \| \| GFR \| Glomerular Filtration Rate \| \| GT1 \| Genotype 1 of Hepatitis C \| \| GT4 \| Genotype 4 of Hepatitis C \| \| H2RA \| H2 Receptor Antagonist \| \| HAART \| Highly Active ART \| \| HAV \| Hepatitis A Vaccine \| \| Hb \| Haemoglobin \| \| HBC \| Home Based Care \| \| HBeAg \| Hepatitis B e Antigen \| \| HBIG \| Hepatitis B Immunoglobulin \| \| HBsAg \| Hepatitis B surface Antigen \| \| HBV \| Hepatitis B virus \| \| HBV DNA \| Hepatitis B Virus DNA \| \| HCC \| Hepato Cellular Carcinoma \| \| HCP \| Health Care Personnel \| \| HCTS \| HIV Counselling and Testing Services \| \| HCV \| Hepatitis C virus \| \| HCW \| Health Care worker \| \| HDL \| High Density Lipoprotein \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| Hep B \| Hepatitis B \| \| Hib \| Haemophilus influenza type b \| \| HIV \| Human Immunodeficiency Virus \| \| HIV DR \| HIV Drug Resistance \| \| HIV SC1 \| HIV Source Code-1 \| \| HIV SC2 \| HIV Source Code-2 \| \| HIV-Ab \| HIV Antibodies \| \| HIV-TB \| HIV and Tuberculosis co-infection \| \| HSR \| Hypersensitivity Reaction \| \| HSS \| HIV Sentinel Surveillance \| \| HSV \| Herpes Simplex Virus \| \| IAP \| Indian Academy of Paediatrics \| \| IBBS \| Integrated Biological and Behavioural Surveillance \| \| ICDS \| Integrated Child Development Services \| \| ICF \| Intensified Case Finding \| \| ICTC \| Integrated Counselling and Testing Centre \| \| ICU \| Intensive Care Unit \| \| ID \| Identification \| \| IDU \| Injecting Drug User \| \| IEC material \| Information, Education and Communication material \| \| IMCI \| Integrated Management of Childhood Illnesses \| \| IMNCI \| Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses \| \| IND \| Indeterminate \| \| INH \| Isoniazid \| \| INV \| Indinavir \| \| IP \| Intensive Phase \| \| IPT \| Isoniazid Preventive Therapy \| \| IPV \| Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine \| \| IRIS \| Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome \| \| JE \| Japanese Encephalitis \| \| LAC \| Link ART Centre \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| LFT \| Liver Function Tests \| \| LFU \| Lost to Follow-up \| \| LIP \| Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia \| \| LPV \| Lopinavir \| \| LPV/r \| Ritonavir boosted Lopinavir in ratio 1:4 \| \| LPV/r+r \| Ritonavir super-boosted Lopinavir in ratio 1:1 \| \| LTBI \| Latent TB Infection \| \| M.TB \| Mycobacterium Tuberculosis \| \| MAC \| Mycobacterium Avium Complex \| \| MAOI \| Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors \| \| MCV \| Measles Containing Vaccine \| \| MDR TB \| Multi-drug-resistant Tuberculosis \| \| MOHFW \| Ministry of Health and Family Welfare \| \| MR Vaccine \| Measles Rubella Vaccine \| \| MS \| Medical Superintendent \| \| MSM \| Men having Sex with Men \| \| MTCT \| Mother to Child Transmission \| \| MTP \| Medical Termination of Pregnancy \| \| MUAC \| Mid-upper-Arm circumference \| \| NA therapy \| Nucleoside Analogue Therapy \| \| NACEP \| National AIDS Clinical Expert Panel \| \| NACP \| National AIDS Control Programme \| \| NAMs \| Nucleoside Analogue Mutations \| \| NASH \| Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis \| \| NAT \| Nucleic Acid Test \| \| NCT \| National Capital Territory \| \| ND \| Not Done \| \| NEG \| Negative \| \| NFV \| Nelfinavir \| \| NGO \| Non-governmental Organization \| \| NITs \| Non-invasive Tests \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| NNRTI \| Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors \| \| NRL \| National Reference Laboratories \| \| NSAID \| Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug \| \| NsRTI \| Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors \| \| NTM \| Nontuberculous mycobacteria \| \| NtRTI \| Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors \| \| NTS \| Non-typhoidal Salmonellae \| \| NVP \| Nevirapine \| \| OHL \| Oral Hairy Leucoplakia \| \| OI \| Opportunistic Infection \| \| OK \| Okay \| \| OPV \| Oral Polio Vaccine \| \| ORS \| Oral Rehydration Solution \| \| ORW \| Outreach Worker \| \| OST \| Opioid Substitution Therapy \| \| OST \| Oral Substitution Therapy \| \| p.o. \| Per Orally \| \| PA View \| Posteroanterior view \| \| PAP \| Papanicolaou test \| \| PAS \| Para aminosalicylic acid \| \| pCOE \| Paediatric Centre of Excellence \| \| PCP \| Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia \| \| PCR \| Polymerase Chain Reaction \| \| PCV \| Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine \| \| PEP \| Post Exposure Prophylaxis \| \| PGL \| Persistent Glandular Lymphadenopathy \| \| PI \| Protease Inhibitors \| \| PID No \| Patient Identification Number \| \| PITC \| Provider-Initiated Testing and Counselling \| \| PLHIV \| People Living With HIV/AIDS \| \| PML \| Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| PMTCT \| Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission \| \| POS \| Positive \| \| PPE \| Papular Pruritic Eruption \| \| \| Personal Protective Equipment \| \| PPIs \| Proton Pump Inhibitors \| \| PPSV23 \| Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine \| \| PPTCT \| Prevention of Parent to Child Transmission of HIV \| \| PreP \| Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis \| \| PT \| Proximal Tube \| \| PTCT \| Parent to Child Transmission \| \| PVL \| Plasma Viral Load \| \| PWID \| Persons Who Inject Drugs \| \| QD \| Once a day \| \| QOD \| Every Other Day \| \| RAL \| Raltegravir \| \| RBF \| Renal Blood Flow \| \| RCT \| Randomized Clinical Trials \| \| RDA \| Recommended Dietary Allowance \| \| RF \| Replacement Feeding \| \| RNA \| Ribonucleic Acid \| \| RNTCP \| Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme \| \| RPV \| Rilpivirine \| \| RT \| Reverse Transcriptase \| \| RTI \| Reproductive Tract Infections \| \| RTV \| Ritonavir \| \| RVV \| Rotavirus Vaccine \| \| SACEP \| State AIDS Clinical Expert Panel \| \| SAM \| Severe Acute Malnutrition \| \| Sd \| Single Dose \| \| SDG \| Sustainable Development Goals \| \| SGPT (ALT) \| Serum Glutamic Pyruvic Transaminase (Alanine Aminotransferase) \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| SJS/ SJ Syndrome \| Stevens Johnson syndrome \| \| SMO/MO \| Senior Medical Officer/ Medical Officer \| \| SMX - TMP \| Sulfamethoxazole- Trimethoprim \| \| SOP \| Standard Operational Procedures \| \| SQV \| Saquinavir \| \| SRL \| State Reference Laboratory \| \| STI \| Sexually Transmitted Infection \| \| SVR \| Sustained Virological Response \| \| T-20 \| Enfuvirtide \| \| TAMs \| Thymidine Analogue Mutations \| \| TB \| Tuberculosis \| \| TDF \| Tenofovir \| \| TDSC \| Trivandrum Development Screening Chart \| \| TEN \| Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis \| \| TL+ATV/r \| Tenofovir + Atazanavir boosted with Ritonavir \| \| TLC \| Total Leucocyte Count \| \| TLE \| Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| \| TPV \| Tipranavir \| \| TRG \| Technical Resource Group \| \| TS/TG \| Transsexual/ Transgender \| \| T-staging \| Clinical staging after starting ART \| \| TT \| Tetanus Toxoid \| \| Tx Failure \| Treatment Failure \| \| ULN \| Upper Limit of Normal \| \| UN \| United Nations \| \| UNAIDS \| United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS \| \| USA \| United States of America \| \| USG \| Ultrasonography \| \| VDRL \| Venereal Disease Research Laboratory Test \| \| Vit A \| Vitamin A \| \| VL \| Viral load \| \| Abbreviation \| Description \| \|--------------\|-------------\| \| WB \| Western Blot \| \| WBC \| Whole Blood Count \| \| WHO \| World Health Organization \| \| XDR TB \| Extensively drug-resistant Tuberculosis \| \| ZL \| Zidovudine+ lamivudine \| \| ZL+LPV/r \| Zidovudine+ Lopinavir boosted with Ritonavir \| \| ZLE \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| \| ZLN \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine \| # Table of Contents ## SECTION 1: GENERAL SECTION \| Chapter No. \| Chapter \| PAGE NO. \| \|-------------\|----------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| 1 \| Introduction \| 03 \| \| 2 \| Diagnosis of HIV Infection in Adults and Children \| 06 \| ## SECTION 2: ADULTS AND ADOLESCENTS \| Chapter No. \| Chapter \| PAGE NO. \| \|-------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| 3 \| Assessment of Adults and Adolescents with HIV Infection \| 13 \| \| 4 \| Prophylaxis in Opportunistic Infections \| 24 \| \| 5 \| ART in Adults and Adolescents \| 28 \| \| 6 \| Adherence to ART \| 45 \| \| 7 \| PPTCT and ART in Pregnant Women \| 50 \| \| 8 \| Considerations for co-infection of Tuberculosis and HIV \| 60 \| \| 9 \| First line ART in adults & adolescents: Management of ARV Toxicities \| 73 \| \| 10 \| HIV and Hepatitis Co-infection \| 84 \| \| 11 \| ART Treatment Failure in adults and adolescents and when to switch \| 92 \| \| 12 \| Palliative Care for Adults and Children with HIV \| 111 \| \| 13 \| Post Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV \| 125 \| ## SECTION 3: PAEDIATRIC SECTION \| Chapter No. \| Chapter \| PAGE NO. \| \|-------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| 14 \| HIV Exposure in infants and young children \| 143 \| \| 15 \| Assessment of Children with HIV Infection, Pre-ART Care and Follow Up \| 157 \| \| 16 \| Prophylaxis for OI in children \| 166 \| \| 17 \| Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) for Children \| 171 \| \| 18 \| ART Treatment Failure in Children and when to switch? \| 187 \| \| 19 \| Issues Related to Paediatric Counselling \| 198 \| \| 20 \| Nutrition in HIV Infected Infants and Children \| 204 \| \| 21 \| Common Co-morbidities in children with HIV infection \| 211 \| \| 22 \| Annexures \| 219 \| Section 1 General Since the identification of initial cases of HIV/AIDS in June 1981 in Los Angeles, USA, there have been tremendous advances in the field of HIV prevention, diagnosis, care and treatment globally. This global progress is not only limited to identification of newer molecules that are more robust and less toxic but includes a significant reduction in the cost of therapy, and innovative approaches to service delivery that increase access to treatment, literally transforming the disease from a virtual death sentence, a few years ago, to a chronic manageable disease now. As per UNAIDS estimates, in 2016, with an adult HIV prevalence of 0.8% and considerable variation between countries, 36.7 million (30.8-42.9 million) people were estimated to be living with HIV globally. Approximately 1.8 million new infections occurred in 2016 worldwide and approximately 1.0 million people died of AIDS-related illnesses. Currently, there are 19.5 million patients on ART globally. Albeit a great achievement, the challenge remains to put the rest on ART to reduce mortality and co-morbidities, and to prevent further transmission of HIV. India has a low HIV prevalence of 0.22%. The country’s epidemic is concentrated among high-risk groups and is heterogeneously distributed with wide geographic variations in the vulnerabilities that drive the epidemic. Even with this low prevalence, in terms of absolute numbers, India has the third highest burden of HIV in the world with an estimated 2.14 million people living with HIV, 87,000 estimated new infections and 69,000 AIDS-related deaths annually. The first few cases of HIV in the country were detected among female sex workers in Chennai, Tamil Nadu in 1986, followed by reports from other parts of the country. By 1987, approximately 135 more cases came to light out of which 14 had already progressed to AIDS. By the year 2006, it was estimated that there were around 5.6 million cases of HIV in the country, concentrated mainly in six states of the country, namely Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh (AP), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Manipur, and Nagaland. However, by 2009, better estimation methods established the burden to be around 2.3 million. To respond to the challenge, the Government of India established the National AIDS Committee in 1986, which set the foundation for the establishment of National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) in 1992 to oversee the policies for prevention and control of the infection. The first phase of the National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) started in 1992 and lasted until 1999. This was followed by NACP-II (2000-2005), NACP-III (2006-2011) and NACP-IV (2012-2017). The first phase contained initial interventions focused on understanding modes of transmission and on prevention, blood safety and IEC strategy to increase awareness. During NACP-II, the programme was decentralized to the states by the establishment of SACS, and focus was laid on blood safety, targeted intervention and low-cost care including management of OIs. The Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) was introduced in 2004 in the later phase of NACP II. However, the coverage of services was limited to tertiary care centres. NACP-III aimed at reversing the epidemic over the next five years and focused on targeted interventions, district-level interventions, a massive scale-up of services, and quality assurance mechanisms. Reduction in new infections by 50% was a major achievement of NACP-III. In the current phase of NACP-IV, the focus is on consolidating the gains achieved so far, dealing with emerging vulnerabilities, and balancing between prevention and growing treatment needs. NACP-IV aims at improving integration and mainstreaming HIV care in the general health system. The Government of India launched the free Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) initiative on the first of April 2004 in 8 tertiary level hospitals across 6 high prevalent states and the NCT of Delhi. Since then, there has been a massive scale-up and decentralization of ART services with the aim of universal access to life-saving ART for all. In addition to the evidence-based scale-up of facilities, there have been regular updates in the technical guidelines pertaining to “when to start” and “what to start”, keeping pace with new evidence, global developments, and recommendations. The Government of India is committed to providing universal access to comprehensive, equitable, stigma-free, quality care, support and treatment services to all PLHIV through an integrated approach. Currently, HIV care services are being delivered through a network of 541 Antiretroviral Therapy centres and 1108 link centres along with 310 care and support centres to approximately 1.2 million PLHIV across the country. Besides government facilities, the ART technical guidelines also cater for the private institutions which can also refer to these guidelines for ART services. India’s ART programme is the second largest globally and has been acclaimed as one of the best public health programmes providing HIV care services. PLHIV have direct access to free diagnostic facilities, free first-line therapy, second and third-line ART, prevention of parent to child transmission of HIV (PPTCT) services, prevention, diagnosis and management of opportunistic infections including management of TB with daily anti-TB treatment through a single window approach. The national programme provides psycho-social support and follow-up services, individualized thematic counselling, positive living and positive prevention services with appropriate referral linkages to various social beneficiary schemes. The impact of the programme is evident. India’s gains are one of the major contributors to the global success. The adult HIV prevalence at the national level has continued its steady decline from an estimated peak of 0.38% in 2001-03 through 0.34% in 2007 and 0.28% in 2012 to 0.22% in 2017. Annual new HIV infections have declines by more than 60% since 2000. The lifesaving ART has improved millions of lives. AIDS related deaths have gone down by almost 71% since its peak in 2005, against a global average of 48%. The success is encouraging, and gains are to be consolidated. Yet it is not the time to be complacent. Among various priorities, reaching the unReached, early diagnosis, need to improve linkages and retention across the continuum of HIV care, maintaining a high level of adherence are few key priorities. The principle of “hit hard hit early” is becoming more and more pertinent as the programme is maturing. The country is committed to achieving the SDG of ending AIDS as a public health threat by 2030 and is signatory to the UN strategy of 90-90-90 by 2020 which aims at ending AIDS epidemic by achieving that - 90% of the estimated PLHIV know their status, of which - 90% PLHIV are on ART, of which - 90% PLHIV have viral suppression To achieve this aim, standardized and uniform national ART technical guidelines remain the mainstay to standardize treatment practices and thereby improve the quality of HIV care across all sectors of health care in our country context, especially when many other guidelines with a wide spectrum of recommendations already exist. The national guidelines for ART are written based on the national recommendations that have been finalised grounded on national and global experiences and recommendations and taking into consideration the availability of diagnostic and treatment options in the country context. The current guidelines are being finalized based on the recommendations of the Technical Resource Group (TRG) for Antiretroviral Therapy comprising of experienced clinicians and medical practitioners from the public and private sectors, technical experts, Government of India, WHO and other UN agencies, bilateral donors, pharmaceutical industries, network of positive people and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) involved in the care and treatment of PLHIV. These guidelines aim: - To harmonize treatment practices between the public and the private sector since there are patients who seek care from both the sectors at the same time or at different points in time - To consolidate various existing guidelines and incorporate recommendations for all age groups, gender, and populations - To provide standardized guidelines for prophylaxis, prevention, screening, diagnosis and management of common opportunistic infections among PLHIV These guidelines will continue to evolve and will be revised and updated on regular basis as per national and global evidence and recommendations. 2: Diagnosis of HIV Infection in Adults and Children 2.1 Diagnosis of HIV HIV is now considered as a chronic manageable disease and majority of the patients with HIV remain healthy if correct and timely treatment is started. Late diagnosis is an important factor associated with HIV related morbidity and mortality. Voluntary HIV testing with informed consent should be offered and encouraged in a wide variety of settings. HIV infection in any individual beyond 18 months of age can be detected by laboratory test/s that demonstrate(s) either the virus or viral products or antibodies to the virus in the blood/serum/plasma. In children below 18 months of age, due to the persistence of maternal antibodies, diagnosis of HIV is made by PCR tests that detect HIV nucleic acid. The national programme recommends that HIV testing should be done using highly sensitive and specific rapid tests in national HIV Counselling and Testing Services (HCTS) facilities, which provide reliable and accurate results quickly, as per the prescribed quality standards. Under the NACP, the most commonly employed rapid tests are based on the principle of enzyme immunoassay, immuno-chromatography (lateral flow), immuno-concentration / dot-blot assays (vertical flow) and particle agglutination. All these different rapid tests should have a sensitivity of $\geq 99.5\%$ and specificity of $\geq 98\%$. Window period represents the period of time between infection with HIV and the time when HIV antibodies can be detected in the blood (6-12 weeks). A blood test performed during the window period may yield a negative test result for HIV antibodies. These cases may require further testing after 12 weeks. 2.2 Diagnosis of HIV infection in adults and children above the age of 18 months Confirmatory diagnosis of HIV infection is essential for ensuring access to care and treatment services. National HIV testing strategies enable the programme to screen for HIV or confirm the diagnosis of HIV among priority populations at the nearest Integrated Counselling and Testing Centre (ICTC). In view of the low prevalence of HIV in India, it is necessary to use three different principles or antigen-based rapid tests to confirm the diagnosis. All samples reactive in the first test should further undergo confirmatory 2nd/3rd tests based on different principles/antigens using the same serum/plasma sample as that in the 1st test. The same blood sample is utilized for performing all the tests for identifying HIV antibodies. For indeterminate results, testing should be repeated on a second sample taken after 14-28 days. A testing strategy for diagnosis describes a testing sequence for the specific testing objective of diagnosis (as opposed to screening only), taking into consideration the presumed HIV prevalence in the population. The national programme follows strategy I for screening and strategy II (A) for surveillance purposes whereas it uses strategy II (B) and strategy III for diagnosis in symptomatic and asymptomatic persons respectively. The following strategies are to be used for HIV testing and diagnosis in adults and children above the age of 18 months: - For Clinically Symptomatic persons: the sample should be reactive with two different kits (Strategy II (B)) - For Clinically Asymptomatic persons: the sample should be reactive with three different kits (Strategy III) 2.2.1 For Clinically Symptomatic Individuals: A patient who is clinically symptomatic and is suspected to have an AIDS indicative condition/disease is referred to the ICTC for confirmation of the diagnosis. In this case, the same blood sample is tested twice using kits with either different antigens or principles. The patient is declared HIV-negative if the first test is non-reactive and as HIV-positive when both tests show reactive results. When there is discordance between the first two tests (first reactive and the second non-reactive), a third test is done. When the third test is also negative, it is reported as negative. When the third test is reactive, it is reported as indeterminate and the individual is retested after 14–28 days, as shown in Strategy II (B). Strategy II (B): For diagnosis of clinically symptomatic individual ![Flowchart for Strategy II (B)](image) 2.2.2 For Clinically Asymptomatic Individuals: Confirmation of HIV diagnosis in asymptomatic individuals is done at an ICTC using three rapid tests of three different antigens or principles. The individual is considered HIV-negative if the first test is non-reactive and as HIV-positive when all three tests show reactive results. For indeterminate results, testing should be repeated on a second sample taken after 14-28 days, as shown in Strategy III. Strategy III: For diagnosis of clinically asymptomatic patient All testing should follow five C’s of counselling: consent, confidentiality, counselling, correct test results and immediate connection to services for HIV prevention, treatment and care. All persons should undergo pre-test and post-test counselling and confidentiality should be maintained while disclosing the results. Post-test counselling is important both for those with reactive results as well as those with negative results. In addition to the walk-in clients and community based HIV testing, Provider-Initiated Testing and Counselling (PITC) is recommended in all health care settings for adults, adolescents or children, who present in clinical settings with signs and symptoms or medical conditions that could indicate possible HIV infection. The spouses/partners of those with positive results and children of HIV infected mothers should also be counselled and offered HIV testing. All persons found positive for HIV should be immediately linked to appropriate HIV care services. For more details, please refer to the national HIV Counselling and Testing Services (HCTS) Guidelines, NACO, December 2016. 2.3 Diagnosis of HIV infection in infants and children aged less than 18 months of age Maternal HIV antibodies transferred passively to the infant during pregnancy usually persist for nearly 9-12 months in the infant. In some children, they may persist for as long as 18 months. Thus, during this period, children born to HIV-infected mothers will test positive for HIV antibodies regardless of their own infection status. A positive ELISA/Rapid test that detects antibodies to HIV, therefore, does not necessarily indicate the presence of HIV infection in the infant/child. Rather, a positive ELISA/Rapid test indicates exposure to HIV. More reliable indicators of the HIV infection status of the infant are tests that detect HIV viral RNA or antigens. NACO recommends the use of DNA PCR test on a Dried blood sample (DBS) of the infant to detect viral DNA for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection during infancy. This test is performed at 6 weeks of age or at the earliest opportunity until 18 months of age. At and after 6 months of age, DNA PCR must be performed after screening for HIV antibodies. It is also important to take breast-feeding into consideration in the HIV testing algorithm. Since breastfed children have an ongoing risk of HIV acquisition, they are tested (DNA PCR) 6 weeks after complete cessation of breast-feeding to reliably exclude HIV-1 infection. For more detailed information, refer to chapter 14 on “HIV Exposure in infants and young children.” Diagnosis of HIV-2 There are 2 types of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) viz. HIV type I (HIV-1) and HIV type 2 (HIV-2). The most common cause of HIV infection throughout the world is HIV-1 that comprises of several subtypes with different geographic distributions. Information on the epidemiology of HIV-2 and dual infection in India is limited. However, cases of HIV-2 infection have been reported. Natural history studies indicate that HIV-2 is less pathogenic than HIV-1. Those infected with HIV-2 have slower disease progression, a much longer asymptomatic stage, slower decline in CD4 count, lower rates of vertical transmission, lower viral loads while asymptomatic and smaller gains in CD4 count in response to Anti-retroviral Treatment (ART). It is observed and well documented that infection with HIV-2 does not protect against HIV-1 or dual infection. Dually infected patients tend to present at a more advanced stage of the disease than those infected with HIV-2 only. Infection with both HIV-1 and HIV-2 generally carries the same prognosis as that of HIV-1 single infection. Although HIV-1 and HIV-2 are related, there are important structural differences between them. Accurate diagnosis and differentiation of HIV-1 and HIV-2 is crucial for treatment, as HIV-2 is intrinsically resistant to NNRTI, the pillar of the national first-line ART regimen in adults and adolescents. This information is crucial for the treatment of infected individuals as well as for understanding the extent of HIV-2 infections in India. Rapid kits that differentiate between HIV-1 and HIV-2 are being used at ICTCs. However, test results that show HIV-2 reactivity need confirmation; confirmation cannot be done at ICTCs. NACO has established a network of laboratories that includes ICTCs, State Reference Laboratories (SRLs) and National Reference Laboratories (NRLs). Designated NRLs and SRLs will be responsible for confirming the presence of HIV-2 infection. Patients with a HIV-2 reactive report will be referred to the nearest ART centre by the ICTC. The guidance for HIV-2 diagnosis confirmation is as follows: Flow chart for referring the patient for HIV-2 testing Clients/Patients [with ICTC report “Specimen is positive for HIV antibodies (HIV- 1 and HIV- 2 or HIV- 2 in one test only) and referral slip] ``` ART Centre ↓ Designated HIV-2 referral laboratory ↓ Collect fresh blood specimen ↓ Test as per the national algorithm for HIV-2 sero-diagnosis ↓ Reporting to referring ART centre (both hard & soft copy) ↓ Retain a copy of report at ART and hand over original report to patient ``` Clients / PLHIV referred to nearest ART Centre with ICTC report ``` ART Centre ↓ Sample found as HIV-2 reactive only by 2 differentiating testing kits at ICTC ↓ Reported as HIV-2 reactive No further testing required ↓ Sample found as HIV-1 + HIV-2 reactive at ICTC ↓ Sample should be sent to the designated HIV-2 referral laboratory for confirmation ↓ Sample found as HIV-2 reactive by only 1 testing kit at ICTC ↓ Should be confirmed by HIV-2 referral laboratory ``` Section 2 Adults and Adolescents 3. Assessment of Adults and Adolescents with HIV Infection All persons diagnosed with HIV at the ICTC should be enrolled in the ART centres for HIV care. ‘Adolescents’ are defined as persons between 10-19 years of age. This section deals with the assessment of adults and adolescents with HIV infection. 3.1 Clinical Assessment As soon as an individual is enrolled in HIV care, a comprehensive clinical assessment should be done to obtain a baseline status and to rule out opportunistic infections etc. This helps to: - Determine the clinical stage of the HIV infection - Identify the current HIV-related illnesses that may require treatment - Identify any prior exposure to ARVs in the past - Determine the need for OI prophylaxis - Identify coexisting medical conditions like Diabetes, Hypertension, Hepatitis and any other treatment that may influence the choice of ARV drugs - Determine the nutritional status and needs - Elicit the history of past illnesses (especially TB, STIs) - Assess the need for psycho-social support The recognition of HIV-related clinical events helps to determine the WHO clinical stage of a patient and to decide when to initiate OI prophylaxis and ART. (Please refer to the Table 3 below for WHO clinical staging). 3.2 Medical History Many individuals with HIV infection may have concurrent risk behaviour. It is important to elicit those risk factors, which may influence how a person will be counselled and supported. The risk factors for HIV include: - Past or present use of injecting drugs (PWID) - Past or present unprotected sexual intercourse (especially with a sex worker) - Past or present sexually transmitted infections (STI) - Past or present recipient of blood or blood products - Risk factors like MSM, FSW, etc. as this may require special counselling and ART delivery mechanisms - Injections, tattoos, ear piercing or body piercing using non-sterile instruments Medical officers of the ART centres must obtain the detailed medical history as per the check-list provided in Table 1. \| HIV Testing \| HIV risks (can be multiple) \| \|-------------\|-----------------------------\| \| • Ever tested for HIV in the past \| • Unprotected sexual contact \| \| • Date and place of the first HIV test \| • Injecting drug use \| \| • Reason for the test \| • Commercial sex work \| \| • Documentation of the result \| • Men having sex with men \| \| • Date of the last negative HIV test result \| • Occupational exposure (HCW) \| \| • Previous CD4 cell counts (if available) \| • Perinatal transmission \| \| • Previous viral load (if available) \| • Recipient of blood products \| \| \| • Sero-discordant couple \| \| \| • Unknown \| \| Review of Clinical symptoms \| Past History of HIV related illness \| \|----------------------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| • Unexplained weight loss \| • Oral candidiasis or candida oesophagitis \| \| • Swollen lymph nodes \| • Persistent diarrhoea \| \| • Night sweats and fever \| • Tuberculosis \| \| • Unusual headaches or poor concentration \| • Varicella zoster (Shingles) \| \| • Changes in appetite \| • Oral hairy leucoplakia (OHL) \| \| • Skin rashes \| • Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) \| \| • Sores or white spots in mouth \| • Recurrent bacterial pneumonia \| \| • Painful swallowing \| • Cryptococcal meningitis \| \| • Chest pain, cough or shortness of breath \| • Toxoplasmosis \| \| • Stomach pain, vomiting or diarrhoea \| • Kaposi sarcoma \| \| • Numbness or tingling in hand or feet \| • Disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex \| \| • Muscular weakness and changes in vision \| • Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection \| \| \| • Invasive cervical cancer \| \| Tuberculosis history \| ART history \| \|----------------------\|-------------\| \| • Latest chest X-ray \| • Current and past exposure to ARVs \| \| • History of past TB \| • ARV use during pregnancy of PMTCT \| \| • Treatment given (drugs and duration) \| • Use of PEP in the past \| \| • History of exposure to TB in the family/close contacts \| • Drugs taken and for how long \| \| • Ask the four TB screening questions “4 S screening “(any cough, fever or weight loss and night sweat) \| • An understanding of the treatment and readiness to commence ART \| \| \| • Partner’s ART history (if HIV-positive) \| \| Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) \| Substance use \| \|---------------------------------------\|---------------\| \| • Genital ulcer or other lesions \| • Alcohol, stimulant, opiate and use of other drugs \| \| • Genital discharge (abnormal vaginal discharge in women) \| • Smoking history \| \| • Lower abdominal pain \| \| \| General medical history \| Allergies \| \|-------------------------\|-----------\| \| • Any other past medical condition such as Diabetes, Hypertension, Coronary Artery Disease, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Hyperlipidaemia o Mental health issues, e.g. Depression \| • Known allergies to drugs or other substances or materials \| \| Medication \| Vaccination History \| \|------------\|--------------------\| \| • Past use of drugs and reasons for taking those drugs • Current use of drugs and reasons • Current use of traditional/herbal remedies • Opioid Substitution Therapy (OST) \| • BCG • Hepatitis A vaccine • Hepatitis B vaccine \| \| Gynaecological history \| Pregnancy and contraception history \| \|------------------------\|-------------------------------------\| \| • Last PAP smear • Menstrual irregularities o Pelvic pain or discharge \| • Previous pregnancies and MTP (years) • Children and HIV status of the children (living and dead) • Exposure to ARVs during pregnancy • Drugs and duration of ART • Contraception used • Last menstrual period \| \| Psychosocial history \| Functional Status \| \|----------------------\|-------------------\| \| • Family history, e.g. other immediate family members with known HIV infection • Social history e.g. marital status, education, occupation, source of income. • Financial and family support status • Disclosure status, readiness to disclose • Availability of care and treatment supporter \| • Able to work, go to school, do housework • Ambulatory but not able to work • Bed ridden • Amount of day-to-day care needed \| ### 3.3 Physical Examination It is essential to have a thorough physical examination for clinical staging and screening. Table 2 details the specific physical signs related to HIV/AIDS that should be screened. Table 2: Checklist for physical examination \| General \| Record vital signs, body weight, height and body mass index (BMI), temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate, respiratory rate, pallor & icterus \| \|---------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Appearance \| • Unexplained moderate or severe weight loss, HIV wasting • Rapid weight loss is suggestive of active Opportunistic Infections, especially if associated with fever • Gradual weight loss (not caused by malnutrition or other obvious illness) is suggestive of HIV infection • “Track marks” and soft tissue infections which are common among IDUs \| \| Consider conditions other than HIV \| • Malaria, Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Gastrointestinal Infections, Bacterial Pneumonia, Pelvic Inflammatory Disease, Viral Hepatitis other than HIV \| \|-----------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Skin \| • Look for signs of HIV-related and other skin problems. These include diffuse dry skin, typical lesions of PPE, especially on the legs, Seborrhoeic Dermatitis on the face and scalp • Look for Herpes Simplex and Herpes Zoster or scarring of previous Herpes Zoster (especially multi-dermatome) \| \| Lymph nodes \| • Start with posterior cervical nodes • PGL (Persistent Glandular Lymphadenopathy) typically presents as o Multiple bilateral, soft, non-tender, mobile cervical nodes, other than axillary or inguinal nodes • Tuberculous lymph nodes typically present with constitutional symptoms such as fever, night sweats and weight loss \| \| Mouth \| • Look for signs suggestive of HIV infection including white plaques on tongue, cheeks and roof of mouth (oral candida), white striped lesions on the side of the tongue (OHL) and cracks at the corners of the mouth (Angular Cheilitis) • Difficulty in swallowing is commonly caused by oesophageal candida \| \| Chest \| • The most common problems are TB, CAP and PCP • Signs and symptoms are cough, shortness of breath, haemoptysis, weight loss / poor weight gain in children, fever, night sweats, congestion or consolidation • Perform a chest X-ray PA view \| \| Abdomen \| • Hepatosplenomegaly, masses and local tenderness \| \| Neurological \| • Perform comprehensive neurological examination. • Fundus examination if CD4 less than 100 \| \| Ano-genital \| • Herpes Simplex and other genital sores / lesions, vaginal or urethral discharge; perform PAP smear \| Note: During each consultation, the patient must be clinically screened for TB (history, 4-symptom screening and physical examination) All PLHIV must be assessed for WHO clinical staging on the first and all the subsequent visits by the medical officer. (Please refer Table 3 below) ### Table 3: WHO Clinical Staging in Adults, Adolescents and Children \| Adults and adolescents \| Children \| \|------------------------\|----------\| \| Clinical stage 1 \| \| \| - Asymptomatic \| - Asymptomatic \| \| - Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy \| - Persistent generalized lymphadenopathy \| \| Clinical stage 2 \| \| \| - Moderate unexplained weight loss (<10% of presumed or measured body weight) \| - Unexplained persistent hepatosplenomegaly \| \| - Recurrent respiratory tract infections (Sinusitis, Tonsillitis, Otitis Media, Pharyngitis) \| - Recurrent or chronic upper respiratory tract infections (Otitis Media, Otorrhoea, Sinusitis, Tonsillitis) \| \| - Herpes Zoster \| - Herpes Zoster \| \| - Angular Cheilitis \| - Lineal gingival erythema \| \| - Recurrent oral ulceration \| - Recurrent oral ulceration \| \| - Papular Pruritic Eruption \| - Papular Pruritic Eruption \| \| - Fungal nail infections \| - Fungal nail infections \| \| - Seborrhoeic Dermatitis \| - Extensive wart virus infection \| \| \| - Extensive Molluscum Contagiosum \| \| \| - Unexplained persistent parotid enlargement \| \| Clinical stage 3 \| \| \| - Unexplained severe weight loss (>10% of the presumed or measured body weight) \| - Unexplained moderate malnutrition not adequately responding to standard therapy \| \| - Unexplained chronic diarrhoea for more than 1 month \| - Unexplained persistent diarrhoea (14 days or more) \| \| - Unexplained persistent fever (intermittent or constant for longer than 1 month) \| - Unexplained persistent fever (above 37.5°C, intermittent or constant, for longer than one 1 month) \| \| - Persistent Oral Candidiasis \| - Persistent Oral Candidiasis (after the first 6 weeks of life) \| \| - Oral Hairy Leucoplakia (OHL) \| - Oral Hairy Leucoplakia (OHL) \| \| - Pulmonary Tuberculosis \| - Lymph node Tuberculosis \| \| - Severe bacterial infections (such as Pneumonia, Empyema, Pyomyositis, bone or joint infection, Meningitis, bacteraemia) \| - Pulmonary tuberculosis \| \| - Acute necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis, Gingivitis or Periodontitis \| - Severe recurrent bacterial Pneumonia \| \| - Unexplained anaemia (<8 g/dL), neutropenia (<0.5 x 109/l) and/or chronic thrombocytopaenia (<50 x 109/l) \| - Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis or Periodontitis \| \| \| - Unexplained anaemia (<8 g/dL), neutropenia (<0.5 x 109/l) or chronic thrombocytopaenia (<50 x 109/l) \| \| \| - Symptomatic Lymphoid Interstitial Pneumonitis \| \| \| - Chronic HIV-associated lung disease, including Bronchiectasis \| ### Clinical stage 4 - HIV wasting syndrome - Pneumocystis (jiroveci) Pneumonia - Recurrent severe bacterial Pneumonia - Chronic Herpes Simplex infection (orolabial, genital or anorectal of more than 1 month duration or visceral at any site) - Oesophageal Candidiasis (or Candidiasis of trachea, bronchi or lungs) - Extra pulmonary Tuberculosis - Kaposi sarcoma - Cytomegalovirus infection (retinitis or infection of other organs) - Central nervous system Toxoplasmosis - HIV encephalopathy - Extra pulmonary Cryptococcosis, including Meningitis - Disseminated non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection (NTM) - Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) - Chronic Cryptosporidiosis - Chronic Isosporiasis - Disseminated mycosis (extra pulmonary Histoplasmosis, Coccidioidomycosis) - Lymphoma (cerebral or B-cell non-Hodgkin) - Symptomatic HIV-associated nephropathy or cardiomyopathy - Recurrent septicaemia (including non-typhoidal Salmonella) - Invasive cervical carcinoma - Atypical disseminated leishmaniasis - Unexplained severe wasting, stunting or severe malnutrition not responding to standard therapy - Pneumocystis (jiroveci) Pneumonia - Recurrent severe bacterial infections (such as Empyema, Pyomyositis, bone or joint infection, Meningitis, but excluding Pneumonia) - Chronic Herpes Simplex infection (orolabial or cutaneous of more than 1 month duration or visceral at any site) - Oesophageal Candidiasis (or Candidiasis of trachea, bronchi or lungs) - Extra pulmonary Tuberculosis - Kaposi sarcoma - Cytomegalovirus infection (retinitis or infection of other organs with onset at age more than 1 month) - Central nervous system Toxoplasmosis (after the neonatal period) - HIV encephalopathy - Extra pulmonary Cryptococcosis, including Meningitis - Disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial infection (NTM) - Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) - Chronic Cryptosporidiosis (with diarrhoea) - Chronic Isosporiasis - Disseminated endemic mycosis (extra pulmonary Histoplasmosis, Coccidioidomycosis, Penicilliosis) - Cerebral or B-cell non-Hodgkin Lymphoma - HIV-associated nephropathy or cardiomyopathy --- Notes: a) In the development of this table, adolescents were defined as 15 years or older. For those aged less than 15 years, the clinical staging for children should be used. b) For children younger than 5 years, moderate malnutrition is defined as weight-for-height $<-2$ z-score or mid-upper arm circumference $\geq 115$ mm to $< 125$ mm. c) Some additional specific conditions can be included in regional classifications, such as penicilliosis in Asia, HIV-associated rectovaginal fistula in southern Africa and reactivation of trypanosomiasis in Latin America. d) For children younger than 5 years of age, severe wasting is defined as weight-for-height $<-3$ z-score; stunting is defined as length-for-age/height-for-age $<-2$ z-score; and severe acute malnutrition is either weight for height $<-3$ z-score or mid-upper arm circumference $<115$ mm or the presence of oedema. Source: Adapted from WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2007 ([www.who.int/HIV/pub/guidelines/HIVstaging150307.pdf](http://www.who.int/HIV/pub/guidelines/HIVstaging150307.pdf)). 3.4 Nutritional Requirements and Assessment Good nutrition is a key factor for maintenance of good health and quality of life for all people while poor nutrition reduces a person’s ability to work and be active. In PLHIV, poor nutrition worsens the effects of HIV by weakening the immune system further. This leads to frequent illnesses and an inability to replace and repair body cells and tissues, resulting in severe weight loss. It may lead to a more rapid progression of the disease. Food and nutritional intake can influence the adherence to antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) as well as the effectiveness of ARVs. HIV and associated infections increase the need for energy, proteins, and micronutrients like iron, zinc, vitamin C, etc. Opportunistic infections like TB, Pneumonia and diarrhoea etc. further increase the nutritional demands of the body, accelerating the decline in the nutritional status. Thus, a vicious cycle exists between HIV infection and malnutrition. Appropriate nutritional support from the early stages of HIV infection can prevent the onset of malnutrition and other nutritional deficiencies. It will also help maintain the performance of the immune system. Nutritional care and support, which includes counselling, education, information-sharing and linkage to social welfare schemes like AAY and ICDS etc., is an important component of the comprehensive package of care and support services for all people living with HIV, both adults (PLHIV) and children (CLHIV). Causes of Under Nutrition In Patients With HIV/AIDS: - Reduced food intake - Inability to eat because of oral lesions such as painful oral ulcers/candidiasis in the mouth and throat - Loss of appetite due to HIV infection or associated fatigue, depression and changes in the mental state - Food insecurity and poverty leading to poor access to food - Physical handicap leading to difficulty in accessing and preparing food – e.g. disease related visual or other neurological handicaps - Opportunistic Infections (e.g. TB) adding to the loss of appetite, diarrhoea causing malabsorption, etc. - Side-effects of the medications: nausea, loss of appetite, altered taste in the mouth, diarrhoea, vomiting - Reduced nutrient absorption - HIV and other infections reduce the absorption of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract - Diarrhoea results in malabsorption leading to water and nutrient losses from the body - Medications also affect nutrient absorption - Changes in metabolism: - Due to increased breakdown of tissues, there is an increased energy requirement in PLHIV - In the asymptomatic phase, the energy requirements increase by 10% - In the symptomatic phase, energy requirements increase by 20-30% Deranged metabolism in HIV infection causes weight loss There is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants leading to oxidative stress on the body Oxidative stress contributes to HIV wasting syndrome • Changes in body composition In the case of PLHIV, proteins are used rather than fats to meet the energy demands. Hence proteins are broken down while fat continues to accumulate. Nutritional Requirements of Adult and Adolescent PLHIV: • Energy Requirements o During the asymptomatic stage, energy needs are increased by 10% over the requirements in healthy people o An increased energy intake of 20 to 30% above the daily requirements is recommended for adults during periods of symptomatic disease or Opportunistic Infections o The recommended energy intake for HIV infected adults also apply to HIV infected pregnant and lactating women • Protein Requirements: Average protein requirements: 1 g / kg / day • Fat Requirements: o About 20-30% of the total energy should be provided by fat o At least 50% of the fat intake should consist of vegetable oils rich in Essential Fatty Acids (EFA) o The amount of saturated, mono-saturated and polyunsaturated fat in the diet should be ≤7%, ≥10% and ≤10% respectively, of the total caloric intake • Micronutrient requirements: o A daily dose of micronutrients providing “Recommended Daily Allowance” of vitamins and minerals may be supplemented if the available diet is not balanced or does not contain a variety of animal sourced foods, fruits and vegetables o Multiple micronutrient supplements may be given to those with vitamin or mineral deficiency, or those who are vulnerable to micronutrient deficiency Nutritional needs of HIV infected children are detailed in the chapter on paediatric HIV ### 3.6 Comprehensive Laboratory Evaluation in HIV/AIDS The purpose of the baseline laboratory evaluation is to • Rule out other concomitant infections, Opportunistic Infections • Determine baseline safety parameters The following investigations are recommended for monitoring of PLHIV at the ART centres Table 4: Laboratory monitoring for patients at ART centre Baseline Investigations: Essential tests for all patients registering in HIV care at ART centre - Haemogram/CBC - Urine for routine and microscopic examination - Fasting blood sugar - Blood urea, Serum creatinine - Serum Bilirubin, ALT (SGPT) - VDRL - CD4 count - Lipid profile (if available) - HBsAg and Anti- HCV IgG (if available) - X-ray Chest PA view - Pregnancy test (if required) - rk 39 strip test to confirm or rule out leishmaniasis (especially in patients with HIV infection who live in or travel to endemic areas i.e. Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and West Bengal) - For women, cervical PAP smear or other method of cervical cancer screening (if available) - For MSM, anal PAP smear (if available) Additional tests in the baseline as per the physician’s decision - Symptoms and signs directed investigations for ruling out Opportunistic Infections, including M. Tuberculosis by testing sputum/appropriate specimen by CBNAAT (Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) and/or other required investigations - Complete LFT (Liver function test) for those being initiated on ATT and for patients with Hepatitis B or C co-infection - Lipid profile (if available) - USG whole abdomen NON-AVAILABILITY / NON-FEASIBILITY OF ANY OF THESE TESTS SHOULD NOT DELAY THE INITIATION OF ART Note: All above investigations other than CD4 estimation shall be done from the health facility where the centre is located, with support from the state Health Department. ### 3.7 Assessment and management of the patient at first and at follow-up visits Table 5: Assessment and management of the patient during the first and follow-up visits at the ART centre \| General \| Activities \| \|---------\|------------\| \| Visit 1 \| • Registration in HIV care • Medical history • Symptom checklist • 4-symptom TB screening • Physical examination • Behavioural/psycho-social assessment • Educational level, employment history, financial resources • Social support, family/household structure • Disclosure status, readiness to disclose • Understanding of HIV/AIDS, transmission, risk reduction, treatment options • Nutritional assessment • Family/household assessment to determine if there are other HIV-infected family members who may need care • Recommend condom use during every visit • Preparedness counselling • Baseline investigation: Essential tests including CD4 count and additional tests as per requirement. • Initiate Co-trimoxazole Prophylaxis Therapy (CPT) if eligible \| \| Visit 2 \| • History • Symptom checklist • 4-symptom TB screening • Physical examination • Review lab reports • Co-trimoxazole Prophylaxis Therapy (if required) • Psycho-social support • Preparedness counselling (Adherence counselling on at least 2 occasions & assessment of client preparedness for life-long ART) • Commence ART if the patient is adequately prepared \| \| Visit 3 \| • 4-symptom TB screening • Review lab reports • Psycho-social support • Preparedness counselling • Commence ART if patient is adequately prepared \| Subsequent follow-up visits (after initiating ART) - History (new problems) - Symptom check list - Clinical examination - 4-symptom TB screening - Note any side-effects (anaemia, rash, fever, signs of hepatotoxicity / nephrotoxicity) - Investigations as per monitoring & follow up related to ARV - Counselling - Adherence assessment/support 4. Prophylaxis for Opportunistic Infections HIV-infected individuals become susceptible to a multitude of opportunistic micro-organisms including protozoa, fungi, viruses and bacteria, which are generally innocuous in healthy individuals. HIV-infected subjects tend to contract OI during the course of the disease, which roughly corroborates with the CD4 cell counts. Although no definitive relationship between OIs and CD4 cell count has yet been established, cumulative information points towards a relationship. Also, since opportunistic events tend to recur, prophylaxis needs to be continually given regardless of any previous successful treatment. Alongwith Anti-retroviral therapy, measures are taken by Government for providing diagnostic facilities for Opportunistic Infection Management to people living with HIV or AIDS. Co-trimoxazole (Sulfamethoxazole/ Trimethoprim [SMX–TMP]) 800 mg/160 mg PO once daily is effective in preventing Pneumocystis Jiroveci Pneumonia (Pneumocystis Pneumonia- PCP) and Toxoplasmosis. It could help in the prevention of certain bacterial Pneumonias, Nocardiosis and enteric pathogens (Isosporiasis). In case of allergy to Co-trimoxazole, an alternative for primary prophylaxis against PCP and Toxoplasmosis is Dapsone 100 mg once daily. Desensitization may be suggested for sulpha allergy. Primary prophylaxis for Cryptococcus is not routinely recommended due to the relatively low incidence of the disease, lack of definite survival benefit, drug interactions, and development of resistance to the azole class of antifungals, cost of the treatment, and absence of mortality benefit. Prophylaxis for PCP: Co-trimoxazole preventive therapy (CPT) must be initiated in all HIV-infected patients (PLHIV) with any of the following- - CD4 count < 350cells/cmm - WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 One double-strength tablet of Co-trimoxazole (Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim [SMX–TMP]) 800 mg/ 160 mg PO once daily is used for prophylaxis. Alternative regimens include Dapsone 100 mg once a day. NACO’s recommendation on Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) is given in Table 1. Table 1: Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy for Adults and Adolescents: \| Prophylaxis \| Recommendations \| \|-----------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Commencing primary CPT \| Co-trimoxazole Prophylaxis must be initiated in PLHIV with CD4 count < 350/cmm or with WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 \| \| Commencing secondary CPT \| For all patients who have completed successful treatment for PCP until CD4 is > 350cells/cmm (at least on two occasions, done 6 months apart) \| \| Timing the initiation of Co-trimoxazole in relation to initiating ART \| • Start co-trimoxazole prophylaxis first • Start ART after starting co-trimoxazole or as soon as CPT is tolerated, and the patient has completed the “preparedness phase” of counselling \| \|---\|---\| \| Dosage of Co-trimoxazole in adults and adolescents \| One double-strength tablet or two single-strength tablets once daily—total daily dose of 960 mg (800 mg SMZ + 160 mg TMP) \| \| Co-trimoxazole for pregnant and breastfeeding women \| • Women, who fulfil the criteria for CPT, should continue on it throughout pregnancy. • If a woman requires CPT during pregnancy, it should be started regardless of the stage of pregnancy • Breastfeeding women should continue CPT where indicated \| \| Patients allergic to sulpha-based medications \| • Dapsone 100 mg per day. • Co-trimoxazole desensitization may be attempted but not in patients with a previous severe reaction to co-trimoxazole or other sulpha-containing drugs \| \| Monitoring \| No specific laboratory monitoring is required in patients receiving co-trimoxazole \| \| Discontinuation of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis \| When CD4 count > 350/cmm on two different occasions 6 months apart with an ascending trend and devoid of any WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions \| Co-trimoxazole desensitization: If the patient reports a history of hypersensitivity to sulpha-containing drugs, start him/her on a desensitization regimen as an in-patient. Desensitization can be attempted two weeks after a non-severe (grade 3 or less) Co-trimoxazole reaction that has resulted in temporary interruption in the use of the drug. Co-trimoxazole desensitization has been shown to be successful and safe in approximately 70% of the patients with previous mild to moderate hypersensitivity (Table 2). Table 2: Protocol for Co-trimoxazole desensitization \| Step \| Dosage \| \|---\|---\| \| Day 1 \| 80 mg SMX + 16 mg TMP 2 ml oral suspension \| \| Day 2 \| 160 mg SMX + 32 mg TMP 4 ml oral suspension \| \| Day 3 \| 240 mg SMX + 48 mg TMP 6 ml oral suspension \| \| Day 4 \| 320 mg SMX + 64 mg TMP 8 ml oral suspension \| \| Day 5 \| 400 mg SMX + 80 mg TMP (One single – strength SMX-TMP tablet \| \| Day 6 \| 800 mg SMZ + 160 mg TMP Two single-strength SMX-TMP tablets or one double-strength tablet) \| Note: Co-trimoxazole oral suspension contains 40 mg TMP + 200 mg SMX per 5 ml Desensitization should not be attempted in individuals with a history of severe Co-trimoxazole or any other Sulphonamide reaction. If a reaction occurs, the desensitization regimen should be stopped. Once the patient recovers fully, Dapsone at a dosage of 100 mg per day may be tried. Prophylaxis for Cryptococcosis: Primary Prophylaxis: There is no role for primary prophylaxis against Cryptococcal Meningitis. Secondary Prophylaxis or Maintenance Therapy: • Indications: Previous cryptococcal disease, such as Meningitis After 2-3 weeks of Induction Therapy and 8 weeks of Consolidation Therapy, secondary prophylaxis is started. • Regimen: Fluconazole 200 mg/day (Itraconazole is associated with significantly higher relapse rate) Discontinuation: Secondary prophylaxis or Maintenance Therapy with Fluconazole 200 mg daily must be continued until the CD4 cell count remains at > 200 cells/cmm for a period of 6 months in a person on ART. Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT): About 50% of the adults in the community have Latent TB Infection (LTBI). Isoniazid is one of the most effective bactericidal anti-TB drugs available currently. Isoniazid protects against progression of latent TB infection to active disease (against endogenous reactivation). It also prevents TB re-infection after exposure to an open case of TB (against exogenous re-infection / super infection / nosocomial transmission) The duration of effectiveness of IPT in PLHIV in the absence of ART (not receiving concomitant ART) is limited because of the ongoing progressive immunodeficiency. With the concomitant administration of both ART and IPT, there is a likelihood of restoration of tuberculosis-specific immunity by ART and prolongation of the beneficial effect of IPT. (For details on IPT, please refer to the chapter 8 on HIV-TB) Table no. 3 Summary of OI prophylaxis: \| Name of OI \| Type of prophylaxis \| What to start (preferred)* \| Adult Dose \| When to start \| When to Stop \| \|------------\|---------------------\|----------------------------\|-------------\|---------------\|--------------\| \| PCP \| Primary \| Co-trimoxazole \| One double strength tablet (Sulfamethoxazole 800 mg + Trimethoprim 160 mg) \| CD4 < 350 cells/cmm or WHO Clinical stage 3 or 4 condition \| CD4 > 350cells/cmm (at least on two occasions, done 6 months apart) and devoid of any WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions \| \| \| Secondary \| Co-trimoxazole \| One double strength tablet (Sulfamethoxazole 800 mg + Trimethoprim 160 mg) \| After successful treatment for PCP (21 days) \| CD4 > 350cells/cmm (at least on two occasions, done 6 months apart) and devoid of any WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions \| \| Cryptococcal Meningitis \| Primary \| Not recommended \| \|-------------------------\|---------\|-----------------\| \| Secondary \| Fluconazole \| Tab Fluconazole 200 mg \| \| \| \| After successful treatment of Cryptococcal Meningitis (induction phase of 2-3 weeks and consolidation phase of 8 weeks) \| \| \| \| CD4 > 200 cells/cmm (at least on two occasions, done 6 months apart) \| The clinicians should check if there is/are any contraindications to the drugs being prescribed for prophylaxis. In that case, alternate drugs are to be considered. There has been a rapid decline in the HIV related mortality and morbidity due to the wider availability of affordable, more efficacious and less toxic Antiretroviral (ARV) drugs over the last two decades. Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) consists of the use of a combination of at least three antiretroviral drugs from different classes to inhibit the replication of HIV and reduce viremia to undetectable levels. Continued suppression of viral replication leads to the restoration of immune response, reflected by an increase in the CD4 count. This increase leads to slowing of the disease progression, reduced frequency of Opportunistic Infections, improvement in the quality of life and increased longevity. Successes achieved by Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) have now transformed the perception about HIV infection from being a ‘virtual death sentence’ to a ‘chronic manageable illness’. ART was earlier known as Highly Active ART (HAART) and as combination ART (cART). Goals of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) ART cannot cure HIV infection, as the currently available ARV drugs cannot eradicate the virus from the human body. This is because a pool of latently infected CD4 cells is established during the earliest stages of acute HIV infection. It persists within the organs/cells and fluids (e.g. brain, liver and lymphoid tissue) despite prolonged suppression of plasma viraemia by ART to <50 copies/ml. The primary goals of ART are maximal and sustained reduction of plasma viral levels and restoration of immunological functions. The reduction in the viral load also leads to reduced transmissibility and reduction in new infections. The defined goals of ART are depicted in Table 1. Table 1: Goals of ART \| Goals of ART \| Description \| \|------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Clinical goals \| Increased survival and improvement in quality of life \| \| Virological goals \| Greatest possible sustained reduction in viral load \| \| Immunological goals \| Immune reconstitution, that is both quantitative and qualitative \| \| Therapeutic goals \| Rational sequencing of drugs in a manner that achieves clinical, virological and immunological goals while maintaining future treatment options, limiting drug toxicity and facilitating adherence \| \| Preventive goals \| Reduction of HIV transmission by suppression of viral load \| Due to the continued viral suppression, the destruction of CD4 lymphocyte cells is reduced and over time there is an increase in the CD4 count, which is accompanied by partial restoration of pathogen-specific immune function. This leads to a reduction in Opportunistic Infections, reduced morbidity and mortality. Principles of Antiretroviral Therapy A continuous high level of replication of HIV takes place in the body right from the early stages of the infection. At least one billion viral particles are produced during the active stage of replication. The antiretroviral drugs act on various stages of the replication of the virus in the body and interrupt the process of viral replication. The Figure 1 depicts the various enzymes involved in viral replication and the points where ARVs target the virus. The ARV drugs act on the viral replication in the following steps and are labelled according to site of their action: 1. Block binding of HIV to the target cell (Fusion Inhibitors and CCR 5 co-receptor blockers) 2. Block the viral RNA cleavage and one that inhibits reverse transcriptase (Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors) 3. Block the enzyme integrase, which helps in the proviral DNA being incorporated into the host cell chromosome (Integrase Inhibitors) 4. Block the RNA to prevent viral protein production 5. Block enzyme protease (Protease Inhibitors) 6. Inhibit the budding of virus from host cells Fig 1: Targets of Antiretroviral Drugs The most commonly used drugs target the virus mainly by inhibiting the enzymes reverse transcriptase (RT) and protease. They are depicted in Table 2. Table 2: Classes of ARV Drugs \| Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NsRTI) \| Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI) \| Protease inhibitors (PI) \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| Zidovudine (AZT/ZDV)* \| Nevirapine* (NVP) \| Saquinavir (SQV) \| \| Stavudine (d4T) \| Efavirenz* (EFV) \| Ritonavir (RTV)* \| \| Lamivudine (3TC)* \| Delavirdine (DLV) \| Nelfinavir (NFV) \| \| Abacavir (ABC)* \| Rilpivirine (RPV) \| Amprenavir (APV) \| \| Didanosine (ddl) \| Etravirine (ETV) \| Indinavir (INV) \| \| Zalcitabine (ddC) \| Integrase Inhibitors \| Lopinavir (LPV)* \| \| Emtricitabine (FTC) \| Raltegravir (RGV)* \| Fosamprenavir (FPV) \| \| Nucleotide reverse Transcriptase inhibitors (NtRTI) \| Elvitegravir (EVG) \| Atazanavir (ATV)* \| \| Tenofovir (TDF)* \| Dolutegravir (DTG) \| Tipranavir (TPV) \| \| Fusion inhibitors (FI) \| \| Darunavir (DRV)* \| \| Enfuvirtide (T-20) \| CCR5 Entry Inhibitor \| \| \| \| Maraviroc \| \| Available in the national programme Clinical Pharmacology of Commonly Used ARV Drugs Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTI) The first effective class of antiretroviral drugs discovered was the Nucleoside analogues, which act by incorporating themselves into the DNA of the virus, thereby stopping the building process. The resulting DNA is incomplete and cannot create new virus. Nucleotide analogues work in the same way as nucleosides, but they have a non-peptidic chemical structure. The details of individual ARV drugs of this class are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Commonly used NRTIs \| Generic Name \| Dose \| Adverse effects \| \|----------------\|-------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Tenofovir (TDF)\| 300 mg once daily \| Renal toxicity, bone demineralization \| \| Zidovudine (ZDV, AZT) \| 300 mg twice daily \| Anaemia, neutropenia, bone marrow suppression, gastrointestinal intolerance, headache, insomnia, myopathy, lactic acidosis, skin and nail hyperpigmentation \| \| Lamivudine (3TC) \| 150 mg twice daily or 300 mg once daily \| Minimal toxicity, rash (though very rare) \| \| Abacavir (ABC) \| 300 mg twice daily or 600 mg once daily \| Hypersensitivity reaction in 3 to 5% (can be fatal), fever, rash, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, respiratory symptoms (sore throat, cough, shortness of breath); Re-challenging after reaction can be fatal. \| Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) stop HIV production by binding onto the reverse transcriptase and preventing the conversion of RNA to DNA. These drugs are called “non-nucleoside” inhibitors because, even though they work at the same stage as nucleoside analogues, as chain terminators, they inhibit the HIV reverse transcriptase enzyme by directly binding to it. The details of individual ARV of this class are shown in Table 4. Table 4: Commonly used NNRTIs* \| Generic Name \| Dose \| Food related advices \| Adverse Effects \| \|--------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Efavirenz (EFV) \| 600 mg once daily (bed time administration is suggested to decrease CNS side-effects) \| Avoid taking after high fat meals \| CNS symptoms (dizziness, somnolence, insomnia, confusion, hallucinations, agitation) and personality change. Rash occurs, but less common than NVP. \| \| Nevirapine (NVP) \| 200 mg once daily for 14 days, followed by 200 mg twice daily \| None \| Hepatitis (usually within 12 weeks); sometime life-threatening hepatic toxicity. Skin rash occasionally progressing to severe conditions, including Stevens Johnson syndrome (SJS) and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN). Patients who develop severe hepatic toxicity or grade 4 skin rashes should not be re-challenged. \| Integrase Inhibitors Integrase inhibitors are a class of antiretroviral drugs designed to block the action of Integrase, a viral enzyme that inserts the viral genome into the DNA of the host cell. Since integration is a vital step in retroviral replication, blocking it can halt further spread of the virus. Raltegravir was the Integrase inhibitor approved for use in 2007. It is metabolized primarily through uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 and has a single inactive glucuronide metabolite. Raltegravir is not a substrate, inhibitor or inducer of cytochrome P450 enzymes and it exhibits low potential for drug–drug interactions. It is well tolerated; most commonly reported adverse effects include nausea, headache, diarrhoea, fever, CPK elevation, muscle weakness and insomnia. The major toxicities are given in Table 5. Raltegravir has been approved for use in both treatment-naïve and treatment-experienced patients; it is being primarily used for third-line ART in the national ART programme. Raltegravir is given in the dose of 400 mg twice daily. Dolutegravir (DTG) and Elvitegravir (ELV) are the other approved drugs. Table 5: Integrase Inhibitors \| Generic Name \| Dose \| Adverse Effects \| \|--------------\|-----------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Raltegravir (RAL) \| 400mg twice daily \| Rhabdomyolysis, Myopathy, Myalgia, diarrhoea, fever, Rash, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis, Hepatitis and Hepatic failure, \| \| Dolutegravir (DTG) \| 50mg once daily \| Insomnia and headache. Dolutegravir can cause serious, life threatening side effects. These include hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions and liver problems. People with a history of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) or Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection or who have elevated results on liver function tests may have an increased risk of developing new or worsening liver problems while taking dolutegravir. \| Protease Inhibitors (PIs) Protease Inhibitors work at the last stage of the viral reproduction cycle. They prevent HIV from being successfully assembled and released from the infected CD4 cell. All PIs can produce GI intolerance, altered taste, abnormal liver function test and bone disorder and all have been associated with metabolic abnormalities, such as hyperglycaemia, insulin resistance and increase in triglycerides, cholesterol and body fat distribution (lipodystrophy). The details of individual ARV of this class are shown in Table 6. \| Generic Name \| Dose \| Adverse Effects \| \|------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Atazanavir/ritonavir (ATV/r) \| 300 mg Atazanavir + 100 mg Ritonavir once daily \| Unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia, lipid abnormality, hyperglycaemia, fat maldistribution, nephrolithiasis, cholelithiasis, PR prolongation \| \| Lopinavir / ritonavir (LPV/r Heat stable tablets) \| 200 mg Lopinavir/50mg Ritonavir Fixed dose tablet 2 tablets twice daily \| Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, abnormal lipid profiles, glucose intolerance. \| \| Darunavir (DRV) \| 600 mg twice a day (when used with Ritonavir 100 mg twice daily) \| Hepatotoxicity, skin rash (10%), diarrhoea, nausea, headache, hyperlipidaemia, serum transaminase elevation, hyperglycaemia \| \| Ritonavir (RTV) \| 100 mg twice daily (used only to boost another PI) \| Common-gastrointestinal (diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain (upper and lower), rarely neurological disturbances (including paraesthesia) \| Co-administration of antitubercular and antiretroviral agents, especially Protease Inhibitors, is associated with important drug-drug interactions. Combinations are limited by the alterations in the activity of the hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system, which may produce sub-therapeutic plasma concentrations of antiretroviral drugs. For example, Protease Inhibitors must often be avoided if the potent CYP inducer Rifampicin is co-administered. Alternatively, Rifamycin, Rifabutin, which have similar efficacy to rifampicin, can be used with appropriate dose reduction. Available clinical data suggest that, for most individuals, Rifampicin-based regimens can be successfully combined with the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, Efavirenz. Whenever Protease Inhibitor based ART regimens are used, the co-infected TB must be treated with anti-TB regimen containing Rifabutin instead of Rifampicin. Considerations before Initiation of ART All people with confirmed HIV infection should be referred to the ART centre for registration in HIV care, comprehensive clinical and laboratory evaluation to assess baseline status, treatment of pre-existing Opportunistic Infections, treatment preparedness, counselling and timely ART initiation. The following principles need to be kept in mind: - The patient should be adequately prepared, and informed consent should be obtained from the patient or from the caregiver in-case the patient is a minor, before initiating HIV care and ART (refer annexure 03: Consent form) • Treatment should be started based on the person’s informed decision and preparedness to initiate ART with information and understanding of the benefits of treatment, life long course of medication, issues related to adherence and positive prevention • A caregiver should be identified for each person to provide adequate support. Caregivers must be counselled and trained to support treatment adherence, follow-up visits and shared decision-making • All patients with clinical stage 3 and 4 and those with CD4 less than 350 cells/cmm need to be put on Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT). All patients need to be screened for TB, using the 4-symptom tool (current cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss) and those who do not have TB need to be started on Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) in addition to ART. • ART should not be started in the presence of an active OI. In general, OIs should be treated or stabilized before commencing ART. Mycobacterium Avium Complex (MAC) and Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) are exceptions in which commencing ART may be the preferred treatment, especially when specific MAC therapy is not available. For details on starting ART in patients with HIV-TB co-infection, please refer to the section on the management of HIV-TB. Some conditions, which may regress following the commencement of ART, include Candidiasis and Cryptosporidiosis. The following OIs and HIV-related illnesses need treatment or stabilization before commencing ART. Table 7: Opportunistic Infections and HIV related conditions and ART initiation \| Clinical Picture \| Action \| \|------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Any undiagnosed active infection with fever \| Diagnose and treat first; start ART when stable \| \| TB \| Start TB treatment first; start ART as soon as possible after 2 weeks and before 2 months. For those with CD4 less than 50/cmm, start ART within 2 weeks. Caution is needed for PLHIV with TB Meningitis, since immediate ART is associated with more severe adverse events than initiating ART 2 months after the start of TB treatment \| \| PCP \| Treat PCP first; start ART when PCP treatment is completed \| \| Invasive fungal diseases: Oesophageal Candidiasis, Penicilliosis, Histoplasmosis \| Start treatment for Qesophageal Candidiasis first; start ART as soon as the patient can swallow comfortably. Treat Penicilliosis, and Histoplasmosis first; start ART when patient is stabilized or OI treatment is completed. \| \| Cryptococcal Meningitis \| Treat Cryptococcal Meningitis. ART initiation should be deferred until there is evidence of sustained clinical response to anti-fungal therapy and after 4 weeks of induction and consolidation treatment with Amphotericin B containing regimen \| \| Bacterial Pneumonia \| Treat Pneumonia first; start ART when treatment is completed \| \| Malaria \| Treat Malaria first; start ART when treatment is completed \| \| Acute diarrhoea which may reduce absorption of ART \| Diagnose the cause and treat diarrhoea first; start ART when diarrhoea is stabilized or controlled \| \| Non-severe anaemia (Hb< 9 g/dl) \| Start ART if no other causes for anaemia are found (HIV is often the cause of anaemia); \| \| Condition \| Treatment \| \|------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Skin conditions such as PPE and Seborrhoeic Dermatitis, Psoriasis, HIV-related Exfoliative Dermatitis \| Start ART (ART may resolve these problems) \| \| Suspected MAC, Cryptosporidiosis and Microsporidiosis \| Start ART (ART may resolve these problems) \| \| Cytomegalovirus Retinitis \| Start treatment for CMV urgently and start ART after 2 weeks of CMV treatment \| \| Toxoplasmosis \| Treat Toxoplasmosis; start ART after 6 weeks of treatment and when patient is stabilized \| Once the evaluation is completed, the key questions pertaining to ART are: - When to start treatment? - Which and how many agents to use? Choice of optimal regimen? - How to monitor the therapy? - How long to give therapy? - When to change therapy and to what? - Drug interactions involving antiretroviral therapy When to start ART in Adults and Adolescents In general, the clinical management of an HIV infected patient revolves around optimizing the treatment regimen, reducing drug toxicity, reducing the pill burden and increasing adherence to the treatment. The guidelines on When to start ART have evolved over the years towards earlier initiation of ART; CD4 count cut-off point for ART initiation moving from less than 200 cells/cmm in 2004 to less than 350 cells/cmm in 2010 and then to less than 500 cells/cmm in 2013. The current recommendation is to TREAT ALL, regardless of the clinical stage or CD4 count. These changes have been based on the evidence from various randomized clinical trials (RCT) and large observational cohorts which have revealed that with earlier ART initiation, there is a significant delay in progression to AIDS and reduction in the incidence of TB. These studies are summarized in Figure 2 below: Fig 2: Evolution of CD4 cut offs for ART initiation over time \| 1995-2005 \| 2005-2010 \| 2010-2013 \| 2015 \| \|-----------\|-----------\|-----------\|------\| \| Several ACTG and CPCRA studies (early Post-HAART Era): ART initiation at CD4 <200 cells/cmm: Impact on AIDS mortality and major OIs incidence \| Observational studies (ART initiation at CD4 >350 cells/cmm): Impact on disease progression & non-AIDS events \| TEMPRANO and START studies (ART initiation CD4 >500 cells/cmm: Impact on severe HIV morbidity and disease progression without increase in severe adverse events) \| CIPRA and SMART studies (ART initiation at CD4 <350 cells/cmm: Impact on HIV mortality, disease progression and co-morbidities (TB)) HPTN 052: reduction of HIV transmission among HIV discordant couples and risk of TB in adults (Impact on HIV incidence) \| The current NACO guidelines (2017) on when to start ART All persons diagnosed with HIV infection should be initiated on ART regardless of the CD4 count or WHO Clinical Staging or age group or population sub-groups Ensuring good adherence to treatment is imperative for the success of the treatment as well as for the prevention of drug resistance. To achieve this, counselling must start from the first contact of the patient with the clinical team. Counselling should include preparing the patient for treatment and providing psycho-social support through an identified caregiver / guardian / treatment buddy and support networks. All patients should undergo adequate counselling sessions (preparedness counselling) before the initiation of ART. The period of waiting for investigations and their results should be utilized for counselling, co-trimoxazole prophylaxis, Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (in eligible patients) and treatment preparation. All efforts should be made to trace the patients who have defaulted on their visits or are lost to follow-up, to initiate ART in all PLHIV registered at the ART centres. NGOs and positive network linkages should be established by each ART centre for their respective locality. What to Start: Antiretroviral Therapy Regimens Fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) of ARVs are preferred because they are easy to prescribe and easy for patients to take, thereby facilitating improved and desirable treatment adherence. This is essential for PLHIV as the treatment is life-long and we need to minimize the chances of developing drug resistant mutants in their body and the resultant treatment failure. Further, FDCs have distinct advantages in drug procurement and distribution, essentially the drug stock management itself. The national experience has shown that regimens with FDCs are more acceptable, well tolerated and adequately complied with. Recommended Choice of First Line Regimen The regimens described in this chapter are for HIV-1 infected individuals unless specified otherwise. The basic principle for first-line ART for treatment naïve adult and adolescent patients is to use a triple drug combination from two different classes of ARVs. The first-line ART essentially comprises of a NRTI backbone, preferably Non-Thymidine (Tenofovir plus Lamivudine) and one NNRTI, preferably EFV. Based on the evidence supporting better efficacy and fewer side effects, it is now recommended that all PLHIV with HIV-1 infection be initiated on a regimen consisting of TENOFOVIR (TDF 300 mg) + LAMIVUDINE (3TC 300 mg) + EFAVIRENZ (EFV 600 mg) (TLE) as Fixed Dose Combination (FDC) in a single pill once a day This regimen has the advantage of harmonization in the treatment of all adults, adolescents, pregnant women and those with HIV-TB and HIV Hepatitis co-infections. It is a simple, potent and well-tolerated regimen that offers the advantage of a decentralized service delivery and monitoring. It also simplifies the supply chain and minimizes the monitoring requirements. In cases where the preferred first-line ARV regimen of TDF +3TC +EFV cannot be used, the alternative regimen of AZT +3TC +EFV, TDF +3TC +NVP, ABC +3TC +EFV or ABC +3TC +NVP can be used. Note: The patients with HIV-2 and both HIV-1 and HIV-2 co-infections need to be initiated on a PI containing regimen, as NNRTIs (EFV/ NVP) are not active against HIV-2 virus. For patients with HIV-2 infection (HIV-2 alone or both HIV-1 and HIV-2 co-infections), the preferred first-line ART regimen shall be Tenofovir (300 mg) plus Lamivudine (300 mg) plus Lopinavir/Ritonavir (800/200 mg) A summary of different ARV regimens with specific indications are given below in Table 8 Table 8: First-line ARV Regimen guidance \| ART Regimen \| Recommended For \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| First-line ART regimen for: All ARV naive PLHIV patients with HIV-1 infection, age > 10 years and body weight > 30 kg \| \| Abacavir + Lamivudine +Efavirenz \| First-line ART regimen for all patients with abnormal serum creatinine values - Refer to ART guidance for special situations. All adults and adolescents with body weight less than 30 kg \| \| Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir \| First-line ART regimen for: All women with single dose Nevirapine exposure in a past pregnancy; All confirmed HIV-2 or HIV- 1 & HIV-2 co-infection \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine \| All patients who are on either of these first-line regimens initiated earlier in the programme need to be continued on the same regimen unless failing \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| \| General Guidance: - A single pill of TLE should be taken at bedtime, 2-3 hours after dinner; fatty food should be avoided as far as possible. - Patients with severe Diabetes and Hypertension should be monitored more closely for TDF toxicity. Considerations for ART in Adolescents According to WHO, adolescence is the period between 10-19 years of age. During this period, healthy HIV-infected adolescents pass through well-described stages of physical, psychological, and sexual maturation for which appropriate support and care are required. An estimated 2.1 million adolescents (10–19 years old) were living with HIV globally in 2013. HIV-related deaths among adolescents are estimated to have tripled since 2000, making HIV the second leading cause of death among adolescents worldwide (WHO 2016). Adolescence is marked by rapid physical, neuro-developmental, emotional, and social changes. Adolescents have significantly lesser access to ART and coverage of ART than adults, high risk of loss to follow-up, suboptimal adherence, and special requirements for comprehensive care, including psycho-social support and sexual and reproductive health care. Adolescents also face significant barriers to the access of essential health and support services, especially because of policy and legal barriers related to the age of consent. Perinatally infected adolescents are more likely to experience chronic diseases and neuro-developmental growth and pubertal delays in comparison to their age-matched peers. Older adolescents who acquire HIV behaviourally do not present the same clinical features but face potentially greater challenges in dealing with stigma and lack of family and community support to access care. Physicians giving care and treatment to such adolescents should consider the following issues: - Disclosure - Developmental delays - Transition difficulties from childhood to adulthood which may influence choice of appropriate ART regimens - Adherence issues - Psychosocial support needs - Physical and sexual issues Monitoring of Patients on ART Follow-up and monitoring is essential in patients initiated on ART to track clinical progress, monitor well-being, and to identify adverse drug reactions and toxicities. ART monitoring includes clinical monitoring and laboratory monitoring. Clinical monitoring includes monitoring of adherence to ART as well. The client should be monitored every month for clinical progress, side effects of the ARV/s and treatment adherence. Clinical and laboratory evaluations are carried out at specified intervals for patients who are on ART. The various monitoring indicators are listed below: - Clinical monitoring o Monthly clinical evaluation o Body weight, overall well-being, any new symptoms / signs, four symptom screening for TB at every visit o Monthly Treatment Adherence-Evaluation—pill count, self-reported adherence o Adherence to ART must be assessed at each visit and adherence must be reinforced through counselling at each visit o Adverse reactions of ART / OI drugs o Drug-drug interactions, look for all concomitant drug use (prescribed and over the counter) o IRIS (Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome) - Immunological monitoring CD4 testing should be done every 6 months. As and when routine virological monitoring becomes available, CD4 testing should be done every 6 months till CD4 count reaches to greater than 350 cells/cmm and viral load is less than 1000 copies/ml (when both tests are conducted at the same time). - Virological monitoring: At 6 months and 12 months after ART initiation and then every 12 months The laboratory monitoring of PLHIV on ART is also very important. Regular monitoring of the patient’s laboratory parameters is crucial to identify ARV related toxicities, inter-current illnesses and drug-drug interactions and other metabolic abnormalities. The frequency of monitoring and the parameters to be monitored depend upon the components of the regimen. This is important to remember as quite a significant number of PLHIV are still continuing their older first-line regimens (ZLN/ ZLE). The summary of the laboratory monitoring recommended under the programme is presented below in the Table 9. Additional laboratory tests outside this schedule may be performed as clinically indicated by the ART medical officer. Table 9: Laboratory Monitoring of individual ARV drugs \| For all patients on ART, we need to do CD4, Hb, TLC, DLC, ALT (SGPT), serum creatinine once in every six months \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Tests for monitoring patients on ART (Follow-up tests) - Drug specific tests frequency as below \| \| Monitoring ARV Drug in regimen \| Monitoring Test \| Baseline \| 15th Day \| First Month \| Third Month \| Sixth Month \| Then every 6 months \| At 12 months \| \| On Zidovudine based ART \| CBC \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| \| On Tenofovir based ART \| Serum creatinine \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| \| Nevirapine containing ART (SGPT) \| ALT \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| The prevalence of lipid abnormalities is significantly frequent in patients on ART, particularly if they are on d4T, EFV or PIs. In case of these patients and those with significant risk factors for coronary artery disease, a fasting lipid profile should be done at six months or earlier as required. Otherwise, yearly evaluations suffice. Fasting blood sugar is recommended as part of the baseline screening of all patients to be started on ART, as currently one of the major causes of morbidity in India is Diabetes Mellitus. To summarize, a combination of clinical and laboratory monitoring is to be carried out in all PLHIV after initiation of ART. This is depicted in the Table 10 below. Table 10: Monitoring and follow-up schedule for patients on ART \| Monitoring Tool \| When to Monitor? \| \|----------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------\| \| Body weight \| Every Visit \| \| Treatment adherence \| Every Visit \| \| Clinical monitoring & T – staging\| Every Visit \| \| 4 Symptoms TB screening \| Every Visit \| \| CD4 Count \| CD4 has to be done every 6 months* \| \| Viral load \| At 6 months, 12 months and then every 12 months \| CD4 Count: 1. As and when routine virological monitoring becomes available, CD4 testing should be done every 6 months till CD4 count reaches greater than 350 cells/cmm and viral load is less than 1000 copies/ml (when both tests are conducted at the same time). 2. CD4 monitoring should be re-started for any patient if (a) the patient has suspected treatment failure i.e. virological failure (VL >1000 copies/ml) or (b) if the patient has undergone a switch in regimen More frequent visits or additional laboratory monitoring may be required, if the patient develops any symptoms or side-effects of the ARVs or experiences difficulties in adherence to ARVs due to any reason, including clinically indicated reasons as per the discretion of the Medical Officer. Once the patient has stabilized and CD4 starts improving, the patient does not have any OI or adverse events and has been adherent to ART for at least 1 year, the frequency of visits can be reduced to once in 3 months. NACO has defined stable patients as those who are on ART for at least one year, have good treatment adherence, an increasing CD4 count and are devoid of any active OI. Such patients should be encouraged to get linked out to the nearest link ART centre or be given 3 months of drugs, subject to the availability of sufficient stocks. What to Expect in the First Six Months of Therapy Taking ART is a lifelong commitment and the first six months of therapy are especially important. Clinical and immunological improvement and viral suppression are expected when individuals adhere to ART. However, certain opportunistic infections and/or Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) may develop, as may early adverse drug reactions, such as drug hypersensitivity, especially in the first three months of treatment. ART significantly decreases the overall mortality, but death rates are highest in the first three months of ART initiation. As the immune system recovers, there may be exacerbation of previously sub-clinical co-existing infections (e.g. TB), resulting in an apparent worsening of the disease. It is to be remembered that this is not due to the failure of therapy, but due to the success of the therapy and resulting immune reconstitution. Complications are commonest among the first few weeks of treatment, especially among people starting ART with advanced HIV disease, those with severe immunodeficiency and existing co-infections and/or co-morbidities, very low haemoglobin, low body mass index, very low CD4 counts or those who are severely malnourished. Poor adherence in this period is also associated with the risk of early treatment failure and rapid development of drug resistance. CD4 recovery In most adults and children, CD4 cell counts rise by 40-60 cells per year when ART is initiated and immune recovery starts. Generally, this increase occurs during the first year of treatment, achieves a plateau and then continues to rise further during the second year. However, severe immunosuppression may persist in some individuals who do not experience a significant rise in CD4 cell count with treatment, especially those with a very low CD4 cell count at the time of initiating ART. Failure to achieve some CD4 recovery should alert the health care provider to potential adherence problems or primary non-response to ART and consideration should be given to continue prophylaxis for opportunistic infections such as co-trimoxazole preventive therapy. Several other factors can influence CD4 T cell counts apart from laboratory-related variables. These include: - Concurrent infections, specifically Hepatitis - Leucopenia of varying aetiology especially caused by ARV itself and steroids or other immunosuppressive therapies - Pregnancy can also lead to lower values - Diurnal variation occurs; CD4 T cells are lower at noon, and highest in the evening around 8 pm - Psychological stress seems to play a negligible role, even though patients often assume the contrary Several factors can influence the extent of immune reconstitution during ART. The degree of viral suppression is crucial – the lower the viral load, the more pronounced the effect. The absolute increase in CD4 count is higher if CD4 counts were high at the start of ART. Presence of naive T-cells the time of ART initiation is particularly an important factor for long-term immune reconstitution/recovery. Hence CD4 response may vary widely and we need to focus on viral suppression. Patients with declining CD4 but undetectable VL should be evaluated for recent viral infection, immunization and CD4 variability; if all these have been ruled out, one may consider the possibility of HIV-2 or HIV-1 and HIV-2 co-infection. Viral Load Within the first few weeks of therapy the viral load should start decreasing and after 6 months viral load test should be done to evaluate the response to ARVs. Viral load testing should be done at 6 months after initiation of ART, again at 12 months and once the viral load is suppressed, every 12 months. Most people will achieve viral suppression at 24 weeks of initiation of treatment. Virological suppression in context of national programme means a viral load of less than 1000 copies/ml after at least six months on ART.* Early ARV toxicity First-line drug toxicities fall into two categories. Early toxicity usually presents in the first few weeks to months of ART. Early and potentially severe toxicities such as skin rashes, neuropsychiatric side effects to NNRTIs (EFV and NVP) normally occur within the first few weeks of therapy. AZT-related anaemia and gastrointestinal side effects like severe vomiting and occasional diarrhoea typically present in the first few months of therapy while some toxicities may occur years after initiation of treatment like TDF induced toxicities. More details about toxicity are described in a separate chapter on toxicities. The guidelines for substitution of ARV drugs in such cases are also described in the same chapter. Mortality on ART While ART significantly decreases mortality, the risk of death is higher in the first six months than during the subsequent period on therapy, particularly when patients start ART with clinical stage 4 events, such as diagnosed with TB meningitis at baseline, low BMI during follow up, severe immunosuppression and/or very low CD4 counts. Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) Definition: “The worsening of signs and symptoms due to known infections” or “the development of disease due to occult infections that results from an inflammatory response by a re-invigorated immune system following the initiation of anti-retroviral therapy.” This is a condition that can occur shortly after a person starts ART for the first time. It is a spectrum of clinical signs and symptoms resulting from the body’s ability to mount an inflammatory response associated with immune recovery. The suppression of CD4 T cells by HIV causes a decrease in the body’s normal response to certain infections. Antiretroviral therapy partially restores the immune defects caused by chronic HIV infection, including the restoration of protective pathogen-specific immune responses. If the CD4 count rapidly increases (due to effective treatment of HIV), a sudden increase in the inflammatory response produces nonspecific symptoms such as fever and in some cases a paradoxical worsening of pre-existing symptoms of infective or non-infective conditions, e.g. TB, MAC or CMV. In general, people with profound immunosuppression before starting HIV therapy are most at risk for IRIS. It occurs in 10-30% of patients initiating ART, usually within first 4-8 weeks. However, late IRIS can be observed upto 6 months of initiating ART. Some risk factors for IRIS are as below: - People with CD4 counts below 100 cells/cmm before starting therapy (lower CD4 counts at ART initiation) or lower CD4: CD8 ratio at ART initiation - People with rapid initial fall in HIV viral load due to therapy • People with diagnosis of another infection before starting therapy; the closer the appearance or diagnosis is to starting therapy, the higher the risk (Shorter interval between OI therapy initiation and ART initiation) • Severity of TB disease, especially high pathogen burden, and short interval between initiation of ATT and ART • Male sex • Younger age • Higher HIV RNA at ART initiation • Genetic susceptibility Working definition of IRIS in Programme Conditions: “The worsening of signs and symptoms due to known infections, or the development of disease due to occult infections within 6 weeks to 6 months after initiating ART, with an increase in CD4 count.” The various categories of IRIS along with the possible antigen are mentioned in the table below. Table 11: Categories of IRIS \| Categories \| Antigen Target \| \|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------\| \| Infection-unmasking \| Viable replicating infective antigen \| \| Infection-paradoxical \| Dead or dying organisms \| \| Auto immune \| Host \| \| Malignancies \| Possible tumour or associated pathogen \| Source: Devesh J. Dhasmana, Keertan Dheda, Pernille Ravn, Robert J. Wilkinson and Graeme Meintjes. IRIS in HIV-Infected Patients Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy Pathogenesis, Clinical Manifestations & Management. Drugs, 2008; 68 (2):191-208 Unmasking IRIS refers to, for e.g., the initial clinical expression of active TB occurring soon after ART is started. Paradoxical IRIS refers to, for e.g., the worsening of TB clinical manifestations after the initiation of ART in patients, who are receiving anti-TB treatment. IRIS should be considered only when the presentation cannot be explained by a new infection, expected course of a known infection or drug toxicity. IRIS should be diagnosed by excluding: • Active OI • Treatment failure • Side effect from ARV • Failure to Antimicrobial Therapy The clinical spectrum of IRIS is diverse in terms of early or delayed onset, atypical symptoms, generalized or localized infection, variation in severity and it may be infectious or non-infectious. The following can help in the diagnosis of IRIS: • Temporal association between the initiation of ART and the development of new clinical event (mostly within 3 months). 1. Typically, IRIS occurs within 2–12 weeks of the initiation of ART, although it may present later (usually between 6 weeks to 6 months) 2. The incidence of IRIS is estimated to be 10% among all patients in whom ART has been initiated and up to 25% among those initiated on ART having CD4 cell count of below 50 cells/cmm. - Unusual clinical manifestations in patients responding to ART include: 1. Unexpected localized disease, e.g., lymph nodes (appearance or enlargement and/or suppuration) or involving liver or spleen or development of pleural effusion 2. Exaggerated inflammatory reaction, e.g., severe fever, with exclusion of other causes 3. Painful lesions 4. Atypical inflammatory response in affected tissues, e.g., granulomas, suppuration, necrosis 5. Perivascular lymphocytic inflammatory cell infiltrate 6. Progression of organ dysfunction or enlargement of pre-existing lesions 7. Development or enlargement of cerebral space-occupying lesions after treatment, for e.g., cerebral cryptococcosis or toxoplasmosis 8. Progressive pneumonitis or the development of organizing pneumonia after treatment for pulmonary TB or PCP 9. Onset or worsening of uveitis / vitritis after the resolution of CMV retinitis 10. Fever and cytopenia after treatment for disseminated MAC The most serious and life-threatening forms of paradoxical IRIS are TB and Cryptococcosis. BCG vaccine-associated IRIS (localized and systemic) may occur in infants infected with HIV in settings where BCG immunization is a routine. A low CD4 cell count (< 50 cells/cmm) at ART initiation, disseminated Opportunistic Infections or tumours, a shorter duration of therapy for opportunistic infections before ART starts and rapid increase in the CD4 and a rapid decrease in the viral load after ART initiation are the main risk factors. The most important steps to reduce the development of IRIS include: earlier HIV diagnosis and initiation of ART before decline of CD4 below 200 cells/cmm; improved screening for opportunistic infections before ART, especially TB, Cryptococcus, CMV and optimal management of opportunistic infections before initiating ART. Timing of ART in people with opportunistic infections requires balancing a greater risk of IRIS after early initiation against continuing high mortality if ART is delayed. IRIS Management IRIS is generally self-limiting, and interruption of ART is rarely indicated, but people may need to be reassured in the face of protracted symptoms to prevent discontinuation of ART or poor adherence to ART. - Mild form (with ongoing ART) - Observation - Localized IRIS (with ongoing ART) - Local therapy such as minor surgical procedures for lymph node abscesses (Drainage) - As per system involvement e.g., neurological, respiratory - Most of the situations (with ongoing ART) • Recognition and management of ongoing infections o Antimicrobial therapy is required to reduce and to eliminate the triggering pathogen (antigenic load) • Reconstituting immune reaction to non-replicating antigens o No antimicrobial therapy is required Short term therapy with corticosteroids or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can be given to reduce the inflammation – Prednisolone in dose of 1.5 mg/kg orally for two weeks followed by 0.75 mg/kg orally for two weeks and then tapered off. Temporary cessation of ART must be considered only if potentially life-threatening forms of IRIS develop. 6. Adherence to ART Adherence: “Extent to which a person’s behaviour - the taking of medication and the following of a healthy lifestyle including a healthy diet and other activities – corresponds with the agreed recommendations of the health care providers” (WHO, 2003). Though the terms adherence and compliance are synonymously used, adherence differs from compliance. Compliance is the extent to which a patient’s behaviour matches the prescriber’s advice. Compliance implies patient obedience to the physician’s authority, whereas adherence signifies that the patient and physician collaborate to improve the patient’s health by integrating the physician’s medical opinion and the patient’s lifestyle, values and preferences for care. A high degree of adherence to ARV drugs is necessary for optimal virological suppression. Adherence should be assessed and routinely reinforced by everyone in the HIV care team (Treating physicians, counsellors, nurses, pharmacists, peer educators, care coordinator, CSC staff and others) at each of the patient’s visits to the ART centre. Studies indicate that > 95% of adherence is required for optimal viral load suppression. Lesser degrees of adherence are often associated with Virological failure. Factors associated with poor adherence include a poor patient-clinician relationship, high pill burden, lack of caregiver, distance of ART centre from home, financial problems, home or job work responsibilities, frequent travelling, forgetfulness, mental illness, psychological factors, lack of patient education, inability of patients to identify their medications, substance abuse, drug toxicity, cultural factors (e.g. religious fasting), beliefs about treatment, faith in traditional faith healers, false perception of good health and the impression of being too ill for treatment. At least two to three preparatory adherence counselling visits should be made before the start of ART. After the final preparatory visit, the treating physician and counsellor should jointly consider the patient’s readiness to start treatment. The steps of preparatory counselling are provided in Table 1. Table 1: Counselling for Treatment Preparation and Adherence \| Step 1 \| • Establish rapport and relationship of trust with the patient \| \| • Provide necessary information and guidance \| \| • Encourage peer participation and help to identify treatment support persons \| \| • Encourage disclosure to an identified family member \| \| • Encourage positive living and positive prevention \| \| • Provide information about cough Hygiene and for TB prevention \| \| • Perform 4S screening \| \| • Develop an individual treatment plan, fitting ART into the patient’s lifestyle/daily events and identifying treatment reminders \| Step 1 - Assess patient’s readiness for and commitment to ART; readiness to commence ART may be assessed by: - Assess the ability to attend ART centre regularly and not miss appointments - Assess the ability to take OI prophylaxis, e.g., co-trimoxazole - Assess the ability to complete full course of TB therapy, if patient co-infected with TB List barriers to adherence and develop strategies to overcome these barriers - Adequate understanding of ARV adverse drug effects - There should be strict adherence to treatment. Adherence to recommended regimens should be > 95% to avoid development of ARV drug resistance. - If patients have difficulty in adhering to regular doses, reinforce adherence counselling - Enlist community outreach teams and peer support groups of PLHIV, as appropriate - Inform that treatment is lifelong - The timing of drug intake is critical (e.g. drugs taken twice daily must be taken every 12 hours, while drugs to be taken once daily, must be taken at 24-hour interval). Missed doses can be taken up to 6 hours later in a twice-daily regimen. If > 6 hours have elapsed, skip the dose and take next normal dose. If the pill of the once daily regimen of TLE is missed, then it should be taken as soon as patient remembers within 12 hours. - Dietary requirements with ARV drugs: Some drugs are taken with food, some on an empty stomach. Fatty food needs to be avoided before some drugs and some require an increased intake of water - The side-effects of the drugs have to be explained to and understood by the patient before commencing ART. Give an information sheet to patients about the ART regimen they are taking - People on ART need to continue to use condoms regularly and practice safe injecting drug use - Other medications, including herbal/traditional products, may interact with ART - Patients need careful counselling about which medications are allowed and which are not with their ART - Regular clinic attendance for monitoring of efficacy, side-effects and adherence is essential - Help the patient explore his/her feelings. Many patients are preoccupied with problems related to family, job, relationships, etc. and cannot focus on strict adherence until negative feelings about these problems are sorted out Step 2 Counselling - in one or more individual sessions: - Help the patient explore his/her feelings. Many patients are preoccupied with problems related to family, job, relationships, etc. and cannot focus on strict adherence until negative feelings about these problems are sorted out. - Many have no private place to store their medicines and are not able to take them in privacy. Not wanting others to know their HIV status is by far the commonest reason for poor adherence by patients. Patients must be realistic about whom to confide their HIV status and how to tell them. Check for any financial difficulties the patient may be experiencing: - Some patients may not follow up if they do not have money to travel to the centre, or their health maybe affected by a poor diet. - Help patients develop secondary support systems for themselves. Step 3 Solving practical problems and creating a treatment plan - Where will the ARV drugs be stored? - At what time will they be taken? - How will the patient remember or who will remind him/her to take the medication if he/she forgets? - What will the patient do if his/her normal routine is interrupted? - A time should be agreed upon to meet or telephone the patient within a few days of starting ART to discuss any problems. - If patients cannot keep the appointment, counsellors should make phone calls and arrange home visits through CSC. The counsellors shall follow the following check-lists as given in Table 2 Table 2: Check-lists to be used for identifying treatment adherence: \| No. \| Check-lists for treatment adherence \| \|-----\|-----------------------------------\| \| 1 \| On time pill pick up \| \| 2 \| Number of doses missed since the last visit \| \| 3 \| Whether doses are taken at correct time interval (if not, ask about delay in hours) \| \| 4 \| Reasons for missing / incorrect dosing / non-adherence \| For more details, refer to Annexure 4 (Checklist for Adherence Counselling) The key to successful adherence is educating the patient before the initiation of therapy, supporting ARV initiation as the patient first starts taking medications, and continuously monitoring and supporting adherence. The reinforcement of the principles of adherence by treatment supporters (guardian), relatives, friends and community support personnel are of great help. Providing PLHIV with an information sheet on the ART regimen they are taking will facilitate adherence and education. Calculating Adherence: There are number of ways of measuring adherence like self-reporting by patient, pill count, home visit, patient diary etc. Pill count is the most commonly used method to assess the adherence. In each follow up visit, patient should be asked to bring the pill box with the unconsumed remaining pills. For more than one type of pill, adherence needs to be calculated for all drug combination. separately and reasons for different adherence patterns to different drugs should be explored. Following formula is used to calculate the adherence. \[ \text{Adherence (in %)} = \frac{\text{Total number of pills the patient has actually taken}}{\text{Total number of pills should have taken in that time period}} \times 100 \] This is equal to \[ \frac{\text{Number of pills given to the client} - \text{Number of pills balance in the bottle}}{\text{Number of pills the client should have taken}} \times 100 \] Examples: 1) Tab TLE (Single pill daily) = Number of pill balance- 9, patient returns on 28th Day. Adherence Calculation- \[ (30-9) / 28 \times 100 = 75\% \] 2) Tab ZLN (One Pill Twice daily dose) = Number of pill balance- 23, patient returns on 25th Day. Adherence Calculation- \[ (60-23) / (25 \times 2) \times 100 = 37 / 50 \times 100 = 74\% \] 3) Tab TL + ATV/r (TL and ATV/r Two pill once daily dose) = Number of pill balance- 9 TL and 11 ATV/r, patient returns on 25th Day. Adherence Calculation- individual drug combination adherence needs to be calculated and whichever is lower, can be considered for reporting purpose \[ \text{TL Adherence} = (30-9) / 25 \times 100 = 21 / 25 \times 100 = 84\% \] \[ \text{ATV/r adherence} = (30-11) / 25 \times 100 = 19 / 25 \times 100 = 76\% \] Hence overall adherence = 76% 4) Tab ZL + LPV/r (ZL-One Pill twice daily and LPV/r Two pill twice daily dose) = Number of pill balance- 11 ZL and 25 LPV/r, patient returns on 25th Day. Adherence Calculation-individual drug combination adherence needs to be calculated and whichever is lower, can be considered for reporting purpose \[ \text{ZL Adherence} = (60-11) / (25 \times 2) \times 100 = 49 / 50 \times 100 = 98\% \] \[ \text{LPV/r adherence} = (120-25) / (25 \times 4) \times 100 = 95 / 100 \times 100 = 95\% \] Adherence Calculation- individual drug combination adherence needs to be calculated and whichever is lower, can be considered for reporting purpose Hence overall adherence = 95% Refer to consolidated HIV Counselling Training Modules for ICTC, PPTCT and ART Counsellors, NACO for more details. Role of Care and Support Centre (CSC) in improving adherence of PLHIV: The overall goal of CSC is to improve the survival and quality of life of PLHIV. To improve treatment adherence and education for PLHIV is one of the specific objectives of CSC, because adherence education and support by CSC can help the PLHIV sustain and manage their treatment regimes. The CSC serves as a comprehensive unit for treatment support, retention, adherence, positive living and referral linkages to need based services and strengthening enabling environment for PLHIV. The day-to-day functioning of the CSC is supported by a team comprising of project coordinator, counsellor, peer counsellor and outreach workers, all of them have different roles in improving adherence of PLHIV by providing treatment education and adherence counselling at the CSC or during outreach activities. The CSC can arrange a support group meeting with a thematic area of ART adherence for a specific group of clients with compromised adherence. The main reasons for sub optimal or poor adherence need to be identified by counsellor / peer counsellor or outreach worker during home visit of the client or during their visit at CSC. An effective outreach should bridge these gaps by providing comprehensive information to enhance the knowledge and ultimately result in improved adherence and better quality of life. Refer to operational section of NACO Guidelines for ART services for more details about role of CSC in improving adherence of PLHIV and also refer to NACO guidelines on Care and Support Centres. Parent-to-child transmission of HIV is a major route of new HIV infections in children. Children born to women living with HIV acquire HIV infection from their mother, either during pregnancy, labour/delivery or through breast feeding which is largely preventable with appropriate intervention, by providing Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) to mothers and Anti-Retroviral (ARV) prophylaxis to infants. A total of 61,000 lakh children (0 to 14 years) are estimated to be living with HIV in India. Out of 29 million pregnancies every year, an estimated 22000 occur in HIV infected women. All these HIV infected pregnant women have to be detected and provided with timely ART in order to reduce mother to child transmission and ultimately to eliminate paediatric HIV. Counselling and information regarding the outcome of pregnancy and HIV related treatment to the HIV infected women is provided under the programme. Table 1: Risk of HIV transmission from Mother to Child with ARV interventions \| ARV Intervention \| Risk of HIV Transmission from mother to child \| \|-------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| No ARV; breastfeeding \| 30-45% \| \| No ARV; No breastfeeding \| 20-25% \| \| Short course with one ARV; breastfeeding \| 15-25% \| \| Short course with one ARV; No breastfeeding \| 5-15% \| \| Short course with two ARVs; breastfeeding \| 5% \| \| 3 ARVs (ART) with breastfeeding \| 2% \| \| 3 ARVs (ART) with No breastfeeding \| 1% \| Source: Anti retroviral drugs for treating pregnant women and preventing HIV infectionin infants: Towards universal access, Recommendations for public health approach – 2006 version – WHO There has been a significant scale-up of HIV counselling and testing, prevention of parent to child transmission (PPTCT) and ART services across the country over the last few years. The number of pregnant women tested annually under the Prevention of Parent-to-Child Transmission (PPTCT) programme has significantly increased over the last decade. However, the HIV testing rates for ANC attendees is still far from universal coverage. The PPTCT services have a reach in a wide area, including sub district level. Under the national programme, it is recommended to provide lifelong ART for all pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV, in which all pregnant women living with HIV receive a “single-pill” triple-drug ART regimen (TDF +3TC + EFV) regardless of CD4 count or clinical stage, both for their own health and to prevent vertical HIV transmission and for additional HIV prevention benefits. ARV for Pregnant women and Exposed Infant - All HIV positive pregnant women including those presenting in labour and breast feeding should be initiated on a triple drug ART regardless of CD4 count and clinical stage (Test and Treat), for preventing Mother-to-Child Transmission and continue lifelong ART. - The duration of Nevirapine prophylaxis to HIV exposed infant should be minimum of 6 weeks. However, this duration of Nevirapine prophylaxis should be extended to 12 weeks, if the duration of ART in pregnant mother falls short 4 weeks during pregnancy and before delivery or reporting at the time labour or after delivery, if not already on ART - PPTCT Services: The National PPTCT programme recognizes the 4 elements (Figure 1) integral to preventing HIV transmission among women and children. These include: - Prong 1: Primary prevention of HIV, especially among women of childbearing age - Prong 2: Prevention of unintended pregnancies among women living with HIV - Prong 3: Prevention of HIV transmission from pregnant women infected with HIV to their children - Prong 4: Provide care, support and treatment to women living with HIV and to their children and families Figure 1: Four-Pronged strategy The National PPTCT programme adopts a public health approach to provide these services to pregnant women and their children. Currently, the major activities focused under PPTCT services have been Prong- 3 and 4. However, Prong 1 and prong 2 are also emphasized, to achieve the overall results of the PPTCT Programme. PPTCT: Interventions during pregnancy: - Primary prevention of HIV in childbearing women - Provide HIV information to ALL pregnant women - Antenatal visits are opportunity for PPTCT - Prevention of unwanted pregnancies in HIV-positive women - Prevention of PTCT through ART - Safe obstetric practices PPTCT: Interventions during labour and delivery: - Minimize vaginal examinations - Avoid prolonged labour; consider oxytocin to shorten labour - Avoid artificial rupture of membranes - Early cord clamping after it stops pulsating and after giving the mother oxytocin - Use non-invasive foetal monitoring - Avoid invasive procedures - Avoid routine episiotomy / support perineum - Minimise the use of forceps or vacuum extractors Considerations in Mode of Delivery: 1. In India, normal vaginal delivery is recommended unless the woman has obstetric indications (like foetal distress, obstructed labour) for a Caesarean section 2. Use of ART can reduce risk of PTCT better and with lesser risk than a C-section Goal and Objectives of PPTCT Services in India Vision: Women and children, alive and free from HIV Goal: To work towards elimination of paediatric HIV and improve maternal, newborn and child health and survival in the context of HIV infection Objectives: 1. To detect more than 90% HIV infected pregnant women in India 2. To provide access to comprehensive PPTCT services to more than 90% of the detected pregnant women 3. To provide access to early infant diagnosis to more than 90% HIV exposed infants 4. To ensure access to anti-retroviral drug (ARVs) prophylaxis or Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) to 100% HIV exposed infants 5. To ensure more than 95% adherence with ART in HIV infected pregnant women and ARV/ART in exposed children The PPTCT services provide access to all pregnant women for HIV diagnostic, prevention, care and treatment services. As such, the key goal is to ensure the integrated PPTCT services delivery with existing Reproductive & Child Health (RCH) programme. The Essential Package of PPTCT Services in India includes: 1. Routine offer of HIV counselling and testing to all pregnant women enrolled into antenatal care (ANC) with ‘opt out’ option 2. Ensure involvement of spouse & other family members and move from an “ANC Centric” to a “Family Centric” approach 3. Provision of lifelong ART (TDF +3TC + EFV) to all pregnant and breastfeeding HIV infected women regardless of CD4 count and clinical stage 4. Promote institutional deliveries of all HIV infected pregnant women 5. Provision of care for associated conditions (STI/ RTI, TB & other Opportunistic Infections -OIs) 6. Provide nutrition counselling and psychosocial support to HIV-infected pregnant women 7. Provide counselling and support for initiation of exclusive breastfeeds within an hour of delivery as the preferred option; continue BF at least for one year for those infants with negative HIV status (Early Infant Diagnosis Protocol) and 2 years for HIV positive children 8. Provide ARV prophylaxis to infants from birth up to minimum 6 weeks 9. Integrate follow-up of HIV-exposed infants into routine healthcare services including immunization 10. Ensure initiation of Co-trimoxazole Prophylactic Therapy (CPT) and Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) using HIV-DNA PCR at 6 weeks of age onwards as per the NACO EID guidelines. 11. Strengthen community follow-up and outreach through local community networks to support HIV-positive pregnant women and their families Evaluating HIV Infected Pregnant Women under different case scenario The decision tree below shows some of the steps taken as part of the evaluation process of HIV-infected and breastfeeding women at the ART Centre: WHAT ART TO START? ART in Pregnant / Breast feeding Women The following table describes the specific groups to which the pregnant women belong and guides the medical officer in selecting the regimen. Table 2: ART regimens in pregnant and breastfeeding with HIV \| Target Population \| Drug Regimen \| Remark \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Pregnant and breastfeeding women with HIV (ART Naïve / “Not-already” receiving ART) \| TDF + 3TC + EFV \| FDC of TDF (300 mg) + 3TC (300 mg) + EFV (600 mg)- To be given 2 hours after low-fat or fat-free dinner \| \| Pregnant and breastfeeding women with HIV already receiving ART \| The same ART regimen must be continued \| E.g. If they are already on AZT +3TC +NVP/ EFV, continue the same regimen \| \| ART regimen for pregnant women having prior exposure to NNRTI for PPTCT \| TDF + 3TC and LPV/r \| FDC of TDF (300 mg) + 3TC (300 mg) -- 1-tab OD and FDC of LPV (200 mg)/r (50 mg) - 2-tab BD \| - Abacavir + Lamivudine +Efavirenz: First line ART Regimen: for all patients with known renal disease or who develop toxicity to Tenofovir - As per PPTCT guidelines, all positive pregnant women exposed to NVP/EFV in past should be initiated on Lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) instead of Efavirenz (EFV). Care and Assessment for Women presenting Directly-in-labour - Labour room nurse will offer bed side counselling and HIV screening test - If the woman consents, screen using the “Whole Blood Finger Prick test” in delivery room or labour ward - If detected HIV positive, the medical Officer i/c will initiate TDF + 3TC + EFV and ensure immediate linkage to ART centre Labour room nurse informs the ICTC counsellor and lab technician for further confirmation of HIV test as per guidelines Table 3: Pregnant women presenting in active labour: \| Maternal Status \| Intra-partum \| Post-partum \| \|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\| \| Presenting in active labour, no prior ART \| Initiate TDF (300 mg) + 3TC (300 mg) + EFV (600 mg)\| Continue TDF (300 mg) + 3TC (300 mg) + EFV (600 mg) \| Nevirapine prophylaxis for breastfeeding infant should be for 12 weeks, as mother did not receive any ART during ante-natal period ARV Prophylaxis for Infant: The infant should be started on Nevirapine. The duration of NVP prophylaxis will depend on the duration of ART that has been given to the mother during her ante-natal period. - Infants should be started on daily NVP prophylaxis at their first encounter with the health services • Daily infant NVP prophylaxis can be started even if more than 72 hours have passed since birth and should continue; during this period the mother should be linked to appropriate ART services Duration of daily infant NVP prophylaxis will depend on “how long the mother was on lifelong ART [for a minimum of 4 weeks or not]” • The duration of NVP given to infant is a minimum of 6 weeks, regardless of whether the infant is exclusively breast fed or exclusive replacement fed • 6 week-Nevirapine prophylaxis should be increased to 12 weeks, if ART to the mother has been started in late pregnancy, during or after delivery and she has not been on ART for an adequate period as to be effective to achieve optimal viral suppression (which is at least 4 • The recommendation on extended Nevirapine duration (12 weeks) applies to infants of breast-feeding women only and not to those on exclusive replacement feeding • Infants of women with prior exposure to NVP should get syrup Zidovudine (AZT) in place of syrup Nevirapine Table 4: Recommended ARV Prophylaxis for HIV Exposed Infants \| Infants Birth Weight \| NVP daily dose (in mg) \| NVP daily dose (in ml) (10 mg Nevirapine in 1 ml suspension) \| Duration \| \|----------------------\|------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------\|----------\| \| Infants with birth weight < 2000 g \| 2 mg/kg once daily \| 0.2 ml/kg once daily \| Upto minimum of 6 weeks of age regardless of whether exclusively breast fed or exclusively replacement fed \| \| Birth weight 2000 – 2500 g \| 10 mg once daily \| 1 ml once daily \| Extended to 12 weeks, if the duration of ART received by the mother is less than 24 weeks and she is breast feeding \| \| Birth weight > 2500 g \| 15 mg once daily \| 1.5 ml once daily \| \| Pregnant women with HIV-2 infection Although the great majority of HIV infections in India are due to HIV-1, there are small foci of HIV-2 infection as well, primarily in western India. HIV-2 also progresses to AIDS, although the progression is generally much slower. HIV-2 has the same modes of transmission as HIV-1 but has been shown to be much less transmissible from mother to child (transmission risk 0-4%). NNRTI drugs, such as NVP and EFV, are not effective against HIV-2. Follow ‘Adult ART guidelines’ in HIV-2 infection. If a pregnant woman is detected and confirmed to have HIV-2 alone or combined HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection, she should receive PPTCT treatment interventions recommended for women with HIV-2 infection. This maternal intervention should be coupled with daily Zidovudine (AZT) to the infant from birth for minimum 6 weeks of age. HIV Exposed Infants of HIV-2 infected mother Start syrup AZT in place of NVP syrup, immediately after birth till 6 weeks of age The recommended dosages are: • Birth weight > 2.5 Kg: 15 mg per dose twice daily • Birth weight < 2.5 Kg: 10 mg per dose twice daily Specific Interventions during Infancy: - Observe for signs and symptoms of HIV infection - All HIV exposed infants should receive co-trimoxazole at 6 weeks of age - Follow standard immunization schedule - Routine well baby visits - Early Infant Diagnosis: DNA PCR test - 18-month visit for HIV antibody testing Safer Infant Feeding: Exclusive Breast feeding for first 6 months of life is recommended. In a situation where the mother is practicing mixed feeding, Health-care workers and Counsellors should motivate her to exclusively breastfed. When exclusive breast feeding is not possible for any reason (maternal sickness, twins), Mothers and health care workers can be reassured that maternal ART reduces the risk of postnatal HIV transmission in the context of mixed feeding as well. Mothers known to be HIV-infected (and whose infants are HIV uninfected or of unknown HIV status) should exclusively breastfeed their infants for the first six months of life, introducing appropriate complementary foods thereafter and continue breastfeeding. Breastfeeding should then only stop once a nutritionally adequate and safe diet without breast milk can be provided. Mothers living with HIV should breastfeed for at least 12 months and may continue breastfeeding for up to 24 months or beyond (similar to the general population) while being fully supported for ART adherence. Adequate and timely ART, safe methods of delivery and good care of the mother during the antenatal period will help to decrease risk of transmission. ARVs require ongoing care and monitoring and reduce risk of PTCT in the following ways: - Reduce viral replication and viral load - Treat maternal infection - Protect the HIV-exposed infant - Improve overall health of mother Choice of breastfeeding should be the decision of woman based on proper information; counselling on breastfeeding should begin during the ante-natal period itself As India embarks on the goal of eliminating parent to child transmission of HIV, it is evident that good coverage with ANC, high rates of HIV testing, effective ART for pregnant and breastfeeding mothers with ARV prophylaxis to infants will remain key factors contributing to the success of preventing the vertical transmission. For more programmatic details on PPTCT, please refer to the updated National Strategic Plan on Multi Drug ART for Parent to Child Transmission of HIV, 2013, NACO and the National HIV Counselling and Testing Services Guidelines (HCTS), 2016, NACO. \| \| \| \|---\|---\| \| 6. \| Mrs. F, an asymptomatic post-natal PLHIV presents 3 days after delivery at the ART Centre; her CD4 count is 550. She has opted for exclusive replacement feeding (ERF). What is the next step in the management of the mother? What is the next step in the management of the baby? Even though the mother has opted for ERF, she needs to be started on ART, as she is eligible for ART initiation, as per “Test and Treat Guidelines” For the baby, give syrup Nevirapine for 6 weeks (baby is on ERF) \| \| 7. \| Mrs. G, 21 years, HIV positive and pregnant, presented in the ANC clinic, and opted for MTP; her CD4 count is 580. Should we initiate her on ART? If yes, which regimen? She needs to be started on ART, as she is eligible for ART initiation, as per “Test and Treat Guidelines. TDF +3TC +EFV will be the appropriate regimen. \| \| 8. \| Mrs. H, 26 years, registered at the ART centre in 2010. She was initiated on ART in 2010 on AZT +3TC +EFV. She reported at the ANC clinic with 2 months pregnancy in December 2014. Her last visit to the ART Centre for ART was in December, 2014. She missed her ART due date in January 2015. She was followed up through ORW and linked back to the ART centre in February 2015. What regimen should be given now? What ARV prophylaxis should be given to the infant, if the mother is breastfeeding and for what duration? Continue the same Regimen, AZT+3TC+EFV Syrup Nevirapine for 6 weeks \| \| 10. \| Mrs. J, 28 years, last visited the ART centre in September 2015. She was followed up by the ORW and linked back to the ART centre in February 2016. She reported that she was pregnant (6 months). What regimen should be given now? What ARV prophylaxis should be given to the infant and for what duration, if the baby is ERF Continue the same regimen, if she is already on ART. Start TDF +3TC +EFV regimen, if she is not already on ART Syrup Nevirapine for 6 weeks, as the baby is on ERF \| \| 11. \| Mrs. K was diagnosed HIV +ve direct-in-labour. She was initiated on ART (TDF +3TC+EFV). On discharge, she was given 7 pills and was advised to visit ART centre. However, she visited the ART centre after 45 days. What regimen should be given now? What ARV prophylaxis should be given to the infant and for what duration, if the baby is breastfed? Continue the same regimen (TDF +3TC +EFV) Syrup Nevirapine for 12 weeks to the baby \| \| \| Guidance is required for management of mother and baby in case of HIV 1 and 2 co-infections. As per national guidelines, HIV 2 and HIV 1 and 2 should be treated with PI based regimen. \| Patients of HIV 1 and 2 co-infection shall be treated as HIV 2 Mother should get TDF +3TC +LPV/r For baby, syrup Zidovudine is the drug of choice. \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| \| Guidance is required for babies born to HIV infected mother presenting 72 hours after delivery \| Current guidelines – ARV prophylaxis is to be given to babies brought even after 72 hours of delivery \| \| \| Scenario A: Mother (not on ART) and breastfeeding baby presenting within 6 months of delivery \| Mother: Initiate ART (TDF +3TC +EFV) Infant: Initiate syrup Nevirapine prophylaxis (duration 12 weeks) At 6 weeks (and after): Follow Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) algorithm; perform DNA PCR - If DNA PCR is positive, initiate ART (AZT/ABC + 3TC + LPV/r) - If DNA PCR is negative, the child has to be followed up: At 6 months: Perform Rapid antibody test and subsequently DNA PCR (if necessary), as per EID algorithm \| \| \| Scenario B: Mother (not on ART) and baby presenting within 6 months of delivery; baby is on Exclusive Replacement Feeding \| Mother: Initiate ART (TDF +3TC +EFV) Infant: Initiate syrup Nevirapine prophylaxis (duration 6 weeks) At 6 weeks (and after): Follow Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) algorithm; perform DNA PCR - If DNA PCR is positive, initiate ART (AZT/ABC + 3TC + LPV/r) If DNA PCR is negative, the child has to be followed up: At 6 months: Perform Rapid antibody test and subsequently DNA PCR (if necessary), as per EID algorithm and take further decision accordingly \| \| \| Scenario C: Mother (on TDF +3TC +EFV from second month of pregnancy) and breastfeeding baby presenting after 6 months of delivery \| Mother: Continue ART (TDF +3TC +EFV) Infant: Initiate syrup Nevirapine prophylaxis (duration 12 weeks) - Perform Rapid antibody test as per EID algorithm and subsequently DNA PCR (if necessary), as per EID algorithm and take further decision accordingly \| 8. Considerations for co-infection of Tuberculosis and HIV Introduction Available evidences show that PLHIV are nearly 29 times (26-31 times) more likely to develop TB as compared to people without HIV in the same country$^1$. TB accelerates HIV disease progression and AIDS and paves the way for clinical TB and mycobacteremia. It is also well recognized that HIV and TB make a fatal combination with extremely high death rates (15–18%) reported among HIV-infected TB cases, notified under the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP). The management of patients with HIV and TB co-infection poses many challenges, including patient’s acceptance of both diagnoses, relapses after stopping anti-TB treatment and re-infection with new exogenous infection. Early detection of TB, effective TB treatment, prompt linkage to HIV care and early initiation of treatment can mitigate the impact of TB on the health and survival of PLHIV. Patients with TB merit special consideration because the co-management of HIV and TB is complicated by drug interactions between Rifampicin and NNRTIs (e.g. Nevirapine) and Protease Inhibitors, IRIS, pill burden, adherence and drug toxicity. Active TB is the commonest OI among HIV-infected individuals and is also the leading cause of death amongst PLHIV. NACO and Central TB Division (CTD) are now providing single window services for prevention and management of HIV-TB co-infection at ART centres so as to ensure seamless services to PLHIV. This chapter has been broadly divided into two sections: 1. General principles for management of HIV-TB co-infected patients 2. General principles for prevention of TB in PLHIV 1. General Principles for Management of HIV-TB Co-infected Patients: - Intensified Case Finding using 4-symptom complex for TB screening; fast-tracking and referral of symptomatic patients for CBNAAT test and other appropriate investigations, as required, for TB diagnosis - If a patient with active TB is diagnosed with HIV, the first priority is to start TB treatment in accordance with the RNTCP guidelines - All HIV-TB co-infected persons are to be initiated on ART regardless of the CD4 count. ART reduces the incidence and recurrence of TB, as well as case fatality rates. - Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis should be given to all HIV-TB patients Intensified Case Finding Using 4-Symptom Complex, Fast tracking and Referral for TB Diagnosis Intensified case finding (ICF) involves systematic screening for active TB among high-risk $^1$Tuberculosis prevalence surveys: a handbook. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011 populations at each visit to a health facility. ICF is one of the critical interventions for increased TB case detection. It is an important step towards earlier diagnosis and treatment of TB to reduce mortality, prevention of ongoing TB transmission and also an initial step to rule out TB disease so that TB preventive therapy can be initiated. All PLHIV should be regularly screened for TB during every visit to the ART centres using the 4-symptom complex—current cough, fever, weight loss and night sweats among adults. In children, the 4-symptom complex includes current cough, fever, poor weight gain and history of contact with a TB case. PLHIV with all forms of TB showed that the sensitivity of 4S complex (current cough, fever, weight loss and night sweats) was 85%.$^2$ (Figure 1 presents the algorithm for ICF at ART centres). PLHIV found positive for any of the four symptoms (4S +) should be fast-tracked at the centre. Figure 1: Algorithm for ICF at ART centres \| PLHIV at ART Centre \| \|---------------------\| \| Screen PLHIV for any one or more of the following symptoms: \| \| Adults and Adolescents \| \| • Current cough \| \| • Fever \| \| • Weight loss \| \| • Night sweats \| \| Children \| \| • Current cough \| \| • Fever \| \| • Poor weight gain \| \| • History of contact with a TB case \| \| Yes \| No \| \| Investigate for TB and other diseases \| Assess for contraindication to IPT \| \| TB \| No \| \| Treat for TB \| Give IPT \| \| No TB \| Defer IPT \| \| Follow-up and consider IPT \| \| \| Other diagnosis \| \| \| Give appropriate treatment and consider IPT \| \| \| Screen for TB regularly at each visit to the health facility or encounter with a health worker \| Diagnosis of TB in PLHIV PLHIV found positive for any of the four symptoms (4S +) should be referred for CBNAAT test/other appropriate investigations for TB diagnosis. As per RNTCP guidelines, CBNAAT is the preferred diagnostic technique for TB testing in PLHIV as compared to smear microscopy. Sputum microscopy has poor sensitivity in detecting TB in PLHIV due to fewer organisms in sputum.$^3$ CBNAAT is a molecular test that detects the DNA of the TB bacteria in PLHIV. It uses sputum or any other biological specimen (except blood and blood-contaminated specimens) and can give --- $^2$ Getahun H., etal. Development of a standardised screening rule for tuberculosis in people living with HIV in resource constrained settings: individual participant data meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS Medicine, 2011, 8(1):e1000391.doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000391Meta-analysis of 12 studies and 8,148 $^3$ WHO. 2014. Xpert MTB/RIF for people living with HIV a result in less than two hours. It can also detect the genetic mutations associated with resistance to the drug Rifampicin. As per studies, the median sensitivity of smear microscopy was 52.8% (range 22.2–68.9), compared to 84% (58.3–91.7) with CBNAAT. Based on the clinical history and investigation reports, TB case need to be classified as: - Microbiologically or clinically diagnosed TB case - Pulmonary or extra pulmonary TB case - Rifampicin sensitive or Rifampicin resistant or status not known - New case or previously treated case (Definitions for classification of TB case and type of TB case are provided as annexure-05) Anti-TB treatment in HIV-TB co-infected patients: Anti-TB drugs used under RNTCP are provided in table 1 below. Table 1: Anti-TB drugs used under RNTCP \| Regimen I \| Regimen II \| Regimen IV \| Regimen V \| \|-----------------\|-----------------\|----------------\|--------------------\| \| Isoniazid \| Isoniazid \| Kanamycin \| Capreomycin \| \| Rifampicin \| Rifampicin \| Levofloxacin \| PAS \| \| Pyrazinamide \| Pyrazinamide \| Ethionamide \| Moxifloxacin \| \| Ethambutol \| Ethambutol \| Cycloserine \| High dose-Isoniazid\| \| \| Streptomycin \| Pyrazinamide \| Clofazimine \| \| \| \| Ethambutol \| Linezolid \| \| \| \| PAS* \| Amoxyclav \| \| \| \| Capreomycin* \| Clarithromycin* \| \| \| \| Moxifloxacin* \| Thioacetazone** \| Reserve drug Thioacetazone is contraindicated in PLHIV* Studies showed that daily ATT is more efficacious than intermittent regimen (Odds of relapse relative to daily regimens was 2.8 (1.4–5.7) for thrice-weekly intermittent regimen$^4$). All PLHIV diagnosed with TB should be initiated on daily ATT at the ART centre itself, based on the classification of the type of TB patient and weight band. Table 2 describes the Anti-TB treatment and Tables 3 & 4 provide details of the daily dosage schedule for adult and paediatric patients respectively. The treatment dose remains the same (for both adult and paediatric patients) even if the weight band changes during the course of TB treatment. The details regarding management of MDR / XDR TB cases are given in Annexure 06. PLHIV diagnosed with MDR / XDR TB will be managed at DR-TB centres. Table 2: Anti-TB treatment schedule \| Type of TB Case \| Treatment Regimen \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------\| \| New: \| \| \| A TB patient who has never had treatment with anti-TB drugs or has taken it for less than one month \| 2 H7 R7 Z7 E7 \| \| \| + \| \| \| 4 H7 R7 E7 \| --- $^4$ Kwok Chiu Chang et al. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 2011,17,1153-8 ### Previously Treated: A TB patient who has received one month or more of anti-TB drugs in the past \| 2 H7 R7 Z7 E7 S7 \| \|------------------\| \| + \| \| 1 H7 R7 Z7 E7 \| \| + \| \| 5 H7 R7 E7 \| H: Isoniazid, R: Rifampicin, Z: Pyrazinamide, E: Ethambutol, S: Streptomycin ### Table 3: Daily dose schedule for adults (as per weight band) \| Weight Band \| Number of Tablets \| Inj. Streptomycin mg (Intensive Phase Only) \| \|-------------\|-------------------\|-------------------------------------------\| \| \| Intensive Phase (IP) \| Continuation Phase CP) \| \| \| \| HRZE (4FDC) \| HRE (3FDC) \| \| \| \| 75/150/400/275 mg \| 75/150/275 mg \| \| \| 25– 39 kg \| 2 \| 2 \| 500mg \| \| 40– 54 kg \| 3 \| 3 \| 750 mg \| \| 55– 69 kg \| 4 \| 4 \| 1000 mg \| \| >70 kg \| 5 \| 5 \| 1000 mg \| ### Table 4. Daily dose schedule for paediatric patients (as per weight band) \| Weight Band \| Number of Tablets (Dispersible FDC) \| Injection Streptomycin mg (Intensive Phase Only) \| \|-------------\|-------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Intensive Phase (IP) \| Continuation Phase (CP) \| \| \| \| HRZ 50/75/150 mg \| E 100 mg \| HR 50/75 mg \| E 100 mg \| \| \| 4– 7 kg \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 100 mg \| \| 8– 11 kg \| 2 \| 2 \| 2 \| 2 \| 150 mg \| \| 12– 15 kg \| 3 \| 3 \| 3 \| 3 \| 200 mg \| \| 16– 24 kg \| 4 \| 4 \| 4 \| 4 \| 300 mg \| \| 25– 29 kg \| 3 +1A \| 3 \| 3 +1A \| 3 \| 400 mg \| \| 30– 39 kg \| 2+2A \| 2 \| 2+2A \| 2 \| 500 mg \| A=Adult 4FDC in IP and 3FDC in CP ### ART initiation in PLHIV with TB co-infection In the absence of ART, TB therapy alone does not significantly increase the CD4 cell count. Nor does it significantly decrease the HIV viral load. Thus, CD4 counts measured during active TB are likely to reflect the actual level of immunosuppression. The use of ART in patients with TB can lead to a sustained reduction in the HIV viral load. It can also facilitate immunological reconstitution and decrease AIDS-defining illness and mortality. This benefit is seen across different ranges of CD4 counts. All PLHIV diagnosed with active TB are to be initiated ART regardless of CD4 count, after initiation of TB treatment in accordance with the RNTCP guidelines discussed above. ART may need to be started later, keeping in mind the pill burden, time needed for acceptance of the diagnosis, counselling needs, drug interactions, toxicity and IRIS. Table 5. ART in relation to initiation of TB treatment \| Patient’s details \| Timing of ART in relation to initiation of TB treatment \| ART recommendations \| \|-------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------\| \| HIV-TB co-infected patients \| • Start ART regardless of the CD4 count • Start ATT first, initiate ART as soon as TB treatment is tolerated (between 2 weeks and 2 months) \| Appropriate ART Regimen* \| \| Rifampicin \| • HIV-TB co-infected patients with CD4 count < 50 cells/cmm, need to be started on ATT first and then ART within 2 weeks with strict clinical monitoring \| Appropriate ART Regimen* \| The use of the standard 600 mg/day dose of Efavirenz is recommended for patients receiving Efavirenz and Rifampicin. IRIS may occur in up to one-third of patients who have been diagnosed with TB and who have been started on ART. It typically presents within three months of the initiation of ART but can occur as early as five days. Patients with TB-associated IRIS most commonly present with fever and with worsening of pre-existing lymphadenopathy or respiratory disease. The symptoms are similar to the paradoxical reactions seen in immuno-competent patients on ATT, but occur more frequently. Most cases resolve without any intervention and ART can be safely continued. Serious reactions, such as tracheal compression caused by massive adenopathy or respiratory difficulty, may occur. Therapy may require the use of anti-inflammatory drugs, including corticosteroids. Recommendations if TB is diagnosed in patients already receiving ART:* There are following points to be considered in PLHIV if TB is diagnosed in patients already receiving ART: - Modification of ART: In PLHIV who are already on ART at the time of TB diagnosis, modification of ART needs to be done to maintain optimal efficacy of ATT as well as ART. Table 6: Recommendations if TB is diagnosed in patients already receiving ART \| ART regimen at the time when TB is diagnosed \| Management options \| \|---------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| (AZT or TDF or ABC) + 3TC + EFV \| Continue with two NRTIs + EFV \| \| (AZT or TDF or ABC) + 3TC + NVP \| Substitute NVP with EFV and continue of EFV thereafter even after TB treatment is completed \| \| Two NRTIs + PI \| Substitute Rifampicin with Rifabutin* in the ATT \| \| Raltegravir (RAL) (Integrase Inhibitor) containing regimen \| Drug interaction between Rifampicin and Raltegravir- 1. Substitute Rifampicin with Rifabutin (or) 2. Dosage of Raltegravir has to be increased from 400 mg twice daily to 800 mg twice daily, in case Rifampicin is prescribed or continued \| * If an HIV-TB co-infected patient on first line ART is to be initiated on PI based second line ART (Treatment failure based on viral load), then initially Rifampicin should be substituted with Rifabutin and PI based second line ART should be initiated after 15 days. - When a patient on ART presents with active TB, there is a possibility of suspecting treatment (ART) failure. NACO recommends the following guiding principles in this context: - If an episode of TB occurs within the first six months of the initiation of ART, it should not be considered as failure of the treatment. The ART regimen should be adjusted for co-administration with Rifampicin-containing regimens. - If an episode of TB develops more than six months after the initiation of ART, and data on the CD4 count (and viral load), are available, the decision on whether the diagnosis of TB represents ART failure should be based on the CD4 count (and viral load, if available) data. The development of an episode of pulmonary TB after six months of ART, without other clinical and immunological evidence of disease progression, should NOT be regarded as representing ART failure. Extra pulmonary TB should be considered as indicative of ART failure, although simple lymph node TB or uncomplicated pleural disease may be less significant than disseminated TB. Close monitoring is needed, and adherence support should be reinforced. Anti TB drugs – Adverse drug reactions and drug-drug interaction with ART Anti TB drugs – Adverse drug reactions It is difficult to determine and measure the efficacy or toxicity of a particular drug, since anti-TB drugs are almost invariably administered in combination regimens of several drugs. However, if two or more drugs are taken simultaneously, synergistic as well as antagonistic interactions may occur between the drugs and the host. Table 7 describes the common and rare side effects of anti-TB drugs. Table 7: Common and rare side effects of anti-TB drugs \| Common (1- 10%) \| Rare (Less than 1%) \| \|-----------------\|---------------------\| \| Nausea and vomiting \| Flu-like syndrome \| \| Gastritis \| Peripheral neuropathy \| \| Hepatitis \| Ocular toxicity \| \| Hypersensitivity reactions \| Joint related side effects \| \| Cutaneous reactions \| Myelosuppression \| \| \| Anaemia \| \| \| Thrombocytopenia \| \| \| Psychosis \| \| \| Seizures \| Adverse drug reactions of anti-TB drugs of regimens I and II in RNTCP are described below: Isoniazid - Peripheral neuropathy is the most common toxic manifestation. Tuberculosis patients infected with HIV are at higher risk of peripheral neuropathy. Isoniazid neurotoxicity can be prevented by pyridoxine. The recommended dosage of pyridoxine is 50 mg daily for adults, 25 mg daily for children between 14-25 kg and 12.5 mg for children between 1-13.9 kg. - Some patients complain of light-headedness, lethargy and fatigue, particularly with the higher intermittent doses - Isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity is reversible, if the drug is stopped early - Toxic psychosis and generalised epileptic convulsions (infrequent) Rifampicin - Rarely, serious hepatotoxicity, generally with a cholestatic pattern, may occur • Rifampicin causes orange-red discoloration of body secretions such as urine, faeces, tears, and sweat, and may result in permanent discolouration of soft contact lenses Pyrazinamide • Joint pain is a common adverse effect in daily regimen. Management of Arthralgia: acetylsalicylic acid or other analgesic, anti-inflammatory agents; does not require withdrawal of the drug. Classic gout is rare (Elevated serum uric acid). Asymptomatic increase in serum uric acid does not require any treatment • Severe hepatotoxicity has been observed when regimens containing Rifampicin and Pyrazinamide are used • Hypersensitivity reaction (including fever, rash and other cutaneous reactions) may occur occasionally Ethambutol • Ethambutol may produce retro bulbar neuritis o An impairment of vision, with reduction in visual acuity, red-green blindness, blurring, central scotomas, and peripheral field defects o Ocular toxicity seems to be dose-dependent and occurs only rarely if no more than 15 mg/kg is given daily o Patients receiving Ethambutol should be warned that an ocular examination should be undertaken if visual symptoms occur o Vision usually returns to normal within a few weeks if the drug is stopped; the optic nerve may be permanently damaged if Ethambutol is continued Streptomycin • Hypersensitivity reactions such as fever and rash • Toxicity is manifested as vertigo and ataxia, tinnitus and loss of hearing • Transient and minor adverse effects, such as circum-oral numbness and tingling, may occur soon after injection • Streptomycin is contraindicated in pregnant women because of the risk of impairing development of the eighth cranial nerve of the foetus • Streptomycin also potentiates neuromuscular blocking agents used during anaesthesia and should be avoided in patients with myasthenia gravis Please refer to section 1 of Annexure 07 for adverse drug reactions of Anti-TB drugs in general Reintroduction of anti-TB drugs: Algorithm for reintroduction of anti-tubercular drugs is described in Section 2 of Annexure 07 (Anti-TB drugs – Adverse Drug reactions and Drug-drug interactions). Re-introduction, even if warranted, must be done by experts and must be closely supervised. Details about management of drug-induced Hepatitis are given in section 3 of Annexure 07. Anti TB drugs – Drug-drug interactions Rifampicin Drug Interactions Rifampicin is an inducer of many enzymes of the cytochrome P 450 super family, including \| Use of Injection Streptomycin for active TB, in patients over 50 years of age and/or < 50 kg of weight \| • Patients aged over 50 years may not tolerate the daily dose of Streptomycin more than 750 mg • Similarly, patients weighing less than 50 kg may not tolerate doses above 500-750 mg daily • Extend Continuation Phase (CP) by 3 to 6 months \| \| Renal Impairment (Creatinine clearance < 30 ml/min or for patients receiving haemodialysis) \| • Modification in dose and frequency* \| \| Isoniazid \| No adjustment necessary \| \| Rifampicin \| No adjustment necessary \| \| Pyrazinamide \| 25- 35 mg/kg per dose three times per week (not daily) \| \| Ethambutol \| 15- 25 mg/kg per dose three times per week (not daily) \| \| Streptomycin \| 12- 15 mg/kg per dose two or three times per week (not daily) \| 2 General Principles for prevention of TB in PLHIV at ART Centres: - Intensified Case Finding using 4-symptom complex - Isoniazid Preventive Therapy - Airborne Infection Control Intensified Case Finding using 4-Symptom Complex As discussed under Section 7.1, Intensified Case Finding (ICF) is one of the critical interventions for prevention of ongoing TB transmission and also the initial step to exclude the TB disease and initiate TB preventive therapy. Isoniazid Preventive Therapy Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) entails the administration of Isoniazid (INH) to individuals with latent TB infection so as to prevent progression to active TB disease. Isoniazid is one of the most effective bactericidal anti-TB drugs that protect against progression of latent TB infection to active disease (against endogenous reactivation). It also prevents TB re-infection post exposure to an open case of TB (against exogenous re-infection/super infection/nosocomial transmission). Several studies have shown that IPT administration in PLHIV prevents incidence and relapse of TB and is, therefore, a key public health intervention for TB prevention in PLHIV. The effects of IPT augment the effects of ART on reducing the incidence of TB. With the concomitant administration of both ART and IPT, there is a likelihood of restoration of TB-specific immunity by ART and the beneficial effect of IPT may be prolonged. IPT does not promote Isoniazid resistance when used to treat latent TB infection. In latent TB, the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli are fewer in number and are dividing slowly, resulting in an extremely low risk of selecting drug-resistant mutants. A study conducted in 2010 reflected that the prevalence of INH resistance among IPT-exposed persons was similar to the background population. Ruling out Active TB Adults and adolescents living with HIV should be screened for TB with a clinical algorithm. The absence of all the four symptoms of current cough, night sweats, fever and weight loss (4S–ve) can identify a subset of adolescents and adults living with HIV who have a very low probability of having TB disease and who can be reliably initiated on IPT. This screening has a negative predictive value of 97.7% (95% CI [confidence interval] 97.4–98.0) at 5% TB prevalence in PLHIV. Children living with HIV (more than 12 months of age) who do not report current cough, fever, poor weight gain and history of contact with a TB case (4S-ve), are unlikely to have active TB. Additional investigations (chest X-ray and Tuberculin Skin Test) can help in ruling out active TB but are not mandatory. Eligibility for IPT All adults and adolescents living with HIV should be screened for TB with a clinical algorithm. Those who do not report any one of the four symptoms of current cough, fever, weight loss and night sweats are unlikely to have active TB and should, therefore, be assessed for IPT initiation. All children living with HIV (more than 12 months of age), who do not report with current cough, fever, poor weight gain and history of contact with a TB case, are unlikely to have active TB and should, therefore, be assessed for IPT initiation. IPT is not an emergency intervention. If there is any doubt about the TB status of a patient, IPT should be delayed. Contraindications to IPT IPT should not be provided to patients in the following conditions: - Active TB disease - Active hepatitis - Signs and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy - Persistent tingling, numbness and burning sensation in the limbs - Poor adherence to Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) - Poor understanding of IPT by the guardian - Contact with MDR-TB case - PLHIV who have completed DR-TB treatment IPT Work Up The patient should be evaluated for signs of liver disease (yellowness of eyes) and neuropathy (persistent numbness and burning sensation in feet and hands) and examined for jaundice and tenderness in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen. Wherever available, routine liver function tests/ ALT should be performed, but lack of LFT/ ALT results should not delay the initiation of IPT in asymptomatic patients. If the patient does not have any abnormality based on the assessment above, assess for adherence using the criteria on the backside of the ICF/IPT card. IPT Regimen Plan The regimen plan and dosing chart are provided below: Adults and Adolescents: Isoniazid 300 mg + Pyridoxine 50 mg (Vitamin B6) per day for 6 months --- 5 Van Halsema et al. 2010. Tuberculosis outcomes and drug susceptibility in individuals exposed to isoniazid preventive therapy in a high HIV prevalence setting. AIDS. 2010 Apr 24;24(7):1051-5. Table 9. Paediatric dosage chart for IPT \| Weight Range (kg) \| Number of 100 mg tablets of INH to be administered per dose (Total dose 10 mg/kg/day) \| Dose (mg) \| \|------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| < 5 \| ½ tablet \| 50 \| \| 5.1 – 9.9 \| 1 tablet \| 100 \| \| 10 – 13.9 \| 1 ½ tablet \| 150 \| \| 14 – 19.9 \| 2 tablets \| 200 \| \| 20 – 24.9 \| 2 ½ tablets \| 250 \| \| > 25 \| 3 tablets or one adult tablet \| 300 \| IPT Initiation and Follow-up All the 4S–ve patients should be assessed by SMO/MO to determine eligibility for IPT. IPT should be considered for both on-ART and pre-ART patients (if found 4S–ve). IPT should be initiated, if not contraindicated. IPT drugs must be provided on a monthly basis (30 days) to all eligible patients. If IPT must be used in conjunction with antiretroviral therapy, a rational approach would be to start IPT after completion of about 3 months of antiretroviral therapy (delayed IPT). 4S screening should be done for all the patients (on-ART and pre-ART) on IPT during every visit to exclude active TB. In case a patient becomes 4S+ve during the IPT course, he/she should be investigated for TB and if found positive, IPT should be stopped and ATT should be initiated. IPT in Specific Situations IPT provision in special circumstances, such as patients who are previously treated for TB, patients with ART, pregnancy, and MDR-TB, is summarized in Table 10. Table 10. IPT provision in specific situations \| Scenario \| Action \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Patients previously treated for TB (Secondary prophylaxis) \| • All CLHIV/ PLHIV who had successfully completed treatment for TB disease earlier should receive INH for six months • All CLHIV/ PLHIV who have just completed successful treatment for TB disease should receive INH for an additional six months \| \| IPT with ART (Secondary prophylaxis) \| • Combined use of IPT with ART is recommended for all CLHIV/ PLHIV regardless of: o Degree of immunosuppression o Previous treatment for TB o Pregnancy • ART should not be delayed while starting or completing a course of IPT \| \| IPT and pregnancy \| • Pregnant woman living with HIV should not be excluded from symptom-based TB screening and receiving IPT • Isoniazid is safe in pregnancy. Start IPT in all HIV positive pregnant women regardless of their gestation period • Advise women to complete IPT if a woman becomes pregnant while taking IPT • Assure patient that IPT is safe while breastfeeding \| \| Scenario \| Actions \| \|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| IPT in children born to microbiologically confirmed TB mothers \| • If a baby is born to a microbiologically confirmed TB mother, assess the new born for active TB • Non-specific features suggestive of neonatal TB include: Fever, low birth weight, hepato-splenomegaly, irritability, feeding intolerance • If the child has none of the above, give IPT for 6 months \| \| IPT and MDR-TB \| • Contacts of MDR-TB and PLHIV who have completed DR-TB treatment are not eligible for IPT \| \| Patient on IPT develops TB during IPT treatment \| • If a patient develops TB symptoms during IPT treatment, evaluate the patient for TB and conduct DST. Based on DST results, the appropriate treatment should be provided • If the patient is sensitive to all the drugs, then based on history of ATT and duration of IPT decide on the following: o If the patient has not received anti-TB treatment in the past and has taken IPT for less than 1 month, then provide the patient with treatment for new case (CAT I) o If the patient has received anti-TB treatment in the past OR if the patient has taken IPT for more than 1 month, then provide the patient with re-treatment (CAT II) regimen • If the patient is found to have DR-TB, refer the patient to the DR-TB centre \| \| Patients develop TB after IPT treatment \| Treat the TB episode as new or previously treated case, based on previous TB treatment history and Rifampicin resistance pattern (whenever available). IPT is not to be considered as past history of TB in such cases \| \| If a patient had taken IPT for less than one month in total and discontinued for any reason (like toxicity or loss to follow up) \| • Conduct adherence counselling, address reasons for discontinuation, conduct ICF, and, if asymptomatic, restart INH afresh • Ensure they have completed a 6- month course \| \| After taking IPT for more than one month: If the patient had discontinued IPT for less than three months \| • Conduct adherence counselling, conduct ICF, and, if asymptomatic, restart INH • Ensure they complete a 6- month course within a 9- month period \| \| After taking IPT for more than one month: If the patient discontinued for more than three months or had discontinued more than once \| Do not re-initiate IPT \| Airborne Infection Control Activities at ART Centres Presence of immuno-compromised patients in health care and congregate settings lacking effective infection control measures creates a favourable environment for TB transmission. The national Guidelines on Airborne Infection Control in Health care and Other Settings have identified ART centres as one of the high-risk settings for TB transmission. Presence of robust systems and policies is vital to control airborne transmission of TB infection in PLHIV at ART centres. Effective implementation of AIC measures involves four recognized controls in a hierarchy: 1. Managerial controls 2. Administrative control strategies for health-care facilities 3. Environmental controls 4. Personal respiratory protection (PPE) Note: For details, refer to “Guidelines on Prevention and Management of TB in PLHIV at ART Centres” Dec 2016 ARV drugs used in first line ART regimens for adults and adolescents in the national ART programme in India are Zidovudine, Tenofovir, Abacavir, Lamivudine, Efavirenz and Nevirapine. These drugs are associated with toxicities, which may be class specific and/or drug specific. The class specific drug toxicities to Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NsRTIs and NtRTIs) and Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) are depicted in figure 1. Fig 1: First line ARV Toxicities in adults and adolescents \| First line ARV Drugs Toxicities \| NsRTIs Zidovudine, Stavudine, Lamivudine \| NtRTIs Tenofovir \| NNRTIs Efavirenz, Nevirapine \| \|---------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\|-----------------\|-------------------------------\| \| Mitochondrial Toxicity \| \| Nephro-Toxicity \| Skin rash \| \| - Lactic Acidosis \| \| \| Hepatitis \| \| - Pancreatitis \| \| \| CNS Manifestations \| \| - Lipodystrophy \| \| \| \| \| - Hepatic Steatosis \| \| \| \| \| - Peripheral Neuropathy \| \| \| \| \| - Anaemia \| \| \| \| \| - Myopathy \| \| \| \| ARV drugs are associated with a broad range of toxicities, ranging from low-grade intolerance, which may be self-limiting, to life-threatening adverse reactions. Differentiating between complications of HIV disease and ART toxicity is sometimes difficult. The toxicities of ARVs need to be differentiated from manifestations of a new opportunistic infection and Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS). Alternative explanations should be considered before it is concluded that the manifestations are related to ART toxicity. The factors to be considered include inter current illness (e.g. hepatitis A and malaria) and reactions to medications other than ARV drugs (e.g. Isoniazid-induced hepatitis or co-trimoxazole-induced rash). Most of the toxicities/side-effects can be adequately co-managed with efficient clinical monitoring at all levels of the health care system. The management of ARV toxicities is based on clinical and laboratory monitoring. The frequently encountered Adverse Drug Effects for the first line anti-retroviral drugs are provided in table 1. Table 1: Adverse Drug Effects of commonly used First line ARVs in adults and adolescents \| Class of ARV Drugs \| Drugs \| Adverse Effects \| \|--------------------\|------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs) \| Tenofovir (TDF) \| Renal toxicity, Bone demineralization \| \| \| Zidovudine (ZDV, AZT) \| Anaemia, neutropenia, bone marrow suppression, gastrointestinal intolerance, headache, insomnia, myopathy, lactic acidosis, skin and nail hyperpigmentation \| \| \| Lamivudine (3TC) \| Minimal toxicity, rash, though very rare \| \| \| Abacavir (ABC) \| Hypersensitivity reaction* in 3 to 5 % (can be fatal), fever, rash, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, respiratory symptoms (sore throat, cough, shortness of breath); re-challenging after reaction can be fatal. \| \| Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) \| Efavirenz (EFV) \| CNS symptoms (dizziness, somnolence, insomnia, confusion, hallucinations, agitation) and personality change. Rash occurs, but less common than NVP. Avoid taking EFV after heavy fatty meals \| \| \| Nevirapine (NVP) \| Hepatitis (usually within 12 weeks); sometime life-threatening hepatic toxicity. Skin rash occasionally progressing to severe conditions, including Stevens Johnson syndrome (SJS) and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN). Patients who develop severe hepatic toxicity or grade 4 skin rashes while being treated with Nevirapine should not be re-challenged. \| \| Protease Inhibitors (PIs) \| Atazanavir/ ritonavir (ATV/r) \| Hyper bilirubinaemia. Less lipid problems than LPV/r. Hyperglycaemia, fat maldistribution, nephrolithiasis \| \| \| Lopinavir /ritonavir (LPV/r) \| Diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, abnormal lipid profiles, glucose intolerance. PI should not be prescribed with Simvastatin as they significantly increase the level of Simvastatin leading to rhabdomyolysis, resulting in severe kidney failure \| * Abacavir hypersensitivity is linked to the presence of the HLA-B 5701 gene. It is associated with < 5% of adults and children in India. Hypersensitivity usually occurs during first 6 weeks of therapy, but may occur at any time; it can potentially be fatal. Whenever hypersensitivity reaction is noticed, abacavir has to be discontinued immediately; never re-challenge or use it again. The clinicians approach the commonly observed ARV drug toxicities in relation to the time of their occurrence after initiating first line ART. The toxicities can be termed as “short-term”, “medium term” and “long-term” and they are classified according to the class of ARV drugs in table 2. Table 2: Common ARV drug toxicities \| Class of ARV drugs \| Drugs \| Short term toxicities \| Medium term toxicities \| Long term toxicities \| \|--------------------\|-------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------\| \| NRTIs \| Zidovudine \| Headache, nausea vomiting, malaise Diarrhoea Bone Marrow suppression Anaemia (Macrocytic) \| Bone Marrow suppression Anaemia (Macrocytic) Hyper pigmentation Lactic Acidosis Proximal myopathy \| None \| \| \| Lamivudine \| Skin rash (rare) \| None \| None \| \| \| Stavudine \| None \| Lactic Acidosis Pancreatitis Peripheral Neuritis \| Lipodystrophy Dyslipidaemia \| \| \| Abacavir \| Hypersensitivity reaction in 3 to 5 % (can be fatal), fever, rash, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, respiratory symptoms (sore throat, cough, shortness of breath) \| \| \| \| \| Tenofovir \| Nephrotoxicity (low incidence) Fanconi syndrome and rarely Acute Renal Failure Can reduce bone mineral density \| \| \| \| NNRTIs \| Efavirenz \| Drowsiness, dizziness Confusion, Vivid dreams Skin Rashes; Hepato toxicity (very rare) \| none \| None \| \| \| Nevirapine \| Skin Rashes Hepato toxicity \| None \| None \| Clinicians and other supporting staff of ART centres (counsellors, nurses and pharmacists) should be well versed with overlapping toxicities exhibited by ARVs and other co-administered drugs used for other co-existing conditions or for prophylaxis for certain opportunistic infections. Some conditions are provided in table 3. Table 3: Overlapping Toxicities: \| Overlapping Toxicities \| Drugs \| \|------------------------\|-------\| \| Bone marrow suppression \| Zidovudine, Co-trimoxazole, Dapsone, Pyrimethamine, Ganciclovir, Amphotericin B, Ribavirin \| \| Hepatotoxicity \| Nevirapine, Atazanavir, Lopinavir, Ritonavir, Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide, Fluconazole, Co-trimoxazole \| \| Peripheral neuropathy \| Stavudine, Isoniazid \| \| Pancreatitis \| Stavudine, Co-trimoxazole \| Regardless of severity, toxicities may affect adherence to therapy. A proactive approach is required to manage them. - Discuss potential side-effects of the ART regimen with the patient before initiation and during the early stages of treatment. This has to be part of preparedness counselling of the patient and the caregiver. - Differentiate any new clinical event after the initiation of ART from Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) - Always assess the toxicity and grade its severity - Offer support during minor and major adverse events - Ensure that the patient is familiar with the signs and symptoms of toxicities that are serious and require immediate contact with the clinical team, especially in the case of EFV-associated Stevens-Johnson syndrome, hepatitis, NRTIs led lactic acidosis or Abacavir-associated hypersensitivity reaction - The clinicians shall be able to recognize drug toxicities during the scheduled or unscheduled visits of PLHIV at the ART centres and shall be able to manage them as described in table 4. Table 4: Clinical signs and Symptoms and Management of Adverse Effects of Antiretroviral Drugs \| Adverse Effect \| Possible Offending Drug(s) \| Clinical Signs / Symptoms \| Management \| \|----------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Acute hepatitis \| Nevirapine (NVP) and PI/r; Efavirenz (EFV) less common; Uncommon with Zidovudine (AZT), \| Jaundice, liver enlargement, gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, anorexia, NVP-associated \| If possible, monitor serum transaminases and bilirubin. If ALT > 5 times the baseline level, stop ARVs until symptoms resolve. NVP should be permanently discontinued. Substitute the most likely offending ARV drug \| \| \| Stavudine (d4T) (<1%) \| hepatitis may have hypersensitivity component (drug rash, systemic symptoms, eosinophilia) \| \| \| Condition \| Medication \| Symptoms \| Management \| \|----------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Acute pancreatitis \| Stavudine (d4T); Lamivudine (3TC) - infrequent \| Nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain \| If possible, monitor serum pancreatic amylase, lipase. All ARVs should be stopped until symptoms resolve. Restart ART with change to different NRTI, preferably one without pancreatic toxicity (e.g. AZT, TDF, ABC) \| \| Lactic acidosis \| All Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, particularly Stavudine (d4T) \| Initial symptoms are variable: a clinical prodromal syndrome may include generalized fatigue and weakness, gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, hepatomegaly, anorexia, and/or sudden unexplained weight loss, respiratory symptoms (tachypnoea and dyspnoea) or neurological symptoms (including motor weakness) \| Discontinue all ART; symptoms may continue or worsen after discontinuation of ART. Give appropriate therapy. Resume ART with replacing offending ART with either ABC or TDF \| \| Hypersensitivity Reaction \| Abacavir (ABC) Nevirapine (NVP) \| ABC: Constellation of acute onset of symptoms including: fever, fatigue, myalgia, nausea / vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, pharyngitis, cough, dyspnoea (with or without rash). While these symptoms overlap those of common infectious illnesses, the combination of acute onset of both respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms after starting ABC is more typical of a hypersensitivity reaction NVP: Systemic symptoms of fever, myalgia, arthralgia, hepatitis, eosinophilia with or without rash \| Discontinue all ART until symptoms resolve. The reaction progressively worsens with drug administration and can be fatal. Administer supportive therapy. Do not re-challenge with ABC (or NVP), as anaphylactic reactions and death have been reported. Once symptoms resolve, restart ART with a change to different NRTI if ABC-associated or to PI- or NNRTI –based regimen if NVP-associated \| \| Condition \| Medication \| Symptoms \| Management \| \|------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Rash/drug eruptions-including Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN) \| Nevirapine (NVP); Efavirenz (EFV)-rarely \| Rash usually occurs during the first two to four weeks of treatment. The rash is usually erythematous, maculopapular, confluent; most prominent on the body and arms may be pruritic and can occur with or without fever. Life-threatening Stevens-Johnson syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis has been reported in ~0.3% of infected individuals receiving Nevirapine \| In mild cases, give antihistamines. If rash is moderate, non-progressing and without mucosal or systemic symptoms, consider substituting NVP to EFV after rash resolves. In moderate and severe cases, discontinue all ARVs until symptoms resolve and give supportive treatment. Permanently discontinue NVP for rash with systemic symptoms such as fever, severe rash with mucosal lesions or urticaria, or Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis. Once resolved, switch ART regimen to different ARV class (e.g. two NRTIs and PI) \| \| Peripheral Neuropathy \| Stavudine / (d4T) \| Pain, tingling, numbness of hands or feet, distal sensory loss, mild muscle weakness and areflexia can occur \| Stop suspect NRTI early and switch to different NRTI that does not have neurotoxicity (e.g. AZT, ABC). Symptoms usually resolve in two to three weeks \| \| Diarrhoea \| Lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) \| Loose or watery diarrhoea \| Usually self-limited. No need to discontinue ART. Offer symptomatic treatment; if diarrhoea is not controlled, switch to ATV/r, as dose of RTV is less in ATV/r (mostly Ritonavir is responsible for diarrhoea) \| \| Dyslipidaemia, Insulin resistance and hyperglycaemia \| PIs, EFV \| \| Consider replacing the suspected PI by drugs with less risk of metabolic toxicity \| \| Gastrointestinal intolerance \| All ARVs \| Gastritis, indigestion, etc. \| Usually self-limited. No need to discontinue ARVs. Offer symptomatic treatment \| \| Haematological toxicities e.g. anaemia, leucopenia \| Zidovudine (AZT) \| Fatigue Breathlessness Palpitation \| If severe (Hb < 6.5 g/dL and/or absolute neutrophil count < 500 cells/cmm) - substitute with an NRTI which has less effect on bone marrow e.g. d4T, ABC or TDF. Consider blood transfusion \| \| Condition \| Drug(s) \| Symptoms \| Management \| \|---------------------------------\|--------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Lipoatrophy Lipodystrophy \| All NRTIs; particularly Stavudine (d4T) \| Lipodystrophy syndrome: dyslipidaemia consisting of elevated total cholesterol, low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and elevated triglycerides; Insulin resistance with hyperglycaemia; Central fat accumulation (visceral, breast, neck) and local fat accumulation (lipomas, buffalo-hump); Generalized diminution of subcutaneous fat mass (lipoatrophy). Lipoatrophy includes loss of subcutaneous fat in the face, extremities and buttocks \| Early replacement of suspected ARV drugs (e.g. d4T) with TDF or ABC. Consider aesthetic treatment and physical exercises \| \| Neuro psychiatric changes \| Efavirenz (EFV) \| High rates of CNS effects in the first 2- weeks e.g. Confusion, abnormal thinking, nightmares, impaired concentration, depersonalization, abnormal dreams, dizziness, insomnia, euphoria, hallucinations, suicidal ideation. Severe depression has been reported in 2.4% \| Usually self-limited. No need to discontinue unless severe psychosis. Counsel to take EFV at night before bedtime \| \| Renal Toxicity (Renal Tubular Dysfunction) \| TDF \| Features of Fanconi syndrome i.e. Hypophosphatemia, hypouricemia, proteinuria, normoglycemic glycosuria. Acute renal failure has been reported. Risk factors—low body weight and pre-existing renal disease \| Discontinue TDF and give supportive treatment, after resolution, replace with another ARV \| Note: Discontinuing the offending agent would mean substituting with an alternative drug to ensure efficacy of ART regimen Tenofovir Toxicity: Tenofovir (TDF) is now preferred first line ART for all new patients to be enrolled in national ART programme. It has a good overall safety profile, with fewer metabolic side-effects & mitochondrial toxicities. TDF has a relatively long half-life, allowing once daily dosing and making compliance easier for patients. The major side effects of TDF are: - Renal toxicity - Decrease in bone marrow density However, out of these, the most significant is TDF related renal toxicity, though overall incidence may be only 3-5%. The renal proximal tubule (PT) is the main target of TDF toxicity. For more details on Tenofovir toxicity, readers can refer to annexure 09 (Additional Guidance on Tenofovir Whenever Rash/ drug eruptions—including Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN) occur during first line ART in adults and adolescents, it is usual to condemn an NNRTI drug (Efavirenz/Nevirapine) as the causative agent. To hold Efavirenz/ Nevirapine as the offending agent may not be always right. Clinicians always need to be alert to suspect other offending agents as well. - Co-trimoxazole can be an offending agent - Many ART centres have identified Lamivudine to be the offending drug in limited number of patients - There are sporadic reports on Zidovudine / Lopinavir / Atazanavir / Ritonavir / Darunavir / Raltegravir induced skin rashes Therefore, in this situation, it is essential to identify the offending drug before appropriate action initiated. The clinicians are advised to follow the two guiding algorithms given hereunder (Figures 2 & 3). Figure 2: For Patients starting ART (AZT/ TDF +3TC +NVP/ EFV) without co-trimoxazole or starting ART > 2 weeks after CPT initiation In case of severe rash: Stop all ART and co-trimoxazole, if on CPT. Once the patient improves clinically, start AZT/TDF + 3TC + ATV/r without co-trimoxazole If tolerated, confirm NNRTI hypersensitivity (NVP/EFV); continue AZT/ TDF +3TC +ATV/r; Introduce CPT later on, if indicated If rashes reappear, suspect either AZT/TDF or 3TC to be the offending agent; stop all ARV drugs Once rashes subside, give AZT+3TC or TDF+3TC for 7-10 days If rashes reappear confirm AZT/TDF or 3TC is the offending drug Once rashes subside, give mono-therapy with AZT or TDF for 7-10 days If rashes reappear, confirm AZT or TDF to be the offending drug and stop AZT / TDF. Then Start either with TDF+3TC +EFV* (if AZT is the offending drug) or AZT+3TC +EFV* (if TDF is the offending drug) If rashes do not reappear, confirm 3TC to be the offending drug and initiate AZT+TDF+EFV* As a general principle, mild toxicities do not require the discontinuation of ART or drug substitution. Symptomatic treatment may be given. Moderate or severe toxicities may require substitution of the drug with another, of the same ARV class, but with a different toxicity profile. Severe life-threatening toxicity requires discontinuation of all ARV drugs until the patient is stabilized and the toxicity is resolved. Grading of Toxicities: Toxicity to ARV drugs can be identified by clinical manifestations (symptoms, signs) and/or by abnormal laboratory parameters. Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (Version 1.0 December 2004) had categorized ARV drug toxicities into four grades: - Grade 1: Mild - Grade 2: Moderate - Grade 3: Severe - Grade 4: Potentially life-threatening Grading of selected clinical and laboratory toxicities are given in table 5. Table 5: Grading of selected clinical and laboratory toxicities (Refer to annexure 10 for more details) \| Estimating severity of grade \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening Grade 4 \| \|-----------------------------\|--------------\|------------------\|----------------\|-------------------------------------\| \| Clinical adverse events NOT identified elsewhere in the table \| Symptoms causing minimal or no interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing greater than minimal interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform basic self-care OR medical or operative intervention indicated to prevent permanent impairment, permanent disability or death \| Source: Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Version 1.0 December 2004 Note: This clarification includes addition of Grade 5 toxicity, which is death According to grading of toxicities, as reflected by severity of clinical adverse events, patients’ have to be managed as guided with advisories given in the table 6. Table 6: Grading of toxicities and Management advisories \| ARV Drug Toxicity \| Grading of ARV Drug Toxicities \| \|-------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| \| Grade 1 \| Grade 2 \| Grade 3 \| Grade 4 \| \| Severity \| Mild \| Moderate \| Severe \| Potentially life-threatening \| \| Clinical adverse events \| Symptoms causing minimal or no interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing greater than minimal interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform basic self-care OR medical or operative intervention indicated to prevent permanent impairment, permanent disability or death \| \| Advice \| Changes of ART should be avoided; Observe \| Changes of ART should be avoided; Observe \| It will usually be necessary to discontinue the suspected drug until the condition resolves. Subsequently, it may be possible to cautiously re-administer the drug (under close monitoring) \| Discontinue all the drugs and hospitalise the patient. The offending drug should not be re-administered. After improvement, institute the alternate ART regimen, comprising of a drug substituted for the offending drug \| Drug Substitution: Definition: Single drug replacement of individual ARV (usually within the same class) for toxicity, drug-drug interactions, or intolerance refers to SUBSTITUTION of individual (offending) drug and this does not indicate that a second line regimen is being used even if second line drugs like boosted PIs are used for substitution. It is different from “Switch”, which indicates “Treatment Failure”, refers to the loss of antiviral efficacy to current regimen and it triggers the switch of the entire regimen from First to Second line. It is identified by clinical and/or immunological criteria and confirmed by the virological criteria. Drug substitution: General Guidance: 1. The general principle is that single-drug substitution for toxicity should be made within the same ARV class. 2. If a life-threatening toxicity occurs, all ART should be stopped until the toxicity has resolved and a revised regimen commenced when the patient has recovered. 3. Whenever an ARV toxicity is suspected, rule out other OIs or other conditions that may be responsible. Always grade the toxicity according to their severity: refer to table 5 4. Patients with Dual Toxicity to Nevirapine and Efavirenz, needing substitution of protease inhibitors. These (PI based) regimens have to be started at CoE / ART plus centre after the review and approval of SACEP Table 7 below provides guidance on what to change (drug substitution) in case of toxic manifestation. Table 7: Drug Toxicity and Drug Substitution \| ARV \| Most Frequent Significant toxicity for the ARV drug \| Suggested first line ARV substitution drug \| \|----------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\| \| Zidovudine (AZT) \| Patients on older regimens (ZLN / ZLE) Severe anaemia or neutropenia Lactic acidosis Severe gastrointestinal intolerance \| TDF \| \| Abacavir (ABC) \| Hypersensitivity reaction \| TDF \| \| Tenofovir (TDF) \| Renal tubular Dysfunction (Fanconi’s syndrome) Bone mineral density loss \| ABC \| \| Efavirenz (EFV) \| Persistent and severe central nervous system toxicity Acute symptomatic hepatitis Severe or life-threatening rash (Stevens-Johnson Syndrome) Severe neuropsychiatric manifestations \| NVP in case of CNS side effects: ATV/r in case of Grade 4 rashes with EFV \| \| Both Efavirenz and Nevirapine \| Persistent and severe central nervous system toxicity Acute symptomatic hepatitis Severe or life-threatening rash (Stevens-Johnson Syndrome) Severe neuropsychiatric manifestations \| ATV/r \| \| Atazanavir/ritonavir ATV/r \| Intolerance \| ATV/r \| \| Lopinavir/ritonavir LPV/r \| Intolerance \| ATV/r \| \| Multiple NRTIs (AZT, ABC, TDF)* \| Toxicities / Intolerance \| Raltegravir \| * Toxicity / Intolerance to multiple NRTIs: There are instances when PLHIV who are initiated on first line ART develop toxicities or intolerance to multiple NRTIs. For e.g., a patient develops nephropathy (contraindicating use of TDF), subsequently develops rash to ABC and develops anaemia subsequently on AZT. Such patients who develop or have documented toxicity / intolerance / contraindications to multiple NRTIs will need individualized drug regimen. Such regimen may include Integrase inhibitor (Raltegravir) in the first line ART itself. Only the CoE must take all these decisions. The ART centres have to send a referral request to the CoE with complete details of the toxicity (including its grading) and documentation of the same. The CoE will review individual situations and recommend the final regimen for the patient (in consultation with NACEP, if needed). 10. HIV and Hepatitis Co-infection Note: This chapter is intended to provide information on various aspects of HIV and Hepatitis B and C co-infections as many co-infected patients are seen at ART facilities. However, these are not national hepatitis management guidelines and most of the diagnostic tests and drugs mentioned for Hepatitis B and C in this section are not available under national ART programme. The portion pertaining to ART in this section for these coinfected patients are part of national ART guidelines. Introduction Hepatitis is the inflammation of the liver caused by viruses A, B, C, D or E, which can be differentiated on the basis of the mode of transmission of the virus. An estimated 257 million people in the world have chronic hepatitis B and another 71 million chronic hepatitis C. Chronic hepatitis B and C claim almost 1.34 million lives each year globally. The South-East Asia region has almost 49 million people living with chronic hepatitis B and C. An estimated 0.35 million succumb to these infections and their complications each year. India has an estimated 39 million HBV carriers and around 6-12 million people infected with HCV. Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection affects 5–20% of the 36 million people living with HIV worldwide, and hepatitis C virus (HCV) affects 5-15%, rising to 90% among people who inject drugs. HBV, HIV and HCV share similar transmission routes. In general, concurrent or sequential infection with these viruses usually results in more severe and progressive liver disease, and a higher incidence of cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) and mortality. Viral hepatitis is an increasing cause of morbidity and mortality among people living with HIV, including those on ART. A comprehensive approach includes prevention, HBV and HCV testing, hepatitis B vaccination and treatment and care for people with HIV, who are co-infected with hepatitis B and/or hepatitis C. HIV and Hepatitis B co-infection Around 15-25% of PLHIV in South East Asia and Africa are co-infected with Hepatitis B. In India, chronic hepatitis B affects around 2-8% of PLHIV, though there are wide variations in different parts of the country, with some studies indicating as high as 20% in certain selected geographical areas. The major mode of transmission of hepatitis B in India is vertical. Around 90% of children who acquire HIV vertically or perinatally will become chronic HBV carriers. This is as opposed to HIV negative adults, in whom, only 5% of those infected with hepatitis B, become chronic carriers. The term Acute HBV infection refers to new-onset hepatitis B infection that may or may not be icteric or symptomatic. Diagnosis is based on detection of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and IgM antibodies to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc). Recovery is accompanied by clearance of HBsAg with seroconversion to anti-HBs (antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen), usually within 3 months. The term Chronic HBV infection is defined as persistence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) for six months or more after acute infection with HBV. Around 20-40% of PLHIV will fail to clear Hepatitis B virus beyond 6 months and will become chronically infected. ### A. Natural History among HIV - Hepatitis B coinfected The natural history of both diseases is affected when a person is co-infected with both HIV and Hepatitis B and this has implications on management of both diseases. HIV co-infection has a profound impact on almost every aspect of the natural history of HBV infection. The consequences include higher rates of chronicity after acute HBV infection, higher level of HBV DNA replication and rates of reactivation, reduction of the anti-HBe and anti-HBs sero-conversion, less spontaneous clearance, higher rates of occult HBV (i.e. detectable HBV DNA positivity in the absence of HBsAg seropositivity), increased fibrosis, more rapid progression to cirrhosis and HCC, higher liver-related mortality, and decreased treatment response compared with persons without HIV coinfection. In Western cohorts, liver disease has emerged as a leading cause of death in HIV-infected persons co-infected with either hepatitis B or C, as mortality due to other HIV-related conditions has declined following the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Similarly, the Hepatitis B infection also negatively impacts the progression of HIV infection leading to faster immune deterioration and higher mortality. Some of the early cohort studies among co-infected population showed that there is 3-6 times higher risk of progression to AIDS. Prospective observational cohort among those with primary HIV infection showed that HBV co-infection is an independent predictor of immunologic deterioration in such group of patients. In another large prospective multicentre cohort among PLHIV with sero-conversion window of less than 3 years, co-infected persons with Hepatitis B were associated with two times higher risk of AIDS/death, higher among HBV co-infected patients compared to HBV mono-infected patients. The HIV-Hepatitis co-infected persons show faster CD4 decline, slower CD4 recovery following ART, increased incidence of AIDS & non-AIDS events, increased rate of ARV toxicity and increased chances of immune reconstitution hepatitis. In one of the large cohort studies of more than 5000 co-infected persons, the relative risk of liver related deaths was found to be 19 times higher than those with HBV mono-infected patients. Other challenges among coinfected include cross-resistance between HIV and HBV drugs, increased liver injury, either due to direct hepatotoxicity or to ART-related immune-reconstitution hepatitis, with elevation of ALT; if ART does not cover both HIV and HBV infections adequately, fulminant hepatitis is an eventuality. Evaluation of HIV and Hep B coinfected persons The risk of HBV infection may be higher in HIV-infected adults, and therefore all persons newly diagnosed with HIV should be screened for HBsAg. Those found positive for Hepatitis B surface antigen should be evaluated further following the guidelines for evaluation of those with Hepatitis B Infection. Besides routing clinical evaluation, one should look for sign of cirrhosis and hepatic decompensation like jaundice, conjunctival haemorrhages, anaemia, spider angioma, palmar erythema, petechiae, clubbing, gynaecomastia, testicular atrophy, parotid enlargement, asterixis (liver flaps, flapping tremors), caput medusa, ascites, oedema, longitudinal veins alongside of abdomen, hepatomegaly, hepatic bruit, venous hum and splenomegaly. The lab investigations, besides routine haemogram and chemistry, should specifically include LFT, prothrombin time, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), ultrasound and upper GI endoscopy. The virological examination should include HBeAg – marker of HBV replication & infectivity, Anti-HBe antibody and HBV DNA quantitative (Real-Time PCR). One important component in evaluation is the staging of cirrhosis. Earlier invasive techniques like liver biopsy were used and Metavir Score (F0 – F4) was done. But now, newer techniques like liver elastography (FibroScan) are used to measure liver stiffness and determine the stage of liver cirrhosis. In case on non-availability of FibroScan, APRI (AST to Platelet Ration Index) and FIB4 (Fibrosis 4) score are used. Also, it is important to do ‘Child Pugh Scoring’. All these investigations need the opinion of a trained physician or a gastroenterologist. Hence, appropriate referral should be made by the ART MO. APRI: Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)- to- platelet ratio index (APRI) is a simple index for estimating hepatic fibrosis based on a formula derived from AST and platelet concentrations. A formula for calculating the APRI is given: APRI = * (AST/ULN) x 100) / platelet count (109/L). An online calculator can be found at: http://www.hepatitis.c.uw.edu/page/clinical-calculators/apri FIB-4: A simple index for estimating hepatic fibrosis based on a calculation derived from AST, ALT and platelet concentrations and age. Formula for calculating FIB-4: FIB-4 = (age (year) x AST (IU/L)) / (platelet count (109/L x [ALT (IU/L) x 1/2])). An online calculator can be found at http://www.hepatitis.c.uw.edu/page/clinical-calculators/fib-4. Treatment of HIV and Hepatitis B Co-infected patients A detailed algorithm of WHO Recommendations on the management of persons with chronic Hepatitis B infection is given in Annexure 11. The indications for anti-viral treatment in Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) are as below: - All adults, adolescent, children with CHB & clinical evidence of compensated/decompensated cirrhosis (or APRI score >2 in adults) should be treated, regardless of ALT, HBeAg status, HBV DNA levels - Treatment is recommended for adults with CHB, who do not have clinical evidence of cirrhosis (or based on APRI score ≤2 in adults), but are aged >30 years and have persistently elevated ALT levels and evidence of high-level HBV replication (HBV DNA > 20,000 IU/ml) regardless of HBeAg status - If HBV DNA testing is unavailable but patients have persistently elevated ALT, treat for Hepatitis B regardless of HBeAg status The NACO guidelines on initiation of first line ART and ART regimens in HIV and HBV co-infected patients are summarized in Table 1 below: Table 1: ART Guidelines for HIV and Hepatitis B co-infected persons \| When to start ART \| All persons diagnosed with HIV infection should be initiated on ART regardless of CD4 count or WHO clinical staging or age group or population sub-groups \| \|-------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Choice of regimen \| Nucleoside analogues with dual activity against both the viruses such as 3TC and TDF should be included in the first-line ART regimen for HIV-infected patients who are HBsAg-positive (and HBeAg-positive, if known) In view of higher incidence of hepatotoxicity with NVP in co-infected patients, it is preferable to use EFV unless contraindicated \| \| Preferred Regimen \| TDF +3TC +EFV (TDF may be replaced by AZT* in case of TDF toxicity or contraindications) \| \| Second Line Regimen \| TDF and 3TC should be continued as part of the second-line ART following initial ART failure, even if it was used in the first-line regimen \| \| HBV Resistance \| Ideally, 3TC should be used either with TDF or not at all, because HBV resistance to 3TC develops quickly. HBV resistance to 3TC develops in 50% of patients after two years and in 90% after four years of treatment, if 3TC is the only active anti-HBV drug in the ART regimen \| \| Therapy Outcomes \| HBV seroconversion (loss of HBeAg and development of HBeAg) occurs in 11-22% of HBeAg-positive HIV-infected patients who are treated with 3TC containing regimen for one year \| \| Hepatic Flares \| HBV flares on ART start soon after the initiation of ART as a manifestation of IRIS. Discontinuation of 3TC may also result in hepatic flares \| \| FTC vs 3TC \| The rate of suppression of HBV and the safety profile and resistance pattern with FTC are similar to those with 3TC. FTC is not provided in the national ART programme \| Whenever TDF is substituted with AZT, the treating physician shall recognize the fact that Lamivudine is the only active anti-HBV drug in the ART regimen and another agent active against hepatitis needs to be considered like entecavir- a gastro-enterologist may be consulted in such cases Notes: Hepatic flares typically present as an unexpected increase in ALT / AST levels and symptoms of clinical hepatitis (fatigue, nausea, abdominal pain and jaundice) within 6-12 weeks of commencing ART. The flares may be difficult to distinguish from ART - induced hepatic toxicity. Drugs active against HBV should preferably be continued during a suspected flare. If it is not possible to distinguish serious hepatitis B flare from grade 4- drug toxicity, ART should be stopped until the patient stabilizes. This treatment strategy has achieved high rates of HBV DNA suppression (90%), HBeAg loss (46%) and HBsAg loss (12%) in HBeAg-positive patients after 5 years of treatment, without evidence of resistance, and has reduced progression to cirrhosis with no significant differences in the response in those with or without HIV co-infection. Till date, no viral resistance to tenofovir in vivo has been described, although resistant strains have been identified in vitro. Although the risk of developing cirrhosis is negligible in HBV/HIV-co-infected persons on long-term tenofovir combined with lamivudine therapy, the risk of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) persists, but is low. If ARVs need to be changed because of HIV drug resistance or some drug toxicity, then tenofovir and lamivudine should be continued together with the new ARV drugs unless TDF is specifically contraindicated due to its toxicity. Prevention of Hepatitis B infection* The risk of HBV infection may be higher in HIV-infected adults, and therefore all persons newly diagnosed with HIV should be screened for HBsAg and immunized if not infected. Those already infected with HBV (HBsAg positive) do not require HBV vaccine. PLHIV who have already suffered from HBV in the past and have developed protective titre of anti-HBs antibody (> 10 µIU/ml) also do not require HBV vaccine. Those who are surface antigen negative need to be vaccinated against Hepatitis B besides following other precautions. Response to HBV vaccine is lower in persons with HIV or with a low CD4 count, and a meta-analysis has shown that a schedule of four double (40 µg) doses of the vaccine provides a higher protective anti-HBs titre than the regular three 20 µg dose schedule. Besides this, all infants born to Hepatitis B positive women need to be immunized within 12 hours of birth (Dose - 0) followed by 1, 2 & 6 months (dose – 10 µg IM) and HBIG – 0.5 ml IM. HIV and Hepatitis C co-infection Viral hepatitis C infection is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Chronic HCV infection can cause a wide spectrum of liver disease, potentially leading to severe liver damage, including cirrhosis, organ failure and hepatocellular carcinoma. It accounts for nearly 12–32% of all cases of liver cancer and 10-20% cases of cirrhosis of liver, both of which have high treatment costs and poor outcomes. Globally, an estimated 71 million people may be chronically infected with Hepatitis C and nearly 7,00,000 persons die each year from HCV related complications. Around 2.3 million persons may be co-infected globally. An analysis from Africa estimated that 5.7% of persons with HIV were co-infected with HCV. Current HCV prevalence estimates in India are based on small studies that give estimates in a broad range of 6-12 million people infected with hepatitis C. However, NACO and WHO are conducting studies for better estimation of the disease burden by analyzing around 5,00,000 samples collected for HSS and IBBS. Because of shared routes of transmission, certain groups, in particular persons who inject drugs (PWID) have high rates of co-infection with HIV and HCV. Globally around 67% of PWID are infected with HCV. Other high-risk groups are those who have a high frequency of injections and a low level of infection control, transmission from HCV infected mothers and people with HCV infected sexual partners. Persons with HIV infection, in particular MSM, are at increased risk of HCV infection through unprotected sex. Tattoo recipients have higher prevalence of HCV compared with persons without tattoos. The distribution of HCV genotypes and sub genotypes varies substantially in different parts of the world. According to a recent review, genotype 1 is the most common, accounting for 46.2% of all HCV infections, followed by genotype 3 (30.1%). In India 54% have genotype 3, 24% had GT1, 6% have GT 4 while 12% have indeterminate genotype. This has implications on the drugs to be used for HCV treatment. HCV causes both acute and chronic hepatitis. Infection with HCV is usually clinically silent, and is only very rarely associated with life-threatening disease. Spontaneous clearance of acute HCV infection occurs within six months of infection in 15–40% of infected individuals in the absence of treatment. Almost all the remaining 60–85% of persons will harbour HCV for the rest of their lives (if not treated) and are considered to have chronic HCV infection (Figure 1). Anti-HCV antibodies develop as part of acute infection and persist throughout life. In persons who have anti-HCV antibodies, a nucleic acid test (NAT) for HCV RNA, which detects the presence of the virus, is needed to confirm the diagnosis of chronic HCV infection. Natural history of HIV/HCV co-infection The natural history of both diseases is affected when a person is co-infected with both HIV and Hepatitis C; this has implications on the management of both diseases. Co-infection with HIV adversely affects the course of HCV infection, and co-infected persons, particularly those with advanced immunodeficiency (CD4 count < 200 cells/cmm), have significantly accelerated progression of liver disease to cirrhosis, decompensated liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC) than HCV-mono infected persons. Furthermore, even among patients in whom ART leads to successful control of HIV infection (i.e. undetectable HIV viral load), the risk of hepatic decompensation among co-infected patients is higher than among patients with HCV mono-infection. In persons with HIV infection, HCC tends to occur at a younger age and within a shorter time period. For these reasons, all persons with HIV/HCV co-infection should be considered for HCV treatment. The natural history of HIV is also affected by co-infection with HCV. Two large European cohorts have shown that after ART initiation, CD4 recovery was impaired in HIV/HCV co-infected persons when compared to those infected with HIV alone. HIV/HCV co-infected persons also demonstrated more rapid HIV disease progression compared to those who were HIV-infected alone, and had impaired recovery of CD4 cells. WHO guidelines recommend screening of all PLHIV for Hepatitis C infection. However, NACO guidelines recommend the screening of all PWID (IDUs), those with history of multiple blood/blood product transfusion, or those with raised liver enzymes (ALT) more than two times the ULN or based on strong clinical suspicion. The test used detects anti-HCV antibodies. However, since anti-HCV antibodies developed as part of acute infection, they persist throughout life. Among those infected, 40% may clear the virus but will still have persisting antibodies. Hence, in persons who have anti-HCV antibodies, a nucleic acid test (NAT) for HCV RNA, which detects the presence of the virus, is needed to confirm the diagnosis of chronic HCV infection. Another test which is useful is detection of HCV core antigen which can detect more than 1000 copies/ml of HCV. Evaluation of HIV and HCV co-infected persons The assessment of those with HCV/ HIV includes clinical evaluation – history, physical examination for jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, ascites, cirrhosis/ decompensation and laboratory tests including LFT, prothrombin time, complete haemogram, AFP, etc. Other tests required are abdominal ultrasound, endoscopy, assessment of liver fibrosis (APRI/ FIB 4/ fibro-Scan), described earlier in the chapter, and HCV RNA quantitative assay. Treatment of HIV and Hepatitis C co-infection Treating HCV infected persons in the past with interferon and ribavirin combination therapy was very difficult, as many patients had to discontinue treatment due to side-effects such as depression or weight loss as well as severe anaemia, thrombocytopenia and neutropenia. Furthermore, Sustained Virological Response (SVR) rates in patients with co-infection were lower than among HCV mono-infected patients. The advent of newer drugs, Directly Acting Antivirals (DAA), for HCV treatment has revolutionized the management of HCV. The results of treatment with DAAs in persons with HIV co-infection are comparable to those with HCV mono-infection. Thus, DAA therapy has substantially simplified the treatment of persons with HIV and HCV co-infection. There are fewer drug-drug interactions between DAAs and ARV medicines. SVR rates with DAA-based therapy among persons with HIV co-infection are higher than 95%, even for those with prior HCV treatment failure or advanced fibrosis. However, the need to check for drug-drug interactions between HIV and HCV medications has to be emphasized. The reader is referred to the website “www.druginteraction.com” for more information. The common DAAs are summarized in table 2 below: Table 2: List of Directly Acting Antiviral (DAA) drugs \| Group \| Drugs \| \|------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| NS 3 Protease Inhibitors \| Telaprevir, Boceprevir, Simeprevir, Paritaprevir, Sovaprevir, Asunaprevir, Faldaprevir \| \| NS 5A Inhibitors \| Daclatasvir, Samatasvir, Ledipasvir, Ombitasvir, Velpatasvir, \| \| Polymerase Inhibitors \| Nucleosides: Sofosbuvir \| Combination of Sofosbuvir 400 mg + Daclatasvir 60 mg for 12 weeks is recommended in non-cirrhotic patients and combination of Sofosbuvir 400 mg + Velpatasvir 100 mg for 12 weeks is recommended in cirrhotic patients. Daclatasvir is associated with significant drug interactions with many NNRTIs and PIs, and its concomitant use requires caution, dose adjustments or consideration of alternative DAAs. The dose of daclatasvir dose will be 30 mg with ATV/r and 90 mg with EFV. Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir have shown reduced potential for drug interactions with ARV drugs due to their use of different metabolic pathways. A complete list of drug-drug interactions is available at www.hep-druginteractions.org. For more details on treatment guidelines refer to National Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Viral Hepatitis (http://clinicaestablishments.gov.in/WriteReadData/3591.pdf) It is advisable to first initiate treatment for HIV and achieve HIV suppression before starting HCV treatment, although, there are some circumstances where it may make sense to treat HCV infection first and then initiate therapy for HIV. This could include persons with moderate-to-severe fibrosis who at risk of rapid liver disease progression if the HIV infection is not associated with significant immunosuppression at the time of treatment. Also, in view of the short duration of HCV treatment, the risk of drug-drug interactions between HCV and HIV medicines and the increased risk of ART-related hepatotoxicity in the presence of HCV infection, treating HCV infection first can simplify subsequent ART depending on the regimen available locally. The decision to start ART among people co-infected with HCV should follow the same principles as for HIV mono infection. The ARV regimen remains the same, Tenofovir, Lamivudine and Efavirenz in single pill FDC, for adults and adolescents. Potential harmful effects of ARV drugs include their hepatotoxic effects. However, the highest rates of hepatotoxicity have been observed with ARV drugs that are no longer commonly used or recommended, including stavudine, didanosine, nevirapine or full-dose ritonavir (600 mg twice a day). For most HIV/HCV co-infected people, including those with cirrhosis, the benefits of ART outweigh the concerns regarding drug-induced liver injury. Monitoring of therapy in persons with HIV/ HCV co-infection Regular monitoring of liver and renal functions is required when using DAAs and ARV drugs together. Additional monitoring of liver function is recommended in persons with cirrhosis, including albumin, bilirubin and coagulation tests. Persons with evidence of neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and anaemia require 1-2 weekly monitoring. Prevention of HCV infection in HIV-positive There is no effective HCV vaccine and PPTCT (PMTCT) protocol for prevention of Hepatitis C. The prevention of HCV infection among IDUs needs to be done by strict maintenance of disposal of needle, syringe, sharps etc. at the health care settings and safe sexual behaviours. For further details on Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C, one may refer to the following documents References: - Guidelines for the screening, care and treatment of persons with hepatitis C infection. Updated version, April 2016. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016 ([http://www.who.int/hepatitis/publications/hepatitis-c-guidelines-2016/en](http://www.who.int/hepatitis/publications/hepatitis-c-guidelines-2016/en)). - Guidelines for the prevention, care and treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis B infection. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015 ([http://www.who.int/HIV/pub/hepatitis/hepatitis-b-guidelines/en](http://www.who.int/HIV/pub/hepatitis/hepatitis-b-guidelines/en)). 11. ART Treatment Failure in adults and adolescents and when to switch This chapter is applicable to all adults and adolescents (10-19 Years) and children aged > 5 years. For management of treatment failure in children below 5 years please refer to the paediatric section. The most important goal of antiretroviral therapy is to ensure maximal and sustained suppression of viral replication while maintaining future therapeutic options for the PLHIV. Consistent high-level adherence to ART is the key to achieve this goal and to maintain patient on first line ART for as long as possible. However, on account of longer duration of therapy, prodigious replication rate and error-prone reverse transcriptase, varying amount of drug resistance is bound to occur even with high adherence levels. HIV drug resistance evolves naturally due to the selective pressure from drugs or from the immune system. Poor adherence to ART can accelerate the development of drug resistance and the progression of disease. Hence continued adherence support with regular monitoring for response to therapy is crucial. The programme is planning to carry out pre-treatment resistance (PDR) and acquired drug resistance (ADR) surveillance studies. However, at patient level, there is a need to be well aware of the criteria for treatment failure so that these can be monitored regularly and appropriate intervention can be made early. The clinician must ensure that treatment adherence is checked, and the patient undergoes clinical monitoring besides monitoring of defined laboratory parameters, described in an earlier section, during each visit. Prevention of the emergence of HIV drug resistance (HIV DR), is the key for success of national ART programme and prevention of transmission of resistant virus. Normal Response to Antiretroviral Therapy: Virological response to ART: The viral load done 6 months after initiation of ART should be less than 1000 copies/ml. Immunological response to ART: CD4 count of the patients should increase after initiation of ART. This increase is usually 50-100 cells/cmm within 6-12 months of the initiation of the ART in ARV naïve patients, who are adherent to their treatment. Clinical response to ART: With ART initiation, by 12 weeks most of the patients would be asymptomatic. Clinical monitoring should be done at every visit to the ART centre. Clinical monitoring should include evaluation of weight, general wellbeing (functional status), adverse reaction to drugs and drug-drug interaction keeping an eye out for IRIS (Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome), especially in patients with low CD4 count. Each visit should be taken as an opportunity to evaluate adherence through pill count, to reinforce the treatment adherence and to provide nutritional counselling. Further, four-symptom screening for TB on each and every visit and provision of psycho-social support, as required have to be taken care of. Patient visits also provide the opportunity for spouse testing, if not done already, and for emphasizing positive prevention methods. Various laboratory-monitoring parameters with in-built frequency of testing have been described in the earlier section. It is important to have a high index of suspicion for treatment failure. One should look for the following evidences of suspected treatment failure among patients who are on first line ART for at least 6 months: - New OIs/ recurrence/ clinical events after 6 months on ART (after ruling out IRIS) - Progressive decline in CD4 counts - Slow/ no clinical improvement over 6-12 months, associated with stationary CD4 count, despite good adherence. In cases of sub-optimal rise in CD4 count at 6 months, despite good adherence and absence of clinical symptoms, one may repeat CD4 count at 3 months. (Immunological response is defined as an increase of at least 50 CD4 cells/cmm at 6 months of ART). Chronology and Identifying Treatment Failure The sequence of treatment failure is virological failure followed by immunological and clinical failures, as depicted in figure 1. As a person fails on his current regimen, his viral load starts rising, which is followed by a decline in CD4 count. Then, after a few months, some clinical stage 4 manifestations may appear indicating clinical failure. Hence, a viral load test can give an indication of treatment failure much earlier than CD4 decline or appearance of clinical symptoms indicative of failure. Figure 1: Chronology of Treatment Failure: Hence, compared to clinical or immunological monitoring, viral load monitoring provides an early and more accurate indication of treatment failure and the need to switch from the first-line ART to second-line drugs, which can reduce the accumulation of drug-resistant mutants and improve clinical outcomes. When to Switch The decision regarding when to switch from first-line to second-line therapy is critical. If the decision is made too early, the months or years of any potential survival benefit from an effective first-line therapy may be lost. If the decision is made too late, the effectiveness of second-line therapy may be compromised and the patient may be placed at an additional risk of death. The time of switching to second-line drugs is dictated by the failure of treatment, which can be measured in three ways: virologically, immunologically and clinically. The Table 1 below outlines the definition of treatment failure. Table 1: Definitions of ART failure \| Failure \| Definition \| Comments \| \|--------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Virological failure \| Plasma viral load above 1000 copies/ml. \| An individual must be taking ART for at least 6 months before it can be determined that a regimen has failed \| \| Immunological failure \| CD4 count falls to the baseline (or below) or Persistent CD4 levels below 100 cells/cmm or 50% fall from “on treatment” peak level \| Concomitant or recent infection may cause a transient decline in the CD4 cell count. Some experts consider persistent CD4 counts of below 50 cells/cmm after 12 months of ART to be more appropriate. \| \| Clinical failure \| New or recurrent clinical event indicating severe immunodeficiency (WHO clinical stage 4 condition) after 6 months of effective treatment \| The condition must be differentiated from IRIS. Some WHO clinical stage 4 conditions (lymph node TB, uncomplicated TB pleural disease, oesophageal candidiasis, recurrent bacterial pneumonia) may not indicate treatment failure. For adults, certain WHO clinical stage 3 conditions (pulmonary TB and severe bacterial infections) may also indicate treatment failure. \| Virological failure: Virological failure means incomplete suppression of the viral replication. Under the national programme, it is defined as a Plasma Viral Load (PVL) value of 1,000 or more copies/ml at or after six months of ART, with patient being treatment adherent by > 95%. Viral rebound after being undetectable is also considered as virological failure. A low-level viral rebound (< 1000 copies/ml), termed blips, usually indicates a statistical variation in the determination of PVL and this does not require switch in therapy. Viral load remains the most sensitive indicator of ART failure. Recognizing early failure facilitates the decision to switch drugs before multiple resistance mutations develop to drugs of the first-line regimen. In general, the clinical status and the serial CD4 cell counts should be used in an integrated fashion to suspect treatment failure, while the patient is on ART. However, the switch of a regimen from the first-line to second-line therapy should be made on basis of virological failure only. It is important to note that the current clinical and immunological criteria have low sensitivity and positive predictive value for identifying individuals with virological failure. Compared to clinical or immunological monitoring, viral load provides an early and more accurate indication of treatment failure and the need to switch from first-line to second-line drugs, reducing the accumulation of drug resistance mutations and improving clinical outcomes. Measuring viral load can also help to distinguish between treatment failure and non-adherence. Studies suggest that around 70% of patients on first-line ART, who have a first high viral load, will be suppressed following an adherence intervention, indicating non-adherence as the reason for the initial high viral load in the majority of cases. Immunological failure: NACO definitions of immunological failure (any one of the following three): - A return to or fall below the pre-therapy (baseline) CD4 at least after 6-months of therapy - A 50% decline from the on-treatment peak value (if known) - A persistent CD4 count of less than 100 cells/cmm after 12 months of therapy One should keep in mind the phenomenon of virological-immunological discordance. Even though declining CD4 count helps in suspecting treatment failure, virological failure is essential for decision-making in switching over to second line ART. Clinical failure: There should be a reasonable trial of first-line therapy, lasting for at least 6 months before suspecting that the ARV regimen is failing on the basis of clinical criteria. Adherence should be assessed and optimized, inter-current OIs treated and resolved, and IRIS excluded before drawing such a conclusion. The development of a new or recurrent WHO stage 3 or 4 condition, while on treatment (after the first six months), is considered as functional evidence of the progression of HIV disease. The assumption is that with immune restoration on ART, the subsequent progressive immunodeficiency means a failing ART regimen, the new clinical events signalling immune failure. This will be the same as those marking advanced and then severe immunodeficiency without ART, for e.g., WHO Clinical stage 3 and 4 conditions. TB can occur at any CD4 level and does not necessarily indicate ART failure. The response to TB therapy should be used to evaluate the need to switch ARV drugs. In the case of pulmonary TB and some types of extra-pulmonary TB (e.g. simple lymph node TB or uncomplicated pleural disease), the response to TB therapy is often good and the decision to switch ARV drugs can be postponed and monitoring can be stepped up. This also applies to severe and/or recurrent bacterial infections (as stage 3 or 4 events) or oesophageal candidiasis; they respond well to therapy. SOP for Determining Failure: Identifying the cause of failure is important before deciding to modify the ART regimen. The following factors need to be assessed. 1. Treatment Adherence: A detailed assessment of adherence needs to be made. The reasons for non-adherence need to be explored. Unless these reasons are identified, a patient will find it difficult to adhere to the second-line regimen. 2. Drug-drug interactions: Assessing whether the patient is concomitantly taking medications that interfere with ARV activity is important. For example, many patients may not reveal that they take herbal treatments along with the prescribed ART regimen. 3. Certain Opportunistic infections may lead to decline in the CD4 count, which may revert after treating those infections. Confirming Treatment Failure: The NACO recommendations in this regard are as below: 1. Viral load is recommended as the preferred monitoring approach to diagnose and confirm treatment failure. 2. Timing for viral load test: a. For all second/ third-line patients and key populations, viral load testing should be done every 6 months after initiation of second and third-line ART. b. For all other patients on first-line ART, viral load testing should be done at 6 months and 12 months after ART initiation and thereafter annually. For existing patients who have been on ART for more than 12 months, viral load testing should be done annually. For more details refer to National Operational Guidelines for Viral Load Testing (http://naco.gov.in) c. The treating doctor can request for a viral load test when deemed necessary for clinical management 3. Till the time viral load is routinely available for all, priority must be given to all patients with suspected treatment failure (Targeted viral load approach). 4. Virological failure is identified by the detectable viral load count of 1000 or more copies/ml, in targeted or routine viral load monitoring, at least 6 months after ART, with > 95% of treatment adherence for each of the last 3 months. Fig 1. Viral Load Testing Algorithm Viral Load Testing Algorithm Conduct Viral Load Test at scheduled Duration Viral load <1000 copies/mL Counsellor to provide step-up Treatment adherence package to the patient for 3 months Conduct Viral Load Test Viral load <1000 copies/mL Continue Routine Monitoring Tests Viral load ≥1000 copies/mL Is Treatment adherence in the last 3 months is ≥95%? NO Viral load =>1000 copies/mL Refer to SACEP for further evaluation of treatment failure and, if necessary, for switch. In patient is unable to visit SACEP physically, e-referral can be done YES * In case clinician feels discrepancy, a repeat Viral load, after three months step up adherence, may be done. Treatment Failure to First line ART and Second line ART Definitions First-Line and Second-Line ART Regimen: The working definitions of First and Second-line ART regimens are as follows: First-line ART: First-line ART is the initial regimen prescribed for an ART naïve patient. Second-line ART: Second-line ART is the subsequent regimen used in sequence immediately after First-line therapy has failed. Third-Line ART Third-line ART is the subsequent regimen used in sequence immediately after Second-line therapy has failed. Substitution Vs Switch Any change of ARVs prescribed should be carefully distinguished between substituting a drug within a given regimen and switching an entire ART regimen: SUBSTITUTION: Single drug replacement of individual ARV (usually within the same class) for toxicity, drug-drug interactions, or intolerance refers to SUBSTITUTION of individual (offending) drug. This does not indicate that a second-line regimen is being used even if second-line drugs like boosted PIs are used for substitution. SWITCH: Treatment failure refers to the loss of antiviral efficacy to the current regimen. When the regimen is changed because of ARV treatment failure, it is referred as the SWITCH of the entire regimen. Broad Principles and Objectives All patients initiated on first-line ART need to be monitored carefully at every visit as per standard protocol on clinical and laboratory monitoring indicators. As emphasized early, a high index of suspicion is needed to detect first-line failure early. Whenever a patient develops new clinical manifestations (symptoms and/or signs) or is found to have a declining trend in CD4 counts (even before the counts reach the well-defined levels for immunological failure), one must start suspecting the possibility of failure of the regimen. Issues related to undetected OIs and sub-optimal treatment adherence need to be addressed. It is important to make appropriate timely referral to SACEP for evaluation of such patients following the simplified SACEP guidelines. Once the patient has undergone viral load test and been evaluated by SACEP, if required, one of the following possible decisions will be conveyed by the SACEP of CoE/PCoE/ART plus centre to the referring ART centre. - Switch to ‘prescribed’ second-line ART - Not eligible for second-line ART; continue first-line ART, reinforce adherence and re-evaluate - Evaluate for HIV-2 Once the decision has been made to start second-line ART, the decision will be communicated to the referring centre where the second-line will be initiated. The objective of the second-line ART is to prolong the survival of the PLHIV as much as possible with complete suppression of viral replication. This requires regular monitoring with viral load every 6 months. What to Switch: When failure has been identified clinically or immunologically, many patients can be expected to have significant NRTI resistance at the time of switching. Thus, in the decision-making for a second-line regimen with maximal antiviral activity, one has to consider nucleoside class crossresistance and drug interactions. Some points to be noted are: - Cross resistance exists between d4T and AZT - High level AZT/3TC resistance reduces susceptibility to ABC - TDF can be compromised by multiple nucleoside analogue mutations (NAMs) but often retains activity against nucleoside-resistant viral strains - TDF/ABC may facilitate evolution of the K65R drug resistance mutation, which mediates resistance to non-AZT NRTIs - NNRTI (such as EFV and NVP): usually there is complete cross-resistance The details of certain expected mutations with different NRTIs are provided in the table 2. Table 2: Expected resistance mutations with different NRTI backbone \| Failing NRTI backbone \| Mutations \| \|-----------------------\|-----------\| \| AZT or d4T + 3TC and AZT + 3TC + ABC \| M184V and then successive NAMs (cumulative, longer one waits to switch) \| \| TDF + 3TC \| K65R and/or M184V \| \| ABC + 3TC \| L74V >K65R and/or M184V \| \| AZT or d4T \| TMs, Q151M, T69ins \| \| TDF + ABC and TDF \| K65R \| Formulation of second-line ART for PLHIV failing to first-line ART Formulation of second line ART is discussed in this section on the basis of: - Current NACO treatment guidelines for the first-line ART in adults and adolescents recommend three drug combination therapy from two classes of ARV drugs for initial treatment i.e. 2 NRTI + 1 NNRTI Current Recommendation for Second-line ART is based on: - A new class of ARV, a Ritonavir boosted PI (Atazanavir/ritonavir or Lopinavir/ritonavir) - Supported by at least one new and unused NRTI (Zidovudine or Tenofovir) or in an inevitable situation an integrase inhibitor (Raltegravir—presently after CoE-SACEP approval) - Continued Lamivudine administration ensures reduced viral fitness The steps to be followed in initiating second-line ART is given in Table 3 Table 3: Steps in Initiating Second-line ART \| STEP 1 \| Define treatment failure \| Define treatment failure by virological testing, see if adherence to treatment is adequate. Counsel and support. (SACEP will see these and take decision on providing second-line ART) \| \|--------\|--------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| STEP 2 \| Decide on NRTI component of the second-line regimen \| If AZT is used in first-line, NRTI choice in second-line is TDF. If TDF is used in first-line, NRTI choice could be AZT. Continuing Lamivudine reduces viral fitness and has to be part of second-line ART \| \| STEP 3 \| Decide on the PI component of the second-line regimen \| Give only boosted PI in combination. The preferred choice is ATV/r \| \| STEP 4 \| Patient education and agreement on treatment plan including follow up and monitoring \| Include counselling for adherence, linkages to specialist care, and follow-up monitoring plan. \| Once it is decided to switch the ART regimen, following various scenarios should be considered and changes made as recommended below: A. Second-line recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART 1. Patients failing on AZT/d4T based first-line regimen, not exposed to any other NRTI will switch to TDF + 3TC + ATV/r 2. Patients failing on TDF/ABC based first-line, not exposed to any other NRTI: - TDF/ABC +3TC +EFV/NVP (if Hb is $\geq 9$ g/dl) will switch to AZT + 3TC + ATV/r (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) - TDF/ABC +3TC +EFV/NVP (if Hb is $< 9$ g/dl) will switch to RAL + LPV/r (TDF + 3TC to be maintained only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) 3. Patients failing to TDF/ABC + 3TC + EFV/NVP (previous exposure to AZT/d4T in first-line regimen without evidence of immunologic failure at the time of substitution from AZT/d4T to TDF/ABC due to toxicity/d4T phase out): - When Hb is $\geq 9$ g/dl, switch to AZT +3TC + ATV/r (TDF to be maintained only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) - When Hb is $< 9$ g/dl, switch to LPV/r + RAL (TDF + 3TC to be maintained only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) 4. Patients failing to all other multi-NRTIs exposed drug regimens will switch to LPV/r + RAL (TDF + 3TC to be maintained only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) refer to appropriate physician for further monitoring like HBV DNA load and use of entecavir The recommended second-line drug regimens for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART are given in Table 4. Table 4: Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to NNRTI based first-line ART \| Failing First-Line ART \| Recommended Regimens \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| AZT/d4T + 3TC+ NVP/EFV \| TDF + 3TC + ATV/r \| \| TDF + 3TC + EFV/NVP (not anaemic; Hb ≥ 9 g/dl) \| AZT +3TC + ATV/r \| \| \| (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| TDF + 3TC + EFV/NVP (anaemic; Hb < 9 g/dl) \| RAL + LPV/r \| \| \| (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| TDF/ABC + 3TC + EFV/NVP (previous exposure to AZT/d4T in first-line regimen without evidence of immunologic failure at the time of substitution from AZT/d4T to TDF/ABC due to toxicity or d4T phase out) (Not anaemic; Hb ≥ 9 g/dl) \| AZT+3TC + ATV/r (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| TDF/ABC + 3TC + EFV/NVP (previous exposure to AZT/d4T in first-line regimen without evidence of immunologic failure at the time of substitution from AZT/d4T to TDF/ABC due to toxicity or d4T phase out) (Anaemic; Hb < 9 g/dl) \| LPV/r + RAL (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| All other cases of first-line failure and exposure to more than 1 NRTI (multi-NRTIs - AZT/d4T, TDF, ABC) \| LPV/r + RAL (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| AZT: Zidovudine; d4T: Stavudine; ABC: Abacavir; TDF: Tenofovir; 3TC: Lamivudine; EFV: Efavirenz; NVP: Nevirapine; ATV/r: Atazanavir/ritonavir; LPV/r: Lopinavir/ritonavir; RAL: Raltegravir * refer to appropriate physician for further monitoring like HBV DNA load and use of entecavir B. Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to PI based first-line ART (Not exposed to NNRTI) - NACO guidelines do not recommend PI based first-line ART in adults and adolescents. However, patients who have received PI based first-line treatment outside the national programme (i.e. in private sector) and are failing to treatment are enrolled as part of the “universal access to treatment protocol”. Patients belonging to this category are considered here. - Change PI to NNRTI (Efavirenz). NRTI backbone to be changed as described earlier (as in previous section (A) Second-line recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART) The recommended second-line drug regimens for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART are given in Table 5. Table 5: Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to PI based first-line ART (Not exposed to NNRTIs) \| Failing First-Line ART \| Recommended Regimens \| \|------------------------\|----------------------\| \| AZT/d4T + 3TC + ATV/r (OR) LPV/r \| TDF + 3TC + EFV (routine viral load every 6 months) \| \| TDF + 3TC + ATV/r (OR) LPV/r (not anaemic; Hb >9 g/dl) \| AZT + 3TC + EFV (routine viral load every 6 months) \| \| \| (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) * \| \| TDF + 3TC + ATV/r (OR) LPV/r (anaemic; Hb <9 g/dl) \| RAL + DRV/r \| \| \| (TDF+3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| AZT: Zidovudine; d4T: Stavudine; ABC: Abacavir; TDF: Tenofovir; 3TC: Lamivudine; EFV: Efavirenz; NVP: Nevirapine; ATV/r: Atazanavir/ritonavir; LPV/r: Lopinavir//ritonavir; RAL: Raltegravir * refer to appropriate physician for further monitoring like HBV DNA load and use of entecavir C. Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to PI based first-line ART (intolerant to NNRTIs or where NNRTIs cannot be used) - Change PI to NNRTI (Efavirenz). NRTI backbone to be changed as described earlier (as in previous section (A) Second-line recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART) - Since a boosted PI (Atazanavir/ritonavir or Lopinavir/ritonavir) is used in first-line ART, Darunavir/ritonavir has to be used as twice daily dose (BID) The recommended second-line drug regimens for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART are given in Table 6. Table 6: Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to PI based first-line ART (intolerant to NNRTIs or where NNRTIs cannot be used) \| Failing First-Line ART \| Recommended Regimens \| \|------------------------\|----------------------\| \| AZT/d4T + 3TC + ATV/r \| TDF + 3TC + use DRV/r BID \| \| TDF + 3TC + LPV/r (Not anaemic; HB > 9 g/dl) \| AZT + 3TC + use DRV/r BID \| \| \| (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| TDF + 3TC + LPV/r (Anaemic; HB < 9 g/dl) \| RAL + use DRV/r BID \| \| \| (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| AZT: Zidovudine; d4T: Stavudine; TDF: Tenofovir; 3TC: Lamivudine; ATV/r: Atazanavir/ritonavir; LPV/r: Lopinavir//ritonavir; RAL: Raltegravir; DRV/r: Darunavir/ritonavir * refer to appropriate physician for further monitoring like HBV DNA load and use of entecavir D. Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-2, having immunological failure to PI based (LPV/r) first-line ART • Change Lopinavir/ritonavir to Darunavir/ritonavir. NRTI backbone to be changed as described earlier (as in previous section (A) Second-line recommendations for patients with HIV-1, failing to first-line ART) • Since a boosted PI (Lopinavir/ritonavir) is used in first-line ART, Darunavir/ritonavir has to be used as twice daily dose (BID) The recommended second drug regimens for patients with HIV-2, having immunological failure to LPV/r based first-line ART are given Table 7. Table 7: Second-line ART recommendations for patients with HIV-2, failing to PI (LPV/r) based first-line ART \| Failing First-Line ART \| Recommended Regimens \| \|------------------------\|----------------------\| \| AZT/d4T + 3TC +LPV/r \| TDF+3TC + use DRV/r BID \| \| TDF + 3TC +LPV/r (not anaemic; HB >9 g/dl) \| AZT + 3TC + use DRV/r BID (TDF to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| TDF + 3TC +LPV/r (anaemic; HB < 9 g/dl) \| RAL + use DRV/r BID (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| \| All other cases of first-line failure and exposure to more than 1 NRTI (Multi NRTIs- AZT, TDF, d4T, ABC) \| RAL+ use DRV/r BID (TDF + 3TC to be maintained, only if the patient is co-infected with HBV) \| AZT: Zidovudine; d4T: Stavudine; TDF: Tenofovir; 3TC: Lamivudine; LPV/r: Lopinavir/ritonavir; RAL: Raltegravir; DRV/r: Darunavir/ritonavir * refer to appropriate physician for further monitoring like HBV DNA load and use of entecavir Toxicities of second line drugs The major toxicities of the second line drugs are depicted in Table 7 below: Table 8: Side effects related to the NACO Second Line Regimen: \| ARV \| Side effect/toxicity \| Management \| \|-----\|----------------------\|------------\| \| TDF \| Usually well tolerated; Minor: weakness and lack of energy, headache, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting and flatulence. More serious side effects include kidney failure and pancreas disease TDF can reduce bone mineral density \| Monitor renal function test as per NACO protocol Symptomatic management of minor side effects. Calcium supplements may be used in patients with osteoporosis \| \| Drug \| Side Effects and Management \| \|------\|-----------------------------\| \| ATV* \| Apart from the PI-class specific side-effects like hyperglycaemia, fat maldistribution, hyperlipidaemia (especially with Ritonavir boosting), increased bleeding episodes in haemophiliacs etc. the unique side-effects of Atazanavir include indirect hyperbilirubinaemia (producing yellow discolouration of eyes), skin rash and nephrolithiasis (rare). Unique drug interaction involving Atazanavir: - In addition to all the drug interactions involving PI class - Atazanavir has significant drug interaction with antacids, H2 Receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors* The patients need to be counselled that they may appear to be jaundiced with yellow eyes but they should not be afraid as it would only be a cosmetic problem (like Gilbert disease). It should not be taken as hepatotoxicity. However, LFT has to be done should someone appear to have jaundice. Also, they should be advised to consume plenty of water. Antacid: Give Atazanavir at least 2 hours before or 1 hour after antacids or any buffered medications (For details please refer to table 8) \| \| LPV/r \| Side effects include abdominal pain, abnormal stools or bowel movements, diarrhoea, feeling weak/tired, headache and nausea. In addition, patients taking Lopinavir should be monitored for possible liver problems. People who have liver disease, such as hepatitis B or hepatitis C, may experience a worsening of their liver condition. A small number of patients have experienced severe liver problems. Symptomatic management of minor side effects. Supportive counselling and use of other drugs to manage GI effects should be done. These symptoms improve after a few weeks. Monitor LFTs, lipid profile and blood sugar regularly \| \| 3TC \| Very minimal side effects. They include cough, diarrhoea, dizziness, headache, loss of appetite, mild stomach cramps or pain. More serious side effects include burning, tingling, or pain in the hands, arms, feet, or legs, chills, ear, nose, or throat problems, fever, muscle aches, nausea, pale skin, severe stomach pain, skin rash are seen rarely. Symptomatic management of minor side effects \| CAUTION: We should be cautious in recommending the use of H2RA & PPIs with ATV/r as most of our patients are ARV-experienced; this is a black box warning for ATV; only systemic antacids can be co-prescribed. Side-effects of Atazanavir: Apart from the PI-class specific side-effects like hyperglycaemia, fat maldistribution, hyperlipidaemia (especially with Ritonavir boosting); the unique side effects of Atazanavir include indirect hyperbilirubinaemia (producing yellow discolouration of eyes), skin rash, prolongation of PR interval and nephrolithiasis. For more detailed guidance on Atazanavir toxicity reader is referred to annexure 12. Drug Interactions:* Avoid concurrent use of the following drugs: Astemizole, Cisapride, Fluticasone, Indinavir, Lovastatin, Simvastatin, Midazolam, Terfenadine. Unique drug interaction involving Atazanavir: In addition to all the drug interactions involving PI class, Atazanavir has significant drug interaction with antacids, H2 Receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors. These are listed in table 8 below: Table 8: Recommendations on major Drug Interaction with Atazanavir \| S1 No \| Patients on following drugs concomitantly \| Recommendation/points to remember for ATV \| \|-------\|------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------\| \| 1 \| Antacids \| Give ATV/r at least 2 hours before or 1 hour after antacids or buffered medications \| \| 2 \| H2 Receptor Antagonist \| 1. H2 receptor antagonist dose should not exceed a dose equivalent to Famotidine 40 mg BID in ART-naïve patients or 20 mg BID in ART-experienced patients 2. Give ATV 300 mg + RTV 100 mg simultaneously with and/or > 10 hours after the H2 receptor antagonist Example: If a patient on Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Atazanavir/ritonavir requires to be treated with Famotidine 20 mg BID or Ranitidine 150 mg BID; S/he should be instructed to take Tab. Famotidine/Ranitidine with Zidovudine + Lamivudine at 8.00 AM and in the evening take ZL and ATV/r at 8 PM and ensure that there is a gap of at least 2 hours before or 1 hour after Famotidine/Ranitidine evening dose. \| \| 3 \| Proton pump Inhibitor \| 1. H2 receptor antagonist is not recommended with Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Atazanavir/ritonavir 2. PPIs should not exceed the dose of Omeprazole 20 mg daily or equivalent dose of Esomeprazole 20mg/ Pantoprazole 40mg/ Rabeprazole 20 mg in PI-naïve patients, along with Ritonavir boosted Atazanavir. PPIs should be administered at least 12 hours prior to Atazanavir/ritonavir 3. PPIs are not recommended in PI-experienced patients Example: If a patient, on Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Atazanavir/ritonavir, requires to be treated with PPI, S/he should be instructed to take Tab. Omeprazole 20 mg / Esomeprazole 20mg / Pantoprazole 40 mg / Rabeprazole 20 mg OD at 8 AM and Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Atazanavir/ritonavir after 8 PM. \| a. Prolongation of P-R and Q-Tc interval in the ECG can occur. Hence, PR interval needs to be monitored in patients with known conduction defects or with concurrent use of other drugs that alter conduction abnormalities (like diltiazem, clarithromycin, cisapride, ketoconazole etc.). However, routine ECG before starting Atazanavir based ART is not mandatory. b. Atazanavir induced urolithiasis is also reported; presumably due to precipitation of the drug resulting in crystalluria in a manner analogous to Indinavir. Counselling issues: There is a need for enhanced counselling of PLHIV on these regimens particularly unique side effects of Atazanavir/ritonavir. Hence, the patients need to be counselled that they may appear to be jaundiced with yellow eyes but they should not be afraid, as it is only a cosmetic problem. It should not be taken as hepatotoxicity. However, LFT has to be done should someone appear to have jaundice. Also, they should be advised to consume plenty of water. Important consideration in pregnancy ATV/r is not to be used for pregnant women exposed to single dose-Nevirapine in the past; they shall be provided with Lopinavir/ritonavir based regimen. Second-Line ART and TB Treatment Tuberculosis is the most common opportunistic infection among PLHIV. While tuberculosis has to be treated appropriately and on priority, in the context of second-line ART, drug-drug interactions must be considered. Rifampicin alters the metabolism of protease-inhibitors, including Lopinavir, Atazanavir and Ritonavir, and reduces effectiveness of standard doses. However, another Rifamycin, Rifabutin, can be administered in the presence of PI-containing second-line ART regimen without compromising the efficacy of ART or anti-TB treatment. Therefore, NACP and RNTCP have recommended the substitution of Rifampicin with Rifabutin for the entire duration of anti-TB treatment. The dosage of Rifabutin during the administration of Atazanavir/ritonavir or Lopinavir/ritonavir based second-line regimen shall be 150 mg daily for all patients, weighing > 30 kg for the entire period of co-administration of anti-TB treatment and second-line ART, as presently NACO ART centres provide daily anti-TB treatment regimens. Whenever Rifabutin is prescribed, instead of the usual FDC packs, individual anti-TB drugs (without Rifampicin) have to be dispensed to the patients as per weight band. Some of the common side effects of Rifabutin include orange-brown discolouration of skin, tears, saliva, sweat, urine and stools as long as Rifabutin is consumed. The ART centre SMO/MO should be contacted as and when the patient experiences chest pain, muscle aches, severe headache, fatigue, sore throat, flu-like symptoms, vision changes, unusual bruising or bleeding, nausea/vomiting and/yellowing of the skin or eyes. Initiation of second line ART in patient already on anti-TB treatment If a patient is already on anti-TB treatment and needs to be initiated on second-line ART, then substitute Rifampicin with Rifabutin for 2 weeks prior to initiation of the second-line ART. This should be done to allow hepatic metabolism (induced by Rifampicin) to normalize prior to initiation of PI-containing regimens. While the patient is counselled and prepared for initiation of second-line regimen, the patient should still be given the first-line ART regimen. Initiation of Anti-TB treatment in patients already on second line ART If the patient is already on second-line ART (Atazanavir/Ritonavir containing treatment protocol), and detected to have TB, substitute Rifabutin for Rifampicin within the category I or II anti TB regimen from the start of TB treatment. Fig 4. Initiation of Second line ART and Anti TB Treatment in the presence of TB co-infection Initiation of second-line ART/ Anti TB Treatment in the presence of TB co-infection in PLHIV \| Already on Category I or II. Anti-TB treatment; PI based second line ART has to be initiated \| Need to initiate second line ART with concurrent detection of TB co-infection \| Patient already on second line and then detected to have TB co-infection \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| Substitute Rifabutin for Rifampicin within the anti-TB treatment regimen \| • Treatment preparedness and counselling • Initiate Rifabutin containing anti-TB regimen on priority • Initiate second-line ART regimen when patient is stabilized on TB treatment after 2 weeks of Rifabutin containing anti-TB treatment \| • Treatment preparedness and counselling • Initiate Rifabutin containing anti-TB regimen on priority \| Note: - Whenever Rifabutin is prescribed, instead of the usual FDC packs, individual anti-TB drugs (without Rifampicin) have to be dispensed to the patients as per weight band with adequate counselling. - The 2-weeks of Rifabutin containing anti-TB treatment allows hepatic function to normalize after induction of P 450 cytochrome enzymes by Rifampicin. - Patient should be counselled well for both anti-TB and second-line ART. Pill burden is high. If patient is not started on second-line ART immediately, then continue first-line regimen till patient is switched to second-line ART. Laboratory monitoring of patients on second line regimen The protocol for laboratory monitoring of patients on second-line ART is described in table 9. Table 9: Monitoring patients on second line ART \| Tests \| Months \| \|------------------------------\|--------\| \| \| 0 \| 1 \| 3 \| 6 \| 12 \| 18 \| 24 \| \| Hb, CBC \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Complete LFT \| Yes \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Renal function test \| Yes \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Fasting blood sugar \| Yes \| \| \| \| Yes \| \| Yes \| \| Fasting lipid profile \| Yes \| \| \| \| Yes \| \| Yes \| \| Viral Load (VL) \| Yes \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| CD4 count \| Yes \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Timing for CD4 testing: CD4 testing should be done at 6 months. - A baseline CD4 count at the time of ART initiation is necessary to understand presence of Opportunistic Infections (OIs) and to determine immunological failure in the future. - As and when routine virological monitoring becomes available: 1. CD4 testing should be done every 6 months till CD4 count reaches greater than 350 cells/cmm and viral load is less than 1000 copies/ml (when both tests are conducted at the same time). 2. CD4 monitoring should be re-started for any patient if (a) the patient has suspected treatment failure i.e. virological failure (VL >1000 copies/ml or (b) if the patient has undergone a switch in regimen - The treating doctor can request for a CD4 test or viral load test when deemed necessary for clinical management Second line ART Failure and Third line ART Introduction As the HIV (virus) is prone to error during replications, some patients on second-line ART may also develop resistance to their regimen. This is particularly if the adherence of the patients was not good or they underwent late switching to second-line drugs and there were either few Thymidine Analogue Mutations (TAMS) while on NRTIs or K65R while on NtRTI based regimen. These patients will eventually require third-line ARV drugs. These drugs have been introduced in the national ART programme now. The step-wise guidance for screening, referral, initiation and follow up of patients failing to second-line ART is given below: Monitoring of patients on second line ART All patients on second-line ART need to undergo viral load testing every six months. Work up of patients with suspected line failure All cases with suspected second-line failure need to be thoroughly evaluated for treatment adherence and presence of any major opportunistic infection. If adherence is good and there is no major OI, such patients with suspected second-line treatment failure should be referred to Centres of Excellence (CoE) first electronically with referral form, containing latest relevant reports and complete past history of treatment. If treatment adherence is poor or major OI is identified, utmost steps need to be taken to improve adherence and/or treat OI. Such patients should be closely monitored clinically, immunologically and virologically. If no improvement is seen by 3 months, the case should be referred to CoE for further assessment. After receiving electronic referral, SACEP at the CoE will give two appointments for these cases and the referring centre will confirm one after consultation with patient. The patient will visit CoE as per the given appointment. SACEP will thoroughly examine the patient for issues like clinical signs-symptoms, investigations, adherence, OI treatment & prophylaxis. SACEP will refer the patient for VL (if not available already). The VL report will be reviewed by SACEP (in absentia) and eligibility for third-line will be determined. All those with VL more than 10,000 copies /ml will be switched to third-line ART. But if PVL is between 1000 and 10,000 copies, CoE shall repeat VL after three months to confirm failure and exclude the possible blips in viral load readings. PLHIV found eligible for third line ART will be given appointment to come for initiation of third-line at the CoE / specified centers. Initiation of third line ART Third-line regimens should include new drugs with minimal risk of cross-resistance to previously used regimens such as Integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) and second-generation NNRTIs and PIs. Under the national programme, it has been decided to provide INSTI (Raltegravir) and a new boosted PI (Darunavir/ritonavir). Accordingly, the regimen is Raltegravir (400 mg) + Darunavir (600 mg) + Ritonavir (100 mg); one tablet each twice daily. As per WHO recommendations, in some cases the existing NRTI backbone can also be continued for the possible retention of some anti-retroviral activity; however, it is to be used judiciously for the possible risk of cumulative toxicities of NRTI backbone. Therefore, the third-line prescription has to be a more balanced one for the long-term management and acceptance. The third-line ART will have to be initiated presently at the CoE only by the nodal officer himself / herself under his / her signature and stamp. Once the decision of starting third-line ART has been taken by the CoE, the patient will be transferred out to the concerned CoE. The patient will continue third-line ART from CoE for at-least 3 months. Once the patient is stable and treatment adherence is > 95%, the patient can be transferred to the nearest CoE / ART Plus centre. Patients on third-line shall be monitored by viral load measurement every 6 months after initiation of third-line. Supply chain management of drugs for third-line will be managed by CoE presently, for the initial period, and later on this will be the responsibility of SACS. SACS representative will also participate in SACEP meetings (as per existing guidelines) to address administrative issues. In cases with difficulty in assessment of second-line failure, complicated prior treatment regimens, patients referred from private, multi-NRTI exposed cases, any intolerance to third-line drugs, cases requiring these third-line drugs as alternate within the second-line ART or any other query, SACEP at CoE can obtain expert opinion from National AIDS Clinical Expert panel (NACEP) electronically, by addressing to firstname.lastname@example.org. Follow up Protocol The patients on third-line ART need strict monitoring for side effects at every visit as there is limited experience on the use of these drugs in the programme; one should keep eyes and the mind open for any new symptom and seek opinion if required. The guidelines for laboratory monitoring patients on third-line are given in table 10. Table 10: Laboratory Monitoring of patients on third line ART \| Tests \| Time line \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| \| Baseline \| 1 Month after initiation \| 3 Months after initiation \| Every 6 Months after initiation \| \| Hb, CBC \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| \| Complete LFT \| √ \| \| √ \| √ \| \| Renal function test \| √ \| \| √ \| √ \| \| Fasting blood sugar \| √ \| \| \| √ \| \| Fasting lipid profile \| √ \| \| \| √ \| \| Viral Load (VL) \| √ \| \| \| √ \| \| CD4 count \| √ \| \| \| √ \| Adverse events with third-line drugs Raltegravir: - Rhabdomyolysis, myopathy, myalgia, nausea, headache, diarrhoea, fever, CPK elevation (statins to be used carefully) - Rash, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, hypersensitivity reaction, and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) - Hepatitis and hepatic failure - Insomnia Darunavir: - Hepatotoxicity, underlying hepatic disease, HBV, HCV co-infections increase the risk of hepatotoxicity - Skin rash (10%), Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis and erythema multiforme (darunavir has a sulphonamide moiety, so allergy to sulphonamide should be enquired) - Diarrhoea, nausea, headache - Hyperlipidaemia, serum transaminase elevation, hyperglycaemia - Lipodystrophy Ritonavir - Gastrointestinal (including diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain (upper and lower)) - Neurological disturbances (including paraesthesia and oral paraesthesia) - Rash - Fatigue/asthenia Recording and reporting tools for third line ART The third-line drugs will be initiated at CoE only; however, these patients will be transferred to the ART plus centres nearer to their homes. The detailed tools to be maintained are given in the M & E section of operational guidelines. The Government of India has adopted WHO’s definition of palliative care, which is the “active total care of patients whose disease is not responsive to curative treatment” (Manual on Palliative Care, MOHFW, November 2005). Palliative care is an “approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial and spiritual”. Palliative care extends, if necessary, to support in bereavement. Relationship between disease-modifying, supportive and palliative care: - Curative Care - Diagnosis - Disease specific, restorative - Palliative Care - Dying - Supportive, Symptom oriented - Bereavement - Death Person with illness - Family - Care givers - Disease Progression Support services for families and care givers Palliative care in HIV: - Is family and patient-centred - Optimizes the quality of life by active participation, prevention and treatment of suffering - Involves an inter-disciplinary team approach throughout the continuum of illness, placing critical importance on building of respectful and trusting relationships - Addresses physical, intellectual, emotional, social and spiritual needs The availability of ART and palliative care has made HIV a chronic, manageable disease for many. Apart from regular pain management, nutritional support and OI management, palliative care includes giving support for drug failure and severe toxicities due to ART. Special attention needs to be given to the following HIV-related conditions, which may present as terminal illness. These conditions can be managed with proper medical care and support- Severe oral and oesophageal candidiasis, leading to severe pain and weight loss, Cryptococcal meningitis and Toxoplasma encephalitis. Components of Palliative Care The main components include: 1. Pain management 2. Symptomatic management 3. Nutritional support 4. Psycho-social support 5. Spiritual support 6. End of life care 7. Bereavement counselling Management of Pain Step 1: Assess the patient for pain - Determine the severity, site and nature of the pain (bone pain, mouth pain, shooting nerve pain, colicky pain, severe muscle spasms) - If there is infection, prompt management of infection is the main step in controlling the pain (e.g. treating severe oral and oesophageal candidiasis with fluconazole relieves the pain) - The severity of the pain can be graded with the help of the tools below. GO BY WHAT THE PATIENT SAYS IS HURTING: Do not disregard the patient’s complaint of pain just because there is no apparent physical cause Pain can be assessed by using the PQRST characteristics, given in table 1 Table 1: PQRST characteristics in pain assessment \| Factors for Assessment \| Answer eliciting questionnaire \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| P- Palliative factors \| ‘What makes it better?’ \| \| Provocative factors \| ‘What makes it worse?’ \| \| Q- Quality \| ‘What exactly is it like?’ \| \| R- Radiation \| ‘Does it spread anywhere?’ \| \| S- Severity \| ‘How severe is it?’ \| \| \| ‘How much does it affect your life?’ \| \| T- Temporal factors \| ‘Is it there all the time or does it come and go?’ \| \| \| ‘Is it worse at any particular time of the day or night?’ \| Table 2: Various scales for pain assessment Various scales for pain assessment are: - Descriptive Scale - Numeric Scale - Visual analogue Scale - Percentage Scale - Coin Scale - Face Scale The following format may be used for assessing pain in any given patient. Pain Intensity Scale Step 2: Decide the treatment strategies for pain Table 3: Strategies for treatment of pain \| By mouth \| By the Clock \| \|----------\|-------------\| \| If possible, administer pain killer by mouth - Rectal administration is an alternative - Avoid intramuscular route) \| 1. Give pain killers at fixed time intervals (by clock or radio or sun) 2. Start with a small dose, then titrate the dose against the patient’s pain, until the patient is comfortable 3. The next dose should be given before the effects of the previous one wears off 4. For breakthrough pain, give an extra “rescue” dose, in addition to the regular schedule \| Fig 1. Pain and the analgesic ladder The right dose is the dose that relieves the patient’s pain Source: WHO ladder Step 3: Prescribe analgesics – use of opioid and non-opioid Give only one drug from the opioid and non-opioid groups at a time. The exception is if codeine cannot be given; use aspirin every four hours combined with paracetamol every four hours—overlap so one is given every two hours. After adequate pain assessment and evaluation of parameters described above, the pharmacotherapy must be individualized so as to maximize pain relief and minimize adverse effects. WHO has devised a model paradigm for pain management approaches. WHO Analgesic Ladder Step 1: Non-opioid ± Adjuvant ↓ Pain increasing or persisting ↓ Step 2: “weak” opioid for mild to moderate pain ↓ ± Non-opioid ± adjuvant Pain increasing or persisting ↓ Step 3: “Strong” opioids for moderate to severe pain ↓ Freedom from pain → → ± Non-opioid ± adjuvant The WHO approach advises the clinicians to match the patient’s reported pain intensity with the potency of analgesic to be prescribed. For mild pain, one should use a non-opioid drug like acetaminophen or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) (Table A). A moderate pain not controlled by NSAID alone, a “weak” opioid like codeine phosphate or hydrocodone bitartrate should be used in combination with aspirin, another NSAID or acetaminophen (Table B). For severe pain, a “strong” opioid such as morphine, hydromorphone, methadone or fentanyl should be used (Table II). The various pain management scales described earlier should be used to assess the outcome of pain management. Table 4: Partial list of Acetaminophen and Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory drugs used for cancer pain \| Drug \| Dosage Schedule \| \|-----------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Acetaminophen \| 650 mg q4h p.o. \| \| Aspirin \| 650 mg q4h p.o. \| \| Ibuprofen \| 200-800 mg q6h p.o. \| \| Diclofenac Sodium \| 50-75 mg q8-12h p.o. \| \| Flurbiprofen \| 200-300 mg q4-8h p.o. \| \| Opioids \| Usual starting dose \| \|-------------------------\|---------------------\| \| Naproxen \| 250-750 mg q12h p.o.\| \| Piroxicam \| 10-20 mg q daily p.o\| \| Ketoprofen \| 50 mg q6h p.o. \| \| Ketorolac tromethamine \| 10 mg q4-6h p.o. \| \| Ketorolac tromethamine \| 30 mg im. or iv. x 1 then 15 mg im. or iv. q6h \| Table 5: Commonly used Opioids for Cancer pain \| World Health Organization step I/II Opioids \| Usual starting dose \| \|--------------------------------------------\|---------------------\| \| Codeine phosphate \| 60 mg q3-4h p.o. \| \| Hydrocodone bitartrate \| 10 mg q3-4h p.o. \| \| Oxycodone hydrochloride \| 10 mg q3-4h p.o. \| \| Tramadol hydrochloride \| 50 mg four times daily p.o. \| \| World Health Organization step II/III Opioids \| Usual starting dose \| \|-----------------------------------------------\|---------------------\| \| Morphine sulfate Immediate release \| 30 mg q3-4h p.o. \| \| Morphine sulfate controlled release \| 10 mg q3-4h iv. \| \| Morphine sulfate sustained release \| 30 mg q12h p.o. \| \| Morphine sulfate suppository \| As advised \| \| Oxycodone hydrochloride immediate release \| 10 mg q4h p.o. \| \| Oxycodone hydrochloride controlled release \| 20 mg q12th p.o. \| \| Hydromorphone \| 6 mg q12h p.o. \| \| Fentanyl: Duragesic (transdermal) \| 50 mg/h q72h \| \| Fentanyl: Sublimaze \| 50 mg/h via continuous infusion \| \| Methadone hydrochloride \| 20 mg q6-8h p.o. \| \| Levorphanol tartrate \| 4 mg q6-8h p.o. \| The NSAIDs act by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase, thereby inhabiting prostaglandin synthesis, which are important mediators of inflammatory process. Recent introductions in NSAID therapy include two isoforms of enzyme cyclooxygenase, COX-I and COX-2. Ketoralac tromethadrine is available as oral, intramuscular and intravenous formulations. Various NSAIDs differ in their cost, dosing interval, analgesic ceiling and safety. The choice of NSAIDs must be individualized to the patient’s need. The common adverse effects of NSAIDs include GI toxicity, ulceration and bleeding. NSAIDs and opioids have different mechanisms of action and logically would have additive analgesia. The opioids form an essential component of pharmacotherapy of pain and can be classified as “weak” or “strong” depending on their relative efficacy in releasing pain (Table B). Morphine sulfate is the prototype opioid agonist and is designated by WHO, as drug of choice for treatment of severe pain associated with cancer. The half-life of morphine is approx. 2 hours, and it is available both as oral immediate release preparation as well as slow release preparations that permit once or twice daily drug regimens. Oral administration of opioids is a convenient, well-tolerated, inexpensive and effective therapy. Moreover, these can also be used in epidural and intrathecal space in selected cases. The most common adverse effect of opiates is constipation that may be result of reduced gastric, biliary, pancreatic and intestinal secretions and a decrease in propulsive motility of stomach and intestines. The other effects include nausea and vomiting caused by direct stimulation of chemoreceptor trigger zone for emesis in medulla. Transient sedation is common when opioid therapy is initiated but it withers off with prolonged usage. The adjuvant drugs used include certain anticonvulsants as gabapentin, carbamazepine and clonazepam; oral local anaesthetics, topical therapies, $\alpha_2$ adrenergic receptors like Clonidine and Tizanidine; N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor antagonists like Ketamine, dextromethorphan and amantadine. Certain neuroleptics like fluphenazine and haloperidol are also being used increasingly for various neuropathic pains. Some of the commonly used non-pharmacological therapies finding increasing acceptance in pain management are quick distraction and imagery (hypnosis), music therapy, specialized Cognitive – Behavioural interventions, massage, thermal modalities, electrical stimulation etc. Certain future neurosurgical interventions that may be helpful in pain management include medullary or pontine tractomy, medullary trigeminal tractomy, mesencephalotomy, thalamotomy, myelotomy and anterolateral cordotomy etc. Give medications to control special pain problems There are nerve injury pains and pains from special conditions which can be relieved by specific medications. Provide specific treatment in combination with drugs from the analgesic ladder. Table 6: Medications for special pain problems \| Special pain problems \| Medication-adolescent/adult \| \|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| For burning pains; abnormal sensation pains; severe, shooting pains with relatively little pain in between, pins and needles \| PREGABALAIN 75 mg twice a day or Low dose amitriptyline (25 mg at night or 12.5 mg twice daily; some start 12.5 mg daily) – wait 2 weeks for response, then increase gradually to 50 mg at night or 25 mg twice daily \| \| For muscle spasms in end-of-life care or paralyzed patient \| Diazepam 5 mg orally or rectally 2-3 times per day \| \| Herpes zoster (or shooting pain following it) Refer patients with ophthalmic zoster \| Low dose amitriptyline Early eruption: acyclovir if available; apply gentian violet if ruptured vesicles \| \| Gastrointestinal pain from colic only after intestinal obstruction has been excluded (i.e. vomiting, no stool and gas passing, visible bowel movements) \| Codeine 30 mg every 4 hours or Hyoscine 10 mg three times daily (can increase up to 40 mg three times daily) \| \| Bone pain or renal colic or dysmenorrhoea \| Ibuprofen (or other NSAID) \| \| If pain is from: \| When giving end-of-life care and referral is not desired, one can consider use of steroids under careful clinical supervision \| \| • Swelling around tumour \| \| \| • Severe oesophageal ulceration and cannot swallow \| \| \| • Nerve or spinal cord compression \| \| \| • Persistent severe headache (likely from increased intracranial pressure) \| \| Additional methods for pain control Combine these with pain medications if the patient agrees and it helps: - Emotional support • Physical methods: Touch (stroking, massage, rocking, vibration). Ice or heat o Deep breathing • Cognitive methods: distraction such as radio, music, imagining a pleasant scene • Prayer (with respect to patient’s practice) o Traditional practices which are helpful and not harmful—get to know what can help in the local setting Symptom Management Table 7: Management of Symptoms with Medications and home care \| Symptoms \| Medications to give \| Home care \| \|---------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Nausea and Vomiting \| Give anti-emetic: Ondansetron 24 mg tid / Domperidone upto 20 mg tid / metoclopramide (10 mg every 8 hours). Give only for a day at a time or haloperidol (1-2 mg 4-6 hourly) or chlorpromazine (25-50 mg every 6-12 hours). Injectable anti-0emetics may be needed in several cases \| • Eat small, frequent meals • Avoid an empty stomach as this makes the nausea worse • Eat bland foods • Avoid foods with strong or unpleasant odour • Drink plenty of liquids • Rest and relax after and between meals • Avoid lying down immediately after eating • Avoid coffee and alcohol • Assess for any signs of dehydration and consult the health care provider if there is dehydration \| \| Painful mouth ulcers or pain on swallowing \| • If Candida: give fluconazole, nystatin or miconazole orally. Topical anaesthetics can provide some relief. Pain medication may be required according to analgesic ladder • For Aphthous ulcers: crush one 5 mg prednisone tablet and apply a few grains • Smelly mouth/breath (halitosis) from oral cancer or other lesion: metronidazole 400 mg bid or chlorhexidine Gluconate 1% 10 ml qid mouthwash or hexetidine 0.1% 10 ml qid or Benzydamine 0.5 mouth wash or sodium bicarbonate mouthwash (1 tsp in 1-pint warm water) • For Herpes Simplex: 3 ml nystatin solution (500,000 U) + 2 tablets metronidazole +1 capsule acyclovir (if available)- paint on lesions \| • Remove bits of food stuck in the mouth which cotton wool, gauze or soft cloth soaked in salt water • Rinse the mouth with diluted salt water (a finger pinch of salt or ½ teaspoon sodium bicarbonate in a glass of water) after eating and at bedtime • Mix 2 tablets of aspirin in water and rinse the mouth up to 4 times a day • Soft diet to decrease discomfort such as rice porridge, oat meals, depending on what the sick person feels in helpful • More textured foods and fluids may be swallowed more easily than fluids • Avoid extremely hot or cold or spicy foods \| The commonly administered antiemetic agents are all 5-HT3 antagonists. Even metoclopramide which acts through a dopamine receptor (O23) probably works via 5-HT3 pathway at higher doses. Use of the newer antiemetic agents has decreased the incidence and severity of nausea and vomiting induced by chemotherapy (Table 8). However, these agents have not totally solved the problem. Adequate control of nausea and vomiting is a must to ensure patient compliance and follow-up ultimately leading to a better quality of life. Table 8: Commonly administered antiemetics: Classes, Drugs and Dosage Schedules \| Antiemetics \| Class \| Drug \| Dosage Schedule \| \|-------------\|------------------------------\|-----------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Serotonin receptor antagonists \| Ondansetron \| 8 mg iv. x 1, 24 mg p.o. x 1 \| \| \| \| Granisetron \| 10 µg/kg iv. x 1, 2 mg p.o. x 1 \| \| \| \| Dolasetron \| 1.8 mg/kg iv. x 1, 200 mg p.o. x 1 \| \| \| \| Tropisetron \| 5 mg iv. x 1 \| \| \| Substituted benzamide \| Metoclopramide \| 1-3 mg/kg iv. x every 3 h \| \| \| Phenothiazine \| Prochlorperazine \| 10-20 mg iv. x 1 over 5 min. \| \| \| Butyrophenone \| Haloperidol \| 1-3 mg iv. q4-6h \| \| \| \| \| 1-2 mg p.o. q4-6h \| \| \| Corticosteroid \| Dexamethasone \| 10-20 mg iv. x 1 over 5 min. \| \| \| Cannabinoid \| Dronabinol \| 2.5-5.0 mg p.o. q3-6h \| \| \| Benzodiazepine \| Lorazepam \| 0.5-2.0 mg iv. q4-6h \| \| \| \| \| 0.5-1.0 mg p.o. q4-6h \| Table 9: Handling of PLHIV with Hiccups and Bed-Sores \| Hiccups \| • First try to manoeuvre to control. If oral thrush, treat \| \|-------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| • If no response or recurrent: metoclopramide (10 mg tablet, 1-2 tablets three or four times daily) OR – haloperidol (5 mg tablet: ¼ to ½ tablets once to three times daily) \| \| \| • If patient has brain tumour, consider anti-epileptic medication \| \| \| • Manoeuvre to stop hiccups: \| \| \| • Stimulate the throat \| \| \| • Quickly eat 2 heaped teaspoons sugar, or \| \| \| • Drink cold water or eat crushed ice, or Rub with a clean cloth inside the top of the mouth (feel toward the back, where the top of the mouth is soft) \| \| \| • Interrupt the normal breathing by: hold breath or breathe into paper bag – stop when you feel uncomfortable \| \| \| • Pull knees to chest and lean forward (compress the chest) \| \| Bed-Sores \| • All patients need skin care to avoid pressure problems \| \| \| • Check for signs of infection \| \| \| • For smelly tumours or ulcers, sprinkle metronidazole powder – enough to cover the area and keep dry \| \| \| • For small sores, clean gently with salt water and allow to dry \| \| \| • Apply honey to bedsores that are not deep and leave the wound open to the air \| \| \| • If painful, give pain killers such as paracetamol or aspirin regularly \| \| \| • For deep or large sores, every day clean gently with diluted salt water, fill the bedsore area with pure honey and cover with a clean light dressing to encourage healing \| End-of-life Care “How people die lives on the memory of those left behind.” The terminal phase is defined as the period when day-to-day deterioration, particularly of strength, appetite and awareness are occurring. Is it difficult to predict when death will occur and it is better not to do so? The aim of care at this stage should be to ensure the patient’s comfort holistically, and a peaceful and dignified death. Provide psycho-social and spiritual support to the patient: - Other patients’ active listening, counselling and social/emotional support - Spiritual support is very important - Be prepared to discuss all matters if the patient would like to - Learn to listen with empathy - Understand reactions to the losses in their life (the different stages of grief) - Be prepared to “absorb” some reactions, for example anger projected onto the health care provider - Do not impose your own views - Share religious beliefs with the appropriate person (e.g. religious leader, spiritual counsellor), as required - Empower the family to provide care: see table 10 - Help the family come to terms with the fact that the patient is leaving them soon: let family members be around to see and talk to the patient - Deal with their anxieties and fears gently - Give information and skills Table 10: Management of end-of-life care issues \| Steps \| Actions \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Preparing for death \| • Encourage communication within family • Discuss worrying issues such as custody of children, family support, future school fees, old quarrels, funeral costs • Tell the patient that they are loved and will be remembered • Talk about death if the patient wishes to (keep in mind cultural taboos if not in a close relationship) • Make sure the patient gets help with feelings of guilt or regret • Connect with spiritual counsellor or pastoral care as patient wishes \| \| Presence \| Approach, be present with compassion • Outreach visit regularly with home-based care • Someone needs to hold hand, listen and converse with the patient and family. This could be a volunteer, NGO worker, outreach worker, counsellor etc. \| \| Caring \| • Provide comfort and physical contact by light touch, holding hands (if appropriate) \| \| Comfort measures near the life \| • Moisten lips, mouth eyes • Keep the patient clean and dry and prepare for incontinence of bowel and bladder • Only give essential medications-pain relief, anti-diarrhoeal drugs, treat fever and pain (e.g. paracetamol round-the-clock) etc. • Control symptoms with medical treatment as needed to relieve suffering (including antibiotics and antifungal drugs) • Eating less is OK; Ensure hydration • Skin care; turning every 2 hours or more frequently to prevent bed sores • Make sure pain is controlled. \| \| Signs of imminent death \| • Decreased social interaction-sleeps more, acts confused, coma • Decreased food and fluid intake-no hunger or thirst • Changes in elimination-reduced urine and bowel movements, incontinence • Respiratory changes-irregular breathing, “death rattle” • Circulatory changes-cold and greyish or purple extremities, decreased heart rate and blood pressure \| \| Signs of death \| • Breathing stops completely • Heart beat and pulse stop • Totally unresponsive to shaking, shouting • Eyes fixed in one direction, pupils dilated, eyelids open or closed • Changes in skin tone-white to grey \| For more details on end of life care, those interested can read Mathura declaration on EOLC 2017. Palliative care in Children WHO defines palliative care for children as a special, albeit closely related field to adult palliative care. WHO definition of palliative care appropriate for children and their families is as follows: the principles apply to all paediatric chronic disorders- - The active total care of the child’s body, mind and spirit; it also involves giving support to the family - It begins when illness is diagnosed, and continues regardless of whether or not a child receives treatment directed at the disease - Health providers must evaluate and alleviate a child’s physical, psychological, and social distress - Effective palliative care requires a broad multidisciplinary approach that includes the family and makes use of available community resources; it can be successfully implemented even if resources are limited - It can be provided in tertiary care facilities, in community health centres and even in children’s homes Physical needs of children infected with HIV may vary greatly. There is evidence that physical pain in children with HIV/AIDS has historically been underestimated and undertreated. The prevalence of pain in children with HIV/AIDS continues to be high, understudied and associated with poor quality of life and increased mortality. There is a significant need to recognize and manage pain in children, as well as other physical needs. Establishing a mutual trusting relationship between the child and family with the clinical team (counsellor/paediatrician/nurse/NGO volunteer) is essential and depends on factors unique to children: - Child development: physical, emotional and cognitive development influences all aspects of care from drug dosages to communication skills and understanding of their disease and of death - Care at home: most children are cared at home; if the parent is present, the family unit needs to be given support and be taught appropriate skills - Assessing symptoms in children: Healthcare providers must provide an environment where children: - Do not fear repercussions from their honest expressions (especially if there is an authority figure like doctors / parents) - Understand that there is a possibility to reduce pain, if present - Learn to trust the health care providers and express future feelings and symptoms Essential components in palliative care for children Pain Management It is important to note that pain is often not adequately treated in children because: - Some children are unable to express their pain due to their age, lack of verbal skills or disability. - Few health care professionals are trained and skilled at evaluating children’s pain and suffering, and therefore pain is left unrecognised, ignored and untreated. - Majority of health professionals lack competence in prescribing opioids in children. - There is fear of using opioids for pain management due to common belief that it will lead to addiction. - Acknowledgement and support for spiritual pain and conflict, and the impact of culture and language, is mostly ignored in children. Successful pain management in HIV-infected children begins with efforts to diagnose and treat the underlying conditions causing pain. Non-pharmacological measures: Various cognitive methods help relieve pain. - Age-appropriate active distraction - Older children can be encouraged to concentrate on a game, a conversation or special story - Swaddling or carrying an infant, providing warmth, breastfeeding or feeding, stroking, rocking, massaging - Relaxation techniques and behaviour modifications - Environmental management, including play opportunities, music, scheduled (rather than random) medical and nursing interventions and structured opportunities for sleep and rest - Nutritional support, adequate hydration, and electrolyte replacement Pharmacological measures: Correct use of analgesic medicines will relieve pain in most children. Although there are a limited number of analgesic medicines that can be safely used in children, it is still possible to provide adequate analgesia according to the child’s level of pain severity: for children assessed as having mild pain, paracetamol and ibuprofen should be considered as first options and in children assessed as being in moderate to severe pain, the administration of an opioid should be considered. Symptom management HIV infection is associated with a variety of symptoms due to the infection itself, opportunistic infections, and treatment side effects. Common symptoms include fever, cough, diarrhoea, anorexia, sore mouth, nausea, vomiting and shortness of breath. They are major causes of discomfort and poor quality of life during the course of HIV infection in infants and children. Many of these symptoms can be prevented, treated or controlled with basic medications and therapies. Non-pharmacological methods are an important adjuvant to symptom management. Alleviating symptoms enables patients to function, freeing them from the restrictions of the disease as much as possible. Psycho-social and Spiritual support In addition to coping with a life-threatening disease and debilitating symptoms, HIV infected children and their infected/uninfected families may have to manage the changing family dynamics, stigma in the community, loss of their own physical functions, depression, and hopelessness. In this context, psycho-social support can significantly improve their quality of life. This may need an inter-disciplinary team including doctors, social workers, psychotherapists, and counsellors who are trained to provide counselling and to address mental health issues. They may help them in dealing with the emotional effects of their illness, as well as the social environment in which they function. Home-Based Care Home based care means any form of care given to sick people in their own homes instead of a hospital setting. Home-based care covers physical, emotional, spiritual and social aspects, including self-care, care provided by the family members, peer counsellors, outreach workers (ORW), link worker or ASHA. Home based care components: The following components are an integral part of managing PLHIV in their homes by the caregivers: - Symptom and pain management - Clinic / hospital referral for routine visits and acute care - Treatment support for adherence and side-effects management - Nutrition support - Emotional support, spiritual support (links with religious organisations as appropriate) - Social services (income generation, child support, food support) - Future planning for self / family preparing will, identifying guardian for child - End-of-life care (pain management, funeral grieving support for family) Caregivers to know: The caregivers should be educated or imparted with information on basic knowledge of HIV/AIDS, personal and environmental hygiene, prevention of infections and injuries to themselves and others, management of infections at home and necessary information on essential nutritional needs and additional energy requirements. In addition, they should be equipped with information about medicines to be taken by the patient, their possible side effects and also on whom to call for help whenever necessary. Symptoms management at home: The caregivers, with the information and knowledge provided, will be able to address and manage the symptoms like cough, fever, hiccups, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, mouth ulcers, pain on swallowing, dry mouth, constipation and incontinence of stool and urine. They should be able to alleviate anxiety and trouble of sleeping, which might be bothering the patient on various issues. The caregivers should be in touch with the ART centres to seek advice on the suspected side-effects of ARV drugs. Interventions in Home Based Care: It would be more beneficial for the patients, if the caregivers were oriented with certain skills on prevention of bed sores, prevention of pain, stiffness and contractures in joints, bathing and handling the bed ridden. For managing PLHIV in their homes, there should be necessary materials made available as the part “Home health care kit”. Table 11: Home health care kit \| Items \| Quantity (minimum) \| \|--------------------------------------------\|--------------------\| \| Sterile gauze pads \| 20 \| \| 1-2-,3-inch gauze rolls \| 2 each \| \| Clean cotton \| 1 small package \| \| Soap \| 1 bar \| \| Scissors \| 1 pair \| \| Calamine lotion \| 1 bottle \| \| Bleaching powder \| 500 g \| \| Petroleum Jelly or Vaseline \| 1 Jar \| \| Gentian violet crystals or solution \| 1 small packet or bottle \| \| Potassium permanganate crystals \| 1 small packet \| \| Betadine ointment and common salt \| \| \| Rubber gloves or plastic bags \| \| \| Towels or clean cotton cloth \| \| Challenges faced by caregivers: Over a period of time, the caregivers are subjected to physical and emotional stress, burden of providing care and also taking care of household work, especially women, lack of income if the head of the family is sick and this will be more intense if there is only one caregiver and that too as and when he/she also falls ill. Caregivers and their stress: Symptoms of caregiver’s stress: Stress in the caregivers can be identified by the surfacing emotional symptoms like crying, worry or anxiety, irritability, anger, feeling exhausted and/or lack of interest in their activities. Approach to caregivers’ stress: - Encourage them to talk to friends and relatives whom they trust, participate in activities outside home – support groups, hobbies, make them eat well and take care of their own health, train them to become peer educators with positive attitude and approach - Train more family members: Apart from the caregivers, other family members also should be educated on providing adequate and appropriate nutrition, nursing the patient according to his/her prevailing conditions, preventing complications, preventing transmission of infections like TB, linking with the community HBC provider for support and referrals, alleviating pain as much as possible, seeing that patient seeks medical care for any trivial infection, supporting the patient in order to avoid risk situations and providing emotional support and spiritual care. This helps in identifying additional caregivers within the family and provides needed relief and rest for the overburdened caregivers. 13. Post Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV INTRODUCTION Health care providers are prone to accidental exposure to blood and other body fluids or tissues while performing their work duties. Several factors contribute to the increased risk of occupational HIV exposure. First, with the scale-up of HIV testing and ART services more and more people with HIV are coming in contact with health care personnel (HCP). Second, as people living with HIV (PLHIV) receiving antiretroviral therapy benefit from living longer, they are more likely to survive and their chances of coming in contact with the HCP are increasing, thus the increased chances of accidental exposure to HIV infected blood and other body fluids. Avoiding occupational exposure to blood and other body fluids is the primary way to prevent transmission of HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C and other blood borne pathogens in health care settings. Post exposure management protocols form an important element of work place safety. These guidelines describe the risks of infection, the preventive measures and the steps to be followed after accidental occupational exposure. The term "Health Care Personnel (HCP)" is defined as any persons, paid or unpaid; working in healthcare settings who are potentially exposed to infectious materials (e.g. blood, tissue, and specific body fluids and medical supplies, equipment, or environmental surfaces contaminated with these substances). HCP include: emergency care providers, laboratory personnel, autopsy personnel, hospital employees, medical and nursing students and health care professionals at all levels. If required, PEP can also be given to public safety workers, including law enforcement personnel, sanitary workers, prison staff, fire-fighters, workers involved in needle exchange programmes, health care providers in private setting and even to attendants of patients after proper evaluation of exposure. "Exposure" which may place an HCP at risk of blood-borne infection is defined as: - A percutaneous injury (e.g. needle-stick or cut with a sharp instrument) - Contact with the mucous membranes of the eye or mouth - Contact with non-intact skin (when the exposed skin is chapped skin or afflicted with dermatitis) - Contact with intact skin when the duration of contact is prolonged with blood or other potentially infectious body fluids Occupational exposure refers to exposure to potential blood-borne infections (HIV, HBV and HCV) that occurs during performance of job duties. Non-occupational exposure refers to exposure to potential blood-borne infections (HIV, HBV, HCV) outside of the work place setting like unsafe sex, sexual assault. Post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) refers to the comprehensive management instituted to minimize the risk of infection following potential exposure to blood-borne pathogens (HIV, HBV, HCV). This includes first aid, counselling, risk assessment, relevant laboratory investigations based on informed consent of the source and exposed person, depending on the risk assessment, the provision of short term (4 weeks) of antiretroviral drugs, with follow up and support including maintaining confidentially. The term "Needle Stick Injury" is a broad term that includes injuries caused by needles or other sharp objects (e.g. glass vials, surgical blades, forceps) that accidentally puncture the skin. The "Exposed Person" is the person who is potentially at risk of acquiring HIV infection due to exposure to blood or potentially infectious body fluids in his or her occupation. The "Source Person" is the person who is (either identified or not identified as) the possible source of contamination through blood or potentially infectious body fluids. If the sero-status of the source person is unknown, he or she may be counselled to provide informed consent for HIV testing. The source person may be a patient if a health care provider is exposed or the perpetrator in the case of sexual assault. The decision regarding whether to provide PEP should be based on the clinical consideration of risk only. Providers should give information, services and education without discrimination. The provision of information regarding PEP should be confidential including information about HIV testing, PEP provision and the reasons for seeking PEP. Written Informed consent needs to be obtained as for any other surgical/medical procedure. Consent for HIV testing of source/exposed person in the context of HIV exposure and/or taking PEP, needs to be done in accordance with national HIV counselling and testing guidelines. In special situations, where the individual has limited or no capacity to consent (e.g. children, or unconscious or mentally ill adults), a legally acceptable representative may be able to provide consent (e.g. parent / guardian / care taker). NACP PEP guidelines provide PEP services for all occupational exposures and victims of sexual assault but not for those following unsafe sexual behaviour or having other high-risk exposure. WHO IS AT RISK Professions with higher chances of blood exposure: - Nursing staff and students - Emergency care providers - Labour and delivery room personnel - Surgeons and operation theatre staff - Laboratory technicians - Physicians - Interns and medical students - Dentists - Health facility cleaning staff, mortuary staff and clinical waste handlers Table 1: Risk of Exposure from different body fluids \| Exposure to body fluids considered 'at risk' \| Exposure to body fluids considered 'not at risk,' unless these fluids contain visible blood \| \|---------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Blood \| Tears \| \| Semen \| Sweat \| \| Vaginal secretions \| Urine & faeces \| \| Cerebrospinal fluid \| Saliva \| \| Synovial, pleural, peritoneal, pericardial fluid \| Sputum \| \| Amniotic fluid \| Vomitus \| \| Other body fluids contaminated with visible blood \| Unless these secretions contain visible blood \| Any direct contact (i.e. contact without barrier protection) to concentrated virus in a research laboratory requires clinical evaluation. For human bites, clinical evaluation must include the possibility that both the person bitten and the person who inflicted the bite were exposed to blood-borne pathogens. Transmission of HIV infection after human bites has been rarely reported. Average Risk of Acquiring HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C after Occupational Exposure The average risk of acquiring HIV infection following different types of occupational exposure is low compared to the risk of acquiring infection with HBV or HCV. In terms of occupational exposure, the important routes are needle stick exposure (0.3 % risk for HIV, 9-30 % for HBV and 1- 1.8% for HCV) and mucous membrane exposure (0. 09% for HIV). Table 2: HIV transmission risk by different routes \| Exposure route \| HIV transmission rate \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------\| \| Blood transfusion \| 90- 95 % \| \| Perinatal (without any intervention) \| 15- 40% \| \| Sexual intercourse \| 0.1 to 10 % \| \| Vaginal \| 0.05- 0.1 % \| \| Anal \| 0.065- 0.5 % \| \| Oral \| 0.005- 0.01 % \| \| Injecting drugs use \| 0.67 % \| \| Needle stick exposure \| 0.3 % \| \| Mucous membrane splash to eye, oro-nasal \| 0.09 % \| Comparative risk after needle-stick injury for HBV is 9-30 % and for HCV is 1- 1.8 %. Figures 1 and 2 below demonstrate common types of needle stick injuries and the activities associated with them. Fig 1: How needle stick injuries occur - Wing shed needle: 13% - Hypodermic needle: 27% - Other Sharps: 8% - Glass: 16% - Suture needle: 14% - Other hollow bore needle: 10% - Phlebotomy needle: 4% - IV styles: 8% Figure 1. Hollow-bore needles and other devices associated with percutaneous injuries in CDC surveillance hospitals, by % total percutaneous injuries (n=4,951), June 1995-July 1999. Fig 2: Activities associated with needle stick injuries - Handling transferring specimens: 27% - Improperly disposed sharps: 10% - Disposal related causes: 12% - Collision with healthcare worker or Sharp: 8% - Clean up: 11% - Recapping: 5% - Handling passing device during or after use: 10% - IV line related causes: 8% - Manipulating needle in patient: 4% - Others: 5% Figure 2. Causes of percutaneous injuries with hollow-bore needles in CDC surveillance hospitals, by % total percutaneous injuries (n=3,057), June 1995-July 1999 (NIOSH, 1999). PRACTICES THAT INFLUENCE RISK AND HOW TO REDUCE RISK TO OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE Certain work practices increase the risk of needle stick injury such as: - Recapping needles (most important) - Transferring a body fluid between containers - Handling and passing needles or sharps after use - Failing to dispose of used needles properly in puncture-resistant sharps containers - Poor healthcare waste management practices How to protect oneself from needle stick/sharps injuries: • Strict compliance to universal work precautions • Avoid the use of injections where safe and effective alternatives are available e.g. oral, drugs • Avoid recapping needles • Plan for safe handling and disposal of needles after use • Promptly dispose of used needles in appropriate sharps disposal containers • Report all needle stick and sharps-related injuries promptly to ensure that you o Receive appropriate follow-up care o Participate in training related to infection prevention o Use devices with safety features provided by the institute (wherever possible) o Record and monitor injuries with an injury register in each location of healthcare setting Figure 3: “Do Not Recap Needle” ![Image](image1.png) ![Image](image2.png) Performing activities involving needles and sharps, in a rush increases the likelihood of an accidental exposure PREVENTING EXPOSURE TO AND TRANSMISSION OF HIV AND OTHER VIRUSES Staff Information: All categories of HCP within the hospital should be trained on how to protect themselves against HIV and other pathogens transmitted by blood or body fluids. The information must be reinforced on a regular basis. All the staff members share an individual and collective responsibility in this regard. The Medical Superintendent (MS)/ Dean/ Principal/ In-charge of the hospital must constitute a hospital infection control committee which should conduct regular trainings and monitor hospital infection control including universal precaution and post-exposure prophylaxis implementation and quality control. The MS must ensure that the hospital has a written protocol and Standard Operational Procedures (SOP) to handle occupational exposure and that those are disseminated to all relevant personnel/departments. The Medical Superintendent / Medical officer i/c of the hospital has the responsibility of informing the staff about: • Universal precautions to be followed in health services (see table 3) • Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) • SOPs to be followed in case of accidental exposure to blood and body fluids • Round the clock availability of PEP drugs—Drugs must be kept in at least three locations—Emergency room / casualty, labour room and ICU / OT complex All hospital staff members must know whom to report for PEP and where PEP drugs are available in case of occupational exposure Minimize the use of sharps/ injections: All the medical staff should try to minimize the use of invasive interventions, for example —oral drugs must be used in place of injections, wherever possible. Whenever the use of sharps is indicated, try to use safer alternatives that are practical and possible, within the limitations of the system. Protection against hepatitis B: All Health Care Providers (HCP) should be vaccinated against the hepatitis B virus. The vaccination for hepatitis B consists of 3 doses: baseline, 1 month, and 6 months. Most of the recipients (99 %) seroconvert after completing the full course. There is no vaccine or prophylaxis against hepatitis C. Table 3: Universal Precautions Universal precautions are intended to prevent the exposure of health-care workers and patients to blood borne pathogens. These must be practised in regard to the blood and body fluids of all patients, regardless of their infection status. Universal precautions include: - Hand-washing before and after all medical procedures - Safe handling and immediate safe disposal of sharps: not recapping needles; using special containers for sharp disposals; using needle cutter/destroyers; using forceps instead of fingers for guiding sutures; using vacutainers where possible - Safe decontamination of instruments - Use of protective barriers whenever indicated to prevent direct contact with blood and body fluid such as gloves, masks, goggles, aprons, and boots. A HCP who has a cut or abrasion should cover the wound before providing care - Safe disposal of contaminated waste Fig 4: Universal Work Precaution Always use protective gear/Consider all blood samples as Follow universal precautions practice-Practise safe handling of sharp instrument-Use needle destroyers MANAGEMENT OF THE EXPOSED PERSON Step 1: Management of Exposure Site-First Aid For skin—if the skin is pierced by a needle-stick or sharp instrument: - Immediately wash the wound and surrounding skin with water and soap and rinse - Do not scrub - Do not use antiseptics or skin washes - Don’t use bleach, chlorine, alcohol, betadine - After a splash of blood or body fluids: - To unbroken skin: - Wash the area immediately - Do not use antiseptics - For the eye: - Irrigate exposed eye immediately with water or normal saline - Sit in a chair, tilt the head back and ask a colleague to gently pour water or normal saline over the eye - If wearing contact lens, leave them in place while irrigating, as they form a barrier over the eye and will help protect it. Once the eye is cleaned, remove the contact lens and clean them in the normal manner. This will make them safe to wear again - Do not use soap or disinfectant on the eye - For Mouth: - Spit fluid out immediately - Rinse the mouth thoroughly, using water or saline and spit again. Repeat this process several times - Do not use soap or disinfectant in the mouth - Consult the designated physician of the institution for management of the exposure immediately Step 2: Establish eligibility for PEP The average rate of HIV sero-conversion after an Accidental Exposure to Blood (AEB) (for per-cutaneous exposure) is 0.3%. The real risk of transmission depends on the amount of HIV transmitted (= amount of contaminated fluid and the viral load). A designated person/trained doctor must assess the risk of HIV and HBV transmission following an AEB. This evaluation must be made rapidly, so as to start any treatment as soon as possible after the accident. This assessment must be made thoroughly (because not every AEB requires prophylactic treatment). The first dose of PEP should be administered ideally within 2 hours (but certainly within the first 72 hours) of exposure and the risk evaluated as soon as possible. If the risk is insignificant, PEP could be discontinued, if already commenced. PEP needs to be started as soon as possible after the exposure and within 72 hours. In animal studies, initiating PEP within 12, 24 or 36 hours of exposure was more effective than initiating PEP 48 hours or 72 hours following exposure. PEP is not effective when given more than 72 hours after exposure. PEP must be initiated as soon as possible, preferably within 2 hours Two main factors determine the risk of infection: the nature of exposure and the status of the source patient. Assessing the nature of exposure and risk of transmission Three categories of occupational exposure for HCW can be described based on the amount of blood/ fluid involved and the entry port. These categories are intended to help in assessing the severity of the exposure but may not cover all possibilities. Table 4: Categories of Exposures 4: C \| Category of Exposure \| Definition and example \| \|----------------------\|------------------------\| \| Mild exposure \| Exposure to mucous membrane/non-intact skin with small volumes E.g. a superficial wound (erosion of the epidermis) with a plain or low calibre needle, or contact with the eyes or mucous membranes, subcutaneous injections following small-bore needles. \| \| Moderate exposure \| Exposure to mucous membrane/ non-intact skin with large volumes OR percutaneous superficial exposure with solid needle. E.g. a cut or needle stick injury penetrating gloves. \| \| Severe exposure \| Percutaneous exposure with large volume E.g. - an accident with a high calibre needle (> 18 G) visibly contaminated with blood - a deep wound (haemorrhagic wound and/or very painful); transmission of a significant volume of blood - an accident with material that has previously been used intravenously or intra-arterially \| The wearing of gloves during any of these accidents constitutes a protective factor. Note: In case of an AEB with material such as discarded sharps/ needles, contaminated for over 48 hours, the risk of infection becomes negligible for HIV, but still remains significant for HBV. HBV survives longer than HIV outside the body. Assessing the HIV status of the source of exposure A baseline rapid HIV testing of the source of the exposed should be done before starting PEP. Initiation of PEP where indicated should not be delayed while waiting for the results of HIV testing of the source of the exposure. Informed consent should be obtained before testing of the source as per national HIV testing guidelines. Table 5: Categories of situations depending on results of the source \| Source HIV Status \| Definition of risk in source \| \|-------------------\|------------------------------\| \| HIV negative \| Source is not HIV infected but consider HBV and HCV \| \| Low risk \| HIV positive and clinically asymptomatic \| \| High risk \| HIV positive and clinically symptomatic \| Refer Annexure 13: Risk Assessment of the source person Routinely used HIV test, do not detect HIV during the "window period", as the antibody level is still too low for detection - but the person can still have a high viral load. This implies that a positive HIV test result (of source) can help in taking the decision to start PEP, but a negative test result does not exclude HIV infection. In districts or some population groups with a high HIV prevalence, a higher proportion of HIV-infected individuals are found in the window period. In these situations, a negative result has even less value for decision-making on PEP. Assessment of the exposed individual The exposed individual should have confidential counselling and assessment by an experienced physician. The exposed individual should be assessed for pre-existing HIV infection (see Step 5) intended for people who are HIV negative at the time of their potential exposure to HIV. Exposed individuals who are known or discovered to be HIV positive should not receive PEP. They should be offered counselling and information on the prevention of transmission and referred for clinical and laboratory assessment for subsequent linkage to comprehensive HIV services. Besides the medical assessment, counselling (see Step 3) of exposed HCP is essential to allay fear and start PEP (if required) at the earliest. Step 3: Counselling for PEP For an informed consent, exposed persons (clients) should receive appropriate information about what PEP is and the risk and benefits of PEP. It should be clear that PEP is not mandatory. The client should understand details of window period, baseline test, drugs that are used, their safety and efficacy and issues related to these drugs during pregnancy and breast-feeding. He/she should be counselled on safe sexual practices till both baseline and 3 months HIV test are found to be negative. Psychological support: Many people will feel anxious after exposure. Every exposed person needs to be informed about the risks and the measures that can be taken. This will help to relieve part of the anxiety, but some may require further specialized psychological support. Documentation on record is essential. Special leave from work, if required, should be considered for a period of time e.g. 2 weeks (initially), then as required based on assessment of the exposed person’s mental state, side effects and requirements. For recording and reporting framework please refer to operational guidelines for ART services. Step 4: Assessing Need for PEP and Prescribing PEP Deciding on PEP regimen: The decision on the need for PEP for HIV (following an occupational exposure in health care worker) will depend on the exposure as well as source person’s HIV status and the extent of disease, if the source has been confirmed positive. It is decided based on exposure code and source code. Figure 5: HIV Exposure Codes HIV EXPOSURE CODES Whether the material is the blood, bloody fluid or other potentially infected material (OPIM) or instrument contaminated with one of these substances? YES NO PEP required What type of Exposure Occurred? Mucous Membrane or skin integrity compromised Intact Skin Percutaneous Exposure Volume No PEP Required Severity Small Volume / Few drops Short duration Large Volume / major splash Long duration Less severe, Solid Needle, Superficial scratch More severe, Hollow bore needle, Deep injury EC 1 EC 2 EC 2 EC 3 Figure 6: HIV Source Codes HIV SOURCE CODES HIV Status of Exposure SOURCE HIV Negative HIV Positive Source HIV status unknown No PEP Required Low titer exposure, Asymptomatic High CD4 count High titer exposure Advanced disease Low CD4 count HIV SC1 HIV SC2 HIV SC: Unknown Depending on the exposure and source code, the decision to offer PEP or defer it should be considered as provided in table 6. Table 6: NACO Recommendations of PEP for HCP based on Exposure and HIV Source codes \| Exposure Code \| Source Code \| Recommendation for PEP \| Duration \| \|---------------\|-------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------\| \| 1 \| 1 \| Not warranted \| \| \| 1 \| 2 \| Recommended PEP \| PEP is recommended for 28 Days \| \| 2 \| 1 \| \| \| \| 2 \| 2 \| \| \| \| 3 \| 1 or 2 \| \| \| \| 2/3 \| Unknown \| Consider PEP if HIV prevalence is high in given population and risk categorization \| 28 days \| In cases of sexual assault, PEP should be given to the exposed person as a part of the overall package of post sexual assault care. - HIV testing of the source patient should not delay the decision about whether or not to start PEP. Start PEP first if required, then send for consultation or refer. - In the case of a high-risk exposure from a source patient who has been exposed to or is taking antiretroviral medications, consult an expert to choose the PEP regimen, as the risk of drug resistance is high and a change of regimen may be required. Expert opinion may be obtained for the following situations - Delay in reporting exposure (> 72 hours) - Unknown source: use of PEP to be decided on case-to-case basis after considering the severity of exposure and the epidemiologic likelihood of HIV transmission. Do not delay PEP initiation if indicated. - Known or suspected pregnancy: do not delay PEP initiation. - Breastfeeding issues in the exposed person: do not delay PEP initiation. - Source patient is on ART or possibly has HIV drug resistance: refer/consult as soon as possible. - Major toxicity of PEP regimen: minor side effects may be managed symptomatically. Refer to expert if non-tolerance or non-adherence. - Refer/consult if in doubt or complicated cases (e.g. major psychological problem). PEP must be initiated as soon as possible, preferably within 2 hours What Regimen to Give for PEP As post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for HIV has its greatest effect if begun within 2 hours of exposure, it is essential to act immediately. There is little benefit if > 72 hours have lapsed but PEP can still be used if the health care worker presents after 72 hours of exposure. The prophylaxis needs to be continued for 4 weeks. - Report exposure immediately to appropriate authority. - Never delay the start of therapy due to debate over regimen. In cases with exposure from patient on ART, start available three drug regimens and seek opinion after that. - PEP is indicated for health care providers based on exposure and HIV source codes. NACO’s recommended PEP regimens are tabulated below. Table 6: Recommended PEP regimens \| Dosages of the drugs for PEP for adults \| Recommendation for PEP \| Duration \| \|----------------------------------------\|------------------------\|----------\| \| Tenofovir (TDF) 300 mg + Lamivudine(3TC) 300 mg One Tab (FDC) once daily (1-OD) \| One tab Immediately within 2 hours of accidental exposure, either at daytime or at night time \| Next day one tab once OD, continue for 4 weeks \| \| Lopinavir (200 mg) + Ritonavir (50 mg) Two Tab (FDC) twice daily (2-BD) \| Two Tab Immediately within 2 hours of accidental exposure, either at daytime or at night time \| Next day two-tab BD, continue for 4 weeks \| If LPV/r is not available / can not be used, Tenofovir(300mg) + Lamivudine (300 mg) + Efavirenz (600 mg), One Tab OD may be given for 4 weeks. In case of highly treatment experienced source, initiate first dose as per above guidelines and expert opinion should be sought urgently by phone/e-mail from CoE/ART Plus centre. In cases of sexual assault, the same principles need to be followed in adults and adolescents. For children who have suffered assault and have to be administered PEP, the dosage should be as per age and weight bands and haemoglobin levels. Table 7: PEP Drugs for paediatric age group \| 3-Drug Regimen (as per weight band) \| Medication \| Dose \| \|------------------------------------\|------------\|------\| \| Zidovudine (AZT) \| Preferred choice. As per weight band \| \| Abacavir (ABC) \| If AZT contradicted. As per weight band \| \| Lamivudine (3TC) \| As per weight band \| \| LPV/r \| As per weight band \| \| EFV (if LPV/r is not available or can not be used) \| As per weight band below, in children with age > 3 years and weight >10 Kg only. \| * Refer to Annexure 2 for Pediatric Dosing schedule In all cases, appropriate and adequate counselling must be provided regarding possible side-effects, adherence and follow-up protocol. In practice and from HCP studies, it has been observed that many HCP do not complete the full course of PEP because of side-effects. Side-effects can be reduced by prescribing regimens that do not include a protease inhibitor (PI), by giving medications to reduce nausea and gastritis and by educating clients about how to reduce side effects e.g. taking PEP medications with food. It is important that side effects should be explained before initiating PEP so that the symptoms are not confused with symptoms of seroconversion to HIV. Adherence information is essential with psychological support. More than 95% adherence is important in order to maximise the efficacy of the medication in PEP. Table 9 below gives guidance on management of common side effects of PEP drugs. Table 9: Management of Minor ARV drug side effects \| Sign or Symptom \| Management at health facility \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Nausea \| Take with food; reassure that this is usually self-limited. Treat symptomatically. \| \| Headache \| Give paracetamol. If on EFV, reassure that this is common and usually self-limited. If persists more than 2 weeks, call for advice or refer. \| \| Diarrhoea \| Hydrate. Follow diarrhoea guidelines. Reassure patient that if it is due to ARV, it will improve in a few weeks. Follow up in 2 weeks. If it does not improve, call for advice or refer. \| \| Fatigue \| This commonly lasts 4 to 6 weeks. Take 'sick leave' from work. If severe or longer than this, call for advice or refer. \| \| CNS side effects: Anxiety, nightmares, psychosis, depression \| This may be due to EFV. Take EFV at night before sleeping; Counsel and support (usually lasts < 3 weeks). The initial difficult time can be managed with amitriptyline at bedtime. Call for advice or refer if severe depression or suicidal tendencies or psychosis (stop EFV) \| \| Rash \| If on EFV, assess carefully. Is it a dry or wet lesion? Call for advice. If generalised or peeling, stop drugs and refer for expert opinion \| \| Fever \| Assess clinically for Hepatitis, see if this could be primary (acute) HIV infection or other non-HIV related infections e.g. concurrent common cold. Call for advice or refer \| \| Jaundice or abdominal or flank pain \| Stop drugs; Call for advice or refer. If jaundice or liver tenderness is present, send for ALT test and stop ARVs. Call for advice or refer \| Availability and Prescription for PEP All clients starting on PEP must take 4 weeks (28 days) of medication. In all cases, the first dose of PEP should be offered as soon as possible, once the decision to give PEP is made. HIV testing of the client or results of the source HIV test can come later. As usage of PEP drugs is not frequent and the shelf life is 1 to 1.5 years, drugs for PEP should be made available in the emergency department, labour room and intensive care unit (ICU). Instructions must be given to the patient/client to go to the designated clinic/officer at the earliest for a complete risk assessment, HIV counselling and testing and receipt of the remaining medications and further management. It is important to monitor and regularly follow-up the patient/client once PEP is started (see step 6). Hepatitis B All health staff should be vaccinated against Hepatitis B. The vaccination for Hepatitis B consists of 3 doses- initial (zero) dose, 2nd at 1 month and 3rd dose at 6 months. Sero-conversion after completing the full course is 99%. If the exposed person is unvaccinated or unclear vaccination status, give complete Hepatitis B vaccine series. Table 10: HBV vaccination after an AEB \| HBV vaccination status of exposes persons \| Action after AEB \| \|------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| Never vaccinated \| Give complete Hepatitis B vaccine series \| \| Vaccinated, anti-HbS not known \| Give Hepatitis B vaccine booster \| \| Vaccinated more than 5 years ago \| Give Hepatitis B vaccine booster \| Note: If available, testing for the antibody level (anti-HbS) is not necessary. Hepatitis B vaccine should be given as soon as possible after the exposure. Do not wait for anti-HbS results, if the test is done. Adequate levels of serum Ab to HbSAg (i.e. anti-HbS) is >10 IU/L Vaccination for Hep B: - All HCW must be immunized for Hepatitis-B - ART staff can be immunized using contingency fund 7.4.10 Hepatitis C: Presently no prophylaxis is available against Hepatitis C. There is no evidence that interferon, pegalated or not, with or without Ribavirin is more effective when given during this time than when given at the time of disease. Post-exposure management for HCV is based on the early identification of chronic HCV disease and referral to a specialist for management. Step 5: Laboratory Evaluation The reason for HIV testing soon after an occupational exposure is to establish a "baseline" against which future test results can be compared. If the HCP is HIV-negative in the baseline test, it is, in principle, possible to prove that the subsequent infection identified by follow-up testing is related to the occupational exposure (depending on the timing of infection and consideration of other risks or exposure). When offered HIV testing, the exposed person should receive standard pre-test counselling according to the national HIV testing and counselling guidelines, and should give informed consent for testing. Confidentiality of the test result must be ensured. There are possibly different reasons for delaying HIV testing: the HCP may be unable to give informed consent immediately after the exposure due to anxiety or the exposure occurs outside working hours or in settings where HIV testing is not readily available. The HIV test may be done up to several days after the exposure, depending upon the informed consent and with pre- and post-test counselling, ensuring confidentiality. Do not delay PEP if HIV testing is not available. Table 11: Recommended baseline laboratory investigations \| Baseline laboratory investigations \| Timing In person taking PEP (standard regimen) \| In persons not taking PEP \| \|------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|---------------------------\| \| Timing \| In person taking PEP (standard regimen) \| In persons not taking PEP \| \| Baseline \| HIV, HCV, anti-HBs, Complete blood count, Transaminases \| HIV, HCV, anti-HBs \| * HIV, HBV and HCV testing of exposed staff within 6 days of an AEB is recommended (baseline sero-status). Offer an HIV test in case of an AEB, as a positive HIV status may indicate the need to discontinue PEP. The decision whether to test for HIV or not should be based on the informed consent of the exposed person. HIV RNA testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) during PEP has a very poor positive predictive value and should be strongly discouraged. Pregnancy testing should also be available, but its unavailability should not prevent the provision of PEP. Other laboratory testing such as haemoglobin estimation should be available, especially when AZT is used for PEP in areas where anaemia is common. Testing for other blood-borne diseases such as syphilis, malaria and kala-azar may also be useful, depending on the nature of risk, symptoms of the source patient, local prevalence and laboratory capacity. Step 6: Follow-up of an Exposed Person: Whether or not PEP prophylaxis has been started, follow-up is indicated to monitor possible infections and to provide psychological support. Clinical follow-up: In addition, in the weeks following an AEB, the exposed person must be monitored for the eventual appearance of signs indicating an HIV seroconversion: acute fever, generalised lymphadenopathy, cutaneous eruption, pharyngitis, non-specific flu symptoms and ulcers of the mouth or genital area. These symptoms appear in 50–70% of individuals with a primary (acute) HIV infection, almost always within 3 to 6 weeks after exposure. When a primary (acute) infection is suspected, referral to an ART centre for an expert opinion should be arranged immediately. An exposed person should be advised to use precautions (e.g., avoid blood or tissue donations, breastfeeding, unprotected sexual relations or pregnancy) in order to prevent secondary transmission, especially during the first 3 months following exposure. Condom use is essential. Counseling regarding adherence and side-effects should be provided and reinforced at every follow-up visit. If PEP is prescribed, the exposed health care provider should be followed up every week with laboratory tests recommended below; psychological support and mental health counselling is often required. CLINICAL MONITORING IN PEP - Monitor for acute sero-conversion illness - Within 3-6 weeks after exposure - If suspected, refer to ART centre - Avoid: - Blood donation - Breast feeding - Pregnancy - Person should use precautions: - Sexual relationship (CONDOM protection) - Adherence & Adverse Drug Reaction counselling Laboratory follow-up: The exposed person should have follow-up HIV tests post-PEP. Testing at the completion of PEP may give an initial indication of seroconversion outcome, if the available antibody test is very sensitive. However, testing at 4-6 weeks may not be enough as the use of PEP may prolong the time required for seroconversion and there is not enough time to diagnose all persons who seroconvert. Therefore, testing at 3 months and again at 6 months is recommended. Very few cases of seroconversion after 6 months have been reported. Hence, if the HIV test at 6 months is negative, no further testing is recommended. Table 12: Recommended follow-up laboratory monitoring (during and after PEP) \| Timing \| In person taking PEP (standard regimen) \| \|-------------------------\|----------------------------------------\| \| Weeks 2 and 4 \| Complete blood count (For patients on AZT, this is particularly useful) \| \| Week 6 \| HIV-Ab \| \| Week 12 (Month 3) \| HIV-Ab, \| \| Week 24 (Month 6) \| HIV-Ab \| It is important to remember that the person exposed to the risk of transmission of HIV is also at risk of getting infected with HBV and HCV. Hence, that too needs to be addressed Fig 3: Care pathway for PEP - Clinical assessment of Exposure - Eligibility assessment for Post-Exposure Prophylaxis - HIV testing of exposed people and source, if possible - Provision of first-aid in case of broken skin or other wounds - Risk of HIV - Risk and benefits of Post-Exposure Prophylaxis - Side-Effects - Enhanced counselling if Post-Exposure Prophylaxis to be prescribed - Specific Support in case of sexual assault - PEP should be initiated as early as possible following exposure - 28-day prescription of recommended age-appropriate ARV drugs - Drug information - Assessment of underlying co-morbidities & possible drug-drug interactions - HIV test 3-months after exposure - Link to HIV treatment, if possible - Provision of prevention intervention as appropriate Source: Adapted from “HIV and the use of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-related infections among adults, adolescents and children: Recommendations for a public health approach, December 2014 supplement to the 2013 consolidated guidelines on the use of Antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection”) Section 3 Paediatric 14. HIV Exposure in infants and young children Background There are an estimated 2.1 million (2015) People Living with HIV (PLHIV) in India at present. Children account for 6.5% of these. Mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT), occurring during pregnancy, labour or during breastfeeding accounts for over 90% of all HIV infections in children. In India, there are an estimated 27 million pregnancies every year and the current HIV prevalence in pregnant women is 0.29% (HSS 2014-15). Thus, it is estimated that around 78,300 pregnancies occur in women with HIV infection annually. Infants born to these women are at risk of acquiring HIV infection. The term “HIV exposed infants/children” is used to refer to infants and children born to mothers infected with HIV, until HIV infection can be reliably excluded or confirmed in them. Conventionally, MTCT is referred to as Parent to child transmission (PTCT) in India to emphasize the role of father in the transmission of the virus as well as management of the infected mother and child. Table 1 shows risk of HIV transmission through PTCT with and without any intervention. Table 1: Risk of HIV transmission through PTCT with and without any intervention \| Intervention \| Risk of Mother to Child HIV Transmission \| \|---------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------\| \| No ARV, breastfeeding \| 30-45% \| \| No ARV, No breastfeeding \| 20-25% \| \| Short course with 1 ARV, breastfeeding \| 15-25% \| \| Short course with 1 ARV, No breastfeeding \| 5-15% \| \| Short course with 2 ARVs, No breastfeeding \| 5% \| \| 3 ARVs (ART) with breastfeeding \| 2% \| \| 3 ARVs (ART), No breastfeeding \| 1% \| Why are HIV exposed infants a vulnerable group? Regardless of their own HIV status, HIV exposed infants are at a high risk of malnutrition, growth failure, developmental delay and repeated infectious disease related morbidity by common as well as unusual organisms. Adverse social and economic factors associated with parental HIV infection like poverty, broken families, parental sickness/drug abuse, and stigmatization by society are major reasons for this. Increased likelihood of replacement feeding, which may often be inappropriate and over-diluted, poor environmental sanitation and delayed introduction and poor quality of complementary feeds may further increase this vulnerability. Exposed infants who themselves acquire HIV infection, are even more vulnerable to repeated infections, malnutrition and developmental delay. HIV disease progresses very rapidly in young children, especially in the first few months of life, often leading to death.* If HIV exposure is unknown, HIV infected infants frequently present with clinical symptoms in the first year of life. Without care and treatment, about one third of infants living with HIV will die in their first year of life and almost 50% of children by the second year of life. Thus, it is very important to follow all HIV exposed infants with a structured plan to minimize risk of HIV transmission, ensure timely detection and management of HIV infection, and to give an optimal comprehensive care to improve their overall outcome. With the rapid and significant expansion of the national HIV programme, i.e. the PPTCT, ICTC, ART (for adults and children) programmes, including access to early diagnosis for HIV testing of infants and children < 18 months of age, it is now possible to ensure that HIV exposed, infected infants and children receive the required essential package of care. Care of Exposed Infant/Child Components of Care Main components of care of HIV exposed infants are presented in Box 1. Box 1: Components of Care of HIV-Exposed Infant/Child - Immediate Care at Birth - Infant feeding - ARV prophylaxis - Immunization and Vitamin-A Supplementation - Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis - Growth and Development - Early infant diagnosis - Follow up Immediate Care at Birth Care of HIV-exposed infants should follow standard neonatal care according to safe motherhood guidelines which includes the following: - The baby’s mouth and nostrils should be wiped as soon as the head is delivered - Infants should be handled with gloves until all blood and maternal secretions have been washed off - The cord should be clamped soon after birth, and milking should be avoided. Cover the cord with gloved hand and gauze before cutting to avoid blood splattering. - Initiate feeding within the first hour of birth according to the preferred and informed choice Infant Feeding Feeding guidelines for infants < 6 months age: Breastfeeding (BF) provides the infant with all the required nutrients and immunological factors that help to protect against common infections. However, it does carry a risk of transmission of HIV infection from HIV infected mothers to their infants. In accordance with the WHO recommendations, NACO has been providing free and life-long ART to all pregnant and lactating women regardless of their clinical and immunological stage since January 2014. Use of concomitant maternal ART not only decreases the maternal viral load, but also, upon transmission to the infant through placenta and breast milk, provides an effective pre-exposure prophylaxis to the infant preventing replication of any transmitted virions. Thus, the chances of HIV transmission to the foetus and the infant are greatly reduced, and breast feeding is rendered even more safe. Breastfeeding with concurrent ARV intervention offers HIV exposed infants the greatest chance of HIV-free survival and is the recommended feeding strategy for them in India. In concordance with the recommendation for HIV unexposed infants, it is therefore recommended that, exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) be provided to all HIV exposed infants; and at 6 months of age, these infants should be offered complementary foods along with breast milk. However, given the fact that breast feeding still carries some risk of HIV transmission, however slight it may be, individual pregnant women should also be informed about the alternative infant feeding options and their advantages and disadvantages as compared to breastfeeding in the current era (table 2). Exclusive Replacement Feeding (RF) is not a viable public health strategy in India and other developing nations for HIV exposed infants due to increased chances of non-HIV related morbidity and mortality negating the benefits of reduced HIV transmission. Thus, it cannot be recommended and promoted as the optimal infant feeding strategy for HIV-infected mothers in India. The current national guidelines for feeding of HIV-exposed and infected infants < 6 months age are: - Exclusive Breast feeding for first 6 months of life is recommended. In a situation where the mother is practicing mixed feeding, Health-care workers and Counsellors should motivate her to exclusively breastfed. - When exclusive breast feeding is not possible for any reason (maternal sickness, twins), Mothers and health care workers can be reassured that maternal ART reduces the risk of postnatal HIV transmission in the context of mixed feeding as well. - Mothers known to be HIV-infected (and whose infants are HIV uninfected or of unknown HIV status) should exclusively breastfeed their infants for the first six months of life, introducing appropriate complementary foods thereafter and continue breastfeeding.” - “Breastfeeding should then only stop once a nutritionally adequate and safe diet without breast milk can be provided.” Mothers living with HIV should breastfeed for at least 12 months and may continue breastfeeding for up to 24 months or beyond (similar to the general population) while being fully supported for ART adherence. - Exclusive Replacement feeding may be considered only in situations where breastfeeding cannot be done* or upon individual mother’s choice, only if all the 6 criteria for replacement feeding are met (Box 2) (#EBF means that infants are given only breast milk and nothing else – no other milk, food, drinks and no water. The infant receives only breast milk and no other liquids, or solids with the exception of drops or syrups consisting of vitamins, mineral supplements or medicines, as advised by authorized medical attendant. * Maternal death, severe maternal sickness, etc.) Table 2: Benefits and Risks of Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and Replacement feeding (RF) \| \| Exclusive breastfeeding \| Replacement feeding \| \|----------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Benefits \| • Breast milk contains all the nutrients the baby needs in the first six months \| • No risk of HIV transmission through feeding \| \| \| • Breast milk is easy to digest \| • Other family members may be involved in feeding when mothers need help \| \| \| • Breast milk protects the baby from diarrhoea, pneumonia and other infections \| \| \| \| • Breast milk is readily available, does not require preparation \| \| \| \| • Breastfeeding helps in developing the mother-infant bonding \| \| \| \| • Exclusive breastfeeding helps the mother to recover from childbirth early \| \| \| \| • Exclusive breastfeeding protects the mother from getting pregnant again too soon* \| \| \| Risks/ \| • Risk of acquiring HIV infection as long as the baby is breastfed \| • Expense of obtaining appropriate milk, water, fuel, added task of cleaning utensils\| \| Demerits \| \| • Babies are at higher risk of contracting diarrhoea, pneumonia and other infections\| \| \| \| • Mother may be questioned about not breastfeeding her baby \| Box 2: The 6 criteria to assess suitability for replacement feeding Mothers known to be HIV-infected should give replacement feeding to their infants only when ALL of the following conditions are met: 1. Safe water and sanitation are assured at the household level and in the community 2. The mother, or any other caregiver can reliably afford to provide sufficient and sustained replacement feeding (milk), to support normal growth and development of the infant 3. The mother or caregiver can prepare it frequently enough in a clean manner so that it is safe and carries a low risk of diarrhoea and malnutrition 4. The mother or caregiver can, in the first six months exclusively give replacement feeding 5. The family is supportive of this practice 6. The mother or caregiver can access health care that offers comprehensive child health services Counselling the mothers who decide to breast feed the infants: Mothers who decide to breast feed the infants should be counselled to give breastfeed as often as the child wants, day and night, at least 8 times in 24 hours. The mother should be advised to continue breastfeeding if the child is sick. She should not give any other food, fluids or water to her infant during the first 6 months of life. Counselling should also include steps for appropriate breast care. Counselling mothers who decide to give RF to the infants: The options of RF include unmodified animal milk/pre-packed processed toned milk (containing 3% fat, 3.1% protein and providing 58 Kcal/100 ml/suitable infant formula reconstituted as per recommendation of the manufacturer. While animal milk is not ideally suited to meet the complete nutritional requirements of an infant below 6 months, it is easily available, economical and culturally acceptable. The infants receiving animal milk should additionally receive multi-vitamin and iron supplementation. Mothers who decide to give exclusive RF to their infants need to be counselled about the hygienic way to prepare feeds and also about the amount of feeding the child will need at different ages. They should wash their hands with soap and water before preparing the feed and use clean utensils. The child should be fed using katori-spoon or paladai. Bottle feeding should be strictly avoided since it carries a higher risk of causing diarrhoea. Mixed Feeding: It was earlier recommended that giving an infant a combination of both BF and RF is to be avoided since an artificially fed or breastfed child is at less risk of acquiring HIV than the child who receives mixed feeding. Use of animal milk/formula feed increases the chance of causing inflammation of gut mucosa due to allergy and infections, making it easier for the HIV in breast milk to gain access and cause HIV infection in the infant. However, current evidence suggests that in continued presence of maternal ART, mixed feeding is also rendered safe and may be preferred over no breastfeeding at all. Thus, although exclusive breastfeeding is still recommended during first 6 months, practicing mixed feeding is not a reason to stop breast-feeding in the presence of ARV drugs. Thus, with ongoing maternal ART during pregnancy and lactation, there remains no difference in the feeding guidelines related to infant feeding of HIV exposed vs. unexposed infants. Feeding guidelines for infants and children 6-18 months of age: For all infants more than 6 months of age, complementary feeding should be started regardless of HIV status and initial feeding options. Breast feeding beyond 6 months: Beyond 6 months of age, breastfeeding should continue while complementary feeds are introduced. If an infant is confirmed to be HIV infected, the mother is strongly encouraged to continue breastfeeding upto 2 years or beyond as per the norm for general population. For HIV uninfected infants, it was earlier recommended that BF be stopped by 12 months of age. However, in the current era of universal ART for all pregnant and lactating women, and resultant increased safety of BF, this recommendation may not be valid. The WHO, in its 2016 guidelines on feeding HIV exposed infants recommends that “In settings where health services provide and support lifelong ART, including adherence counselling, and promote and support breastfeeding among women living with HIV, the duration of breastfeeding should not be restricted. Mothers living with HIV should breastfeed for at least 12 months and may continue breastfeeding for up to 24 months or longer (similar to the general population) while being fully supported for ART adherence. Also, if a mother living with HIV plans to return to work, she and health-care workers can be reassured that shorter duration of breastfeeding of less than 12 months are better than never initiating breastfeeding at all.” NACO has endorsed this recommendation for use in India. Complementary feeding: The 10 guiding principles of complementary feeding are presented in box 3. (See section on nutrition for further details) Box 3: Guiding principles of complementary feeding - Introduce complementary foods at 6 months of age (180 days) while continuing to breast feed - Start at 6 months of age with small amounts of food and increase the quantity and frequency as the child gets older, while maintaining frequent breast feeding - Gradually increase food consistency and variety as the infant grows older, adapting to the infant’s requirements and abilities - Feed a variety of nutrient-rich and energy-dense food from the family pot to ensure that all nutrient needs are met; use iron rich complementary foods or vitamin-mineral supplements for the infant, as needed - Practise responsive (active) feeding, applying the principles of psycho-social care, good hygiene and proper food handling - All breast feeding should stop only when a nutritionally adequate and safe diet, without breast milk, can be provided by complementary feeds - Assess the child’s nutritional status regularly and, for HIV positive children, classify appropriately as one of the three - growing, poor weight gain/ conditions with increased nutritional needs or severe acute malnutrition - In addition to age specific needs, HIV positive children who are growing appropriately will require additional 10 % energy, based on actual weight - In addition to age specific needs, HIV positive children who have poor weight gain or have conditions with increased nutritional needs will require additional 20- 30 % energy, based on actual weight - In addition to the age specific needs, HIV positive children who have severe acute malnutrition will need therapeutic feeding to provide 50- 100 % additional calories and should be referred to appropriate facility for management of Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) ARV prophylaxis Infant ARV prophylaxis when mother has been initiated on ART during pregnancy ARV prophylaxis to the infant must be given according to the national PPTCT programme guidelines in place since January 2014 (See section A6 on PPTCT). According to these guidelines, lifelong ART is provided to all pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV regardless of CD4 count or clinical stage. Infants born to these mothers are to be given daily Nevirapine (NVP) from birth for 6 weeks regardless of the mode of feeding, to provide additional protection against HIV transmission during the perinatal period. The duration of Nevirapine prophylaxis should be increased to 12 weeks, if ART to the mother was started late in pregnancy, during or after delivery and she has, therefore, not been on adequate duration of ART to achieve optimal viral suppression (which is at least 4 weeks). The recommendation on extended Nevirapine duration (12 weeks) applies to infants of breast-feeding women only and not to those on RF. If in this situation the mother opts for RF, NVP prophylaxis for 6 weeks suffices. Dose of Nevirapine is given in table 3. Table 3: Infant Nevirapine prophylaxis regimen \| Infant age \| Daily dosing \| \|------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Birth* to 6 weeks \| \| \| • Birth weight 2000- 2500 g \| 10 mg (1 ml) once daily \| \| • Birth weight > 2500 g \| 15 mg (1.5 ml) once daily \| \| > 6 weeks - upto 6 months# \| 20 mg (2 ml) once daily \| \| > 6 months - upto 9 months# \| 30 mg (3 ml) once daily \| \| > 9 months - until breast feeding ends \| 40 mg (4 m) once daily \| Infants weighing < 2000 g; the suggested starting dose is 2 mg/kg once daily # NVP dose for older infants is provided in a situation where HIV exposure is identified during infancy, the mother is breastfeeding and the infant is either HIV uninfected or the status is yet to be determined. Infants of women with prior exposure to Nevirapine/ born to women with HIV-2 infection should be given syrup Zidovudine in place of syrup Nevirapine (table 4). Table 4. Dose of Zidovudine for infants of Nevirapine exposed mothers / women infected with HIV-2* \| Infant Birth Weight \| AZT Daily Dosage in mg \| AZT Daily Dosage in ml \| Duration \| \|---------------------\|------------------------\|------------------------\|----------\| \| < 2000 g \| 5mg/dose twice daily \| 0.5 ml twice daily \| 6 weeks \| \| 2000- 2500 g \| 10mg/dose twice daily \| 1 ml twice daily \| 6 weeks \| \| > 2500 g \| 15mg/dose twice daily \| 1.5 ml twice daily \| 6 weeks \| Infant ARV prophylaxis when mother is diagnosed with HIV during labour All infants born to women who present directly-in-labour and are initiated on intra-partum and subsequent life-long ART, should be started on daily NVP prophylaxis at birth and continued for a minimum of 6 weeks (if the infant is started on RF) or 12 weeks if the infant is initiated on breastfeeding. ARV prophylaxis for infants born to women who did not receive any ART (Home Delivery / detection of HIV during labour / lactation) Infants should be started on daily NVP prophylaxis at their first encounter with health services. Daily infant NVP prophylaxis can be started even if more than 72 hours have passed since birth though its efficacy in preventing perinatal transmission will be lower. It will, however, still be protective towards transmission by breastfeeding. Daily infant NVP prophylaxis should continue for a minimum of 6 weeks, during which the mother should be linked to appropriate ART services. A longer duration (12 weeks) of prophylaxis is needed for infants on breast feeding. Immunization and Vitamin A Supplementation HIV infected infants and children are more susceptible to infections and more likely to develop serious complications thereof. Thus, there is an increased need for vaccination against all vaccine preventable diseases endemic in the area. However, the success of vaccination may be sub-optimal, depending upon the extent of immuno-deficiency at the time of immunization. In general, all inactivated vaccines can be administered safely, while live attenuated vaccines are contra-indicated in severely immuno-compromised infants and children (CD4 <15 %). HIV-exposed infants and children should be immunized according to the routine national immunization schedule (table 5) with a few exceptions detailed below. It is important to give all the recommended vaccines at the correct age, as delay may not only increase susceptibility of the child to illness, but also decrease the immune response to the vaccine as the child’s immune status deteriorates. Points to be kept in mind: - HIV exposed infants, like all other infants, should be given BCG at birth. However, if BCG has not been given at birth, it should not be given in symptomatic HIV-infected older infants and children. - Live vaccines should be avoided in all severely immune compromised infants. (CD4 <15 %, or in the range of severe immune-deficiency for older children). CLHIV and their caregivers should be counselled about not accepting any vaccination given during immunization campaigns in schools or otherwise without first seeking opinion of the ART centre medical officer. - Rotavirus vaccine is recommended for use in HIV exposed infants due to their vulnerability to diarrhoea. The vaccine virus is a highly attenuated virus in the vaccine and immunization with the vaccine is given in early infancy when diagnosis of HIV infection is not confirmed in most infants and those infected are unlikely to have severe immune-deficiency. Nevertheless, like all live vaccines it should not be given in children with known severe immunodeficiency. - Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccine is inactivated and found to be safe for use in children with HIV infection. A reduced immune response may be seen in HIV-infected children. However, most children with immune recovery after highly active antiretroviral therapy develop a protective antibody response. - Check for sero-conversion and give boosters as required especially for hepatitis B and hepatitis A. A 4-dose, double quantity schedule for hepatitis B has been recommended in view of poor sero-conversion with routine immunization. - Vitamin A supplementation should be as per the national immunization schedule. Desirable vaccines not currently available through the national schedule include: - Inactivated Hepatitis A vaccine (2 doses 6 month apart between 12-23 months) - Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (2, 4, 6-month, Booster 12-15 month). Administer Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) at least 8 weeks after the last dose of PCV to children aged 2 years or older - Inactivated Influenza vaccine (starting at 6 months age: two doses 1 month apart; 9 years and above: single dose. Annual booster with single dose) - Varicella vaccine: Administer the first dose at age of 15 months through 18 months and the second dose at age 4 through 6 years Table 5: Current National immunization schedule \| Age \| Immunization Schedule (After introduction of Rotavirus Vaccine) \| \|----------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| At Birth \| BCG, OPV-0, Hep B Birth Dose \| \| 6 weeks (1 1/2 months)\| OPV-1, RVV-1, fIPV1##, Pentavalent-1 \| \| 10 weeks (2 1/2 months)\| OPV-2, RVV-2, Pentavalent-2 \| \| 14 weeks (3 1/2 months)\| OPV-3, RVV-3, fIPV2/IPV, Pentavalent-3 \| \| 9 months \| MCV-1, Vit A, JE-1# \| \| 15 Months \| MCV-2 \| \| 16-24 Months \| DPT-B1, OPV-B, JE-2#, Vit A \| \| 5-6 Years \| DPT-B2 \| \| Age \| Vaccine \| \|--------------\|---------------\| \| 10 Years \| TT \| \| 16 Years \| TT \| \| Pregnant Mother \| TT-1 and TT-2 \| Vitamin A to be given every six months till five years of age #JE vaccine given in selected endemic districts ## Schedule varies from state to state BCG; Bacillus Calmette-Guerin; DPT: Diphtheria-Pertussis-Tetanus; Hep B: Hepatitis B; Pentavalent vaccine: DPT+ HepB + Hib (Haemophilus influenza type b); JE: Japanese Encephalitis; MCV: Measles Containing Vaccine; OPV: Oral Polio Vaccine; TT: Tetanus Toxoid; IPV: Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine; FIPV: Fractional Inactivated Polio Vaccine; RVV: Rotavirus Vaccine Co-trimoxazole (CTX) prophylaxis for HIV-Exposed/Infected infants and Children* Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis is an effective and proven strategy for reducing morbidity and mortality in children with HIV infection. It not only protects the infants and children from Pneumocystis jiroveci infection, but also from malaria, diarrhoea due to isospora and cyclospora, toxoplasmosis and other bacterial diseases. All HIV-exposed infants should get co-trimoxazole prophylaxis from the age of 6 weeks. The recommended dose is 5 mg/ kg/ day as a single daily dose. For details related to co-trimoxazole prophylaxis, refer to the chapter on prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in children. Growth and Development Growth monitoring: Frequency of growth monitoring: The child’s weight should be recorded at every visit to the ART centre. Length should be recorded once in 3 months for all HIV exposed infants. It is recommended that the WHO growth reference standard be used for assessing a child’s growth parameters. These are available as growth charts as well as reference tables for boys and girls separately (Refer annexures 14, 15 & 18). In a child growing normally, a serial recording of these parameters in a growth chart over time should yield a curve parallel to one of the standard growth curves on the growth chart. When the child’s growth parameters falter, serial recordings on a growth chart will no longer be parallel to the standard growth curves. For practical purposes weight for age chart should be maintained for every child for serial weight monitoring. Z scores for other parameters like length for age and weight for length may be checked from the graph/table as required for assessment of nutritional status. If the child’s growth curve is flattening, one should intensify the assessment of HIV related features and also screen for treatable causes e.g. nutritional deficiency, chronic infections such as respiratory, gastro-intestinal, urinary tract infection and TB. Developmental Assessment: Developmental milestones help in assessing development or maturation of the brain of an infant/child. They refer to abilities that children are expected to possess at different ages. Delayed development or loss of milestones after attaining them, may be the first sign of HIV infection suggesting HIV encephalopathy, if other common causes are ruled out. Early identification of developmental delay and neurologic abnormalities can facilitate intervention and suitable remedial actions. Therefore, it is crucial to assess the development in an HIV-exposed / HIV-infected infant and child. Developmental assessment at each visit should include assessment of the cognitive, motor, language and social skills by asking appropriate history from the mother, and observing the child during the examination, using a developmental check-list. Diagnosis of HIV infection in Infants and Children Early Infant Diagnosis Maternal HIV antibodies transferred passively to the infant during pregnancy usually persist for nearly 9-12 months in the infant. In some children, they may persist for as long as 18 months. Thus, children born to HIV-infected mothers will test positive for HIV antibodies regardless of their own infection status. A positive ELISA/ Rapid test that detects antibodies to HIV, therefore, does not necessarily indicate the presence of HIV infection in the infant/ child. Rather, a positive ELISA/Rapid test indicates exposure to HIV. More reliable indicators of the status of HIV infection of the infant are tests that detect HIV DNA or antigens. Table 6 shows the various tests available for diagnosis of HIV infection and their relevance for children aged < 18 months. Table 6: Options of diagnostic Test for Infants & Children < 18 Months of Age \| Test \| Recommendation \| Reason \| \|-----------------------\|----------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| HIV antibody \| No \| False +ve due to persistent maternal antibodies \| \| HIV DNA PCR \| Yes \| 98 % sensitive from 6 weeks of age \| \| HIV p24 Antigen \| Yes, but \| Lower sensitivity than PCR (27 % at 6 weeks) \| \| HIV viral culture \| Yes, but \| Costly, result takes 2-4 weeks, not readily available \| NACO protocol for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in infants and children < 18 months age NACO recommends the use of DNA PCR test on a Dried blood sample (DBS) of the infant to detect viral DNA for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection during infancy. This test is performed at 6 weeks of age and thereafter until 18 months of age. At 6 months of age or thereafter, DNA PCR has to be performed after screening for HIV antibodies, as depicted in the algorithm (Box 4). It is also important to take breast-feeding into consideration in the HIV testing algorithm. Since breastfed children have ongoing risk of HIV acquisition, they are re-tested 6 weeks after complete cessation of breast-feeding to reliably exclude HIV-1 infection. The choice of test(s) depends upon the age of the child at the time of re-testing. Thus, if cessation of breast feeding occurs beyond 18 months of age, rapid tests for HIV antibodies will suffice; a child between 6-18 months would first be screened for HIV antibodies followed by DNA PCR, if found positive for antibodies. As per the Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) protocol of NACO, HIV exposed infants are tested for HIV infection status as follows: - The first HIV DNA PCR test for HIV-1 infection using a Dried blood spot (DBS) method is conducted at 6 weeks of age. If the DBS test is positive for HIV, the test is repeated on another DBS sample as early as possible for confirmation. In case the second DBS tests negative for HIV, the lab will request for another DBS sample for a second confirmatory HIV -1 DNA PCR test from the ICTC and rely on the result of this test for final diagnosis - If the first PCR is negative (before 6 months of age), the child is screened for HIV antibodies (Rapid test) at 6 months age. Infants testing positive on rapid test are re-tested with a PCR test using DBS - DNA PCR can be repeated earlier if the infant becomes symptomatic - If the child is breastfed and initial PCR tests are negative, re-testing is carried out 6 weeks after cessation of breastfeeding - If the infant is seen for the first time after 6 months of age, an HIV serology is performed as a screening test. A PCR on a DBS sample is performed only if serology for HIV is positive - In 74% and 96% of HIV-uninfected exposed children, HIV antibody test will be negative at age 9 and 12 months respectively. Thus, if in a HIV exposed child > 6 months of age HIV antibody test is negative, there are two situations: - If the infant/child is not breastfed in last 6 weeks, the infant/child is probably not infected and does not need HIV DNA PCR testing. - In an infant/child with negative HIV antibody test but receiving exclusive breastfeeding or mixed feeding, HIV antibody test should be repeated after 6 weeks of complete cessation of breastfeeding to rule out HIV infection. - If symptoms develop at any time, the child should be tested appropriately (DNA PCR or Antibody test by ELISA/rapid) at that age. - For National Testing Algorithm for HIV exposed infants and children < 18 months refer to Annexure – I. - Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) to be initiated for all HIV exposed babies from 6 weeks of age and continued until proven HIV negative on all three serological tests at 18 months of age or later if still being breastfed. In case the baby is found to be HIV infected at any stage, LPV/r-based ART should be initiated and CPT should be continued until 5 years of age. - Initiate babies on exclusive BF/RF till 6 months of age; add complementary food thereafter. Presumptive diagnosis where there is no virologic testing (DNA PCR) available If the child is aged < 18 months and has symptoms and signs that are suggestive of HIV infection and there is no virologic testing available, it is possible to make a presumptive diagnosis by addressing the following issues: - Does the child meet the clinical criteria for presumptive diagnosis of severe HIV infection? - Is there evidence of HIV exposure - mother or baby’s serology shows positive HIV antibody? - Is there evidence of immune suppression (low CD4 count/%) and/or symptoms or illnesses consistent with HIV infection? Box 5 shows the clinical criteria for presumptive diagnosis of HIV infection in children aged < 18 months when virological tests are not available. In a child meeting the presumptive criteria, ART is initiated as soon as possible without waiting for virological tests that, nevertheless, should be performed at the earliest. Box 5: Clinical criteria for presumptive diagnosis of severe HIV disease in infants and children less than 18 months of age requiring ART in situations where virological testing is not available A presumptive diagnosis of severe HIV disease should be made if: The infant’s HIV antibody test is reactive and Diagnosis of any AIDS-indicator condition(s) can be made or The infant is symptomatic with two or more of the following : - Oral thrush; - Severe pneumonia; - Severe sepsis. Other factors that support the diagnosis of severe HIV disease in an HIV seropositive infant include: Recent HIV-related maternal death; or advanced HIV disease in the mother; CD4 in the child <2 0%. Confirmation of the diagnosis of HIV infection should be sought as soon as possible. Notes: As per IMCI definition: 1. Oral thrush: Creamy white to yellow soft small plaques on red or normally coloured mucosa which can often be scraped off (pseudo membranous), or red patches on tongue, palate or lining of mouth, usually painful or tender. 2. Severe pneumonia: Cough or difficult breathing in a child with chest in-drawing, stridor or any of the IMCI general danger signs; i.e., lethargic or unconscious, not able to drink or breast-feed, vomiting, and presence or history of convulsions during current illness; responding to antibiotics 3. Severe sepsis: Fever or low body temperature in a young infant with any severe sign such as fast breathing, chest in-drawing, bulging fontanelle, lethargy, reduced movement, not feeding or sucking breast milk, convulsions, etc. Discordance among the EID results and Rapid tests at 18 months 18-month antibody testing should not be done for HIV exposed infants who were 2 DBS PCR positive and initiated on-ART. However if tests are done and in case of discordance between EID result and rapid test at 18 months, ART is to be continued regardless of antibody test results at 18 months. The case to be referred to NACEP (National AIDS Clinical Expert Panel). Diagnosis of HIV infection in children > 18 months Children aged ≥ 18 months are tested according to the national adult testing strategies: Two positive HIV antibody test results (done sequentially) in a clinically symptomatic child (symptoms suggestive of HIV infection) more than 18 months indicate HIV infection in the child. Three positive HIV antibody test results (done sequentially) in a clinically asymptomatic child more than 18 months old indicate HIV infection in the child. Two positive HIV antibody test results and one negative result (done sequentially) in an asymptomatic child more than 18 months old is indeterminate HIV status. Follow up testing should be done in such a child to resolve the HIV status. Box 6: Summary points for HIV diagnosis in infants: - For infants < 18 months: confirm with PCR and check status of breast-feeding - For infants > 18 months: Antibody testing as per adult diagnostic guidelines - If testing if not available for infants < 18 months, then diagnose clinically using presumptive diagnosis method. Follow-up of HIV exposed infants and children HIV exposed infants are a vulnerable group irrespective of their own HIV status due to a combination of various adverse socio-economic and family factors including poverty, stigma, increased exposure to sickness due to parental ill-health/death, exposure to ARV drugs and, in some cases, replacement feeding. A structured follow-up plan gives opportunity to clinically evaluate these children at regular intervals and give them comprehensive care including delivery of all the components discussed above. The exposed infants and children should be followed up at ICTCs beginning at 6 weeks of life. Prior to this, they should have been given BCG, hepatitis B and OPV vaccine at birth. At the first visit at 6 weeks, the following activities are undertaken: - Initiation of co-trimoxazole prophylactic therapy - Checking adherence of infant NVP prophylaxis for the past 6 week and decision regarding continuation of NVP till 12 weeks depending upon duration of maternal ART - First DBS for HIV DNA PCR - Growth monitoring / development assessment - Referral of any infant with medical problems for medical assessment - For exclusively breastfed infants, the pattern of feeding, attachment and positioning and mother’s breast condition is enquired for - For infants on replacement feeding, parents/family are asked about any problems faced in infant feeding. The nature, frequency and amount of replacement feeds being given is enquired about and feed hygiene is emphasised - Assessment of maternal health and her adherence to ART The subsequent visits are at 10, 14 weeks, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 months, synchronized with the immunization visits. The activities at these visits are similar to those described for the 6-week visit. At any time, an infant is detected to be infected with HIV on laboratory testing or by presumptive WHO criteria, he/she is referred to the ART centre without delay. Infants may also require a medical review during an acute episode of sickness, or if they show growth faltering over serial visits. At every visit, information is given to the mother or caregiver on potential common HIV related features, about availability of early infant diagnosis, and the importance of follow-up and adherence to ARV prophylaxis or treatment. Any psycho-social concerns are addressed and need for co-trimoxazole prophylaxis is reinforced. Age appropriate guidelines are given for infant feeding. At the 18-month visit, HIV serology is tested for all infants. In case the infant is breastfeeding beyond 18 months of age, he/she should be followed-up till complete cessation of breastfeeding. An HIV test must be performed 6 weeks after complete cessation of breast feeding. Table 7: Follow-up protocol of HIV exposed infant \| Care of HIV Exposed Infants & Children \| Activities at each follow up visit \| \|----------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------\| \| Visit \| Birth \| 6 Wks \| 10 Wks \| 14 Wks \| 6 Mths \| 9 Mths \| 12 Mths \| 15 Mths \| 18 Mths \| \| Co-trimoxazole Prophylaxis Therapy \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Counselling for Infant feeding \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| \| Growth monitoring \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| \| Developmental assessment \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| \| Immunization &Vitamin A supplements \| BCG \| OPV-1 \| OPV-2 \| OPV-3 \| MCV-1 \| MCV-2 \| DPT-B1 \| \| \| \| \| OPV-0 \| RVV-1 \| RVV-2 \| RVV-3 \| Vit A* \| \| OPV-B \| \| \| \| \| Hep B \| fIPV-1##\| Pentavalent-2 \| fIPV2/IPV \| JE-1# \| \| JE-2# \| \| \| \| \| Birth Dose\| Pentavalent-1 \| \| Pentavalent-3 \| Vit A* \| \| \| \| \| \| Clinical assessment \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| \| HIV testing (√-if required) \| √ \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Maternal Health & ART Adherence \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| √ \| Counselling and Psycho-Social Support Success of any public health program depends upon effective & ongoing counselling. Parents and caregivers of HIV exposed infants need ongoing counselling beginning right from pregnancy and through labour, post-natal period and beyond. The key counselling areas are PPTCT, maternal ART and infant ARV prophylaxis, infant feeding, nutrition, Early Infant Diagnosis, co-trimoxazole initiation, vaccination, awareness of signs of sickness in an infant and adherence to ART (mother), ARV/Nevirapine prophylaxis (infant). The key persons responsible for counselling are the PPTCT and ART counsellors, ART centre MO, the paediatrician and the obstetrician. It is critical that all the key persons are well informed about the current national guidelines so that a consistent message is given to the affected family by anyone who interacts with them. (Refer to counselling section for more details on counselling support in children) At the beginning of HIV care and prior to starting ART, thorough assessment should be performed to: - Determine the clinical stage of HIV infection - Identify history of past illnesses (especially those related to HIV; like pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) or tuberculosis (TB). Identify current HIV-related illnesses including TB that require treatment. If opportunistic infection is suspected, then diagnosis and treatment of Opportunistic Infections (OIs) take priority over ART initiation. - Determine the need for OI prophylaxis according to clinical stage and/or CD4 count or CD4 % - Identify coexisting medical conditions and treatments that may influence the choice of therapy - After appropriate counselling, take written consent of the primary caregiver for HIV care and ART initiation (Refer to Annexure 03) 1. Assessment of a newly diagnosed child with HIV 1.1 Anthropometric assessment 1.2 Clinical assessment (History / Physical Examination) 1.3 Developmental Assessment 1.4 Laboratory assessment 1.5 Psycho-social assessment 1.1 Anthropometric assessment HIV infected children are at particular risk for problems related to growth. HIV and opportunistic infections often negatively influence the growth of young children. Faltering in growth often occurs even before opportunistic infections or other symptoms become overt. Early detection of growth faltering facilitates timely intervention to prevent further deterioration. Anthropometric assessment is a valuable tool for assessing growth and nutritional status of children. It involves measuring a child’s weight, length/height and mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC) and comparing these measurements to growth reference standards. The purpose is to determine whether a child is growing “normally”, or his/her growth pattern is different from the expected. It is recommended that WHO growth reference standards are used for assessing a child’s growth upto 5 years. These are available as growth charts as well as reference tables for boys and girls separately (see annexures 14, 15 & 18). For children beyond 5 years of age IAP growth charts based on growth reference data from Indian children are recommended (Refer to annexures 16 & 17). Refer to the chapter on nutrition for details on anthropometric assessment and its interpretation. 1.2 Clinical Assessment History Ask for: - Unusually frequent and severe occurrences of common childhood bacterial infections, such as otitis media, sinusitis, and pneumonia - Recurrent fungal infections, such as candidiasis (thrush), that do not respond to standard antifungal agents - Recurrent or unusually severe viral infections, such as recurrent or disseminated herpes simplex or zoster infection or cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis - 4 symptoms screening for TB – current cough, fever, poor weight gain and contact history of TB - Key age-appropriate developmental milestones. Failure to attain typical milestones at the appropriate age suggests a developmental delay; such delays, particularly impairment in the development of expressive language, may indicate HIV encephalopathy. Ask also about loss of any pre-acquired milestones - Behavioural abnormalities (in older children), such as loss of concentration and memory, may also indicate HIV encephalopathy - Assess immunization status - Identify concomitant use of any medication that may have drug interactions with ART Physical examination Look for: - Assessment of growth as above; for children > 10 years of age, assess for onset of pubertal development - Visible severe wasting - Vitamin deficiencies - Oedema in extremities - Anaemia - Jaundice - Fever - Thrush in the oral cavity and posterior pharynx (observed in approximately 30% of HIV-infected children) - Linear gingival erythema and median rhomboid glossitis - Oral hairy leucoplakia (OHL) and aphthous ulcers - Parotid enlargement - Herpetic infection with Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV); may manifest as herpes labialis, gingivo-stomatitis, oesophagitis, or chronic erosive, vesicular, and vegetating skin lesions; the involved areas of the lips, mouth, tongue, and oesophagus are ulcerated - HIV dermatitis: An erythematous, papular rash, observed in about 25% of children with HIV infection • Dermatophytosis: Manifesting as an aggressive tinea capitis, corporis, versicolor, or onychomycosis • Digital clubbing: As a result of chronic lung disease or pulmonary hypertension • Generalized cervical, axillary, or inguinal lymphadenopathy • Otitis media Perform a thorough systemic examination especially for presence of pneumonia, involvement and other evidence of associated systemic disease Clinical Staging Clinical stages are categorized as 1 through 4, progressing from primary HIV infection to advanced HIV/AIDS. These stages are defined by specific clinical conditions or symptoms. The clinical stage is useful for baseline assessment of patients and also in the follow-up of patients in care and treatment programs. It should be used to guide decisions on when to start co-trimoxazole prophylaxis and other HIV-related interventions. ### 1.3 Developmental Assessment Developmental milestones help in assessing development or maturation of the brain of an infant/child. They refer to the abilities that children are expected to possess at different ages. Delayed development or loss of milestones after attaining them, may be the first sign of HIV infection suggesting HIV encephalopathy, if other common causes are ruled out. Early identification of developmental delay and neurologic abnormalities can facilitate intervention and suitable remedial actions. Therefore, it is crucial to assess the development in an HIV-infected infant and child. A thorough history including the pre-natal, perinatal and post-natal factors, which can affect the development of the child, should be noted. A complete examination including physical examination, anthropometric parameters, assessment of vision and hearing and other factors that affect development should be undertaken. Developmental assessment at each visit should include assessment of the cognitive, motor, language and social skills by asking appropriate history from the mother and by observing the child during the examination, using a developmental check-list. Certain red flags suggest that development is seriously disordered and needs prompt referral. Red Flags in Developmental Screening Positive indicators (the presence of any of the following): • Loss of previously acquired developmental skills at any age • Parental or professional concerns about vision, fixing or following an object or a confirmed visual impairment at any age (simultaneous referral to paediatric ophthalmology) • Hearing loss at any age (simultaneous referral for expert audiologic or ear, nose, and throat assessment) • Persistently low muscle tone or floppiness • No speech by 18 months, especially if the child does not try to communicate by other means such as gestures (simultaneous referral for urgent hearing test) • Asymmetry of movements or other features suggestive of cerebral palsy, such as increased muscle tone - Persistent toe walking - Complex disabilities - Head circumference above +3 SD or below -3 SD. Also, if the circumference has crossed 2 centiles (up or down) on the appropriate chart or is disproportionate to the parental head circumference - An assessing clinician who is uncertain about any aspect of the assessment but thinks that development may be disordered Negative indicators (activities that the child cannot do) - Sit unsupported by 12 months - Walk by 18 months (check creatine kinase urgently) - Walk other than on tiptoes - Run by 2.5 years - Hold object placed in hand by 5 months (corrected for gestation) - Reach for objects by 6 months (corrected for gestation) Use of development screening tools helps detect developmental delay (Figure 1). Children with developmental disorders are at increased risk for behavioural problems. For example, temper tantrums or disruptive behaviour may be a manifestation of language delay. Figure 1: Trivandrum Development Screening Chart Adapted from Journal of Pediatric association of India. New Indian Journal of Pediatrics. Development and Validation of Trivandrum Development Screening Chart for Children aged 0-3 Years by TDSC (0-3). Chauhan VH, Vilhekar KY, Kurundwadkar M. 1.4 Laboratory Assessment The purpose of the baseline laboratory evaluation is to (1) determine the stage of the disease, (2) rule out concomitant infections and (3) determine baseline safety parameters. The following are recommended tests for monitoring of CLHIV at ART centres (Table 1) Table 1: Laboratory Monitoring for patients at ART centre \| Baseline Investigations: Essential tests for all patients registering in HIV care at ART Centre \| \|---\| \| • Haemogram/CBC \| \| • Urine for routine and microscopic examination \| \| • Fasting blood sugar \| \| • Blood urea, Serum creatinine \| \| • Serum Bilirubin, ALT (SGPT) \| \| • VDRL \| \| • CD4 count \| \| • HBsAg and Anti- HCV IgG (if available) \| \| • X-ray Chest PA view \| \| • Pregnancy test (if required in adolescents) \| \| • rk 39 strip test to confirm or rule out leishmaniasis (especially in patients with HIV infection who live in or travel to endemic areas i.e. Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and West Bengal) \| \| Additional tests at baseline as per the physician’s decision \| \|---\| \| • Symptoms and signs directed investigations for ruling out Opportunistic Infections, including M. tuberculosis by testing sputum/appropriate specimen by CBNAAT (Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) and/or other required investigations \| \| • Complete LFT (Liver function test) for those being initiated on ATT and for patients with Hepatitis B or C co-infection \| \| • Lipid profile (if available) \| \| • USG whole abdomen \| NON-AVAILABILITY / NON-FEASIBILITY OF ANY OF THESE TESTS SHOULD NOT DELAY THE INITIATION OF ART Note: All above investigations other than CD4 estimation shall be done from the health facility where the centre is located, with support from State Health Department. Additional tests Depending on clinical presentation • Sputum / gastric aspirate / other body fluids as applicable for AFB / CBNAAT • USG Abdomen / CT scan chest / CT scan Brain • CSF Analysis Tests for special situations • For patients with Hepatitis B or C co-infection: further tests may be required to assess for chronic active hepatitis • For patients started on PI based regimen: Baseline investigations including blood Sugar, LFT and lipid profile to be done Cascade screening - Screen the family for HIV and other Opportunistic Infections Normal CD4+ counts are higher in infants and young children than in adults due to relative lymphocytosis and decline over the first few years of life. In addition, children may develop opportunistic infections at higher CD4+ levels than adults. A value of 1500 CD4 cells/cmm in children < 1 year of age is indicative of severe CD4 depletion and is comparable to <200 CD4 cells/cmm in adults. Classification based on age-specific CD4 levels (Table 2) is useful for describing the immunologic status of HIV-infected children. Table 2: Immunologic categories based on age-specific CD4+ T-lymphocyte counts and percent of total lymphocytes \| Immunologic Category \| Age of the Infant / Child \| \|----------------------\|--------------------------\| \| \| 12 months \| 1-5 years \| 6-12 years \| \| \| uL \| % \| uL \| % \| uL \| % \| \| 1 \| No evidence of suppression \| >= 1500 \| >= 25 \| >= 1000 \| >= 25 \| >= 500 \| >= 25 \| \| 2 \| Evidence of Moderate suppression \| 750- 1499 \| 15- 24 \| 500- 999 \| 15- 24 \| 200- 499 \| 15- 24 \| \| 3 \| Severe suppression \| < 750 \| < 15 \| < 500 \| < 15 \| < 200 \| < 15 \| ### 1.5 Psycho-social Assessment - Identify primary caregiver for the child and his/her ability and willingness to adhere to follow-up and to administer medications, especially ART - Assess family members’ understanding of HIV disease and treatment - Assess child’s adherence to previously started medication including anti-TB treatment - Assess the family’s financial status including its ability to pay for transportation to clinic, and to afford adequate food/nutritional supplements for the child. - Assess disclosure of HIV status within the family (whether the child knows his/her status or whether anyone else knows; also whether the child knows the parent/s’ HIV status). ### 2. Pre-ART Care Pre-ART period is the period between a child testing positive for HIV and initiation of ART as per the national guidelines. In the current era of ‘test and treat’, the pre-ART period is very short, just the time taken for complete assessment, evaluation and initiation of the management of co-morbidities and stabilizing the general condition. This is also the phase when the child and caregivers are counselled regarding the need for ART, its benefits and limitations, and the need for life-long adherence. Pre-ART care of the infected child with support to the family, as well as comprehensive care for the family unit, is important as this sets the stage for future care and response to treatment. Components of Pre-ART Care 2.1 Prevention, recognition and management of Opportunistic Infections It includes co-trimoxazole and Isoniazid prophylaxis, 4-symptom tuberculosis screening and initiation of anti-TB treatment two weeks ahead of ART initiation. 2.1.1 Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV Infected infants and Children Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis is an effective and proven strategy for reducing morbidity and mortality in children with HIV infection. It not only protects the infant from Pneumocystis pneumonia, but also from malaria, diarrhoea due to isospora and cyclospora, toxoplasmosis and other bacterial diseases. All HIV-exposed infants should get co-trimoxazole prophylaxis from the age of 6 weeks. The recommended dose is 5 mg/kg/day as a single daily dose. The details of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis in children have been provided in the chapter on “Prophylaxis of opportunistic infections in children”. 2.1.2 4-Symptom Screening for TB All patients coming to the ART centres should be actively screened for opportunistic infections, particularly tuberculosis. All children living with HIV (CLHIV) should be regularly screened for four symptoms viz., current cough, fever, poor weight gain and contact history of TB, during every visit to a health facility and every contact with a health-care provider. Those who have one or more of the following symptoms should be evaluated for TB. 2.1.3 Isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) for HIV infected children Isoniazid Preventive Therapy is the administration of INH to individuals with latent TB infection in order to prevent progression to active TB Disease. The details of IPT for HIV infected children are provided in the section on “HIV-TB co-Infection” 2.2 Monitoring of Growth and Nutritional status and nutritional counselling Regular measurement of weight and height is an essential activity to be undertaken for every HIV infected child. Serial assessments and plotting of weight and height on a growth chart help in early detection of growth faltering. The weight should be recorded at every visit and height / length once in 3 months for all HIV infected children upto 5 years of age. For children beyond 5 years of age, height can be taken at 6 monthly intervals since the rate of growth is slower. Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) is also a good indicator of a child’s general nutritional status. Faltering in growth, especially a weight lower than that expected for the child’s height often occurs even before opportunistic infections or other symptoms become overt in HIV infection. Early detection of growth faltering allows scope for timely intervention to prevent further deterioration. 2.2 Referral for Immunization and timely follow up HIV infected children are more susceptible to infections and more likely to develop serious complications thereof. Thus, there is an increased need for vaccination against all vaccine preventable diseases endemic in the area. However, success of vaccination may be sub-optimal, depending upon the extent of immuno-deficiency at the time of immunization. In general, all inactivated vaccines can be administered safely, while live attenuated vaccines are contra-indicated in severely immuno-compromised children (CD4 < 15 %). See chapter on exposed infant care for details of recommended immunizations for HIV exposed and infected children. 2.3 Developmental assessment at every visit and appropriate referrals Developmental assessment using red flags or screening tools should be done at each visit for early identification of developmental delay and neurological deficit. Such children should be referred for a detailed assessment and appropriate management for better prognosis. 2.4 Counselling and timely referrals for Psychological / Social support if needed HIV infection affects all dimensions of a person’s life: physical, psychological, social and spiritual. Counselling and social support can help CLHIV and their caregiver cope more effectively with each stage of the infection and enhance the quality of life. With adequate support, they are more likely to be able to respond adequately to the stress of being infected and are less likely to develop serious mental health problems. HIV infection can also result in stigma and fear for those living with the infection, as well as for those caring for them, and may affect the entire family. Psycho-social support can assist people in making informed decisions, coping better with the illness and dealing more effectively with discrimination. It improves the quality of their lives, and prevents further transmission of HIV infection. For people with HIV/AIDS who must adhere to multi-drug therapy including TB treatment, long-term prophylaxis and antiretroviral therapy, on-going counselling can be critical in enhancing adherence to treatment regimens. The physician must realize that initiating ART is never an emergency. The child and the caregiver need to be prepared for ART by giving the pre-treatment information and plan including benefits and limitations of ART, and the need for life-long adherence. This is also the time to consider disclosure of HIV status in an older child/adolescent if not already disclosed. A supportive and non-judgemental attitude of the health care workers during the first encounter with the newly diagnosed HIV positive patients is crucial in order to build rapport and establish partnership of care with each other. Patients are encouraged to discuss about their concerns and worries openly and frankly with the health care workers. Referrals to other professionals, including clinical psychologist or social worker may be necessary, when needs are identified in the interview. Psychological intervention can be in the form of individual treatment and group treatment. Individual treatment involves individualized treatment plan for an issue identified by patient and the psychologist during assessment. On the other hand, group treatment delivers intervention in the form of group using a specific topic and theme. Patient support groups provide a forum to share feelings and experiences with each other, share information on treatment and resources, thereby lessening feelings of isolation and neglect. Further details on counselling children and their caregivers are given in the section on “Issues related to paediatric counselling”. 2.5 Promoting Healthy / Positive living CLHIV and their caregivers should be counselled regarding basic healthy habits that will help them to stay healthy and avoid infections such as: a) Eating healthy / nutritious foods b) Washing hands well and often c) Exercising good dental hygiene d) Getting enough sleep e) Doing moderate exercise With “test & treat policy” in place, it is important to realize that the term “Pre-ART Care” still remains relevant. In fact, all the activities listed under this head would still need to be carried out, or at least initiated, before starting ART and continued along-side ART. Treatment and prevention of opportunistic infections is an important component of comprehensive care of CLHIV. Prophylaxis given before the appearance of opportunistic infections is called as primary prophylaxis whereas the one given after the successful completion of treatment of opportunistic infections is called as secondary prophylaxis. Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) for HIV-Exposed/Infected infants and Children Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) protects the infant from Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP), toxoplasmosis and other bacterial diseases. It is the standard component of HIV care to reduce the morbidity and mortality of children less than five years of age. All HIV-exposed infants should receive CPT from the age of 6 weeks until HIV is reliably excluded. In all those confirmed to be HIV-infected, CPT should be continued till 5 years of age. The recommended dose is 5 mg/kg/day of Trimethoprim (TMP) of co-trimoxazole (sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim combination) once daily. Children with history of severe adverse reaction (grade 4 reaction) to co-trimoxazole or other sulfa drugs as well as children with G6PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency) should not be initiated on CPT. The alternative drug, in this case, is Dapsone 2 mg/kg once daily (not to exceed 100 mg/day) orally. Table 1: Indications for CPT prophylaxis \| Group \| When to start Co-trimoxazole? \| When to discontinue CPT prophylaxis? \| \|--------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| All HIV-exposed infants/children \| From 6 weeks of age (or at first encounter with health services) \| HIV infection has been reliably excluded by a negative antibody test at 18 months, regardless of ARV initiation \| \| All HIV-infected infants and children upto 5 years of age \| Regardless of WHO stage or CD4 counts or CD4 % \| At 5 years of age, when clinical or immunological indicators confirm restoration of the immune system for more than 6 months i.e. in a child > 5 years of age with a WHO T-stage 1 or 2 and CD4 count of > 350 cell/cmm on two occasions not less than 6 months apart \| \| All HIV-infected children >5 years of age \| WHO Stage 3 and 4 regardless of CD4 OR CD4 < 350 cells/cmm regardless of WHO staging \| When clinical or immunological indicators confirm restoration of the immune system for more than 6 months i.e. in a child > 5 years of age with a WHO T-stage 1 or 2 and CD4 count of > 350 cells/cmm on two occasions not less than 6 months apart \| \| As secondary prophylaxis \| After completion of treatment for PCP \| • < 5 years old: do not stop • > 5 years old: with a WHO T-stage 1 or 2 and CD4 count of > 350 cells/cmm on two occasions not less than 6 months apart \| Co-trimoxazole desensitization Co-trimoxazole desensitization has been shown to be successful and safe in approximately 70% of patients with previous mild to moderate hypersensitivity. If the patient reports a history of hypersensitivity to sulpha-containing drugs, desensitization regimen should be attempted only in a hospital setting. Desensitization should not be attempted in individuals with a history of severe co-trimoxazole or other sulphonamide reaction. Desensitization can be attempted two weeks after a non-severe (grade 3 or less) co-trimoxazole reaction which has resulted in a temporary interruption in the use of the drug. If any reaction occurs, the desensitization regimen should be stopped. Once the patient recovers fully, dapsone at a dosage of 100 mg per day shall be tried. Some patients may be allergic to both co-trimoxazole and dapsone. Table 2: Desensitization procedure for co-trimoxazole \| Day \| Step \| Dosage \| \|-----\|-------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Day 1 \| 80 mg SMX* + 16 mg TMP* \| 2 mL oral suspension \| \| Day 2 \| 160 mg SMX + 32 mg \| 4 mL oral suspension \| \| Day 3 \| TMP 240 mg SMX + 48 mg \| 6 mL oral suspension \| \| Day 4 \| TMP 320 mg SMX + 64 mg TMP \| 8 mL oral suspension \| \| Day 5 \| 400 mg SMX + 80 mg TMP \| One single-strength SMX-TMP tablet \| \| Day 6 \| 800 mg SMZ + 160 mg TMP \| Two single-strength SMX or One double-strength SMX-TMP tablet \| SMX: Sulfamethoxazole; TMP: Trimethoprim Table 3: Dose of Co-trimoxazole for PCP Prophylaxis \| Weight (kg) \| Approx. Age \| Co-trimoxazole once a day \| \|-------------\|-------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| Syrup 5 ml (40 TMP / 200 SMX) \| Child tablet (20 TMP, 100 SMX) \| Single strength adult (80 TMP/400 SMX) \| Double strength adult tablet (160 TMP/800 SMX) \| \| < 5 \| 6 weeks - 2 months \| 2.5 ml \| 1 tablets \| - \| - \| \| 5- 10 \| 2- 12 months \| 5 ml \| 2 tablets \| ½ tablet \| - \| \| 10- 15 \| 1- 2 years \| 7.5 ml \| 3 tablets \| ½ tablet \| - \| \| 15- 22 \| 2- 5 years \| 10 ml \| 4 tablets \| 1 tablets \| ½ tablet \| \| > 22 \| > 5 years \| 15 ml \| - \| 1 ½ tablet \| ½ to 1 tablet depending on weight \| Dosage: 5mg/kg of TMP/day orally once daily splitting the tablets into quarters is not recommended, unless there is no syrup available. - Patients and families should be emphasized upon the fact that Co-trimoxazole does not treat and cure HIV Infection. - Counsel caregivers well for side-effects to CPT - Discontinue CPT if: Stevens-Johnson syndrome, severe liver disease, severe anaemia, severe pancytopenia or completely excluded HIV Infection. Prevention of TB in HIV infected children and adolescents TB is the most common Opportunistic Infection in HIV infected children in India. The true burden of HIV-associated TB in children worldwide is unknown. This is due to difficulties in diagnosis and poor reporting of paediatric TB cases by national programmes. Co-infection with both organisms, the 'cursed duet', is an increasing global emergency. The vast majority of co-infected children live in resource-limited countries, with HIV prevalence rates of 10-60% among TB-infected children. The four main TB preventive strategies are: - Intensified TB Case Finding (ICF) with high quality ATT (to cut TB transmission) - Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) - Airborne Infection Control in health-care facilities and congregate settings - Early ART initiation among PLHIV Isoniazid is one of the most effective bactericidal anti-TB drugs available currently. Isoniazid protects against the progression of latent TB infection to active disease (against endogenous reactivation). It also prevents TB re-infection post exposure to an open case of TB (against exogenous re-infection / super infection / nosocomial transmission) INH prophylaxis in HIV-infected children has the potential to play a major public health role by reducing TB incidence and death. A randomized clinical trial in which 263 HIV-infected children were randomized to INH and co-trimoxazole or placebo, given daily or three times a week showed a marked reduction in TB incidence (3.8% vs. 9.9%) and death (8% vs. 16%) in the INH group. Based on the evidence and the potential benefit of concomitant use of IPT with ART, the guidelines group strongly recommends that IPT be given regardless of the immune status (CD4) and whether or not a person is on ART. The duration of effectiveness of IPT in CLHIV in the absence of ART (not receiving concomitant ART) is limited due to ongoing progressive immunodeficiency. With the concomitant administration of both ART and IPT, there is a likelihood of restoration of tuberculosis-specific immunity by ART and the prolongation of the beneficial effect of IPT. Concern regarding Isoniazid resistance was one of the important barriers for the implementation of this strategy. However, IPT does not promote Isoniazid resistance when used to treat latent TB infection. In latent TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli are fewer in number, dividing slowly and therefore, the risk of selecting drug-resistant mutants is extremely low. In the study conducted by Van Halsema et al in 2010, prevalence of INH resistance amongst IPT-exposed is similar to the background population. IPT Indications: Children and adolescents living with HIV (more than 12 months of age) who do not report current cough, fever, poor weight gain and history of contact with a TB case are unlikely to have active TB and should be offered IPT. Additional investigations will help in ruling out active TB (X-ray chest and Tuberculin skin test), but are not mandatory. The dosage of Isoniazid for eligible children above 12 months for 6 months is given in the table x. In addition, to prevent the symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) must be given for 6 months according to weight bands (25 mg daily for children weighing between 14-25 kg and 12.5 mg for infants and children weighing between 1 and 13.9 kg) along with Isoniazid. Contraindications IPT is contraindicated among children and adolescents living with HIV with active Tuberculosis disease, active Hepatitis, signs and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, (persistent tingling, numbness and burning sensation in the limbs), poor adherence to Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT), poor understanding of IPT by guardian, contacts of MDR-TB and CLHIV who have completed DR-TB treatment. Table 4: Dosage of Isoniazid in children \| Weight range (kg) \| Number of 100 mg tablets of INH to be administered per dose (total dose 10 mg/kg/day) \| Dose (mg) \| \|-------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------\| \| < 5 \| ½ tablet \| 50 \| \| 5.1 – 9.9 \| 1 tablet \| 100 \| \| 10 – 13.9 \| 1 ½ tablet \| 150 \| \| 14 – 19.9 \| 2 tablets \| 200 \| \| 20 – 24.9 \| 2 ½ tablets \| 250 \| \| > 25 \| 3 tablets or one adult tablet \| 300 \| Initiation and Follow up care The counsellor will screen all the 4S negative patients and refer to the ART SMO/MO to determine their eligibility for IPT. The ART MO will initiate IPT if not contradicted. 4S screening must be done for all patients on IPT to exclude active TB during every visit. In case the patient becomes 4S positive during the IPT course, he/she should be referred for TB diagnosis and if found positive, IPT should be stopped and appropriate ATT should be initiated. If IPT has to be used in conjunction with antiretroviral therapy, a rational approach would be to start IPT after completion of 3 months of antiretroviral therapy (delayed IPT). IPT in special situations 1. Patients previously treated for TB (secondary prophylaxis) All CLHIV who have successfully completed treatment for TB disease recently or earlier should receive INH for six months. 2. IPT with ART Combined use of IPT with ART is recommended for all CLHIV regardless of the degree of immune suppression and previous treatment for TB. ART should not be delayed while starting or completing a course of IPT. 3. IPT in children born to microbiologically confirmed TB mothers If a baby is born to a microbiologically confirmed TB mother, assess the newborn for active TB. Non-specific features suggestive of neonatal TB include: fever, low birth weight, hepatosplenomegaly, irritability, feeding intolerance. If the child has any of these features, investigate for active TB infection and treat accordingly. If the child has none of the above features or is negative for active TB infection, give IPT for six months. 4. IPT and MDR-TB Contacts of MDR-TB and CLHIV who have completed DR-TB treatment are not eligible for IPT. 5. Patient on IPT develops TB during IPT If a patient develops TB symptoms during IPT treatment, evaluate for TB and do DST. Based on the DST result, treatment will be provided. If the patient is sensitive to all the drugs then based on history of ATT and duration of IPT decide the following: - If the patient has taken IPT for less than 1 month and has not taken ATT in the past, then provide the patient with a New case (Category I) regimen. - If the patient has taken IPT for more than 1 month OR has taken anti-TB treatment in the past, then provide the patient with Re-treatment (Category II) regimen. Whenever patients develop TB after > 1 month of IPT, category II anti-TB treatment must be provided because this duration of isoniazid usage is considered as isoniazid monotherapy in these patients. If the patient has drug-resistant TB, refer to DR-TB Centre. 6. Patients develop TB after IPT completion If the patient develops TB after IPT, IPT is not to be considered as past history of TB treatment in such cases. Treat TB episode as New or Previously treated case (based on the previous TB treatment history or Rifampicin resistance pattern) (whenever available). Table 5: Restarting IPT after interruption \| Scenario \| Action \| \|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| If a patient has taken IPT for less than 1 month in total and has \| Conduct adherence counselling, address reasons for discontinuation \| \| discontinued it for any reason (like toxicity or loss to follow up) \| Conduct ICF and if asymptomatic, restart INH afresh \| \| \| Ensure they complete a 6-month course \| \| After taking IPT for more than 1 month: \| Conduct adherence counselling \| \| If the patient has discontinued IPT for less than 3 months \| Conduct ICF and if asymptomatic, restart INH \| \| \| Ensure they complete a 6-month course within a 9-month period \| \| After taking IPT for more than 1 month: \| Do not re-initiate IPT \| \| If the patient has discontinued IPT for more than 3 months, or has \| \| \| discontinued more than once \| \| Preventing Vaccine-Preventable Diseases in HIV-Infected Children and Adolescents Vaccines are extremely effective primary prevention tool. Vaccines that protect against 11 diseases are included in the national immunization schedule by Government of India, for routine use in children and adolescents in India. The immunization protocol has been discussed in chapter on “Care of HIV exposed infants and children.” Paediatric formulations of Anti-Retro Viral (ARV) drugs have greatly improved the care of HIV infected children. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) at the earliest is crucial in reducing mortality and morbidity among infants and children. Recommendations for the care of those who are HIV infected will change over time, but the challenges in providing this care are the major hurdles in managing both acute and chronic conditions. ART is a life-long therapy and owing to its benefits, HIV-infected infants and children have been able to survive up to adolescence and adulthood today. When to start ART for infants and children? ART should be initiated in all children and adolescents living with HIV, regardless of the age, CD4 count and WHO clinical staging. Considerations before Initiation of ART All people with confirmed HIV infection should be referred to the ART centre for registration in HIV care, comprehensive clinical and laboratory evaluation to assess baseline status, (ref to Chapter 15) treatment of pre-existing opportunistic infections, treatment preparedness counselling and timely ART initiation. The following principles need to be kept in mind: - Treatment should be started based on a parent’s/guardian’s informed decision and preparedness to initiate ART with an understanding of the benefits of the treatment, lifelong medication, issues related to adherence and positive prevention. Informed consent should be taken from the parent or legal guardian of children or adolescents aged less than 18 years. - When it is decided to start ART, one should also consider the child’s social environment, including identification of a clearly defined caregiver who understands the prognosis of HIV and the requirements of ART. A caregiver should be identified for each person to provide adequate support. Caregivers must be counselled and trained to support treatment adherence, follow-up visits, and shared decision-making. - Co-trimoxazole Preventive Therapy (CPT) should be started in children as per the paediatric guidelines (Refer Chapter 16). All patients should be screened for TB, using the 4-symptom tool (current cough, fever, weight loss and history of contact with TB) and those who do not have TB should be started on Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) in addition to ART. - ART should not be started in the presence of an active OI. In general, OIs should be treated or stabilized before commencing ART. Mycobacterium Avium Complex (MAC) and Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) are exceptions, in which, commencing ART may be the preferred treatment, especially when specific MAC therapy is not available. For details on starting ART in patients with HIV-TB co-infection, see the section on ‘Management of HIV-TB’. Some conditions, which may regress following the commencement of ART, include candidiasis and cryptosporidiosis. The following OIs and HIV-related illnesses need treatment or stabilization before commencing ART. Table 1: Management of Clinical Conditions \| Clinical Picture \| Action \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Any undiagnosed active infection with fever \| Diagnose and treat first; start ART when stable \| \| TB \| Treat TB first; start ART as recommended in TB section \| \| PCP \| Treat PCP first; start ART when PCP treatment is completed \| \| Invasive fungal diseases: oesophageal candidiasis, cryptococcal meningitis, penicilliosis, histoplasmosis \| Treat oesophageal candidiasis first; start ART as soon as the patient can swallow comfortably \| \| \| Treat cryptococcal meningitis, penicilliosis, histoplasmosis first; start ART when patient is stabilized or OI treatment is completed \| \| Bacterial pneumonia \| Treat pneumonia first; start ART when treatment is completed \| \| Malaria \| Treat malaria first; start ART when treatment is completed \| \| Drug reaction \| Do not start ART during an acute drug reaction \| \| Acute diarrhoea which may reduce absorption of ART \| Diagnosis and treat first; start ART when diarrhoea is stabilized or controlled \| \| Non-severe anaemia (Hb < 9 g/dl) \| Start ART if no other causes for anaemia are found (HIV is often the cause of anaemia); avoid AZT \| \| Skin conditions such as PPE and seborrhoeic dermatitis, psoriasis, HIV- related exfoliative dermatitis \| Start ART (ART may resolve these problems) \| \| Suspected MAC, cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis \| Start ART (ART may resolve these problems) \| \| Cytomegalovirus infection \| Treat CMV; Start ART after induction phase of treatment for CMV \| \| Toxoplasmosis \| Treat; start ART after 6 weeks of treatment and when the patient is stabilized \| \| Severe acute malnutrition \| ART should be started as soon as possible after stabilization of metabolic complications and sepsis (after establishment of F-100 diet; i.e. usually after seven days) \| Utility of CD4 measurement in the context of “Treat All” - Baseline CD4 is important to monitor treatment response, identify complications like IRIS, anticipate OI infections, identify the need for OI prophylaxis and offer immunization advice. - CD4 levels in children are considerably higher than in adults; however, the CD4 levels slowly decline to match adult values by the age of 5 years. Therefore, immunologic criteria in HIV infected children upto the age of 5 years are different from those in HIV infected adults. Compared to absolute CD4 counts, the CD4 percentage in young children varies less within age groups. Therefore, in children < 5 years of age, CD4 % is considered a more reliable marker of immune-deficiency. Baseline Clinical and Laboratory Assessment Following confirmation of HIV infection, a baseline clinical assessment for children should be undertaken, as detailed in Chapter 15 (Assessment of Children with HIV Infection, Pre-Art Care and Follow Up). General guidance - Assessing the family’s psychosocial readiness for ART - Initiation of ART is not an emergency - When deciding to start ART, one should also consider the child’s social environment, including identifying a clearly-defined caregiver who understands the prognosis of HIV and the implications of ART (i.e. lifelong therapy, importance of adherence and also mode and frequency of administration, toxicities and storage of drugs) - Identifying a second (back-up) informed caregiver is also advised - Disclosure of HIV status to older children and their family members improves adherence and should be encouraged with support from trusted health professionals - A family’s access to adequate nutrition and support is equally important. ART initiation Confirm HIV infection serologically or virologically (< 18 months of age) Treat and stabilize acute conditions and opportunistic infections; Baseline CD4 count; Assessment of family and treatment preparedness Initiate appropriate First line ART, regardless of WHO clinical staging or immune staging (CD4 count or CD4%) Recommended first-line antiretroviral regimens for infants and children Antiretroviral drugs are not a cure for HIV; but they reduce mortality and morbidity, and help to improve the quality of life of HIV-infected infants, children and their families. The current standard treatment for HIV infection uses three ARV medications (triple drug therapy) in order to suppress viral replication as much as possible and to arrest the progression of HIV disease. It is important to actively support adherence to first-line regimen, in order to maximize the durability and efficacy of the regimen. Drug formulations and doses for infants and children Important considerations for ART regimens for infants and children include: the availability of suitable paediatric drug formulations that can be taken in appropriate doses; simplicity of the dosage schedule; and the taste and palatability. All these are the potential factors for better treatment adherence in young children. Fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) are increasingly available for younger children and are preferred to syrups and individual multiple drugs because they promote and support treatment adherence. Adult formulations that require breaking into half, one third, etc., can result in under dosing or overdosing when given to children and this may lead to an increased risk of resistance or toxicity. In view of the availability of paediatric formulations, use of adult formulations is usually not resorted to in young children and in those with lower bodyweight. Dosing of antiretroviral drugs in children is usually based on either body surface area, or weight, or more conveniently by weight band (as in the national programme). As these children gain weight, drug doses must be re-adjusted in order to avoid under-dosing. Anti-Retro-Viral drugs (ARV) Table 2: Classes of ARV Drugs \| Nucleoside reverse Transcriptase inhibitors (NsRTI) \| Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI) \| Protease inhibitors (PI) \| \|-----------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------\| \| Zidovudine (AZT/ZDV)* \| Nevirapine* (NVP) \| Saquinavir (SQV) \| \| Stavudine (d4T) \| Efavirenz(EFV) \| Ritonavir (RTV) \| \| Lamivudine (3TC)* \| Delavirdine (DLV) \| Nelfinavir (NFV) \| \| Abacavir (ABC)* \| Rilpivirine (RPV) \| Amprenavir (APV) \| \| Didanosine (ddl) \| Etravirine (ETV) \| Indinavir (INV) \| \| Zalcitabine (ddC) \| Integrase Inhibitors \| Lopinavir (LPV)* \| \| Emtricitabine (FTC) \| Raltegravir (RGV)* \| Fosamprenavir (FPV) \| \| Nucleotide reverse Transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) \| Elvitegravir (EVG) \| Atazanavir (ATV)* \| \| Tenofovir (TDF)* \| Dolutegravir (DTG) \| Tipranavir (TPV) \| \| Fusion inhibitors (FI) \| \| Darunavir (DRV)* \| \| Enfuvirtide (T-20) \| Maraviroc \| \| Available in the national programme For clinical pharmacology refer to ‘ART for adult and adolescent’ section Paediatric ART regimens* The choice of drugs depends on the child’s age, weight and presence or absence of anaemia (Hb: < 9 g/dl). If anaemia is present, always identify type of anaemia, by the examination of peripheral blood smear and RBC indices. In case of microcytic hypochromic anaemia which is very common in children, iron supplementation may be necessary. In children with HIV infection, Zidovudine (AZT) is the preferred NRTI for initiation at present. If a child is anaemic, then Abacavir (ABC) is to be considered as the drug of choice for initiation. For all children above 10 years and above 30 kg body weight, Tenofovir (TDF) is the preferred drug for initiation. This harmonizes with the adult ART regimen. Stavudine (d4T) is phased out from paediatric first line regimen; however, it is being used in special situations. In case of dual toxicity for both AZT & ABC, use of d4T may be considered as an alternative in children less than 10 years and less than 30 kg body weight. Lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) is recommended as the preferred third drug in all children less than 3 years of age. For children older than 3 years, Efavirenz (EFV) is recommended as the preferred third drug. First-line regimen for infants and children < 3 years of age Table 3: First line ART regimens for infants and children aged < 3 years \| Particulars \| Recommended Regimen \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hb > 9 g/dl and not on concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir \| \| Hb < 9 g/dl and not on concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT \| Abacavir + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir \| \| Hb > 9 g/dl and on concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir as per weight; In addition, super boosting with Ritonavir<br>If super boosting is not possible, use NVP as per body surface area \| \| Hb < 9 g/dl and on concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT \| Abacavir + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir as per weight; In addition, super boosting with Ritonavir<br>If super boosting is not possible, use NVP as per body surface area \| \| Those with intolerance or contraindication to both Zidovudine and Abacavir \| Stavudine based regimen can be used as alternative after e-approval by p-CoE / CoE / ART plus SACEP \| Please note: Any regimen initiated for an infant or child must be based on the bodyweight; At every visit, check bodyweight of the infant / child before writing the prescription. Even though the drug regimen remains the same, drug dosages have to be modified according to the change in bodyweight. Please refer to annexure 02 for dosage schedule. Rationale of using Lopinavir (LPV)-based Regimen in children aged < 3 years There is a need for a potent first-line regimen in young children in the context of high viral load and rapid disease progression. Hence this recommendation is based on the evidence of the superiority of Lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) based regimen for young children. New evidence is suggestive of the superiority of LPV/r-based regimen for children less than 3 years regardless of PMTCT exposure, given the high prevalence of NNRTI resistance. (Kuhn et al. Abstract # V-108) A systematic review of two randomized trials shows that children younger than 36 months have a reduced risk of discontinuing treatment and virological failure or death at 24 weeks. LPV/r was demonstrated to be superior to NVP regardless of NNRTI exposure for PMTCT. LPV/r has a low failure rate and better resistance profile that protects against the selection of NRTI resistance without compromising the use of other Protease Inhibitors (PIs) in second-line regimens. (Violari et al. Glasgow 2012) An additional advantage of considerable reduction in the incidence of malaria among children receiving LPV/r-based is offered, as recently demonstrated in a randomized trial comparing the use of LPV/r versus NVP or EFV among children in Uganda, receiving an Artemether + Lumefantrine combination for treating malaria episodes. Another reason is the desirability to have one preferred regimen for children younger than three years while providing alternative strategies that remain less costly, preserving second-line options. Choice of a first-line regimen for children > 3 years – upto 10 years of age Table 4: First line ART regimens for children aged 3 to 10 years \| Particulars \| Recommended Regimen \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hb > 9 g/dl (regardless of concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT or not) \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| \| Hb < 9 g/dl (regardless of concomitant Rifampicin containing ATT or not) \| Abacavir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| \| For children with intolerance or contraindication to both Zidovudine and Abacavir \| Stavudine based regimen can be used as alternative after e-approval by CoE / PCoE / ART plus SACEP \| Please note: Any regimen initiated to an infant or child must be based on bodyweight; At every visit, check body weight of the infant / child before writing the prescription. Even though the drug regimen remains the same, drug dosages have to be modified according to changes in bodyweight. Please refer to annexure 02 for dosage schedule. Choice of a first-line regimen for adolescent > 10 years and weighing > 30 kg The guiding principles remain the same i.e. use fixed dose combination of three antiretroviral drugs (Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz); use simplified, less toxic and more convenient regimen. This regimen has the advantage of harmonization of treatment of children above 10 years and > 30 kg with the treatment regimen for adults with HIV infection. It is a simple, potent and safe regimen that offers the advantage of a decentralized service delivery and monitoring. It also simplifies the supply chain and minimizes the monitoring requirements. Table 5: First line ART regimens for adolescents (aged > 10 years) \| ART Regimen \| Recommended For \| \|--------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| First-line ART Regimen for: All new children aged above 10 years and weighing > 30 kg except those with known renal disease OR those with confirmed HIV-2 or HIV-1 & 2 infections \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| 1. First-line ART Regimen for: All children aged above 10 years and weighing > 30 kg with Hb > 9 g/dl with known renal disease 2. First-line ART Regimen for: All children aged above 10 years and weighing < 30 kg with Hb > 9 g/dl \| \| Abacavir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| 1. First-line ART Regimen for: All children aged above 10 years and weighing > 30 kg with Hb < 9 g/dl with known renal disease 2. First-line ART Regimen for: All children above 10 years and weighing < 30 kg with Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Lopinavir/ritonavir \| First-line ART regimen for: All children above 10 years and weighing > 30 kg with confirmed HIV-2 or HIV- 1 & 2 infections, except those with known renal disease \| Fig: Choice of ART regimen in Children Confirm HIV infection: Virological/ Serological Testing Treat and stabilize acute condition and opportunistic infections Baseline CD4 testing and other Lab investigations Age of the Child Less than 3 yrs. HB g/dl ≥ 9 g/dl AZT+3TC+LPV/r < 9 g/dl ABC+3TC+LPV/r Between 3 to 10 yrs. HB g/dl ≥ 9 g/dl AZT+3TC+EFV < 9 g/dl ABC+3TC+EFV More than 10 yrs. Body Wt ≤ 30 Kg Renal Disease Yes No > 30 Kg TDF+3TC+EFV ART in special situations: HIV-TB co-infection In TB co-infected HIV children, initiation of anti-TB treatment is priority. CLHIV with all forms of TB shall be initiated after two weeks of anti TB treatment. This “two-week” guideline is to enable the patient to get adjusted to the effects and side-effects of anti-TB drugs. It also helps to reduce the antigenic load of M. tuberculosis as much as possible at the time of ART initiation so as to reduce ART related complications, including IRIS. In cases of moribund patients and in children aged > 5 years of age with CD4 less than 50 cells/cmm, ART can be initiated earlier than two weeks of ATT initiation with strict clinical monitoring which may be decided on individual basis. However, it is advisable to initiate ART in all cases at least within two months of starting anti-TB treatment. Table 6: Management of HIV-TB co-infection in infants and children \| Patients’ details \| Timing of ART in relation to initiation of TB treatment \| ART recommendations \| \|-------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------\| \| HIV infected Infants, children and adolescents co-infected with all forms of TB \| • Start ART regardless of the CD4 count: • Start ATT first, initiate ART as soon as TB treatment is tolerated (between 2 weeks and 2 months) • HIV-TB co-infected patients with CD4 count < 50 cells/cmm (in children aged > 5 years of age), need to be started on ATT first and then ART within 2 weeks with strict clinical monitoring \| Appropriate ART Regimen* \| Efavirenz is the preferred drug, whenever children are being treated with Rifampicin containing drug regimen for TB co-infection However, in children aged < 3 years and in children weighing < 10 kg, Efavirenz is not recommended; Super-boosted Lopinavir/ritonavir must be given All CLHIV with all forms of TB shall be initiated on Efavirenz based first-line ART, if the children are aged > 3 years and > 10 kg. In children < 3 years and/or < 10 kg, receiving TB treatment, Nevirapine may not be an optimal choice because of drug interactions with Rifampicin. Similarly, Efavirenz is not recommended in children less than 3 years and less than 10 kg. Also, paediatric formulations of Rifabutin are non-available. Hence, the preferred regimen is super-boosted LPV/r based regimen in children less than 3 years and/or less than 10 kg with TB co-infection and on Rifampicin based ATT. The ART should be initiated at least after two weeks of starting anti-TB treatment. Table 7: Management of HIV-TB co-infection in infants, children and adolescents in relation to Age groups and bodyweight \| Age Group/Body weight \| ART regimen \| \|-----------------------\|-------------\| \| Age < 3 years AND Body weight: < 10 kg \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Super boosted Lopinavir/ritonavir; Preferred for children with Hb > 9 g/dl Abacavir + Lamivudine + Super boosted Lopinavir/ritonavir; Preferred for children with Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| Age between ≥ 3 years and < 10 years AND Body weight: between > 10 kg and < 30 kg \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Efavirenz Preferred for children with Hb > 9 g/dl and body weight >10 kg Abacavir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz Preferred for children with Hb < 9 g/dl and Body weight > 10 kg \| \| Age ≥ 10 years AND Body weight: > 30 kg \| Tenofovir+ Lamivudine + Efavirenz \| Monitoring after initiation of ART in children Follow-up and monitoring including clinical, adherence and laboratory, is essential in children initiated on ART. These children should be monitored at specified intervals by clinical and laboratory evaluations for clinical progress, side effects of the ARV and adherence counselling. The follow-up for children on ART is recommended as below: Clinical monitoring - Monthly clinical evaluation: growth, development and nutrition - TB screening: 4 symptoms screening (4S screening) - Treatment adherence evaluation: at every visit - For adverse reactions of ART / OI drugs - For drug interactions - For IRIS (Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome) Immunological monitoring - CD4 count (%) to be monitored every six months for children upto 5 years. After that follow adult guidelines Virological monitoring - Viral load testing at 6 months and 12 months after ART initiation and then once every year At each monthly visit, the patient should be monitored for clinical symptoms, nutritional assessment including weight, height, head circumference (children less than 5 years) and mid upper arm circumference (in HIV infected children upto 14 years), developmental assessment, 4S screening, development of any new OI and adverse drug reactions. Adherence to ART must be assessed at each visit and adherence must be reinforced through counselling at each visit. The laboratory monitoring of CLHIV on ART is also very important. Regular monitoring of patients’ laboratory parameters is crucial to identify ARV related toxicities, inter-current illnesses and drug-drug interactions. The frequency of monitoring and the parameters to be monitored depend upon the ARV’s used in the regimen, clinical symptoms and duration of ART exposure. The summary of the laboratory monitoring recommended under the programme is presented below in the tables. Additional laboratory tests outside this schedule may be performed as clinically indicated by the ART Medical Officer. Table 8: Laboratory parameters for HIV-infected infants and children at baseline and monitoring during ART For all patients on ART, need to do CD4, Hb, TLC, DLC, ALT (SGPT), Serum creatinine once in every six months \| Monitoring ARV Drug in regimen \| Monitoring Test \| Baseline \| 15th Day \| First Month \| Third Month \| Sixth Month \| Then every 6 months \| At 12 months \| \|--------------------------------\|----------------------------------\|----------\|----------\|-------------\|-------------\|-------------\|---------------------\|--------------\| \| On Zidovudine based ART \| CBC \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| \| On Tenofovir based ART \| Serum Creatinine \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| \| Nevirapine containing ART \| ALT (SGPT) \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| \| Efavirenz containing ART \| Lipid profile \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| -- \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| \| Atazanavir containing ART \| LFT \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Lipid profile \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| -- \| \| Yes \| -- \| \| \| Lopinavir containing ART \| Lipid Profile & Blood sugar \| Yes \| -- \| -- \| -- \| Yes \| Yes \| -- \| More frequent visits or monitoring may be required, if the patient develops any symptoms, side effects of the ARVs or experiences difficulties in adherence to ARVs due to any reason, including clinically indicated reason as per the discretion of the Medical Officer. Once the patient has stabilized and the CD4 starts improving, he/she does not have any OI or adverse events, and has been adherent to ART for at least 1 year, the frequency of visit can be reduced to once in 2 months. NACO has defined stable patients as those who are on ART for at least one year, have good treatment adherence, an increasing CD4 count and are devoid of any active OI. Such patients should be encouraged to get linked out to the nearest Link ART centre (LAC) or be given 2 months of drugs, subject to the availability of sufficient stocks. Monitoring of children on ART - Routine Follow up Visit Infant or child on ART presents for routine follow-up visit - Review interim medical history - Weight; height; head circumference - Assess growth and nutrition - Quality and quantity of infant feeding, child food intake - Perform physical examination - Symptom directed - Ensure access to age-appropriate stimuli - Assess developmental progress - Evaluate neurological symptoms/signs and watch for encephalopathy - Identify concomitant conditions especially TB – 4S screening - TB and other OIs’; monitor increase or decrease in frequency of infections - Confirm T-stage of HIV disease - New or recurrent stage 3 or stage 4 events - Check Lab reports - Evaluate the CD4 counts/ Viral load every 6 months and other tests as per table (monitoring table) - Check adherence to ART - Evaluate the child’s and caregivers’ understanding of the therapy - Calculate ART dose - Re-calculate dose at each visit - Review concomitant medications - Consider drug interactions - Make dosage adjustments - Discuss findings - Explain what is indicated by findings of the visit - Provide referrals as needed - Support services; other clinical services; etc. - Advise and guide - Reinforce support adherence to ART; nutrition; when to seek medical care; medication side effects; etc. - Schedule next visit - Frequency of follow-up visits depends on the response to ART ARV Drugs adverse effects and its management Adverse Events is the term used to describe side-effects due to normal dose of medications whereas toxicities are due to abnormal dose of medications. It is, however, not uncommon to use side-effects to describe both types of events. The manifestations of ARV related adverse events or toxicities overlap with many HIV associated conditions, opportunistic infections, other common childhood diseases or similar side-effects of medications that are used concomitantly. HIV associated organ dysfunction also mimics ARV adverse events or toxicities. Hence the differentiating ARV related adverse events or toxicities from these overlapping conditions pose a great challenge. There remains limited data in children when it comes to drug adverse events or toxicities; much is extrapolated from adult studies. The majority of the common ARV related side effects is self-limiting and resolve on continued ARVs with simple supportive measures. It has been found in adults that ARV related adverse events or toxicities are the most important barriers for optimal adherence, especially in the early phase of ART initiation. Hence, a ‘proactive’ approach is required to limit non-adherence. A proper counselling explaining the ARV related adverse events or toxicities, which is self-limiting in nature, before initiation of ART allows the patient to self-manage towards an improved adherence to medications. Substitutions vs. Switch The general rule is that when one has identified an adverse event or toxicity due to a particular drug, then substitute the particular drug with another. When clinical features and/or lab evidence suggest treatment failure, then the rule is to switch the entire regimen. Severity of adverse effect Depending on the temporal relationship between the initiation of ART and onset of ARV related adverse events or toxicities, these can be described as follows: - Acute, immediately after drug use - Sub-acute, few weeks up to 6 months after drug use - Late, prolonged drug use (> 6 months) - The severity of these ARV related adverse events or toxicities, required for effective management can be described as follows: Grade 1 Mild reactions: Symptoms are mild and transient, which do not require medical intervention / therapy. Grade 2 Moderate reactions: Mild to moderate limitation of activity, some assistance needed, no or minimal medical intervention / therapy required. Some moderate reactions (e.g. lipodystrophy or peripheral neuropathy) do require substitution. For other reactions consider continuation of ART as long as feasible; if the patient does not improve on symptomatic therapy, consider single drug substitution. Grade 3 Severe reactions: Limitation of activity, some assistance required usually, medical intervention/ therapy required with possible hospitalization. May need substitution of the offending drug without discontinuing ART. Grade 4 Severe life-threatening reactions: Extreme limitation of activity, significant assistance required, significant medical intervention / therapy needed; hospitalization or hospice care needed. Immediate discontinuation of all ARV drugs is recommended. Manage the medical event (i.e. symptomatic and supportive therapy) and re-introduce ARVs using a modified regimen (i.e. with an ARV drug substitution for the offending drug) when the patient has stabilized. \| ARV drug \| Major types of toxicity \| Risk factors \| Suggested management / substitution \| \|----------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| ABC \| Hypersensitivity reaction \| Presence of HLA-B5701 allele \| Substitute with AZT or TDF \| \| AZT \| Severe anaemia, neutropenia \| CD4 cell count of ≤ 200 cells/cmm \| Substitute with TDF or ABC \| \| \| Lactic acidosis or severe hepatomegaly with steatosis \| BMI > 25 Prolonged exposure to NRTIs \| Substitute with TDF or ABC \| \| \| Lipoatrophy \| \| \| \| \| Lipodystrophy \| \| \| \| \| Myopathy \| \| \| \| EFV \| Persistent CNS toxicity (such as dizziness, insomnia, abnormal dreams) or mental symptoms (anxiety, depression, mental confusion) \| Depression or other mental disorder (previous or at baseline) \| For CNS symptoms, give dose at nighttime. Consider substitute with NVP. For severe hepatotoxicity or hypersensitivity reactions, substitute with another therapeutic class (boosted PIs) \| \| \| Convulsions \| History of seizure \| \| \| \| Hepatotoxicity \| Underlying hepatic disease HBV and HCV co-infection Concomitant use of hepatotoxic drugs \| \| \| \| Severe skin and hypersensitivity reactions \| Risk factor(s) unknown \| \| \| \| Gynaecomastia \| Risk factor(s) unknown \| Substitute with NVP or another therapeutic class (boosted PIs) \| \| \| ECG abnormalities (PR and QRS interval prolongation, torsades de pointes) \| People with pre-existing conduction system disease Concomitant use of other drugs that may prolong the PR or QRS intervals Congenital long QT syndrome Hypokalaemia \| Use with caution in people with pre-existing conduction disease or those on concomitant drugs that may prolong the PR or QRS intervals \| \| Drug \| Toxicity \| Risk Factors \| Management \| \|------\|---------\|--------------\|------------\| \| LPV/r \| Hepatotoxicity \| Underlying hepatic disease, HBV and HCV co-infection, Concomitant use of hepatotoxic drugs \| If LPV/r is used in first-line ART for children, substitute with NVP or Raltegravir (RAL) for children younger than 3 years and EFV for children 3 years and older. If LPV/r is used in second-line ART for children who has treatment failure with NNRTI in first-line ART, consider RAL \| \| \| Pancreatitis \| Advanced HIV disease \| Substitute with another therapeutic class (integrase inhibitors) \| \| \| Dyslipidaemia \| Cardiovascular risk factors such as obesity and diabetes \| Substitute with NNRTI or integrase inhibitors \| \| \| Diarrhoea \| \| \| \| NVP \| Hepatotoxicity \| Underlying hepatic disease, HBV and HCV co-infection, Concomitant use of hepatotoxic drugs \| If hepatotoxicity is mild, consider substitution with EFV, for children 3 years and older. For severe hepatotoxicity and hypersensitivity, and in children under the age of 3 years, substitute with another therapeutic class (boosted PIs) \| \| \| Severe skin rash and hypersensitivity reaction, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome \| High baseline CD4 cell count (CD4 count > 250 cells/cmm in women or > 400 cells/cmm in men) \| \| \| \| Chronic kidney disease \| Underlying renal disease \| Substitute with AZT or ABC. Do not initiate TDF at eGFR < 50 ml/min \| \| \| Acute kidney injury and Fanconi syndrome \| BMI < 18.5 or low body weight (< 50 kg), Concomitant use of nephrotoxic drugs or a boosted PI \| \| \| TDF \| Decreases in bone mineral density \| History of rickets (in children) and pathological fracture, Risk factors for osteoporosis or bone mineral density loss, Vitamin D deficiency \| \| \| \| Lactic acidosis or severe hepatomegaly with steatosis \| Prolonged exposure to nucleoside analogues, Obesity, Liver disease \| \| ABC: Abacavir, AZT: Zidovudine, CNS: central nervous system, EFV: Efavirenz, eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate, HBV: Hepatitis B Virus, HCV: Hepatitis C Virus, LPV: Lopinavir, NNRTI non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor, NVP Nevirapine, PI protease inhibitor, r: ritonavir, RAL: Raltegravir, TDF: Tenofovir. Monitoring ABC toxicity in adolescents and children* The use of ABC has been limited due to its toxicity profile, including an increased risk of hypersensitivity reaction (HSR) in children. Monitoring for HSR in children initiated on first-line/second-line ART especially within the first 6 weeks of treatment is important. HSR, which is associated with the presence of the HLA-B-5701 allele, represents a main concern in children. However, the prevalence of the HLA-B-5701 allele genotype in people of Asian origin was reported to be 4.0%. In the meantime, because HSR remains rare, and HLA-B5701 screening is not feasible under the national programme, appropriately trained clinical staff should manage patients clinically, with education provided to caregivers and older children. Children exhibiting two or more of the following symptoms after initiation on an ABC based ART should discontinue therapy immediately and call for medical attention: - Fever - Skin rash - Constitutional symptoms (malaise, fatigue, aches, arthritis, oedema) - Respiratory symptoms (e.g., pharyngitis, dyspnoea, cough), and - Gastro-intestinal symptoms (such as abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting etc.) Abacavir should be permanently discontinued if hypersensitivity cannot be ruled out, even when other diagnoses are possible and regardless of HLA-B5701 status. Abacavir SHOULD NOT be restarted because more severe symptoms may occur within hours, including LIFE-THREATENING HYPOTENSION AND DEATH. Monitoring TDF toxicity in adolescents and children The systematic review indicated that TDF toxicity among children and adolescents could be similar to that seen in adults. However, data are still lacking and renal and bone toxicities in growing children and adolescents remain a concern. In the context of lack of paediatric formulations, increasing monitoring for TDF toxicity should be considered, including in adolescents. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry testing is not possible in most settings, but careful growth monitoring is recommended while adolescents are receiving TDF. When serum phosphate testing is available, by extrapolation, low serum phosphate should give rise to concern about bone mineral density loss. Increasing dosing accuracy in children and adolescents is extremely important for reducing toxicity. Principles of Management of Adverse Events The identification of ARV related adverse events or toxicities and the determination of its severity is the important step in the management. However, distinguishing ARV related adverse events or toxicities from other HIV related conditions or adverse events due to concurrent use of other drugs pose a great challenge. If the ARV related adverse events or toxicities is severe or life threatening, then consider stopping ART immediately. Symptomatic / supportive management should be provided. Never reintroduce the drug responsible for such a severe, life-threatening complication. If the ARV related adverse events or toxicities are severe but not life threatening, then substitute the offending drug without stopping ART. In case the ARV related adverse events or toxicities are moderate, continue ART and provide symptomatic / supportive management. If it does not resolve, substitute the drug responsible for moderate ARV related adverse events or toxicities. In mild ARV related adverse events or toxicities, continue ART and provide symptomatic / supportive management. Table 10: Symptomatic management of adverse effects \| Adverse Event \| Symptomatic / supportive Measures \| Specific Measures \| \|---------------------\|-----------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Headache \| Rest Hydration \| Step 1: Non-opioid +/- adjuvants Paracetamol Step 2: Weak opioid +/- adjuvants Paracetamol + Codeine Step 3: Strong opioid +/- adjuvants Morphine \| \| Peripheral Neuropathy\| Rest Warmth \| Step 1: Non-opioid +/- adjuvants Paracetamol Step 2: Weak opioid +/- adjuvants Paracetamol + Codeine Step 3: Strong opioid +/- adjuvants +/- Anticonvulsants \| \| Nausea and Vomiting \| Depends on cause Environment Smell Food Calm Small frequent feeds \| Step 1: Select anti-emetics Domperidone / Metoclopramide Haloperidol Step 2: Select broad or combination anti-emetics Ondansetron Cyclizine + Haloperidol \| \| Insomnia \| Depends on cause Review day activity Environment Warm milk Restrict frightening TV programmes Story telling Parent/Guardian’s presence \| Sedatives Benzodiazepine Chloral hydrate \| Table 11: Substituting with alternative first line ARV drugs in the event of dual toxicities \| First line ARV causing the toxicity \| Alternative substitute \| Remarks \| \|------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Intolerance to both AZT and ABC\| \| \| \| Patient exposed to both AZT and ABC with documented intolerance to both: d4T+3TC can be used \| \| \| \| AZT + 3TC \| TDF (if age > 10 years and weight > 30kgs) \| Continue the same NNRTI/ PI (either NVP/ EFV or LPV/r) \| \| ABC + 3TC \| d4T (if age < 10 years and weight < 30kgs; seek approval from PCOE/COE) \| \| \| For intolerance to both NVP and EFV\| \| \| \| Patient should have been tried on both NVP and EFV (except if there is a history of Stevens Johnson Syndrome) and has been documented as not tolerating, before requiring substitution for the NNRTI component. \| \| \| \| NVP or EFV \| LPV/r \| Continue with the same NRTI backbone i.e. AZT/ 3TC or ABC/ 3TC if no problems \| \| Essentially this moves the patient to the PI-based regimen. Counsel for good adherence. ART centre shall manage and provide LPV/r as substitution for intolerance to NNRTI \| \| \| 18. ART Treatment Failure in Children and when to switch? Treatment Failure refers to the loss of antiviral efficacy and triggers the SWITCH of the entire first-line regimen to the second line or beyond. It is identified by virological, immunological and/or clinical indicators. Second-line ART is the next regimen used in sequence immediately after first-line therapy has failed. The ARV treatment failure may be due to poor adherence, inadequate drug levels, prior existing drug resistance and / or lower potency of the drugs. To identify treatment failure, certain factors like duration of ART, adherence need to be considered. In children, the antiretroviral drug options are limited and poor adherence plays a significant role in the emergence of drug resistance and subsequent treatment failure. It is also important to note that the cost and the adverse effects of the drugs used in the subsequent regimens are high. Hence, all efforts should be made to ensure optimal adherence to the first-line ART regimens. Checking for adherence at each visit, clinical monitoring and T-staging at every visit must be ensured by the treating clinician, besides the defined laboratory parameters described earlier in the section. Identifying the treatment failure The virological criteria, immunological criteria and /or clinical criteria as per T-staging while on treatment should be considered for identification of treatment failure and a switch to a second-line regimen is recommended only after consulting SACEP at Paediatric Centres of Excellence (PCoE), Centres of Excellence (CoE) or ART plus centres. The following points need to be considered before failure of existing treatment regimen is concluded. - The child should have received the regimen for at least six months - Adherence to therapy should be assessed and should be optimal - Any acute or opportunistic infections should be treated and resolved before interpreting CD4 counts - Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) must be excluded - Primary malnutrition which can mimic clinical treatment failure should be ruled out - Adverse effects of the drugs manifesting like clinical treatment failure should be ruled out Table 1: Definitions of treatment failure in children \| Failure \| Definition \| Comments \| \|--------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Virological failure \| Plasma viral load above 1000 copies/ml \| An individual must be taking ART for at least 6 months before it can be determined that a regimen has failed \| \| Immunological failure* \| Children between 12-35 months CD % falls below 15 %. Persistent CD4 levels below 200 cells/cmm Children between 36-59 months CD % falls below 10 % Persistent CD4 levels below 200 cells/cmm Children aged 5 years and above Atleast any one of the following three criteria 1. Fall of CD4 count to pre-therapy baseline 2. 50% fall from peak “on treatment” level 3. Persistent CD4 levels below 100 cells \| Concomitant or recent infection may cause a transient decline in the CD4 cell count \| \| Clinical failure \| New or recurrent clinical event indicating severe immunodeficiency (WHO clinical stage 4 condition) after 6 months of effective treatment \| The condition must be differentiated from IRIS. Some WHO stage 3/4 conditions (lymph node TB, uncomplicated TB pleural disease, oesophageal candidiasis, recurrent bacterial pneumonia) may not indicate treatment failure \| Virological treatment failure Virological treatment failure, as defined by Plasma Viral Load (PVL) value of more than 1,000 copies/ml in any children on treatment for six months or more, indicates incomplete suppression of the virus. Viral rebound after being undetectable is also considered as virological failure. Low-level viral rebound, termed blips, usually indicates a statistical variation in the determination of PVL and not the need to alter therapy. The viral load remains the most sensitive indicator of ART failure. Recognizing early failure facilitates the decision to switch drugs before multiple resistance mutations develop to drugs of the first-line regimen. Immunological treatment failure The CD4 cell count is the strongest predictor of HIV-related complications, even after the initiation of therapy. Immunological criteria for recognizing treatment failure are most important as immunological failure almost always precedes clinical failure. In the context of any new clinical events occurring after 6 months of appropriate and regular ART, immunological criteria assist in differentiating clinical treatment failure from other overlapping conditions like IRIS, opportunistic infections and drug toxicities. The baseline pre-treatment value is informative; lower baseline CD4 counts are associated with smaller and slower improvements in the count over time. CD4 cell counts can also be used to determine when not to change therapy. One should keep in mind the phenomenon of virological-discordance as well. In children younger than 5 years, the absolute CD4 count is physiologically higher and gradually declines to adult level by 6-8 years of age. Hence, immunological criteria of more than 50% drop from “on-treatment” peak value or fall below pre-therapy baseline may result in an erroneous diagnosis of treatment failure especially when ART was initiated before 5 years of age. In this scenario, the virological failure is essential for decision-making on switching over to second-line ART. Comparing the present CD4 counts with the previous CD4 values is required to recognize treatment failure. The decision to switch ART to second-line should always be based on virological criteria. Clinical Treatment Failure: Treatment failure should be considered if the child has been on therapy for at least 6 months. Adherence should be assessed and optimized, inter-current OIs treated and resolved, and IRIS should be excluded before diagnosing clinical treatment failure. The development of new or recurrent clinical event indicating advanced or severe immunodeficiency (WHO clinical stage 3 and 4 clinical condition with the exception of TB) after 6 months of effective treatment is considered functional evidence of the progression of HIV disease. TB can occur at any CD4 level and does not necessarily indicate ART failure. The response to TB therapy should be used to evaluate the need to switch ARV drugs. In the case of pulmonary TB and some types of extra-pulmonary TB (e.g. simple lymph node TB), the response to TB therapy is often good and the decision to switch ARV drugs can be postponed and monitoring can be stepped up. The clinical criteria as per T- staging while on treatment should be considered for a switch to the second-line regimen only after consulting SACEP (PCoE / CoE / ART plus centre), as shown in the table below: Table 2: Using the WHO Paediatric clinical staging events to guide decision-making (for referring patients to SACEP for the consideration of targeted viral load assessment) \| New or recurrent event on ART<sup>a,b,c</sup> \| Management options<sup>d</sup> \| \|---------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------\| \| No new events or stage 1 events (T1) \| Continue the same regimen \| \| \| Maintain regular follow-up \| \| Stage 2 events (T2) \| Treat and manage staging event \| \| \| Continue the same regimen \| \| \| Assess and offer adherence support \| \| \| Assess nutritional status and offer support \| \| \| Schedule earlier visit for clinical review and consider CD4 \| \| Stage 3 events (T3)<sup>e</sup> \| Treat and manage staging event and monitor response \| \| \| Check if on treatment for 6 months or more \| \| \| Assess and offer adherence support \| \| \| Assess nutritional status and offer support \| \| \| Check CD4 \| \| \| Institute more frequent follow-up \| \| \| Refer to SACEP (PCoE / CoE / ART plus centre) for considering “targeted viral load assessment” \| \| Stage 4 events (T4) \| Treat and manage staging event \| \| \| Check if on treatment 6 months or more \| \| \| Assess and offer adherence support \| \| \| Assess nutritional status and offer support \| \| \| Check CD4 \| \| \| Refer to SACEP (PCoE / CoE / ART plus centre) for considering “targeted viral load assessment” \| A clinical event refers to a new or recurrent condition as classified in the WHO clinical staging at the time of evaluating the infant or child on ART. It needs to be ensured that the child has had at least 6 months of treatment and that adherence to therapy has been assessed and considered adequate before considering the possibility of treatment failure. All children with suspected treatment failure should be referred to SACEP (PCoE / CoE / ART plus centre) for considering “targeted viral load assessment”. Differentiation of opportunistic infections from IRIS and adverse drug reaction is important. In considering the possibility of treatment failure because of growth failure, it should be ensured that the child has adequate nutrition and that any inter-current infections have been treated and resolved. Pulmonary or lymph node TB, which are clinical stage 3 conditions, may not be an indication of treatment failure, and thus may not require consideration of second-line therapy. The response to TB therapy should be used to evaluate the need for switching therapy. SOP for Determining Failure: Before diagnosing ‘treatment failure’ and switching the ART regimen, the following factors need to be considered. Adherence: Optimal adherence to ART is the single most important factor determining the success of ART. As poor adherence is responsible for treatment failure in majority of cases, a detailed assessment of adherence should be done. The factors influencing poor adherence and barriers for optimal adherence should be explored and addressed before switching to second-line ART. Unless these factors/ barriers are addressed, a patient will also find it difficult to adhere to the second-line regimen. Drug-drug interactions: Assessing whether the patient is concomitantly taking medications that interfere with ARV activity is important. For example, many patients may not reveal that they take herbal treatments along with the prescribed ART regimen. These drugs not only reduce the efficacy of ART but may lead to poor adherence due to overlapping toxicities. Some of the drug toxicities like bone marrow suppression due to AZT may mimic treatment failure. This needs to be differentiated before switch to second-line ART. Certain Opportunistic infections may lead to decline of the CD4 count, which may revert after treating those infections. Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) needs to identified and managed appropriately before diagnosing treatment failure. In children, severe acute malnutrition may sometime mimic treatment failure due to overlapping clinical features. Hence, it is advised to adequately treat nutritional deficiency and initiate nutritional rehabilitation before diagnosing treatment failure. The sequence of treatment failure is virological failure followed by immunological and clinical failure. The time-lag between virological and immunological failure is around 6 months and few months of time-lag before clinical failure as indicated by the appearance of new or recurrent clinical event. Hence, compared to clinical or immunological monitoring, viral load provides an early and more accurate indication of treatment failure and the need to switch from first-line to second-line drugs, reducing the accumulation of drug resistance mutations and improving clinical outcomes. Measuring viral load can also help to distinguish between treatment failure and non-adherence. Studies suggest that around 70% of patients on first-line ART who have a first high viral load will be suppressed following an adherence intervention, indicating non-adherence as the reason for the initial high viral load in the majority of cases. Fig 1. Viral Load Testing Algorithm Viral Load Testing Algorithm Conduct Viral Load Test at scheduled Duration Viral load <1000 copies/mL Counsellor to provide step-up Treatment adherence package to the patient for 3 months Conduct Viral Load Test Viral load <1000 copies/mL Continue Routine Monitoring Tests Viral load ≥1000 copies/mL Is Treatment adherence in the last 3 months is ≥95%? NO Viral load =>1000 copies/mL Refer to SACEP for further evaluation of treatment failure and, if necessary, for switch. In patient is unable to visit SACEP physically, e-referral can be done YES * In case clinician feels discrepancy, a repeat Viral load, after three months step up adherence, may be done. Formulating second-line regimen in children Definitions First-Line and Second-Line ART Regimen: The working definition of First and Second-Line ART Regimen is as follows: First-line ART: First-line ART is the initial regimen prescribed for ART naïve children as soon as HIV infection is diagnosed after the stabilization of any concurrent illness, if any, and after ensuring adequate preparedness. Second-line ART: Second-line ART is the subsequent regimen used in sequence immediately after first-line therapy has failed. SWITCH: Treatment Failure refers to the loss of antiviral efficacy to the current regimen. It triggers the SWITCH of the entire regimen from the first to the second-line. It is identified by clinical and/or immunological criteria and confirmed by virological criteria. Broad Principles and Objectives All patients initiated on the first-line ART need to be monitored carefully at every visit as per the standard protocol on clinical and laboratory monitoring indicators. As emphasized earlier, a high index of suspicion should be kept in mind whenever a patient has some symptoms or there is a declining trend in the CD4 count, even before it reaches the immunological failure criteria. Issues related to OI as well as adherence need to be addressed. It is important to follow the protocol for all patients with “Suspected Treatment Failure” and make appropriate timely referrals to SACEP for evaluation of such patients following the simplified SACEP guidelines. Once the decision has been made to start second-line ART, the decision will be communicated to the referring centre where the ART SMO/ MO will initiate the second-line treatment as per the guidelines given by CoE/ PCoE/ ART plus centre.. The objective of second-line ART earlier was to prolong the survival of PLHIV rather than complete viral suppression as no further regimens were available. Now with the availability of third-line ART, the objective is complete suppression of viral replication just as in the first-line ART; this requires regular monitoring with viral load every 6 months. What to Switch? When failure has been identified, virologically, immunologically or clinically, many patients can be expected to have significant NRTI resistance at the time of switching. Thus, in the decision-making for a second-line regimen with maximal antiviral activity, one has to consider nucleoside class cross-resistance and drug interactions. Some points to note are: - Cross resistance exists between AZT and d4T - High level AZT/ 3TC resistance reduces susceptibility to ABC - TDF can be compromised by multiple nucleoside analogue mutations (NAMs) but they often retain activity against the nucleoside-resistant viral strains - TDF/ ABC may facilitate evolution of the K65R drug resistance mutation, which mediates resistance to non-AZT NRTIs - NNRTI (such as EFV and NVP): usually there is complete cross-resistance - NNRTI exposure (single drug) to children through infant ARV prophylaxis can result in arcHIVed NNRTI resistant mutations Once it is decided to switch the regimen, following four steps outlined in Table 4 below need to be followed for decision making: Table 3: Steps to be followed for review by SACEP for suspected treatment failure \| STEP 1 \| Define treatment failure \| Define treatment failure by virological testing, see if adherence to treatment is adequate, counsel and support. (SACEP will see these and take decision on providing second-line ART) \| \|--------\|--------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| STEP 2 \| Decide on NRTI component of the second-line regimen \| Select NRTI backbone as per the table 5 below \| \| STEP 3 \| Decide on the third component of the second-line regimen \| Select the third drug as per the table 5 below \| \| STEP 4 \| Patient education and agreement on treatment plan including follow up and monitoring \| Including counselling for adherence, linkages to specialist care, and follow-up monitoring plan \| The current recommendation for second-line ART in children is based on previous exposure to ARV. A new class of ARV, unused in the first-line ART, either a Ritonavir-boosted PI (Lopinavir/ritonavir) or NNRTI (Efavirenz), supported by at least one new and unused NRTI (Abacavir or Zidovudine or Stavudine or Tenofovir) should be used. Lamivudine administration should be continued to ensure reduced viral fitness. For children who failed on the first-line AZT or d4T containing regimen, the recommended second-line regimen is ABC/TDF based regimen. TDF as the second-line option is recommended for children aged > 10 years with body weight > 30kg who were on AZT based first-line ART. For those on ABC/ TDF based first-line regimen, the second-line will be AZT based, but in cases, where AZT cannot be used because of anaemia, Stavudine can be used. For children on LPV/r based regimen, NNRTI (Efavirenz) can be used as the third drug in second-line regimen. However, concerns remain about the effectiveness of this approach, given the potential for re-emergence of arcHIVed resistance as a result of NNRTI exposure during breastfeeding and post-natal prophylaxis. Similarly, for children on EFV based first-line regimen, boosted PI can be used as the third drug in the second-line regimen. For children less than 6 years and weight less than 25 kg ritonavir boosted lopinavir should be used as the third drug in second-line ART. There are limited options of second-line drugs for children aged 1 to 3 years receiving LPV/r based regimen with first-line treatment failure. These children should be continued with the existing regimen with careful monitoring except in the case of advanced clinical disease progression or lack of adherence specifically due to poor palatability of LPV/r. In such cases, switching to a second-line NVP-based regimen should be considered. However, concerns remain about the effectiveness of this approach, given the potential for re-emergence of arcHIVed resistance as a result of NNRTI exposure during breastfeeding and post-natal ARV prophylaxis. ### Table 4: Second-line Regimens \| First-line regimen \| Current age \| First-line regimen \| Second-line regimen \| \|--------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Younger than 3 years \| AZT +3TC +LPV/r \| No change in regimen is recommended, unless in the case of advanced clinical disease progression or lack of adherence specifically due to poor palatability of LPV/r. In such case, switching to a second-line NVP-based regimen should be considered. (ABC+ 3TC + NVP) \| \| \| \| ABC +3TC +LPV/r \| AZT+ 3TC + NVP, if Hb > 9 g/dl d4T + 3TC + NVP, if Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| \| Children aged between 3- 10 years (body weight > 10 kg) \| AZT +3TC +LPV/r \| ABC +3TC +EFV \| \| \| \| ABC +3TC +LPV/r \| AZT +3TC +EFV, if Hb > 9 g/dl d4T +3TC +EFV, if Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| \| Children aged > 10 years with body weight > 30 kg \| AZT +3TC +LPV/r \| TDF+ 3TC +EFV \| \| \| \| ABC +3TC +LPV/r \| AZT +3TC +EFV, if Hb > 9 g/dl d4T + 3TC +EFV if Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| NNRTI based regimen\| Children aged < 10 years and/or < 30 kg \| AZT +3TC +EFV \| ABC +3TC +LPV/r<sup>a</sup> \| \| \| \| ABC +3TC +EFV \| AZT +3TC +LPV/ra, if Hb > 9g/dl d4T + 3TC +LPV/r, if Hb < 9 g/dl \| \| \| More than 10 years and > 30 kg \| AZT +3TC +EFV \| TDF +3TC +LPV/r \| \| \| \| ABC/ TDF +3TC +EFV \| AZT +3TC +LPV/r or, if Hb > 9g/dl d4T +3TC +LPV/r or, if Hb < 9 g/dl \| <sup>a</sup> for children with HIV-TB co-infection receiving Rifampicin based ATT, super boosted LPV/r should be used. This super-boosting should be continued until 2 weeks after stopping Rifampicin based ATT. ### ART options for Multi NRTI exposed patients 1. Patients failing on AZT based first-line, not exposed to any other NRTI will switch to TDF/ABC + 3TC +LPV/r. 2. Patients failing on ABC/ TDF based first-line, not exposed to any other NRTI will switch to AZT+ 3TC+ LPV/r. If anaemic, or develops anaemia, they receive RAL+LPV/r or ATV/r+ ABC/TDF +3TC (if weight > 25kgs). If anaemic and weight < 25 kgs d4T+3TC+ LPV/r. 3. The patients who have failed on TDF/ABC based regimen and previously exposed to d4T/AZT (CD4 count was not suggestive of immunological failure at the time of substitution from AZT to TDF)-The recommended II line is ZL + LPV/r. If anaemic or develops anaemia, the recommended regimen is RAL+LPV/r or ATV/r+ ABC/TDF + 3TC (if weight >25 kgs). If weight <25 kgs and anaemic or develops anaemia, d4T+ 3TC+ LPV/r. 4. All other cases of First line failure and exposure to more than 1 NRTI (AZT, TDF, d4T, ABC) – Raltegravir + LPV/r + last NRTI backbone. Second-Line ART in HIV-TB co-infected children In HIV-infected adults co-infected with TB, on protease-inhibitor containing ART, Rifabutin is being used as a substitution for Rifampicin, if they have to be treated with Rifampicin containing category 1 or 2 anti-TB treatment. However, there is inadequate data on the pharmacokinetics, therapeutic levels and efficacy of Rifabutin in infants and children. Furthermore, there are no Rifabutin paediatric formulations available at present. In HIV-infected children on paediatric second-line regimens, which require concurrent TB treatment, the current practice globally is ‘super boosting of LPV/r’ with additional doses of Ritonavir with the target ratio of LPV/r as 1:1. This will ensure adequate protease-inhibitor levels during concurrent TB treatment with Rifampicin. However, the problems are- enhanced pill burden and the possible side-effects to Ritonavir (usually GI intolerance). These children need symptomatic relief and careful monitoring during the course of super boosting LPV/r treatment. In the event of a child being identified with first-line ART failure presenting with tuberculosis simultaneously, appropriate anti-TB treatment should be started, as a priority according to RNTCP guidelines first and super boosted PI or EFV based second-line ART regimen should be started after 2 weeks and within 2 months of initiation of anti-TB treatment. If the child is already on second-line ART regimen and develops TB, appropriate anti-TB treatment should be initiated immediately. If necessary, ART regimen should be modified simultaneously, as and when the child is treated with Rifampicin containing category 1 or 2 anti-TB regimen as per the following guidelines: - If child is on boosted PI based second-line ART regimen, the PI should be super-boosted, as detailed in table 6. - If child is on EFV based second-line ART regimen, there should be no change in the ART. Table 5: Super boosting of Lopinavir (LPV/r +r) in HIV-TB co infection \| Weight (kg) \| Drug Schedule \| If Super-boosting in TB-HIV (LPV/r +r) Ritonavir tab 100 mg \| \|------------\|---------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\| \| \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) Syp LPV/r (80/20) 2 tabs 1 ml \| Add Tab Ritonavir 100 mg ½ tab \| \| 3 – 5.9 \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) Syp LPV/r (80/20) 2 tabs 1 ml \| Add Tab Ritonavir 100 mg ½ tab \| \| \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2 tabs 1.5 ml \| Add Tab Ritonavir 100 mg 1 tab \| \| 6 – 9.9 \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2 tabs 1.5 ml \| Add Tab Ritonavir 100 mg 1 tab \| \| \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2 tabs 2 tabs \| Add ritonavir 1 tab \| \| 10 – 13.9 \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2 tabs 1 tab \| Add ritonavir 1 tab \| \| \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2.5 tabs 2 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| \| 14 – 19.9 \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) 2.5 tabs 2 tabs \| Add ritonavir 1 tab \| \| Age Group \| Time \| ARV Regimen \| Number of Tablets \| Management \| \|-----------\|------------\|--------------------------------------------------\|-------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| 20 – 24.9 \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) \| 3 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| \| \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) \| 3 tabs \| Add ritonavir 1 tab \| \| 25 – 29.9 \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) \| 4 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| \| \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (100/25) \| 4 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| \| 30 – 34.9 \| Morning \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (200/50) adult dose \| 5 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| \| \| Evening \| ABC/ 3TC (60/30) LPV/r (200/50) adult dose \| 4 tabs \| Add ritonavir 2 tab \| Toxicities of second line drugs The major toxicities of the second-line drugs are depicted in Table 7 below: Table 6: Side effects related to the NACO Second Line Regimen: \| ARV \| Side effect/toxicity \| Management \| \|-----\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| ATV\| Apart from the PI-class specific side-effects like hyperglycaemia, fat maldistribution, hyperlipidaemia (especially with Ritonavir boosting), increased bleeding episodes in haemophiliacs etc., the unique side-effects of Atazanavir include indirect hyperbilirubinaemia (producing yellow discoloration of eyes), skin rash and nephrolithiasis (rare). Unique drug interaction involving Atazanavir: In addition to all the drug interactions involving PI class, Atazanavir has significant drug interaction with antacids, H2 Receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors \| The patients need to be counselled that they may appear to be jaundiced with yellow eyes but they should not be afraid as it is only a cosmetic problem (like Gilbert disease). It should not be taken as hepatotoxicity. However, LFT has to be done should someone appear to have jaundice. Also, they should be advised to consume plenty of water Antacid: Give Atazanavir at least 2 hours before or 1 hour after antacids or any buffered medications \| ATV: Atazanavir; For other drugs refer to section on ART initiation in children CAUTION: We should be cautious in recommending the use of H2 RA & PPIs with ATV/r as most of our patients are ARV-experienced; this is a black box warning for ATV; only systemic antacids can be co-prescribed CAUTION: We should be cautious in recommending the use of H2 RA & PPIs with ATV/r as most of our patients are ARV-experienced; this is a black box warning for ATV; only systemic antacids can be co-prescribed Drug Interactions: Avoid concurrent use of the following drugs: Astemizole, Cisapride, Fluticasone, Indinavir, Lovastatin, Simvastatin, Midazolam, Terfenadine Unique drug interaction involving Atazanavir: In addition to all the drug interactions involving PI class, Atazanavir has significant drug interaction with antacids, H2 Receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors. Monitoring children on second line ART The children on second-line regimen should be monitored for clinical, immunological and virological recovery apart from the adverse effects of drugs. All these children should be clinically screened for OIs especially Tuberculosis and evaluated for nutritional recovery. Routine investigations like complete blood count, lipid profile, renal and liver function tests should be done. CD4 count should be done every 6 months to assess the immunological recovery. Viral load must be repeated every 6 months. Table 7: Monitoring patients on second line ART \| Tests \| Months \| \|------------------------------\|--------\| \| \| 0 \| 1 \| 3 \| 6 \| 12 \| 18 \| 24 \| \| Hb, CBC \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Complete LFT \| Yes \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Renal function test \| Yes \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Fasting blood sugar \| Yes \| \| \| \| Yes \| \| Yes \| \| Fasting lipid profile \| Yes \| \| \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| \| Viral Load (VL) \| Yes \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| \| CD4 \| Yes \| \| \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Yes \| Treatment failure in children is usually due to poor adherence to first-line ART. Infants and children are dependent on adult caregivers for timely and correct intake of medicines. The child must be directly observed while swallowing the medicine (sometimes they spit it out or keep in the cheek). Poor adherence can also be due to caregiver issues. Hence, the caregiver must be counselled to see if they have other problems e.g. travel, work, busy, different perceptions on ART (“don’t think ART works in children”), poor memory, problem taking ART themselves, etc. Use all the adherence tools to support the child and the caregiver e.g. flip charts, colouring ART calendar, pill-box, favourite TV serials, disclosure to child as appropriate and other innovative options. The options for second-line are limited in children especially when many children are exposed to multiple NNRTI. Hence it is important to ensure optimal adherence in children for the success of first-line ART regimen for a longer duration. When substitution is considered in the event of an adverse effect of the drugs used in first-line ART, it is important to assess the child for treatment failure. If there is evidence of treatment failure, then the ART regimen must be switched rather than substitute a single drug. Care and support of children living with HIV (CLHIV) pose very different challenges compared with those in adults. Both the child client and his/her caregivers must be supported through sensitive counselling. While any Person Living with HIV (PLHIV) needs psycho-social support to live with the illness and manage treatment, chronic illness in children presents special challenges. These challenges include the children’s abilities to understand the HIV disease and treatment, the challenges of counselling support to cope with side-effects and lifelong treatment and the issues of confidentiality and stigma and discrimination in their immediate environment. Counselling needs are also likely to change as the child grows older, progresses through various stages of child development and demands adaptation to these changing needs during counselling. Further, the counsellor and the other members of the clinical team must judiciously decide whether a particular counselling message is better addressed to the primary client (that is the child) and/or to the caregivers. While the counsellor will carry the major responsibility for counselling both sides, it is also important for other members of the clinical team to develop a child-sensitive attitude and create an atmosphere where children will feel comfortable. The ART team must make efforts to procure the special tools prepared by NACO, such as the ART Adherence Colouring Books (called My ART Calendar), the NACO Snakes and Ladders Health Education games and the Visual Analogue Scale. They must educate themselves in the use of these aids. Further, efforts should be made to create a child-friendly corner using some portion of the contingency funds. Simple and cost-effective items that are also durable could be purchased such as wall cut-outs of Disney characters or a plastic playhouse. A simple blackboard with a chalk may be placed at the child’s eye level in a corner of the waiting area so that he/she may express his/her creativity. Simple and cheap chalks or crayons may be purchased for the purpose of counselling and may be placed with the counsellor. A display board may be set up to display drawings and craft work made by the children. Who Needs Counselling? The ART counsellor will focus on two types of counselling: counselling the child client himself/herself and counselling about the child’s issues. The latter is directed towards the caregivers. Child centred counselling Communication with children is the use of age-appropriate language to facilitate both the passage of information to the child and the expression of their feelings. The basic skills for counselling children and adults are the same. Child-centred counselling includes: - Development of rapport between the child, caregiver and counsellor - Focusing on the child’s needs and is tailored to the child’s physical and psychological development - Striving to promote the child’s potential and abilities - Building self-esteem and respects the child’s identity and emotions During counselling always respect the child’s identity and emotions and protect the “best interest” of the child, including the right to participate in decisions that affect them, non-discrimination and confidentiality of information. Counselling always involves the child and the child’s caregiver. Children are unique and not just tiny adults. Their physical, psycho-social and spiritual needs are different which need different responses than that given to the adults. For the effective and comprehensive care of these children, it requires us to understand these differences. However, basic counselling skills are the same as those used for communicating with the adults. Communication with children depends on the developmental level and ability to express their feelings and issues themselves. Very young children have difficulty in expressing themselves verbally as they cannot use words to describe their emotions or thoughts. Hence, practical ways must be found to communicate with children and help them express their feelings. Interactive tools such as drawing, story-telling, plays, drama are media through which a child can be helped to express themselves. These methods also create a non-threatening atmosphere for the child. It is difficult to sustain a young child’s attention. Using different methods helps to sustain the child’s attention. These methods help to explore sensitive issues and identify solutions. Barriers for the communication with the children Communication barriers refer to anything that negatively affects effective communication between two or more people. The consequences arising due to these barriers include miscommunication, misinformation, mistrust, anger and frustration, isolation, blame and denial. These barriers can be classified into - Language – language barrier is when there is no common language (e.g. when an adult uses non-age appropriate language with the child) - Cultural barriers - Due to poor skills – lack of active listening, recipient problem - Knowledge – wrong message or wrong information - Age – adult’s failure to come to the child’s level - The assumption that parents/ guardian will handle communication with the child and therefore there is no need to communicate with the child - The assumption that the child is too young to understand - The assumption that certain medical information might harm the child or that the child is too weak to receive the information Key Counselling Issues for Child Clients: Adherence - taking medicine regularly The key challenge for child clients is to help them develop good habits towards taking medicine on a daily basis. Though the parent or caregiver is primarily responsible for ensuring that children take treatment, it is necessary to make the child client a willing partner in managing his/ her own health through regularly taking treatment. Even the most tractable or obedient child will have days of poor compliance to medicine. With very small children, it is important to emphasize that taking medicine on time will keep them safe from falling ill (or in case they are ill, to improve quickly) so that they can be free to play. Freedom to play is not only the right of the child but also the most potent incentive you can offer to a very young client. For slightly older children, the message may be altered to include emphasis on being responsible towards their health and being fit to attend school like other children of their age. As they become cognitively capable of understanding medical facts, they can be introduced to concepts related to viral infection in general initially, and to more specific information on HIV later. It is important to link the medicine to keeping the viral infection in check. The clinical team can ensure adherence through the use of the ART Adherence Colouring Books such as ‘My ART Calendar’ published by NACO. Disclosure - Learning about being infected Helping a child to understand the nature of his/her infection is an important issue that affects his/her willingness to take medicines. A large research literature on disclosure of HIV status to children exists. It is highly recommended that children should be informed about the nature of their illness because knowing one’s HIV status is likely to encourage compliance to treatment – even in children. However, the second part of the recommendation is that the timing of disclosure to the child cannot be a universal date or age. Disclosure counselling in children is not an all-or-none phenomenon. Children should be prepared gradually to accept the full and complete knowledge of having HIV infection. A parallel example in the physical world is how we introduce children to solid foods from an initial, exclusive diet of milk. Initially, soft easily digestible foods are introduced such as small pieces of banana. Later, we graduate to foods that require more effort for chewing and digestion – especially as the number of teeth increase. In a similar manner, disclosing to a child his/her HIV status should be done against the context of his/her ability to understand and cope with the news of his/her HIV status. For young children, it is sufficient to say that there are germs in the body that can make them very sick. Older children will not be satisfied with such a simplistic answer and may demand more details. Counsellors and caregivers should be prepared for such questions. Interactive communication tools like storytelling (Bam-Bam Virus) can be used to communicate with these children. The understanding and acceptance of a child may wax and wane in response to the individual’s stage of development and also in response to changes in his/her life. For instance, a child of 12 who displays acceptance about his/her HIV status could display resentment when he/she reaches the age of 17 if he/she recognizes the potential of HIV to limit his/her life choices such as finding a life partner or enjoying sex, free from worry of infecting the sexual partner. Similarly, a child who physically moves from school to college may face challenges in maintaining the monthly visit to the ART centre, or may find it awkward to take medicines in the presence of new friends. Counsellors should be alert to these changes and should support the client when needed. Coping - Learning to live with a chronic illness With advances in HIV medicine, this infection has become a chronic manageable illness. For the individual, it introduces the challenge of living with the illness on a daily basis and factoring it into all life decisions. The monthly visit to the ART centre offers the counsellors an opportunity to explore these challenges with the children. Specific Issues of Adolescents In addition to all the issues mentioned above, adolescents face the following challenges: - Developmental delays – that is delayed growth and development, often resulting in late puberty and in girls, delayed or irregular menstrual cycles. These may be further worsened by progressing HIV illness and malnutrition. - Transition from paediatric to adult care, including the choice of appropriate ARV regimens; and adherence Counsellors should prepare their clients for these transitions using appropriate anticipatory guidance. They should also be ready when clients raise these issues, or when they appear to be facing these challenges. Key Counselling Issues for Parents / Caregivers: Acceptance of Infection in Child This is a very emotive topic for family members. In most instances, the transmission has occurred from the parent to the child. So, acceptance of HIV infection in the child is complicated by guilt on the part of the parent and worry about being blamed by the child. Counselling for the parents must help them deal with personal guilt and worry as well as acknowledge that the emotional needs of the parent cannot be a reason to ignore or subsume the needs and rights of the child. A particularly difficult situation to navigate is that of a child who is going through the recommended tests that are part of the Early Infant Diagnosis programme. The emotions of the caregiver may see-saw between hope and dejection as the test dates approach and recede. Disclosure Issues Parents and caregivers must be supported through the process of disclosure of the HIV status to the child client. Counselling is required to enable them to break the news gently to the child. Some caregivers may request counsellor support in terms of having the latter break the news. In such cases, it is strongly recommended to include caregivers in the counselling sessions along with the child. Caregivers’ feedback on the preparedness of the child to receive such disclosure counselling should be considered. However, the counsellor should also gently offer his/her own assessment of the readiness of the child to hear this message. One common fear of caregivers (and also of counsellors) is that children who learn their status may inadvertently blurt out this fact to other people, and thus increase the chances of being stigmatized. The counsellor and other team members should address this issue by suggesting disclosure in stages based on the capacity of the child to understand the impact of the diagnosis. Further, the team can normalize the situation by comparing HIV to a chronic illness like diabetes that also requires constant personal health promoting behaviours from clients. Parents may also fear that the child may feel depressed and suicidal. Suicidal thoughts can be minimized through carefully staggering the explanation of the diagnosis – namely partial disclosure first and then full disclosure. Caregivers and parents may be unwilling to share the child’s HIV status with other people. This concern and worry could cause interruptions in treatment because of unwillingness to fill prescriptions locally, hiding or relabelling medicine bottles to maintain secrecy within the family, and missing doses when the parent is unavailable. These issues should also be discussed during counselling. Counsellors can gain a complete picture of the child’s adherence and the caregiver’s administration of the medicine by asking both the child and the caregiver about the process of taking medicine. Discrepancies in the reports from both sides should be discussed in counselling. Preparing for Treatment Before starting ART, it is essential to assess if the client is ready to begin treatment. This includes his/her ability and commitment to take medicines correctly and consistently for the rest of his/her life. For infants and young children, the treatment provider should assess the family’s/caregiver’s readiness and commitment. For instance, can the family ensure that they will return for regular, reliable follow up visits? Some families may designate an older sibling as the person who ensures that the infected children take medicine. It is critical in such cases to ensure the sibling is capable and willing to handle such a responsibility. If required, the team may recommend an alternative caregiver. Adolescents should be involved in their own treatment and care. While initiating ART in adolescents, the following issues must be reviewed: - Simplifying the treatment regimen (to ensure maximum adherence) - Maturity of the client - Long term adherence and full psycho-social support Clients, at ART centre, have a long-term engagement with the centre. While waiting in the waiting area for services, it is common for them to compare notes with fellow patients. The treatment team should start asking potential questions about why one drug is selected over another (e.g., use of LPV/r in a child initiated on ART at <3 years age vs. Efavirenz based regime in an older child). Also, it is important to give advance warning to clients about the minor side-effects of ARV drugs such as nausea, headache, and abdominal discomfort. Explain how long a client may expect these symptoms to persist, whether they will lessen over time, how to manage them, etc. Supporting treatment Counselling should enable the caregivers to support treatment of the child. Common complaints are how to help children to take the same medicine day after day, difficulty in consuming adult-size pills, queries from children about why they should take treatment unlike their peers and handling situations like telling other family members. Anticipatory guidance is a counselling technique that prepares clients in advance for common difficulties. Apart from this, counsellors can support parents through organizing parental support groups and offering group counselling. By harmonizing clinic services to ensure that most paediatric patients are seen on a day, which is likely to be the most common school holiday in the region, centres can ensure that child clients are seen mostly on one day of the week. This will provide opportunities for group education sessions during morning OPD hours and smaller group sessions in the quieter hours of the afternoon. Immunization Advisory As the GOI is now immunizing children in campaign mode (MR Vaccine) to eliminate various childhood illnesses, newer challenges have emerged among children with HIV infection. The use of live vaccine in these CLHIVs should be carefully monitored. As these vaccines are given in a campaign mode, the reason for refusal of vaccine especially in a symptomatic CLHIV might lead to inadvertent disclosure or stigma and discrimination. Hence the parents of such children should be counselled about this and prepared to refuse vaccination without disclosing HIV status of the child. For example, these parents may refuse vaccination saying that the child is allergic to egg protein etc. Asymptomatic CLHIV with CD4 % above 15 % can be safely immunized even with live vaccines. The SMO/MO should assess the child for the safety of immunization with live vaccines. Planning for the future When caregivers are parents who are on ART themselves, it is important to alert them about the need to plan for the future of the child in case of their own untimely death. This includes financial and legal planning. It is also important to enable the parent to identify who will be the legal guardian and caregiver in such an eventuality. How to structure counselling: It is important for the counsellor to see the child from time to time in order to build a rapport with him/her. This rapport is the basis on which successful disclosure and medication-related counselling can be positioned. In some ART centres, it is observed that the child’s caregiver may come to pick up the medicine refill citing that the child is in school and is not facing any health problems. In such circumstances, it is important to schedule follow-up visits for the school weekly holiday for at least some months, or to schedule a clinic visit on non-school hours. Regular monthly visits are opportunities to take up individual issues for counselling. The counsellor must prioritize what issue he/she would like to discuss during a particular visit. Introduce the topic by simply saying, “Have you given any thought to the following?” After the topic is initially introduced, the counsellor has the option to explore this further during subsequent visits. Medical decisions (such as following the next EID test) should generally be prioritized over non-medical decisions. Each medical decision should always be explored so that the caregiver understands its rationale. While counselling caregivers about their personal issues, it is appropriate to keep the children occupied so that caregivers have privacy and space to share their concerns. Building rapport and trust with a child is an endeavour that takes time. Counsellors who are accustomed to working with adults have to unlearn many behaviours and expectations about clients. Counselling children is more effective when interactive methodologies such as drawing, story-telling and puppetry are used. ART counsellors who opt out of using such techniques with children cannot claim to be good counsellors; lack of time is no excuse for non-usage of these techniques. When following-up children over a period of time, counsellors should also ensure that they raise issues related to the change in developmental status – for instance, child moving from crawling to walking, to puberty. To conclude, every counsellor must have some basic qualities and skills to practice “counselling in children”. Counselling skills must be used to help care-givers take decisions regarding testing, nutrition including infant feeding options, ART initiation, treatment adherence, disclosure and adolescent issues. A CLHIV require ongoing psycho-social support, regardless of when one learns his or her HIV status. 1. Introduction Nutritional care is a crucial part of the continuum of care for HIV infected children. HIV and associated infections increase the need for energy, proteins and micronutrients like iron, zinc, vitamin C. Failure to meet these increased needs may lead to malnutrition and further weakening of the immune system. This makes the child more vulnerable to opportunistic infections like TB, pneumonia, diarrhoea that further increase the nutritional demands of the body, accelerating the decline in nutritional status. Thus, a vicious cycle exists between HIV infection and malnutrition (figure 1). Figure 1. Malnutrition and HIV: A vicious cycle - Increased nutritional needs as there is malabsorption causing poor absorption of nutrients - Decreased food intake, Increase in infections, and viral replication - Poor nutritional status - Weight loss and muscle-wasting - Macronutrient and micro-nutrient deficiency - Impaired immune system - Poor ability to fight HIV and other infections e.g. TB, diarrhoea, influenza - Increased vulnerability to infections - Increased frequency and duration of opportunistic infections - Possibly leading to faster progression to AIDS Source: Adapted from RCQHC and FANTA 2003a. Appropriate nutritional support from the early stages of HIV infection can prevent onset of malnutrition and other nutritional deficiencies. It will also help maintain the performance of the immune system. The nutritional care of HIV exposed infants has already been covered in the section on ‘Care of HIV exposed infants’. The present guidelines are based upon the WHO document “Guidelines for an integrated approach to the nutritional care of HIV infected children (6 months-14 years), 2009”, and the current national recommendations for nutrition of HIV infected children dealt with in detail in the document “Nutrition guidelines for HIV exposed and infected children 0-14 years of age” by NACO and WHO, India. 2. Assessment of nutritional status Assessing a child’s growth provides valuable information about the adequacy of his nutritional status and health. Growth is assessed by measuring weight and height of children (length for children less than 2 years of age) and interpreting these parameters in relation to age, sex of the established reference standards. It is recommended that WHO growth reference standards are used for assessing growth parameters of children upto 5 years of age. These are available as growth charts as well as reference tables for boys and girls separately (Refer to annexures 14, 15 & 18). For children aged beyond 5 years of age, Indian Academy of Paediatrics (IAP) growth charts based on growth reference data from Indian children are recommended (Ref to annexures 16 & 17, Source: http://iapindia.org/Revised-IAP-Growth-Charts-2015.php). The parameter “weight for age” reflects body weight in relation to the age. While a single reading gives limited information, serial recording of weight plotted on a ‘weight for age’ chart gives a good idea about the child’s growth over a period of time. ‘Weight for age’ chart is the most commonly used growth chart. ‘Height for age’ is a measure of linear growth. Plotting length/height on the “length/ height for age” chart helps in detecting “stunting”, a common finding in HIV infected children. The parameter ‘weight for length’ reflects body weight in relation to linear growth. Evaluating ‘weight for length’ for children upto 5 years of age helps in early detection of weight faltering. For a child beyond 5 years, BMI [weight (kg)/ height (m)²] is a better indicator than ‘weight for length’. Weight for length / BMI is also used as a parameter to identify severe acute malnutrition (SAM) as described later. The reader may refer to WHO charts for weight for length for children upto 5 years of age (Refer to annexures 18, Source: http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/en/) and IAP Body Mass Index (BMI) charts for children aged 5-18 years (Refer to annexures 19 & 20, Source: http://iapindia.org/Revised-IAP-Growth-Charts-2015.php). A child who is well will have his nutritional parameters (weight for age, length for age, weight for length / BMI) within ± 2 Z scores of the median expected for the age and sex. If the child’s weight, length or weight for length / BMI is less than -2 Z score, it indicates the presence of underweight, stunting or wasting respectively. A serial recording of these parameters over time should yield a curve parallel to one of the standard growth curves on the growth chart. When the child’s growth parameters falter, serial recordings on a growth chart will no longer be parallel to the standard growth curves. Regular measurement of the weight and height is an essential activity to be undertaken for every HIV infected child. Serial assessment and plotting of weight and height on a growth chart help in early detection of growth faltering. Faltering in growth, especially a weight lower than that expected for child’s height often occurs even before opportunistic infections or other symptoms become overt in HIV infection. Early detection of growth faltering allows scope for timely intervention to prevent further deterioration. The weight should be recorded at every visit and height (length for children upto 2 years of age) once in 3 months for all HIV infected children upto 5 years of age. For children beyond 5 years of age, height can be taken at 6 monthly intervals since the rate of growth is slower. Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) is also a good indicator of a child’s general nutritional status. At places where it may not be feasible to measure the length or height, MUAC is a useful tool for screening of malnutrition and identifying children at high risk of mortality. Some children are at a very high risk of malnutrition. These high-risk situations include: - The child’s growth curve shows flattening (no weight gain) - The child’s growth curve is dropping downwards (weight loss) - Change in care-giver or home circumstances - Caretaker’s report of poor appetite or not gaining weight in the child The growth of these children should be monitored carefully and remedial measures instituted before they become severely malnourished. They should be examined for visible signs of malnutrition like loss of subcutaneous fat and muscles and bipedal oedema. Children without visible signs of malnutrition should be given nutritional support at home, with early follow-up (5-7 days). They should also be assessed for other medical problems. Based upon the anthropometric measures and presence of visible signs of malnutrition, the nutritional status of HIV infected children can be classified as given in table 1. Determination of the nutritional status will guide the dietary requirements and further management of these children as described later. Table 1: Classification of nutritional status of HIV infected children (0-14 years): \| SIGNS \| CLASSIFY AS \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\| \| Signs of severe visible wasting, or Oedema present in both feet, or \| Severe malnutrition \| \| Weight-for-height (BMI for children > 5years) less than -3 z-score or \| \| \| MUAC less than: \| \| \| 115 mm in children 6-60 months \| \| \| 129 mm in children 5-9 years \| \| \| 160 mm in children 10-14 years \| \| \| Reported weight loss, or \| Poor weight gain \| \| Very low weight (weight for age less than -3 z-score), or \| \| \| Underweight (weight for age less than -2 z-score), or Confirmed \| \| \| weight loss (> 5%) since the last visit, or Growth curve flattening \| \| \| Child is gaining weight (weight for age more than -2SD and gaining \| Growing appropriately \| \| weight appropriately) \| \| \| Chronic lung disease or TB or persistent diarrhoea or other chronic \| Conditions with increased nutritional needs \| \| OI or malignancy \| \| 6 Nurses, counsellors & other paramedical workers may classify a child as “severe malnutrition” based upon presence of visible severe wasting, oedema on both feet or MUAC criteria. However medical officers should also use the additional criterion based on weight for height/ BMI 7 Use BMI for age for children > 10 years ### 3. Nutritional needs of HIV infected children 6 months to 14 years of age Energy and protein needs of HIV infected children depend upon their age, growth pattern and presence of associated complications. These children have higher energy needs as compared to healthy children due to increased metabolic demands placed by HIV infection. Presence of associated opportunistic infections and other chronic conditions like chronic lung disease, persistent diarrhoea etc. further increases the metabolic demand. Table 2 gives the total energy needs of HIV infected children depending upon their nutritional status. HIV infected children with chronic lung disease, tuberculosis, persistent diarrhoea or other chronic opportunistic infections or malignancy have increased nutritional needs in spite of a good nutritional status. The additional energy requirements for these children are similar to children with poor weight gain (Table 3). Children who are not growing well may require additional medical interventions such as treatment for opportunistic infections or ART. Unless associated complications are appropriately managed, improvement in diet alone may not result in normal growth, weight recovery or improvement in clinical status. Table 2: Total energy needs of HIV-infected children (kcal/day) \| Age of Infant/child \| Daily energy needs of HIV uninfected children* \| HIV infected and asymptomatic 10 % additional Energy \| HIV infected and poor weight gain or other symptoms 20 % additional energy \| Severely malnourished and HIV infected (post-stabilisation) 50-100 % additional energy** \| \|---------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 6- 11 mon. \| 690 \| 760 \| 830 \| 150- 220 kcal/kg/day \| \| 12- 23 mon. \| 900 \| 990 \| 1080 \| 150- 220 kcal/kg/day \| \| 2- 5 years \| 1260 \| 1390 \| 1510 \| 150- 220 kcal/kg/day \| \| 6- 9 years \| 1650 \| 1815 \| 1980 \| 75- 100 kcal/kg/day \| \| 10- 14 years \| 2020 \| 2220 \| 2420 \| 60- 90 kcal/kg/day \| Based on the average of total energy requirements for light and moderate habitual physical activity levels for girls and boys by age group. Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, October 2001. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5686e/y5686e00.df Management of Severe Malnutrition: a manual for physicians and other senior health workers. WHO, 1999. 4. Nutritional management of HIV infected children: practical guidelines In general, feeding guidelines for HIV infected infants and children are same as those for healthy children apart from the need for meeting increased energy needs. If an infant is confirmed to be HIV infected, the mother is strongly encouraged to breast feed exclusively for 6 months and continue breast-feeding upto 2 years or beyond as per the norm for general population. This will ensure optimum growth of the infant and provide protection from infections. All infants diagnosed as HIV infected are started on ART as per the national recommendations. Complementary foods are introduced at 6 months of age as recommended for all infants. The quantity and frequency of food are increased, as the child grows older. The food consistency is also gradually made thicker and variety is introduced adapting to the child’s requirement and abilities. The IMNCI guidelines for feeding healthy children of different age groups are given in annexure 22 and the age-related food intake standards for children in annexure 23. 4.1 Nutritional management of a HIV infected child growing well HIV infected children who are growing well and are asymptomatic need about 10 percent extra energy to maintain normal growth, development and activities as compared to uninfected children of their age. The additional energy is best given as additional household foods as part of a balanced diet. 4.2 Nutritional management of a HIV infected child growing poorly or having conditions with Increased nutritional needs Children with poor weight gain should have a complete assessment including a detailed dietary history and evaluation for co-morbidities like opportunistic infections that may have an impact upon the nutritional status. These children, along with those with increased energy needs like chronic lung disease, TB, persistent diarrhoea, require extra 20-30 percent energy each day. These are also best given through additional household foods. If this is not possible, specific nutritional supplements may be given till the underlying condition is effectively managed. The mother or the caretaker should be given dietary counselling about meeting these increased nutritional needs at home. Table 3 shows the additional energy requirements for children with different nutritional status and examples of dietary modification that would meet these increased needs. Table 3: Additional energy requirements of HIV infected children and means of providing them \| Additional Energy Requirement in HIV Infected Children \| Asymptomatic with adequate growth (10% additional energy) \| Poor weight gain or increased nutritional needs (20-30% additional energy) \| Severely malnourished (50-100% additional energy) \| \|-------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------\| \| 6-11 months* \| \| \| \| \| Calories required in addition to usual requirement* \| 60-70 kcal/day \| 120-150 kcal/day \| - \| \| Examples of ways to increase energy intake in addition to meals and snacks appropriate to age \| Add 2 tsp of edible oil and 1 tsp of sugar to porridge in addition to normal diet \| Add 2 tsp of edible oil and 1-2 tsp of sugar to porridge or other foods. Aim to add 2 times daily \| Therapeutic feeding as per national guidelines to provide 150-220 kcal/kg/day based upon the actual weight \| \| 12-23 months \| \| \| \| \| Calories required in addition to usual requirement* \| 80-90 kcal/day \| 160-190 kcal/day \| - \| \| Examples of ways to increase energy intake in addition to meals and snacks appropriate to age \| Add 2 tsp of edible oil and 2 tsp sugar to porridge, or a medium banana. \| Extra cup (200ml) of full cream milk with 1 tsp sugar or 2 big idlis or bread butter (2 slice) \| Therapeutic feeding as per national guidelines to provide 150-220 kcal/kg/day based upon the actual weight \| \| 2-5 years \| \| \| \| \| Additional Calories* \| 100-140 kcal/day \| 200 – 280 kcal/day \| Based on actual weight 150-220 kcal/kg/day \| \| Examples of ways to increase energy intake in addition to meals and snacks appropriate to age \| Extra cup of milk or sweetened curd or 1 extra roti with vegetables or 1 paratha \| 2 puris with vegetables or 1 cup porridge or chikki 2 pieces \| Therapeutic feeding as per national guidelines to provide 150-220 kcal/kg/day based upon the actual weight \| \| Age Group \| Additional Calories* \| Energy Intake \| Therapeutic Feeding \| \|-----------\|----------------------\|---------------\|---------------------\| \| 6 – 9 years \| 130- 190 kcal/day total = 1815 kcal/day \| 260 – 380 kcal/day \| Based on actual weight \| \| \| Extra cup (200 ml) of full cream milk or 1 egg omelette or 1 extra roti with vegetables \| Extra cup of full cream milk and one vegetable stuffed paratha, or 2 parathas with curd or halwa 100 gm (1/2 cup) or poha 1/2 cups \| Therapeutic feeding as per national guidelines to provide 75- 100 kcal/kg/day based upon the actual weight \| \| 10-14 years \| 170- 230 kcal/day \| 340 – 400 kcal/day \| Based on actual weight \| \| \| Extra one roti in lunch and dinner with vegetable or one dosa with sambhar or one stuffed paratha \| 1 Egg omelette with 2 slices of bread or 1 stuffed paratha and 1 cup milk \| Therapeutic feeding as per national guidelines to provide 60- 90 kcal/kg/day based upon the actual weight \| * Calories in addition to that recommended for normal children in the same age group ### 4.3 Management of children with Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) Children with severe acute malnutrition i.e. signs of visible wasting, bilateral oedema or weight for length/ height Z-score < -3, irrespective of whether taking ART or not, must be identified and managed correctly since they are at a very high risk of mortality. Children with SAM require 50- 100 percent extra energy every day after the period for stabilization till nutritional recovery (usual duration 6- 10 weeks). They should be treated with therapeutic feeding. Children with no medical complications may be managed at home if they still have a good appetite. They can receive good supervision at home and therapeutic feeds can be provided. Children who are sick and have associated complications like infections, or a poor appetite or are unable to eat, must be referred for inpatient care by trained staff with experience in nutritional rehabilitation. The nutritional management of HIV-infected severely malnourished children is largely the same as for any other severely malnourished child. For details on management of children with SAM refer to the WHO/NACO nutrition guidelines for HIV infected children. In addition, these children should be evaluated at the ART centre for exclusion of opportunistic infections including TB and assessed for ART if they are not receiving it already. If a child already on ART is found to have SAM, he should be evaluated for treatment adherence, treatment failure or development of new OIs. ### 4.4 Supportive measures: The following measures support the improvement of nutritional status and health of HIV infected children and should be provided to all children: - Micro-nutrient supplements: Micro-nutrient intake at the recommended level should be ensured through a balanced diet. If the child’s diet does not contain a variety of fruits, vegetables and food from animal sources give a daily supplement that provides 1 RDA of vitamins and other micro-nutrients. Investigate for the presence of anaemia and give iron supplements if deficiency is confirmed. - Give vitamin A supplements every 6 months for children upto 5 years of age in the following dose: 6-12 months: 1,00,000 IU orally 1-5 years: 2,00,000 IU orally • For children beyond 5 years of age vitamin A should be provided through daily micro-nutrient supplements • De-worm every 6 months (albendazole 400 mg single dose orally every 6 months after 1st year of life) • Continue co-trimoxazole prophylaxis as indicated • In patients with recent history of diarrhoea, give zinc 20 mg daily for 2 weeks • Encourage regular play and age appropriate activities: Play helps maintain appetite and build muscles. Children who play are healthier and happier. Parents or caretakers should be encouraged to participate in age appropriate activities with the children. This promotes child-caretaker interaction and is a source of happiness for both. • Administer routine childhood immunization 4.5 Feeding a child during illness and recovery period HIV-infected children commonly experience poor appetite during sickness. It is often difficult to feed such children. During these acute illnesses, they are likely to lose weight. Some of the ways to encourage a child to eat include the following: • Make the child comfortable • Be patient and feed slowly • Feed small amounts frequently. Children may tire easily while eating, making it difficult to eat sufficient food at a sitting. Offering feeds frequently may be needed to increase food intake • Give food items that the child likes • Give a variety of foods and extra fluids • If the child is thirsty give fluids that have some energy e.g. milk. Avoid commercial juices or fizzy drinks that have very little nutritional value • Pay attention to the child and make feeding a happy time • For younger infants and children continue breastfeeding. A sick young child may prefer breastfeeding to eating other foods. All sick children should be offered appropriate foods unless there is a medical reason In the recovery period, it is important to: • Increase energy and protein consumed in everyday food items by adding extra one meal per day • Feed the child on demand day and night • Encourage the child in simple and loving ways 21. Common co-morbidities in children with HIV infection At the time of diagnosis of HIV infection, CLHIV may have a variety of clinical manifestations depending upon their age and severity of immunodeficiency. These manifestations may involve one or more systems and influence the clinical staging of HIV, ART regimen, as well as the treatment for these conditions per se. This multi-systemic involvement has a direct influence on the health status and mortality and an indirect influence on the ART adherence due to drug interactions and added pill burden. Practically all the systems may be involved either directly by the HIV virus itself or secondary to other opportunistic infections. Common co-morbidities seen in CLHIV are summarized in table 1. This section gives a brief description of these co-morbidities; details of these are in the other relevant sections and in the manual on the management of opportunistic infections. Table 1: Common co-morbidities seen in CLHIV at time of diagnosis \| System \| Manifestations \| \|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Infections \| TB, bacterial, fungal, viral infections: localized or disseminated (sepsis) \| \| Nutrition \| Wasting \| \| \| Stunting \| \| \| Vitamin deficiencies \| \| Gastro-intestinal system \| Recurrent/persistent diarrhoea, oral /oesophageal candidiasis, recurrent/persistent oral ulcers, \| \| Hepato-biliary system \| Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, hepatitis due to other organisms \| \| Haematological system \| Anaemia, thrombocytopenia \| \| Central nervous system \| Delayed development, developmental regression, meningitis due to various bacterial/viral agents including TB and cryptococcal, HIV encephalopathy \| \| Respiratory system \| Recurrent/persistent pneumonia, bronchiectasis, sinusitis, chronic otitis media, Lymphoid interstitial pneumonitis (LIP) \| \| Skin & soft tissue \| Infections: bacterial/fungal, nutritional dermatosis, scabies, molluscum contagiosum, herpes zoster, pruritic papular eruptions \| 1. Malnutrition Malnutrition is extremely common in CLHIV. While infants and young children are more likely to present with wasting, older children who may have an intermediate disease progression, are more likely to present with stunting. Malnutrition is an important cause of mortality in CLHIV, especially in the developing world. Assessment of the nutritional status and management of children with malnutrition is covered in the chapter on nutrition. While children with mild/moderate malnutrition may be managed on an out-patient basis, those with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) will require admission and therapeutic feeding. 2. Anaemia & thrombocytopenia Anaemia is present in a large proportion of CLHIV at presentation. The causes include: 1. Chronic infection and diseases (including HIV Infection) 2. Poor nutrition: iron, folic acid and B12 deficiencies 3. Autoimmune diseases 4. Virus associated conditions (e.g. parvovirus B 19 red cell aplasia) 5. Adverse drug effects 6. Blood loss, especially chronic blood loss, through intestinal hookworm infection 7. Haemolysis caused by many conditions, including bacterial infections and malaria Evaluation for the type of anaemia and its correction using appropriate therapy are important components of nutritional rehabilitation in these children. Thrombocytopenia is also commonly encountered in CLHIV and may be an initial manifestation of HIV infection. Aetiologies include immune mediated platelet destruction, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and impaired haematopoiesis. Bone marrow studies need to be done to exclude other causes of thrombocytopenia. Management is usually the same as in HIV non-infected children. 3. Infections Opportunistic infections (OIs) are infections caused by pathogens that usually do not cause disease in an individual with a healthy immune system. A compromised immune system, however, presents an opportunity for the pathogen to cause disease. Most OIs occur among children with substantially immune-compromised state i.e. when CD4 < 10%, but serious bacterial infections, herpes zoster and TB can occur across the spectrum of immune categories. Early initiation of ART has dramatically decreased rates of AIDS-related opportunistic complications and deaths in adults and children. 3.1 Tuberculosis: TB is the most common opportunistic infection in HIV infected children as well as a leading cause of death among them. Infection with HIV is a strong risk factor for the progression from latent to active tuberculosis. All CLHIV are actively evaluated for tuberculosis by screening for four symptoms viz., current cough, fever, poor weight gain and contact history of TB, during every visit to a health facility and every contact with a healthcare provider. Those with > 1 of these symptoms are further evaluated for TB. Diagnosis of TB in context of HIV and its management are discussed separately. 3.2 Bacterial infections: Serious and recurrent bacterial infections are major causes of morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected children worldwide. Immunologic defects in both cell-mediated (T cell) and humoral (B cell) immunity, functional asplenia, decrease in the neutrophil number and function and defects in the complement components, all contribute to the increased susceptibility to bacterial agents in these children. Bacterial pathogens such as pneumococcus, non-typhoidal salmonellae (NTS) and other gram-negatives are common causes of septicaemia in HIV-infected children that has a high case fatality rate, especially in the young and malnourished. Common bacterial infections in CLHIV include pneumonia, cellulitis, skin and internal organ abscess, otitis media, dysentery, meningitis and sepsis. HIV-infected children with invasive bacterial infections generally have a clinical presentation similar to children without HIV infection. The classical signs, symptoms and laboratory test abnormalities that usually indicate invasive bacterial infection (fever, elevated white blood cell [WBC] count) are usually present but may be lacking in these immune-compromised children. 3.3 Other infections: In addition to bacteria, various viral, fungal and protozoan infestations are also common in CLHIV. Most common among these are: 3.3.1 Viral infections: Hepatitis B and C, CMV, herpes simplex, varicella / herpes zoster, molluscum contagiosum 3.3.2 Fungal infections: Pneumocystis jiroveci, cryptococcosis (meningitis/ disseminated infection), candidiasis (dermal/ oral/ oesophageal / disseminated), penicilliosis 3.3.3 Protozoan infestations: Toxoplasma, cryptosporidium, kala-azar, malaria, amoebiasis, giardiasis A detailed description of clinical manifestations and management of these infections is included in the manual on opportunistic infection. 4. Diarrhoea Diarrhoea is one of the most common complaints in HIV infected children. A child with HIV infection can have acute diarrhoea (liquid stools > 3 episodes /day of, duration < 14 days), dysentery (diarrhoea along with blood in stools), or persistent diarrhoea (diarrhoea lasting for > 14 days). The severity of diarrhoea is influenced by many factors including the aetiological agent and host characteristics such as immunodeficiency, nutritional status and age. A variety of organisms, including bacterial, viral, fungal and protozoa can cause diarrhoea in CLHIV (table 2). HIV enteropathy itself may lead to persistent diarrhoea. Table 2: Microbes associated with diarrhoea in CLHIV \| Persistent or Chronic Diarrhoea \| Bloody Diarrhoea \| \|---------------------------------\|------------------\| \| • Enteropathogenic & aggregative E. coli • Nontyphoidal salmonella • Cryptosporidium • Microsporidia • Giardia lamblia • Ascaris lumbricoides • Cytomegalovirus • Cyclospora • Isospora belli \| • Shigella • E. coli • Non typhoidal salmonella • Entamoeba histolytica \| A child with acute diarrhoea is managed like a non-HIV infected child. The key treatment points include: • Assessment of the severity of dehydration and its appropriate management using ORS / intravenous fluid (for severe dehydration) • Continuing feeding • Explaining the danger signs to the caregiver: feeding poorly, developing lethargy/ convulsions, persistent vomiting and appearance of blood in stools HIV-infected children are more prone to persistent diarrhoea. The differential diagnosis of persistent diarrhoea in HIV-infected children includes opportunistic infections (viral, bacterial, protozoan parasites), secondary conditions (allergies, lactose intolerance), HIV-related medication side effects, and nutritional deficiencies. The presence of unexplained persistent diarrhoea places an HIV-infected child into WHO stage 3 disease. Appropriate management of diarrhoea in the chronically malnourished child is particularly critical; severely malnourished children have more than an 8-fold risk for mortality than normally nourished children. Evaluation of a child with persistent diarrhoea includes assessment for: - Dehydration and its severity - Nutritional status - Associated vitamin deficiencies - Rectal prolapse and anal excoriation - Associated infections, especially urinary tract infection Important investigations indicated in evaluation of a child with persistent diarrhoea are given in table 3. Table 3: Investigations in a case of persistent diarrhoea \| Investigation \| Comment \| \|---------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Stool microscopy for WBCs/ hpf and specific aetiologies \| • Stool for WBCs/ hpf >10 suggest Shigella, Entamoeba histolytica, CMV or Invasive E. coli • Stool for WBC/ hpf 0 suggests normal or Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, MAC • Specific organisms may be identified such as Giardia and Entamoeba \| \| Stool for modified ZN stain \| Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora \| \| Stool pH and reducing substances \| Stool pH < 5.5 and reducing substances positive suggests lactose intolerance \| \| Stool for ova and cysts \| Helminthiasis, Entamoeba histolytica \| \| CD4 count / CD4 % \| CD4 < 50/cmm: Consider disseminated CMV / MAC CD4 < 100/cmm: Cryptosporidiosis or chronic microsporidiosis \| Important points in management of a child with persistent diarrhoea are: - Give the child more fluids than usual using low osmolarity ORS, to prevent dehydration - Give supplemental zinc (10-20 mg) to the child, every day for 10 to 14 days - Continue to feed the child to prevent malnutrition - For diarrhoea with blood: give Ciprofloxacin (15 mg/kg/day, in 2 divided doses for 3 days), OR cefixime (15 mg/kg/day, in 2 divided doses for 5 days), and Metronidazole (7.5 mg/kg 3 times a day for 7 days) - Lactose intolerance is suspected when infants/ young children predominantly on milk feeds continue to pass explosive, watery stools causing perianal erythematous excoriation very similar to perianal candidiasis. Special diets that are low in lactose or are lactose free may be indicated till the intestinal mucosa recovers. - Persistent diarrhoea may also possibly need specific treatment for giardia and microsporidia. - After an episode, where possible, advise an extra meal per day for two weeks to help regain the weight lost. - Give daily multivitamins and micronutrients for 2 weeks to all HIV exposed and infected children with persistent diarrhoea. - Teach all the caregivers of children with HIV to pay particular attention to personal hygiene (hand washing with soap, especially after going to the toilet, after handling stools, and before preparing food and eating), drinking boiled water, eating only thoroughly cooked meat, and eating only cooked or thoroughly washed fruits and vegetables. A child with severe acute malnutrition (SAM) and persistent diarrhoea must be admitted for management, as these children may have associated complications, require specialized care and may suffer from a high mortality if not promptly managed. 5. Hepatitis Hepatomegaly and mildly elevated liver enzymes are common in children with HIV, though chronic/progressive liver disease is unusual. The causes include: 1. Co-infection with viruses (hepatitis A-E, CMV, EBV) 2. Co-infection with MAC, cryptosporidium 3. Fatty liver 4. Drug toxicity The clinical features include: History: Jaundice, anorexia, nausea/vomiting, fever, right hypochondriac pain, pruritus and pale-coloured stools. Examination: Icterus, hepatomegaly or decreasing span of liver size. Additional features indicating hepatic failure include: altered sensorium, irritability, altered sleep patterns, poor feeding, ascites and bleeding manifestations. The investigations indicated in evaluation of a child with hepatitis are: 1. Liver function tests: (Total/direct serum bilirubin, serum ALT/AST). Enzymes - ALT/AST - are usually elevated. Decreasing levels of enzymes, when associated with rising bilirubin, may be an ominous sign, indicating severe hepatic damage and the need for an urgent and thorough clinical management. 2. Peripheral blood smear for malaria 3. HBsAg, HCV, HAV testing 4. Blood glucose 5. Prothrombin time 6. Electrolytes (Na, K) The presence of jaundice (recently onset) is indicative of an acute hepatitis. It is essential to gauge the severity of the dysfunction – i.e. is there hepatic encephalopathy and coagulopathy? The treatment is mainly supportive and involves the following: 1. Remove the potentially offending medication(s) as per the ARV adverse event guidelines 2. If the child is on ATT, institution of modified the anti-tubercular regime 3. Supportive care (monitor, nutrition, rest) 4. For hepatic failure: monitor, intestinal decontamination- lactulose and neomycin, low protein intake, vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma, antibiotics, correction of dyselectrolytemia, antacids / H2 blockers, oxygen / ventilation Presence of hepatitis, its severity and aetiology, influences the initiation of ART as well as the drug regimens; many antiretroviral drugs especially Nevirapine and PIs have associated hepato-toxicity. Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C co-infections with HIV are dealt with separately. 6. Cough / difficulty in breathing Respiratory morbidity is very common in children with HIV infection. While evaluating CLHIV with cough and/or difficult breathing, one must remember that OIs are not responsible for the respiratory symptoms in all cases. Respiratory symptoms may be on account of lung conditions other than infections, OIs or some extra/non-pulmonary conditions. In HIV-infected children presenting with cough or difficulty in breathing, the following entities should be sought by history, examination and investigations: 1. Pulmonary causes: - Pulmonary Tuberculosis - Pneumocystis Pneumonia - Lymphoid Interstitial Pneumonitis - Bacterial pneumonia - Wheezy bronchitis, bronchial asthma 2. Extra-pulmonary causes: - Severe anaemia - Malaria - Sepsis - Raised intra-cranial pressure: meningitis, encephalitis Children with symptoms due to pulmonary causes have cough as a prominent symptom while cough is not that significant in those who have non-pulmonary diseases or conditions leading to respiratory distress. Acute pneumonia and PCP have been discussed elsewhere. Complications of pneumonia such as empyema and pneumothorax can be easily identified by clinical and radiological examination. Both these conditions require urgent medical attention. TB is suspected in cases with failure to thrive or weight loss in addition to persistent fever and persistent pneumonia that responds poorly to antibiotics. History of contact with a TB patient can be elicited. TB can be diagnosed by chest radiography, sputum/gastric aspirate or bronchoalveolar lavage for CBNAAT, and FNAC of enlarged nodes, if present. Bronchiectasis is a disease characterized by irreversible abnormal dilatation of the bronchial tree, and represents a common end stage of a number of nonspecific and unrelated antecedent events. Bronchiectasis is classified as WHO Stage 3 disease. Persistent cough and fever with productive purulent sputum or haemoptysis should arouse suspicion of bronchiectasis. Clubbing is usually present. Chest examination reveals localized signs, which do not easily resolve with the usual antibiotic treatment. Chest X-ray may show cystic spaces, occasionally with air-fluid levels and honeycombing. However, these findings are seen in more severe forms. Milder cases will show loss of broncho-vascular markings, crowding of bronchi and loss of lung volume. Bronchiectasis needs careful management. Acute exacerbations need to be treated with adequate antibiotic therapy (2-4 weeks) and postural drainage of sputum. Antibiotics should be carefully chosen to cover broad spectrum of micro-organisms, including gram negative bacteria. Attempt should be made to isolate the organism by sputum culture or induced sputum, or secretions obtained through bronchoscopy. Tuberculosis and LIP may be frequently underlying and need to be looked for. The treatment involves administration of antibiotics during acute exacerbations and bronchodilators. Surgical treatment may be necessary if the symptoms are severe or refractory to medical management and the disease is limited to one segment or a lobe. Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia (LIP), a clinical stage 3 criterion is a lympho-proliferative, non-infectious pulmonary disorder that is characterized by diffuse infiltration of CD4 lymphocytes, plasma cells, and histiocytes in the alveolar septa and along the lymphatics. It is most common in children infected with HIV, especially those aged > 2-3 years. Disease usually has an insidious onset of mild but persistent cough, with or without exertional dyspnoea, and breathing difficulty. The patients also have associated clubbing. LIP should be suspected if a child does not respond, or if chest X-ray findings persist or worsen despite appropriate anti-bacterial and anti-tuberculosis treatment. Treatment of LIP includes bronchodilators and corticosteroids (short course for mild intermittent symptoms and long course with slow taper in cases with chronic course). While evaluating a HIV infected child with respiratory symptoms, it should be remembered that the patient may be having more than one clinical entity responsible for their symptoms. It is not infrequent for a patient to have TB and bronchiectasis or TB and LIP or LIP and bronchiectasis. Pneumonia in children with HIV infection: HIV-infected/exposed children are at significantly increased risk of developing pneumonia. Diagnosis and treatment of very severe, severe and non-severe pneumonia is the same in HIV infected/exposed children as in HIV-negative children. For severe and very severe pneumonia, one should use a combination of Ampicillin or Crystalline Penicillin and Gentamicin as the first line treatment. If this fails, use Ceftriaxone as second-line or Ciprofloxacin and Gentamicin. Bacterial pneumonia responds fast and improvement is evident within 3-5 days. In case of poor response, suspect PCP and other disorders (foreign body, complicated bacterial pneumonias, asthma, tuberculosis, inappropriate antibiotics, resistant organisms, underlying LIP, bronchiectasis, etc.); they need to be evaluated as usual. Annexures # NACO – National Technical Guidelines for ART (October 2018) ## List of Annexures \| Annexure No. \| Title \| \|--------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| 1 \| National Testing Algorithm For HIV-1 Exposed Infants And Children Below The Age Of 18 Months \| \| 2 \| Paediatric Dosing chart \| \| 3 \| Consent Form For Patients Registering Into HIV Care And Initiating ART \| \| 4 \| Checklist For Adherence Counselling \| \| 5 \| National TB Programme: Definitions \| \| 6 \| National TB Programme: Drug-Resistant TB – MDR-TB And XDR-TB \| \| 7 \| Anti-TB Drugs –Adverse Drug Reactions And Drug-Drug Interactions \| \| 8 \| National TB Programme: TB Drugs Side Effects And Interactions \| \| 9 \| Additional Guidance On Tenofovir Related Renal Toxicity \| \| 10 \| Grading Of Selected Clinical And Laboratory Toxicities \| \| 11 \| Algorithm Of WHO Recommendations On The Management Of Persons With Chronic Hepatitis B Infection \| \| 12 \| Atazanavir Induced Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia \| \| 13 \| Risk Assessment Guide For The Source Patient \| \| 14 \| WHO Weight-For-Age Chart (Birth- 5 Years Of Age) \| \| 15 \| WHO Length/Height-For-Age Chart (Birth To 5 Years Of Age) \| \| 16 \| IAP Boys Height And Weight Chart: 5- 18 Years \| \| 17 \| IAP Girls Height And Weight Chart: 5- 18 Years \| \| 18 \| WHO Weight For Length/Height Chart: 0-5 Years \| \| 19 \| IAP Boys BMI Chart 5- 18 Years \| \| 20 \| IAP Girls BMI Chart 5- 18 Years (In PDF) \| \| 21 \| Safe Preparation Of Formula / Animal Milk And The Amount Of Milk The Child Will Need At Different Ages \| \| 22 \| IMNCI Guidelines On Feeding Recommendations For Children \| \| 23 \| Age Related Food Intake Standards For Children \| ## Annexure 2: Pediatric dosing chart ### National Pediatric ART Dosing Schedule \| Drug \| Weight (in kgs) \| 3 to 5.9 \| 6 to 9.9 \| 10 to 13.99 \| 14 to 19.9 \| 20 to 24.9 \| 25 to 29.9 \| 30 to 34.9 \| >35 \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------\|----------\|----------\|-------------\|------------\|------------\|------------\|------------\|------\| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (60/30) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| Morning \| Evening \| \| \| \| \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (300/150) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| Abacavir + Lamivudine \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| \| (60/30) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Abacavir + Lamivudine \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (600/300) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| \| Lopinavir ritonavir \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (80/200)- mg/ml syrup \| \| 1 ml \| 1 ml \| 1.5 ml \| 1.5 ml \| \| \| \| \| \| Lopinavir /ritonavir \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (100/25) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Lopinavir /ritonavir \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (200/50) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Efavirenz (200) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Efavirenz (600) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| + Nevirapine (60/30/50) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (300/150/200) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| Nevirapine (50) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Nevirapine (200) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Ritonavir (100) (For super boosting) \| \| 0.5 \| 0.5 \| 1 \| 1 \| 1 \| 2 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| \| Stavudine + Lamivudine \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| (6/30) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Stavudine + Lamivudine \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| (30/150) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| Stavudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine (6/30/50) \| \| 1 \| 1 \| 1.5 \| 2 \| 2.5 \| 2.5 \| 3 \| 3 \| \| Stavudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine (300/150/200) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| --- National Technical Guidelines on Anti Retroviral Treatment Consent form for patients registering into HIV Care & starting ART I, (name)........................................................., (address) ................................................................ CONSENT to share all information pertaining to my/my dependent child’s health and HIV/AIDS status with the service providers who will be part of the management of my/my dependent child’s condition. And I AGREE to receive antiretroviral therapy provided under the national programme. I fully understand the information that has been provided by the health care staff in the following: - That the ART is not an emergency and thus will be started as per the decision of the doctor. I shall attend the ART centre as per appointment for timely initiation of ART and regular follow-up. - That receiving ART involves shared confidentiality with other service providers such as CBO/NGO/CSC/positive network who may support my/my dependent child’s treatment and other welfare measures through outreach and home-based care activities at home. - That ART requires 100% adherence to drugs and I shall abide by the same. - That I understand the side effects of ART. - That I shall not stop the drugs on my own and will return to the centre if there is any problem. In case I stop the drugs on my own accord/do not adhere to the regimen, I shall not hold the health care staff of the ART Centre responsible for any complication arising out of the same. - In case, I am/my dependent child is on ART from outside on a different regimen, I agree to receive the drugs/regimen provided under the national programme. - In case, I/my dependent child want to take ART from other centre or to go other city for livelihood or other reasons, I will inform my ART Centre and get a “transfer out” letter before leaving. _________________________ ___________________________ Signature of witness Signature of patient with date / (Doctor/nurse/counsellor) Signature of Caregiver with date (This should be translated in local language &/or explained to patient before taking patients signature) Annexure 4: Checklist For Adherence Counselling Checklist for first visit at ART centre: - Introduce self and ask for the client’s introduction - Find out the purpose of the visit and check the HIV report - Assess the knowledge of HIV/AIDS, routes of transmission and risk reduction - Assess if the client is mentally prepared about the result - Check how you can give emotional and social support - Find out about his/ her lifestyle and if they are willing to change - Assess if there are any suicidal ideations and/or frustrations - Check for prior ART exposure - Check for any addictions - Check his/ her living, financial, psychological and social conditions - Risk assessment - Check about the HIV status of his/ her family members - Explain the difference between HIV and AIDS and clarify that it is not necessary that a HIV positive client is an AIDS client - Check for common OIs - Conduct 4 symptom TB screening - Referral and linkages as required - Provide IEC/ BCC materials and condom - As per client’s need, provide information regarding other district and state ART centres - It is necessary to take address and ID proof of the client - Register the client and fill the white card, green book, consent form and also pre-ART register - Provide space for the clients to ask queries and answer the questions - Schedule an appointment for a follow-up counselling session Check list for pre-ART adherence counselling: - Recall the client’s understanding about the previous session/ visit - Check client’s CD4 count, viral load - Check knowledge of client/ caregiver about HIV/AIDS / CD4 count / ART eligibility and importance of ART - Inform whether client is eligible for ART and need of ART - Provide information on the role of ART in HIV treatment - Explain about importance of regular visit at ART centre and need for regular CD4 testing - Conduct 4S screening - Identify potential barriers / factors affecting adherence (treatment related, client related, attitudes and behaviour of providers related, environmental and social related) and suggest possible solutions for these barriers / factors affecting adherence • Inform that regular clinical follow-up and laboratory investigation is necessary • Identify the support services required for the client • Requirement of follow-up visit needs to be explained and decided accordingly Check list for ART preparedness counselling: • Review and recap the client’s understanding about previous session/visit • Check whether client has accepted his/her HIV status • Identify caregiver/guardian and check acceptance of child HIV status • Check caregiver understanding about need of ART • Check understanding and importance of CD4 count, need of ART and initiation of ART • Check whether the client has accepted lifelong treatment • Conduct 4S Screening • Make the client understand the importance and need of monthly visits • Check feasibility of monthly drug pick-up • Check readiness to start ART • Check preparedness to initiate ART • Give information about possible ART side effects and its management • Inform about the importance of regular clinical follow-up and laboratory investigation • Identify support services required • Plan for follow-up visit Check list for adult ART adherence counselling: • Review the client’s adherence to treatment • Conduct 4S screening • Physical verification and cross checking of drug (pill counting) • Check when they missed a dose last time • Discuss the reasons for not taking/giving the pills • Discuss the importance of timing in taking ART • Check side effects as per the client’s experience • Identify treatment for side effects in a private/Govt. sector • Explain the importance of adherence and work out fresh strategies for adherence • Check for psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, etc. • Discuss diet plan, nutrition, exercise, positive living, etc. • Discuss how treatment has affected other areas of their life • Check the client’s supply of medicine for the coming month and also ensure that they do not have any problems with taking the medicine • Discuss about ongoing treatment issues • Monitor the failure of ART treatment • Fix an appointment for the next visit Check list for paediatric adherence counselling: - Review the client’s adherence for treatment - Conduct 4S screening - Physical verification and cross checking of drugs (pill counting) - To check when did they missed a dose last time - Use of colour, drawing, story-telling and role play to maintain adherence - Discuss the reasons for not taking/giving the pills - Check whether dose was taken at the correct time and discuss importance of timing - Explain the importance of adherence and work out fresh strategies for adherence - Discuss diet plan, nutrition, exercise, positive living, etc. - Review social and family support at regular basis - Discuss about ongoing treatment issues - Monitor failure of ART treatment - Fix an appointment for the next visit ### Table 1: Classification of TB case \| Classification \| Description \| \|--------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Microbiologically confirmed TB case \| TB patient with biological specimen positive for acid fast bacilli (AFB), or positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. TB) on culture, or through quality assured rapid diagnostic molecular test \| \| Clinically diagnosed TB case \| TB patient who is not microbiologically confirmed but has been clinically diagnosed with active TB by a clinician on the basis of radiological abnormalities or clinical signs with a decision to treat the patient with a full course of ATT \| \| Pulmonary TB \| Any microbiologically confirmed or clinically diagnosed case of TB involving lung parenchyma or tracheo-bronchial tree \| \| Extra-Pulmonary TB \| Any microbiologically confirmed or clinically diagnosed case of TB involving organs other than lungs, such as pleura, lymph node, intestine, joints, bones, etc. \| ### Table 2: Type of TB patient \| Category \| Type \| Description \| \|----------\|-----------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| A \| New \| A TB patient who has never had treatment for TB or has taken anti-TB drugs for less than one month \| \| B \| Previously treated \| A TB patient who has received one month or more of anti-TB drugs in the past \| \| \| I Recurrent \| A TB patient declared as successfully treated (cured/ treatment completed) and subsequently found to be microbiologically confirmed TB case \| \| \| II Treatment after failure \| A TB patient who has previously been treated for TB and the treatment failed at the end of their most recent course of treatment \| \| \| III Treatment after Loss to Follow Up (LFU) \| A TB patient previously treated for TB for one month or more and declared LFU in the end of their most recent course of treatment and subsequently found microbiologically positive \| \| \| IV Other previously treated patients \| TB patients who have been previously treated for TB but whose outcome after their most recent course of treatment is unknown or documented \| \| C \| Transferred in \| A TB patient who is received for treatment in a TB unit after registering for TB treatment in another TB unit \| Annexure 6: National TB Programme: Drug-Resistant TB – MDR-TB and XDR-TB MDR-TB: A TB patient, whose sputum is culture positive for M. tuberculosis and is resistant in-vitro to Isoniazid and Rifampicin with or without other anti-tubercular drugs based on DST results from an RNTCP-certified culture & DST laboratory. XDR-TB: An MDR TB case, whose recovered M. tuberculosis isolate, is resistant to at least Isoniazid, Rifampicin, a fluoroquinolone (Ofloxacin, Levofloxacin, or Moxifloxacin) and a second-line injectable anti-TB drug (Kanamycin, Amikacin, or Capreomycin) at an RNTCP-certified culture & DST laboratory. MDR-TB: Treatment (Category IV) - The intensive phase (6-9 months): - 6 drugs: Kanamycin, Levofloxacin, Ethionamide, Cycloserine, Pyrazinamide and Ethambutol - The continuation phase (18 months): - 4 drugs: Levofloxacin, Ethionamide, Ethambutol and Cycloserine - Reserve substitution drugs: - PAS, Capreomycin - Moxifloxacin XDR-TB: Treatment (Regimen V) - The Intensive Phase (6-12 months): - 7 drugs: Capreomycin, PAS, Moxifloxacin, High dose-INH, Clofazimine, Linezolid and Amoxyclav - The Continuation Phase (18 months): - 6 drugs: PAS, Moxifloxacin, High dose-INH, Clofazimine, Linezolid and Amoxyclav - Reserve substitution drugs: - Clarithromycin, Thioacetazone* (Thioacetazone is contraindicated for its use in PLHIV) Annexure 7: Anti-TB drugs – Adverse Drug reactions and Drug-drug interactions 1. Anti TB Drugs - Adverse Drug reactions Table 1: Symptoms and causative anti-TB drugs \| Symptoms \| Drug responsible \| \|-------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Upper abdominal pain – Frequent \| All oral anti-tubercular drugs \| \| nausea, vomiting \| All oral anti-tubercular drugs \| \| Nausea, vomiting with yellowness of skin and dark colour urine; Indication of Jaundice \| Mainly by Pyrazinamide, Rifampicin and Isoniazid \| \| Loose motions frequency > 4 times, liquid stools \| Poor hygiene and mainly by Isoniazid and Rifampicin \| \| Itching / Rashes \| Mainly by Ethambutol, Rifampicin and Streptomycin \| \| Rashes (SJ Syndrome / TEN) \| Mainly by Ethambutol, Rifampicin and Streptomycin \| \| Anaemia: Tiredness, lethargy, headache, pale look, palpitations \| Mainly Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide \| \| Ear toxicity: Ringing in the ears, loss of hearing, dizziness and loss of balance leading to recurrent fall \| Mainly Streptomycin and other amino glycosides \| \| Kidney toxicity: Swelling of face or legs, less or no urine \| \| \| Giddiness, feeling abnormal \| Mainly Streptomycin and Isoniazid \| \| Tingling / burning / numbness in the hands and feet \| Mainly Isoniazid \| \| Seizure: Convulsions \| Isoniazid \| \| Psychiatric disturbances: Seeing abnormal things, change of thoughts, suicidal thoughts \| Isoniazid \| 2. Algorithm for reintroduction of ATT \| Adverse drug reaction \| Advice on reintroduction \| \|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Hepatotoxicity \| Can be given after liver enzyme returns to 2x ULN \| \| Ocular toxicity \| • The main suspect drug is Ethambutol \| \| \| • Reintroduction of Ethambutol is not recommended \| \| Immune mediated Nephritis \| • The main suspect drug is Rifampicin \| \| \| • Reintroduction with Rifampicin is not recommended \| \| Non-serious cutaneous ADRs -No mucous membrane involvement or less than 10 % of BSA \| After withholding all drugs re-introduce the drug one at a time \| \| Serious Cutaneous adverse drug reactions - mucous membrane involvement or more than 10 % of BSA \| Reintroduction is not recommended (applies for all anti-tubercular drugs) \| \| Immune thrombocytopenia \| • The main suspect drug is Rifampicin \| \| \| • Reintroduction with Rifampicin is not recommended \| \| Aplastic Anaemia \| • The main suspect drug is INH \| \| \| • Reintroduction with INH is not recommended \| \| Condition \| Notes \| \|-----------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Nephrotoxicity \| - The main suspect drugs are Aminoglycosides (AGs) \| \| \| - Reintroduction at low doses of AGs can be given after the renal \| \| \| function returns to normal \| \| Ototoxicity \| - The main suspect drugs are AGs \| \| \| - Reintroduction with AGs is not recommended \| \| Diarrhoea \| - Reintroduction is recommended with one drug at a time every \| \| \| fourth day, once the diarrhoea is resolved \| Stepwise increase in the dosage for reintroduction For key drugs, Isoniazid, Rifampicin, Ethambutol, detailed desensitisation protocol with very small dose and method of dosage preparation is given below: \| Drug \| Day 1 \| Day 2 \| Day 3 \| \|---------------\|----------\|----------\|----------\| \| Isoniazid \| 50 mg \| Full dose\| Full dose\| \| Rifampicin \| 75 mg \| 300 mg \| Full dose\| \| Pyrazinamide \| 250 mg \| 1000 mg \| Full dose\| \| Ethambutol \| 100 mg \| 500 mg \| Full dose\| If the test dose of any drug causes a reaction, discontinue this drug, unless it is deemed essential to the regimen. If that is the case, desensitisation can be considered. If rash was particularly severe, dose increment should still be slower. ### 3. Management of drug induced Hepatitis - Features that indicate the need to stop medication - Transient, asymptomatic increases in serum liver transaminases occur during the early weeks of treatment - There is no need to interrupt or change treatment unless there is anorexia, malaise, vomiting or clinically evident jaundice - Clinical features of concern include protracted vomiting, mental changes, and signs of bleeding – all of which suggest impending acute liver failure and require immediate discontinuation of anti-tuberculosis medications - Management of jaundice and other severe features - If jaundice or any of the clinical features suggestive of acute liver failure develop, all drugs must be stopped until the jaundice or hepatic symptoms have resolved and the liver enzymes have returned to baseline levels - Other causes of hepatitis must be sought - It is advisable to wait 2 weeks after the jaundice has disappeared before starting tuberculosis treatment ### 4. Anti-TB drugs: Dosage adjustment In Renal impairment - Dose modification for anti-TB drugs: - Severity of renal impairment is defined by creatinine clearance (CrCl) and renal impairment is considered as: Mild (1.5-2 mg/dl serum creatinine) Moderate (2-3 mg/dl serum creatinine) Severe (> 3 mg/dl serum creatinine) Creatinine Clearance calculation by Cockcroft Gault formula • Required Details: o Patient’s Age in years o Patient’s Weight in kg o Patient’s Serum Creatinine in mg/dl • Calculating Creatinine Clearance: Cockcroft and Gault Formula ▪ CrCl (ml/min) = \frac{(140 - \text{age in years}) \times \text{weight in kg}}{72 \times \text{serum creatinine in mg/dl}} • In female subject, the whole product need to be multiplied by 0.85 ### Annexure 8: National TB Programme: TB drugs side effects and interactions \| Drug \| Side effects \| Potential drug interactions \| Notes \| \|----------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Rifampicin \| Gut upset, rash, fever, orange urine / tears / saliva, light sensitivity, liver problems, acute renal failure \| PIs, NNRTIs, ‘-azole’ anti-fungal drugs, oral contraceptives, methadone, dapsone \| Do not use with PIs or Nevirapine \| \| Rifabutin \| Gut upset, rash, eye inflammation, blood cell changes, joint pain, orange urine / tears / saliva, liver function changes, fever \| PIs, NNRTIs, fluconazole, oral contraceptives, steroids, methadone \| Avoid wearing soft contact lenses as they can become discoloured. Avoid Nevirapine \| TB drugs with different Anti-retroviral drugs used in adults \| ARV \| Rifampicin \| Rifabutin \| Notes \| \|----------------------\|------------\|-----------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| NRTIs (Zidovudine, Tenofovir, Lamivudine, Stavudine) \| Use as per weight band \| Use \| No interactions \| \| Efavirenz \| Use as per weight band \| Use \| Efavirenz usual dose (600 mg daily) \| \| Nevirapine \| Drug interaction Do not use \| Do not use \| High risk of liver toxicity \| \| Boosted PIs \| Drug interaction Do not use \| Use (150 mg daily) \| Rifabutin does not have interaction with PIs Rifabutin: 150 mg daily \| \| Raltegravir \| Use as per weight band \| - \| • Rifampicin has interaction with Raltegravir • In the presence of Rifampicin, Raltegravir dosage has to be 800 mg twice daily \| \| Raltegravir \| - \| Use (150 mg daily) \| When Rifabutin is used in place of Rifampicin, dosage of Raltegravir has to be 400 mg twice daily \| ## Darunavir interactions with Rifabutin \| Drug \| Dose of Drug \| Dose of Rifabutin \| Effect on Drug Levels \| Effect on Rifabutin Levels \| Potential Clinical Effects \| Mechanism of Interaction \| Management \| \|---------------\|--------------\|-------------------\|-----------------------\|----------------------------\|----------------------------\|--------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\| \| Darunavir (DRV) \| 600 mg Q12H \| 150 mg QOD \| Darunavir AUC: increased 57%; Cmin: increased 75%; Cmax: increased 42% Ritonavir AUC: increased 66%; Cmin: increased 31%; Cmax: increased 68% \| Rifabutin AUC: no significant change; Cmin: increased 64%; Cmax: decreased 28% 25-O-desacetylrifabutin AUC: increased 881%; Cmin: increased 2610%; Cmax: increased 377% \| Increased Darunavir and Rifabutin effects \| Inhibition of CYP450 3A4 by Darunavir \| Reduce Rifabutin dose to 150 mg QOD when combined with Darunavir/ritonavir \| Annexure 9: Additional Guidance on Tenofovir related renal toxicity Tenofovir (TDF) is now the preferred first-line ART for all new patients to be enrolled in the national programme. It has a good overall safety profile, with fewer metabolic side-effects and mitochondrial toxicities. TDF has a relatively long half-life, allowing once daily dosing and making compliance easier for patients. The major side effects of TDF are: - Renal toxicity - Decrease in bone marrow density However out of these, most significant is TDF related renal toxicity, though overall incidence may by only 3-5%. The renal proximal tubule (PT) is the main target of TDF toxicity; however, although the pathogenesis is incompletely elucidated, mitochondria appear to be a major target. Effect on glomerular function: In a pooled analysis comparing TDF with Zidovudine a modest but significant decline in eGFR was observed in the TDF-exposed patients. A meta-analysis that included data from 17 studies concluded that TDF exposure is associated with a mean difference in estimated creatinine clearance (CrCl) of −3.9 ml/min over the course of treatment. However, this meta-analysis also found a high degree of statistical heterogeneity in the published data, due to variability in parameters such as follow-up time, previous anti-retroviral therapy (ART) exposure and concomitant usage of protease inhibitors (PIs). Effect on tubular function: Serum creatinine and eGFR are predominantly measurements of glomerular function. However, the main target of TDF nephrotoxicity is the PT; in severe cases TDF leads to a breakdown of solute transport in this nephron segment (renal Fanconi syndrome—FS) or acute kidney injury (AKI). Fanconi syndrome includes aminoaciduria, glycosuria, tubular proteinuria, uricosuria and also bone demineralization due to phosphate wasting. This may lead to acute renal failure and this renal toxicity can usually present after 20 weeks or more of Tenofovir therapy; resolution typically takes place within 10 weeks after the discontinuation of the therapy. Numerous case reports and case series have described FS or AKI in HIV-infected patients taking TDF. The exact incidence of TDF-induced FS is unknown, and attempts at accurate estimates are hampered by underreporting and a lack of clear diagnostic criteria, but based on the available data it is probably < 1%. Renal biopsy specimens from patients with TDF toxicity typically show acute tubular damage, with misshapen and swollen mitochondria in the PT on electron microscopy. While cases of FS and AKI are relatively infrequent in patients taking TDF, these represent the most severe end of the scale of PT toxicity. Studies have demonstrated that generally it is mild or sub-clinical PT dysfunction in patients on TDF. The reported prevalence varies among studies, partly because of a lack of standardized definitions, but may be greater than 20%. It is currently unknown whether mild PT toxicity will lead to progressive CKD over time in these patients, but one credible concern is that chronic phosphate wasting might cause a decrease in bone mineral density. Effect on tubular secretion of creatinine: Serum creatinine is widely used to calculate CrCl/eGFR. However, in addition to glomerular filtration, about 10–40% of creatinine clearance occurs by secretion across the PT epithelium. Decline in CrCl/eGFR within the first 2–3 months of commencing therapy, with very little further change over time, has been seen in many studies. Therefore, given the pattern of CrCl/eGFR changes reported in patients taking TDF, it is plausible that they might be due to impaired PT creatinine secretion, rather than alterations in the actual GFR. To explore this hypothesis, a recent small study of 19 HIV-infected patients, either remaining on Zidovudine therapy or switching to TDF, looked in detail at changes over time in actual GFR, calculated CrCl, and urine excretion of tubular. In the patients switching to TDF, mean CrCl was significantly decreased, while urine excretion of tubular protein was significantly increased after 48 weeks; however, there was no corresponding change in the actual GFR, and no changes in any of the three parameters were observed in the Zidovudine group. This helps to conclude that the decrease in CrCl in TDF patients was more likely to be due to impaired PT creatinine secretion rather than a change in the glomerular function. Guidance for treatment: The main target of TDF toxicity is the proximal tubule. Hence, to suspect renal toxicity, the presence of tubular proteinuria is thought to be the most sensitive test of proximal tubule dysfunction. For monitoring renal tubular dysfunction, which often results in Fanconi Syndrome, urine routine showing pH as acidic along with glycosuria and albuminuria will be sufficient for the diagnosis, though a 24-hour urine sample for phosphate, (hypophosphatemia and hypokalaemia) protein and calcium are confirmatory. If feasible, the creatinine clearance may also be calculated and any adverse raise in the level of serum creatinine should raise suspicion about early signs of renal damage. For initiating on TDF-containing regimens, creatinine clearance calculation is recommended, if feasible, before initiation and every 6 months. Especially in patients of high risk situations like underlying renal disease, Age > 40 years, BMI < 18.5 (or body weight < 50 kg), diabetes mellitus, hypertension, concomitant use of nephrotoxic drugs, doing a creatinine clearance is strongly recommended for this population before opting for TDF. The inability to perform creatinine clearance is not a barrier to TDF use. Hence in a resource limited setting, TDF can even be started without a creatinine clearance level; however, the above-mentioned risk factors should be assessed. TDF dose should be reduced in patients with pre-existing decreased kidney function Cockcroft- Gault (CG) formula: eGFR = (140 – age) X (Weight in kg) X 0.85 (if female) / (72 X Cr in mg %) Do not continue TDF when the estimated glomerular filtration rate is < 50 ml/min. In patients suspected with Fanconi syndrome, treatment should be stopped and resolution typically occurs within 10 weeks after discontinuation of the therapy. Patients receiving TDF and meeting any one of the four below mentioned criteria should have kidney function (eGFR) and serum phosphate measured every 6 months and be analyzed for proteinuria and glycosuria. 1. GFR < 90 ml/min 2. Use of other medications eliminated through renal secretion (e.g., adefovir, acyclovir, ganciclovir, or cidofovir) 3. Other co-morbid diseases (e.g., diabetes or hypertension) 4. Following a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor regimen TENOFOVIR INDUCED RENAL TOXICITY Measure eGFR Pre-treatment - Reduce Tenofovir dose, if eGFR is < 60 Assess Risk factor for Renal Toxicity - Age - Body weight - eGFR is <90 ml/min - Other renally excreted drugs Measure every 3 months for one year, then biannually 1. eGFR 2. Functional excretion of phosphates 3. Urine protein / creatinine ratio 4. Urine Glucose Stop Tenofovir, If significant and sustained changes in 1-4 Continue with monitoring, if small increase in 5 only ARV Drugs: Dosage Adjustment in relation to Creatinine Clearance values \| Creatinine Clearance \| Tenofovir Dose \| Creatinine Clearance \| Lamivudine Dose \| \|----------------------\|-------------------------\|----------------------\|-----------------------\| \| 30-49 \| 300 mg q48h \| 30-49 \| 150 mg QD \| \| 10-29 \| 300 mg twice a week \| 15-29 \| 150 mg 1st dose and \| \| \| \| \| then 100 mg QD \| \| < 10* \| Not recommended \| \| \| \| HD \| Every 7 days, after dialysis \| 5-14 \| 150 mg 1st dose and \| \| \| \| \| then 50 mg QD \| \| \| \| Less than 5 or on Haemodialysis \| 50 mg 1st dose and \| \| \| \| \| then 25 mg QD \| Note: The pharmacokinetics of Tenofovir have not been evaluated in non-HD patients with CrCl < 10ml/min; therefore, no dosing recommendation is available for those patients ## Annexure 10: Grading of selected clinical and laboratory toxicities \| Estimating severity of grade \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening Grade 4 \| \|-----------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Clinical adverse events NOT identified elsewhere in the table \| Symptoms causing minimal or no interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing greater than minimal interference with usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform usual social and functional activities \| Symptoms causing inability to perform basic self-care OR medical or operative intervention indicated to prevent permanent impairment, permanent disability or death \| \| Haemoglobin \| 8.0 – 9.4 g/dl \| 7.0 – 7.9 g/dl \| 6.5 – 6.9 g/dl \| <6.5 g/dl \| \| Absolute neutrophil count \| 1000 – 1500/cmm \| 750 – 999/cmm \| 500 – 749/cmm \| <500/cmm \| \| Platelets \| 75000 – 99000/cmm \| 50000 – 74999/cmm \| 20000 – 49999/cmm \| <20000/cmm \| \| hyper bilirubinaemia \| >1.0 – 1.5 X ULN \| >1.5 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.5 – 5 X ULN \| >5 X ULN \| \| Glucose (Fasting) \| 110 – 125 mg/dl \| 126 – 250 mg/dl \| 251 – 500 mg/dl \| >500 mg/dl \| \| Hypoglycaemia \| 55 – 64 mg/dl \| 40 – 54 mg/dl \| 30 – 39 mg/dl \| <30 mg/dl \| \| Hyperglycaemia (non-fasting no prior diabetes) \| 116 – 160 mg/dl \| 161 – 250 mg/dl \| 251 – 500 mg/dl \| >500 mg/dl \| \| Triglycerides \| - \| 400 – 750 mg/dl \| 750 – 1200 mg/dl \| >1200 mg/dl \| \| Creatinine \| >1.0 – 1.5 X ULN \| >1.5 – 3.0 X ULN \| >0 – 6.0 X ULN \| >6.0 X ULN \| \| AST (SGOT) \| 1.25 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.25 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 – 10.0 X ULN \| >10.0 X ULN \| \| ALT (SGPT) \| 1.25 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.25 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 – 10.0 X ULN \| >10.0 X ULN \| \| GGT \| 1.25 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.25 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 – 10.0 X ULN \| >10.0 X ULN \| \| Alkaline Phosphatase \| 1.25 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.25 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 – 10.0 X ULN \| >10.0 X ULN \| \| Bilirubin \| 1.1 – 1.5 X ULN \| 1.6 – 2.5 X ULN \| 2.6 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 X ULN \| \| Amylase \| >1.0 – 1.5 X ULN \| >1.5 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.0 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 X ULN \| \| Pancreatic amylase \| >1.0 – 1.5 X ULN \| >1.5 – 2.5 X ULN \| >2.0 – 5.0 X ULN \| >5.0 X ULN \| \| Lactate \| <2.0 x ULN without acidosis \| >2.0 x ULN without acidosis \| Increased lactate with pH < 7.3 without life threatening consequences \| Increased lactate with pH < 7.3 with life threatening consequences \| \| Gastrointestinal \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening \| \|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\|---------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Nausea \| Mild OR transient; reasonable intake maintained \| Moderate discomfort OR intake decreased for < 3 days \| Severe discomfort OR minimal intake for > 3 days \| Hospitalization required \| \| Vomiting \| Mild OR transient; 2-3 episodes per day OR mild vomiting lasting < 1 week \| Moderate OR persistent; 4-5 episodes per day OR vomiting lasting > 1 week \| Severe vomiting of all foods/fluids in 24 hours OR orthostatic hypotension OR intravenous treatment required \| Hypertensive shock OR Hospitalization for intravenous treatment required \| \| Diarrhoea \| Mild OR transient; 3-4 loose stools per day OR mild diarrhoea lasting < 1 week \| Moderate OR persistent; 5-7 loose stools per day OR diarrhoea lasting > 1 week \| Bloody diarrhoea OR orthostatic hypotension OR > 7 loose stools/day OR intravenous treatment required \| Hypertensive shock OR Hospitalization required \| \| Respiratory \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening \| \|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\|---------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Dyspnoea \| Dyspnoea on exertion \| Dyspnoea with normal activity \| Dyspnoea at rest \| Dyspnoea requiring Oxygen therapy \| \| Urine analysis \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening \| \|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\|---------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Proteinuria \| \| \| \| \| \| Spot urine \| 1+ \| 2+ or 3+ \| 4+ \| Nephrotic Syndrome \| \| 24 hours urine \| 200 mg to 1 g loss/day OR < 0.3% OR < 3 g/L \| 1 g to 2 g loss/day OR 0.3% to 1% OR 3 g to 10 g/L \| 2 g to 3.5 g loss/day OR > 1% OR > 10 g/L \| Nephrotic Syndrome OR > 3.5 g loss/day \| \| Gross Haematuria \| Microscopic only \| Gross, no clots \| Gross plus clots \| Obstructive \| \| Miscellaneous \| Mild Grade 1 \| Moderate Grade 2 \| Severe Grade 3 \| Potentially life-threatening \| \|------------------\|--------------\|-----------------\|---------------\|-----------------------------\| \| Fever (Oral, >12 hours) \| 37.7-38.5°C OR 100.0-101.5°F \| 38.6-39.5°C OR 101.6-102.9°F \| 39.6-40.50C OR 103-105°F \| > 40.5°C OR > 1050F for > 12 continuous hours \| \| Headache \| Mild; No treatment required \| Moderate OR non-narcotic analgesia treatment \| Severe OR responds to initial narcotic treatment \| Intractable \| \| Allergic Reaction \| Pruritus without rash \| Localized urticaria \| Generalized Urticaria, angioedema \| Anaphylaxis \| \| Condition \| Erythema, pruritus \| Diffuse maculopapular rash OR dry desquamation \| Vesiculation OR moist desquamation OR ulceration \| ANY ONE OF: Mucous membrane involvement, suspected Stevens-Johnson syndrome, Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN), Erythema Multiforme, Exfoliative Dermatitis \| \|-----------------\|--------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Rash \| \| \| \| \| \| Hypersensitivity\| \| \| \| \| \| Fatigue \| Normal activity reduced by < 25% \| Normal activity reduced by 25–50% \| Normal activity reduced by > 50%; cannot work \| Unable to care for self \| Source: Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Version 1.0 December 2004 clarification August 2009* Note: This clarification includes addition of Grade 5 toxicity, which is death Annexure 11: Algorithm of WHO Recommendations on the Management of Persons with Chronic Hepatitis B infection HBsAg Positive Cirrhosis - Clinical Criteria - NITs (APRI score >2 in adults or FibroScan) YES AGE ≥30 years (in particular) ALT Persistently abnormal HBA DNA >20000 Initiate NA Therapy & Monitor - Tenofovir or Entecavir - Entecavir in children aged 2 to 11 years Every 6 months Detection of HCC (Persons with cirrhosis or HCC family History) Every 12 months Disease Progression and/or Treatment response in all - Adherence at each visit, if on treatment - ALT, HBV DNA and HbeAg - Clinical criteria and NITs (APRI in adults or FibroScan) Baseline and Every 12 months Toxicity Monitoring in Persons on Treatment Renal function and risk factors for renal dysfunction CIRRHOSIS Life Long treatment NO AGE ≤30 years ALT Persistently Normal Defer Treatment and Monitor ALT Persistently Normal No Cirrhosis - And HBeAg loss and sero-conversion to HBe and after completion of at least one additional year of treatment - And persistently normal ALT - And persistently undetectable HBV DNA NITs non-invasive tests, ALT alanine aminotransferase, APRI aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index a Defined as persistence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) for six months or more. The algorithm does not capture all potential scenarios, but the main categories for treatment or monitoring. Recommendations for settings without access to HBV DNA testing are provided in the relevant chapters. b Clinical features of decompensated cirrhosis: Portal hypertension (ascites, variceal haemorrhage and hepatic encephalopathy), coagulopathy, or liver insufficiency (jaundice). Other clinical features of advanced liver disease/cirrhosis may include: hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, pruritus, fatigue, arthralgia, palmar erythema, and oedema. c The age cut-off of > 30 years is not absolute, and some persons with CHB less than 30 years may also meet criteria for antiviral treatment. d ALT levels fluctuate in persons with chronic hepatitis B and require longitudinal monitoring to determine the trend. Upper limits for normal ALT have been defined as below 30 U/L for men and 19 U/L for women, though local laboratory normal ranges should be applied. Persistently normal/abnormal may be defined as three ALT determinations below or above the upper limit of normal, made at unspecified intervals during a 6-12-month period or pre-defined intervals during 12-month period. e Where HBV DNA testing is not available, treatment may be considered based on persistently abnormal ALT levels, but other common causes of persistently raised ALT levels such as impaired glucose tolerance, dyslipidaemia and fatty liver should be excluded. f All persons with CHB should be monitored regularly for disease activity/progression and detection of HCC, and after stopping treatment for evidence of reactivation. More frequent monitoring maybe required in those with more advanced liver disease, during the first year of treatment or where adherence is a concern, and in those with abnormal ALT and HBV DNA levels > 2000 IU/ml, not yet on treatment. g Before initiation, assessment should be done of renal function (serum creatinine level, estimated glomerular filtration rate, urine dipsticks for proteinuria and glycosuria, and risk factors for renal dysfunction (decompensated cirrhosis, CrCl < 50 ml/min, poorly controlled hypertension, proteinuria, uncontrolled diabetes, active glomerulonephritis, concomitant nephrotoxic drugs, solid organ transplantation, older age, BMI < 18.5 kg/m² (or body weight < 50 kg), concomitant use of nephrotoxic drugs or a boosted protease inhibitor (PI) for HIV). Monitoring should be more frequent in those at higher risk of renal dysfunction. Annexure 12: Atazanavir induced Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia Background The recommended prescribed dose of Atazanavir (ATV) is ATV 300 mg + Ritonavir (RTV) 100 mg once daily. No dosage adjustment is required for patients with renal dysfunction unless they are on haemodialysis. Considering the widespread use of Atazanavir, clinicians caring for HIV-infected patients should have familiarity with the entity of protease inhibitor-associated hyper bilirubinaemia. Isolated unconjugated hyper bilirubinaemia is the most common laboratory abnormality associated with the use of Atazanavir and this is not associated with hepatocellular injury. Although not considered a serious adverse effect, the higher levels of unconjugated hyper bilirubinaemia associated with this drug can manifest as jaundice with high coloured urine. The onset of Atazanavir associated hyper bilirubinaemia typically occurs within several months, and bilirubin levels generally peak within 4 months (range 1 to 8 months); the subsequent natural history on therapy is notable for a non-progressive course, with bilirubin levels remaining generally stable in patients on further follow-up. Routine monitoring of bilirubin is acceptable. An isolated elevation in total bilirubin should be confirmed as predominantly unconjugated by testing the indirect fraction of bilirubin. The presence of elevated conjugated bilirubin or changes in serum hepatic aminotransferases or alkaline phosphatase warrant further investigation for other causes of hyper bilirubinaemia, such as other drug hepatotoxicity, viral hepatitis, alcoholic hepatitis or cholestasis. It is important to recognize that patients who are on Atazanavir but with acute haemolysis will also develop increased indirect bilirubin levels. Management For patients who develop clinically evident jaundice, the decision whether to discontinue the offending protease inhibitor (Atazanavir) usually depends on how severe and noticeable the jaundice is, and whether the patient is willing to tolerate it. Additional work-up is not required if liver enzymes are not raised and are consistent with baseline values. The patient requires proper counselling on the development of yellowish discolouration of eye, which is not associated with liver damage. It must be re-emphasized that the discolouration was physiological and he/she need not be alarmed. Dose reduction of Atazanavir is not recommended in this setting. In most cases, a change to an alternative regimen is necessary only for patients who develop an unacceptable level of jaundice with Grade 3 (5-10 times of ULN) and 4 (> 10 times of ULN) elevation of serum ALT and AST. In case of hepatic insufficiency, dosage adjustment is recommended. Child-Pugh score is utilized to assess the severity and prognosis of chronic liver disease and to identify patients who require liver transplantation. This score is to be used only in those HIV infected subjects who have concomitant chronic liver disease e.g. chronic hepatitis B and C, alcoholic liver disease, NASH and other chronic liver diseases. ATV/r (300/100 mg) can only be used in patients with chronic liver disease in Child Pugh Class A. It should not be used on second-line patients with Child Pugh Class B or C. Please refer the following tables for the scores and classifications. \| Component \| Child-Pugh Score \| \|------------------------------------------------\|------------------\| \| \| Points 1 \| Points 2 \| Points 3 \| \| Encephalopathy \| none \| Grade 1–2 \| Grade 3–4 \| \| Ascites \| none \| Mild or controlled by diuretics \| Moderate or refractory despite Diuretic \| \| Albumin \| > 3.5 g/dl \| 2.8–3.5 g/dl \| < 2.8 g/dl \| \| Total bilirubin or Modified total bilirubin (for patients of Gilbert Disease and patients on Atazanavir & Indinavir) \| < 2 mg/dl (< 34 µmol/L) \| 2–3 mg/dl (34 µmol/L to 50 µmol/L) \| > 3 mg/dl (> 50 µmol/L) \| \| Prothrombin time (seconds prolonged) \| < 4 \| 4–6 \| > 6 \| \| International normalized ratio (INR) \| < 1.7 \| 1.7–2.3 \| > 2.3 \| Encephalopathy Grades - Grade 1: Mild confusion, anxiety, restlessness, fine tremor, slowed coordination - Grade 2: Drowsiness, disorientation, asterixis - Grade 3: Somnolent but arousable, marked confusion, incomprehensible speech, incontinence, and hyperventilation - Grade 4: Coma, decerebrate posturing, flaccidity Child-Pugh Classification \| Child-Pugh Classification \| Total Score \| \|---------------------------\|-------------\| \| Class A \| 5-6 points \| \| Class B \| 7-9 points \| \| Class C \| > 9 points \| Annexure 13: Risk Assessment guide for the Source Patient The following points need to be covered when questioning and examining the source patient. These need to take into consideration the local HIV epidemiology, clinical and cultural conditions. There is no such thing as a "score" in this regard—it is up to the doctor to interpret the results of the clinical assessment. It is important that questioning be conducted in a way that reveals relevant events that may have occurred several years ago: 1. Family history: Have any family members recently been ill or died. What was the cause? 2. Recent personal history of HIV acute infection symptoms (generally appear 3 to 6 weeks after infection): general lymphadenopathy (predominantly in the cervical and axillary areas); fever of unknown origin; muscular cramps, joint pain; skin rash, urticaria; oral and genital ulcers. 3. Individual’s personal “risk history” of HIV - Has the source person ever had a blood transfusion? If so, under which conditions? - Has the source person had injections or surgical procedures (including any traditional scarification) with non-sterile/reusable clinical material? - Is the source person an injecting drug user (IDU) and does s/he possess injection material? - Does the source person belong to a population group considered at risk? For example: sex worker, truck driver; migrant worker; soldier, men who have sex with men - Is the source person involved in high-risk sexual activities? Example: practicing unsafe sex with multiple partners; already treated or undergoing treatment for a sexually transmitted disease; having sexual partners of a person in any of the above categories. 4. Suspicion or actual presence of symptoms and/or HIV infection within the previous six months or more: tuberculosis; continuous or intermittent fever; chronic diarrhoea; weight loss; chronic cough lasting longer than a month; skin infections (severe and/or recurrent); oral thrush; night sweats 5. Clinical examination findings - Cardinal signs: Pneumocystis Jiroveci pneumonia (PCP); cerebral toxoplasma; oesophageal candidiasis; cytomegalovirus retinitis - Characteristic signs: oral thrush; hairy leucoplakia of the tongue; Cryptococcal meningitis; pulmonary or extra-pulmonary tuberculosis; herpes zoster - particularly multi-dermatomal; severe prurigo; high-grade B-cell extra-nodal lymphoma - Associated signs: weight loss (recent, unexplained) of more than 10% of initial body weight; fever (continuous or intermittent) for longer than a month; diarrhoea (continuous or intermittent) for longer than a month; ulcers (genital or perianal) for more than a month; cough lasting longer than a month; neurological complaints or findings; generalised lymphadenopathy (except extrainguinal) reactions to drugs (not previously observed); skin infections (severe and/or recurrent): e.g. warts, dermatophytes, folliculitis, lymphopenia (known) 6. Past history of any long term medical treatment (e.g. anti-TB treatment, antiretroviral therapy) Annexure 14: WHO Weight-for-age Chart (Birth-5 years of age) Weight-for-age BOYS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Weight (kg) Age (completed months and years) WHO Child Growth Standards Weight-for-age GIRLS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Weight (kg) Age (completed months and years) WHO Child Growth Standards Annexure 15: WHO Length/Height-for-age Chart (Birth to 5 years of age) Length/Height-for-age BOYS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Length/Height (cm) Age (completed months and years) WHO Child Growth Standards Length/Height-for-age GIRLS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Length/Height (cm) Age (completed months and years) WHO Child Growth Standards 5 to 18 Years : IAP Boys Height and Weight Charts Father's Height __________, Mother's Height __________, Target Height __________ Revised IAP growth charts for weight, weight & body mass index for 5 to 18 year old Indian children. V. Khadilkar et al., from Indian Academy of Pediatrics Growth Chart Committee, Indian Pediatrics, Jan 2015, volume 52 Annexure 17: IAP Girls Height and Weight chart: 5-18 years 5 to 18 Years : IAP Girls Height and Weight Charts Father's Height __________, Mother's Height __________, Target Height __________ Revised IAP growth charts for weight, weight & body mass index (for 5 to 18 year old Indian children). V. Khadilkar et al., from Indian Academy of Pediatrics Growth Chart Committee Indian Pediatrics, Jan 2015, volume 52 Annexure 18: WHO Weight for Length/Height chart: 0-5 years Weight-for-length/height BOYS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Weight (kg) Length/Height (cm) WHO Child Growth Standards Weight-for-length/height GIRLS Birth to 5 years (z-scores) Weight (kg) Length/Height (cm) WHO Child Growth Standards Annexure 19: IAP Boys BMI chart 5-18 years 5 to 18 Years : IAP Boys Body Mass Index Charts Name ____________________________ DOB ____________________________ IAP Boys BMI Chart 5-18 years Revised IAP growth charts for height, weight & body mass index for 5 to 18 year old Indian children Vishwakarma et al from India’s Academy of Pediatrics Growth Chart Committee Indian Pediatrics Jan 2015, volume 52 Audit equivalent (Risk for Obesity) Audit equivalent (Risk for Overweight) Annexure 20: IAP Girls BMI chart 5-18 years 5 to 18 Years : IAP Girls Body Mass Index Charts Name ____________________________ DOB ____________________________ IAP Girls BMI Chart 5 - 18 years Revised IAP growth charts for height weight & body mass index for 5 to 18 year old Indian children V Subramanian et al from Indian Academy of Pediatrics Growth Chart Committee Indian Pediatrics Jan 2015, volume 52 Audit equivalent (Risk for Obesity) Audit equivalent (Risk for Overweight) Age in Years Annexure 21: Safe Preparation of Formula / Animal Milk and the amount of milk the child will need at different ages - Wash your hands with soap and water before preparing a feed. - Use clean utensils for preparation of feed. - Use suitable infant formula reconstituted as per manufacturers recommendations/ undiluted animal milk with a cup (katori or katori and spoon). Remember cup or spoon feeding is safer than bottle-feeding. (Evidence suggests formula feed is nutritionally more suitable) - Wash the utensils with soap and water \| Animal milk feed \| Formula Feed \| \|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| To prepare milk feed mix 1 level teaspoon of sugar in 1 cup boiled whole cow’s milk. Give plain water (preferably boiled and cooled) to the infant between feeds \| Always use the marked cup or glass to measure water and the scoop to measure the formula powder as per manufacturer’s recommendation Measure the exact amount of powder that you will need for one feed Boil enough water vigorously for 1 or 2 seconds Add the hot water to the powdered formula. The water should be added while it is still hot and not after it has cooled down. Stir well Only make enough formula for one feed at a time. Do not keep milk in a thermos flask because it will become contaminated quickly Demonstrate and let the mother show mixing of correct amounts of water and formula powder \| Table showing the amount of milk the child will need at different ages: \| Age \| Approximate amount of milk in 24 hours \| Approximate number of feeds \| \|----------------------\|---------------------------------------\|-----------------------------\| \| 0-4 weeks \| 200-500 mL \| 8 x 60 mL \| \| 1 up to 2 months \| 650 mL \| 7 x 90 mL \| \| 2 up to 3 months \| 750 mL \| 6 x 120 mL \| \| 3 up to 4 months \| 750 mL \| 6 x 120 mL \| \| 4 up to 5 months \| 900 mL \| 6 x 150 mL \| \| 5 up to 6 months \| 900 mL \| 6 x 150 mL \| ### Annexure 22: IMNCI guidelines on feeding recommendations for children Table showing the amount of milk the child will need at different ages: \| Up to 6 months \| 6 to 12 months \| 12 months – 2 years \| 2 years and older \| \|----------------\|----------------\|---------------------\|------------------\| \| Breast feed as often as the child wants, day and night, at least 8 times in 24 hours. Do not give any other foods or fluids not even water. \| Breast feed as often as the child wants. Give at least one Katori serving at a time: Mashed roti / rice / bread / biscuit mixed in sweetened undiluted milk OR Mashed roti / rice / bread mixed in thick dal with added ghee / oil or khichri with added oil / ghee. Add cooked vegetables also in the servings OR Sevian / dalia / halwa / kheer prepared in milk or any cereal porridge cooked in milk OR Mashed boiled/fried potatoes 3 times per day if breast fed; 5 times per day if not breast fed \| Breast feed as often as the child wants. Offer food from the family pot. Give at least 1½ Katori serving at a time of: Mashed roti / rice / bread mixed in thick dal with added ghee / oil or khichri with added oil / ghee. Add cooked vegetables also in the servings OR Mashed roti / rice / bread / biscuit mixed in sweetened undiluted milk OR Sevian / dalia / halwa / kheer prepared in milk or any cereal porridge cooked in milk OR Mashed boiled/fried potatoes Also give nutritious food between meals, such as: banana/ biscuit/ cheeko/ mango/papaya as snacks 5 times per day \| Give family foods at 3 meals each day. Also, twice daily, give nutritious food between meals, such as: banana / biscuit cheeko / mango / papaya as snacks \| Remember* - Continue breastfeeding if the child is sick - Keep the child in your lap and feed with your own hands - Wash you own and child’s hands with soap and water every time before feeding - Ensure that the child finishes the serving - Wash your child’s hands with soap and water every time before feeding - Ensure that the child finishes the serving - Teach your child wash his hands with soap and water every time before feeding ### Annexure 23: Age related food intake standards for children \| Age Related Milk and Food Standards \| Milk Toned (ml) \| Food Cooked \| Approximate Calories \| \|-------------------------------------\|-----------------\|-------------\|----------------------\| \| 6 – 11 Months \| If BF, then frequently or on demand If not BF, then 500 mL Milk \| If BF, give ½ K Cereals 3 times/day If not BF, give ½ K Cereals 5 times/day + ½ K Vegetable + ½ K Dal + ½ Egg* \| 645 Kcal (If not BF) \| \| 12 – 23 Months \| 500 mL \| 1 K Cereals 3 – 4 times/day + 3/4 K Vegetable + 3/4 K Dal + 1 Egg* \| 925 – 1000 Kcal \| \| 2 – 5 Years \| 500 – 750 mL \| 6 – 8 Cereal Exchanges/day + 1 K Vegetable + 1 K Dal + 1 Egg* \| 1100 – 1250 Kcal \| \| 5 – 9 Years \| 500 – 750 mL \| 8 – 10 Cereal Exchanges / day + 2 K Vegetable + 2 K Dal + 1 Egg* \| 1350 – 1650 Kcal \| \| 10 – 14 Years \| 500 – 750 mL \| 12–14 Cereal Exchanges / day + 3 K Vegetable + 2 K Dal + 2 Eggs* \| 2000 – 2200 Kcal \| BF: Breastfeeding 1 K = 1 Medium Size Katori = 150 mL 1 Egg = 2 pcs (30g) Non-Veg or 3O g Paneer or 100 g curd #### Cereal Exchange List \| Exchange of Cereal \| 1 Chapatti (20gm), 1 Bread Slice, ½ K khichri, ½ K Suji Kheer ½ K Rice, ½ K Upma, ½ K Poha, ½ K Dalia, ½ K Vermicelli 1 medium Idli, 8 ml Oil, 100 gm Fruit, ½ small potato 2 Sweet biscuits, 3 Salty Biscuits \| 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Report: National Exposure Trip to Vijaywada-Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India (From 12th February to 18th February, 2023) On 12th February 2023, Sunday departure of a group of team education, Delhi including 25 MTs with coordinator Dr. Mridula Bhardwaj (Asstt. Prof. DIET Pitampura) and Ms. Suman, SCERT from New Delhi took place for cultural exchange and learning about the Andhra Pradesh education system on ground. Left for the trip early morning at 6:00 o’clock by Air India Arrival at Vijaywada airport by 8:30 am on 12th February 2023 At the Hotel Kosala, Vijaywada 11:50 am assembled in the hall at the Hotel itself for.... Welcome by team SCERT in the presence of the learned Director SCERT Dr. B. Pratap Reddy. On 13th February 2023, the team visited ZILLA PARISHAD HIGH SCHOOL, PENAMALURU, KRISHNA DISTRICT. Welcomed by the Principal Mrs. Bhavani. Students given roses as token of love and we introduce ourselves to teaching faculty of school. The Principal shared about the schemes on Nadu-Nedu a school transformation programme in Andhra Pradesh. The Flagship programs are 1. Jagananna Ammavodi:- This programme to support the Mothers/Guardians of school age children belonging to BPL families. Financial assistance of Rs. 15000/- per annum to each mother or recognised guardian from BPL families sending their Children to schools from Class I to XII in all Govt. and Pvt. recognised management Schools. 2. JAGANANNA Vidya kanuka kit:- This programme belongs to free uniform, shoes, Bag, Books given to students in all govt. Schools from Andhra govt. MANABADI Nadu-Nedu:- This programme for Transforming School Infrastructure in the state shall be implemented in all govt. Schools. 3. JAGANANNA Goru-Mudda:- This programme belongs to Mid day Meal programme. Mid day Meal Menu planned for sake of health of students. 4. Community Contracting System:- Parents committee chairman and School Headmaster working together for Infrastructure issue. Deploy Welfare assistance or Engineers assistance either alumni of school or from community. Step taken for safety of students:- Complaint box for students, attached Mahila police with school and community for girls students problem. 5. Volunteers System:- One volunteers for five houses and consult to parents for drop-out children. Cluster Resource person interacted with volunteers regarding drop out children. 6. TARL (Teaching at right level) Program :- This programme for primary and upper primary students for working for FLN in NEP 2023. Afterwards we visited VIII th class, where students are studying with Tabs. Tabs given by Andhra Pradesh government with preloaded Byjus content in mother language Telugu. We interacted with students about the usage of tabs. The team also visited the exhibition where students presented their models and describe the function and usage of model and project. Visited ATAL TINKERING LAB, where students working for their project work. Lab is fully equipped with modern technology instruments. Afterwards we have enjoyed traditional lunch with School staff. Visit to library was very exciting as it is very welcoming and differently designed. Teachers manuals having sample lesson plans from scert was also there. Cultural program Very enthusiastic gesture was seen among Principal, teachers and students at the music room where students were playing drum and asked the teachers from Delhi to join for dance. Everyone enjoyed their traditional music and dance. At the end of the day, Principal mam arranged special assembly for us and invited us to share their views about the school's visit. Some team members share their thoughts about the visit. Our team Coordinator Dr. Mridula Bhardwaj presented a painting and Happiness books to the school as tokens of love from the team education, DELHI. On 14/02/2023 SCHOOL VISIT - Zila Parishad High School Nidamanaru In the morning assembly Welcomed with guard of honour - The school has one and only Army and NCC cadets, they performed a march in front of us which was quite mesmerizing. - The students are guided by Mr Purna Chandra along Mr Rajendra Kumar and Mr Balram who are the Physical Directors of the schools o We were also acquainted with the venture of a calculating nutrients with the help of a machine that is a Delhi based Start-up o Mr Purna told the group that the school has its own personal aircraft which is been kept at Vijaywada Airport. The students are taken to the hangar once in a month for training purposes o The Mandal Education Officer Sh VenkatRaman Daria sang a prose from “Raja Harishchandra” and Headmaster sang Jai Jai Bharat in Sanskrit by P.B. Shaly. o We were also shown the Solar Power Plant of 12KW which is installed by the alumni - Students performed yogasanas very beautifully - Spoken English program is one of the dream of CM of Andhra. A group of students presented their English speaking skills - A delhi based startup has provided them a machine which can calculate the nutrients, when food is placed in that - This machine was also able to calculate the BMI of students - Mandal Education officer Sh. Venkata ratnam also joined us at the school. He is also a renowned singer and poet of telegu language After that we headed to SCERT where we met the faculty and interacted. They were eager to know about the Mentorship program and TDC program. They also asked questions related to the work going on in SCERT regarding NIPUN Bharat and NEP 2020. In the leadership of Dr. Mridula the respective person responded. - bilingual books were shown to us which have been printed in two languages teleugu and English so that students can understand and learn English. Short description of our programs were presented as -Happiness curriculum, Deshbhakti curriculum, EMC, TDC program ,DBSE and SOSEs , Design and ICT . After the presentations we moved to SALT -supporting Andhra's learning transformation It is great to see that Andhra Pradesh is taking steps towards improving its education system. The development of the bilingual mirror image textbook and the use of English as a medium of instruction is a step in the right direction. The adoption of the happiness curriculum and the career guidance resource book will be beneficial for students. The skill development corporations and the NGO, Svarna Bharti, are providing opportunities for dropout students. The translation tool into Telugu for primary classes and the pictorial dictionary is a great resource for students. The academic year starts from June to April and the MDM is providing the necessary nutrition to students. The gram volunteer system helps in enrolment and the three language formula is a good approach. The app for keeping records of students is a modern and efficient way. The SALT program and the LIP learning improvement program are providing support for the education system. It is great to see that Andhra Pradesh is adopting the CBSE model and the TARAL program from Pratham is supporting FLN. The combination of physical and digital library is a good way to provide access to resources. Project Director Sh Srinivas Reddy and Sh Satish reddy- SALT head introduced the 4 flagship programmes – Ammavodi, Jagannan Vidya Kanuka, Digital infrastructure, Curriculum reforms. o We had an elaborate discussion regarding assessment, school mapping, jaganan gormuda, TARL programme with various NGOs like PRATHAM etc. Way forward for the DOE, GNCT of Delhi It is great to see that Andhra Pradesh is taking steps towards improving its education system. The development of the bilingual mirror image textbook and the use of English as a medium of instruction is a step in the right direction. The adoption of the happiness curriculum and the career guidance resource book will be beneficial for students. The skill development corporations and the NGO, Svarna Bharti, are providing opportunities for dropout students. The translation tool into Telugu for primary classes and the pictorial dictionary is a great resource for students. The academic year starts from June to April and the MDM is providing the necessary nutrition to students. The gram volunteer system helps in enrolment and the three language formula is a good approach. The app for keeping records of students is a modern and efficient way. The SALT program and the LIP learning improvement program are providing support for the education system. It is great to see that Andhra Pradesh is adopting the CBSE model and the TARAL program from Pratham is supporting FLN. The combination of physical and digital library is a good way to provide access to resources. Glimpses of their presentation at SALT. Pre-School Kit to all Anganwadi Centers - Pre-school kit worth Rs. 5000/- consisting with 26 items pertaining to activity-based learning have been distributed to all 55,607 Anganwadi centers. - Provided user manual with all the details pertaining to each item in the kit with the areas of developments. - Pre-school activities are performed for at least 2 hours every day with the support of material provided to them. - Child assessment card developed and distributed to all AWCs for the periodic assessment of all pre-school children on all the developmental areas. Learning Improvement Program (LIP) 1. This program is designed for classes 6 to 8 for ensuring adequate learning outcomes among students. 2. MoU between School Education Dept., Village & Ward Secretariat Dept., Centre for Innovation and Public Services (CIPS), UNICEF and Save the Children. 3. Principals of LIP were oriented, strategies are discussed, State Resource Group constituted. 4. Launched on 28th Nov at Visakhapatnam, Training imparted at all levels. Focus on ECCE 1. Schools are categorized for imparting Pre-Primary Education and ensuring FLN. 2. Anganwadi Centers are mapped to schools. (49% AWCs co-located) 3. Developed workbooks and activity books for PP1, PP2 as per NCERT guidelines and supplied to AWCs. 4. Foundational Primers are developed in six tribal languages (Savara, Sugali, Adivasi Oriya, Konda, Kuvi and Koya). 5. Distributed ARAMBH Kits to 200 AWCs in ITDA areas for integration of CwSN in association with UNICEF. Swechha Program aims to improve health and hygiene of adolescent girls studying in government schools and colleges by providing quality sanitary napkins free of cost. Free supply of 10 Bio-Degradable Sanitary Napkins per month per child to every adolescent girl studying in Classes 7th to 12th in all Government Schools, Junior Colleges and Residential Institutions in the State. \| Sl. No \| Department \| Institutions \| Adolescent Girls \| \|--------\|---------------------\|--------------\|------------------\| \| 1 \| School Education \| 9,939 \| 8,07,778 \| \| 2 \| Social Welfare \| 124 \| 54,474 \| \| 3 \| Tribal Welfare \| 100 \| 18,370 \| \| 4 \| Intermediate Education \| 459 \| 78,819 \| \| \| Total Coverage \| 10,622 \| 9,59,441 \| From ‘Schooling to all’ to ‘Learning to all’ Ensuring basic reading and mathematics among students of 3-5 classes 01. MoU with Pratham Foundation inculcating Teaching at Right Level 02. Students engaged with activities, group/individual 03. 130 Master Trainers trained by Pratham 04. Practice in classrooms MoU with CBSE for affiliation of all Govt., Schools in a phased manner. To build up the capacity of the educational administrators, headmasters and teachers to switch over to the CBSE mode of examinations in English medium. (1308) Schools consisting of KGBVs / APMS / Residential schools run by Welfare Departments, Municipal Administration, Local Bodies and State Government proposed for affiliation to CBSE. OnePlus provided training to teachers on CBSE pattern and textbooks of Class VIII. \| Management \| Schools Proposed \| Schools Affiliated \| \|------------------\|------------------\|--------------------\| \| KGBVs \| 352 \| 335 \| \| APMS \| 164 \| 154 \| \| APREIS \| 39 \| 38 \| \| ZPHS \| 418 \| 215 \| \| APTWRIES \| 60 \| 49 \| \| Municipal \| 70 \| 28 \| \| APSWRIES \| 179 \| 157 \| \| MJPAPBCWRIS \| 26 \| 24 \| \| Total \| 1308 \| 1000 \| “All of us do not have equal talent, but all of us should have an equal opportunity to develop our talent.” Hon’ble Chief Minister on 21st December 2022 Wednesday distributed tablets to Class 8 students and teachers in the state’s Bapatla district, in a move to boost digital literacy. Byju’s Premium e-content of classes 8th and 9th was preloaded in the TABs Overall, 5,18,740 tablets distributed to 4,59,564 Class 8 students and 59,176 teachers across the state. Digital Infrastructure for classrooms The government providing 10,038 Smart TVs for classes I to V and 30,213 Interactive Flat Panels (IFPs) for classes VI to X to 15,694 schools covered under Mana Badi Nadu Nedu Phase I with a financial estimates of an amount of Rs. 352.32 Cr. for the academic year 2023-24. 65” Interactive Flat Panel (IFP) with 178° view angle, inbuilt touch facility and wi-fi connectivity including 5-year onsite warranty. 65” diagonal display with internal storage, wi-fi and Bluetooth connectivity with HDMI ports including 5-year warranty. Digital Infrastructure in classrooms will be placed by the reopening day of the academic year 2023-24. Republic Day at MPPS Vanchadagondi People of Vanchadagondi village, ASR district belongs to PVTG (Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Group) who doesn’t know even Telugu. Their mother tongue is KUVI. Sallangi Venkata Giri, SCT, who joined in January 2021, transformed the children vocabulary in English. Students of MPPS, Vanchadagondi deliberates their Republic Day speech in English. It showcases that the efforts of the government is reaching the un-reached towards improving the vocabulary in English among students. New Category of Schools Satellite Foundational School (PP1, PP2) Standalone AWC 8517 Foundational School (PP1, PP2, Class 1 & 2) 4689 Foundational School Plus (PP1, PP2, Classes 1-5) 29764 Pre-High School (Classes 3-7/8) 3905 High School 6678 (Classes 3-10) 2862 (Classes 6-10) 3816 High School Plus 292 (Classes 3-12) 129 (Classes 6-12) 163 ### Revised Menu \| Day \| Revised Menu w.e.f 21-11-22 \| \|-----------\|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Monday \| Hot Pongal with boiled egg / Vegetable Pulav with Egg Curry and Chilli \| \| Tuesday \| Tamarind /Lemon rice (Pulihora) Tomato/Dondakaya chutney & Boiled Egg. \| \| Wednesday \| Vegetable Rice, Aloo Khurma, Boiled Egg & Chikki \| \| Thursday \| Sambarbath & Boiled Egg \| \| Friday \| Cooked Rice, Dal with green leaves, Boiled Egg & Chikki \| \| Saturday \| Green leafy Vegetable Rice, Pappu Charu & Sweet Pongal \| ### JAGANANNA VIDYA KANUKA Teaching-learning material in student kits 1. JVK kit consists of three pairs of uniforms, set of Notebooks, textbooks, a pair of shoes, two pairs’ socks, a belt and School bag, Dictionary included for primary students and secondary students. 2. This scheme is aimed to minimize the dropouts and to improve gross Enrolment ratio. Student’s participation in the learning activity will increase and thereby improve the learning outcomes of the children. 3. JAGANANNA VIDYA KANUKA helped in improving the dignity of Government school students and to increase enrolment of students in government schools. --- “Providing adequate balanced, tasty and quality nutritional support to the students in a professional and scientific way under better and hygienic surroundings through planning & continuous monitoring in order to avoid classroom hunger & malnutrition and thereby to achieve the ultimate objective of best learning outcomes of the students” \| Coverage \| Stage \| Schools \| Children \| \|----------\|-----------\|---------\|----------\| \| 1 \| Primary \| 34677 \| 18,58,874\| \| 2 \| Upper Primary \| 4387 \| 11,73,462\| \| 3 \| High Schools \| 5877 \| 7,62,925 \| \| Total \| \| 44,941 \| 37,95,030\| Nadu Nedu - Components 1. Toilets with Running water 2. Drinking Water Supply 3. Major and Minor Repairs 4. Painting to entire campus 5. Electrification with Fans and Tube lights 6. Furniture 7. Green chalk board 8. English Labs 9. Compound walls 10. Kitchen shed Jagananna Ammayodi Motto In order to ensure that poverty of the parents does not come in the way of educating their children. - The Hon’ble Chief Minister’s mission to support the Mothers or Guardians of School age children belonging to BPL families. - To ensure that their children live with dignity and complete education. Government launched “JAGANANNA AMMAVODI” on 9th January 2020. Support Financial assistance of Rs. 15,000/- per annum to each mother or recognized guardian from BPL families sending their children to schools or colleges from Class I to XII in all Govt. and Pvt. recognized management schools / colleges in the State. 75% of student attendance mandated during the academic year 2021-22 \| Academic Year \| Total Students (Class I to XII) \| Eligible unique mothers \| Amount Spent (Cr.) \| \|---------------\|---------------------------------\|-------------------------\|--------------------\| \| 2019-20 \| 81,72,224 \| 42,33,098 \| 6349.6 \| \| 2020-21 \| 83,76,020 \| 44,48,865 \| 6673.4 \| \| 2021-22 \| 82,31,502 \| 43,96,402 \| 6594.6 \| The team was also asked to present and share about Delhi education system. In the leadership of MT Sanjay Pipal following programs had been presented – MT program presented by MT Pankaj Utreja and MT Divya Singh Happiness Curriculum presented by MT Chandrika DBSE and SOSE schools presented by MT Upma Mahajan Deshbhakti curriculum presented by MT Parminder ICT and Design was presented by MT Sapna Choudhary The day was concluded by 7:00 pm. And the team headed towards Tirupati district (journey of 400 kms) by same two tempo traveller which were making us to local tour. On 15th February, 2023 We reached the hotel by 9:15 am due to break down of bus at night and change of the bus delayed our journey. By 11:00 am all the team mates get ready to visit 4 schools as our escorts from SCERT Mr. JaiRam and Mr. Suresh were waiting since morning. The team visited A.P. Model School, Y.V. Palem, Tirupati distt (travel of 60 kms) Interaction with the students, teachers and Knowing about the use of the tablets in grade 8th using Byju’s offline e-content. 18 \| Page Observing midday meal time. Students were having nutritious food in ample quantity. Cultural program Presenting the Token of gratitude and appreciation Visit to ZPH girls School Ranigunta, Tirupati On 16th February, 2023 Visit to a Government primary school, Tirupati. Here the team was privileged to meet Sh. A. Ranganatha Naidu the land donor of the school honoured by The former president Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam in the year 2008. The kitchen, kitchen garden, smart classrooms, Kit for the students, sitting for having midday meal were the well established. On 17th February, 2023 The team visited Horsley Hills School, Tirupati also known as Rishi Valley school by travelling more than 3 hours (187Km). There Principal Ms. welcomed all and addressed. She explained the vision of Jiddu Krishnamurthy sir- the philosophical founder of the school that he also wanted to open a school in this remote area, which is an example of naturalism Philosophy of education by Rabindra Nath Tagore. The Principal also quoted-"What is the right learning?" – “What does the child give back to the society?” majorly they work upon relationships through the journey of education. The school is located in the lap of nature and she also quoted a zen poem 'The Wind' is in me and I am in the wind.............. Environmental values are imbibed in the children to the deepest core. Children has risen over and above materialistic things and they have learnt to preserve nature by highlighting a few examples - • They do gardening. • They do not buy unnecessary things. • They follow simple lifestyle. • They preserve resources. • They never waste money. • They share meals with the animals also like monkeys and birds. • Rural school has been built as a role model for the whole community. Multi grade cum multi level is the Pedagogical system developed and followed by the school. Generic medicines are provided and more of health education is given to prevent diseases. 29 mandalas come to get assistance from the school’s health centre. Following books are also published by the school: • Rishi Valley Book of Trees and plants • Rishi Valley Book of insects • Rishi Valley Book of birds • Tiny booklets on snakes of Rishi Valley, All the mentors received the book ‘The Journey of Mountains’ as a token of love and respect. The DOE representatives also presented a painting of the students. Children impact the diversity and the way they are living is quite different. Children have built in their own special way ‘Mother’s literacy kit’ in their own mother tongue. This is a boarding school 🏫. They have an entrance exam for the students to get admission and also the interaction with the children. Parents also enquired about their expectations from the school and their children’s lives. School follows ICSE exam board for the students. They study local livelihood, finance and Micro finance and so on. Alumni do come back after earning a lot to contribute to the society. Total number of students in the school is 350. The combination of subjects which are followed here since ages is now recommended by NEP 2020. They offer the TEP- Teacher Education Program for capacity building of the teachers. Rishi Valley is also known for its birds reserve. The birds we saw here were incredibly beautiful. Ornithologists come here in the campus itself for the research projects and to preserve nature. On the calendar they draw - how is the sun today. And observe the changes around. In mathematics class they are given two types of questions first for the basic knowledge and second challenging questions. The division of three branches of social study is done like introducing one in a term like history in the first term and economics in the second term and so on. Children are shown movies once in a fortnight which is scrutinized by the teachers first. Students Teacher ratio is 1:6 At 7:40-8:20 am they get their breakfast. Then they assemble for the prayer in Sanskrit Including shlokas. Multiple outdoor sports are played after the prayer. 6:45-7:15 dinner time and they go to bed at 9 pm. No school uniforms are worn. Children wear casual clothes that covers the whole body. The school is running since 1981 covering area around 100 acres. Then we had lunch in the school mess and after that we visited RIVER- RISHIVALLEY INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES This is a Teacher training institute for about 6 satellite schools in nearby rural areas. Anil Duth was the leading person who was working in the capacity of Teacher, Writer, Program Implementation Manager addressed the meeting. Director of RIVER Dr. Rama Rao also interacted with the team. Multi grade multi level program Vidyavanam school is also run under the management in two separate rooms one for class 2&3 and another one for 4&5. Teacher student ratio is 1:40. Through class interaction and dynamic learning. Teacher needs to interact with each and every student. Yearly plan is called learning ladder. List of competencies and activities is designed on yearly basis. Logos means indicators which are used to mark the students following logos are being used: Animals for language Birds for mathematics Insects for EVS Pink border – Grade 1 Green -Grade 2 Yellow – Grade 3 Silver- Grade 4 Purple – Grade 5 They use it as a report card for the students. Then they share flash cards of specific words. Then in the next step they make them learn the pronunciation of the letters along with the words by using the stencil of the words. Three dimensional letters are then given to the students. Fifth activity is to match the stencil with the letters. Level six reading of the cards with those two letters is done by the students. • Peer learning • Partial Support and • Self learning Difference in teaching learning strategies • Teacher sits on the mat to connect with the students. • On Sundays also the students turn up to the schools. • Material are framed according to the need of the local students. • Sports and game activities are undertaken on the basis of self discipline • Self reflection at the end of the chapter and then he/she is assessed and marked. • Self paced learning is also promoted. • Multigraded and multilevel learning is followed. Well explained by Mr. Anil Duth. 25 \| Page • Cultural events are organised in the school premises. • Teacher student ratio is 1:40 • Progress tracking tool to monitor the progress of the students. After this at 3:00 pm the interaction with Director of the school was done, wherein a deep discussion took place and Mentor teachers put up different questions to the director Dr. Rama touching up various domains and were duly addressed by them. Overall the day was full of experiential learning wherein the interaction glued all of us. On 18th February 2023 Departure to Delhi The team left for Tirupati airport. The team were invited at the DEO office. There all were presented a portrait of Tirupati bala ji along with a traditional vastram. The learning which can be implemented in our system can be proposed as- 1. Multi grade multi level model 2. Mid may meal menu and prayer before having food 3. Kit for the students on reopening of the schools/new session 4. NGO / other agencies to provide breakfast/ snacks 5. BMI machine which measure nutritional value in a plate of mid-day meal along with the appropriateness for the child as per his/her height and weight 6. Kitchen at schools premises along with kitchen gardens( if not possible in every school, then it can be dine at cluster level) 7. Ambience of Library need to be upgraded to have conducive environment. 8. Music rooms 9. Tablets / digital devices for students 10. Mirror image content/ bilingual material Contribution in report writing Coordination – Dr. Mridula Bhardwaj and MT Sanjay Pipal Photos – Dr. Mukesh kumar Day wise reports shared by - MT Divya Singh, MT anuradha Rani. 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SELF HELP GROUPS IN COMMUNITY ACTION ON HEALTH PARTICIPANT MANUAL TRAINING MANUAL Capacity Building of Self Help Group Members in Community Action on Health # TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND 1 CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING HEALTH 4 What does health mean? 4 Dimensions of health 4 Determinants of health 6 Why health is important? 8 How can we stay healthy? 8 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM IN INDIA 12 Comprehensive Primary Health Care through Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres 13 Ayushman Card Generation 16 Government functionaries for Health 17 CHAPTER 4: SELF HELP GROUPS AND COMMUNITY ACTION ON HEALTH 19 What is the role of SHGs in health? 21 Who can you mobilize? 22 What is the role & responsibilities of SHG members as a representative of community platforms such as JAS and VHSNC? 22 ANNEXURE 25 Annexure 1 26 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 33 REFERENCES 34 The Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are termed as informal associations of people who come together to find ways to improve their living conditions. It is a movement by the community towards holistic and sustainable development with special thrust on empowerment of women. Looking back, self-help groups originated way back in 1970 with the formation of Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA). Twenty years later, in 1993, National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and the Reserve Bank of India approved SHGs to have savings accounts in banks. In 1999, Government of India (GoI) introduced Swarn Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) to promote self-employment in rural areas through the formation and skill building of SHGs. In 2011, Government of India through the Ministry of Rural Development launched National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) followed by the launch of National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM) in 2013 with the aim of creating effective Institutional platform for the rural poor, enabling them to increase household income through sustainable livelihoods enhancements and improved access to financial services. Figure 1: Emergence of Self-help Groups – Origin and Development in India \| Year \| Event \| \|------\|-------\| \| 1972 \| Formation of Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) \| \| 1992 \| SHG Bank Linkage project launched by National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) \| \| \| 1993 - NABARD along with RBI permitted SHGs to have savings accounts in banks \| \| 1999 \| GoI introduced Swarn Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) to promote self-employment in rural areas through the formation and skilling of SHGs \| \| 2011 \| National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) launched by MoRD in June 2011 - restructured version of SGSY \| \| \| World’s largest poverty alleviation programme \| \| 2013 \| National Urban Livelihoods Mission launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India \| Self Help Group (SHG) movement in India has always been seen as a catalyst for socioeconomic development. SHG movement has aided the needy and marginalised people in building better lives, families, and societies. As a SHG member, you may know the importance of collaboration and collective action. A problem can be solved better if we pool our efforts and resources. For example, India had the highest number of people defecating in the open. In some regions such as Bihar, you as SHGs have been instrumental in raising community awareness of the need for toilets and inspiring them to build toilets. You have also contributed to the transformation of an open defecation-free (ODF) nation through social mobilisation and behaviour change. Health is an integral determinant of development, be it development of an individual, families or societies. We all need to be healthy for us to function optimally in our lives. This applies across all age groups, new-born babies to older adults. For a healthy baby to be born, the mother should have a healthy adolescent life, good care during pregnancy and childbirth. For a child to grow physically and mentally well, the child should receive good nourishment and care. Keeping healthy is essential for a school-going child to learn well, for adults to work optimally and for older adults to continue to be happy, productive and able to perform their activities of daily living. You possess unique strengths that could be used meaningfully to protect health of your own self, group members, your self-help group, your families, and the community that you are living in. You can identify who are the neediest person, their needs, beliefs and practices. Figure 2: The strengths of Self Help Group The unique strengths you possess are summarised below: 1. Social integrity – you can mobilise collective efforts for combating socially harmful practices like alcoholism, tobacco use, gender discrimination etc. 2. Gender equity – you can empower women and inculcate leadership among them. Empowered women participate more actively for the betterment of health services. 3. Pressure groups – Your participation in governance process enables you to highlight social issues of health, the menace of open defecation, primary health care etc. and impact policy decision. 4. Voice to marginalized section – you can increase the participation of marginalized communities to ensure social justice. 5. You can increase the utilization of government schemes and reduce corruption through social audits 6. Impact on health and its social determinants – The financial inclusion attained through SHGs has led to reduced child deaths, improved health of mothers and the ability of the poor to combat disease through better nutrition, housing and health – especially among women and children. 7. Banking literacy – you can encourage and motivate your members to save and act as a conduit for formal banking services to reach them. Summary: What did we learn? - SHGs have immense strength to do a lot of things and act upon many issues - Help from our own community / peers is the easiest and fastest help that I can get for my problems - Self-help is sustainable and easily available - SHGs can work and contribute to many other areas than financial, for improving living conditions (Potential of SHGs) - SHGs are spread nationwide and thus form a large fraternity Self Help Group women emerge as community warriors to contain the spread of COVID-19 in the country In 2020, SHG played a crucial role in the country’s fight against the COVID-19 epidemic by producing more than 5000 PPE kits and 2 crore masks, through 27 State Rural Livelihood Missions (SRLMs). In order to ensure hand cleanliness, they have made significant contributions to the manufacture of liquid soaps and hand sanitizers. SHGs managed community kitchens and assisted the ASHAs and ANMs/MPWs, along with the local health team in mobilising patients for testing, care, and vaccination at the COVID-19 Care Facilities. They also educated community about COVID-19, dispelled common myths and misunderstandings, thus reducing the stigma around it. Press-release - nrlm-self-help-group The critical role of community-based organizations in urban sanitation and waste management A compendium of Case Studies 2019 Peer driven campaign engaging Mahila Arogya Samitis in Bhubaneswar city. MAS played the role of interphase between people and government system and assisted people to obtain Aadhaar cards. MAS also supported pregnant mothers to undergo institutional delivery and ensure immunisation of new-borns. Janch and Matru committees monitored service delivery under ICDS. Community management committees monitored and supported sanitation services including access to individual sanitary latrines. Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs and Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission To positively impact your community’s health, you first need to have a holistic understanding of what health is. Let us now understand what health is, its dimensions, and its determinants. What does health mean? People usually associate health with illness, doctor, and medicines. Actually, health does not simply mean the absence of disease, but health is a state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social wellbeing. Dimensions of health Health is a multi-dimensional state. Although the physical dimension is visible to us, and more easily measurable, we also need to consider the mental, social, spiritual, emotional, and vocational dimensions of health. Let us understand these dimensions of health through life stories of people. Read the following stories and point out whether you think the person is healthy or not: Priya is a 27-year-old young woman. She recently lost a lot of weight and started appearing weak. Her parents got worried as she was going to be married in the next few months. They took Priya to a nearby health centre, where she was diagnosed with TB and immediately put on medications. It’s been six months since her treatment and now she is feeling better. She stays at home and helps her mother with small household tasks. She says this work helps her cope with her TB. However, any heavy work leaves her feeling restless and tired. Since she has been out of a job, she has opted for stitching as a job for earn her living. In the night, she reads to her parents for their pastime. Do you think Priya is healthy? Harish, a 45-year-old man, lives with his wife, two kids, and his parents. Harish used to be an ideal husband, father, and son, as well as a hardworking farmer. He has always been fit and healthy. Harish has never taken a day off from work. Last year, Harish and other farmers suffered crop losses due to bad weather. Harish lost some money because of this. The family was supportive and adjusted to the economic setback. Recently, due to some influence from his friends, Harish started drinking alcohol. In the early days, he used to drink occasionally. But lately, his drinking habit has worsened, and now he drinks until late at night every day. He has started to miss work in the fields. He has also tried beating his wife once when she refused to give him money for alcohol. This has disturbed his family and neighbours. His kids have become upset, and his daughter has stopped talking to him since the incident. Do you think Harish is healthy? Let us look at what all has affected Priya and Harish’s health. Table 1: Dimensions of Health \| Health dimension \| Priya \| Harish \| \|------------------\|-------\|--------\| \| Physical dimension (absence of health-related limitations in physical functioning normal bodily functions given a person’s age and sex, ability to perform physical activity) \| Diagnosed with TB Weak, gets tired easily Takes medicines for her illness \| Fit and healthy Never missed a day at the field No medicines required \| \| Mental dimension Sense of peace, identity, and purpose, ability to respond to a problem with resilience not just the absence of mental disorder but rather a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community). An individual’s health will be negatively impacted in the presence of anxiety, depression, nervousness and downheartedness. \| Mentally positive Wants to conquer TB \| Disturbed due to loss in farming Dependent on alcohol \| \| Health dimension \| Priya \| Harish \| \|------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Emotional dimension (Concerned with how one is ‘feeling,’ ability to feel, and to express the feelings appropriately) \| Can share what she is feeling with her mother. \| Does not know how to open up his emotions, his stress, with anyone \| \| \| \| Feels suffocated with friends as it is not a safe space for him. His kids also stopped talking to him. \| \| Social dimension (Social well-being and harmony with others, social relations, interpersonal ties, having a sustained support network) \| Has maintained a good relationship with her family despite her severe illness \| Was a good father, son, and husband \| \| \| Has taken good care of her parents and contributes to the community meaningfully through stitching. \| Has caused stress to the family because of beating incidence \| \| \| \| His kids are scared of him and do not talk to him \| \| \| \| Neighbours are irritated and have cut ties with him \| \| Spiritual dimension (Integrity, purpose in life, the moral compass of the person, beliefs and values that give direction to one’s life) \| Believes that her life is a gift and is worth living \| A setback has made him lose his faith in life \| \| \| Did not give up on life because of the illness \| Believes that no good can come into his life \| \| Vocational dimension (Finding purpose in work and feeling that work is aligning with purpose of life, in simple language – enjoying your work because it brings you a sense of contentment) \| Found a work of stitching \| Struggles to find meaning in his work at the farm because of the loss \| Now that we have seen all the dimensions of health, we can see that Priya’s physical health is compromised compared to her better mental, social, spiritual, emotional, and vocational health. On the other hand, Harish, though physically fit and active, has compromised the other dimensions of health. Thus, none of them is fully healthy. Determinants of health Now, that we have understood health and its dimensions, we will look at the factors that influence it, also known as the determinants of health. These factors could be lying within the individual or located in their community or surroundings. - Personal characteristics and the individual lifestyle - h) personal characteristics occupy the core of the model and include sex, age, ethnic group, and hereditary factors - i) individual ‘lifestyle’ factors include behaviours such as smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity - Factors located in the community or surroundings - a) social and community networks include family and wider social circles - b) living and working conditions include access and opportunities in relation to jobs, housing, education and welfare services - c) general socioeconomic, cultural and environmental conditions include factors such as disposable income, taxation, and availability of work We can see that health has many dimensions and is influenced by many determinants. So, to address health, it is imperative to address all the determinants of health. This requires, collective action of community, which in turn can be facilitated by you as the member of self-help groups. We will explore your role in health in detail over the next few chapters. But what has led Harish to turn to alcohol use? - Gender role and peer pressure - Harish started alcohol drinking as a fun social activity with friends. But it soon turned into an abusive habit and addiction. His drinking habit was also influenced by the social notion that drinking is a sign of masculinity and bravery. Such notions can be gender-based or culture-based. Commonly substance abuse is also a result of excessive stress, and it offers an illusion to escape from stress, but only to make the problem worse. - Insufficient or loss of social support - Harish does not get to communicate his feelings of stress and feeling of failure with anyone and found a way of managing his stress through his alcohol habit. Also, Harish’s friends are only worsening his situation by creating peer pressure to indulge in more and more drinking. Out of this helplessness, he has resorted to alcohol use. - Lifestyle components - A financial setback led to Harish’s habit of alcohol overconsumption and is now having a negative impact on the financial capacity of his family. Due to diminished resources, his family will have limited access to good quality and varied nutritious food, thus leading him and his family members towards malnutrition. Similarly, besides employment, other lifestyle components such as housing conditions, employment, immediate environment, and health education can also affect Harish’s family’s food security. - Vicious cycle - The majority of stress in an individual’s life arises from harsh economic and social conditions which push people to alcoholism, and ultimately these habits lead to the worsening of social and economic conditions and the vicious cycle continues. The same is true in the case of tobacco use. What are the major factors that affected Harish from having a healthy lifestyle? - Gender norms - Lifestyle choices- Peer influence - Substance abuse - Poor education and poor living conditions - Lack of strong social support - Lack of access to mental health services – barriers at the personal and system level. Why health is important? Now that we have understood what health is, its dimensions and determinants, let us try to understand why health is important to us. Good health is central to wellness and well-being that contributes significantly to prosperity and economic growth of the country, as healthy populations are more productive and live longer. Thus, to stay healthy, it is crucial to keep our body healthy as it is the one that accompanies us till the end of our life. Keeping it healthy can ensure that we live our life to the fullest and in a way without pain and diseases. How can we stay healthy? In healthcare self-care is a method of keeping good health and access to basic care. According to the World Health Organization, Self-care is “the ability of individuals, families and communities to promote, maintain health, prevent disease and to cope with illness with or without the support of a health care provider”. This concept covers palliative care as well as rehabilitation, health promotion, illness prevention and control, self-medication, and caring for dependents. It also covers seeking hospital or specialist care as necessary. Let’s examine these terms under “self-care” using some straightforward examples: 1. Taking the key healthy behaviours and measures which can protect the health are: - Eating healthy diet- Have adequate fruits and vegetables including green leafy vegetables and cruciferous vegetables and legumes especially pulses and beans; as part of cereal consumption, prefer whole grains, hydrate your body with adequate amounts of water intake daily, minimise the consumption of highly processed foods including fruit juices & carbonated drinks. Avoid too much fat, sugar, salt, red meat and highly spiced dishes. - Physical activity- Adults aged 18–64 years should do at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity throughout the week such as are brisk walking, jogging, swimming, playing games like tennis/badminton/football/ jumping ropes and yoga. - Avoid tobacco and alcohol consumption - Self-care for positive mental health- Ensure breaks and adequate sleep, Keep in touch with relatives/friends, carry out some activities and hobbies unrelated to work, exercise regularly and have a healthy diet, make time for yourself and your family and seek peer support when needed. - Stress management- build your capacity to cope up with stress by regularly practising yoga asanas, meditation and Pranayam. - Maintain personal hygiene by following daily and seasonal regimen. The Daily regimen include activities of which should be followed throughout the day, they are wake up early at least 1 hour before sunrise, never suppress nor forcefully void the natural urges, use toilet for defecation, brush twice a day, exercise, nails should be trimmed regularly, take bath for half to one hour after exercise, expose yourself to 30 minutes to one hour of sunlight daily, take 6-8 hours of sleep daily at night and avoid sleeping in the daytime and maintain a same time to sleep every day. The seasonal Regimen says, the environment changes with the changes in the seasons – winter, summer, rainy and autumn in the year. These seasonal changes in environment also lead to adaptations within the human body. For instance, increased pain in winters, increased thirst in summers, increased acidity in rains and increased weight in winters etc. 2. Participating actively in social activities are all examples of health promotion activities. 3. Disease prevention measures include immunising children and pregnant women against diseases that can be prevented; practising personal hygiene, such as washing hands; storing, preparing, and eating food hygienically; protecting our bodies from diseases; keeping our homes and environments clean; and engaging in safe sexual activity. 4. Self-treatment/medication: utilising home-based remedies for illness, such as drinking ORS for diarrhoea, taking a sponge bath, or taking paracetamol tablets for fever, among other things. 5. Taking care of dependents, such as new-borns, infants, young children, the elderly, and those with disabilities, who are unable to take care of themselves. 6. Seeking medical help: visiting a hospital or health centre for expert care in case of fever, discomfort, pain, or uncontrolled bleeding. 7. Rehabilitation: assist physically challenged or physically challenged members of the family or community in regaining or maintaining their physical capacity. This comprises, but is not limited to, physical and occupational rehabilitation. So, self-care contributes to the overall health of a person, family, and community. Figure 6: What are the common health problems in the community? Malnutrition Unsafe drinking water Poor sanitation and unclean surroundings Lack of skilled care during delivery and lack of prompt care for complications leading to maternal deaths Common childhood illnesses like pneumonia, diarrhoea causing infant deaths & malnutrition Infectious diseases like dengue, chikungunya, malaria and TB and non-communicable diseases like high blood pressure, high blood sugar and cancers etc. Other problems affecting health of the individual are unhealthy lifestyle like tobacco and alcohol consumption, unhealthy food and social problems like poverty, homelessness, early age of marriage, migration etc. Mental health and Substance abuse Summary: What did we learn? - Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease. - Health is a multidimensional state. 6 dimensions of health are physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual and vocational dimensions. Only the physical dimensions is visible while other dimensions may or may not be apparent. - Health has several determinants; it is influenced by access to safe drinking water, safe and healthy food, affordable housing, healthcare services, affordable and reliable transport; income and employment; education and clean and safe environment. - Community-level actions are important for improving people’s health. - A healthy lifestyle can prevent many illnesses or delay the onset and severity of existing ailments. - If the person maintains good health, he/she is less likely to fall sick. However, if illness does occur, self-care with proper management, including medical care where necessary, can help the body heal itself. - With self-care, we can take charge of our health to a great extent and lead an active, healthy life. Now let us see the current health scenario and the existing policies, programmes, and institutional mechanisms that are already in place to ensure public health. The healthcare system of the country involves a three-tier system with Sub Health Centre (Urban and Rural), Primary Health Centre (Urban and Rural) and Community Health Centre (Urban and Rural) as the three pillars of Primary Health Care System in India. Similarly, District Hospital (DH), Sub-District Hospital (SDH) and First Referral Unit - Community Health Centres provide secondary care services whereas Medical Colleges and State-level Institutions provide tertiary care services. Table 2: Population Covered by the Primary Health care Facilities \| Facility type \| Population covered in plain areas \| Population covered in hilly and tribal areas \| \|----------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| Sub Health Centre -Health and Wellness Centre \| 5000 \| 3000 \| \| Primary Health Centre -Health and Wellness Centre \| 30000 \| 20000 \| \| Urban Health and Wellness Centre \| 15000–20000 \| \| \| Urban Primary Health Centre \| 50000 \| \| The National Health Mission (NHM) aims to ensure that all citizens have access to health care that is affordable and of high quality. This care should meet the needs of people in both rural and urban communities. In the past, the focus of health policy was primarily on providing maternal and child health care and managing communicable diseases such as malaria, dengue, typhoid, tuberculosis, leprosy, HIV/AIDS, etc. However, the rising burden of non-communicable diseases, including cancers and mental health problems were not adequately addressed at the primary health care level. Most of the rural population had to incur high expenditures out of their own pockets to avail of healthcare services outside maternal and child health, pushing them into poverty. In places where there is a lack of staff or regular supplies, people need to seek services from Community Health Centres (CHC) and district hospitals for problems that could otherwise be treated at the PHC level. Thus, the National Health Policy, 2017 recommended strengthening the delivery of Primary Health Care, through establishment of “Health and Wellness Centres” as the platform to deliver Comprehensive Primary Health Care and called for a commitment of two thirds of the health budget to primary health care. Ayushman Bharat, a flagship scheme of Government of India, was launched in 2018 as recommended by the National Health Policy 2017, to ensure that all people have access to the health services they need, when and where they need them, without financial hardship. This initiative has been designed to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its underlining commitment, which is to “leave no one behind.” Comprehensive primary health care through Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres The Ayushman Bharat programme has been designed keeping in mind the crucial role played by primary health care in improving health outcomes. It is an attempt to move from sectoral and segmented approach of health service delivery to a comprehensive need-based health care service. Under this programme, Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWC) were established to provide comprehensive primary health care to all people at no cost and closer to their homes. Primary health care is more than just a point of care at the PHC or sub-centre level. For primary health care to be comprehensive, it needs to cover promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative aspects of care. It must also include two-way referral support to higher-level facilities (from first-level care providers through specialist care and back) and ensure follow-up support for individual and population health interventions at the community level. This programme adopts a continuum of care approach comprising of two inter-related components: - Health and wellness centres (HWCs): Upgradation of the 1,50,000 Sub - Health Centres and Primary Health Centres (urban and rural) to Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs) for delivery of comprehensive primary health care closer to communities with the principle of “time to care” to be no more than 30 minutes. The AB-HWCs now offer comprehensive primary health care services from ‘head-to-toe’ and from ‘womb to tomb’ to all age groups and genders, beginning with infants, adolescents, adults and the elderly. They cover both, maternal and child health services and non-communicable diseases, including free essential drugs and diagnostic services. - Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY): Roll out of AB-PMJAY, which aims to provide financial protection of up to Rs 5 lakh per annum for care at secondary hospital (community health centres, sub-divisional hospitals, taluka hospitals, and district hospitals at the block and district level) and tertiary hospitals (medical colleges) covering 40% of India’s socially vulnerable and low-income households that is (approximately 50 crore beneficiaries). The box below details the health services available at Ayushman Bharat - Health and Wellness Centres: Figure 8: Comprehensive Primary Health Care Services through Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres - Care in Pregnancy & Childbirth - Neonatal & Infant Healthcare Services - Childhood & Adolescent Healthcare Services - Reproductive & Family Planning Services - Management of Communicable Diseases - Outpatient Care for Acute Simple Illness - Screening Prevention & Control of NCDs - Mental Health Care - Oral Care - Eye and ENT Care - Emergency Care - Elderly & Palliative Care Community/household level The ASHA does home visits to follow up different kinds of patients. She also helps in counselling and issuing reminders to different segments of the beneficiary population, apprising them of the services they have access and entitlement to. Also, at this level the concerned Health and Wellness Centre team collects information about and enumerates the different recipients - pregnant women, children, cancer patients, cataract patients, etc. Figure 9: Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres maintaining coordination of primary healthcare services between Community, Primary Healthcare and Secondary Healthcare levels - COMMUNITY LEVEL - Population Enumeration - Outreach Services - Community Based Risk Assessment - Awareness Generation - Counselling: Lifestyle changes; treatment compliance - CHC/SHD/District Hospital/TCC/SCI - Advanced diagnostics - Complication assessment - Hospitalization - Tertiary linkage - SHC-HWC - First Level Care - NCD Screening - Use of Diagnostics - Medicine Dispensation - Record keeping - Tele-health - Referral to PHC in case of complication - UPHC/IPHC-HWC - Diagnosis for NCDs - Prescription and Treatment Plans - Gate Keeping role for outpatient and inpatient referral - Teleconsultation with specialists Maintaining continuum of care: Ayushman Bharat Screening and tests conducted at these levels enable an early diagnosis. Once that is done, treatment of common illnesses can be started. If there are any complications or clarifications, the CHO or PHC medical officer does consultation through teleconsultation with specialists at higher centres. All the health records as well as the inventory of drugs are maintained at this level. Referral centres These are usually at the block or district level - specialists in different medical fields attend to the cases that are referred by the PHC medical officer. They conduct special diagnostic tests and complicated treatments, including surgeries. Follow-up This is the most unique and important part of the continuum of care approach – after the person has received treatment, they go back home and need to be followed up at the community level by the local team there. The provision of comprehensive primary health care not only reduces the need for secondary (community health centres, FRUs, divisional hospitals, Taluka Hospitals, and district hospitals at the block and district level) and tertiary (medical colleges) care; it also reduces disease and deaths at significantly lower costs. Ayushman card generation As a member of SHG, you can help your members, their family, and the community in generating their Ayushman Card to avail the benefits under the PMJAY scheme at the empanelled hospitals. You can get the information of empanelled hospitals under PMJAY from the nearest AB-HWCs and thus facilitate the community to reach out to the empanelled hospitals for generation of Ayushman Card. It can be generated by 3 ways: a) Online registration by self-user at pmjay.gov.in portal b) Through third party by visiting nearest Jan Seva Kendra c) Through public health care facilities or empanelled private hospitals. In all the 3 above mentioned methods the applicants name will be checked for eligibility for PMJAY through beneficiary identification system followed by submission of relevant documents like AADHAAR card and ration card. After successful registration, the beneficiaries will receive a registration ID and the Ayushman card through which they can avail the benefits under PMJAY scheme. E.g.: Below image shows the process of generation of Ayushman Card through empanelled hospitals. Figure 10: Process of Ayushman card generation through empanelled hospitals Government functionaries for health There are many players in the public health sphere who perform different and directly or indirectly related functions. It is important for you to know who they are and the key functions they perform. It is only after being equipped with this knowledge that you can approach the appropriate health service provider when needed. The diagram below lists some of these players – they may vary in different communities. The table below briefly explores the roles played by these players – Table 3: Roles and responsibilities at Community and Health care facility level \| Person/ Group \| Main Health Function \| \|---------------\|----------------------\| \| At the health facility level (PHC-HWC Level) \| \| \| PHC Medical Officer (PHC-MO) \| ✦ Confirms diagnosis ✦ Gives prescription ✦ Treats different health problems ✦ Manage all the staff, stocks, reports \| \| Staff nurse at PHC \| ✦ Assists the medical doctor ✦ Conducts deliveries and supports the ANMs/ MPWs ✦ Provides nursing care to patients \| \| Lab. Technician \| ✦ Collects blood and other samples ✦ Conducts tests and gives the results \| \| Pharmacist \| ✦ Maintains the medicine stock ✦ Gives out medicines as per the doctor’s prescription \| \| At the health facility level (SHC-HWC Level) \| \| \| ANM (Field health worker trained in nursing)/ MPW \| ✦ Conducts check-ups of pregnant women ✦ Gives immunization to children/ pregnant women ✦ Conducts screenings for non-communicable diseases \| \| Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) \| ✦ Mobilizes the community to attend programs at VHND ✦ Visits homes to check if beneficiaries are taking their medicines/ eating properly \| \| Community Health Officer (In charge of the Health and Wellness Centre at Sub Centre level) \| ✦ Conducts screening for different conditions and treats minor illnesses ✦ Gives out medicines as per the doctor’s prescription ✦ Does teleconsultation with PHC medical officer and specialists to get treatment advice ✦ Makes home visits to serious cases, and patients in need of geriatric, and palliative care \| \| At the community level (FLWs and Other CBOs) \| \| \| Anganwadi Worker \| ✦ Manages the nutrition supplementation for pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children from 0–6 years of age ✦ Responsible for the monthly weighing of children below 6 years for monitoring their growth \| \| Anganwadi helper \| ✦ Assists the Anganwadi teacher in nutrition supplementation ✦ Cooks fresh food for the children who attend the Anganwadi \| \| School teacher \| ✦ Assists in the annual school health check up ✦ Gives health education on hygiene, nutrition, etc. ✦ Maintains hygiene of the school, drinking water and mid-day meal \| \| Gram Panchayat Members \| ✦ Members in the VHSNC ✦ Take charge of building toilets, garbage disposal mechanisms ✦ Ensure availability of safe drinking water in the village \| \| Person/ Group \| Main Health Function \| \|---------------\|---------------------\| \| Sarpanch \| ✦ Chairman of the VHSNC – makes final decisions ✦ Ensures that all health programs reach the people \| \| VHSNC committee \| ✦ Carries out programmes for health, nutrition and sanitation ✦ Conducts monthly VHND in the village with the help of ANMs and ASHAs \| \| NGO staff \| ✦ Conduct awareness programs and arranges mobile camps ✦ Follows up with outreach programs for nutrition, sanitation, drinking water etc. \| \| Private doctors \| ✦ Treatment of common illnesses \| \| Private Nursing Homes and Hospitals \| ✦ Conduct deliveries and have in patient treatment ✦ Regular OPD with doctors available to treat patients \| \| Private medical shops and laboratories \| ✦ Labs conduct tests ✦ Medical shops sell medicines \| \| Self-help group \| ✦ Located in the village and can mobilize people to attend VHND and other health campaign programs ✦ Can assist the ASHA to get pregnant women and children to come to the ANM for check-up and immunization on time ✦ Can help arrange transport for emergency referrals ✦ Can support patients, old people, and terminally ill people by providing nutritious food, getting their medicines, doing home visits etc. ✦ Are members of the VHSNC and JAS committees. \| Now, that you have got an overview of health and its determinants, public healthcare delivery system and AB-HWCs; let us learn about what is your role as a SHG member in Ayushman Bharat programme. As an SHG member, you can play several roles in the Ayushman Bharat programme that are directly or indirectly linked to the existing healthcare system. To understand this, your roles may be broadly classified into 3 categories: 1. Role & responsibilities of SHG members towards themselves and their families 2. Role & responsibilities of SHG members as a part of the SHG 3. Role & responsibilities of SHG members as a representative in other community platforms like JAS and VHSNC. 1. What is the role & responsibilities of shg members towards themselves and their families? The first responsibility of the SHG is to its own members and their families, and this is important for both the SHG and health system to accept and ensure. Understand the health status of your own members and their family through shg health scorecard Before you plan what role your SHG can play, the health status of the member families of the SHG needs to be understood. A simple ‘SHG Health Scorecard’ may be used for this purpose. The scorecard is an exemplar framework of few indicators relevant to the health issues in your local area. The score generated through it will help you in understanding yours and your family’s health status. The purpose behind such exercise is if they understand how healthy their own families are, they will then be motivated to play an active role in the community as well. Educate and promote health activities After identifying health issues among your members and their family, you may approach appropriate health authority and seek its help in improving health status. The knowledge gained through such sessions may be used to educate your family members and create awareness regarding the services available at AB-HWCs related to it at free of cost and also the entitlements under different schemes to ensure financial protection. You may also facilitate your members and their families in accessing these services. Facilitate gainful employment Socio-economic factors are also a determinant of the individual’s and the community’s health. You can also play a role in ensuring good health of their member families by facilitating the gainful employment, and consequently a steady income, of their community. Support in facilitating referral and follow up services Another area the SHG can play an active role is in supporting the ASHA and other health care providers in the referral and follow up services. You can help to arrange transport, accompany the patient or relatives or provide some basic first aid along with the ASHA. The SHG member can also contact the ANM and CHO for help in the case of emergencies in the village. Referral and follow up services can be for: Emergencies - High-risk pregnant women (pregnant women with anaemia, gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, short stature, age less than 18 years) - Pregnant women with emergency danger signs - Preterm infants and low birth weight babies who are not feeding well or have signs of sepsis - Severely malnourished children - Any emergencies – heart attacks, fits, strokes, falls with fractures, etc. - Snake bites, poisoning cases, near drownings, attempted suicide cases, etc. Referral for higher investigations and care - Complicated cases identified for referral by either the CHO or PHC medical officer - Those suffering from uncontrolled chronic diseases Follow-up - Provide support required for the patient or others in the home - Report any danger signs to ASHA or ANM Volunteer to provide home-based supportive care Many elderlies and terminally ill people require home-based care. The SHG can help in several ways: - Visit the homes with the ASHA as volunteers to help/sit with the patient and give some relief to the caregiver - Assist the caregiver with some basic home care such as bathing, changing sheets, preparing food, etc. - Providing food for the patients or the family members. ▶ Arranging for transport in case of emergencies or hospital visits. ▶ Giving emotional support to the patient and care giver. ▶ Help family members quit alcohol and tobacco; provide social and emotional support. What is the role of SHGs in health? Spreading awareness related to comprehensive healthcare services at AB-HWCs You as an SHG can build awareness in your group on health, healthy behaviours and healthcare services available through government health facilities. You can take the help of the ASHA, ANM, community health officer to conduct awareness sessions in your regular monthly meetings. When can you provide or arrange for awareness programs? ▶ Your regular weekly and monthly SHG meetings ▶ Mothers’ meetings in the Anganwadi ▶ In the school with both parents and children ▶ At the Village Health, Sanitation, and Nutrition Days ▶ During the observation of important days related to health such as, World Health Day, World TB Day, World Diabetes Day, World Hypertension Day, World AIDS Day, Breastfeeding Week, etc. (choosing from the 42 calendar health days) ▶ You can also promote family planning and the use of contraceptives and to underscore the importance of safe sex practices and institutional delivery. Mobilize the community to access healthcare services a) An important function where SHG members can play a critical role is mobilizing their members for the several services provided at the community level. b) When and where can you mobilize them? Once you have identified the health needs of your area, you need to know what kind of programs are being held in the village. You can get this information from the ASHA or VHSNC. It is important that some SHG members be part of the VHSNC, as this will give them a voice as well as a forum to know about the services being provided. SHG members can help the ASHAs identify who has not received, or who has not been able to access, antenatal care or immunizations. They can also help to identify those with malnutrition or help ensure that those who have been identified with malnutrition attend the Anganwadi regularly for growth monitoring, food supplements, and regular check-ups. You can also support people to access schemes and services provided by the Government through the department of health and family welfare. The details of those schemes are provided in Annexure 2. Several services provided at the community level are as follows: ▶ The 42 Calendar Health Days conducted throughout the year ▶ Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Days held every month, which focus on maternal, child health, and nutrition ▶ Special health screening camps ▶ The Community Based Assessment Checklist surveys conducted by the ASHA ▶ Special campaigns under the VISHWAS programme ▶ School health check-ups ▶ Arogya Sabhas, monthly JAS meetings ▶ Thematic community-based camps conducted by the AB-HWCs (e.g., NCD screening camps) ▶ A Yoga session conducted by the AB-HWCs Who can you mobilize? You may mobilize the target groups like lactating and pregnant mothers, mothers of infants below 1 year and children 0-5 years, school children, malnourished children and adolescents, people with nutrition deficiency, people with chronic diseases like diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer, etc. Leading health promotion activities As a SHG you can also actively lead health promotional activities by celebrating the annual health calendar days jointly with JAS, organize expert sessions pertaining to local health needs on your monthly meetings, planning and organizing village level campaigns on special days, bringing health into the entrepreneurial activities/ambit, promote hygiene and sanitation; for example – undertake practices such as ‘Shramdaan’ to discourage littering and to promote the cleanliness of their village, peer motivation for a healthy lifestyle. What is the role & responsibilities of SHG members as a representative of community platforms such as JAS and VHSNC? Leverage community platforms to demand for health services The SHG members are the voice of the community and have their representation on other community platforms. They are an integral part of the local Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committees at village level and Jan Aarogya Samitis at facility level i.e., SHC-HWC and PHC-HWC. The goal is not only to attend meetings, but they must use these opportunities to demand health services be timely, regular, and of good quality. They should also bring up any local issues that affect the health of their families and neighbours. Role of SHGs as a member of VHSNC and JAS: 1. Village Health Sanitation and Nutrition Committee: VHSNCs, one of the key interventions introduced by National Rural Health Mission, are an important mechanism to ensure community participation at all levels, which include participation as beneficiaries, in supporting health activities, in implementing, and even in monitoring and action-based planning for health program. The VHSNCs are formed at the level of revenue villages, where the population of a revenue village is over 4000 the VHSNC can be at the level of a Ward Panchayat. You being the representative of your SHG will be taking up an active role in the functioning of the VHSNC by attending its monthly meetings and being engaged in the activities conducted by the VHSNC. The activities that can become a part of SHG functioning have been given on next page - a) Being part of the VHSNC and attending their monthly meetings regularly. b) Health awareness on a specific topic during SHG meeting and then telling their own family members. c) Listing of pregnant women in their family and community and ensuring they have the MCH card which is updated. d) List of children who require immunization updated with ASHA help and followed up with home visits to remind them. e) Follow up of all children detected as undernourished or with severe malnutrition - making sure they get regular nutrition supplementation from the Anganwadi/the SHG can also decide to provide support by providing milk/ eggs etc to that child on a regular basis. f) Attending the VHND and assisting the health team for various activities. g) Fill up the SHG score card every month to monitor the health status of their own families. h) Undertake source reduction activities for mosquito-borne diseases i) Participate in community Yoga activities conducted by Ayushman Bharat teams Figure 12: Role of SHGs as members of community platforms 2. Jan Arogya Samiti: Jan Arogya Samiti serve as institutional platform of SHC/PHC level AB-HWCs, for community participation in its management, governance and ensuring accountability, with respect to provision of healthcare services and amenities. JAS serve as an umbrella for VHSNCs also by providing mentorship and supporting them in management of Untied Funds and coordination with the health system. Self Help Group members, being a representative of VHSNCs can play important role in community health like: a) Mobilize community for celebration of annual calendar health days b) Attend monthly meetings of JAS and build consensus in the group to take up health agenda in meetings c) Catalyse utilization of healthcare services and the government schemes available through AB-HWCs and other government departments. d) Identify and record challenges faced by women in receiving comprehensive primary health care (CPHC) services at AB-HWCs and discuss these issues in monthly JAS meeting. e) Inform the community about all health-related services, entitlements and benefits, and how to avail these services at AB-HWCs. ASHAs/ ANMs of the area may be invited for taking up sessions on same in their monthly meeting. f) Inform ASHA/ANM about women/families who need any other support, resistant families and those who face difficulty in accessing healthcare services at AB-HWCs. g) Facilitate stronger interface of ASHA/ANMs with women/families from all sections, especially poor and vulnerable sections for better access of health services at AB-HWCs h) Liaise with JAS members to organize activities on maternal and new-born health related issues in their neighbourhood. i) Organise activities with JAS to resolve issues of the area. Annexures ## Annexure 1 ### Health schemes and benefits \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (what we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community (where I get?) \| Required documents (what I have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|-------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadi Pariyojana (PMBJP) \| To bring down the healthcare budget of every citizen of India through providing Quality generic Medicines at Affordable Prices \| Generic quality medicines at affordable prices and Other medical products \| All sections of the population especially the poor and the deprived ones \| Dedicated outlets (Janaushadi Kendra) across the country \| OTC (Over-the-counter) products can be purchased by any individual without a prescription \| Dedicated outlets known as Janaushadi Kendra across the country \| Medical prescription for scheduled drugs \| Working hours: 8 AM to 8 PM daily \| \| JSSK \| To provide completely free and cashless services to pregnant women including normal deliveries and caesarean operations and sick new born (up to 30 days after birth) in Government health institutions in both rural and urban areas. \| The following are the Free Entitlements for pregnant women: Free and cashless delivery, Free C-Section, Free drugs and consumables, Free diagnostics \| All pregnant women delivering in public health facilities. \| Community level ASHA At SHC - CHO and ANM At PHC - MO \| Auto-registration of all pregnant women and sick infants availing health care services at public health Institutions \| Govt. health facility/PHC/ CHC/DH/ FRU \| MCP card \| After the admission in health facility \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (what we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/ key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community/ (where I get?) \| Required documents (what I have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|--------\|----------------------\|-------------------------\|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| Free diet during stay in the health institutions \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free provision of blood Exemption from user charges \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free transport from home to health institutions \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free transport between facilities in case of referral \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free drop back from institutions to home after 48hrs of stay \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| The following are the Free Entitlements for Sick newborns and infants \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free treatment \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Free drugs and consumables \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (what we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community/ community (where I get?) \| Required documents (What I have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|-------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| Janani Suraksha Yojana \| Reducing maternal and infant mortality by promoting institutional delivery among pregnant women \| Provides cash assistance for institutional delivery. \| Poor pregnant woman with a special dispensation for states that have low institutional delivery rates, namely, the states of Uttar Pradesh. \| Community lever- ASHA At SHC – CHO Empanelled private health institutions \| ASHA identifies pregnant woman as a beneficiary of the scheme and facilitates registration of the beneficiary. \| Govt. health facility PHC/ CHC/DH/FRU \| BPL Card \| Immediately on arrival and registration for delivery \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (what we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community (where I get?) \| Required documents (What I have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|--------\|----------------------\|------------------------\|--------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| \| \| Low performing states: all pregnant women delivering in government health centres \| Uttarakhnad, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Rajasthan, Odisha, and Jammu and Kashmir. While these states have been named Low Performing States (LPS), the remaining states have been named High Performing states (HPS). \| At PHC – MO- ANM \| V/HND immunization sessions at facility \| \| \| \| \| \| Rural area = Rs. 1400 and urban area = Rs. 1000. \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| High performing states: all BPL/SC/ST women delivering in a government health centre \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Rural area= Rs.700 Urban area = Rs. 600 Cash assistance for BPL pregnant women who prefer to deliver at home: Rs. 500 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (What we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community (where I get?) \| Required documents (what have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) \| Provide financial protection for secondary and tertiary care to about 40% of India’s households \| Provides health insurance of up to Rs.5 Lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary healthcare hospitalizations \| List of criteria for eligibility under AB-PMJAY as per SECC 2011 Automatically included: Households without shelter Destitute/living on alms Manual scavenger families Primitive tribal groups Legally released bonded labour Deprivation criteria in rural area: D1: Only one room with kutcha walls and kutcha roof D2: No adult member between age 16 to 59 D3: Female headed households with no adult male member D4: Disabled member and no able-bodied adult member D5: SC/ST households D7: Landless households deriving major part of their income from manual casual labour \| PMJAY Portal \| \| \| Aadhar Card, Ration Card, Secondary and tertiary care hospitalization across public and private empanelled hospitals in India \| \| \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (What we get?) \| Eligibility (who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/ key focal person) \| How to apply / process of access \| Availability -health facility/ community/ community (where I get?) \| Required documents (what have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|--------\|----------------------\|-------------------------\|---------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|-------------------------------\|-------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\| \| PMTMBB \| Provide additional patient support to improve treatment outcome of TB patients \| Nutritional support (mandatory), Vocational support, Diagnostics, Additional nutritional supplement. Nutrition Food baskets. \| Occupational criteria in urban area: Reg picker, Beggar, Domestic worker Street vendor/ Cobbler/hawker / Other service provider working on streets, Construction worker/ Plumber/Mason/ Labour/ Painter/ Welder/ Security guard/ Coolie and other head-load worker, Sweeper/ Sanitation worker / Mai, Home-based worker/ Artisan/ Handicrafts worker/ Tailor etc \| \| \| \| NIKSHAY ID \| \| \| Scheme \| Purpose (Why it is?) \| Benefit (What we get?) \| Eligibility (Who can get) \| Whom to approach (authority/key focal person) \| Availability -health facility/community (where I get?) \| Required documents (what I have to produce) \| Time of availing the benefit (When will I get) \| \|------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\|--------------------------------------------------------\|---------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------\| \| Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) \| To utilize cash incentives to meet their nutritional requirements during pregnancy and lactation periods. \| A cash incentive of Rs. 5000/- (in three instalments) being provided directly in the bank/post office account. The cash incentive is paid in 3 instalments i.e. the 1st transfer (at pregnancy trimester) of Rs. 1,000 \| Pregnant Women and Lactating Mothers \| Registering in nearest AWC/PHC \| DBT \| MCP Card \| \| List of Contributors National Health Systems Resource Centre (NHSRC), Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoHFW) Maj Gen (Prof) Atul Kotwal Executive Director Dr. (Flt Lt) MA Balasubramanya Advisor, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Dr. Anantha Kumar SR Senior Consultant, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Mr. Syed Mohd Abbas Consultant, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Mr. Pankaj Shah Consultant, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Dr. Vidhya Chandramohan Fellow, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Dr. K. Monika Fellow, Community Processes and Comprehensive Primary Health Care Karnataka Health Promotion Trust (KHPT) Mr. Mohan HL CEO Dr. Swaroop N Thematic Lead - CPHC and MNCH+N Ms. Mallika Tharakan Knowledge Management Lead Ms. Poornima Bathi Siddappa Deputy Director - Programs Ms. Pratibha Rai Manager - Community Interventions Mr. Avinaash Mohan Kastura Manager - Knowledge Management Katz AH. Self-help and mutual aid: An emerging social movement?. Annual Review of Sociology. 1981 Jan 1;129-55. Park K. Concept of Health and Disease. Park’s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine. 2007. Ayushman Bharat: Comprehensive Primary Health Care through Health and Wellness Centres. 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Climate-friendly food and consumer behaviour Barriers and opportunities to promote a climate-friendly diet in Denmark Who is the Danish Council on Climate Change? The Danish Council on Climate Change provides recommendations on climate initiatives in the transition to a low-carbon society. They are based on independent professional analyses, centered on the overall objective of how we can make a cost-efficient transition. The objective is a future with very low emissions of greenhouse gasses while maintaining social welfare and development. 1. Introduction, conclusions and recommendations Global food consumption has a large climate and environmental impact It is globally recognised that the food system has a large impact on climate, the environment and global health, and that this impact may be altered by changing the way people compose their diet. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that the global food system constitutes approximately 30 per cent of total global greenhouse gas emissions, and thereby contributes significantly to climate change. Emissions of greenhouse gases from food systems originate from direct emissions from agricultural production and from deforestation caused by agricultural production, among other things. Cattle and pig farming, and other animal agriculture contribute significantly to climate change, as the animals emit greenhouse gases such as methane from cows and methane and nitrous oxide from slurry. Furthermore, global animal agricultural production, including the production of fodder, accounts for more than 80 per cent of global agricultural land. In addition to the climate impact, continuing agricultural production at current or increased levels and continuing the expansion of global agricultural lands will put further pressure on nature and natural resources, including increased deforestation and overconsumption of freshwater. Changing global food consumption can significantly reduce emissions from global agricultural production and thereby give an important contribution to the temperature target of the Paris Agreement. Scientific research suggests that the climate impact of global agricultural production can be reduced by approximately 45 per cent in 2050 if everyone in the world adopted a sustainable diet. This could also free up 60 per cent of global agricultural lands, which would thereby be available for other purposes. A sustainable diet mainly consists of plant-based foods, and to a lesser degree of animal-based foods. Such a dietary change would also have a positive effect on public health. Denmark’s large consumption of animal-based foods is not sustainable on a global scale Current Danish food consumption is an obstacle to Denmark’s ambition of taking the lead in climate change mitigation, as the Danes have one of the largest climate footprints from food consumption per capita. The average Dane eats more than double the amount of animal-based food compared to the global average, and also eats more meat and dairy products than the European average. This means that the climate impact of Danish food consumption exceeds the sustainable level seen from a global perspective. The aim of this analysis is to identify the barriers to an increased climate-friendly diet in Denmark and to identify potential instruments to reduce these barriers. The Danish Council on Climate Change (DCCC) proposes various measures that can accelerate the transition to more climate-friendly food consumption in Denmark. In addition, the purpose of the analysis is to estimate the climate effect if all Danes changed to a climate-friendly diet. The analysis focuses on reducing Danish consumption-based emissions, which is another way of accounting for Denmark’s climate impact instead of measuring territorial emissions. Binding international obligations and national targets, such as the Danish 70 per cent reduction target in 2030, are based on Denmark’s territorial emissions. A reduction of Denmark’s consumption-based emissions from food will also reduce emissions outside Denmark. This supports the objective of the Danish Climate Act: ensuring that Denmark contributes to reducing global emissions. Finally, greater demand for plant-based foods may incentivise Danish food producers to focus more on climate-friendly food products. There are several ways to reduce the climate impact of Danish food consumption, e.g. by changing diets, by reducing food waste or in some cases by consuming locally produced food instead of imported food. It is relevant to look into these different options. However, this analysis focuses solely on the climate impact of changing eating habits in Denmark, with a specific emphasis on consumption of plant-based foods versus animal-based foods. Changing the food composition is thought to be one of the main factors to changing the climate impact of food consumption. Significant climate benefits can be achieved if more people in Denmark were to follow the official Danish dietary guidelines In 2021, the Danish Government presented Denmark’s new official dietary guidelines, which aim to guide the Danes to a healthier and more climate-friendly diet. The dietary guidelines are based on the EAT-Lancet diet, a healthy, climate-friendly and environmentally sustainable diet that can feed ten billion people in 2050. The dietary guidelines have been adjusted to reflect Danish food habits, health and sustainability. However, there is still a high degree of consistency between the new Danish guidelines and the EAT-Lancet diet. According to Denmark’s new dietary guidelines, Danes should considerably reduce their consumption of animal-based foods and increase their consumption of vegetables and legumes. However, there may be reason to update the dietary guidelines in the future if the scientific foundation changes, or if there is a wish to further reduce the climate impact of Danish food consumption. If all Danes were to follow the new dietary guidelines, the DCCC analysis shows this would result in a direct reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions by 2.6–3.9 million tonnes annually. Without changing their energy-intake, the average Dane between the ages of 6 and 64 could reduce the climate impact of their diet with 31–45 per cent if they followed the dietary guidelines. The reduction potential for younger children and people aged over 65 is slightly lower at 17 per cent and 23–36 per cent, respectively. The reduced climate impact would primarily come from a decrease in the consumption of animal-based products compared to the current diet composition. Changing diets will at the same time improve health conditions in Denmark and reduce the environmental impact of the Danish food consumption. The government should create a national climate database for food Recent studies have shown that consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the climate impact of their diets, but that it is difficult for them to identify climate-friendly foods. At the same time, both public and private actors have started working on helping consumers better understand the relationship between different foods and their climate impact. However, these actors use different climate databases to assess the climate impact of foods, and there is uncertainty about the ideal choice of data and assessment method. This situation is unsustainable and, in the worst case, it will lead to conflicting signals about what is actually climate-friendly. This can lead to scepticism, uncertainty and confusion among consumers, which in turn can reduce the population’s commitment to consuming a more climate-friendly diet. Therefore, the DCCC recommends that the government, in close cooperation with industry and scientists, establish a national and publicly available climate database with information about the carbon footprint of different food products. The database should focus on providing consumers, businesses and others with better information, especially because many actors within this field rely on different climate databases. Moreover, it is important that the climate database is based on the best possible information, and is accompanied by transparent communication on assumptions and uncertainties about the data. It is therefore important that the database is updated regularly with the ongoing involvement of experts and stakeholders. Initially, the climate database should include estimates of the climate impact of the main food categories to help consumers navigate between them. In time, the government can strive towards a greater degree of detail to help consumers navigate the most climate-friendly alternatives within a product category. It should be emphasised that the common European method for calculating the climate and environmental impact of different types of products, the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF), is still being developed. PEF strives to establish common EU guidelines for calculating the climate and environmental impact of different types of products and to develop specific guidelines for product categories, as for example milk. The development of the Danish database should take the EU’s work on PEF into account. The climate impact is only expected to be marginally offset by changed consumption abroad A reduction of Danish meat consumption may result in both increased meat consumption in other countries and a decrease in global meat production, as the price of meat will drop slightly once Danish demand decreases. Hence, the global climate impact of Danish dietary changes could be eroded if consumers abroad eat the meat that the Danish consumers have stopped eating. This is known as the risk of carbon leakage. DCCC calculations indicate that if Danish consumers change diets, consumers abroad will only change their food consumption slightly in the long term. The calculations show that only approximately 5 per cent of a total decrease in Danish meat consumption will be offset by increased meat consumption abroad. In other words, if total Danish consumption of animal-based products decreases by 100 kg, consumption of these products will only increase by approximately 5 kg abroad. This means that the net global effect will be a 95 kg reduction in animal-based products and in the long term, the climate effect of altered Danish diets is only marginally offset by changed consumption patterns abroad. The climate effect may, however, be smaller in the short term as it takes time for the production sector to adapt to changed demands. The DCCC's calculations indicate that there will only be a limited decrease in Danish livestock production as a result of the Danish population consuming fewer animal-based products. The calculations show that total Danish livestock production would only decrease by approx. 0.4 per cent if Danish consumption of animal food products decreases by 8 per cent. In the animal-based food industry, production would decrease by approximately 1 per cent. This limited effect on Danish production can be attributed to the fact that Denmark exports a large part of the animal-based foods produced in Denmark. It is expected that the greater the decrease in Danish consumption of animal-based foods, the greater the reduction of the Danish production of animal-based products. The calculations indicate that the effect on total Danish territorial greenhouse gas emissions is relatively limited. Therefore, it is also necessary to focus on efforts to reduce emissions from livestock production, if we want Danish agriculture to make a significant contribution to achieving the Danish national climate goals. However, the calculations also indicate that a change in demand may to some extent incentivise Danish food producers to produce food that is more climate-friendly. The extent of this effect must however be taken with some reservation. There are many barriers to following the dietary guidelines In recent years, a growing share of the population has become significantly more aware of the climate impact of food consumption. In 2021, almost half of the population believed that meat consumption in Danish diets must be reduced. Young people in particular express a wish to consume less meat. However, other analyses show that it is difficult for people to act on these ambitions. Figures for household purchases show only a relatively limited reduction of beef and lamb consumption since 2015. Poultry consumption has increased, while pork consumption has decreased, both of which are meats with a lower carbon footprint. Danish dinner meals that contain meat has increased even from 2017 to 2019. Therefore, there is no immediate evidence that a significant number of Danes are switching to a more climate-friendly diet, despite the increased awareness. There are several explanations to why Danes, despite good intentions, are not eating more climate-friendly. Shopping, cooking and eating are all routine based habits that have to fit into the daily life. There are practical and logistical considerations, and consumers have to divide their attention between what they eat and other daily concerns like work, school, cleaning, leisure activities etc. This may explain why there is no evidence that consumers have significantly changed their food habits, despite the considerable focus among the population on the climate impact of food consumption in recent years. The DCCC has identified the most crucial barriers to changing dietary habits, and the analysis shows that several of these barriers are related to mealtime customs and habits. Price is an important factor in food choice, but consumer habits are also a big barrier when it comes to changing dietary composition. Many people are used to cooking certain types of food and feel they lack the competences to make tasty climate-friendly food. Therefore, climate-friendly food can be perceived as a compromise with taste. Many consumers are used to shopping in a certain way as part of their busy lives while they are also part of a social environment. In this environment, new eating habits can conflict with the habits of others and a general wish to fit in. Furthermore, consumers associate some diets with certain personality traits and are reluctant to identify with the group of people who eat climate-friendly food. Finally, many are unsure what foods are actually climate-friendly. Normalising climate-friendly eating habits will encourage behavioural change Today, very few people eat a climate-friendly diet. Evidently, this is a barrier to changing eating habits as eating a climate-friendly diet is not the norm. When climate-friendly food is rarely eaten, it is easier to assume that a climate-friendly diet is reserved for a particularly idealistic group of consumers, that it is difficult to prepare, that it is not filling and that it tastes bad. There is a clear need to normalize climate-friendly diets if a climate-friendly Danish diet is to be promoted. Studies point to the fact that climate-friendly foods will be considered increasingly normal the more frequent Danes are exposed to it and as such uncovering new eating habits. This will also change the perception that only certain sub-cultures consume climate-friendly diets. Normalizing a climate-friendly diet in the private sphere will also influence the way Danes act in their respective social networks, which can encourage behavioural changes in society as a whole. Normalizing climate-friendly eating habits will help change society’s perception of climate-friendly diets from being a marginal behaviour to being the norm. Research suggests that once this happens, new behaviour can spread quite quickly through common social dynamics. Effective efforts to normalise a more climate-friendly diet could be by explicitly encouraging a change in eating habits through communication and framing, particularly by public authorities. This can help alleviate the perception that following the dietary guidelines is difficult or socially atypical, and that it is, in fact, a behaviour that everyone can adopt. Normalising a climate-friendly diet requires a variety of measures. Decision-makers in the government, regions and municipalities can implement some of these measures, while other measures should be implemented by private actors. Taxes are effective, but not sufficient The price of products should reflect the climate impact of their production. This is a general and recognised principle of effective climate action. This means that the higher the climate impact a product has, the more expensive it should be. In that way, consumers would be better incentivised to choose the products that are cheapest and least harmful for society, and to choose a mix of products that reflect the cost of consumption for society as a whole. The DCCC has proposed a tax system that, in addition to taxing Danish emissions, also accounts for emissions outside of Denmark. This was done in the analysis Known paths and new tracks to 70 per cent reductions published in 2020. The tax system should ideally consist of a tax on Danish emissions from agriculture and land use etc. combined with a consumption tax on food, which includes both products produced in Denmark and imported products. However, consumption and production taxes should be balanced to avoid that emissions from food production are more heavily taxed than other emissions. A tax on foods based on their climate impact would encourage consumers to switch from foods with large climate impacts to more climate-friendly alternatives. There may however be various practical challenges to introducing a consumption tax that reflects the climate impact of foods. Ideally, the tax system needs to be detailed enough to reflect the precise climate impact of each food item. However, it could be costly to administer such a complex system. In practice, it will be a trade-off between the two considerations. During the course of 2022, the government's expert group working on a green tax reform will submit its final report, where emphasis, among other things, is expected to be on how to impose taxes on emissions from agriculture. The DCCC calls for the government to expand the mandate of the expert group to include a model for consumption taxes on foods. This would provide the government with a solid, scientific and holistic basis to build on. However, as mentioned, there are many barriers beyond cost that are preventing Danes from adopting a climate-friendly diet. Therefore, economic regulation should be accompanied by initiatives that address the other barriers and contribute to normalizing a climate-friendly diet. These other behavioural measures are the main focus of the DCCC’s recommended instruments in this analysis. The instruments could suitably be the focus of the Danish Government’s initiative on climate friendly behaviour that is expected in 2022. From an economic perspective, introducing taxes that nudge consumers to eat differently or pay more for the foods they want to continue eating will be a welfare loss for individuals. This also applies to other behavioural taxes. However, other behavioural measures can contribute to the normalization of climate-friendly diets, and can thereby reduce the welfare loss by influencing preferences and in turn reduce the socio-economic costs of implementing dietary change in Denmark. How we choose what we eat is not a choice made in isolation and free from the influence of others, and it is therefore possible to minimize the individual’s perceived loss by introducing measures that change the behaviour of consumers as a whole. Public kitchens should serve climate-friendly food Public kitchens can introduce many people to climate-friendly food as the kitchens serve approximately 650,000 meals a day throughout Denmark. Making these meals climate friendly will in itself contribute to mitigating climate change and will contribute to normalising a climate-friendly diet in the Danish population as more people are provided with and exposed to climate-friendly food. The DCCC recommends that public kitchens at the national, regional and municipal level set targets for providing climate-friendly food. There are already a number of public initiatives aimed at reducing the carbon footprint of public procurement and some municipalities have set targets for reducing the carbon footprint of their kitchens. It is good that the transition is already happening in some places, and the more people affected by the transition, the more it can contribute to the normalisation of a climate-friendly diet. The DCCC recommends that Danish dietary guidelines form the basis for the objective to serve climate-friendly food in public kitchens, since they are a good benchmark for climate-friendly foods towards 2030. It will also make things easier for kitchen staff as it also ensures the health benefits of a dietary change. In order for the dietary guidelines to continue to be climate-friendly, the climate impact of the diet needs to be monitored so the guidelines continue to reflect a healthy and climate-friendly dietary composition. Experience from previous dietary guidelines shows that public kitchens do not automatically follow the official dietary guidelines in Denmark. Therefore, the objective of following the new dietary guidelines in public kitchens needs to be supported by additional initiatives and cooperation with private actors. It is important that kitchen staff have the necessary professional knowledge to adapt to the guidelines. A number of additional efforts may be necessary to ensure that people eat the climate-friendly food served by the kitchens. For example, people are more willing to eat plant-based food if it is not called a vegetarian dish, and is just presented with a list of ingredients. Public kitchens could also collaborate with private kitchens and share their experiences. The aim of this would be to encourage private kitchens to follow the new dietary guidelines. Two climate labels can guide the consumers One of the barriers consumers face when shopping is that they simply do not know enough to make a climate-friendly choice. A climate-labelling scheme for food is an effective guide to more climate-friendly eating habits. It will help make the climate impact of food more visible and contribute to the normalisation of climate-friendly foods. According to a consumer survey, labels are very important to consumers and as many as 86 per cent use labels to guide them when shopping. There is currently no official climate label for foods in Denmark, but there are many other food labels that, among other things, help consumers make healthy or environmentally friendly choices while shopping. A labelling scheme also gives companies and retailers the opportunity to show that they and their products are socially responsible. For a labelling scheme to be successful, consumers need to feel that they can trust the label. Credibility can be achieved through a number of factors: The label should be issued by a government body (e.g. the Danish Veterinary and Food Administration), the label should be official and there should be a broad consensus on criteria among stakeholders, criteria underlying the label should be established by law, and compliance should be verified by a credible party. Both in Denmark and internationally, the retail industry and food industry have started to advertise or test labelling schemes to satisfy consumer wishes to make more climate-friendly choices. However, if more than one climate label is developed by private actors, there is a risk of creating label fatigue or consumer confusion. Furthermore, some producers promote products as carbon-neutral or as having a percentage carbon reduction for parts of the product or similar. Producers may calculate these emissions using very different methods, which is not good for consumer trust. The DCCC recommends that the government lays down the foundation for a labelling scheme consisting of two government-controlled climate labels: - A climate label for food products in shops to help the climate friendly consumer choose what to buy A climate label for kitchens that makes it easier for consumers to identify kitchens that have become more climate friendly. The label should cover all public kitchens and allow for voluntary compliance by private kitchens (e.g. private canteens, restaurants). The DCCC has not committed to a precise design of the climate labels, but suggests that the labels ought to be developed by a broad public-private partnership. The labels should be developed to meet the consumers’ current need for guidance, to meet the objective of normalising climate-friendly diets and to ensure the optimal behavioural change by consumers and public procurement officers. To ensure consensus about the foundation of the label, the scheme could be based on the dietary guidelines, or it could be based on a government-controlled database on the climate impact of foods. In this regard, it is essential to monitor and take into account the development of a common climate or sustainability label in the EU. The creation of the climate labels should be communicated broadly and supported by information campaigns and education programmes for relevant professionals. Climate labels will contribute to the normalisation of a climate-friendly diet by increasing the information available and by making it easy for individual consumers to make climate-friendly choices. Climate labels should be developed and marketed in cooperation with industry, as this would ensure three things: The design is made relevant to the consumer, there will be a broad consensus on methodology and the scientific basis, and marketing can be linked to existing industry communication channels. Publicly supported campaigns seek to promote marketing of animal-based products in Denmark In Denmark, a significant amount of public funding is allocated each year to various projects aimed at promoting animal-based products both in Denmark and internationally. The projects are funded by the Danish agricultural funds. In 2021, three times as much funding was allocated to the promotion of animal-based foods than to plant-based foods in Denmark. The EU also funds campaigns aimed at promoting food products. An analysis shows that 70 per cent of the EU funds that Denmark received for campaigns from 2016 to 2019 was spent on promoting animal-based foods, while only 12 per cent was spent on promoting fruits and vegetables. Campaigns that are counterproductive to the new dietary guidelines make it harder to normalise climate-friendly diets. Campaigns that communicate the positive qualities of meat and other animal-based products promote the perception that a high intake of animal-based products is normal and that only a small minority eat a more plant-based and therefore climate-friendly diet. The DCCC notes that consumers may become more confused when animal-based products are promoted to the Danish population with public funds, while they are simultaneously being encouraged to eat more plant-based products. Based on the report’s analyses of Danish food consumption, the DCCC has the following main conclusions: - Current Danish food consumption challenges Denmark’s ambition of taking the lead in climate change mitigation, as the Danes have one of the largest climate footprints from food consumption in the world, primarily due to a very high consumption of animal-based products. - Reducing consumption-based emissions from food in Denmark will support the Climate Act’s objective that Denmark contribute to reducing global emissions. - The official Danish dietary guidelines are sufficiently climate-friendly up until 2030. The dietary guidelines should be updated regularly up until 2050 to ensure that they always reflect a healthy and climate-friendly diet. This would ensure that Denmark’s efforts regarding food consumption are in line with Denmark’s ambition to take the lead in climate mitigation and support the global perspective of the Climate Act. - Following the Danish dietary guidelines will have a significant positive impact on the climate. The impact will primarily be achieved by eating less animal-based foods. - If all Danes were to follow the dietary guidelines, this would result in a global greenhouse gas emission reduction of 2.6–3.9 million tonnes per year. The long-term climate impact of Danes changing their diet is estimated to only be slightly offset by increased animal consumption abroad. - There are a number of barriers that prevent Danes from eating a more climate-friendly diet. These barriers can explain why there are no signs that consumers have significantly changed their food habits, despite considerable public focus on the climate impact of food consumption in recent years. - Normalising a climate-friendly diet can reduce the barriers to changing diets in Denmark. It can make it easier for consumers to switch to a more climate-friendly diet. Normalisation requires a wide range of initiatives that address the different barriers. The DCCC has the following recommendations for ensuring the increase of a climate-friendly diet in Denmark: - The DCCC recommends that the state, regions and municipalities set targets for public kitchens to serve climate-friendly food. If more people become familiar with climate-friendly food, this will contribute to normalising a climate-friendly diet among the Danish population. The DCCC recommends that the target for climate-friendly food in public kitchens should be based on the official Danish dietary guidelines, as the dietary guidelines are a good benchmark for climate-friendly diets up until 2030. - The DCCC recommends that the government, in close cooperation with industry and researchers, establish a publicly accessible, government-controlled climate database on the climate impact of food products. The database should consist of information for consumers, because especially in this area many actors use different climate databases. The climate database should be government-controlled and should be developed and continuously updated in cooperation with relevant actors to ensure common ownership and that developments in the EU in this area are taken into account. - The DCCC recommends that the government establishes the foundation for a labelling scheme consisting of two government-controlled climate labels: a climate label for food products and a climate label for professional kitchens. The DCCC has not taken a position on the precise design of the labelling scheme, but stresses that the labels should be developed in cooperation with private and public actors. - The DCCC recommends that the Danish government begin developing a model that makes it possible to place consumption taxes on certain foods with a high carbon footprint, so the price reflects the product’s climate impact. A tax on foods based on their climate footprint would send a clear signal to consumers to not choose foods with large climate footprints but rather choose more climate-friendly alternatives. klimaraadet.dk	4cc79c64-ae9f-473f-8479-a8917d8db5d4	CC-MAIN-2024-46	https://climatecouncilsnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/climate-friendly_food_and_consumer_behaviour_1.pdf	2024-11-07T14:06:17+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-46/segments/1730477027999.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20241107114930-20241107144930-00604.warc.gz	160,963,236	5,549	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.997294	eng_Latn	0.998527	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 118, 549, 4795, 9551, 14638, 19523, 24258, 27241, 31248, 31264 ]	[ 2.09375, 1.859375 ]	2	0
Margaret Hillert’s Why We Have Thanksgiving A Beginning-to-Read Book Illustrated by Stephen Marchesi The books in this Beginning-to-Read collection may look somewhat familiar in that the original versions could have been a part of your own early reading experiences. These carefully written texts feature common sight words to provide your child multiple exposures to the words appearing most frequently in written text. These new versions have been updated and the engaging illustrations are highly appealing to a contemporary audience of young readers. Begin by reading the story to your child, followed by letting him or her read familiar words and soon your child will be able to read the story independently. At each step of the way, be sure to praise your reader’s efforts to build his or her confidence as an independent reader. Discuss the pictures and encourage your child to make connections between the story and his or her own life. At the end of the story, you will find reading activities and a word list that will help your child practice and strengthen beginning reading skills. These activities, along with the comprehension questions are aligned to current standards, so reading efforts at home will directly support the instructional goals in the classroom. Above all, the most important part of the reading experience is to have fun and enjoy it! Shannon Cannon, Literacy Consultant Norwood House Press • www.norwoodhousepress.com Beginning-to-Read™ is a registered trademark of Norwood House Press. Illustration and cover design copyright ©2017 by Norwood House Press. All Rights Reserved. Authorized adapted reprint from the U.S. English language edition, entitled Why We Have Thanksgiving by Margaret Hillert. Copyright © 2017 Margaret Hillert. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved. Pearson and Why We Have Thanksgiving are trademarks, in the US and/or other countries, of Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. This publication is protected by copyright, and prior permission to re-use in any way in any format is required by both Norwood House Press and Pearson Education. This book is authorized in the United States for use in schools and public libraries. Designer: Lindaanne Donohoe Editorial Production: Lisa Walsh LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Names: Hillert, Margaret, author. \| Marchesi, Stephen, illustrator. Title: Why we have Thanksgiving / by Margaret Hillert ; illustrated by Stephen Marchesi. Description: Chicago, IL : Norwood House Press, [2016] \| Series: A beginning-to-read book \| Summary: An easy-to-read fictional retelling of the journey of the Pilgrims to America, their struggles during the first year, and celebration of the first Thanksgiving. Includes reading activities and a word list. \| Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed. Identifiers: LCCN 2016020725 (print) \| LCCN 2016001932 (ebook) \| ISBN 9781603579711 (eBook) \| ISBN 9781599538099 (library edition : alk. paper) Subjects: I CYAC: Thanksgiving Day--Fiction. I Pilgrims [New Plymouth Colony]--Fiction. Classification: LCC PZ7.H558 (print) \| LCC PZZ.H558 Whi 2016 (ebook) \| DDC [E]-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020725 Synchred Read-Along Version by: Triangle Interactive LLC PO Box 573 Prior Lake, MN 55372 288N—072016 ISBN-13: 978-1-68444-398-7 (e-book) Manufactured in the United States of America in North Mankato, Minnesota. I want you to go there. You have to do what I want. Go there. Go there. We do not want to go there. We do not like it. We want to do what we like. You can not do what you like. Get in here. Get in here. This is the spot for you. We do not like this. Oh, we do not like this. What can we do? What can we do? We can go away. Yes, we can go away. That is what we can do. We can go in a boat. A big, big boat. You’ve Just Finished your Free Sample Enjoyed the preview? Buy: http://www.ebooks2go.com	abe6cd22-d669-49a1-adf4-17bc81810ab1	CC-MAIN-2021-43	https://www.ebooks2go.com/img/samplefiles/9781684443987.pdf	2021-10-17T12:53:08+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585177.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20211017113503-20211017143503-00056.warc.gz	923,780,655	917	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.991954	eng_Latn	0.996497	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 103, 3469, 3542, 3618, 3701, 3780, 3880, 3972 ]	[ 2.890625 ]	1	0
DISABILITY-INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Foundation Level 2019 CONTENTS Acronyms ................................................................................................................................. 3 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4 2 Defining Disability-Inclusive Education ........................................................................... 4 3 International Commitments to Disability-Inclusive Education ..................................... 7 4 Why Invest in Disability-Inclusive Education? ................................................................. 11 5 Disability-Inclusive Education priorities .......................................................................... 15 6 How can Development Partners Contribute? ................................................................. 18 7 Test your knowledge ........................................................................................................ 19 References and links ............................................................................................................ 23 \| Acronym \| Description \| \|---------\|-------------\| \| CEDAW \| Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women \| \| CRC \| Convention on the Rights of the Child \| \| CRPD \| Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities \| \| DFAT \| Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade \| \| ECE \| Early childhood education \| \| EFA \| Education For All \| \| EMIS \| Education Management Information System \| \| ICESCR \| International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights \| \| PacREF \| Pacific Regional Education Framework \| \| PFRPD \| Pacific Framework for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities \| \| PSET \| Post-school education and training \| \| SDG \| Sustainable Development Goal \| \| UN-ESCAP \| United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific \| \| UNESCO \| United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation \| \| USAID \| United States Agency for International Development \| 1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this module is to provide introductory information about the rationale, purpose, benefits, key issues and outcomes of disability-inclusive education. The module focusses on disability-inclusive primary and secondary education, with some reference to post-school education and training (PSET) and early childhood education (ECE). Whilst great gains have been made in access to quality primary education for general populations, fundamental reform is still required to enable access for children with disabilities. This module provides foundational information to enable engagement in this topic, and the provision of general advice. A deeper presentation of issues and approaches can be found in the Disability-Inclusive Education: Practitioner Level module. 2 DEFINING DISABILITY-INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Inclusive education: a broad definition UNESCO definition of inclusive education Inclusive education has been defined as a process of focusing on and responding to the diverse needs of all learners, removing barriers impeding quality education, and thereby increasing participation in learning and reducing exclusion within and from education. Source: United Nations Organisation for Education Science and Culture (UNESCO) 2005, Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All. Inclusive education involves creating an education system which ensures the access, participation and learning achievement of all, including people disadvantaged by factors such as disability, gender, poverty, cultural, ethnic or linguistic group, migration, conflict and homelessness. Disability-inclusive education The ‘inclusive education’ agenda has been adopted to refer to inclusion of all marginalised groups in education. As such, the term “disability-inclusive education” is increasingly used to describe efforts that relate specifically to ensuring the inclusion of children (or adults) with disabilities in education. Sources: Wapling L 2016, Inclusive education and children with disabilities: Quality education for all in low and middle income countries; Miles & Singal 2009, The education for all and inclusive education debate: Conflict, contradiction or opportunity?; Kiuppis F 2014, Why (not) associate the principle of inclusion with disability? Tracing connections from the start of the ‘Salamanca Process’. This module focuses on disability-inclusive education because many barriers that cause exclusion from education for children, youth and adults with disabilities are specific to the issues of disability. These require different strategies and actions from those needed to overcome barriers due to poverty, linguistic and cultural minority status, homelessness and others. Disability-inclusive education enables children (or adults) with disabilities to access education within regular / mainstream schools and learning settings alongside peers without disabilities, in the classrooms they would be attending if they did not have a disability, or within environments that best correspond to their requirements and preferences. Disability-inclusive education relates to people with all types of disabilities including physical, sensory (hearing, vision), intellectual, communication and psychosocial. Figure 1 illustrates four models of education in relation to people with disabilities. - Exclusion occurs when people with disabilities are not attending educational settings at all. - Segregation is the use of separate schools or institutions for education of people with disabilities, for example special schools. - Integration is the use of separate classrooms specifically designated for students with disabilities, within the context of regular schools. - Inclusion relates to educating students with disabilities within regular classrooms, ensuring appropriate teaching methods and supports to enable quality education and full participation. Figure 1 - Models of education - exclusion, segregation, integration, exclusion Source: Planchamp, C 2019, The inclusive school: Concerning integration in an inclusive school or how best to educate children with special needs. Inclusive education as a human right Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognises inclusive education as the means to fulfil the right to education for people with disabilities. From a rights perspective, inclusive education is accepted as the most suitable approach to guarantee universality and non-discrimination in the right to education. However, the reality in many countries is that education of children with disabilities occurs in a range of settings including special schools, integration classes in regular schools as well as in inclusive classrooms. At certain times, a child with a disability may benefit more from a segregated or integrated setting rather than a mainstream setting. This will depend on the resources available, policies and attitudes in schools, and the nature of the child’s learning needs. This is particularly the case for children who need to learn Braille before enrolling in a mainstream school, children who need to be immersed in a sign language environment to learn the language comprehensively, and for children with high support needs. Large, noisy classrooms can be overwhelming for some children with behavioural, attention or social difficulties. Periods of learning in a separate space within the mainstream school, particularly while a child is adjusting to school or a new classroom, can support some children to manage high levels of sensory overload. All countries are at a different point in terms of the provision of education for children with disabilities. These journeys are affected by contextual factors including policy directives and access to resources. Human rights frameworks (see section 3), the perspective of Disabled Peoples’ Organisations, and a great deal of evidence (see section 4) highlights the fundamental need to reform education systems to become inclusive. However, a high regard for contextual factors and a commitment to long-term reform must be at the heart of development partner approaches to disability-inclusive education. Sources: United Nations 2016; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2013, Thematic study on the right of persons with disabilities to education; World Health Organisation & World Bank 2011, World report on disability; World Federation of the Deaf 2016, Policy – Education rights for Deaf children. 3 INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS TO DISABILITY-INCLUSIVE EDUCATION International human rights treaties The fundamental human right for people with disabilities to access a quality and disability-inclusive education is clearly articulated in many United Nations treaties, as summarised below. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) requires states to ensure inclusive, quality, and free primary and secondary education to people with disabilities on an equal basis with others in the communities in which they live. Reasonable accommodations and individualised supports must be provided to students with disabilities. Reasonable accommodations, or adjustments, are measures taken to assist students with disabilities to participate in education on the same basis as students without disability. Adjustments can include provision of assistive technology, sign language interpreters or modifications to learning and assessment materials. Article 24 includes measures to ensure that education for people who are blind, deaf and deafblind is delivered in the most appropriate languages, modes and means of communication for the individual. States must ensure a disability-inclusive education system at all levels, including post-school education and training, as well as opportunities for lifelong learning, on an equal basis with students without disabilities. Australia has ratified the CRPD and is committed to its fulfilment, including Article 32 which recognises the importance of international cooperation in support of national efforts for the realization of the purpose and objectives of the CRPD. Source: United Nations 2016. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) Article 28 recognises the right for all children to receive education without discrimination on any grounds. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is consistent with the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) in promoting the progressive introduction of free education. Article 23 recognises that children with disabilities “should enjoy a full and decent life”. The CRC promotes the provision of assistance to ensure that children with disabilities have effective access to education, training, health care services, rehabilitation services, preparation for employment and recreation opportunities. Source: United Nations General Assembly 1989. Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) Article 10 obliges states to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of education. This implicitly includes women and girls with disabilities, although the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) does not contain text specifically addressing women with disabilities. However, in its General Recommendation 18, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women requested states to report on “measures they have taken to ensure that disabled women have equal access to education” in their periodic reports. Source: United Nations General Assembly 1989. International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (1976) Article 13 recognises the right of everyone to education, and states that primary education should be compulsory and available free to all. The ICESCR also declares that secondary, technical, vocational, and higher education should be made available and accessible to all by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education. Source: United Nations General Assembly 1966. An activity for you International commitments to disability-inclusive education Different countries have made different commitments to disability-inclusive education. These guide policy-making and resource allocation, as well as monitoring and evaluation. Which international conventions have been signed and ratified by the country in which you are working? International development frameworks Sustainable Development Goals (2015) The education of children with disabilities is embraced within Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 and its roadmap, the Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all. The emphasis on achieving SDG 4 for people with disabilities is evident through the requirement for disability disaggregation of many of the Goal 4 indicators. Note: Indicators are detailed in the Disability-Inclusive Education: Practitioner module and are outlined in the list of SDG Indicators. The Education 2030 document captures the essence of the intent towards inclusion: “Inclusion and equity in and through education is the cornerstone of a transformative education agenda, and we therefore commit to addressing all forms of exclusion and marginalization, disparities and inequalities in access, participation and learning outcomes. No education target should be considered met unless met by all. We therefore commit to making the necessary changes in education policies and focusing our efforts on the most disadvantaged, especially those with disabilities, to ensure that no one is left behind”. Sources: United Nations 2015; UNESCO & World Education Forum 2015; United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2015. Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (1994) Adopted by the UNESCO World Conference on Special Needs Education in 1994 and signed by 92 countries and 25 organisations, the Salamanca Statement states that “those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools” and that “regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all; moreover they provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system”. The Salamanca Statement declares that schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. It includes children with disabilities, gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalised areas or groups. Source: UNESCO 1994. Education for All (1990) Education for All (EFA) was an international initiative of governments, civil society and development agencies including the World Bank, led by UNESCO, which aimed to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015. It commenced at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, where 155 governments signed the World Declaration on Education for All and the Framework for Action to meet Basic Learning Needs. The framework for action included, as one of six main areas of action, “universal access to and completion of primary education”. Ten years later, in 2000, representatives from 182 countries met in Dakar, Senegal and reaffirmed their commitment in providing Education for All, which culminated in the adoption of the Dakar Framework for Action, the goals and targets of which were to be achieved by 2015. It was widely acknowledged that, whilst large improvements in access to education were made for many children during this period, these benefits did not extend to children with disabilities. This was largely because “working children, remote rural dwellers and nomads, linguistic minorities, (those) affected by conflict, HIV/AIDS, hunger and poor health, and those with special learning needs” did not form part of the national EFA plans required under the Dakar Framework for Action. Due to data insufficiencies, “in terms of children with disabilities and their access to education, they remained unknown, uncounted and unserved”. Pacific and Asian frameworks Pacific Regional Education Framework (2018 – 2030) The Pacific Regional Education Framework (PacREF) seeks to assist Pacific education systems to raise the quality of education and learner outcomes, and produce graduates capable of contributing economically and socially to sustainable development. It encourages Pacific countries to implement disability-inclusive education programs and pathways, including training for teachers and teaching assistants. Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat & University of the South Pacific 2018. Pacific Framework for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2016 - 2025) The Pacific Framework for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (PFRPD) aims to support Pacific governments to promote, protect and fulfil the rights of persons with disabilities as outlined in the CRPD, and to provide a regional modality to strengthen coordination and collaboration in support of national initiatives. It has strong links to the CRPD, the Incheon Strategy (see below) and the SDGs. The education-related outcome in the PFRPD is that “Inclusive education policies aligned to the CRPD are developed and implemented and persons with disabilities enjoy equal access to inclusive and quality education and lifelong learning”. Source: Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat 2016. Incheon Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific (2013 – 2022) The Incheon Strategy, adopted in Incheon, Korea in November 2012 at a high-level intergovernmental meeting of 60 countries from Asia and the Pacific, contains a set of cross-sectoral disability-inclusive development goals for the decade, focused on improving the quality of life and fulfilment of the rights of people with disabilities in the region. Goal 5 is to “Expand early intervention and education of children with disabilities”. The targets and indicators of goal 5 are outlined in the Practitioner Module. The Incheon Strategy follows on from the previous Asia and Pacific decade, the Biwako Millennium Framework for Action: Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-free and Rights-based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific region (2003 – 2012). Sources: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) 2012; UN ESCAP 2003. 4 WHY INVEST IN DISABILITY-INCLUSIVE EDUCATION? Education Education is a priority sector for the Australian aid program. Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) is committed to supporting the attainment of educational equity by investing in the inclusion of children with disabilities in education. One of four priorities in the Strategy for Australia’s aid investments in education 2015-2020, is “universal participation”, which advocates for disability-inclusive education systems. Investing in disability-inclusive education contributes significantly to Australia’s objective of improving the quality of life for people with disabilities. It can reduce the effects of disadvantage and mitigate the risks of poverty for people with disabilities and their families. Source: DFAT 2015. Disability Disability is part of being human: everyone is likely to experience disability, either permanently or temporarily, at some point in their life. Disabilities are diverse. They may be visible or invisible and their onset can be at any time. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognises that disability is an evolving concept and explains that persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. Source: United Nations 2006 This understanding of disability is in line with the social model of disability. This views disability as the result of attitudinal, environmental and institutional barriers which exclude people with impairments, preventing their full participation in society. Source: Mitra, S 2006, The capability approach and disability. It is estimated that 15 per cent of people worldwide experience disability. Source: World Health Organisation & World Bank 2011, World report on disability. Children with disabilities Approximately one billion people in the world live with a disability, of whom at least one in 10 are children, and 80 per cent live in developing countries. Children with disabilities face barriers to participation in many activities. They are less likely to enrol in school, have lower rates of attendance and lower transition rates to higher levels of education. Source: World Health Organisation & World Bank 2011, World report on disability. Recent studies indicate that there is a significant gap in school attendance between those with and those without disabilities. A 2016 study across 18 countries found that 85 per cent of out-of-school primary-aged children with disabilities had never been to school. Lower rates of school attendance experienced by primary-aged children with disabilities decrease further for those at the secondary level. Sources: Mizunoya, S Mitra, S & Yamasaki, I 2016, Towards Inclusive Education: The impact of disability on school attendance in developing countries; Filmer, D 2008, Disability, Poverty, and Schooling in Developing Countries: Results from 14 household surveys. Children with disabilities are disproportionately represented amongst all out-of-school children. Children with physical disabilities have been found to be more likely to attend school compared to children with intellectual disabilities, vision impairments, or those who are deaf, although this varies greatly by country. Compared to boys with disabilities, girls with disabilities are less likely to attend school. Where children with disabilities do attend school, the quality of their educational experiences is frequently inadequate. Sources: Graham, N 2014, Children with Disabilities; World Health Organisation & World Bank 2011, World report on disability; Singal, N & Jeffery, R 2011, Inclusive education in India: the struggle for quality in consonance with equity. Disability, education and poverty Disability and poverty are interconnected. In many countries, disability has been found to be significantly associated with higher poverty as well as lower educational attainment, lower employment rates, and higher medical expenditure. Source: Mitra, S Posorac, A & Vick, B 2012, Disability and poverty in developing countries: A Multidimensional study, In World Development. The link between education and poverty for children with disabilities and their families is strong. In the immediacy, a child with disabilities who does not attend school is at risk of exclusion from social participation and reduced personal well-being. Household income may be affected due to the child’s possible dependence on a family member for care during school hours. Source: Alavi Y, Jumbe V, Hartley S, Smith S, Lamping D, et al. 2012, Indignity, exclusion, pain and hunger: the impact of musculoskeletal impairments in the lives of children in Malawi Longer term, going to school offers opportunities for children with disabilities to learn skills and knowledge and gain confidence that can open gateways to social and economic participation later, reducing the likelihood of poverty. In 2008, the cost of foregone income from lack of schooling and employment of people with disabilities and their caregivers in Bangladesh was estimated at US$1.2 billion annually, or 1.7 per cent of Gross Domestic Product. Source: World Bank 2008, Project appraisal document on a proposed credit to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for a disability and children-at-risk project. Families of children with disabilities often face additional disability-related costs. Children with disabilities frequently grow up poorer and, where they lack access to education and health care services, face disadvantage across a range of social measures. Source: Mont, D 2014, Childhood disability and poverty: Working paper series number 25. Benefits of disability-inclusive education People with disabilities who have been educated in a mainstream classroom are more likely to transition to secondary and post-secondary education and training, and as adults, are more likely to gain paid work, and live independently. This is important given the well-established link between disability and poverty. Source: Mont, D 2014, Childhood disability and poverty: Working paper series number 25. There is frequently a direct economic benefit when families send their child with disability to school: adults in the household become available to undertake paid work, increasing family income. Attending a supportive disability-inclusive mainstream school improves social connectedness and wellbeing. There are benefits to students without disabilities, who experience improved social skills, a deeper ethical grounding and opportunities to consolidate their own learning within peer-to-peer education activities. Disability-inclusive education has also been found to enhance school communities by fostering a problem-solving culture. Source; Alana Institute 2016, A Summary of the evidence on inclusive education. Attendance at school by children with disabilities challenges societal misconceptions about the capacity of children with disability to participate and learn, which in turn contributes to inclusive communities, enabling participation of people with disabilities in economic and social life. Source: Mont, D 2014, Childhood disability and poverty: Working paper series number 25. Barriers to disability-inclusive education The social model views disability as the result of barriers which exclude people with impairments, preventing their full participation. Barriers can be attitudinal, environmental and institutional. Attitudinal barriers may include: - Discriminatory beliefs about impairments and their causes, and negative assumptions about the aptitude and potential of people with disabilities. These attitudes are stigmatising and result in marginalisation. Negative attitudes, when held by policy-makers, principals, teachers, caregivers or community members commonly result in exclusion of children with disabilities from school. - Family and community beliefs that people with disabilities stretch household resources and lack the capacity to make decisions, contribute economically to households, or undertake a leadership role. This can result in the curtailment of educational and social opportunities for people with disabilities, and in extreme situations can eventuate in their expulsion from homes or communities. - Caregiver concerns regarding the safety and wellbeing about the child with disabilities under their care. Over-protectiveness can result in exclusion. - Bullying of students with disabilities, which can lead to discontinuation of their studies. Environmental barriers can include: - Inaccessible school buildings (e.g. multi-storey schools with no lifts or ramps, inaccessible water, sanitation and hygiene facilities). - The location of the school, which may be remote and/or difficult to get to using available transport options. Institutional barriers can include: - Policies that favour education for children with disabilities in centrally-located special schools, rather than disability-inclusive education in schools close to where children with disabilities and their families live. - Inadequate resources to enable implementation of disability-inclusive policies. - Prohibitive costs of school fees, uniform, transport. - Lack of teacher skills and confidence. - Lack of teaching and learning resources, including teacher aides, Braille hardware or screen-reading software and accessible learning and assessment materials. - Limited access to sign language education and interpreters. - Limited availability of specialist health services, including early intervention and therapy services. In many places, girls with disabilities are confronted with double discrimination: based on both their gender and their disability. 5 DISABILITY-INCLUSIVE EDUCATION PRIORITIES While approaches to disability-inclusive education vary, several factors have been identified as central to a disability-inclusive education system. These are listed in relation to the education systems framework shown in Figure 2 and are explored in more depth in the Disability-Inclusive Education: Practitioner module. Figure 2 – Education systems Source: USAID 2018, Strengthening the service delivery system for inclusive education: The supply and quality side of providing education to children with disabilities in Africa. Governance Governance factors which are central to a disability-inclusive education system are described below. - Disability-inclusive education policies, standards and guidelines to provide a supportive scaffolding for developing and improving disability-inclusive education across all areas, including curriculum, assessment and school infrastructure, and all educational levels, including ECE, primary, secondary and PSET. - Management processes to enable adequate, reliable processes for decision-making and management regarding quality disability-inclusive educational options. - Accountability by governments and schools to monitor and report transparently about efforts towards disability-inclusive education, including financial data and indicators measuring policy, legislative and treaty obligations. This requires reporting on disability-disaggregated outcomes (see section on Information, below). - Collaboration and partnership with stakeholders outside of the education system, e.g. communities, Disabled People’s Organisations, health services, transport. - Strategic and operational planning to enable the availability of resources which support appropriate disability-inclusive education strategic and operational goals at the ministry and school levels. Service delivery Service delivery factors which are central to a disability-inclusive education system are described below. - Positive attitudes which challenge stigma and discrimination in the broader community and promote inclusive school communities and ministry environments. - Accessible school infrastructure which enables disability-inclusive education by offering an environment which is accessible to all. - Teaching and assessment practices which promote child-centred learning and achievement for all students. - Identification, screening, assessment and referral networks to enable students with disabilities to access appropriate services and supports that facilitate their participation in learning. - Resource centres for inclusive education which provide specialist services to mainstream schools to support disability-inclusive education. - Parent/caregiver and community involvement to support individual learning goals of students with disabilities, encourage families to enrol children with disabilities in schools, and create positive disability-inclusive school environments. - Addressing factors related to out-of-school children with disabilities, acknowledging that in many countries most children with disabilities are out of school. Barriers to their attendance at school may be within the school, as well as within homes and communities, and require strategies. - Consideration of factors which compound marginalisation such as gender, sexual orientation and gender identity and disabilities which are less visible and more vulnerable to exclusion (for example deaf people and people with intellectual disabilities). - Planning for disability-inclusive education in emergencies to ensure children with disabilities are included in education-in-emergencies activities after a disaster. Workforce Workforce factors which are central to a disability-inclusive education system are described below. - Human resource management/development to enable allocation of adequate skilled and confident leaders, teaching and management personnel. - Training effective teachers which promote inclusive attitudes, knowledge and skills, particularly in relation to child-centred and differentiated learning approaches. Information Information factors which are central to a disability-inclusive education system are described below. - Monitoring, evaluation and learning to promote reflection and learning as a disability-inclusive education system strengthens. - Education Management Information Systems (EMIS) which can disaggregate data by disability are essential to informing and monitoring disability-inclusive education. - Indicators for disability-inclusive education to enable monitoring of progress towards disability-inclusive education goals. Finance Financing disability-inclusive education requires the production of annual budgets to facilitate the implementation of disability-inclusive education policies, standards and guidelines, informed by information regarding effective practices and gaps generated through EMIS, evaluations and research. 6 HOW CAN DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS CONTRIBUTE? There are several investment modalities available, to be selected and agreed according to the country context: - Whole education sector budget support which would include provision for disability-inclusive education. - Targeted support to disability-inclusive education through sub-sector investments. - Ear-marked support to specific components e.g. EMIS, teacher training, infrastructure upgrades, advocacy. The chosen approach will need to be developed collaboratively with the partner government, other development partners, and education stakeholders, and should be grounded in contextual realities. Note: For more information view the Disability-Inclusive Education: Practitioner module, and the modules on Basic Education, Monitoring and Evaluation, Education Sector Planning and Education Financing. 7 TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE Assessment questions Answer the following questions by ticking ‘True’ or ‘False’. Once you have selected your answers to all the questions, turn the page to ‘The correct answers are…’ to check the accuracy of your answers. Question 1 Disability-inclusive education is focused largely on the education of children with learning difficulties. Is this statement true or false? □ True □ False Question 2 Governments should be encouraged to focus on inclusion in mainstream schools and gradually close down special schools. Is this statement true or false? □ True □ False Question 3 The education article within the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability is Article 24. Is this statement true or false? □ True □ False Question 4 Disability is the result of the interaction between a person’s impairment(s) and barriers that exist in the environment. Is this statement true or false? □ True □ False Question 5 There are approximately 10 million children with disabilities in the world, of whom 80 per cent live in developing countries Is this statement true or false? ☐ True ☐ False Question 6 Inter-sectoral solutions are required for a comprehensive system enabling quality disability-inclusive education. Is this statement true or false? ☐ True ☐ False Question 7 Educating children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms has been shown to disadvantage non-disabled students. Is this statement true or false? ☐ True ☐ False Question 8 The bi-directional links between disability and poverty are well evidenced. Is this statement true or false? ☐ True ☐ False The correct answers are... Question 1 Disability-inclusive education is focused largely on the education of children with learning difficulties. This statement is false. Disability-inclusive education relates to people with all types of disabilities including physical, sensory (hearing, vision), intellectual, communication and psychosocial. Question 2 Governments should be encouraged to focus on inclusion in mainstream schools and gradually close down special schools. This statement is false. Special schools play an important role in building specialist skills such as Braille and sign language, and in providing education for students with complex difficulties and high support needs. Question 3 The education article within the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability is Article 24. This statement is true. Question 4 Disability is the result of the interaction between a person’s impairment(s) and barriers that exist in the environment. This statement is true. Question 5 There are approximately 10 million children with disabilities in the world, of whom 80 per cent live in developing countries. This statement is false. There are approximately 100 million children with disabilities in the world. --- Question 6 Inter-sectoral solutions are required for a comprehensive system enabling quality disability-inclusive education. This statement is true. --- Question 7 Educating children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms has been shown to disadvantage non-disabled students. This statement is false. There are benefits to students without disabilities, who experience improved social skills, a deeper ethical grounding and opportunities to consolidate their own learning within peer-to-peer education activities. --- Question 8 The bi-directional links between disability and poverty are well evidenced. This statement is true. REFERENCES AND LINKS All links retrieved June 2019 Alana Institute 2016, A Summary of the evidence on inclusive education, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Alana Institute, https://alana.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/A_Summary_of_the_evidence_on_inclusive_education.pdf Alavi Y, Jumbe V, Hartley S, Smith S, Lamping D, et al. 2012, Indignity, exclusion, pain and hunger: the impact of musculoskeletal impairments in the lives of children in Malawi, Disabil Rehabil 34, p. 1736–46, https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2012.662260 CBM 2019, End the Cycle of Poverty & Disability, Australia, CBM, https://www.endthecycle.info/ DFAT 2015, Strategy for Australia’s aid investments in education 2015–2020, Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/strategy-for-australias-aid-investments-in-education-2015-2020.aspx Filmer D 2008, Disability, Poverty, and Schooling in Developing Countries: Results from 14 household surveys, World Bank Economic Review 22, p. 141–63, https://academic.oup.com/wber/article-abstract/22/1/141/1682417?redirectedFrom=fulltext Graham N 2014, Children with Disabilities, Montreal, Canada, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, http://ais.volumesquared.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/OOSC-2014-Children-with-Disabilities-final.pdf Kiuppis F 2014, Why (not) associate the principle of inclusion with disability? Tracing connections from the start of the ‘Salamanca Process’, International Journal of Inclusive Education, v. 18, p. 746-761, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603116.2013.826289 Miles S & Singal, N 2009, The education for all and inclusive education debate: Conflict, contradiction or opportunity? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 2009, 14(1), p. 1-15, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13603110802265125 Mizunoya S, Mitra S & Yamasaki I 2016, Towards Inclusive Education: The impact of disability on school attendance in developing countries, Innocenti Working Papers no. 2016-03, Florence, Italy, UNICEF Office of Research, https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/845-towards-inclusive-education-the-impact-of-disability-on-school-attendance-in-developing.html Mitra S 2006, The capability approach and disability, Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 16(4), p. 236-247, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10442073060160040501 Mitra S, Posorac A & Vick B 2012, Disability and poverty in developing countries: A Multidimensional study, In World Development, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X12001465 Mont D 2014, Childhood disability and poverty: Working paper series number 25, London, United Kingdom, Leonard Cheshire Disability and UCL, https://www.medbox.org/childhood-disability-and-poverty/download.pdf Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2013, Thematic study on the right of persons with disabilities to education, Geneva, Switzerland, United Nations, https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/disability/pages/studyrightofpersonswithdisabilitiesiesteducation.aspx Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat 2016, Pacific Framework for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2016-2025: A regional framework to support national government actions on inclusive development for the rights of persons with disabilities, Suva, Fiji, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, http://www.forumsec.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Framework-on-the-Rights-of-Persons-with-Disabilities-.pdf Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat & University of the South Pacific 2018, Pacific Regional Education Framework (PacREF) 2018-2030: Moving Towards Education 2030, Suva, Fiji, Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, http://bit.ly/PacREF2018 Planchamp C 2019, The inclusive school: Concerning integration in an inclusive school or how best to educate children with special needs, https://lepole.education/en/pedagogical-culture/63-the-inclusive-school.html?showall=1 Singal N & Jeffery R 2011, Inclusive education in India: the struggle for quality in consonance with equity, In: Artiles A, Kozleski E & Waitoller, F Inclusive education: Examining equity on five continents, Massachusetts, United States of America, Harvard Education Press, https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/159412806?versionId=173768785 UNESCO 2009, Towards inclusive education for children with disabilities: A guideline, Bangkok, Thailand, UNESCO Bangkok, http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/towards-inclusive-education-for-children-with-disabilities-a-guideline-2009-en.pdf 2005, Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All, Paris, France, UNESCO, http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/Guidelines_for_Inclusion_UNESCO_2006.pdf 1994, The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, Salamanca, Spain, UNESCO, http://www.unesco.org/education/information/nfsunesco/pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF UNESCO & World Education Forum 2015, Education 2030 – Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, Paris, France, UNESCO, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002456/245656E.pdf United Nations 2016, Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: General Comment No. 4, Article 24: Right to inclusive education, New York, USA, United Nations, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CRPD%2fC%2fGC%2f4 2015, Sustainable development goals, New York, USA, United Nations, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ 2006, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, New York, USA, United Nations, http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2015, SDG Indicators, New York, USA, United Nations, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/ United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) 2012, Incheon Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, UN-ESCAP, https://www.unescap.org/resources/incheon-strategy-make-right-real-persons-disabilities-asia-and-pacific-and-beijing 2003, Biwako Millennium Framework for Action Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, UN-ESCAP, http://undocs.org/E/ESCAP/APDPP/4/REV.1 United Nations General Assembly 1966, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, United Nations, https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx 1979, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, United Nations, https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cedaw.aspx 1989, Convention on the Rights of the Child, United Nations, https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx United States Agency for International Development 2018, Strengthening the service delivery system for inclusive education: The supply and quality side of providing education to children with disabilities in Africa, http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/976561540923815336/Strengthening-Service-Delivery-USAID.pdf World Health Organisation & World Bank 2011, World report on disability, Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organisation, https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/report.pdf Wapling L 2016, Inclusive education and children with disabilities: Quality education for all in low and middle income countries, London, CBM, https://www.cbmuk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Quality_Education_for_All_LMIC_Evidence_Review_CBM_2016_Policy_Brief.pdf World Bank 2008, Project appraisal document on a proposed credit to the People’s Republic of Bangladesh for a disability and children-at-risk project, Washington, United States of America, World Bank, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/485601468003560874/pdf/417950PAD0P1061ly100IDAR20081021911.pdf World Federation of the Deaf 2016, Policy - Education rights for Deaf children, Helsinki, Finland, World Federation of the Deaf, https://www.equalrightstrust.org/content/world-federation-deaf-policy-education-rights-deaf-children Learn more about... - DFAT’s Development for all 2015-2020: Strategy for strengthening disability-inclusive development in Australia’s aid program, found at: https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/development-for-all-2015-2020.aspx - A wide range of resources on disability-inclusive education are available on the DID4all website under the topic ‘Disability inclusive education’. This includes peer-reviewed evidence, case studies and practical guidance, including modifications to physical environments and teaching approaches. 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What’s the Problem? African-Americans are more likely to be food-insecure and live in poverty than other Americans. Being food-insecure, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, means that a person or household does not have regular, reliable access to the foods needed for good health. This condition is a direct result of poverty, racial discrimination, and gender discrimination. While the United States has a high poverty rate (14.8 percent), according to the U.S. Census, African-Americans have a poverty rate of more than 26 percent. This rate is even higher in African-American female-headed households (42.6 percent). African-Americans are more likely to lack access to food. - Only 8 percent of African-Americans live in areas with a supermarket, compared to 31 percent of whites.$^1$ - Almost 94 percent of the nation’s majority African-American counties are food-insecure.$^2$ \| \| General Population \| African-Americans \| \|------------------------\|--------------------\|-------------------\| \| All households \| 14% \| 26.10% \| \| Households with children\| 19.2% \| 32.4% \| \| Female-headed household with children \| 35.3% \| N/A \| Source: Food Security in the United States, 2014. U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service. Since poverty rates are much higher and income levels are much lower in African-American female-headed households compared to general populations, we expect that food-insecurity levels are also much higher among African-American female-headed households. This would suggest that hunger and poverty levels could be reduced with safety-net programs and policies that do not penalize married couples, support female-headed households with children, and target men who might have children but are unable to secure employment. The median income of African-American households is nearly $20,000 less than the median income of other households. As a result, African-Americans are more than FOUR TIMES as likely as whites to face what the USDA calls “very low food security.” CONTRIBUTING FACTORS: Lower Employment and Income African-Americans are more likely to be unemployed, and to hold low-wage jobs with few or no benefits. - 10.4 percent of African-Americans are unemployed, not counting part-time workers seeking full-time work. 55 percent of African-Americans have out-of-pocket medical costs on credit cards because they cannot pay in full. 34 percent of African-Americans did not see a doctor when ill for financial reasons. Poor Credit African-Americans are more likely to have poor credit histories than whites with similar incomes. Poor credit can prevent people from securing: - A job, place to live, or reliable car. Many employers, landlords, and companies consider credit scores when hiring and accepting applicants. Higher Levels of Debt African-Americans have lower incomes and higher debt levels. In addition, predatory lenders that charge higher interest rates concentrate in low-income communities, which increases the probability of falling into debt. - African-Americans spend more than half their incomes repaying debts. - Due to higher interest rates on loans, African-Americans were 80 percent more likely to lose their homes before and after the Great Recession. Mass Incarceration African-Americans are more likely than others charged with similar offenses to be incarcerated. Soaring incarceration rates deplete community resources such as court fees and lost work hours. - African-Americans are seven times as likely to be incarcerated as whites. - The family of someone in prison owes on average more than $13,000 in court costs alone. Endnotes 1 Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Report to Congress, June 2009, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. www.ers.usda.gov/media/242675/ap036_1_.pdf 2 Map the Meal 2015: Highlights of Findings for Overall and Child Food Insecurity. Feeding America. www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/our-research/map-the-meal-gap/2013/map-the-meal-gap-2013-exec-summ.pdf 3 The Debt Divide: The Racial and Class Bias Behind the “New Normal” of Student Borrowing. Demos. http://www.demos.org/sites/default/files/publications/MarkDebt%20divid%20Final%20(5F).pdf 4 The Color of Debt: Credit Card by Race and Ethnicity Demos Fact Sheet. Demos. www.demos.org/sites/default/files/publications/FACTSHEET_TheColorofDebt_Demos.pdf 5 Ibid. 6 Who Pays? The True Cost of Incarceration on Families. September 2015. http://ellabakercenter.org/sites/default/files/downloads/who-pays.pdf	0edafc7d-10f8-46de-949a-50be2bcc5774	CC-MAIN-2021-49	https://www.bread.org/sites/default/files/downloads/african-american-fact-sheet-2016.pdf	2021-12-06T10:59:20+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964363292.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20211206103243-20211206133243-00215.warc.gz	750,505,168	972	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.993704	eng_Latn	0.99507	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 2113, 4625 ]	[ 2.890625 ]	1	0
A PARENT’S GUIDE: The SIX PILLARS of CHARACTER Provided by: Dear Parent, Bank Iowa is proud to partner with CHARACTER COUNTS! In Iowa to give you this complimentary copy of “A Parent’s Guide: The Six Pillars of Character.” Character development begins in the home. This guide contains useful resources to introduce your family to the Six Pillars of Character: Trustworthiness, Respect, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring & Citizenship. Your character counts everywhere, all of the time! We encourage you to take the lessons you learn from incorporating the Six Pillars into your home and apply them to your workplace, community, and school. And when you visit Bank Iowa, we hope you’ll notice that the Six Pillars are integrated into our company’s culture. Bank Iowa is an Iowa based group of independent banks with 25 locations across the state. Each Bank Iowa offers the services of a large financial institution, but operates as a community bank in which decisions are locally made. Our Bank Iowa brand promise to our customers is Your Success. Our Priority. It means that we will work very hard to help our clients achieve financial success. Whether that involves helping them find the right mortgage, put together a small business loan, or open the best checking account for them, each individual success is our priority. Thanks for taking the time to learn more about the Six Pillars of Character. Please visit www.CharacterCountsInIowa.org to learn more about the Six Pillars of Character. Sincerely, Stan Honken Chief Executive Officer www.bankiowabanks.com Bank Iowa Presidents \| Gary Beggs \| Scott Brus \| Darlene Carlson \| Roger Gilbreath \| John Hartford \| Jim Langin \| Daryl Petty \| Bob Vavra \| \|------------\|------------\|-----------------\|-----------------\|--------------\|-----------\|------------\|----------\| \| Clarinda \| Denison \| Altoona \| Newton \| Humboldt \| West Des Moines \| Oskaloosa \| Shenandoah \| \| Villisca \| Schleswig \| \| \| Gilmore City \| Johnston \| Fremont \| Essex \| \| Manilla \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Red Oak \| \| Charter Oak\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| PARENTING FOR GOOD CHARACTER Good character doesn’t just happen. It is a result of parents who lay a strong foundation of character development. This guide is intended to assist parents in incorporating the Six Pillars of Character into their everyday experiences with their children. If you’d like to learn more about CHARACTER COUNTS! and the Six Pillars of Character, please visit www.CharacterCountsInIowa.org. WHAT IS CHARACTER? - Your character is defined by what you do, not by what you say or believe. - Every choice you make helps define the kind of person you are choosing to be. - Good character requires doing the right thing even when it’s costly or risky. - What you do matters, and one person can make a big difference. - You don’t have to take the worst behavior of others as a standard for yourself. You can choose to be better than that. - The payoff for good character is that it makes you a better person and it makes the world a better place. THE SIX PILLARS OF CHARACTER CHARACTER COUNTS! (CC!) is the nation’s most widely used framework for character development. CC! is based on consensus values called The Six Pillars of Character: Trustworthiness, Respect, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring & Citizenship. Although it is agreed that the responsibility for character development lies within the family, CC! asks that families, schools, community organizations, businesses and city government all work together to enhance the environment in which we live. ABOUT CHARACTER COUNTS! IN IOWA CHARACTER COUNTS! In Iowa is a project of The Institute for Character Development at Drake University. Through a statewide partnership with the national CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, the Institute facilitates a variety of CHARACTER COUNTS! initiatives throughout the state of Iowa, including CHARACTER COUNTS! in schools, communities, sports, workplaces & families. Download a Spanish version of this guide and learn more about CHARACTER COUNTS! In Iowa by visiting our website: CharacterCountsInIowa.org CHARACTER COUNTS! In Iowa 1213 25th Street Des Moines, IA 50311 Ph: 515-271-1910 Fx: 515-271-1907 firstname.lastname@example.org A PARENT’S GUIDE TO TRUSTWORTHINESS • Be honest. • Don’t deceive, cheat or steal. • Be reliable. Do what you say you’ll do. • Have the courage to do the right thing. • Build a good reputation. • Be loyal. Stand by your family, friends and country. WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME • Watch for trustworthy behavior and show your appreciation. • If you make a mistake, admit it and don’t blame others. Talk about it with your children. Model how a person of character handles making a mistake. • Talk to your child about times in your life (and listen to theirs) when it has been hard to be honest or keep promises. • Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will be trustworthy by: ________________. PARENTS CAN PROMOTE TRUSTWORTHINESS • Model the behavior you want to see in your child and acknowledge their good behavior when you see it. • Be clear about your expectations; expect your child to do what they say they are going to do and to be honest with you. • Provide for basic needs on a consistent basis (love, proper nutrition, healthy activities, reading for enjoyment, faith development, etc.). • Develop family rules and consequences. Explain them ahead of time and then use the consequences in a consistent way. • Model relationships that demonstrate honesty, integrity, promise-keeping and loyalty. • Develop a calm, emotionally responsive and stable home environment with a proper balance of freedom and structure. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER Is there harm in a little white lie? Here’s one way to decide. If upon learning of the lie, would the person lied to thank you for caring or feel betrayed or manipulated? TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: Children’s Books Most books you already read to or with your child can be discussed using the Six Pillars of Character. For example, discuss with your children how the character in the book demonstrated honesty, or how was a character reliable? “Even the best liars tell the truth most of the time.” -Michael Josephson, Founder of CHARACTER COUNTS! A PARENT’S GUIDE TO RESPECT - Treat others with respect. Follow the Golden Rule. - Be tolerant of differences. - Use good manners, not bad language. - Be considerate of the feelings of others. - Don’t threaten, hit or hurt anyone. - Deal peacefully with anger, insults and disagreements. WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME - During mealtime each day, have each family member name a good trait for each person at the table. For example: “Dad is a good storyteller.” By focusing on what each person does well, you are appreciating their unique abilities. - Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will show respect for others by: __________. PARENTS CAN PROMOTE RESPECT - Model respect and expect your children to treat you and others in a respectful way. Make a list of ways to show respect in your home. - Treat each youngster as equally as possible recognizing that children may have different needs. Help your family understand that you provide for their needs and that sometimes that means not everyone gets the same thing. - Embrace diversity and cooperation with individuals that are ethnically and culturally different. - Respect privacy unless suspicious behaviors necessitate otherwise. - Talk to your child about the differences between “treating everyone with respect” and admiring them. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER The “Rule of Universality”: Do only those acts which you are willing to allow to become universal standards of behavior, applicable to all people in similar situations. Ask yourself, “If everyone did it, would it be a good thing?” TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: Movies Many movies provide a rich content to have character discussions with your children. But, selecting the right movie, watching it together and discussing it is very important. One resource for parents is “Teach With Movies”, a CC! partner organization. For more information, visit www.teachwithmovies.org. “Sir, I will treat you as a gentleman, not because you are one, but because I am one.” -Thomas Jefferson A PARENT’S GUIDE TO RESPONSIBILITY - Do what you are supposed to do. - Persevere. Keep on trying. - Always do your best. - Use self-control. - Be self-disciplined. - Think before you act. Consider the consequences. WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME - Give your child a chore to do. Teach them how to do it again and give them a deadline to complete it, then expect your child to be responsible in doing the task. Thank them after they do it. - With your child, establish a regular method for him/her to complete homework and have what is needed for school. - Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will show that I am responsible by: ____________ PARENTS CAN PROMOTE RESPONSIBILITY - Give youngsters tasks at home to accomplish. - Focus on effort and a positive attitude rather than over-emphasis on outcome. - Applaud courageous decisions where the pull to the wrong thing was avoided. - Take ownership for mistakes. - Develop high expectations and link consequences to poor choices. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER Everything we do makes a difference. What we say and what we do starts a chain reaction that affects the lives of others. Choosing NOT to choose is a choice. TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: TV & Video Games In 1996, a typical child watched 25,000 hours of television before his or her 18th birthday. Judging how much television and what shows are best for your family is one of the largest responsibilities of current parenting. Consider these suggestions: - Decide upon the amount of TV/video games you allow. - Watch with your child, discuss what you see and hear on TV and ask questions that encourage the child to think about what he or she is watching in terms of the Six Pillars. - Explain the purpose of commercials. - Limit the amount of violence watched and discuss violence with him or her. - Turn the TV off after the programs you have selected are over. - Set a good example. Limit adult TV time, too. “A child is the only known substance from which a responsible adult can be made.” -Anonymous A PARENT’S GUIDE TO FAIRNESS WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME • When you hear, “It’s not fair!” ask your child to define what is unfair about the situation. Usually when you hear this, it means your child didn’t receive something he/she thinks was deserved or an expectation hasn’t been met—whether real or imagined. • Discuss the question “Does fair mean equal?” with your child. Talk about situations in school, home or the community where the answers may sometimes be “yes” and sometimes “no”. • Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will show fairness by: ____________________________. PARENTS CAN PROMOTE FAIRNESS • Create a democratic family environment by providing opportunities for each family member to provide input on appropriate family topics and decisions. • Embrace the uniqueness of each family member without making comparisons of specific areas of competence. • Consistently apply pre-determined rules. Make expectations clear and predictable. • Advocate and help others who are impacted by adversity. • Involve children in developing rules they are to follow. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER The Key to Fairness: Pre-established rules, consistently applied. TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: Music Music, whether on the radio or CDs, can be a wonderful source of entertainment and education. As a parent, you need to be clear about your rules and expectations regarding what is appropriate music for your child. With upper elementary through high school youth, you need to listen to what they are listening to, review the lyrics and discuss the character of the artists. Music videos can be highly suggestive and sometimes inappropriate for young viewers. Your role as a parent is to monitor what your child is viewing and listening to, and then determine if the lessons being taught through music are the ones that match the values you want your child to have. For resources on children’s music, visit www.childrensmusicweb.com. “It is not fair to ask of others what you are not willing to do yourself.” -Eleanor Roosevelt A PARENT’S GUIDE TO CARING • Be kind • Be compassionate and show you care • Express gratitude • Forgive others • Help people in need WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME • Declare this month as “Caring Month” and find ways to show caring: anonymous notes, small chores done as a surprise, etc. • Do something as a family that shows caring for someone in need. Take your children along with you when you volunteer. • Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will be caring by: ______________________. PARENTS CAN PROMOTE CARING • Give each youngster time, attention and affection. • Encourage awareness and expression of feelings. • Consistently ask how behavioral choices impact the feelings of others. Help him or her to see the relationship between their actions and the feelings of others. Do not tolerate your child doing or saying things to intentionally hurt anyone. • Encourage cooperation and helpful behavior. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER “They may not remember what you said, but they will always remember how you made them feel.” -Carl Buehner TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: Service and Volunteerism Promote compassion and inspire caring in your family through opportunities to help others in need: in your home, neighborhood, school, community, state, country or world. Often children will notice people in need and feel very strongly about helping them. For ideas, visit the Family Cares Program at www.pointsoflight.org. “A candle loses nothing by lighting another.” -Anonymous A PARENT’S GUIDE TO CITIZENSHIP - Do your share to make your school and community better. - Cooperate. - Get involved in community affairs. - Stay informed. Vote. - Be a good neighbor. - Obey laws and rules. Respect authority. - Protect the environment. WHAT YOU CAN DO AT HOME - Practice citizenship in action: be informed. Model how to “stay up” on current events by reading the paper or watching television news, attending local meetings of importance and talking about issues as a family. - Have a family plan to regularly protect and conserve resources. For example: recycle, plant trees, don’t litter. - Set family goals. Have each member of the family complete the following sentence and post it where it will serve as a reminder: I will be a good citizen by: ________________. PARENTS CAN PROMOTE CITIZENSHIP - Develop a family mission statement that includes service to others. - Encourage extra-curricular activities that promote cooperation and good team-work. - Encourage volunteerism and service-learning on a consistent and constant basis. Provide opportunities for children to reflect on their service: talk about or draw pictures about what they did, how it felt and why it matters to help others. - Allow opportunities for reflection by writing, reading, and discussing the importance of social responsibility and global awareness. FOR YOU TO CONSIDER Being a citizen comes with rights, duties and privileges. With every right comes the responsibility to exercise it in a fair manner and to help fellow citizens do the same. TO HELP YOU TEACH THE SIX PILLARS Focus Area: The Internet The internet is a valuable tool for our society, but it also brings increased duties for acting as a responsible citizen within the new global community. Your child needs your guidance to maximize the benefit of the internet as a tool for education and communication while staying responsible and safe. As a parent, you should know what sites your child is visiting, who they are emailing or instant messaging, and what email they are receiving. Installing a spam filter and privacy filters will help protect your child from solicitation. For more information, visit Media Technology for Parents at www.pta.org. “The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good people to do nothing.” -Edmond Burke When your brand looks smart, you look brilliant. Your corporate image is your face in the community – and your business identity products are the principal purveyor of that image. If your printed material is inconsistent and confusing, what does that say about your company? … about you? ADi Group offers i-print solutions, a customized online order and distribution system that lets you manage your entire inventory of business identity collateral from your desktop – including business cards, letterhead, envelopes, marketing materials and other printed business products. Our online management process gives you increased impact, accuracy, accountability and control of your brand image. ADi Group makes sure your printed business identity material looks great… and so will you. image. ideas. information. 4049 120th Street, Urbandale, Iowa 50323 515.334.2205 www.theadigroup.net To learn more, contact: email@example.com Learn More at CharacterCountsInIowa.org Materials for this guide were provided by the Institute for Character Development at Drake University and Mark J. Britzman, Ed.D., NCC, CCMHC, South Dakota State University. © 2008 Institute for Character Development. Please contact the Institute at 515-271-1910 for permission to reproduce these materials. CHARACTER COUNTS! In Iowa is a project of The Institute for Character Development at Drake University. CHARACTER COUNTS! and the Six Pillars of Character are service marks of the CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, a project of the Josephson Institute of Ethics. Your Family. Your Home. Your Free Time. Your Education. Your Business. Your Hopes. Your Dreams. Your Future. Your Retirement. Your Life. Bank Iowa Your Success. Our Priority. Altoona 515.967.7283 Charter Oak 712.678.3838 Clarinda 712.542.2121 Denison 712.263.9361 Essex 712.379.3111 Fremont 641.933.4248 Gilmore City 515.373.6244 Humboldt 515.332.1451 Johnston 515.727.4484 Manilla 712.654.2962 Newton 641.792.4500 Oskaaloosa 641.673.7400 Red Oak 712.623.6960 Schleswig 712.676.3321 Shenandoah 712.246.1311 Villisca 712.826.2562 West Des Moines 515.225.0710 Member FDIC www.bankiowabanks.com	<urn:uuid:9373f87e-3db8-4467-98bb-3d90e690cf39>	CC-MAIN-2018-30	https://ihsaa-static.s3.amazonaws.com/resource_center/Character_Sportsmanship_Safety/Character_Counts_Parent_Guide_2008.pdf	2018-07-19T05:49:26Z	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676590559.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20180719051224-20180719071224-00217.warc.gz	689,886,144	4,080	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.911563	eng_Latn	0.996675	[ "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "sco_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 61, 2299, 4440, 6541, 8639, 10754, 12898, 14479, 16799, 17740, 18348, 18944 ]	[ 3.28125 ]	2	0
State’s largest SOLAR GARDEN COMING TO FRANKLIN, NH By Thaddeus Rumble and Emma Rumble NHSolarGarden.com is a New Hampshire developer with a story we can only call astonishing. Andrew Kellar started the company a little over a year and a half ago, but his earlier life experience prepared him for it well. He started Simply Green, a New Hampshire biofuel company, in 2007. He also helped found Green Alliance, which benefits environmentally conscious businesses and customers. He moved on from those to go to work with the UNH Green Launching Pad, a program to help young cleantech companies evolve; he was the entrepreneur in residence. After that, Kellar worked on growing Revolution Energy, which offers custom designed energy solutions. During the course of all this work, Kellar learned about solar technology, tax structures, third party ownership, and more. New Hampshire had very little available as incentives for solar, and no net metering, so he moved into the Massachusetts market. There he put together a large portfolio of solar projects, but he soon wanted to do more work in New Hampshire. Rules started to change in New Hampshire as the laws and rules on group net metering started being developed, two years ago. About that time, Kellar transitioned away from Revolution Energy and started NHSolarGarden.com. Knowing that group net metering was likely to come soon, Kellar began to ready his business to take advantage of the boom in solar garden development he was sure would follow. He started getting potential solar gardens set up with future stakeholders, doing the basic design work, identifying potential sites, finding the best rates, making arrangements with utilities, and applying for permits based on that expectation. All this work could have been lost, if things had gone awry, but they did not. And so when the rules were finalized this year, NHSolarGarden.com had 25 megawatts (MW) of solar gardens in the queue, waiting to be installed. There was a sense of urgency in this. The federal incentives terminate at the end of 2016 and might not be renewed. To be able to take advantage of them, all the installations must be completed before the end of that year. Community gardens do not appear overnight; they require a fair amount of preparation, which can go on for months. Any project not started quickly might not make the deadline. NHSolarGarden.com’s projects are ready, however. Construction will start in the late summer of this year. The hope is that This is How You Do It! A LIVING BUILDING CHALLENGE Artist’s Rendering of the Kern Center in Amherst, MA. Illustration courtesy of Wright Builders. By George Harvey Many of us might be unaware of the Living Building Challenge (LBC). It is an international building certification program that was developed in the United States and Canada by the non-profit International Living Future Institute in 2006. Very likely the toughest green building standard, the LBC considers just about every aspect of a building’s existence. It requires documentation on everything from where materials came from to how a building performs over time. Issues considered include efficiency, energy, and the environment, but there are other concerns ranging from aesthetics to ethics. The Silent World War … By George Harvey US aircraft fly above oil fields set on fire by Saddam Hussein’s forces in Desert Storm, commonly referred to as an oil war. US Air Force photo. Public Domain. Oil wars have been fought since the 1930s. Bolivia, backed by Shell, fought Paraguay and Standard Oil, over what they all believed was a rich oil field. Possibly as many as 130,000 people died over land that turned out not to have oil after all. American involvement in World War II started because the Japanese needed oil to support their war in China. Access to the nearest large oil fields was potentially blocked by American presence in the Philippines. So the Japanese bombed our fleet at Pearl Harbor to put it out of action while they conquered Indonesian resources. We have recently seen oil wars in Iraq, Kuwait, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Syria, and Ukraine. However, all these are merely small parts of a larger conflict. It is not a traditional shooting war. We might call it the Silent World War, because it is barely noticed, but it is being fought in nearly every country. When we look at the numbers, we can see it is on a scale comparable to World War II. The World Health Organization tells us that nearly twenty thousand people die every day, from effects of air pollution, as corporations fight to maintain a “right” to dump pollutants into the air we breathe. Nearly all of us are casualties to some degree; in the European Union, a report from the BBC says, fossil fuel pollution robs the average person of nine months’ life expectancy. Entire species are being killed off at a rate rapidly approaching a hundred each day, as the fossil fuel industry staunchly defends its “right” to finance campaigns of chosen representatives, to guide legislatures, and to promote irrational denial of science. IN THIS ISSUE: Clean Energy Plan Reviewed p. 3 In Praise of Our Pets p. 20-21 Tallest Passive house in NY p. 28 NH Largest Solar Garden p. 20 Permaculture Harvest p. 30 Solar on School in Lyme, NH p. 32 Thank you to Our SPONSORS For Their Support: At greenenergymtimes.org there are daily posts with links to articles. Here is a selection of those we found most interesting this summer: June 18 – Pope Francis has clearly embraced what he calls a “very solid scientific consensus” that humans are causing cataclysmic climate change that is endangering the planet. The pope has also severely criticized global political leaders for their “weak response” and lack of will over decades to address the problem. July 1 – The state of New York has now officially banned fracking completely, nearly a year after communities won the right to ban oil and gas development locally. This action has concluded the New York Department of Environmental Conservation’s comprehensive, seven-year review. July 2 – Coal is no longer king in America, according to the US Energy Information Administration, which provides independent statistics and analysis of the energy sector. Coal lost its number one spot as the nation’s top electricity source for the first time on record this April. Most of the recent loss is to renewable power and improved energy efficiency. July 8 – In Nevada, NV Energy has lined up what may be the cheapest electricity in the US, and it comes from a solar farm. The Berkshire Hathaway company agreed to pay 3.87¢/kWh for power from a 100-MW First Solar project. Add the value of subsidies to that, and it is still below the cost of most power from natural gas. July 11 – World seabird populations have suffered a staggering 70% drop over the last 60 years, according to international research. There are currently 230 million fewer seabirds than there were in the 1950s. Most of the decline is due to the effects of fossil fuels or fossil fuel products. July 14 – ExxonMobil, the world’s biggest oil company, knew as early as 1981 of climate change, seven years before it became a public issue, according to a newly discovered email from one of the firm’s own scientists. Despite this, the firm spent millions over the next 27 years on research denying climate change. July 18 – Since the 1970s, the tops of over 500 mountains have been removed and more than 2,000 miles of headwater streams destroyed by mountaintop removal coal mining. Now, the US Interior Department has issued proposed water protection rules that would effectively end the common practice. July 22 – French lawmakers adopted a long-delayed energy law to reduce the country’s reliance on nuclear reactors and lower carbon emissions by cutting the use of fossil fuels. The sweeping energy transition law reflects a three-year-old campaign pledge by President François Hollande to cut nuclear power and increase renewables. July 26 – An International Monetary Fund study says worldwide energy subsidies are much greater than previously known. The combination of direct and indirect subsidies is projected at $5.3 trillion in 2015. Most of this supports fossil fuels and arises from countries setting energy taxes below levels that fully reflect damage to the environment. Country-level estimates are available. July 28 – The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued its monthly report on new US generating capacity. CleanTechnica added a careful estimate of new rooftop solar capacity, and here are the numbers for June: 44% of new capacity came from wind power, 41.5% came from solar power, 13% was biomass, and 2% was natural gas. Overall, for the first half of 2015, renewables accounted for 78.4% of new capacity. August 1 – Dr. James L. Powell, director of the National Physical Science Consortium, examined titles and abstracts of more than 24,000 peer-reviewed scientific articles on climate change published during the past couple of years. He identified 69,406 authors named in the articles. Only four of them rejected the fact that human emissions cause climate change. August 3 – The Obama administration unveiled its Clean Power Plan, which is aimed at a large reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The Clean Power Plan is the final version of Environmental Protection Agency regulations, which have been the subject of public input to the EPA. President Barack Obama called it “the biggest, most important step we’ve ever taken to combat climate change.” A Review of the U.S. Clean Energy Plan By George Harvey On August 3, after months of public review of a draft proposal, President Obama unveiled the Clean Energy Plan of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It had a few surprises, including taking a more stringent stand than the draft proposal. The new plan calls for a reduction of 32% in our carbon dioxide emissions from 2005 levels by 2030. This is a somewhat greater reduction than the 30% originally called for. The plan is also less supportive of natural gas than expected, and gives states a somewhat longer timetable for coming up with their own plans. The plan was immediately attacked by the fossil fuel industry, along with its dependent utilities. It was also attacked by the states that are most dependent on fossil fuels in their economies, and sixteen states have banded together to fight it. Their claims are that it is illegal because the president had no authority to issue such a plan, it would require an act of Congress, it would be unconstitutional, and would cost too much to implement. It might be good to take a look at the history of the issue. In 1970, President Nixon undertook a series of steps to improve environmental protection. The Clean Air Act of 1970 was passed by Congress, and President Nixon proposed the EPA as an agency to implement it and Congress enacted it. In doing this, he was following a long tradition of environmental action undertaken by presidents in his party. Lincoln signed the Yosemite Grant in 1864. In 1872, Grant created Yellowstone National Park, said to be the first national park in the world. Theodore Roosevelt created a number of federal wildlife refuges at Pelican Island in 1903. Eisenhower signed of the Clean Air Act in 1955. This is a tradition some in their party might well study today. In 2003, the EPA determined that it had no authority to regulate carbon dioxide emissions. This quickly resulted in a lawsuit, Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, which was actually brought by fourteen states, along with a number of cities and environmental organizations. The purpose of the suit was to force the EPA to regulate carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases. In the case, the Supreme Court decided that the EPA's 2003 determination was faulty, and it ordered the agency to review the matter. The EPA then determined that it had to regulate carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases, a position that was upheld by a court of appeals in 2007. The EPA recognized that climate change had been going on for at least half a century and needed to be regulated, and these views were upheld by the court. The federal court determined that carbon emissions are dangerous and ordered the EPA to regulate them. In 2010, the EPA issued a set of regulations on carbon emissions from power plants, industrial plants, and vehicles. These rules were immediately sued in a lawsuit, Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency. Here, the Supreme Court upheld the ability of EPA to regulate carbon emissions, to a point. The court was divided into three camps on this, with different dissenting voices on different parts of the decision. Nevertheless, the EPA's ability to regulate emissions from large plants was confirmed. What was not confirmed was its ability to regulate carbon emissions from small plants, including most utilities. The ending line is a potential to emit 250 tons per year of any pollutant. To give an idea of what this means, 250 tons of carbon dioxide is produced by burning 25,000 gallons of oil; an industrial plant does not have to be very big to burn that much. The ruling was issued in 2014. Following these court actions, the EPA had no choice but to regulate emissions from the utility industry. The authority of the EPA to govern carbon emissions was confirmed by the Supreme Court in 2014. The Clean Energy Plan is a high-level Cont'd on p.7 Rising Seas By George Harvey With water ten feet deeper as the new normal, Miami Beach would not be as attractive, with no beach. Photo by Averette at English Wikipedia. James Hansen is the legendary NASA climate scientist whose testimony before the United States Congress first made many people aware of climate change in 1988. By then, he had already identified one culprit in the process, the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that trap the sun's energy, warming our planet. Since that time, he has engaged in a series of studies, both for NASA and, more recently, as a climate activist. It is worth noting that he refuses to NASA because, he said: "as a government employee, you can't testify against the government." Most recently, Hansen and sixteen other top-rated scientists jointly published a paper on melting polar ice. They describe a feedback loop, in which the colder fresh water melting from polar ice pushes warmer salt water against the ice, causing it to melt faster. The paper was published through an unusual mechanism, because its authors wanted to make it available to governments at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 21) in Paris, which began on November 30, 2015. Instead of having the paper peer-reviewed and published, it was made available online, to be reviewed by scientists. At the same time, anyone who wishes can follow the whole process at home. It can be viewed at bit.ly/Hansen-2015-climate-paper as a 66-page pdf file. The paper is intentionally exposed to extremely close scrutiny. We can bet that just about everyone who has some reason to want to show climate change is a hoax will weigh in. The peer review process is open to qualified scientists, but there will no doubt be a lot of commentary by people outside the scientific disciplines involved at various venues on the internet. The report, Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2° C global warming is highly dangerous," is alarming. Assuming it is correct, coastal areas are in worse trouble than we had thought. It says the ocean rises than predictions say could swamp coastal cities around the world will not Cont'd on p.25 Tesla Model X By GET Staff The latest news we are getting from the West Coast is that the Tesla Model X is on schedule for release in September. In fact, the word is that factory tours have been put on hold while finishing touches are done before production actually begins. Over 20,000 of the cars have been reserved. The cost of reservations is $5,000, so we can be certain that the people who made these reservations are serious. Given the car’s features, this should be no surprise. The Model X is a crossover car, combining features of station wagons with SUVs. This makes it a somewhat heavier vehicle than the Model S, which has been so successfully marketed in the past couple of years. Its batteries will be the same as those of the Model S, so we might assume that the car’s range will be similar. It will seat seven adults, so it is a fairly large passenger carrier, but it accelerates from 0 to 60 miles per hour in 3.1 seconds, making it a very peppy large passenger carrier. Its styling is also worth notice, with gull-wing doors that open upward, but offer plenty of room to get in and out. Even with the advance sales, however, Tesla is offering incentives for current owners of their Model S to persuade others to buy the Model X. Each sale, up to a maximum of ten, gets the person referring new customers $1000. The referral program is in place in some countries aside from the US, including Australia. Initial expectations on the Model X were that it would be released in late 2013 or 2014. While the production delays have added to Tesla’s reputation of being slower than they had hoped, the current word is that the Model X is slightly ahead of the most recently established schedule. The factory in which the Model X is to be built is in Fremont, California. It is remarkable for the numbers of robotic machines it has on the assembly lines. Some of the robots are very large, designed to lift cars onto and off of the assembly lines. These machines have names taken from the Marvel Comics X-Men superheros, including Wolverine, Iceman, and Thunderbird. It seems Elon Musk may be a fan. While there will be three or four times as many robots on the Model X assembly line as there were on the line for the Model S, there will be an equal number of people who will work on production. Recent reports spoke of busloads of employees being taken to the plant for training. Tesla’s Fremont car factory is said to be the second largest building in the world, based on its footprint. The Gigafactory, in which the Powerwall batteries will be manufactured, is a separate factory at a different location. It is reported to be ahead of schedule. Citizen “Deputies” Considered for NYC Idling Law The Environmental Defense Fund reports that idling vehicles in New York City emit 130,000 tons of carbon dioxide every year. The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) reports that idling engines burn more than 10 billion gallons of fuel per year nationwide. Anti-idling advocate George Pakenham, producer of the documentary, Idle Threat, and two NYC council members have initiated an effort to allow concerned citizens to earn thousands of dollars under NYC’s poorly enforced idling law by videotaping vehicles idling illegally. Bill # Int 0717, proposed in March 2015, would allow people to submit video evidence of idling to the city and pocket up to half of the fines imposed on rule-breakers. This could mean hundreds of dollars for each violation. The bill would require the Department of Environmental Protection to set up a page on their website where individuals could submit video of violations of the city’s anti-idling law. For those videos that lead to a civil penalty for the violator, the individual who submitted the video would be entitled to 50% of the civil-penalty amount. It would also raise the fine amounts for a first violation of the City’s anti-idling law by approximately 50%, to a minimum of $250 from $220 and a maximum of $1,500 from $1,000 for second violations within a two-year period. Third violations would be more. Finally, it would require the Department of Environmental Protection to hold training sessions on the requirements for submission of successful complaint regarding the violation of the City’s anti-idling law. The fines would be applicable to double-decker buses idling outside tourist attractions, truck drivers leaving engines running while they make deliveries, and individuals to ban vehicles from sitting idle with engines running for more than three minutes on most streets, and more than one minute in school zones. Under the proposal, individuals would record vehicles, with license plates visible, idling for more than the allowed time period and submit the footage through the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) website. If the bill moves through the City Council, it could take about a year before it gets signed into law by the mayor. $525 Incentives Offered For Workplace EV Chargers The program is designed to encourage electric vehicle adoption in Vermont The Vermont Clean Cities Coalition (VTCC), of Burlington, VT, with the support of the Vermont Public Service Department, is offering a Workplace Electric Vehicle (EV) Charging Station Incentive Program to help workplaces mitigate the costs associated with the installation of electric vehicle charging stations (EVSE). Workplaces which install a Level 1 (110/120V) or Level 2 (220/240V) charging station may apply for the $525 incentive. This incentive is available for installations completed by April 15, 2016. Workplace EV charging stations: - Increase access to EV charging for employees, thereby minimizing EV range anxiety; - Demonstrate the employer’s leadership to employees, customers and the surrounding community; - Further employer goals for improving employee commuting practices and reducing greenhouse gases and other vehicle emissions; - Enhance employee benefits packages and help employers recruit and retain employees. Workplaces represent the second most common place (after the home) for EV owners to charge their vehicles. A U.S. Department of Energy survey found that employees of companies with at-work charging are 20 times more likely to drive a plug-in car than those who work at companies with no provision for electric-car charging. In order to be eligible for this incentive, workplaces must be located in Vermont and be the property owner or have the express permission of the property owner to install an EVSE. Additionally, a completed Electric Vehicle Charger Incentive Request Form along with a copy of the installation quote must be submitted to be considered. The EVSE must be new, have a dedicated circuit of 100 amps or more, and comply with all city, town, or state government rules, codes, and regulations. Inspections or permits may be required by the city or town where the business is located. VTCC can offer a maximum of one incentive per business. For further information, please visit www.uvm.edu/vtccc/electric-and-hybrid or call Abby Mattera at (802) 656-9123. The Vermont Clean Cities Coalition (VTCC) is part of a nationwide program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) that aims to reduce petroleum consumption in the transportation sector and ensure the development of infrastructure necessary to make alternative-fueled vehicles a viable transportation option. CarShare Vermont in Montpelier Has Arrived In partnership with the Vermont Agency of Transportation, and with support from the City of Montpelier, CarShare Vermont has embarked on a two-year pilot project to place two fuel-efficient vehicles in the downtown to serve residents, businesses, and commuters. You’ll now find these cars located next to city hall and the Kellogg-Hubbard Library. Since CarShare Vermont’s launch, over 50 Montpelier residents have joined CarShare Vermont and started to reap the financial, environmental, and social benefits of car sharing. This is a great start, and with your help we’re confident that this pilot project will be a huge success. To keep the positive momentum going, and to ensure that CarShare Vermont continues to grow and succeed in Montpelier, we need your help! Here are a few ways you can get involved: ✓ Become a CarShare Vermont member, and encourage your friends, neighbors, and colleagues to do the same. If you’ve been thinking about ditching a car, go for it – they’ve got you covered! ✓ If you work in Montpelier, encourage your employer to set up a business membership. CarShare Vermont can help businesses reduce work-related travel expenses, while providing an enticing employee benefit. ✓ Join our outreach team and help us raise awareness and generate excitement about our service. We need local volunteers to help staff tables at community events, put up posters, knock on doors, post messages on Front Porch Forum, and generally help spread the word. ✓ Connect with CarShare Vermont on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram and invite everyone in your social network to do the same. We use social media to share information, announce opportunities/events, and generally keep people in the loop. Thank you in advance for all of your support to help make this pilot project a huge success! If you’d like to get involved, please email firstname.lastname@example.org or call (802) 861-2340. CarShare Vermont is located in Burlington. The phone is (802) 861-2340, and the web site is www.carsharevt.org. Other resources: - In Nashua, New Hampshire, www.zipcar.com/nashua/find-cars - In Portland, Maine, www.portland-maine.gov/464/Car-Share - In Albany, New York, www.capitalcarshare.org Go Green with a '15 Civic Hybrid! Features Include: - Rearview Camera - Honda Lane Watch - EcoAssist - Bluetooth - AM/FM/CD/USB - Smart Entry - Push Button Start ...Plus Much More! 44 CITY / 47 HWY* 0.9% Up to 48 months! Based on 2015 EPA mileage ratings. Use for comparison purposes only. Your mileage will vary depending on driving conditions, how you drive and maintain your vehicle, battery pack size/condition and other factors. 369 Miracle Mile, Exit 19 off I-89 Lebanon, NH (603) 448-6969 www.GerrishHonda.com County Tire Center DBA Middlebury HYBRID/EV We work on all Hybrids & Electric Vehicles and specialize in ‘Toyota Prius’. We stock low rolling resistance tires. Parts Plus CarCareCenter The Next Generation of Automotive Service 33 Seymour Street Middlebury, VT 05753 (802) 388-7620 email@example.com Mon.-Fri. 8-5 • Sat. 8-Noon SMART COMMUTING IN NH & VT Transportation emissions are among the worst offenders that add to the rising CO2 levels in our atmosphere. In recent months we have learned that our efforts have begun to reduce the detrimental air quality counts (NHDDES), but as you may have learned from numerous other reports such as the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), http://climatchange2013.org/, global warming is still advancing faster than expected. How do we get our emissions down now? By making new commuting choices! LOTS OF CHOICES. Smart Commuting is all about knowing your options and planning ahead. There are many choices to get around in New Hampshire and Vermont. The first place to start in Vermont is “Go Vermont” for statewide choices to travel more efficiently. Whether getting around town, commuting to work or school, or planning a day trip, share the driving or ride with someone else to help save our planet and to save approx. $2,000 annually. The statewide VT site also lists services for commuters, tourist, and shoppers. In New Hampshire you’ll find a similar site at “NH Rideshare” where you can find carpool routes and schedules, bike and walk trails and links to statewide transportation information. When carpooling, remember to use the local Park n Ride lots to meet your connections. Start your trip planning at connectingcommuters.org or nh.gov/dot/programs/rideshare/ for statewide choices. IN NEW HAMPSHIRE UPPER VALLEY RIDESHARE (UVRS) - Carpool matching, benefits and support for commuters in/out of Upper Valley. 802-295-1824 x208. uppervalleyrideshare.com. ADVANCE TRANSIT (AT) – Free weekday bus for Lebanon, Hanover, Enfield, Canaan, NH, and Norwich and Hartford, VT. Dartmouth and DHC shuttles. ADA & Travel Training Services. 802-295-1824. advancetransit.com CARROLL COUNTY TRANSIT - Services and connections to Belknap County. 888-997-2020 tccap.org/nct.htm CITY EXPRESS - Serves Keene. 603-352-8494 hsservices.org/services/transportation/cityExpress.php COMMUNITY ALLIANCE TRANSPORTATION - Services for Claremont & Newport. 603-863-0003 CONCORD AREA TRANSIT (CAT) - Serves Concord 603-225-1989 concordareatransit.org CONTOOCOOK VALLEY TRANSPORTATION (CVTC) - Monadnock Rideshare for the southwest region 877-428-2882 cvtcnh.org COOPERATIVE ALLIANCE FOR REGIONAL TRANSPORTATION (CART) - Serving the Chester, Derry, Hampstead, Londonderry, Salem and Windham, limited service to Plaistow. 603-434-3569 cart-rides.org DARTMOUTH COACH - Services to Boston, Logan Airport and NYC 800-637-0123 dartmouthcoach.com MANCHESTER TRANSIT AUTHORITY (MTA) - Manchester, with links to Nashua and Concord. 603-623-8801 mtabus.org/services/local-buses NASHUA TRANSIT SYSTEM (NTS) - Buses and trolleys with bike racks. 603-888-0100 RideBigBlue.com NH RIDESHARE – Your Source for Transportation Alternatives. nh.gov/dot/programs/rideshare/ WINNEPASAUKEE TRANSIT SYSTEM (WTS) - Services Belmont, Franklin, Tilton, Laconia. 603-528-2496 bm-cap.org/wts.htm IN VERMONT UPPER VALLEY TRANSPORTATION MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (Vital Communities) - Works with UV employers and communities to promote and improve commuting options. 802-291-9100 vitalcommunities.org/transport/index.htm VERMONT PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION PUBLIC TRANSIT - Lists transit, ferries and more at dot.state.vt.us/PublicTransit/providers.htm AMTRAK - Long distance train service. Discounts for AAA members and student advantage card. (800) 872-7245 amtrak.com CHITTENDEN COUNTY TRANSPORTATION AUTHORITY - Burlington bus service with links to Montpelier, Middlebury and commuter route to Milton. cctride.org CONNECTICUT RIVER TRANSIT - Services in Bellows Falls and Springfield. crtransit.org GO VERMONT - Offers carpool matching and commuter connections in VT 800-685-7433 connectingcommuters.org GREEN MOUNTAIN RAILROAD - Day trips from White River, Champlain Valley, Bellows Falls and Rutland. rails-vt.com GREEN MOUNTAIN TRANSIT AGENCY - Local service in Barre, Montpelier, Grand Isle, Stowe and Lamoille. 802-223-7287 gmtaride.org GREY HOUND/VERMONT TRANSIT - Long distance bus services. 1-800-231-2222 greyhound.com/ LAKE CHAMPLAIN FERRIES - Transport between New York and Vermont via Lake Champlain. 802-864-9804 ferries.com MARBLE VALLEY REGIONAL TRANSIT - For Rutland, Killington, rural Manchester, Poultney and Rutland to Bellows Falls. City routes Free on Saturday. 802-773-3244 thebus.com/ RURAL COMMUNITY TRANSPORTATION (RCT) - Buses, vans, and volunteer drivers. Routes via The Jay-Lyn, The Highlander (Newport - Derby Line); The US RT2 Commuter (St. J. to Montpelier) and Free routes to rural areas. 802-748-8170 ridercrt.org STAGE COACH - Commuter buses from Randolph and Fairlee to Dartmouth, Local village buses. 800-427-3553 stagecoach-rides.org VT Rail Plan Quantifies Energy Plan Goal By Christopher Parker Amtrak’s Vermonter stops in White River Junction, passing a New England Central Railroad freight train. State involvement has upgraded the track used by the Vermonter, paid for its operation, and purchased the White River Junction station and the freight tracks behind it that lead up the Connecticut River Valley. The new draft rail plan, for the first time, quantifies the 2011 comprehensive state energy plan goal to quadruple rail passengers. The detailed document includes an inventory of the rail network’s condition and needs with a capital plan for rail infrastructure upgrades. The plan is a requirement of the Federal Railways Administration and is key to obtaining federal funding. It gives confidence to state and federal leaders that rail projects have been considered as part of the total system needs. For freight, the plan calls for increasing the weight limit to national standards, work on sidings for customers and yards, and general state of good repair improvements, including welded rail on every mainline and a speed of at least 25 mph. While the hoped-for passenger improvement is mostly beyond the public, the environmental benefit of moving freight by rail is even larger: rail uses one-third the energy and causes only one-third the pollution of trucking. To attract the number of riders called for in the state’s energy plan, new services will be required. The first priority will be extending the New York to Rutland Ethan Allen on to Burlington and extending the Vermonter to Montreal. The second priority will be a new train from Burlington operating via North Bennington, Manchester, and Rutland. Rebuilding tracks through North Bennington is an expensive proposition. The third priority will be a second train on the Vermonter route to Montreal (perhaps a return of the overnight Montraele, though the plan doesn’t specify a schedule). Extensions of service to Montreal and Burlington add significant destinations to already existing services. From an energy and environmental perspective, this improves efficiency, as well as increasing mobility and providing an economic benefit, bringing Quebec tourists to Vermont without their cars. Currently Amtrak trains add passengers at each stop gradually until they are full in New York – which means many empty seats on the northern half of the runs – which can be filled at little cost with Canadians going to Vermont. With the expansions in service, ridership is projected to climb from 100,879 (in 2013) to 471,800–623,700 (in 2035). That’s a fourfold increase (or more) while the number of passenger trains goes from two to four. As riders we will enjoy better service, while simultaneously a more efficient and better-used network will reduce the environmental footprint per passenger mile. The plan also calls for a speed increase on all passenger lines to 79 mph, making the trains more competitive with driving – and also safer since signals would be added. The Vermont Rail Action Network believes the rail plan is good piece of work. The plan is not a commitment, but a roadmap. It lays out goals that are realistic but a little aspirational; just one step beyond what seems possible in the current funding environment. That’s why the first thing you want is for an important project to not be in the plan when going for funding. For the state to achieve these goals, it will require continuing political will. Funding challenges are inevitably a theme in the plan. Eighty percent of transportation funding in Vermont is driven by federal priorities (either targeted federal funds or state matches of the same). Federal priorities overwhelmingly favor roads, and total US infrastructure spending is far below that of most other countries. The entire plan can be read at: bit.ly/VT-rail-plan. It’s a long document, but interesting, with all kinds of information. Comments may be sent to Costa Pappis, the Vermont Agency of Transportation planner who led the planning effort, at firstname.lastname@example.org. Notably missing is any discussion of commuter trains, as commuter train funding comes from the Federal Transit Administration, not the Federal Railroad Administration. Christopher Parker has been Executive Director of the Vermont Rail Action Network since 2007. Previously he was a minister and train conductor. His environmental consciousness was first formed in the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal National Historical Park in Maryland. WIND PROJECT IN NWVT DON’T BE FOOLED By George Harvey Some debate has been developing over a wind farm in the town of Swanton, Vermont. Whenever I consider of such a debate, I think of an old Lily Tomlin skit in which she plays Edith Ann, a bratty five-year-old, who forcefully asserts that making up lies is bad, but adds, “You can make up the truth if you know how.” If you follow the debate over wind power, you will hear a lot of people making up a lot of things. With a mix of truth and fancy, it is hard to know how much of what they say actually is true. My advice is never to believe anyone’s claims, regardless of how appealing they are (especially to your “dark side”), until you have checked them with verifiable sources. Some assertions come, resounding passionately, only to dissipate like smoke when people realize how silly they are. Others stick around, such as those that say wind turbines deprive values of nearby property, kill birds, and make people sick. All three can be refuted with facts. When they are refuted, however, anti-wind activists resort to what sound like made-up “truths.” For example, the Massachusetts Audubon Society supported Cape Wind because they had determined that wind turbines save many more birds than they kill. When this was pointed out, one anti-wind activist responded by asserting that the Audubon Society had been bought off by “big wind.” Edith Ann’s made-up “truths” came naturally to mind. (I am not inclined to believe in conspiracy theories, but I wonder whether this activist is caught up in one.) The question of human health effects provides an excellent reason for caution. After numerous studies appeared in peer-reviewed publications, the Australian Medical Association issued the first position paper on the subject by a national medical organization. That paper said that wind turbines cannot be shown to produce illness. However, stress, such as that caused by anti-wind activism, can cause all manner of illness, and the stress-caused illness around wind farms correlated with stressful activities of anti-wind activists. Wind turbine syndrome, in other words, is a placebo effect; people are told they will get sick, they believe it, and so they do get sick. (see bit.ly/wind-turbine-syndrome-report) One reason for people to make up assertions intended to slow our transition to renewable energy might be that they are in the pay of fossil fuel companies that produce advertising or provide pro-fossil-fuel political positions. Clearly there are other reasons, and hateful spite might be one of these. Regardless, the Australian Medical Association’s position suggests people should consider limiting their exposure to anti-wind activists who might, literally, make them sick. We have then three pieces of advice. Avoid spending people and the stress-filled organizations that can damage your health and happiness. Avoid organizations that function more like mind-controlling cults than groups of thoughtful environmentalists. And think for yourself. BRATTLEBORO’S SOLAR SUMMER CAMPAIGN GOING STRONG By Paul Cameron The Brattleboro Solar Summer campaign is generating lots of interest among Brattleboro residents. The goal of the campaign is to support Brattleboro homeowners, renters, landlords, and businesses in choosing locally generated renewable electricity. The price of solar PV panels is at an all-time low, and new limited-time incentives make solar affordable for all, including the Windham County Solar Loan Program through the Vermont State Employees Credit Union (VSECU), a 30% federal tax credit available through 2016, and a special incentive of $50-$200 per kilowatt offered by the five participating solar installers through September 30. The more Brattleboro residents sign up, the greater the discount. The cost of electricity will likely continue to rise in the future. You can reduce or eliminate your monthly electricity bills by going solar – the average homeowner will save thousands of dollars over the contract term. Also, solar tax incentives may not be around forever – consider going solar now to take advantage of these low costs. Save money while reducing your carbon footprint! For home-owners, businesses, or renters who prefer not to have solar panels at their site, buying shares in a community solar project is an option. Individuals and businesses may purchase solar panels located in an offsite solar array, and the credit that the panels generate will show up on their electric bills. For more information on Brattleboro Solar Summer, contact Paul Cameron at (802) 251-8135 or email@example.com, or visit www.brattleborosolarsummer.org. U.S. Clean Energy Plan Cont’d from p.3 blueprint on how the regulation of carbon emissions is to be done. It establishes quotas for each state, but gives the states the right to come up with their own plans detailing how to achieve them. Alaska, Hawaii, and Vermont are exceptions, for different reasons; in Vermont’s case, there are no fossil fuel plants in the state, so there is nothing to regulate. Senator McConnell, from Kentucky, is leading opposition to compliance. He has told leadership in various states that they shall not be complied. Their basic position is that any state that fails to come up with its own plan will have a plan imposed on it. Another response came from Ban Ki-moon, the Secretary General of the United Nations. He gave praise for the plan, because it shows that the United States is prepared to take a strong leadership role on climate change prior to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in December. Another response is perhaps more interesting. Republican presidential candidates have not said much in favor of limiting carbon emissions. As they campaigned in New Hampshire and South Carolina, pollsters asked those voters who were likely to vote in the Republican primary for their views. It turns out that over half of those polled support the Clean Energy Plan, and 60% believe it is important to reduce carbon emissions. G.E.T. supports the Clean Energy Plan. (We are assured that Bernie does, too.) SCC Joins Solar Community Bennington, VT Church Joins the Solar Energy Community By N. R. Mallery On May 19, 2015, Solar Pro of Arlington, Vermont completed the installation of 72 roof-mounted solar panels on the Second Congregational Church UCC (SCC) on Hillside Street in Bennington, Vermont. Solar power is expected to produce approximately 20,500 kWh of energy annually, resulting in a 75% reduction of electrical energy costs for the church annually. “The church which made this project forward, in addition to the support of the congregation, was the grant received from Green Mountain Power,” commented Mike Day, who is a member of the Board of Trustees for SCC. “The grant was awarded from GMP as the result of a competitive grant application that was designated for non-profit organizations -- for solar projects. We were among the nine recipients that were awarded the grant, and received the maximum award amount of $20,000. It was matched with $40,000 from the church endowment fund.” The grid-tied solar array is mounted on the south-facing roof of the church. Each of the seventy-two 260-watt Canadian Solar panels has an Enphase micro-inverter that converts the current from DC (direct current) to AC (alternating current). The net-metered system is expected to reduce the church’s electric costs by $4,100 per year. The solar project was part of a phased approach to reducing some of the major operating costs for the church. The oil cost was found to be the largest expense, and electric power was the next largest. The boiler replacement, which was their first priority, was completed in December 2014. It involved replacing an old boiler with two more efficient boilers, new variable-speed circulating pumps and the removal of a hot water heater that serviced the three restrooms in the church. Three on-demand electric hot water heaters were installed to provide hot water to the restrooms. The focus of these efforts and the solar project was to place the church in the best position for the future of the congregation and the many services and organizations that rely on the church and its facilities. In celebration that the church is now powered by solar, a Sun and Fun! community event will celebrate this achievement on Saturday, August 22nd, from 10 am to 3 pm. It is open to the public. There will be live music, food, and numerous kids’ activities including face painting and s’mores made in solar ovens. There will also be opportunities to visit displays by various solar companies, non-profit businesses, and environmentally friendly vendors, including Solar Pro, Green Mountain Club, One World Conservation Center, and 350VT. There will also be lectures, films, and educational material available about the environment, recycling, and composting. The event will be held rain or shine. There is a calm space available for any children needing one during the day. SCC also serves as a meeting place for many local groups such as the Bennington Children’s Chorus, Quet Valley Quilters, Creative Dance, NA, AA, Grief Support, Poverty Work Group, Child Advocacy Network, the Association for the Visually Impaired, Turning Point, and more. For information about the Second Congregational Solar Array or the event, contact Barbara True-Weber or Kathleen Shaw at 802-442-2559. Their website is www.bennsc.org. The History and Determination of the Harvard Solar Garden by George Harvey In 2010, a new law in Massachusetts enabled community Solarize campaigns. For the first time, there was a policy framework to encourage community efforts to decrease dependency on fossil fuels. Many people could move ahead with long-cherished dreams to have their own power from their own solar systems at their own homes. The most active community in the state was almost certainly Harvard, a bucolic town about twenty-five miles west of Boston. A number of residents had already thought over installing solar systems, only to be discouraged by the complexity of the process. The Solarize Program simplified the work while providing the advantage of a “bulk buy” to reduce system costs. People soon saw that the Solarize campaign could put the solar dream financially within reach. The campaign came together quickly, as volunteers spread the word, informing people about possibilities and helping sign folks up to get solar systems. Excitement ran high, and the number asking for site evaluations was impressive. As usual in solar campaigns, many people who wanted systems found their sites were not suitable. Usually the issue was shading caused by anything from trees to dormers and chimneys, but other issues, such as aging roofs can also cause siting problems. There were about sixty people who wanted to participate in Harvard’s Solarize Program, but it could not because of physical siting problems. Unsurprisingly, many of these people were both determined and inventive. The idea that residents could have their solar panels in a common installation was born, likened to a CSA but for harvesting photons. Today, solar gardens are commonplace, but this was in 2011, the old days. For Harvard, it was a pioneering effort in wholly uncharted territory. Today, it is hard to imagine much going wrong, but in those days, everything imaginable did go wrong, along with many things ranging from unimaginable to inconceivable. There were no great technical hurdles. Steven Strong of Solar Design Associates provided technical guidance pro bono to the Solarize program and helped guide the group forward, shaping the first shareholder-owned solar garden. The state provided a grant of over $150,000. Problems of policy, politics, personality, and ignorance arose in a situation where there were no established guidelines. Steven Strong openly admits he was naïve about how extensive these difficult issues could be. Before the first town planning board meeting addressing the Harvard Solar Garden, many citizens became immersed in the information. They had been told solar electric power could create an electromagnetic field that would lead to health issues, and a few believed it, ignoring the utility-supplied electricity already running through their homes. Some were misinformed about the mineral contents of solar panels, and believed that rains would leach toxic materials from the glass panels into the water table. These and similar issues had to be addressed seriously within the context of a public meeting. Resistance from the town’s zoning and select boards sent the garden advocates on a nearly circular path, as they tried to find a site for the array. Attempts to use agricultural land failed due to zoning, so they tried commercial. This also failed for zoning as solar was not an “allowed use.” Garden advocates were then told that the former town dump was the only place they could site the array. Engineers said this was simply impossible because the dump was in a swamp, subject to differential settlement, and had never been properly closed and capped. However, the select board came to see that project supporters were getting upset. They were reminded that the town had accepted a state grant as a ‘Green Community’ and were obliged to allow solar “as of right” in the town. After a special town meeting, they finally decided commercial land could be used for the solar garden after all. Finding a supportive owner of commercial land in Harvard was a relatively minor challenge. The town assessors then threatened to tax the solar array as commercial property. That would have severely undermined the financial viability of the project, but circumventing this required an act of the state legislature. A “home rule petition” was guided through the agonizingly slow process of getting to the floors of the Massachusetts House and Senate. Normally such a petition languishes, but two courageous local legislators guided it through. The actual vote took only two minutes in each chamber. The building inspector then provided another hurdle by setting the highest possible permitting fees, but the next issue was even worse. The bank, which had no experience with loans for solar systems, spent over ten thousand dollars on legal fees looking into the project, before turning down the loan. After finding a more progressive bank that liked the idea and became a subscriber, the next step was to get Veren, the chosen company, including the utility poles, and National Grid, the utility that had to install the electric connection, to talk with each other. That process that took almost six months. The people who brought the Harvard Solar Garden together worked within a system that had no idea how to deal with them. Nevertheless, after working on policy issues for two and a half years, the first phase, 250 kilowatts (kW), was completed in less than twelve months, including site preparation. The next phase, bringing the project to 550 kW, was quicker. Steven Strong likes to point out that while the Harvard Solar Garden operates like a cooperative it is structured as an limited liability corporation, with the subscribers as the only shareholders. It was the first such solar project, and is still the only truly shareholder-owned one in Massachusetts. He says this is an ideal model because it keeps all the benefits local. “I see the solar garden as the great democratization of electric power,” Strong says. “We need to push, nationwide, for that democratization, to allow everyone access to solar power.” Thanks to the people of Harvard for their pioneering determination. THREE NH COMMUNITIES RANK ON TOP FOR RESIDENTIAL SOLAR Green Energy Times Staff Jonathan S. Osgood, the Energy Conservation Coordinator for the New Hampshire Public Utilities Commission (NHPUC), passed this up-to-date information along to us, which had previously been gathered by Sarah Simonds of Vital Communities. Sarah’s information was based on data from the May 2015 NHPUC report on the commission’s residential solar rebate program. So far, the New Hampshire communities with the greatest numbers of approved applications for installed systems, as of July 20, 2015, are: 1. Lyme, 58 rebate applications, tied with 2. Hanover, 58 rebate applications 3. Sandwich, 47 rebate applications The top-ranking figures per capita, however, are a bit different: 1. Randolph, 1 photovoltaic (PV) system per 24 residents (only 13 systems) 2. Lyme, 1 PV system per 30 residents 3. Sandwich, 1 PV system per 36 residents At the time of our communication with Mr. Osgood, he pointed out that he had not yet been able to insert all of the town populations in his database, so consequently he could not definitively rank these towns against the whole state’s status. These numbers reflect only those systems that they have approved for rebates. Many have yet to be completed or at least reported as complete to the NHPUC. Jonathan Osgood can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org or (603) 271-6306. Sarah Simonds can be reached at email@example.com or (802) 291-9100, ext. 109. NH SOLAR GARDEN cont’d from p.1 everything will be completed by spring. NHSolarGarden.com will not do the physical installation of the projects. That is done by existing solar installers with known credentials. NHSolarGarden.com is an organizer, which passes the work it has seen through permitting on to other companies. It is providing the important service of doing the background work and making sure that installations will get done that might otherwise be delayed for a long while. One community solar garden stands out as a shining example of what a town can do. At the beginning of 2015, New Hampshire had about 7 MW of solar capacity installed. Now, the city of Franklin, with a population of 8,400, is building a 10 MW community solar garden. This one town, and not a wealthy one at that, will have a good deal more solar capacity at the end of 2016 than the entire state had at the beginning of 2015. What Franklin will get from its solar garden is worth considering. The town will see $100,000 per year in benefits from land that will be producing income. The people in the town will see the benefits that develop from their investment in the solar garden, including lower power bills. That is the sort of thing that can make quite a difference. The state chose to cap net-metered renewables at 50 MW, but not all for solar. Adding to solar already installed, 29 MW more will reach the cap. NHSolarGarden.com has lined up 25 MW for installation, which will bring the state’s solar capacity to about 450% of what it currently is within about ten months. This will very close to meeting the cap on its own. The remaining 4 MW will very likely be taken up by other organizations with solar installations, so it is likely that New Hampshire will end 2016 with nearly five times the 7 MW of solar capacity it had in the beginning of 2015. A lot of communities could see a benefit similar to Franklin’s, but they only will if the solar cap is raised. This means the legislature will have to act on the cap. Increasing the cap also means the utilities will have to be ready to deal with increased amounts of solar power. This is not always as hard as it is made out to be, because solar power is most abundant at the same time of day when electric demand is highest, and it can be consumed locally, often reducing the need for transmission lines. Nevertheless, some utilities doubtless resist it. Andrew Keller is currently working on fine-tuning an understanding of what is needed to move things forward. He says one of the most important things is getting the word out. NHSolarGarden.com’s web site is nhsolar-garden.com. SOLARIZE Dummerston UPDATE By Stan Howe, Solarize Dummerston Solarize Dummerston is a volunteer-run, grassroots cooperative group purchase program based upon the Solarize process that has been so successful across the country. It is open to residents and businesses from Dummerston, Vermont and surrounding towns. To simplify the process of going solar, the Solarize Dummerston volunteers have selected three installers from the proposals we received. For community solar we selected SunPower. For rooftop and fixed-ground-mount systems we selected Integrated Solar Applications. For solar trackers we selected Solaleaf. Each installer is offering a tiered pricing program where the price per watt decreases as they sell more solar within our program. The more people who buy a system, the cheaper it gets for everyone. We currently have about 110 people who have signed up for the free site assessment. Over 10 individual proposals have been delivered to customers totaling more than 40KW currently under contract. There will be a “Solar 101” event at the Dummerston Grange on August 27th with presentations on the financing and tax incentives available. Our installers will be on hand to answer questions. Snacks and drinks will be provided. The deadline to sign a contract is September 30th. For more information or to sign up for a free site assessment visit solarize.dummerston.com. OWN YOUR POWER HEAT, COOL & POWER YOUR HOME WITH SOLAR Learn more about our solar financing program! Revision Energy 603.679.1777 • EXETER, NH & CONCORD, NH REVISIONENERGY.COM OVER 1 MEGAWATT INSTALLED! Kim Frase – NH Lic #4146 789 Whittier Highway South Tamworth, NH 284-6618 \| c: 387-0873 firstname.lastname@example.org For More Information 284-6618 www.fraseelectric.com “This is not a private planet. It is a community initiative.” ~ Malidoma Some Green Energy Options Your Local Renewable Energy Solution Solar Electric and Hot Water Systems Indoor/Outdoor Wood Boilers Wood and Pellet Stoves ADVICE, SALES & INSTALLATIONS 79 Emerald Street, Keene, NH • (603) 358-3444 email@example.com • www.geosolarstore.com Full-Service Solar Installations for your home or business Grid-Tied • Off-Grid • Battery Back-Up Sherwin Solar Store is a division of Sherwin Electric Company, A Vermont Electrical Contractor since 1943 Sales • Design • Installation 7a Morse Dr. • Essex Junction VT 05452 802-878-4041 • firstname.lastname@example.org Battery Maintenance for your renewable energy storage system SOLVING THE ACHILLES HEEL OF BATTERY STORAGE By Luke Simmons Going “off the grid” and using the sun or wind for electricity can be a liberating achievement – gaining independence from utility companies, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and taking a giant step toward a sustainable lifestyle. The heart of a typical off-grid system is a set of flooded deep-cycle batteries, which require periodic refills of distilled water. But, relying on store-bought water in plastic containers is hardly sustainable, and some are finding distilled water shortages at their local grocers. “This one issue could easily turn into the systems’ Achilles Heel if a situation arose where we couldn’t get to a store so we could buy distilled water,” said Tammy Reiss, who lives off-grid and uses around a gallon and a half of distilled water per week in her household’s nickel-iron battery bank. “I also cringe having to buy all those unsustainable plastic jugs that the distilled water comes in.” Tammy and her husband Matt say becoming more self-reliant is what sold them on an off-grid solar powered battery storage system in the first place. Their battery bank consists of Iron Edison nickel-iron cells, each cell is 1.2 volts and 300 amp-hours. The cells are wired in series to make a nominal 24 volt, 300 amp-hour battery bank. The individual cells are in a clear casing with minimum and maximum water level lines marked, so it’s easy to see when water needs to be added. As a flooded battery recharges, electrical energy is converted to chemical energy and water in the electrolyte evaporates. Watering is typically required every four to six weeks, but in hot summer months when solar exposure is the highest, watering can be required every week. Both lead-acid and nickel-iron chemistries require these periodic distilled water refills. Matt and Tammy say they grew tired of going store-to-store looking for distilled water and began researching home water distillers. They eventually settled on a one-gallon capacity unit from American Water Distillers for under $100. The unit has a total draw of 720 watts and is rated to make a gallon of distilled water in four hours. “We found putting it in a cool area, like our basement, cuts this time by a half hour,” said Tammy. Water vapor condenses more easily on a cool surface. The Reiss’s used to pay $1.29 per gallon of distilled water in upstate New York. Now, the water costs nothing and is distilled directly from water from their solar array. Matt usually distills twice a week, on sunny days when his solar panels are producing excess energy. “What’s great is the whole system is fully sustainable now,” Matt said. “I don’t have to worry about getting to a store; I can make my own [distilled water].” For those looking to distill their water at home, Matt advises that higher wattage does not necessarily indicate a more efficient distiller. Further, stainless steel models are recommended, as impurities from plastic could seep into the water and damage a battery. While some may attempt to make their own high-quality distilled water using coffee makers or self-constructed units, the end product may not be suitable for batteries. Most such equipment does not actually distill the water. The minerals and ions found in tap water can harm the metal plates inside a battery and reduce its capacity and longevity. “There are a lot of do-it-yourself instructions on the web on how to build or acquire distilled water,” Tammy explained. “If you can’t guarantee 100% pure distilled water as the end result, do not use the end product in your batteries.” Using sealed lead-acid batteries, which don’t require any watering maintenance, is another option for off-grid systems. But they don’t last nearly as long as their flooded counterparts, and contain lead which is difficult to recycle and toxic to the environment. The Reiss’s nickel-iron battery bank is rated for at least 30 years of service. It is fully recyclable and environmentally friendly, containing no toxic elements. Luke Simmons is a system designer and sales manager at Iron Edison Battery Company. He is NABCEP-certified in PV Technical Sales and specializes in both grid-tied and off-grid renewable energy systems. He can be reached at (720) 432-6433 or email@example.com. DISTILLING WATER By George Harvey There are many reasons to want to be able to distill water in the home. Having a supply of water for batteries is only one. Other reasons range from having water for ironing clothes to ensuring a supply of safe drinking water for emergencies. The principle of water distillation is easy. Any water that condenses on any surface will be free of most impurities. This includes frost on a window (a sure indication that the window needs attention) and condensation on a cold glass. Rain water is atmospheric condensation and is usually relatively pure. The problem with these sources is that they are unprotected from airborne contaminants. When the source of the water vapor and place where the water condenses on are enclosed, we can be sure that any dust and nearly all chemicals will be eliminated. This is why distilled water is nearly pure. Water need not be boiled to be distilled. It can actually be distilled at room temperature, if the surface on which the vapor condenses is colder. Ground water will condense on a surface cooled by the night air, and that, in fact, is much of what we see as dew or frost. So gentle heat from the sun is enough to produce distilled water. Bradford, Vermont is a small town in the Cohase Valley, located in east central part of the state. Situated in a wide valley (the meaning of Cohase) along the Connecticut River, this community of 2,797 people is taking big steps toward energy independence. Solar systems are springing up all over the town this summer, more than ever! In October 2009, groSolar installed a 9.6kW solar system on the roof of North Country Organics on Depot Street, meeting 100% of their needs. That was not the first, but now there are many more. Since 1983, Farmway has been a landmark destination, as a family-owned and operated store with over 4 million dollars in inventory. They carry farm and pet supplies, as well as footwear, clothing, sporting goods and gear. Farm-Way Farm-Way is now 100% solar-powered. The all-purpose general store ("Complete Outfitters for Man & Beast") had groSolar install a 55kW system in 2008 and had been getting 43% of their electricity from it, but that has been expanded. Skip Metayer, VP of Farm-Way told us, "With the additional 77kW, which went on line July 27, 2015, we are now producing 100% of our electricity needs, with enough extra to support a 19,000 square foot addition we are in the middle of adding as well. It will be complete by October 1st." Catamount Solar installed the new system. Metayer said, "Two of the owners were with groSolar when groSolar installed my original system. We have used Catamount since the disappearance of groSolar." Metayer also told us they make energy-efficiency improvements every time they replace antiquated fixtures. The results are significant, especially with some of the old high-bay inside lighting and exterior yard lights; now they are all LEDs, saving hundreds of watts per fixture. Bradford Public Library In 1796, Bradford became the first town in Vermont with a chartered library. The Woods Library Building stands at the intersection of US Route 5 and South Main Street, at the center of the south end of the business district. It was designed by Lambert Packard of St. Johnsbury, in his adaptation of the Richardsonian Romanesque style, and finished in 1895. According to Bud Haas, the library treasurer, this beautiful building has had significant energy improvements and is now powered 100% from the sun, thanks to a program offered by Green Mountain Community Solar (GMCS), as an off-taker. GMCS retained 20% of the panels in a system they installed, and the credits for these panels are applied to accountants' off-farmers, which get credits on their electric bills. The library pays GMCS 10% of the standard rate and will be saving $150 yearly, at no expense. Bruce Geneereaux, the owner of GMCS, explained that two 'corporate partners' get discounts on their electricity by participating in solar farms. Bradford's library gets credits from 6kW of solar panels. The other, Little Rivers Health Care, gets credits from 20kW. Neither organization was required to put up any money. The actual panels are part of the 140kW Eddy Road Community Solar Farm, with 177 panels in Chester, Vermont. It went online on July 14, 2015. Bradford Community Solar Farm The summer of 2015 also saw the addition of the new Bradford Community Solar Farm. The Sardinos farm on Lake Morey Road has a new "cash crop" on a single acre, with the installation of a 150kW solar system by SunCommon. It will supply power for 28 homes. SunCommon has directed the utility to apportion a share of the array's output to each Community Solar customer's power bill. The credits can zero out the utility bill, so the Community Solar members shift their power payments to the solar array – at a 7% discount from the standard utility rate. AND MORE SOLAR: Catamount Solar has installed at least 29kW of solar on residential homes and the elementary school. - GMCS accounted for 6 kW at the Chester solar farm, with 400 expected annual savings. - O'Meara Solar installed a 10.26kW system at a small farm in Bradford. It has 36 SolarWorld modules, two SMA inverters, a Midnite Solar rapid shutdown system, and a secure power supply outlet for up to 1500W of solar power when the grid is down. SunCommon has installed solar on five residences for a total of 35kW. Real Goods Solar has installed solar at three homes, which should offset more than 478 tons of CO2 over 25 years. Finally, we want to mention that Bradford is the home of Green Energy Times, which has been 100% solar powered for 15 years. We are proud to be part of a great town that is preparing for a sustainable, energy independent future. Massachusetts Clean Energy Center (MassCEC) CEO Alicia Barton has awarded $1.1 million in funding for three projects across Massachusetts that will convert organic materials into energy. “Supporting the adoption of clean energy projects across the state means we’re helping organizations and businesses cut energy costs and protect our environment by generating local sources of energy,” said Energy and Environmental Affairs Secretary Matthew Beaton. “We hope these projects inspire other organizations to make the switch to clean energy.” Each award will support the development of anaerobic digestion facilities in the communities of Bourne, Freetown and Hadley. Anaerobic digestion is a process that converts a variety of organic material – that would otherwise be considered waste – into electricity and heat. It is a biological process by which microorganisms break down organic materials, like food or animal waste, to form a methane-rich gas. This gas is then used to run an electric generator or generate heat. The remaining ‘digested’ material is rich in nutrients and can be used as a fertilizer or soil amendment. The three projects will use these materials as a fuel to generate energy and heat. MassCEC is funding these projects to help three organizations operate systems that reduce waste, cut energy use and generate energy locally. “By transforming waste into energy, these projects will cut energy use while creating home-grown sources of renewable energy,” said Barton. “We’re proud to collaborate with these private partners to secure a clean energy future for Massachusetts.” The funding comes from the Renewable Energy Trust, which was created by the Massachusetts legislature in 1989 as part of the deregulation of the electric utility market. The trust is funded by a systems-benefit charge paid by electric customers of investor-owned utilities in Massachusetts, such as Eversource or National Grid, as well as municipal electric departments that have opted to participate in the program. The average monthly charge is $2c for an average residential ratepayer. There are 30 anaerobic digestion systems installed across Massachusetts that generate the equivalent to the annual electricity consumption and heat generation equivalent of approximately 4,500 and 9,500 households, respectively. MassCEC awarded three grants to the developers of the following projects. Harvest Power (Bourne) - $400,000.* Developers will design and build an anaerobic digester to process wastewater treatment sludge, food waste, fats oils and grease. The system will convert biogas from the digester to natural gas from Bourne’s adjacent landfill to provide electricity to the grid. Stop & Shop (Freetown) - $400,000. S&S Freetown, LLC will construct a digester located at Stop & Shop’s distribution center. The facility will process unsold food from Stop & Shop’s regional stores to generate electricity and heat, supplying about 32% of the distribution center’s electricity needs. BGreen Energy, Barstow’s Longview Farm (Hadley) - $309,716. BGreen Energy will upgrade its current 300-kilowatt anaerobic digestion system at Barstow’s Longview Farm, adding a second 500-kW generator, in-ground receiving tank and other equipment. These upgrades will increase electricity production at the farm by about 108%, as well as increase heat production. The existing digester produces liquid fertilizer, animal bedding and hot water for use on the farm. “Harvest Power is excited about the potential to bring a new clean energy project to the town of Bourne,” said Kathleen Legein, CEO of Harvest Power. “In the spirit of true public-private partnerships, the grant from MassCEC helps attract private capital to commercialize innovative clean technologies and bring them to Massachusetts communities.” “We are thrilled that Massachusetts Clean Energy Center is partnering with us on our journey to reach zero waste by 2020,” said Mark McGowan, president of Stop & Shop New England Division. “Our Freetown anaerobic digester is just one example of the many ways we operate our business in a socially and environmentally responsible way, giving us energy to run our Freetown Distribution Center that services all of our Stop & Shop New England stores.” “The continued support of MassCEC has allowed us to continue to show the nation how to maximize the effectiveness of renewable energy on our dairy farms using materials from waste, which become electricity and fertilizer,” said Erik Jorgensen, managing partner of BGreen Energy. “We install our farms, create jobs and have 24/7 available power capacity for the Commonwealth.” MassCEC is dedicated to accelerating the success of clean energy technologies, companies and projects in Massachusetts while creating high-quality jobs and long-term economic growth for the people of the commonwealth. Learn more at www.MassCEC.com or view their photos at www.flickr.com/photos/mascec. Community Solar is Now Accessible To Millions of New Yorkers By Wyldon King Fishman If you live or work in New York, a shady location can mean summertime temperatures are a little cooler around your home or business. Shade is a wonderful thing, even if it’s only an awning. But as you know, you can’t use solar modules without sun. Even a little shade may make rebates unattainable, but there still may be a way to get what you want. Welcome to community solar! Low-income renters, occupants of multifamily buildings; people without good solar sites, schools, municipal governments and other non-residential customers can now band together and finance a solar system nearby in a field or on a big, sunny warehouse rooftop. How? First, find ten or more ratepayers and a leader to supervise the project, who all are located fairly close together. Everyone shares a piece of the system pie. Every month, the members’ utility bills reflect the net-metering credit of their own portions of the system. Not keen to handle the job? Contact solar installation consultants and contractors. Listening to the professionals will help your group understand the financing, locations, and utility hook-ups for access to transmission lines. They’ll educate you and then may come out and bid on your project. You’ll have decisions to make about land acquisition, site surveys, engineering studies and fees to pay for permits. Local solar, wind and some other renewable energy projects qualify. It is worth doing a little research to see if a particular available resource could be developed under the program. Details The first phase begins October 19, 2015. It is limited to benefitting low-income customers with high demand for power that’s not easily met by the current utility grid. It supports economically distressed communities by ensuring at least 20% of the participants are low- and moderate-income customers. The second phase starts on May 1, 2016. All can participate in all utility territories. Background Colorado was the first state to allow what were then called solar gardens. They were filled up by caps, which were filled to capacity almost overnight. The utilities complained about transmission line usage, but over time some began to see the advantage of Solar Gardens where the electric load was very high and the service was not dependable. The New York Solar Energy Society got a call from the staff in the Budget and Taxation Department asking why community solar gardens weren’t being developed in New York. Our response was that it had a lot to do with large properties getting service from different utilities. A barn on the other side of the road often got electricity from one utility while the house was supplied by another. A camp might have a sunny field suitable for a solar garden next to a pole, but the utility that owned the pole didn’t service the main kitchen. Different utilities didn’t have to cooperate, share transmission lines and take care of the extra billing. cont’d on p. 18 FEDERAL INVESTMENT TAX CREDIT The federal investment tax credit (ITC) for most technologies, including solar, wind, heat pumps, and fuel cells is 30% of expenditures. For commercial geothermal generating systems, microturbines, and combined heat and power the ITC is 10% of expenditures. USDA RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM USDA Rural Development Program - Rural Energy for America (REAP) Finance the purchase of renewable energy systems, and make energy improvements; energy audits. Funding is awarded on a competitive basis; grant funds cannot exceed 25% of eligible project costs and combined loan guarantees and grants cannot exceed 75% of eligible project costs. Applicants include Feasibility studies/regular REAPS: agricultural producers and rural small businesses. Energy audits and renewable energy development assistance: local governments, tribes, land grant colleges, rural electric coops, public power entities. Grant must be used for Construction, design, engineering, purchase and installation of equipment, energy audits, permit fees, professional service fees, business plans, and/or feasibility studies. Find more at www.rurdev.usda.gov/NHVTHome.html or call 802-828-6080 in VT or 603-223-6035 in NH BIOREFINERY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM As the call for increased production of homegrown, renewable forms of fuels has grown, so has the need to develop and produce them. USDA Rural Development offers opportunities to producers to development such fuels through the Biorefinery Assistance Program. The program provides loan guarantees for the development, construction, and retrofitting of commercial-scale biorefineries. The Biorefinery Assistance Program was established to assist in the development of new and emerging technologies for the development of advanced biofuels and aims to accomplish the following: • Increase the energy independence of the United States • Promote resource conservation, public health, and the environment • Diversify markets for agricultural and forestry products and agricultural waste materials • Create jobs and enhance economic development in rural America For more information go to www.rurdev.usda.gov/BCP_Biorefinery NEW ENGLAND GRASSROOTS ENVIRONMENTAL FUND MODEST GRANTS ARE AVAILABLE FOR COMMUNITY-BASED ENVIRONMENTAL WORK IN CT, MA, RI, NH, VT, ME • Must be volunteer driven or have up to 2 full time paid staff or equiv. • have an annual budget up to $100,000 • “Seed” grants of $250-$1,000 and “Grow” grants of $1,000-$3,500 • Go to www.grassrootsfund.org/grants/ or call 802-223-4622 for more info. VERMONT CLEAN ENERGY DEVELOPMENT FUND The Small Scale RE Incentive Program, administered by Renewable Energy Resource Center (RERC), provides funds to help defray the costs of new solar thermal and advanced wood pellet heating systems. SOLAR INCENTIVES – BASED ON RATED CAPACITY OF SYSTEM • http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives special customer category limited to municipalities, non-profit housing authorities, public schools. All incentives are subject to availability and may change. Pellet Heating • advanced wood pellet heating systems – $2500 per boiler (+$500 if an audit is completed and +$500 if the system includes at least 20 days’ worth of pellet storage). • Details at www.RERC-vt.org or call (877)888-7372 VT TAX CREDITS Vermont offers an investment tax credit for installations of renewable energy equipment on business properties. The credit is equal to 24% of the “Vermont property portion” of the federal business energy tax credit from 2011 to 2016. For solar, small wind, and fuel cells this constitutes a 7.2% state-level credit for systems and for geothermal electric, microturbines, and combined heat and power systems, this constitutes a 2.4% state-level tax credit. Any unused tax credit may not be carried forward. EFFICIENCY VERMONT Lighting (must be ENERGY STAR) • CFLs - select ENERGY STAR qualified spiral and specialty CFLs are just 99¢ at participating retailers • LEDs – bulbs with special pricing/coupons at register while supplies last at participating retailers Home Efficiency Improvements • improvements: air sealing, insulation and heating system upgrades - up to $2,600 in incentives - using participating* contractors Appliances (must be ENERGY STAR) • Dehumidifiers - $25 mail-in rebate • Clothes Washers - $40 rebate for CEE Tier 3 qualifying models, $75 rebate for ENERGY STAR Most Efficient • Refrigerators - $40 rebate for CEE Tier 2 Refrigerators, $75 for CEE Tier 3 & ENERGY STAR Most Efficient • Working second refrigerators or freezers are potentially eligible to be picked up. $50 incentive to retire old units. • Clothes Dryers - $50 to $400 rebate on select ENERGY STAR models Heating/Cooling • heating & hot water systems – see EV* • energy efficient central AC and furnace fan motor - up to $100 mail-in rebate • central wood pellet boilers (excluding outside wood systems) - $1,000 Residential New Construction • enroll in Residential New Construction Service – up to $2,000 in incentives and free home energy rating and expert technical assistance throughout construction and eligible for ENERGY STAR label • Washington Electric Coop and Vermont Gas Systems customers may also receive additional incentives (contact EV) Other Opportunities To Save • Advanced Power Strips – special pricing/coupons at register at participating retailers • Pool Pump – up to $400 rebate on qualifying ENERGY STAR models • Meter Loan – borrow “Watts Up” meter to measure the electric consumption of your appliances all rebates/incentives subject to availability, limits and may change – for complete incentives and requirements, and for participating retailers/contractors, visit efficiencyvermont.com or call 888-921-5990 COMMERCIAL BULK FUEL-FED WOOD PELLET CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS • 30% of the heating appliance(s) and installation cost, up to a maximum of $50,000. An additional 30% up to a maximum $5,000 is available for thermal storage. Systems must be 2.5 million BTU or less RESIDENTIAL SOLAR PV REBATE PROGRAM • Rebate for solar electric/thermal projects 100kW (or thermal equivalent) or less • New Solar PV = $0.75/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Expanded Solar PV = $0.50/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Solar Thermal = $0.07/rated or modeled thousand Btu/year or 25% of total cost, whichever is less. • Expanded Solar Thermal = $0.04/kBtu/yr or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Maximum incentive in combination with other incentives received: Rebate in combination with other rebates or grants received from the utility or other programs, including other state, local or federal programs, shall not exceed 40% of the total cost of the system (Does not include federal tax credits). Contact firstname.lastname@example.org RESIDENTIAL SOLAR WATER HEATING REBATE PROGRAM • $1500 - $1900 per system based on annual system output • Contact email@example.com WOOD PELLET BOILER OR FURNACE • 30% of installed system up to $6k • Must meet thermal efficiency and particulate emissions standards Contact firstname.lastname@example.org www.puc.nh.gov - Sustainable Energy or tel. 603-271-2431 for more information and current program status NEW HAMPSHIRE RENEWABLE ENERGY INCENTIVES OFFERED THROUGH THE NH PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION Commercial Solar Rebate Program Program open to non-profits, businesses, public entities and other non-residential entities. Category 1: • Less than or equal to 100 kW AC. • New Solar PV = $0.75/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Expanded Solar PV = $0.50/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • New Thermal (total size of less than or equal to 15 collectors) = $0.12/rated or modeled thousand Btu/year or 25% of total cost, whichever is less. • New Thermal (total size of greater than 15 collectors) = $0.07/rated or modeled thousand Btu/year or 25% of total cost, whichever is less. • Expanded Thermal = $0.04/rated or modeled thousand-Btu per year or 25% of total cost, whichever is less. • Maximum incentive in combination with other incentives received: Rebate in combination with other rebates or grants received from the utility or other programs, including other state, local or federal programs, shall not exceed 40% of the total cost of the system (Does not include federal tax credits). Category 2: • Maximum 500 kW AC and greater than 100 kW AC. • New Solar PV = $0.65/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Expanded Solar PV = $0.30/Watt AC or 25% of total project cost, whichever is less. • Maximum incentive in combination with other incentives received: Rebate in combination with other rebates or grants received from the utility or other programs, including other state, local or federal programs, shall not exceed 40% of the total cost of the system (Does not include federal tax credits). Contact email@example.com PLEASE NOTE: Changes are anticipated for the solar PV residential program and the solar C&I program. For Info contact firstname.lastname@example.org. LOCAL INCENTIVES Some towns provide property tax exemptions for renewables – visit www.bitt.ly/NHTownRenewablesTaxBreaks • These are offered on a town-by-town basis. • The state also has passed PACE (property-assessed clean energy) enabling legislation which will allow towns to use the PACE mechanism to finance clean energy projects through property taxes. Visit http://www.nh.gov/eep/programs/energy/pace/index.htm for more information. RENEWABLE ENERGY INCENTIVES OFFERED THROUGH THE NH ELECTRIC CO-OP PLEASE Check for UPDATES With NHEC. Commercial Solar Thermal (Hot Water) • is 25% of the project cost up to $20,000. Commercial Solar PV 1. $0.50 watt up to the lesser of 15% of installed cost or $20,000 Commercial Fossil Fuel Program 2. Incentives of 35% up to $15,000 Residential Solar PV • is 20% of the project cost up to $2,500. While we at Green Energy Times try to keep things up to date, incentives are always changing. Be sure to check with the appropriate sources for the latest information. Residential Solar Hot Water* - is 20% of the project cost up to $1,500. Heat Pump Water Heaters - is 50% of the project cost up to $1,000. Heat Pump Conversion - is 35% of the project cost up to $10,000 for Geothermal Heat Pumps. - is $450-$900 per system based on SEER rating for Ductless Mini-Split Heat Pumps. - is 35% of the project cost up to $3,500 based on SEER rating for High Efficiency & Hybrid Ground Source Pumps. - is 35% of the project cost up to $25,000 based on SEER ratings for Commercial ground or air source heat pumps and ERVs. --- PAREI To explore the possibility of a solar installation. Plymouth Area Renewable Energy Initiative. www.plymouthenergy.org WWW.NHSAVES.COM WWW. NHEC.COM NH HOME PERFORMANCE WITH ENERGY STAR Sponsored by all NH electric and natural gas utilities in partnership by the U.S. Dept. of Energy. Fuel-blind eligibility using the Home Heating Index (HUI) of heating fuel / condition (square feet x degree days). Must provide at least 12 months of heating fuel history. Once qualified, eligible homes get a $450 value comprehensive energy audit for $100 (rebated if improvements installed), and 50% instant rebate for eligible weatherization improvements up to a $4,000. Visit www.nhsaves.com/residential/retrofit.html for more information and an online Home Heating Index calculator. --- NH ENERGY STAR HOMES Incentives for builders of new homes who meet ENERGY STAR guidelines. Incentives include HERS rating fee paid by the utility, rebates for ENERGY STAR lighting, appliances and heating systems, and $800 - $4,000 additional incentive depending on the HERS score. Visit www.nhsaves.com/residential/homes.html for more details. --- NH ENERGY STAR APPLIANCES & LIGHTING Mail-in rebates for ENERGY STAR-rated clothes washers ($30), room air conditioners ($20), room air purifiers ($15) and smart strips ($10). Visit www.nhsaves.com/residential/es_appliance.html for more information and rebate forms. Instant rebate coupons ranging from $1 to $7 for ENERGY STAR-rated CFL and LED light bulbs purchased through qualifying NH retailers. Visit www.nhsaves.com/residential/es_lighting.html for more information. --- NHSAVES LIGHTING AND EFFICIENCY CATALOG Extensive catalog of efficient lighting products, from stylish lamps to hard to find specialty bulbs. Catalog includes other efficiency items such as smart strips, power monitors, and water-conserving devices Offered at discounted pricing for NH electric utility customers, and fulfilled by EFL Visit catalog.nhsaves.com/ for an online version of the catalog. --- UP TO DATE INCENTIVE INFO: WWW.DSIREUSA.ORG 2014 ENERGY STAR® RESIDENTIAL HEATING, COOLING, & WATER HEATING EQUIPMENT REBATE Rebates of up to $1,500 on high efficiency Furnaces and Boilers; $200-$500 rebates on Mini Split Heat Pumps; up to $800 rebates on water heaters; rebates on programmable and Wi-Fi thermostats Program details and application at www.NHSaves.com/heatingcooling OTHER NH ELECTRIC UTILITY PROGRAMS See also individual utilities for additional programs and variations. NH electric utilities may offer low or no interest on-bill financing for energy efficiency projects. Visit www.nhsaves.com/resource/ for individual utility contact information. Business Programs Includes programs for: small and large business, new equipment and construction, seminars, lighting incentives and catalog, and low and no interest financing programs. Visit www.nhsaves.com/ for information about NH business incentives for electricity efficiency. NH Weatherization Assistance Income-Eligible Programs Home Energy Assistance and NH community action Weatherization Assistance Program. Financial assistance paying fuel bills, and free weatherization improvements for qualified applicants. Funding from U.S. Dept. of Energy, NH utilities. Visit www.nh.gov/oep/programs/weatherization/index.htm for application criteria, FAQs and local program contacts --- MASSACHUSETTS COMMONWEALTH SOLAR HOT WATER (SHW) PROGRAMS Applicants must be served by National Grid, NSTAR, Until (Fitchburg Gas and Electric), Evergy, or a participating Municipal Light Plant company. Residential Rebate: $75/per collector X the SRCC thermal performance rating of the collectors (pls refer to kBTU/panel/day for Category C, Mildly Cloudy climates) Metrics for typical SHW system for 2-4 people, 2-panel roof-mounted plus 80 gal solar tank: materials/installation costs = $10,000, MA CEC residential rebate = $3860 including + Adder for moderate home value or low/moderate income. MA State Income tax credit (30% of system cost) = $3000. Net Cost = $2100 Visit http://www.masscec.com/programs/commonwealth-solar-hot-water MASSSAVE HEAT LOAN SHW Through this loan program, customers may borrow at 0% interest the costs of a Solar Domestic Hot Water and/or Thermal Heating system. Apply through receiving the MassSave Energy Audit. You can borrow up to $25,000 at 0% interest for a 7 year term. ENERGY EFFICIENCY After conducting a free residential Energy Audit, residential customers are eligible for loans of $25,000, commercial loan up to $100k at 0% interest low loan with terms up to 7 years to cover the following energy efficiency improvements: attic/wall- basement insulation, high efficiency heating systems, high efficiency domestic hot water systems, solar hot water systems, 7-day digital programmable thermostats, Energy Star replacement windows Available only to utility customers of W. Mass Electric, National Grid, Berkshire Gas, Nstar, Until and Cape Light Compact Visit www.masssave.com/residential/heating-and-cooling/heat-loan-program Please call 866-527-7283 to schedule a free home energy assessment. MASSACHUSETTS SOLAR LOAN PROGRAM Mass Solar Loan focuses on connecting homeowners who install solar electric systems with low-interest loans to help finance the projects. The $30 million program, a partnership between the Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources (DOER) and MassCEC, will work with local banks and credit unions to provide financing to homeowners interested in solar electricity. DOER’s program design will work with banks and credit unions to expand borrowing options through lower interest rate loans and encourage loans for homeowners with lower income or lower credit scores. Since 2008, the solar electric industry in Massachusetts has grown into a robust economic sector with over 1,400 businesses and 12,000 workers, with enough solar electricity installed in the Commonwealth to power more than 100,000 homes. Mass Solar Loan will continue to grow this sector, while allowing the homeowners the ability to achieve the cost savings and environmental benefits of this clean, renewable energy source. www.masscec.com/programs/mass-solar-loan --- DEPT OF ENERGY RESOURCES Solar renewable-energy credits (SRECs) associated with system generation belong to the system owner and may be sold via the Department of Energy Resources (DOER) SREC programs. Note: appropriate, approved Data Acquisition System monitoring must be utilized for PV systems >10kWp in order to qualify for SRECs. MA State Income tax credit for residential solar hot water or pv systems are eligible for a one time 15% off system cost, capped at $1000 max tax credit. No sales tax on residential solar hw or pv systems. There is no increase in property tax assessment for residential hw or pv systems for 20 yrs. --- NEW MA SREC POLICY Massachusetts’ new version of its Solar Renewable Energy Credits Program is informally being called SREC II. SREC II prioritizes sites, however, by using an SREC factor based on the type of installation. The credits provided for energy produced by a system are calculated by multiplying the factor times a full credit value. Full credit is given for residential, parking canopy, emergency power, or community-based systems, or any other system of less than 25 kW. Larger systems get a factor of 0.9, if they are building-mounted or at least 67% of the power produced is used at the site. If a larger system meets neither of these criteria, but is built on a landfill or brownfield site, or if it is less than 650 kW, then it gets a factor of 0.8. Systems that qualify for none of the foregoing get a factor of 0.7. More information can be found at: http://bit.ly/Mass_SREC_II --- DISCOVER YOUR HOME’S ENERGY WASTE Getting a home energy assessment can help you take control of your energy costs. It can identify whether your house is using the most energy and which improvements would have the biggest impact on your bottom line. Heating and cooling costs frequently account for 50% of residential energy bills. Identifying your energy waste can lead to big savings. Visit: nyserda.energysavvy.com to get an energy assessment --- RENEWABLE ENERGY INCENTIVES OFFERED THROUGH NY-SUN http://ny-sun.ny.gov/ NY-Sun is structured around customized Megawatt (MW) Blocks targeted to specific regions of the state. To learn more, see the Megawatt Block Incentive Structure. Residential and Small Business http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/Residents-And-Small-Business Commercial and Industrial • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/Commercial-and-Industrial Community Solar • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/Community-Solar Find a Commercial/Industrial Solar Installer • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/For-Local-Government/Local-Government Find a Residential/Small Commercial Solar Installer • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/Find-A-Solar-Electric-Installer Financing Options • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/NY-Sun-Financing Clean Power Estimator • http://ny-sun.ny.gov/Get-Solar/Clean-Power-Estimator NY-Sun is structured around customized Megawatt (MW) Blocks targeted to specific regions of the state. To learn more, see the Megawatt Block Incentive Structure. The Megawatt (MW) Block Dashboard provides real time information on the status of block and current incentive levels by sector and region. Block status is updated as applications are submitted, so click the refresh button to see the current status. https://www.powerclerk.com/nysuninitiative/dashboard.aspx Hydro Upgrades In Proctor, VT DOUBLE THE HYDRO GENERATION CAPACITY Project adds significant low cost, renewable energy for Vermonters Green Mountain Power recently completed an improvement project to its 100-year-old hydro plant on the Otter Creek in Proctor that will mean more renewable, low-cost hydro power for GMP customers. The added capacity makes this plant the largest of Green Mountain Power’s fleet of 32 Vermont hydro plants. “Our Vermont hydro plants are the lowest cost sources of power in our energy mix and we are pleased to be able to deliver on our promise of more renewable energy for customers,” said Mary Powell, President and CEO of Green Mountain Power. “Our customers and the environment benefit when we can produce this kind of clean, local and low cost power. This hydro expansion ties into our vision as Vermont’s energy company of the future as we transform the 100-year-old grid of the past into where clean power is generated closer to home and Vermonters are using innovative products and services to be more comfortable, save money and use less energy.” Hydro is a major part of GMP’s energy portfolio with 42% of the power GMP customers receive coming from renewable hydroelectricity. The plant, formerly owned by Vermont Marble, needed significant repairs when it was acquired by GMP in August 2011. Four of the five turbines were not functional, so GMP completely replaced three turbines and rebuilt another. The four turbines are now at modern levels of efficiency, meaning that they were in the range of 92.4% to 93.4% efficient, much improved from early 20th century technology. Though GMP has no records of what the efficiency once was, it was very likely in the range of 80% to 85% for the older turbines. With the renovations, the plant now has 10 megawatts of generating capacity and is expected to produce an estimated 38 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) a year, compared to the 19 million kWh it recently generated prior to the upgrade. That’s enough to energy to power about 5,300 homes. The renovation began in 2012 with construction of a bridge to access the hydro plant. The only access had been a walkway via a series of ramps and stairs to the station for personnel and an old rail line system that connected the plant and the Marble Museum. The $15 million redevelopment project employed local, regional and specialty contractors, creating economic benefit to the region throughout construction. GMP took great care to protect the historic marble powerhouse structure, which was built in 1905. “We are really pleased with the work GMP did to upgrade the historic Proctor hydro plant and thank them for their commitment to our town and to preserving this important local asset,” said Bill Champlin, chair of the Proctor Selectboard. “It is a big improvement that will benefit the town as well as GMP customers and we look forward to the added improvements to the station that will be done in 2016. This will help the town’s prosperity plan that we have been working on for more than a year.” More information can be found and is available at greenmountainpower.com. Community Solar in NY cont’d from p. 15 Soon we shall see if progress has been made. The details have not been finalized, but utilities have been lobbying to keep community solar from crossing utility territories. In six years of working with the energy committees of the legislature we never got the bill we needed. Over the past year, however, Governor Andrew Cuomo has been pushing through the Shared Renewable Initiative or Community Net Metering as part of his Reforming the Energy Vision Initiative. This is a surprise win-win for all New Yorkers seeking clean, affordable energy. Local energy production can withstand storms better with shorter transmission lines. Also, long distance transmission lines lose 8% to 18% of the electricity generated at the power plant, but with local power generation much better efficiency can be achieved. Now we can eliminate the cost of extraction and transportation of fuel and maintaining expensive transmission lines and benefit from lower costs and healthful clean air and water. Even access to renewable energy has come to New York. The state’s Public Service Commission voted and has issued a final order telling the utilities the time has come to allow any group to buy a solar-energy-generation system, hook it up to the grid and credit the members of the group every month. The future is bright for locals to design and implement a grid for your community. Along with the Community Solar news we received the announcement of more than eighty “microgrid” research-grants winners. A community solar farm can be joined by wind and combined with battery backup for uninterruptable power supply. Stay tuned. In the meantime prepare to find a group interested in free fuel from the sun and wind powering your community. For more information, please visit www.ny-sun.ny.gov/community-solar. Wyldon King Fishman hails from The Bronx where she founded the NY Solar Energy Society (www.nyes.org) to help educate children and families about renewable energy and energy conservation. She recently weatherized her old house and can’t believe the difference. Garbage Patches in our oceans By George Harvey We do not have space here to describe why the Coriolis effect works as it does, but we can note that it is the reason why cyclonic storms have clockwise rotation in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern, and high-pressure areas move in the opposite direction to low-pressure areas. The waters in the ocean behave the same way. The effect of this is that there are areas in the oceans, called “gyres,” which are large eddies. They are numerous, but five are especially large. One, the North Atlantic Gyre, also called the Sargasso Sea, has been known to us since at least the time of Columbus. The other large gyres are in the North Pacific, the South Atlantic, the South Pacific, and the Indian Oceans. All rotate as low-pressure areas, as the water gradually flows toward the middle, and then down to the ocean floor. Anything floating in the water of a gyre is likely to move toward its center, unless it is blown about by the wind. This means that the gyres collect anything that floats in the water. Particles of plastic and other debris, much of which is so small it cannot be seen without careful examination, float in greater concentrations as they approach the center of the gyres. The existence of debris fields in the centers of the gyres was only predicted in 1988 by scientists at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. They were confirmed less than ten years later. The waste areas, called the North Atlantic Garbage Patch and the North Pacific Garbage Patch, are many hundreds of miles across. The particles in them are mostly very small. Nevertheless, they are dangerous to wildlife. Plastic particles often contain long-term poisons. The finest of them are ingested by microplankton, which concentrate them in their digestive systems. These are eaten along with slightly larger plastic particles by larger plankton and small fish. These, in turn, are eaten by larger and larger animals until the plastics and their poisons are concentrated in the largest animals. At each stage, larger pieces of plastic are added to the mix. Seabirds supply fish to their young, providing them with a toxic brew of plastics and poisons. Many are killed. Current estimates are that Midway Island has about twenty tons of plastics wash up on its beaches each year, and about a quarter of these are eaten by albatross and other ocean birds. About a third of the young die, and many of them are victims of the waste floating in the ocean. Sometimes it seems builders and architects have settled into a chorus, all chanting the same thing. Whether the current verse is about LEED Platinum buildings, achieving zero net energy or better, or passive house standards, the chorus seems to be, “Plug every little air leak.” While it is certainly true that air infiltration can ruin a building’s efficiency, it is equally true that poor ventilation produces stale air, with reduced oxygen levels and high levels of humidity, carbon dioxide, and other pollutants. Good building regulation requires that fresh air be brought into a building from outside, and stale air from inside the building be expelled. One set of building regulations we know of requires air equal to half a home’s volume be changed every hour. In a 1,500 square-foot home, this might be about 1.7 cubic feet per second. It seems hard to imagine that so much air could pass through a building without having negative effects on its heating efficiency. An obvious solution to this problem is to use the heat of the stale air being expelled from the building to warm up fresh air coming in. The simplest systems that do this are called heat recovery ventilators (HRVs). To picture how this works, imagine an HRV built by putting a long piece of four-inch stovepipe inside an equally long piece of six-inch stovepipe. There is no insulation between the two, but the whole is insulated on the outside. Cold, fresh air will come into a house through one pipe, and warm, stale air will go out through the other. Fans are rigged to force air movement. The cold incoming air is heated by the warm outgoing air, and efficiencies in such a rig can be surprisingly high, if the pipes are long enough. There are problems with all such overly simple HRVs. One is that they do not address issues of humidity. Water in the moisture-laden warm air will condense as it cools in the HRV, and this needs to be dealt with or the unit may leak or corrode, leading to contamination of incoming air and possibly increased humidity in the home. These conditions can provide for growth of bacteria and mold, leading to issues ranging from health problems to structural damage to buildings. The good news is that more carefully engineered systems are available. These are the energy recovery ventilators (ERVs) such as those offered by RenewAire. Readers may remember an article on RenewAire in our June issue, in which we took a look at the company’s environmentally conscious approaches to manufacturing. An ERV is a system that not only recovers heat that would otherwise be lost, but also addresses issues of humidity. In the winter, the humidity of outgoing air is passed to what is drier, colder air coming in just as the heat is. In the summer, the operation goes in the opposite direction, with incoming humidity being captured in the drier air going out. Any pollutants that would otherwise build up in the inside air are moved outside at the same time. This all can happen without any chemicals or moving parts, aside from the fans used to move the air, if a good unit is chosen. The result of all these things is that it is now possible to have a building that is highly energy efficient and also has very healthy air. Homes can have the even temperatures of highly efficient buildings, and at the same time they can be free of the health issues relating to restricted ventilation. There is a set of links to videos showing how an ERV works, the advantages of an ERV system, and other interesting topics at the home page of RenewAire’s website, www.renewaire.com. The New Hampshire Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NHSPCA) had some very unusual energy problems at its shelter in Stratham, NH. These were addressed during the time from about 2008 to 2012. We can now look at the results. The NHSPCA takes in all manner of animals – not just dogs and cats, but everything from gerbils to horses. There are many of them, about 3,000 per year, looking for new homes. To be a healthy place for these animals, everything has to be clean, and that means a lot of washing. So the shelter was using 1,600 gallons of very hot water, every day. The old oil-burning boilers that provided heat and kept the water hot ran all the time, even in the summer. The financial burden was high, at $55,000 for fuel in 2009 to 2010. It should be needless to say, the environmental impact was also high. In addition to hot water, there were other reasons to upgrade the center’s energy profile. Replacing the system for heating water would naturally have an effect on the buildings’ heating systems, and this had to be reviewed. There were, of course, other energy-related issues to consider. The start for almost any such program is to look at what support is available from the community and government. As the NHSPCA took its first small steps on lighting and heating controls in 2009, they discovered some of these avenues. They got help from the Community Loan Fund and the Office of Energy and Planning, and found that stimulus money was available, giving them access to loans and grants. The Jordan Institute, located in Concord, provided an energy audit covering the energy needs. With the report of its findings, the NHSPCA was able to prioritize its efforts. This became an effort with three main elements. A solar thermal system was installed by ReVision Energy of Exeter, NH. Forty Wagner C20 solar hot water plate collectors were placed on the Adoption Center’s two south-facing roofs. These provide heat for a custom-built 1,600-gallon solar hot water storage tank. The daily hot water needs of the center are met by this system. It also makes some heat for the center when it has a surplus. The switch to solar thermal for heating water made it easier to reduce oil use elsewhere. Froling Energy of Peterborough, NH, designed and installed a system of three wood pellet boilers to provide most of the heat. The system also included two silos to hold fuel. The wood pellets come from nearby sources in New Hampshire. Compared to bringing in oil from somewhere far away, this benefits both the environment and the local economy. Meanwhile, Building Energy Technologies of Bow, NH, undertook the insulation and air sealing. This was completed with such great care that business was not disrupted in any way. Since these systems have now all been in place for at least three years, it is possible to report on how they have done. NHSPCA Executive Director Lisa Dennison gave us a rundown on the successes and failures. We can make short work of the failures. There were none. The NHSPCA completed what she called a “great project.” It was one of those things that was simply a joy, from beginning to end. This included not only the people and companies involved, but the results. The first indication of success was the drop in the use of oil for heating water in the first summer the solar thermal system operated. Oil use dropped, quite literally, to zero. Instead of spending many thousands of dollars on oil, the 1,600 gallons of hot water used every day were heated by the sun. Pollutants from fossil fuel use disappeared with the fuel bills. Since then, the recently installed systems have continued to perform as intended. The money saved in fuel is quickly paying off the loans. When she was asked if there was anything she regretted about the energy upgrades the NHSPCA got, Dennison said, “Yes. I regret that we did not do this 10 years earlier.” --- TEN COMMANDMENTS FROM YOUR PET 1. My life is likely to last 10–12 years. Any separation from you is likely to be painful. 2. Give me time to understand what you want of me. 3. Place your trust in me. It is crucial for my well-being. 4. Don’t be angry with me for long and don’t lock me up as punishment. You have your work, your friends, your entertainment, but I have only you. 5. Talk to me. Even if I don’t understand your words, I do understand your voice when speaking to me. 6. Be aware that however you treat me, I will never forget it. 7. Before you hit me, before you strike me, remember that I could hurt you, too, and yet, I choose not to bite or scratch you. 8. Before you scold me for being lazy or uncooperative, ask yourself if something might be bothering me. Perhaps I’m not getting the right food, I have been in the sun too long, or my heart might be getting old or weak. 9. Please take care of me when I grow old. You, too, will grow old. 10. On the ultimate difficult journey, go with me please. Never say you can’t bear to watch. Don’t make me face this alone. Everything is easier for me if you are there, because I love you so. The aftermath of Tropical Storm Irene ravaged more than homes and businesses in Waterbury, Vt. It also destroyed another important part of this community. By N.R. Mallery Waterbury is among the most visited places in the Northeast. It’s home to the world famous Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream, solar-powered Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Cabot Cheese and Lake Champlain Chocolates outlets, many wineries and solar-powered Cold Cider Hollow, to name just a few. This is why this is such a destination point for visitors. In 2010, residents of Waterbury began planning their town’s first off-leash dog park. A site was selected, plans were drawn and volunteers came out to help. Then, on August 28, 2011, Tropical Storm Irene ravaged Vermont and many areas of New England, flooding nearly every stream and river in this area. One third of all of Vermont’s property damage occurred in the small town of Waterbury. All plans for the dog park were put on hold while the town fought to rebuild and recover from all of the devastation. Four years later, Waterbury is nearly rebuilt, after the help of the incredible effort and strength from the community itself and from all over the state. So, the time had come to address another important part of the Waterbury community: their dog community. So, a lot of planning and work had to be done to finally see the Waterbury Unleashed! Dog Park project through and again become a reality. Much planning had to be done, including re-siting the park’s location. After a lot of consideration and re-consideration, it was decided that it would be rebuilt at an area east of the Ice Center. The land chosen has the proper elevation above the river, is well removed yet accessible, and boasts a natural beauty that will be a very pleasant place for the dogs and owners alike. Support for the project came from all over the state, including nearby Yestermorrow Design and Build school of Warren, Vermont, which voluntarily chose to “Go to the Dogs.” A local timber-framing class of students and local volunteers built a frame on a sunshade shelter for the new dog park. The class project’s focus was to benefit an organization or community group. In this case, it just happened to be for a group of dogs, and their owners of course. “It’s made from Vermont pine, so the timber was milled locally. The pegs were hand-riven from ash that was also harvested right here in Vermont. And it’s all cut with hand tools, with very few exceptions,” said Josh Jackson, one of the Yestermorrow part-time instructors. Josh is a builder at TimberHomes, based in Vershire, Vt. The frame is 12 feet by 16 feet, all cut from local timber and held fast with theashe pegs. This timber frame workshop was an opportunity for a client (Waterbury Dog Park) to have some of the costs of construction offset by the volunteer labor of the students, as they practice on saws, chisels, planes, and boring machines. This project is just one of the community’s efforts towards the improvements to the park. Boy Scouts from Troop 701 helped out by clearing park trails. Financial support that was also needed to make this a reality came from all around the state. In August, 2015, it is finally time for the dogs of this community to be free to play and socialize at Waterbury Unleashed! Learn more at waterburyunleashed.com or 802-244-7174. There are many reasons a community builds an off-leash dog park. Here are a few of the benefits: - Providing a place for dogs and humans to socialize - Promoting responsible pet ownership and the enforcement of dog control laws - Providing a place for dogs to expend their energy safely, thus reducing barking and other behavior problems - Providing seniors and dog owners with disabilities an accessible place to exercise their companions - Promoting public health and safety by isolating a single place where dogs can run free. - Allowing for realistic enforcement of otherwise difficult-to-monitor ordinances, e.g., on licensing, vaccinations, etc. - Drawing tourists. People will travel to visit the dog park, bringing their dogs and dollars with them. - Building the community. The park will provide an opportunity to socialize with others who share the same interests. HUMANE SOCIETY OF CHITTENDEN COUNTY Saving $1,000/Yr from Energy Improvements By N. R. Mallery The Humane Society of Chittenden County, in South Burlington, VT shelters as many as 90 companion animals on any given day. Hot and cold days make a very real impact on the comfort of both the animals and the people in the building. With a generous $5,800 grant from Green Mountain Power and a cost share from Efficiency Vermont, in June of this year, HSCC is now saving an estimated 8,089 kWh, 106 cubic feet of natural gas per year, eliminating 10,600 pounds of carbon emissions each year. HSCC estimates a savings of nearly $1,000 per year in energy costs! Like many small non-profit organizations that rely exclusively on gifts and grants, HSCC is always looking for ways to save money. Improving the energy efficiency of its South Burlington shelter was an important investment to lower the organization’s overhead costs and keep its precious residents warm in the winter and cool in the summer. “We wanted to do the right thing for our animals, for our environment and for our operating budget. But having the upfront cash to do this work was prohibitive,” said Nancy Cathcart, President and CEO, Humane Society of Chittenden County. Each year Green Mountain Power selects a not-for-profit organization in Vermont to receive financial support for efficient services and equipment. Then, with support from Efficiency Vermont and GMP, HSCC contracted with Vermont Heating and Ventilating of Winooski to install four Catalyst Advanced controllers located on the rooftop. In the days following the retrofit, HSCC realized a 20% drop in power usage. The HSCC located at 142 Kindness Court, South Burlington, VT is a private and independent 501(c)3 not-for-profit organization. They serve both Chittenden and Grand Isle Counties fulfilling their mission to foster compassionate treatment of animals and to prevent animal suffering by sheltering homeless and unwanted pets, timely efforts to place each animal in a responsible and caring home, animal cruelty investigation, feral cat colony management (TNR); and humane education. HSCC receives no government funding, and is not affiliated with any national organization. They rely almost entirely upon donations from individuals, corporations and foundations to meet the annual $850,000 cost of running the shelter. To learn more visit chittendenhumane.org or call them at 802.862.0135. Biotech+Wastewater=Free Energy By George Harvey Microbial fuel cells, in which microbes make electricity, were first demonstrated as early as 1911. A problem with all new technologies, however, is that in order to have effect in the real world, they have to be practical solutions for recognized problems. Like early photovoltaic systems, the microbial fuel cells languished as scientific curiosities. In 1990s and 2000s, a number of developments not only showed promise, but spurred development. It became clear that there were processes that could use very small amounts of electricity to produce valuable chemicals. One of these, electrohydrogenesis could use a charge of one volt to produce hydrogen at an efficiency of 288%. The process has such a high level of efficiency because the electricity is not producing hydrogen directly, but is used to induce bacteria, which have access to other energy resources such as chemical energy, to make hydrogen. Electrochemical synthesis is a similar process, in which the hydrogen is reacted with carbon dioxide, and the output is methane. Methane is much more useful than hydrogen in some ways. It is easier to store. But more to the point, the methane produced through the process can be used as a high-quality substitute for natural gas with no alterations needed. A company in Boston, Cambrian Innovation, was started up to use these reactions to treat wastewater while simultaneously generating fuel. One product of their research and development is a small modular system called the EcoVolt Reactor. Another is a membrane bioreactor called the EcoVolt MBR. The EcoVolt systems are well suited to processing wastewater from the food and beverage industries. For example, brewing uses a tremendous amount of large quantities of waste that has to be treated. By using electrically active microbes to work on the waste, the whole process can be leveraged to convert the waste into much cleaner water that is easier to deal with than the unprocessed waste is, while producing high quality methane. The methane in a small system is sufficient to drive the system, cleaning water in the process. In a larger system, there is excess methane, which can be used to generate electricity to put on the power grid, or for other purposes. Clean water can be reused across a variety of brewery applications. An example of how the EcoVolt Reactor does in the field is provided by an installation at the Lagunitas Brewing Company brewery in Petaluma, California. The brewery was having 50,000 gallons of high-strength waste water trucked to a treatment plant each day, and more low-strength waste was sent to a local utility as sewage. This represented a drain on the systems and a large expense to the brewery. It also meant water was being used in large quantities while California suffered in a drought. The combination of the EcoVolt Reactor and the EcoVolt MBR meant that close to 99% of the waste material in the water was removed, allowing 80,000 gallons of water to be recycled each day, eliminating 1,600 of carbon emissions each year, and reducing the brewery’s costs. Cambrian Innovation’s website is cambrianinnovation.com. Google recently announced that it will build a new data center at the Widows Creek Power Plant in Jackson County, Alabama. Widows Creek is a coal-burning plant belonging to the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). It recently shut down seven of its eight units because they emit excessive nitrogen oxide. Six of these are over sixty years old and it would be worth upgrading them to eliminate pollution. The last unit running, which is approaching the age of forty, is scheduled to be shut down in October. Though we have not heard anything about the old buildings, it is likely that they will be torn completely down. They are old, and they were not built with the expectation that they would possibly outlast the generators and boilers in them. Indeed, they were put up in an age when waste was seen as a virtue, and so building a structure that might outlast its original use was not considered practical. One noteworthy structure on the property is a smoke stack 1001 feet tall, one of the tallest on Earth. Tall chimneys of this type kill birds and can be navigational hazards to aircraft, so it is best torn down. Google will use 360 acres of the plant’s property to accommodate its data center. One valuable feature of the land is that it has existing power transmission infrastructure, and this will continue to be used! The data center will use a lot of electricity, about as much as a small town, and so those transmission lines will be used to bring power in. Since transmission lines are very expensive to build, this particular site was especially attractive to Google. Google has indicated that the data center will be supplied with power from renewable sources. It will be at least partly supplied by renewable plants elsewhere in the area of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Given the area, which is the northeast corner of Alabama, it is most likely that the power will come from solar farms. As yet, however, we have not heard specifics. Google has historically been interested in supplying some of its own power from its own sites, especially from large rooftop solar arrays. The project brings to mind a lot of other solar farms and parks that have been put up of late. Solar power is often installed on otherwise useless lands, such as the brownfield sites that remain when landfills are closed. Other sites used for solar in the Northeast include land along highways. But the old power plants, whether coal, natural gas, or nuclear, become often brownfield sites when they close. Coal-burning plants are particularly difficult to clean up, because they often have huge amounts of fly-ash that can be a massive environmental hazard. In fact the Widows Creek plant itself had a fly-ash spill that polluted a stream and the river it flowed into. Try as we might, it is hard to regret the passing of this plant into history. Widows Creek power plant. Photo by the Tennessee Valley Authority. This image is in the public domain as a work of the US federal government. An Energy Efficiency Resource Standard for NH By Kate Epsen There is a new development afoot that could open up an opportunity to achieve greater energy efficiency (EE) in NH and thereby dramatically increase demand for EE products and services. NH has long studied the possibility of having an Energy Efficiency Resource Standard (EERS), but has continually lacked the political will to enact one. However, in May, 2015, the New Hampshire Public Utilities Commission opened up a critical docket that would implement an EERS. Now is the time to act. The New Hampshire Sustainable Energy Association has intervened in this process. In order to move the process in a positive direction and achieve a result that creates an EERS with strong goals and realistic funding, we need to hear from New Hampshire residents, and for you to bring your technical resources that can overcome any opposition and inertia. We need you to get involved and help support this effort. Email Kate Epsen today, at email@example.com. Kate Epsen is the Executive Director of the NH CleanTech Council and NHSEA (New Hampshire Sustainable Energy Association) Lower hot water cost, lower carbon footprint, even raise the value of your home. Showering never felt so good! Accelera® 300 Heat Pump Water Heater This is the only true heat pump water heater available in the U.S. & the largest seller in Europe for over 35 years Stiebel Eltron Solar Hot Water Superior German engineering & 40 years of experience with solar thermal drives us to manufacture and supply only the best $750 Rebate Qualifying installs 0% 7-year Loans Complete details at www.StiebelEltron.us/MassSave.html For rebates & credits in Vt. Complete details at www.efficiencyvermont.com 800.582.8423 www.StiebelEltron.us 17 West St. \| West Hatfield, MA 01088 Simply the Best Rutland Forum to Explore Next Steps for Vermont’s Climate Change Economy From The Vermont Council on Rural Development Area businesses and nonprofits are increasingly involved with climate change, both the challenges and the opportunities. Their creative solutions are becoming a growing part of our state’s economy. Those who have opinions are asked to express them. What are your experiences? Do you have ideas that can help nurture this sector in Vermont? Join Rutland Mayor Chris Louras and local business leaders for a forum; “What’s Next for Vermont’s Climate Change Economy?” The Vermont Council on Rural Development (VCRD) is producing the discussion, which will be held at Rutland’s Paramount Theater on Wednesday, August 26, from 7:00 pm to 9:00 pm. The forum is the next step for public input to the Vermont Climate Change Economy Council. This group, which formed following a statewide summit in February, is developing a practical plan to reduce carbon emissions and stimulate green economic development in Vermont. The panelists include Joe Fusco, Vice President of Casella Waste Systems, Betsy Ide, Energy Innovation Center at Green Mountain Power, and Mark Foley, President of Foley Services. The summit focused on economic development in a time of climate change, including transportation, education, investment strategies, downtown redevelopment, tourism, and efficiency. The report, which provides excellent background material for the forum, is online at bit.ly/VT-rural-2015-report. Everyone is encouraged to attend, listen, and share ideas. More information about the forum and the council can be found through VCRD’s website at vtural.org or call Jenna at 802-225-6091. Only two other forums are planned. One in Burlington on September 17 and one in Brattleboro on October 6. The Vermont Council on Rural Development is a non-profit organization charged by the federal farm bill to act as a neutral convener at both the local and policy level supporting the progress of Vermont communities. VCRD will promote the platform of action that comes from the deliberations of summit participants. Arctic tundra is already changing from a warming climate, causing methane emissions to rise, speeding more climate change. U.S. Fish and Wildlife photo. NEW CLIMATE CHANGE TOOLS EPA Launches New Greenhouse Gas Inventory Tools for Local and Tribal Governments The Environmental Protection Agency has announced that it has launched two free, interactive spreadsheet tools to help local governments and tribes across the United States evaluate their greenhouse gas emissions. - Local Greenhouse Gas Inventory Tool at http://bit.ly/GHG-local. - Tribal Greenhouse Gas Inventory Tool at http://bit.ly/GHG-tribal. Both tools calculate greenhouse gas emissions for many sectors, including residential, commercial, transportation, and waste and water management. Each tool consists of two separate parts: one for community-wide inventories, the other for inventories of local or tribal government operations only. These tools were designed to make calculating emissions flexible and easy: they are programmed with default data, or the user may enter community-specific information. CLIMATE REFUGEES THE BEST PLACES TO LIVE IF GLOBAL WARMING GETS THE BEST OF US By Roddy Scheer and Doug Moss Some consider Seattle and the rest of the Pacific Northwest to be a potential refuge for Americans looking to escape drought-stricken southern states. Credit: Howard Ignatius, FlickrCC If temperatures around the globe continue to rise in the face of human-induced climate change as climatologists expect, some of the world’s most populous areas could become uninhabitable. Rising sea levels will flood out coastal areas, while increasing drought will make survival in already arid areas difficult at best. While we may have at least a few decades of runway to prepare ourselves for the worst, planners might want to think carefully about where to put down roots now. According to the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index, based on 34 measures and ranks 175 countries based on vulnerability and readiness to adapt to climate change, Scandinavian countries—Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark—just might be the safest spot in the carbon-compromised world of the future. ND-GAIN researchers stress that residents of just about any developed country (including the U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and most of Europe) will likely be fine stateside, but given the fact that better-heeled governments are already gearing up to adapt to warmer temperatures, more intense storms, rising sea levels and other expected changes. On the flip side, the worst places to be may be mid-latitude developing countries, including most of Africa and South Asia. The countries ND-GAIN predicts will be hardest hit by climate change include Chad, Eritrea, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Niger, Haiti, Afghanistan and Guinea Bissau. Some consider Seattle and the rest of the Pacific Northwest to be a potential refuge for Americans looking to escape drought-stricken southern states. Americans looking for the best place to live domestically as the world warms should also look north. Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, both blessed with plenty of water and plenty of terrain well above sea level, are generally acknowledged to be the best parts of the country to be in under a new climate regime. In fact, University of Washington atmospheric science professor Cliff Mass believes the Pacific Northwest will be “a potential climate refuge” in coming decades. He writes in his popular weather blog that Washington State could soon become the nation’s premiere wine production region as California’s vineyards continue to be slammed by years and years of drought. Meanwhile, UCLA environmental economics professor, Matthew Kahn, says that northern fast-growing cities like Minneapolis, Milwaukee and Detroit will become more and more attractive as their counterparts to the south (Miami, Phoenix, Los Angeles, San Diego) take the brunt of global warming’s fury. In his 2010 book, Climatopolis, Kahn predicts that Detroit will be one of the nation’s most desirable cities by 2100. Other climate change winners could include Vermont, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Colorado. Not everyone agrees that Detroit will be the golden age of our future world. Author Giles Slade contends in his 2013 book, American Exodus, that we all may be heading for northern Canada when global warming’s fury really starts to kick in. “The safest places will be significant communities in the north that are not isolated, that have abundant water, that have the possibility of agricultural self-sufficiency, that have little immediate risk of forest fires, that are well elevated, and that can build on solid rock,” he writes. “Our northern lands are our Noah’s ark—a vital refuge against the moment of mankind’s greatest need.” Contacts: Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index (ND-GAIN), www.gain.org; Cliff Mass Weather Blog, cliffmass.blogspot.com. EarthTalk® is produced by Doug Moss and Roddy Scheer and is a registered trademark of Earth Action Network Inc. www.earthtalk.org. firstname.lastname@example.org. HARNESS THE SUN AMERICA’S QUEST FOR A SOLAR-POWERED FUTURE By Philip Warburg, Beacon Press, Hardcover $27.95. Book review by N.R. Mallery After Philip Warburg’s Harvest the Wind: America’s Journey to Jobs, Energy Independence, and Climate Stability was published in 2013, he went on to take an even deeper look at a renewable energy technology. His latest work, due out this September, is Harness the Sun: America’s Quest for a Solar-Powered Future. Like his earlier book, it displays both depth and breadth of knowledge and posits an optimistic view of our potentials. Warburg’s credentials on energy go beyond the academic. His home is powered by solar photovoltaic (PV) panels. Given this, it is hardly surprising that his research is as practical as it is. Nor is it a surprise that it is so encouraging. The United States, he points out, is not the nation with the greatest amount of solar power capacity installed. Solar power, however, is growing rapidly, both here and abroad. Describing his research into the current situation for solar, he takes us around the country, examining the ways that solar power has been adopted by diverse groups, from high school students to business leaders, from professors to politicians, solar has wide appeal. One of the things about solar PVs that make them appealing is that they are fundamentally democratic. They can be owned by nearly anyone, providing a measure of independence that had never previously been contemplated. The democratic aspect of solar power is not universally liked, as it puts economic pressure on predominantly monopolistic utilities, requiring them to invest not only in their infrastructure but their business plans. People who oppose extensive development of solar power sometimes complain about the amount of land it requires, Warburg addresses this. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory provided the information that getting all our power from solar power would require development of about 0.6% of our land. Of course, that does not have to be land we value for some other purpose. It can be on rooftops, parking lots, land that is hard to use because it has been destroyed in one way or another. The numbers relating to what can be done with solar PVs on damaged and polluted land are almost astonishing. The United States Environmental Protection Agency did a survey of brownfield sites in our country. Those they identified as potentially useful for solar power would be sufficient to produce about 5,500 gigawatts. Warburg says that would be sufficient to power 800 million households, about seven times the number we have. And that is just the land we would have problems cleaning up for some other use. The book also provides information on the solar potential of the individual states. Even such states as Maine, Minnesota, and Washington, with poor solar exposure in winter, have abilities to meet their needs several times over. Warburg goes into the manufacture of solar PVs in some depth, providing us with a fascinating story. He discusses the technologies used in manufacturing solar, in which heliostats focus the sun’s light to make it brighter or hotter. Then, having dealt with solar manufacturing, Warburg goes through the lifetime of solar systems, up to the point when the panels need to be dismantled and recycled. He compares solar systems with those powered by fossil fuels and nuclear power. He says, “[A] power plant that relies on a carbon based fuel like coal gas or oil creates an energy deficit from the moment its fuels are extracted to the very end of its good life. “Every kilowatt-hour of power is dependent on the burning of a polluting climate-changing nonrenewable energy source.” The disadvantages of fossil fuels are clear. Coal, natural gas, and nuclear are all found wanting, as none is economical in the long run, and all have potentially huge environmental problems. Warburg addresses the politics of solar power, especially as it affects how we develop as a society, bringing energy independence to local people, and with distributed resources providing security and efficiency. He examines the competition and trade wars between international solar industries. And he talks in some detail about the potential for solar power in the future. This is one of the most interesting and hopeful topics of the book. We clearly have the technologies we need to combat climate change and address pollution while achieving energy independence and security. Harness the Sun is an exciting book. I highly recommend it. It will be available on September 8. Philip Warburg. Courtesy photo State of the World 2015: CONFRONTING HIDDEN THREATS TO SUSTAINABILITY By The Worldwatch Institute, Island Press, 140 pages, $19.99 Review by Tammy Reiss This year’s publication by the WorldWatch Institute, State of the World 2015: Confronting Hidden Threats to Sustainability is well worth reading. Fourteen authors of the institute compiled the latest research and case study data, along with their professional and personal perspectives on subjects not widely covered elsewhere. Among its articles are “Energy, Credit, and the End of Growth;” “Emerging Diseases from Animals;” and “Migration as a Climate Adaptation Strategy.” This volume moves the reader to rethink the status quo. One of the most obvious threats to sustainability is from energy as a driving force for our current economy, based on an incessant growth model and a flawed economic calculation that considers neither the environment nor sustainability. Sobering information is discussed, as this quote shows: Researchers estimate that detecting 85% of the viral diversity in mammals would cost around $1.4 billion or $140 million per year over 10 years. This is a small fraction of the cost of an emerging disease event (the 2003 SARS outbreak, for example, cost the global economy an estimated $50 billion-plus). The volume discusses findings by scholars and scientists who study the economy, the Earth, and the interactions between them, and draws profoundly troubling conclusions. It also brings to light a major sustainability threat from policy-makers and the voters who elect them. Officials at all levels of government have been responsible for picking technologies and infrastructure that quickly become outdated, thus hampering true sustainability. Unfortunately, the chapter dealing with this provides no example, though one comes easily to mind. We are building out gas infrastructure, on both federal and local levels, to accommodate expansion and gas’s use, despite the fact that it is just another dirty fossil fuel that will eventually run out. Our nation is switching coal-fired power plants, the trucking industry and entire communities over to natural gas, which ultimately is neither efficient nor sustainable, instead of utilizing sources of renewable energy. This volume does not give all of the answers about why kind is still acting to destroy our planet’s biodiversity for future generations, despite all of our governance, environmental impact assessments, and generally sound regulatory systems. Nevertheless, it will have you asking yourself, as the world passes more and more tipping points, how much longer our nation’s people will keep turning blind eyes to the need to have a sustainable society. Tom Prugh, one of the project directors for Confronting Hidden Threats to Sustainability, says, “It is time for Homo sapiens to live up to its somewhat presumptuous Latin name, and grow up.” Tammy Reiss is a conservationist and focuses her attention on the local region of central New York, where she lives. She teaches and promotes energy efficiencies and independence through renewables in the Marcellus Shale regions of NY State. Rising Seas Cont’d from p.3 be prevented by holding temperature rises to 2° C. The feedback loop may already be underway, and it would cause seas to rise by a number of meters over the coming decades. Specifically, the paper says, “If the oceans continue to accumulate heat and increase melting of marine-terminating ice shelves of Antarctica and Greenland, a point will be reached at which it is impossible to avoid large scale ice sheet disintegration with sea level rise of at least several meters.” We might pause here and consider what a rise of several meters would look like. Three meters is about ten feet. That might not sound like much, but it would inundate many major cities around the world. In places which are projected to be much worse, it would cause the high water marks to be meters above that. In a place like New York or Boston, this could make maintaining the subway infrastructure untenable. It would make homes all along nearly all coasts of the world uninhabitable, and with them, destroy highways, chemical plants, nuclear power plants, and so on. Of course, if we fail to limit greenhouse gas emissions and the temperature rises by 3° C or more, things will be much worse. Scientists, looking at the promises countries make as they plan for COP 21, say they expect the limited actions described will not be enough to prevent a 3° C rise. We must do better, and that is why Hansen and is colleagues are publishing their paper for all to see, as they are. DEEP ENERGY RETROFIT INDOOR AIR QUALITY By Michael Goetinck If you’ve ever been in a room where the air felt “too close” or you’ve ever experienced the need to step outside for a breath of fresh air you have an intuitive understanding of the importance of indoor air quality. Indoor air quality is affected by many things. Building assemblies, components, items in the home, occupants and their behaviors, and the quality of the air outside the home all play a role. Indoor air quality is a function of air infiltration and ventilation. Sometimes these air exchanges happen intentionally and sometimes not. In an efficient home ventilation has to be intentional since there has been a great deal of attention paid to reducing air infiltration. Therein lies the apparent irony: you’ve spent a great deal of resources (time, money, and thought) on reducing the number of air changes per hour but now you have to add some back into the mix. The difference between unintentional and intentional ventilation is that the first method leaves it to chance and makes the building less efficient, whereas the second is by design and makes the building more efficient. One may question the need for mechanical ventilation since it’s hard to know how necessary it really is without actually testing the air quality. A friend of mine used to test indoor air quality for large commercial buildings and he told me that you can’t just test air to see if it’s healthful or not. You have to test for specific things. Since there are so many substances that can adversely affect the quality of the air, testing for all of them, and then monitoring on an ongoing basis isn’t something that most homeowners are going to undertake. In the world of sports it has been said that the best defense is a good offense and the same is true in the world of residential air quality; mechanical ventilation is part of a good offense. Constantly exchanging indoor and outdoor air prevents moisture and pollutants from concentrating in the home thereby reducing the risk of creating an environment that is detrimental to the building and its occupants. I’ve written about moisture mitigation in previous articles and the need to manage it at the source. Cooking and cleaning (house, and personal) are two significant sources of moisture resulting in day-to-day living in a home and it’s best to get the moisture generated by these activities out of the house as quickly as possible. This can be accomplished with exhaust fans or heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) with exhaust boosts. There are some whole-house systems that can eliminate the need for site specific exhaust. Most non-moisture related contaminants from people, pets, and items normally found in people’s homes can be prevented from reaching harmful concentrations by installing a HRV in a heating climate or an Energy Recovery Ventilator (ERV) in a cooling climate to exchange indoor and outdoor air. The amount of air being exchanged can be set on most units and it’s a good idea to change the settings as the use of the space changes. For instance, the setting should be adjusted if the number of people in the home changes. If you are building a new home or doing a “deep-energy retro-fit”, mechanical ventilation needs to be part of the plan. If you want to make an existing home more efficient, I recommend using a blower door to calculate the number of air changes per hour the building currently experiences and use that information to determine at what point in the process you need to install mechanical ventilation. This series will continue in Green Energy Times, where the author will cover other topics that can help achieve the deep energy measures which help buildings’ energy performance, and so can benefit us all. Michael Goetinck is the owner of Snowdog Construction, Ltd. in Norwich, VT. This series will continue in Green Energy Times, where the author will cover other topics that can help achieve the deep energy measures which help buildings’ energy performance, and so can benefit us all. Touring a Foam-Free Passive House Project in Wayland, MA By Stephen Dotson On August 7, the Northeast Sustainable Energy Association (NESEA) organized a BuildingEnergy Pro Tour of a 2,500-square-foot home that will be the first certified passive house in Wayland, MA. BuildingEnergy Pro Tours are a series of high-performance homes all over the Northeast led by members of the project teams behind them, concluding with a reception and workshop or Q&A session. Pro Tours are an opportunity for sustainable building professionals to get to see projects in progress with their own eyes, share knowledge, and learn from colleagues. This particular Pro Tour was led by NESEA members and tour hosts Nick Falkoff and Mike Dutra from Auburndale Builders; Michael Hindle, the owner of Certified Passive House Consultants (CPHC); Mike Dyer, the PHUS+ rater for the project; and Donald Grose, the project designer. The project team welcomed a group of 81 to peek inside the yet-unfinished home and learn about its energy modeling, construction process, siting, and much more. Prior to this project, the preexisting house was deconstructed piece by piece and the materials donated to a local nonprofit for reuse. Once cleared, the lot needed to be oriented to minimize wetlands impact and a buffer zone required by code. This added complexity to a project that already defied many expectations of what was possible with passive house design. The home will be certified through PHUS to meet the passive standards, which have recently become more climate-specific. On its way to meeting those standards, the project team went to lengths to ensure that the insulation of the house was an entirely foam-free enclosure, due to concerns of the greenhouse-gas impact of foam products. In terms of generation, the new home will eventually be powered by a photovoltaic array on an adjacent lot and generate more energy than it uses. Besides its passive house credentials, one of the most important aspects for the client was that the house be designed to be resilient and remain accessible for the clients as they age in place. In addition to the energy and carbon footprint, the rainwater from the house will be harvested and used for irrigation via a large cistern on the property. One notable challenge was handling the potential for radon. How does one ensure that the tightness of a passive house isn’t keeping in this harmful gas? This required special attention to the foundation, thermal bridging, and envelope, combined with a unique sump-pump solution to clear the home of any potential radon. Perhaps one of the more interesting features of the project was the inclusion of a door for pets that met passive house standards! The door was custom-built by Auburndale’s own Mike Dutra and enables entry and exit by the client’s cats without loss of heat. The tour concluded with a reception and a presentation entitled “Going Foam-Free in Passive Construction” by Michael Hindle, who is also president of the Passive House Alliance-US. NESEA’s Program and Developer Director, Miriam Aylward, organized the event and reflected afterwards: “This was our first ever sold-out Pro Tour, which speaks to the caliber of the project … everything from the foam-free enclosure, to the passive house cat door and innovative radon detection system generated lively discussion and authentic learning.” Due to demand, the hosts of this tour have agreed to run a second Pro Tour on Friday, November 6, 2015. Whether you have been to the tour already, or if you were not able to snag a spot on this one, it will be exciting to see this great project three months further along. To register for the November 6 Pro Tour, visit www.nesea.org/11-06-15. Also, in the early fall of 2015, NESEA will be sending out a request for proposal (RFP) for projects to include on Pro Tours in 2016. To make sure you get the RFP, join NESEA! Hosting a Pro Tour is a NESEA member benefit. Tallest Passive House in the World by George Harvey Cornell Tech, part of Cornell University, is a new applied-sciences campus in New York City, on Roosevelt Island. The first classes started in 2013 at temporary quarters in a building Google owns on Eighth Avenue. Construction began on Roosevelt Island late the same year. The campus will be very environmentally friendly. A lot of green space is designed in, and the buildings are all being designed and constructed to the highest standards. Consideration for carbon emissions has been particularly painstaking. The university is working with the Hudson Companies and the Related Companies to develop the campus’ dormitory, which is 250 feet tall and will house 520 people, including students, faculty, and staff. It is a noteworthy structure for many reasons, two of which are of particular interest. One is that it will be the first high-rise residential building ever to meet Passive House standards. The other is that it will be the tallest Passive House building in the world. The building’s design is being undertaken by Handle Architects. One of the toughest problems in building to the Passive House standard is dealing with air infiltration and ventilation. Every tiny crack has to be sealed to prevent unneeded cold air from entering the building and wasting energy. At the same time, ventilation has to be maintained for the health of the occupants, and preservation of the contents of the building. The design team specified a special heat-retaining ventilation system that was not covered yet in the building codes of New York City, so special permission had to be obtained for it to be installed. Standard construction for the Passive House standard requires a doubled outer wall construction. To meet that standard, the amount of glass was significantly reduced. Fully glazed walls might have been nice because of the rather grand views the building would have, but they were not included because of costs. The designers opted for somewhat smaller windows instead. The Passive House standard brings a building to the point that ordinary human activities provide enough heat for comfort, nearly all the time. The occupants’ body heat, cooking, and electrical equipment such as computers, and solar gain are all heat sources. A Passive House building should have backup heat, but it should not be needed much at all. In the case of the dormitory, the building makes it possible to reduce energy consumption by 70%. Remarkably, this is accomplished by a 5% increase in the cost of construction. Since the cost is $115 million, this is not an insignificant figure. Nevertheless, with such a large reduction in heat consumption, the cost increase should be recovered rather quickly, and will be repaid many times over in the expected lifetime of the building. The elimination of 682 tons of carbon dioxide each year is just another benefit. Because it is so visible, the Cornell Tech dormitory is expected to influence building design elsewhere. It will be an object of study for current architects and builders. It will also be an object of inspiration for the students who live there. Garbage Patches in our oceans cont’d from p.18 But even large birds get their intestines blocked by larger bits of plastic. A study released in early July says that seabird populations have declined by over 70% in the last 60 years. Overfishing is partly to blame. Much of the decline is due to climate change. Some is the result of oil pollution and releases of chemical poisons. Plastic waste and other debris in the Garbage Patches have been major contributors to avian mortality. We should give thought to where all the toxic junk in the gyres comes from. Surely some of it comes from ships and offshore rigs of one type or another. An appreciable part of it comes from litter at beaches and in rivers. Some is washed down sewers, after it was disposed of improperly. There are about eight million tons dumped in the sea each year. Unfortunately, since nearly all plastics decompose poorly, when a bird or fish dies, the plastic in it is likely to get released into the environment, to kill again. There are three things we really need to do to stop this. One is to stop using plastics as much as possible. The second is to dispose of them properly or recycle them. The third is to continue use of nonbiodegradable plastics when necessary. Achieving these goals might be a lot easier if the environmental costs of the plastics we use were included in the original price. Many people would object to such a tax. But developing problems in the environment constitute a hidden tax imposed on all of us by the manufacturers, who disclaim any responsibility for damages done by the products they make. NH REPA Benefits for Building Efficiency By GET staff Just about anyone interested in buying, building, or retrofitting a building in New Hampshire, whether as a customer or as a professional, might benefit from knowing about the New Hampshire Residential Energy Performance Association (REPA). REPA's membership is made up of individual certified energy professionals who work in the field of building efficiency in New Hampshire. REPA promotes building-energy best practices in New Hampshire. Part of its work is making the best information available to its members, who are experts in the field. Members begin as associates, and after a year they may move to full membership by demonstrating skill and knowledge. REPA provides informational services, including classes, to keep all members up to date with best practices. This is important in a rapidly-changing field. REPA provides the people of New Hampshire the service of listing those experts who are known to be qualified. An online search engine can help home owners find energy experts by location and skill set, making it easier for people to connect with the best person for a job. REPA also is a source of general information on building energy topics. REPA's website is www.repa-nh.org. A PERMACULTURE HARVEST By Josh Trought In the Northeast, with our short growing season, the practice of developing a resilient food system depends on preserving the harvest through the winter months. Preservation provides a mechanism to extend food availability beyond fresh picked. A goal of food preservation is to embody the least amount of energy in the process while maximizing the flavor and nutritive qualities. The process allows the wealth accumulated in fresh food to be stored until the next harvest. There are multiple options, recipes, and methodologies for preserving the harvest that have been utilized by humanity throughout history. Food products must be preserved with care. Improper storage can result in spoilage, and the subsequent loss of time and energy invested. Undetected spoilage can also result in food contamination, which can be a serious health hazard. In particular, meat and canned low-acid foods such as tomatoes, beans, and cucumbers should be processed and stored with care to avoid contamination issues. Freezing is a relatively new option to preserve food. The post-World War II industrial era brought freezer storage capacity to the general population of the United States. Freezers saved the time and effort of canning and other means of preservation. Frozen food was relatively easy to process and prepare, and popularized in our generation by TV dinners and microwaved convenience foods. Aisles in groceries were soon lined with freezers catering to these profitably packaged products. Freezers consume large amounts of energy to maintain this luxury. The majority of homes and stores in America rely on fossil fuels and nuclear energy to maintain these frozen spaces. Freezer trucks are required to transport the subzero cargo across the United States. This fragile, insecure network is dependent on continuous inputs of energy to deliver caloric value to the people. For all the energetic consumption, the results obtained from this preservation option are also dubious. While the initial processing may be quick and simple, with the exception of ice cream, the quality of the food is always diminished by the process. Colors fade and textures become limp and soggy as a result of freezing. No food product is as nutritious or flavorful as it once was before being frozen. Freezer failures can result in catastrophic food losses. The mechanization of this food preservation method means that our food security depends on our capacity to repair and maintain this technology. Fortunately there are many traditional food-preservation techniques that have enabled humans to store their harvests at least until the next growing season. These include smoking, canning, fermenting, dehydration, root cellaring, pickling, and processing of dairy and meat products. Canning requires an initial investment in containers and the energy of preparation but has provided reliable food for generations. In addition to fermenting beverages, humans can derive nutrition from fermenting cabbage by creating sauerkraut. Infrastructures such as smokehouses, icehouses, and root cellars are all traditional to our region, and all provide reliable, flavorful, and low-tech alternatives to dependence on the freezer process. One of our favorite alternatives at D Acres is the solar heat dehydrator. The unit consists of a solar heat-collecting mini-greenhouse and racks of plastic screened trays which allow the hot air to circulate up through the unit. There is also a wood firebox below the screens in case cool weather necessitates a smoldering fire to be maintained. There is an entire chapter dedicated to food preservation in The Community-Scale Permaculture Farm published by Chelsea Green, based on practices at our farm in Dorchester, New Hampshire. D Acres is hosting a three-day Nose to Tail Porcine Festival this November 6th, where we will prepare traditional dry-cure and smoke recipes. Contact www.dacres.org for more information. Josh Trought is the founder of D Acres farm in Dorchester, NH, and the author of The Community-Scale Permaculture Farm that was reviewed in the June 2015 issue of Green Energy Times. You can also read the review at http://bit.ly/1T1XpPK. EMERGING FRONTIERS IN BIOENERGY FULL SUN COMPANY Processing the Seeds of Local Food System Change By Austin Robert Davis In early 2014 Full Sun Company, a startup business, was founded by Netaka White and John McManus. Fueled by an interest in helping family farms grow, Full Sun began processing sunflower and non-GMO canola oil crops into specialty food-grade oil and high-protein meal for the farmers. Sunflower and canola oil distribution picked up quickly through local CSAs, farm stores, specialty food shops, health and wellness centers, and direct sales to chefs in the Northeast. Netaka White previously served as the Vermont Bioenergy Initiative’s (VBI) program director, which directly helped to develop the business model to nurture farm partnerships, both as growers and recipients of oilseed meal – the other product that’s generated from making the oil. At Full Sun oilsseeds are pressed with large machinery, producing oil and a granular meal. The team at Full Sun Company learned a lot about seed storage and oil pressing from the early VBI grantees, such as John Williamson of State Line Farm, and Roger Rainville of Borderview Farm. The first of the two products, the seed meal, has been used as fuel for pellet stoves, or in the case with Full Sun, sold as fertilizer for crops, or nutritional meal for livestock. At full operation, Full Sun can pump out one ton of meal per day – necessary to meet the growing demand of such customers as The Intervale in Burlington, Vermont and several local pig, poultry, dairy, and beef producers. The second product, the oil, is used as culinary oil for cooking. To maintain quality standards for their products, Full Sun Company diverts any of the oil that does not meet their standards to Vermont Bioenergy Initiative biofuel producers to undergo further processing and become biofuel. Approximately 250 to 300 gallons of off-spec oil for biodiesel has been produced since February 2014. In October 2014, Full Sun Company halted operations to make room for growth to meet the increased demand for their products and scale up to align with Vermont’s accelerating agricultural economy. White and McManus acquired the former Vermont Soap building in Middlebury, Vermont in order to build a full-scale mill and achieve their anticipated greater capacity. Over the course of one of the coldest winters in recent history, the Full Sun team made the renovations and adjustments needed to repurpose the building into the first non-GMO-verified oil mill in New England. By March of 2015 Full Sun Company had pressed sunflower and canola seeds to make their first batch of specialty oils. The new operation can yield 130 gallons of oil per day – about 2600 gallons per month! White notes, “David and I are in this with the interest of having a transformative effect on local agriculture and food systems, sharing the percentage of innovation on production.” As a sign of progress, the operation is certified GMO-free, and the next steps are being taken towards becoming certified organic. As it grows, Full Sun would like to buy from local grower-suppliers and work with local businesses to package and label feed that is to be distributed to farmers of varying sizes, from backyard chicken growers to larger operations. Collaborating with Vermont breweries and distilleries is also planned. Full Sun is working with a local distillery to put together a package for farmers so they have markets for profitable grain crops throughout four years of rotation (rye, wheat, sunflowers, etc.) and can offer farmers better than the indexed prices for these locally grown grains and oilseeds. Learn more about Full Sun Company at www.fullsuncompany.com. Austin Robert Davis is an intern with the Vermont Bioenergy Initiative, a program of the Vermont Sustainable Jobs Fund. Learn more at www.VermontBioenergy.com. Top left: Brandon VT Canola Field. Non-GMO canola field in full bloom in Brandon, VT. Photo: Full Sun Company. Above: Full Sun Company employee, Zach Hartlyn, moves an off-spec oil barrel for biodiesel production. Photo courtesy of Full Sun Company Many thanks to our Sponsor FULL SUN COMPANY elmoreroots.com 802.888.3305 Elmore Roots Nursery “If it grows in elmore, it will grow where you are” Vermonters have a local organic source for fruit trees and berry plants Garden Product Review Cate’s Gardens – Pruning Shears By N. R. Mallery Two pruning shears came in from Cate’s Garden for review. They are both of the highest quality and are available together on Amazon Prime for $61.94. I LOVE these pruning shears!! Oh my goodness – they’re just the best I have ever held in my hands!! They are actually fun to use. I make others try them because I want everyone to see how great they are – and find myself cutting off branches everywhere! The ratchet pruners really surprised me, both because of how incredibly different its action is and how incredibly well it works. The ratchet pruners cut through really thick branches – ones I never would have attempted with pruning shears. There is even an oil well at the end of the ratchet pruners to lubricate the blades. I’m looking forward to September (the next month with the “R” in it as a pruning month) to get some really good pruning done for the end of this season. Both of these pruning shears are probably the last ones I will ever need to buy! They’re about perfect. I definitely recommend them to any gardener and homeowner. Bypass Pruning Shears – Cate’s Garden 8” Premium Hand Pruner – The list price is $42.99, but these shears can be purchased on Amazon Prime for $28.99. These shears are forged with SKS Japanese cutlery high-carbon steel blades for heavy-duty capability and a chrome plating for rust resistance. According to Cate’s Garden, they are manufactured with the highest quality techniques for a sharp, clean, and precise edge, and they are manually tested and oiled. The design is ergonomic for comfortable operation, with a specially designed 45-degree angled blade head to allow pruning at awkward angles and difficult-to-reach places while reducing wrist fatigue. The lightweight aluminum handles have a shape that feels sculpted for comfortable use and anti-slip thermoplastic-padded shock absorbers for continued comfort over the long haul. These shears have a 3/4-inch cutting capacity. They are built to be tools we would use day in and day out for flower and vegetable pruning and maintenance. A sap groove on the lower blade reduces gumming and is easy to clean. High-quality heat-treated tensile wire allows spring-back action. They have an easy-to-operate snap-forged aluminum snap lock for storage. These are great light shears and are perfect for pruning and trimming flowering plants. They are easy to hold and use, and they are very handy. But they are also very sharp and cut surprisingly easily. Discovering that they did equally well cutting thick stems and the thinnest shoots came as a pleasant surprise. Another pleasant surprise was how easy they are to use without reducing fatigue. The safety catch slides into whichever position I want very easily. Easy Action Ratchet Pruners – Cate’s Garden 8” Easy Action Anvil-type Pruners – The list price is $48.99, but these shears can be purchased on Amazon Prime for $32.95. These pruners have three-phase, lever-assisted cutting power. To operate them, simply cut into a tree limb, press once, release, press twice for double the power, release, and press down a third time for five times the power. The ratcheting mechanism latches onto the limb, increasing the power with each step and slicing through a branch with ease. The shears are also forged with SKS Japanese cutlery high-carbon steel blades for heavy-duty durability. They are ground on both sides to maintain symmetry and to keep the cut straight, and are coated with nonstick Teflon® to resist sap and gumming up of the blade. They have the same sharp, clean, and precise edge as the bypass shears and are also manually tested and oiled. The sculpted aluminum frame also has an antislip thermoplastic-padded shock absorber on the top handle for comfort over long cuts. There is a finger guide and protective loop on the bottom handle. These are anvil-type ratchet shears with a 7/8-inch cutting capacity for all-purpose garden and tree pruning. A bottom serrated edge grips branches better while cutting. The shears have a high-quality spring-back action, an easy-to-operate thumb lock, and built-in oil well for blade maintenance. Like the bypass pruning shears, these are sharp and strong, with a comfortable fit for the hand. They also have a self-oiling system. For those who have never used ratchet pruning shears, they will come as a pleasant surprise. The idea of squeezing the tool multiple times may not come intuitively to anyone, but once it is used, it will not be forgotten. These are heavy-duty shears, and they will cut thicker branches than the bypass pruning shears. Cate’s gives a 100% satisfaction guarantee on these products, with no questions asked. You are guaranteed to love them! NOTE: Discount for G.E.T. readers: Cate’s Garden is offering G.E.T. Readers a 30% discount for any of their products at Amazon.com. Use the coupon code “greenie30” for any Cate’s Garden product at checkout, until November 3, 2015. The Amazon page is at bit.ly/Cates-Garden-at-Amazon. Their website is catesgarden.com. 1-877-959-1817. Left two pictures: Cate’s Garden Bypass Pruning Shears in action. Far left is the Bypass Pruners; next is the Ratchet Pruning Shears cutting a larger branch. Above left shows the oil well; top rt. corner is a photo of the Ratchet Pruners. Below them shows the Bypass Pruning Shears. All Photos courtesy of Chris Morin. The people at Crossroads Academy in Lyme, New Hampshire, have added a new photovoltaic (PV) array to help power its campus. The 40kW system is providing power for the campus. Its 144 solar panels are on the campus in three rows of a fixed ground mount. The story did not begin, and does not end, with the addition of a few PV panels and savings of a bit of money. It happened that the Head of School, Jean Behnke, was retiring. During the course of her stay at the school, she had developed relationships with large numbers of people, and some of these wished to honor her for the work she had done there. One of the foundations that knew and appreciated her work offered to fund a legacy for the school in her honor. When she was asked what she would like that to be, she said she would like to see something that could benefit it both financially and educationally. This led to the idea of a solar array for the school. It would provide both electric power for the school and a demonstration of renewable energy to the students. She knew the system she wanted would cost more than the first foundation was able to give, so she went to a second. There, she got a matching grant. With a little support from a rebate incentive, she was able to get the system she wanted. “It is wonderful to leave a lasting legacy,” Behnke says. Given the lasting ability of solar systems, which seem to go on endlessly, it seems especially fitting to choose such a legacy. The solar system was installed by Energy Emporium of Enfield, New Hampshire. Kim Quirk, who runs Energy Emporium, says this is the company’s largest installation to date. The needed paperwork was completed before the net-metering cap for Eversource, the local utility, was reached. Work began on actual installation at the beginning of summer 2015 and was completed in only a few weeks. At the time this is written, the final testing and approval by the utility is all that remains to turn the array on. Quirk described this, saying, “It is a fun project, and soon will be live on the public monitoring site.” Public monitoring means the students can look at the system from computers, seeing how much electricity is being generated at any time. They can compare the numbers on output with the weather outside, so they can see the difference between amounts of energy generated on sunny days and overcast days. Lyme has been a leader in the New Hampshire solarize movement. In fact, a sidebar on page 10 of this issue of Green Energy Times shows that it is tied for first place for the total number of systems being installed, and is in second place on a per-capita basis. These numbers will change, of course, as we approach the finishes for the solarize programs involved. At the time of this writing, the 1,716 residents of Lyme had already accounted for purchase of 58 systems. The Crossroads Academy solar array is not part of a solarize program, however. Its 40kW will have to be added to the capacity installed under the program to find out what Lyme has added. We would like to offer our congratulations to Crossroads Academy and to Jean Behnke. Well done! --- In June, 2015, Green Mountain Power announced that it has donated a tower to measure wind speed to students at the Lowell Graded School. The wind-measuring equipment has enabled teachers to expand the science and math curriculum for students who are becoming “weather experts.” “I’ve been amazed to watch the students engage and learn from the meteorological tower that Green Mountain Power gave the school,” said Anita Gagner, principal of Lowell Graded School. “GMP is a great neighbor, and it’s wonderful that we have a working relationship with companies that can provide opportunities like this to help enhance our ability to teach science to our students.” Green Mountain Power used the meteorological tower to measure wind speeds prior to building its Kingdom Community Wind plant in Lowell. In addition to helping lower rates for customers, the 21 turbine plant continues to meet strict state environmental and sound standards, while also exceeding power expectations, generating more than 5% above the forecast for the fiscal year, which began October 1, 2014. “We are thrilled to be able to be a part of the Lowell community and appreciate their strong support for Kingdom Community Wind,” said Dorothy Schnure, GMP spokesperson. “Donating the wind-measuring equipment is a great way to bring the science and math to life for students.” The sixth graders at Lowell Village School use the data from the met tower’s barometer to learn about how high and low air pressure are used to predict the weather. They also made their own versions of the various instruments and compared the data they collected with the data from the met tower. “The meteorological tower has greatly assisted in instructing the students on ways that weather changes affect activities and events in our everyday life. In this way, they can think about how weather has important consequences for all people in our communities. We are very appreciative of this opportunity,” said Steve Mason, chair of the Lowell Graded School Board. The met tower stands 45 feet tall and is installed just outside the Lowell School. Renewable NRG of Hinesburg donated parts and assisted GMP with equipment installation. Data from the tower includes anemometers (wind speed sensors), wind direction sensors, as well as temperature, barometric pressure, and relative humidity sensors. The students can retrieve the information from a data card at the base of the tower, or they can receive it via email. Up to three people can receive the data daily and forward it to the entire classroom. The mission of Lowell Graded School is to provide a safe, challenging and engaging learning environment that promotes achievement and is tailored to individual student needs. Their website is http://lgs.ncsuvt.org The wind-measuring tower that was donated to the Lowell Graded School from GMP inset is a close up on the Solar powered data logger for the wind-measuring equipment at Lowell Graded School, with a Temp sensor, Barometric pressure sensor and Relative humidity sensor. Photo: Dotty Schnure, GMP. Net-zero energy use should not be a new idea for regular readers of Green Energy Times. We are not all used to considering some other things the LBC holds important, however, and net-zero water use is just one example. Also, in the LBC standard, everything in the building must be safe, from ingredients in paints and carpets to potential biological problems. Over a dozen categories of materials are prohibited, including not only asbestos and lead, but polyvinyl chloride (as in plastic plumbing pipes). Everything used in a building has to be sourced as locally as possible. Everything has to be documented, right down to nails and glue. Also, it is not just the building that is taken into account, but the land it stands on. Clearly, such a standard is not achieved by accident. It should hardly be surprising that only two new buildings in the United States that have been certified so far. What is really surprising is that a single Massachusetts company is undertaking construction of two buildings with the intention of getting LBC certification, and both buildings are on the campus of Hampshire College, in Amherst, Massachusetts. This company is Wright Builders, in Northampton, Massachusetts. It is currently building the R. W. Kern Center, which will house the admissions and financial aid offices of the college, and the Hitchcock Center for the Environment, an educational facility that will also be located on the college’s grounds. We do not have room here to deal with both projects as well as we would like, and so we will cover the Hitchcock Center in the October issue. Carl Weber, Associate Director of Buildings and Grounds for Hampshire College, is one of people at the college who is knowledgeable about the LBC. A conversation with him opened with his pointing out all the challenges in the process, and saying the surprising words, “Getting to net-zero energy is the easy part.” We are at least intellectually prepared for the idea of net-zero energy. Net zero water is a bit more difficult to imagine. For those interested, we suggest going to bit.ly/Kern-Center-LBC, and looking at page 14. The center’s roof will do double duty. When it is sunny, solar panels will provide electricity. When it rains, the roof will collect water for storage in cisterns. From there, it is put through a series of filters, and passed to interior systems for drinking and cleaning. Cleaning water passes to a gray-water system, starting with filtration in indoor planters. From those, it can go back into the interior gray-water system or to a constructed wetland system and leaching field. Building condensates go to a system of rain gardens and swales. Composting toilets keep human waste out of the water stream. The only town water coming in is town water for the fire-sprinkler system… Aside from that, water only comes to the property from the sky, and only leaves in the ground or through evaporation. There are a number of reasons why this is beneficial, one being that it retains water that could otherwise run off and contribute to flooding elsewhere. Weighing one of the biggest challenges was getting lists of ingredients in proprietary products, such as paints, carpets, and curtains. Companies are very reluctant to provide recipes, but some, as they realize there is a valuable market for products guaranteed to be absolutely safe, can be moved to provide information. He also points out that Wright Builders has been building a lot of expertise in the LBC standards because it has been simultaneously sourcing products for, and building, the Kern Center and the nearby Hitchcock Center. Jonathan Wright, CEO of Wright Builders, addressed this, saying “LBC calls the question on where you get everything.” To be certified, it is necessary to be able to provide a history of every product used at the site, including a source and the chain of custody. “You have to be well prepared for this,” he added. “It pushes the design team to use fewer materials.” “Size matters,” Wright also points out. And there is a great benefit for all concerned when two buildings came to be built within a short distance of one another. Purchasing more materials makes it easy to get them economically. A full delivery truck uses not much more fuel than one that is half full. But also, the time and energy spent finding a good material source is as much a matter of economy of scale as purchasing power and economical shipping. We will continue with more on Wright Builders in an article on the Hitchcock Center for the Environment in G.E.T. Oct issue. K-Solar is part of New York Governor Andrew Cuomo’s NY-Sun initiative to make it more feasible for New York State (NYS) school districts to take advantage of solar power. A large part of achieving this aim is to make the program available for NYS school districts. K-Solar is a joint project of the New York Power Authority (NYPA) and New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). The NYS Education Department is also active in the program. The K-Solar program is provided at no obligation and no cost. It is available to all NYS public schools teaching at levels of kindergarten through 12th grade. In order for a school to participate, it must have a suitable unshaded area for a ground-mounted or rooftop system. The site will probably need to be big enough for a solar array of about 50kW or more, which will occupy an area of about 5,000 square feet. A school that is qualified to participate should start by contacting the K-Solar program at email@example.com. The state will begin the process by assessing the grounds to be sure the school has a suitable site. The site assessment is free, and there is no obligation to participate in the program after being one. If a school has an approved site, it does not mean that the site has to be developed. If the site is approved and the school decides to go forward, the system will be built by a solar developer, who will own and operate it, typically for twenty to twenty-five years. Electricity from the system is supplied to the school at a reduced rate. This system allows the developer to take federal tax credits, which are only available to persons or companies that pay federal taxes. The cost reduction this produces is passed to the schools in lower electricity costs. The savings can be substantial, because the tax credits can offset 50% or more of the system costs. One nice thing about the K-Solar program is that the output of the solar system is guaranteed. The developer will only charge the school for the electricity it uses, and if that is less than expected, the developer is required to make up the difference in cost. The developer is also responsible for maintenance. The fact that the state is providing the program to schools means that there are efficiencies in purchasing large quantities of solar panels, mounts, inverters, and other hardware. The costs of having such a system should be considerably lower than the costs of not having one. This makes it a very attractive option for any school with a suitable site. The NYPA website, www.nypa.gov/k-solar, makes one thing very clear about the K-Solar program. At the bottom of the “about” page, in bold type, it says, “All this at no cost to your district. Moreover, you are not obligated to see the project through to completion and can stop the process at any time.” SILENT WORLD WAR Cont’d from p.1 The amounts of money involved are almost unimaginable. The twenty-five largest fossil fuel companies have revenues of about $7 trillion annually. That is roughly double the US federal budget, and ten times the budget of the US Defense Department. Rich as they are, fossil fuel corporations are getting direct government subsidies estimated to be over $500 billion each year. This is happening despite the fact that their damage and operational needs require indirect subsidies estimated at over $1.5 trillion annually. Clearly, the huge corporations that dig, drill, and break up the Earth have heavy incentives to continue their destructive work. What is not quite so obvious is who will win. Nevertheless, a close look tells us they will be stopped, and in the end, the fossil fuel industry’s opposition, small as it is, will win. Despite their seemingly overwhelming advantages, the fossil fuel industry is fighting a battle that has already turned. It is being undermined by efficiency, which alone would put it into recession. It is being opposed politically by many capitalists who once supported it, banks, investors, and insurance companies, all of which are suffering from its consequences. It is being challenged by new technologies ranging from solar panels to electric vehicles, which give power to ordinary individuals who it once regarded as captive customers. It is being abandoned by its traditional dependent industries, from utilities to car manufacturers, who have found it is possible to save a lot of money by doing without fossil fuels. Wind power has proven it can supply electricity at a fraction of the cost of coal or nuclear, and at a cost much lower than that of natural gas. Though somewhat more expensive than wind, solar power contracts are being signed at prices below those of conventional natural gas, even when the cost of the solar subsidies is added in. A recent large solar contract in Nevada shows this; the contract was signed at 3.87¢ per kilowatt hour. Renewable power has achieved “grid parity,” and the tide is turning against fossil fuels, huge as they are. In the first six months of 2015, 75% of all new US electric capacity was renewable. The tide is turning, with actual defections within the industry. Shell and BP have gone beyond admitting that climate change is a real, serious problem, and have asked the UN for guidance on how to combat it. Perhaps the time is in sight, when the carnage of this Silent World War will end. Good Plastics? Really? By George Harvey Deny it or not, most of us really love plastics. They can be inexpensively molded into an enormous number of shapes that would cost a fortune to make any other way. As clingy sheets or zip bags, they keep food fresh and prevent evaporation. Plastic pipes do not decompose easily, plastics insulate electric lines. Everything from toy cars to bodies is made with them. They can be easily cleaned. The list of good things about plastics goes on and on and on. So why do we hate them? Perhaps, it is because they are awful, destructive materials that are used to make things that are used to begin with, are thrown away too easily, clogging up nature. As they are, their use is unsustainable, and it is clear that to live sustainably we have to get a grip on our love affair with them. To start with, the plastics we produce are nearly all made from fossil fuels. They are also mostly made with wildly poisonous kinds of chemicals, plasticizers being examples. Most plastics fail to decompose well. Many of them produce dioxin or cyanide if they are burned. A lot of the products made from them have short lifetimes and are used in a culture that was taught that wasting things is good, so they end up in landfills, regardless of recycling programs. When they get into natural environments, a lot of creatures mistake them for food and die because of blockage by indigestible objects. Ocean gyres fill with them, and they are a serious problem for sea fowl that try to feed them to their babies. One important thing we can do is to stop buying new plastic junk. Another is to insist that food be packaged without plastic; in many cases you can buy bulk food at a food market and put it in your own container (remember to have the store weigh the container and mark the tare weight before you fill it). If you can only afford to buy an item made of plastic, by all means, get it made of plastic, but buy it used. Otherwise, you are supporting the fossil fuel companies and manufacturers that inflict this junk on us. Of course, even if we all do those things, it will not eliminate all of the plastics in our lives. I could hardly expect everyone to resort to metal combs and wooden tooth brushes. There are a lot of places that plastics are really needed for one reason or another. But there is good news, even on this front. Some plastics exist that are not made from fossil fuels, but are entirely composed of natural organic materials found in waste from agricultural and manufacturing processes. Some are even thermoplastics that can be recycled. So yesterday’s computer cabinet, originally made of waste from a farm field, could become the dashboard of today’s car, and the handles of tomorrow’s power drills. Not only that, they can decompose like wood, to the point that small pieces could easily be handled in your compost pile. And if you put them into your fireplace, they burn like wood. And the icing on the cake is that they are priced competitively. It happens that one of the most abundant carboniferous materials in nature is lignin, and lignin is the basis of a set of bioplastics. No one really knows to know exactly how much lignin is produced as a by-product of paper manufacture. Estimates run from about 50 million to 100 million tons per year. Of itself, it is mostly useless stuff, but it can be combined with other waste products, such as straw cellulose, to make thermoplastics that can be injected into molds. Some of them can even be used for 3-D printing. One such product is Arboform, which can be seen at bit.ly/arboform. Arboform is by no means the only bioplastic. There are others that are made a wide variety of other natural materials, and the plastics seem very familiar. There is a lot of research going into bioplastics, and we will see endless new ones appear. One thing to bear in mind, however, is that before we celebrate bioplastics as cure-alls, we should understand their true individual natures. The fact that something comes from renewable materials does not mean it is necessarily good for the environment. Each has to be assessed for its environmental impact, including where it came from, what byproducts its production might entail, and where it might go. We would hate to see a baby albatross die because it ate bioplastic trash. SUMMER HIKING in the northeast By Roger Lohr There’s no better way to enjoy the outdoors than hiking on a trail alone or with your friends or family. Whether you are a first time hiker or a walking aficionado, hiking with the family provides quality time together, allows kids to grow closer, develops life-long memories and introduces the next generation to the outdoors. It’s no wonder that nationally more than 34 million people went hiking in the year 2013 and that has remained somewhat consistent in the last few years. You don’t need to walk very far to experience the joys of being outdoors with your kids or grandkids. It’s about discovery and having fun. For parents taking their kids on a hike, it is recommended that the expectations and experiences be positive, so avoid a fixed goal to reach a favorite spot or the top of the mountain. Keep it simple by being flexible and adaptive to make sure the younger ones have a good time. Perhaps short hikes at first near home or a local park will provide a positive experience. Bring a snack, water, and invite your kid’s playmate. They can find joy in clouds, flowers, tadpoles, splashing water, getting dirty, colorful bugs, etc. but you don’t want the kids to get sunburned, hungry, thirsty, or exhausted. Safety and Other Considerations on a Hike Be careful of rocks, rubble, brush piles, or fallen logs where kids might lose their footing, sprain an ankle, or take a fall. Tell kids not to drink the stream water or eat berries, mushrooms and the rule with poison ivy, oak, and sumac is “leaves of three, let it be.” Be wary of places where bees and wasps might nest. Wearing bright clothing is a good idea so you are easy to see and find if lost. Layer clothing and be prepared for weather changes. Synthetic clothing (such as a capilene shirt or a pile jacket) is lighter, a good insulator, and dries faster. Socks and support for boots are important. Traditional hiking socks are made from heavy wool, but more recently socks are commonly made of a variety of materials that provide warmth, durability and keep your feet dry. Hiking boots are not required but they can help kids feel like an explorer. A list of items that could be useful on the trail includes: signal device (whistle, mirror), water bottle, emergency blanket, map, compass, flashlight (with spare battery and bulb), extra food, extra clothing, sunglasses, sunblock, insect repellent, knife, waterproof matches, fire-starter or candle and a first aid kit. If you think that you are lost try to retrace your course rather than continuing on in an effort to reach some destination. An emergency call consists of three short whistles or shouts repeated at regular intervals. Use a whistle for making noise and a mirror or smoke puffs during the day. At night, use a flashlight or small bright fires to signal. You may consider leaving your dog at home if he or she cannot be kept under control. Respect the privacy of residents that live along the trail unless there is an emergency and you desperately need help. Leave No Trace Find full descriptions of hiking destinations in the northeast at xcskiresorts.com/hot-topics.php. * 1,000 acres of wilderness at Bolton Valley Resort. * There are over 15 miles of hiking trails at Killington Resort, Vermont’s second tallest peak. It offers 360° views of Vermont’s Green Mountains, New York’s Adirondacks, and New Hampshire’s White Mountains. * Smugglers’ Notch Resort creates many opportunities for guided and self-guided hiking for all ages. * There are over 60 kilometers of wooded hiking trails for all levels of ability at Trapp Family Lodge in Stowe. * From the Woodstock Inn & Resort, choose from more than 60 miles of interconnected trails and pathways that wind through the Woodstock Village, nearby meadows and woodlands, scenic vistas, and rural countryside. Additional places to find hiking information for others states are as follows: - Hike-NH is a great place to find general information on hiking in New Hampshire, primarily in the White Mountain Region. There is a list of 4000 foot peaks, AMC hut system, discussion boards, newsletters, and hiking at hike-nh.com/. - NY, ME and MA Hikes. Find the best hikes in New York, Maine, and Massachusetts, including detailed trail maps, guides, trail descriptions, Points of Interest (POIs) and GPS tracks/GPX data at EveryTrail. - The websites per state are: everytrail.com/best/hiking-new-york, everytrail.com/best/hiking-maine, and everytrail.com/best/hiking-massachusetts. - Another very thorough website for hiking in MA can be found at http://1.usa.gov/1rYlUoQ. Happy Trails! How green does it get? from this in 2014 Two dilapidated buildings Two - forty foot tanker cars out of in the ground- yup 19,000 gallon tainted #6 fuel oil Over 4 acres clean and we are now 100% solar powered To present Oil tankers gone, two old buildings- gone 19,000 square foot Farm-Way addition started, to be completed October 2015 100% Solar powered - now ! 2013 VRA Vermont Retailer Association Retailer of the year 286 Waits River Road Bradford, Vermont 800-222-9316 Monday- Saturday 8:30-5:30 Frida nights till 8PM closed Sundays A Walk in the Woods MOVIE A “Walk in the Woods” on the Appalachian Trail Becomes a Movie By Roger Lohr An AMC Outdoors Magazine article referenced the coming movie version of Bill Bryson’s 1998 bestselling book “A Walk in the Woods,” a comical ill-fated attempt to hike the Appalachian Trail (AT). The recent success of Reese Witherspoon in the movie “Wild” about a woman who hiked on the Pacific Crest Trail brought greater popularity to the trail and the entire concept of “thru-hiking,” which is an attempt at walking along the entire length of the trail. In the past year about 2,500 thru-hikers attempted the AT, which runs from Georgia to Maine and a reported 640 completed the trek. The movie “Walk in the Woods” starring Robert Redford and Nick Nolte is expected to increase the number of people hiking the trail to about 4,000 in 2016. Will the trail become overcrowded at overnight sites? Will it get trashed, or impact the fauna and flora? Stewardship and protection are key aspects of the Appalachian Trail Conservancy, which is calling for more people to reverse their thru-hike experience by starting at the middle and going north bound, tackling the less popular half of the trail afterward. Much of the issue will be taken care of by natural selection – the fact that within a few hundred miles more than half of the hikers quit the trek. The word is that the first two or three weeks are the test on the more than 2,160 mile journey from Spring Mountain in GA to Katahdin, ME. The film will be released on Labor Day Weekend. Source: xcskiresorts.com/hot-topics.php. The People’s Pint is a restaurant and brew-pub on Federal Street in Greenfield, Massachusetts. It is definitely a different sort of place to eat. It gives the feeling of being an upscale brew-pub that takes humorous pride in being subtly funky, but there is more to it than that. Discerning customers quickly find differences from other establishments, but it is hard to imagine anyone finding them all. Of course, the restaurant’s name gives away a tradition of brewing beer. It is produced in their own brewery, and is a major attraction for visitors. The beer is not on the restaurant premises, and has been at another location in Greenfield for ten years. Usually, there are a dozen or so types available bottled and two on draft from low-pressure hand-operated taps. Beer, however, is just the start of a lovely story. Alden Booth, who runs the People’s Pint with his wife, Lissa Greenough, says the restaurant’s approach to food sets it apart from others in several ways. He says, “We’re wholehearted about to build the meal around the veggies.” Considering this, it may be unsurprisingly that some customers habitually think of it as a vegetarian restaurant. But for those of us who really do like meat, it means a different eating experience in which the meat does not dominate the meal. Instead, it is one item among many, all of which are planned for a combination of culinary pleasure and nutrition. Menu items that are worth mention include great salads, burritos, spicy peanut noodles, green Thai curry with chicken or tofu, “mac & cheese,” and local, grass-fed beef. I can tell you I have had burgers made with beef, turkey, and salmon, and they are all hard to beat. Veggie burgers are also available, and I really should try one. The food has to be local and fresh, if at all possible. Some foods people like are not available when the only way to get them is to bring them in from afar. For example tomatoes are only served when they are locally available and fresh, a very few months each year. Those people who really yearn for a tomato from the Yucatan, picked green for long-distance shipping, to be served hard and flavorless, are usually delightfully surprised to discover that a great salad can be made without them. Alden and Lissa have a farm with two greenhouses, where much of the food is grown, some of it comes from gardens of employees. Alden says, “The squash you are eating at dinner may have been picked that same morning. You can’t get food much fresher than that.” The People’s Pint has followed an aggressive policies for many years on dealing with waste. All of the food scraps are composted. All of the paper, glass, metal, and plastic (of which there is very little) is recycled. Alden says that in the time the restaurant has run, there has never been more than one trash can of waste generated on even the busiest of days. For a restaurant, with a lot of people going through, that says a lot. The restaurant is socially engaged. Since 2003, they have been very active in promoting bicycling, donating 25% of the profits from their Training Wheels and MassBike, awarding gift certificates to people who bike instead of driving cars. They offer gift certificates to those who switch from disposable diapers to use a linen and diaper service. They accept R Credits, a local currency. The People’s Pint is on Federal Street in Greenfield. The phone number is (413)773-0333, and the web site is www.thepeoplespint.com. Good locally grown and raised food with home brew means ‘fun and yum’ at the People’s Pint. Photos from the gallery at www.thePeoplesPint.com Imagine this ... Painting with Milk! One may think that using milk to paint with is a very strange concept. But think of this - just try drinking a glass of milk and then leaving the glass on your bedside table or next to the kitchen sink. The next morning the milky residue has hardened and is not easy to remove. Milk is a strong binder especially when mixed with crushed limestone, the basic binder in one of the world's earliest paints, milk paint. Some of the oldest painted surfaces on earth, including cave paintings in France and items in King Tutankhamen's tomb, were colored with a simple composition of milk, lime, and earth pigments. Because the original formulas for milk paint were so simple to make and use, it was for thousands of years a durable, major form of decoration throughout the world. Formulas varied greatly and produced varied results, but it was always a combination of milk protein (casein), lime, clay and pigments used. The colors on those early cave paintings in France, even though exposed to the open air for centuries, are as vivid today as they must have been all those years ago. In Colonial America, itinerant painters roamed the countryside, carrying pigments with them, which could be mixed with a homeowner's own milk. Practically every household had their own cow or goat, and each community had its own lime pit. Even though many examples of early American furniture painted with some form of oil paint exist, the look associated most widely with the country homes and furniture of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries is that of the soft velvety, rich colors of milk paint. This scenario didn't change much until after the Civil War. In 1869 the first patent was given for the metal paint can with its tightly fitting top, and the commercial paint industry was born. For the first time, paint could be manufactured in great amounts, packaged in the new patented cans and shipped to stores throughout the country. But this kind of operation does not lend itself to the use of milk paint. Made from natural milk protein, it can spoil just like whole milk. Therefore, at the very beginning of the commercial oil paint industry, up until 1935, the only paint sold commercially was oil-based paint, to which lead, mildewicides, and other poisonous additives were added. Latex paint followed, which also contained additives and preservatives. When Charles Thibeau was researching old milk paint formulas in the early 1970's to provide an authentic finish for his Colonial reproduction furniture, he came across a formulation that remained true to the natural ingredients found in these old recipes, using the milk protein in a powdered form. He found that he could simply add water to the mixture and just mix up what he wanted at the time, eliminating the need for preservatives or other chemicals to keep the paint fresh. This was especially important when, after being interviewed for a Yankee Publications' book on about the forgotten arts in 1974, Thibeau's phone started ringing off the hook with requests for this old-fashioned milk paint. And thus, The Old Fashioned Milk Paint Company was born and Thibeau was able to ship his formula far and wide in a convenient powder form. Not only does his milk paint provide the warmth and colors of Colonial America, it remains all natural, 100% biodegradable, with no harmful VOCs. Today the milk paint company is run by Thibeau's daughter, Anne, and there are over 400 dealers worldwide selling Old Fashioned Milk Paint and the company's newer SafePaint wall formula; among the dealers is Interiors Green at 2021 Main Street in Bethlehem, NH. Jessica Barber Goldblatt is the owner of Interiors Green -- the Home and Living Store. www.interiorsgreen.com. Shopping for Greener Furniture By Roddy Scheer and Doug Moss Due to increased consumer awareness and demand, there are more “green” choices in furniture available than ever before. Pictured is a Savvy Rest organic crib mattress distributed by Furnature. Photo courtesy of Savvy Rest. While we now opt often for greener cars, appliances, household cleaners and food to up the sustainability quotient of our lifestyles, the furniture we spend all day and night in close contact with is often far from eco-friendly. The vast majority of sofas, chairs, beds and other upholstered furniture we love to lounge on contain potential carcinogenic formaldehyde, flame retardants and stain resistant sprays that have been linked to developmental and hormonal maladies. And much of the wood used in desks, chairs, tables and the like (as well as in the frames of upholstered furniture) comes from unsustainably harvested lumber which contributes to the deforestation of tropical rainforests. But today, thanks to increased consumer awareness and demand there are more green options in furniture available than ever before. A good place to start the search for the perfect couch or chair is the website of the Sustainable Furniture Council (SFC), a non-profit formed in 2006 to help develop solid standards and certification processes within the home furnishings industry. The organization has become a leading information source and network of some 400 green furniture makers and related retailers, suppliers and designers as well as other non-profits. Consumers looking for green furniture can browse the SFC’s membership list which features contact information and website links accordingly. Buyers beware: Just because a furniture maker is listed with SFC doesn’t mean it eschews all chemicals or unsustainably harvested wood entirely, but only that it is making strides in that direction. Consumers should still be knowledgeable about which green features they are looking for or which kinds of materials to avoid. Of course, buying something like furniture you really need to see and feel it in order to decide whether it will work in your space. Eco-conscious consumers making the rounds at local furniture stores should keep a few key questions in mind for salespeople. Does the piece in question contain formaldehyde, flame retardants or stain resistant sprays? Is the fabric used certified under the Global Organic Textile Standard program (GOTS, which mandates that at least 70% of fibers are derived from organic sources and do not contain chemical dyes or other additives)? Is the wood used certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) as sustainably harvested? Does the piece contain any parts or pieces that come from bamboo or reclaimed wood or recycled metal or plastic? And is it easy to disassemble into reusable or recyclable parts if it needs to be replaced down the road? If the salesperson doesn’t know the answers, chances are the piece does not pass environmental muster. Limiting your search to stores and Internet-based retailers that specialize in green products is one way to reduce the amount of research and self-education needed, especially because salespeople in such vendors are usually up-to-speed on the latest and greatest in sustainable furnishings. Some leading national furniture chains that carry a sizable inventory of sustainable goods include Crate and Barrel, Room and Board and West Elm, but many more single store eco-friendly furniture stores exist across the country. Some leading online green furniture retailers include Eco-Friendly Modern Living, Furnature, InMod, Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams, SmartDeco, Southcone and Viesso. Contacts: SFC, www.sustainablefurnishings.org; FSC, www.fsc.org; GOTS, www.global-standard.org; Eco-Friendly Modern Living, www.ecofriendlymodernliving.com; Furnature, www.furnature.com; InMod, www.inmod.com; Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams, www.mgbwhome.com; SmartDeco, www.smartdecofurniture.com; Southcone, www.southcone.com; Viesso, www.viesso.com. EarthTalk® is a registered trademark of E - The Environmental Magazine (www.emagazine.com). 80,000 CHEMICALS A video from the NY Times (May 3rd) that discusses a thorough history of the over 80,000 chemicals in use today – with many of the health menaces. It is a must watch! The link is: http://nyti.ms/1OVO7ar Green Tips >> The energy saved by recycling one glass bottle can light a 100-watt light bulb for four hours or run a computer for 30 minutes. >> If we recycled all of our aluminum cans for one year, we could save enough energy to light Washington, D.C. for 3.7 years. Sleep Green Savvy Rest mattresses from The Green Life—made from natural latex with organic cotton & wool casings NO chemical flame retardants NO harmful off-gassing Sleep in blissful comfort, chemical-free! Custom support, firmness & sizing natural latex in soft, medium, or firm layers 151 CHERRY STREET, BURLINGTON \| MON 12-6; TUES-SAT 10-6; SUN 11-5 \| 881-0633 Vermont Cedar Outdoor Furniture • Adirondack Chairs • Swings & Gliders • Rockers • Tables • Wood Planters • and much more . . . SPRING & SUMMER Made in Vermont 802-439-5230 Lyle Barnes • Orange, VT Main Office: 5043 US Rte 2, Derby Rd. Derby VT 05829 800-273-5371 / 802-334-1200 Branch Office: 234 VT Rte 94 East Burke VT 05832 802-636-4222 www.FarmAndForest.com firstname.lastname@example.org BENSONWOOD Sustainable Design • Engineering • Green Building “What’s the use of a fine house if you haven’t got a tolerable planet to put it on?” Henry David Thoreau Timberframing • Passive House • Net-Zero Ready • Custom Design • Off-Site Fabrication 877.203.3562 BENSONWOOD.COM ABUNDANT - RENEWABLE - LOCAL Improving the way you live with Renewable Heating The New Bonus Plus Wood Gasification Boiler • Induced Draft Gasification Technology • Low maintenance design • Small footprint, high output • No compromise affordability • Easy Integration $5995.00* GET FIRED UP! 100,000 Btu/hr *Does not include thermal storage, accessories, or installation. 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Guided MATH A Framework for Mathematics Instruction Laney Sammons Foreword by Janis K. Drab Fackler Guided Math Editors Sara Johnson Kristy Stark M.A.Ed Editorial Director Lori Kamola, M.S.Ed. Editor-in-Chief Sharon Coan, M.S.Ed. Editorial Manager Gisela Lee Creative Director Lee Aucoin Print Production Manager Don Tran Interior Layout Designer Robin Erickson Publisher Corinne Burton, M.A.Ed. The names in this book have been changed to protect the identities of teachers and students. The photos in this book were taken by Wendy Hamm. Shell Education 5301 Oceanus Drive Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1030 http://www.shelleducation.com ISBN 978-1-4258-0534-0 © 2010 Shell Educational Publishing, Inc. Reprinted 2013 The classroom teacher may reproduce copies of materials in this book for classroom use only. The reproduction of any part for an entire school or school system is strictly prohibited. No part of this publication may be transmitted, stored, or recorded in any form without written permission from the publisher. # Table of Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Guided Math—A Framework for Mathematics Instruction A Classroom Environment of Numeracy Morning Math Warm-ups Whole-Class Instruction Guided Math Instruction with Small Groups of Students Math Workshop Individual Conferences An Ongoing System of Assessment In Practice Review and Reflect Chapter 2: Using Guided Math to Create a Classroom Environment of Numeracy Foundational Principles of a Guided Math Classroom Building a Classroom Learning Community Classroom Arrangement Organization and Storage of Materials A Numeracy-Rich Environment Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 3: Using Math Warm-ups in Guided Math Math Stretches to Begin the Day Mathematical Current Events Mathematics-Related Classroom Responsibilities Calendar Board Planning for Morning Math Warm-ups Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 4: Using Guided Math with the Whole Class Chapter 4: Using Whole-Class Instruction with Guided Math Advantages of Whole-Class Instruction Challenges of Whole-Class Instruction Mini Lessons Activating Strategies Reading Math-Related Children’s Literature Setting the Stage for Math Workshop Math Huddle Practice and Review Sessions Assessment Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 5: Using Guided Math with Small Groups Advantages of Small-Group Instruction Challenges of Small-Group Instruction Effective Uses of Small-Group Instruction Forming Small Groups for Learning Organizing for Small-Group Instruction Teaching a Guided Math Lesson with a Small Group Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 6: Supporting Guided Math with Math Workshop Advantages of Math Workshop Challenges of Math Workshop Effective Uses for Math Workshop Managing Math Workshop Planning with Co-Teachers and Teaching Assistants Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 7: Conferring with Students During Guided Math The Structure of a Conference Keeping Records of Conferences Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 8: Assessment in Guided Math Rationales for Assessment and Evaluation Assessment and Learning in Guided Math A Vision for Learning Establishing Criteria for Success with Checklists and Rubrics The Value of Descriptive Feedback Involving Students in the Assessment Process Formative Assessment Assessments for Guided Math Groups Chapter Snapshot Review and Reflect Chapter 9: Putting It Into Practice Review and Reflect Appendices Appendix A: Math Conference Checklist Appendix B: Math Conference Notes 1 Appendix C: Math Conference Notes 2 Appendix D: Criteria for Problem-Solving Rubric Appendix E: Problem-Solving Checklist References Cited Guided Math: A Framework for Mathematics Instruction Think back to your elementary school days. Picture your math classes. What do you remember? Many of us recall instructions to get out our math books and open to a specified page. The teacher explains the lesson using the chalkboard or overhead projector. One or two students may be called on to solve problems at the board as the rest of the students practice at their desks. Some of us may remember using manipulatives in our early grades, but probably not beyond second grade. Finally, problems from the book are assigned for classwork or homework. These assignments are later turned in to be checked and graded. Periodically, quizzes are given to check on understanding. At the end of the chapter, a test is given. The teacher then moves to the next chapter. Was this method successful? For many of us, the answer is yes. The teacher-centered approach provided the instruction we needed. We applied this instruction to problems to be completed, and our understanding increased. If it didn’t, we comforted ourselves with the knowledge that some people just don’t have mathematical minds. We often decided to make the most of our other skills. Many of us simply opted out of math classes as soon as we could. All too often in the past, this was considered good enough. Students either “got it” or they didn’t. Their grades indicated how well they “got it.” Unfortunately, too many of us “didn’t get it.” Mathematical literacy is a serious problem in the United States (U.S. Department of Education 2008). Seventy-eight percent of adults cannot explain how to compute the interest paid on a loan, 71% cannot calculate miles per gallon on a trip, and 58% cannot calculate a 10% tip for a lunch bill (Phillips 2007). According to the U.S. Department of Education’s National Mathematics Advisory Panel, “there are persistent disparities in mathematics achievement related to race and income—disparities that are not only devastating for the individuals and families but also project poorly for the nation’s future, given the youthfulness and high growth rates of the largest minority populations” (2008). In spite of the evidence that too many of our students are struggling with mathematics, the traditional, whole-class instructional method continues to be what most students encounter in today’s schools. Whereas instruction in reading has changed dramatically over the last twenty years, the teacher-centered, large-group instruction model of teaching is still prominent in mathematics classes across the nation. Because of the limitations of this method of instruction, students are often presented with the message that there is a particular way in which mathematics must be done—that there is only one right answer and only one right way to find that answer. The emphasis is on learning a set procedure rather than on conceptual understanding. Devlin in his book The Math Instinct (2005) states, “The problem many people have with school arithmetic is that they never get to the meaning stage; it remains forever an abstract game of formal symbols.” As Hyde (2006) points out, by fourth or fifth grade, children seem to have lost the problem solving skills they had when they began kindergarten. Lack of conceptual understanding handicaps many students as they face more difficult math challenges in the upper grades. Many students who don’t “get it” fall further and further behind in mathematics as teachers struggle to find the time to help them. Teachers are frustrated trying to meet the needs of those students while continuing to challenge students who master the concepts quickly. Some students complain of being bored while others fail miserably in understanding the concepts being taught. It is easy to feel caught in the middle of a tug-of-war game when trying to balance the needs of diverse students. The frustrations felt by educators are only increased by the demands of accountability enacted by state and federal governments. School systems are struggling to eliminate the gaps in achievement between minority and majority students, special education and regular education students, and students receiving free and reduced lunches and the rest of the student population. It is no longer acceptable to have a portion of our students underachieve in mathematics. Although the National Assessment in Educational Progress (NAEP) indicates that some of these gaps are slowly narrowing (National Center for Education Statistics 2004), teachers are searching for effective means to reach all of their students and ways to adapt instructional methods to accommodate all levels of learners. Making this task even more complicated is the fact that students who are slower learners for one concept in mathematics may very well be accelerated learners with other concepts. States are upping the ante by developing new and more demanding math standards based on the standards developed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Teachers are discovering that methods they have used successfully in the past are no longer working. The demands of the new curriculum standards require new ways of teaching. As I grappled with these frustrations in my own classroom, I gradually developed a model that offers all students opportunities to develop their mathematical skills at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty with the ultimate goal of helping them gain the ability to function independently in the world of mathematics. I learned the importance of establishing and maintaining classroom frameworks that are organized to support numeracy, just as teachers have done for literacy for many years. As teachers establish a culture of numeracy in their classrooms, they extend the mathematical experiences of students in classrooms by making connections to real-world experiences. The instructional components of this model include: 1. A Classroom Environment of Numeracy 2. Morning Math Warm-ups and Calendar Board Activities 3. Whole-Class Instruction 4. Guided Math Instruction with Small Groups of Students 5. Math Workshop 6. Individual Conferences 7. An Ongoing System of Assessment Together, these components allow teachers to support each student’s efforts at varying levels according to their needs. A Classroom Environment of Numeracy Environments rich in mathematical opportunities for children are essential if we want our children to develop a thorough understanding of mathematics. When students begin to recognize how numbers and problem solving affect their everyday lives, mathematics becomes more meaningful to them. Because learning is both a social and constructive process, children learn best through active engagement in authentic opportunities to use and extend their number senses. The creation of a classroom environment supporting numeracy enables students to build on their previously acquired knowledge of numbers. An organized mathematical support system for students requires that we encourage children to use manipulatives, compute, compare, categorize, question, estimate, solve problems, converse, and write about their thinking processes. Ideally, a math-rich classroom environment and engaging activities will help students become increasingly aware of mathematical and problem-solving opportunities throughout their everyday lives, thus putting a “math curse” on students as authors Jon Scieszka and Lane Smith describe facetiously in their children’s book of that title (1995). The creation of a community of learners is inherent within a classroom supporting the learning of mathematics. Students who feel respected and supported are willing to take risks in problem solving and to share their thinking with others. Through mathematical dialogue, students construct the meaning of mathematics, developing enduring understandings of the “big” ideas or concepts as they also develop procedural and computational fluency. To establish a learning community, teachers need to understand their students and the mathematical “landscape of learning” (Fosnot and Dolk 2001) through which they hope to guide them. With careful planning, teachers are able to foster the strong social aspects that are integral for learning, to teach behaviors that promote constructive conversation, to organize the physical aspects of their classrooms for immersing students in an environment of numeracy, and to provide classroom procedures for students that allow student participation in all components of the Guided Math framework. Chapter two focuses on ways to establish numeracy-rich environments within the classroom. Morning Math Warm-ups Math warm-ups take place in the morning to set the tone of the day. As students arrive, they have assigned tasks to complete. Simple daily activities are provided in which students answer a question or complete a mathematical task. During calendar board activities, the class discusses and analyzes the results. Students may be asked to add to a Number of the Day Chart in which the teacher selects and writes a number at the top of a sheet of chart paper. Upon arrival, each student is expected to write the number in a different way. According to grade level, the numbers and alternate ways of expressing the number will vary. For example, 4 might be written as 3 + 1 or 6 – 2 by younger children. Older children might choose to record it as $(5 \times 4) - (2 \times 8)$. Since the ways of writing the number will vary, close observation of the chart will provide the teacher with valuable information about the number sense of individual students as well as an overall picture of the level of understanding of the entire class. Calendar board activities usually begin with a glance at the calendar and the date. From there, a teacher briefly reviews previously covered mathematical skills, previews upcoming skills, provides practice in rote counting skills or math facts, encourages mental math skills, and engages students in problem-solving activities. Often, students sit on the floor around the calendar board, but sometimes, students remain at their desks to participate in these oral or written activities. This daily warm-up encourages students to nimbly move cognitively from one area of mathematics to another in a nonthreatening, fast-paced way. The predominately oral nature of these activities promotes conversations about mathematical concepts which foster a deeper, more enduring understanding by students. Chapter three explores instructional ideas for mathematical warm-ups. Whole-Class Instruction Many educators today are moving away from the traditional, teacher-directed method of instruction. However, this type of instruction can have a place in today’s classroom, providing it isn’t the only, or primary, method of instruction. Whole-class instruction requires the least amount of teacher preparation. In its most common form, the teacher introduces the lesson, teaches it as students listen and are questioned, provides a practice activity for students, and either summarizes the lesson or has students summarize it. Traditionally, students remain in their desks, facing the teacher who is at the front of the classroom. Most of us are familiar with this traditional method of teaching from our own days as students. Whole-class instruction remains an option within the Guided Math framework, but rather than being limited to this traditional lesson format, a variety of instructional structures are available to teachers. Whole-class instruction is an excellent method for presenting activating strategies or literature connections at the beginning of lessons, as well as for ongoing review of mastered concepts. Using this format, teachers may choose to present mini lessons or model problem-solving strategies, thinking aloud as they do so. Moreover, this component can be used as a time for “math congress” when students come together following mathematical investigations to share their discoveries (Fosnot and Dolk 2001). This time is called Math Huddle in my classroom. Teaching to the whole class is a very straight-forward instructional method, but requires a remarkable amount of teacher skill to do it well. Although it often appears that discourse during this time is “off the cuff,” to be effective, teachers must juggle what they know of their students and the mathematical concepts on their “horizons” to guide the conversation with meaningful questions. Even a skillful teacher may be unable to reach some students because of students’ lack of attention, boredom, inability to understand the instruction, or their often incorrect confidence that they already know how to do the activity so they don’t need to listen. Chapter four offers suggestions as to how to use this method most effectively and when it should be avoided. Guided Math Instruction with Small Groups of Students Guided Math instruction is a method of teaching in which teachers assess their students formally or informally, and then group them according to their proficiencies at a given skill. The groups are homogeneous, yet fluid, as individual students’ levels of understanding change. This method of mathematics instruction is analogous to Guided Reading instruction as espoused by Fountas and Pinnell in their books Guided Reading: Good First Teaching for All Children (1996) and Guiding Readers and Writers Grades 3–6 (2001). Using Guided Math instruction, teachers are able to work with small groups that are determined specifically by students’ achievement levels and needs. This allows teachers to closely observe student work, monitor student attention, provide strong support for struggling learners, and provide extra challenges for proficient learners. Using this small-group instructional model, teachers can vary the amount of time they spend instructing students according to the specific needs of those students. For example, when a teacher is introducing a new concept, one group of students may quickly grasp the skill and be able to move on to independent practice. Another group may need significantly more time working directly with the teacher in a small group. Rather than boring those students who have already mastered the concept with continued whole-class instruction, this model allows those students to move on to independent work quickly, freeing teacher time for more intensive instruction with the struggling students. Not only can the amount of instructional time differ, but so can the content of the material covered and the amount and level of difficulty of the practice work assigned. Guided Math groups offer teachers an efficient way to provide differentiated instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners. Chapter five examines, in greater depth, how to establish and effectively use small groups for Guided Math. Math Workshop So, what are the other students doing as the teacher meets with small groups or conferences one-on-one with students? For small group instruction and conferencing to be effective, it should be uninterrupted. Students who are not engaged directly with the teacher must have meaningful work to do and know how to follow established and practiced procedures for independent individual or group work. These students participate in Math Workshop. As the school year begins, students are taught how to work independently. The teacher establishes expectations and routines during the first few weeks of school. Students learn how to access materials they may need, follow rules for working with manipulatives, handle any questions they may have, and learn what to do if they complete their assigned work. Periodically throughout the year, the teacher may need to revisit these expectations. Because each instructional minute of the day is so important, it is essential that meaningful work is provided for each student. Providing something beyond busy work also helps prevent discipline problems because students who are engaged in challenging work are less likely to disrupt the class. Workshop tasks might be inquiries or investigations, math-center activities, math games, problems of the week, Math Journal writing, or written practice to maintain previously learned skills. In chapter six, these activities are described in more detail with suggestions for establishing procedures and routines. Individual Conferences Guided Math offers teachers valuable opportunities to interact with students in small groups and observe communication between students as they work. Sometimes, however, one-on-one work is needed to aid the teacher in assessing student understanding of mathematical skills or concepts, to clarify or correct student misunderstandings and errors, or to extend or refine student understanding. At any time throughout the day, teachers can conference with individual students. In very much the same way that teachers have used reading and writing conferences, they can meet briefly with students to further those students’ understanding of mathematical concepts. These individual conferences provide rich information about how to best work with individual students. Additionally, the conferences help teachers identify specific teaching points for individuals and for the class as a whole. In chapter seven, individual conferences are covered in greater depth. Additionally, a basic structure for individual conferences is presented and methods for recording anecdotal notes are described. An Ongoing System of Assessment How do we know how to group students? How do we determine the needs of the class? How do we determine individual needs? Ongoing accurate assessment provides teachers with timely information about class and individual student needs. In mathematics instruction, a student’s level of proficiency can vary drastically from concept to concept. This makes assessing mathematical knowledge and thinking skills more challenging than assessing reading ability, where periodic running records and comprehension questions provide a strong indication of reading level. Teaching Guided Math is a more complex process than following a textbook chapter by chapter and assigning the same problems for all students in the class. With instructional time so valuable, it is important not to waste time teaching what the students already know. It is also important to refrain from moving ahead page by page, if the students are struggling. But again, how do teachers determine the needs of their students? A balanced system of assessment gives teachers a complete picture of each child’s understanding, not just a single glimpse from a test. Formative and summative assessments, including observations of students’ work, discussions with students, and assessment of their finished products, all give valuable perspectives on their capabilities and needs. In addition, to maximize student learning, students themselves must be involved in assessing their own work based on criteria, rubrics, or exemplars. To truly “leave no child behind,” assessment should be more than just giving grades on tests and on report cards. Chapter eight examines an overview of both individual and class assessments that allow teachers to refine and extend their instruction to meet the needs of In Practice How does Guided Math look in a real classroom? What would one see? Chapter nine provides an overview of how the components of this approach come together and are applied. Guided Math can be implemented by a single classroom teacher, but collaboration among teachers makes the process easier. Teachers may want to choose among the various components of Guided Math using the Menu of Instruction (Figure 1.1). It is often easier for teachers to begin with a few of the components and gradually add more. Figure 1.1: Guided Math Menu of Instruction Guided Math: Menu of Instruction Daily: Classroom Environment of Numeracy—A classroom should be a community where students are surrounded by mathematics. This includes real-life math tasks, data analysis, math word walls, instruments of measurement, mathematical communication, class-created math charts, graphic organizers, calendars, and evidence of problem solving. Daily: Calendar Math and Morning Work—This daily appetizer prepares the palate for the “Your Choice” entrées below with calendar activities, problems of the day, data work, incredible equations, review of skills to be maintained, and previews of skills to come. Your Choice: Whole-Class Instruction—The following are excellent teaching strategies to use when students are working at the same level of achievement: introducing lessons with a mini lesson or an activating strategy, teacher modeling and think-alouds, read-alouds of math-related literature, organizing a Math Huddle, reviewing previously mastered skills, setting the stage for Math Workshop, and using written assessments. Your Choice: Small-Group Instruction—Students are instructed in small groups with changing composition based on their needs. The individualized preparation for these groups offers tantalizing opportunities to introduce new concepts, practice new skills, work with manipulatives, provide intensive and targeted instruction to struggling learners, introduce activities that will later become part of Math Workshop, conduct informal assessments, and reteach based on student needs. Your Choice: Math Workshop—Students are provided with independent work to complete individually, in pairs, or in cooperative groups. The work may be follow-up from whole-class or small-group instruction, practice of previously mastered skills, investigations, math games, Math Journals, or interdisciplinary work. Daily: Conferencing—To enhance learning, teachers confer individually with students, informally assess their understandings, provide opportunities for one-on-one mathematical communications, and determine teaching points for individual students, as well as for the class. Daily: Assessment—Be sure to include a generous helping of assessment for learning to inform instruction, with a dollop of assessment of learning to top off each unit. The very nature of this approach to teaching mathematics allows it to be incorporated flexibly into daily schedules. The constant daily features are the environment of numeracy, calendar board, morning work, conferencing, and assessment. All of these can be spread throughout the day. During the block of time allotted for mathematics instruction, a teacher may choose from whole-group instruction; small-group instruction; Math Workshop; or a combination of them based on the level of support needed by the class for the mathematical content being taught. Levels of support vary according to the instructional approach chosen by the teacher. Figure 1.2 provides an outline of instructional approaches, teacher activities, and support levels that complement the approaches and activities. Figure 1.2: Levels of Support for the Guided Math Components \| Instructional Approach \| Teacher Activity \| Level of Support \| \|------------------------\|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\| \| Whole Group \| Activating Strategies, Modeling, Think-Alouds, Direct Instruction, Mini Lessons, Leading Students in formulating conjectures or Math Congresses, Directed Review \| Full support for all students by the teacher specifying the approach to problem solving or guiding the conversation; teacher has the major responsibility. \| \| Small Group \| Facilitates as students explore new concepts and extends understanding of previously introduced concepts \| Moderate level of support and targeted instruction based on student needs; more responsibility is released to students as the teacher provides scaffolding for their efforts. \| \| Math Workshop \| Provides tasks for independent, individual, or group work by students \| Low level of support; tasks should be those which students can complete without teacher assistance; responsibility is shifted to students. \| Since the ultimate goal of mathematics instruction is to teach students to solve problems independently, the flexible nature of these components encourages the gradual release of responsibility approach described by Pearson and Gallagher (1983). In the gradual release of responsibility model, teachers provide students with various levels of scaffolds and gradually help them take responsibility for concepts. The gradual release of responsibility begins with the teacher doing most of the work. The whole-class instruction option provides the maximum teacher support. Teachers may lead students through an activating activity to tap students’ background knowledge and stimulate interest. Through modeling and think-alouds, teachers can guide students through their thinking as they demonstrate mathematical concepts and problem-solving strategies. Whole-class instruction is primarily a teacher-centered activity. Students listen, answer questions, and turn and talk with partners when requested. The teacher has minimal opportunity to monitor comprehension or communicate with most of the class. In the next phase of the gradual release of responsibility model, the students are expected to increase their roles in learning the concepts. When working in small, Guided Math groups, the role of the student increases. The teacher carefully provides instruction appropriate to the needs of the group and provides scaffolding to allow students to move beyond their independent capabilities, increasing student responsibility for learning. The final stage of the gradual release of responsibility model enables the students to take complete responsibility for their learning. In Math Workshop, students assume full responsibility in tasks planned by the teacher. They work independently, individually, or in small groups and should not only be very familiar with the procedures and expectations of the teacher, but should also be able to carry out the assigned work with no additional teacher guidance. Students move through these components, gradually assuming more responsibility for their conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. Since learning is not usually a completely linear process, the level of teacher support required by students varies from day to day and lesson to lesson. Guided Math offers teachers an instructional framework that encourages students to gradually assume increasing responsibility as they learn, while at the same time providing scaffolding and support when needed. Figure 1.3, on the following page, shows how these components can be woven together for instruction during the week. On Monday, the entire mathematics period is taught as a whole group as the class begins with an Activating Strategy. A problem is then presented, which the teacher solves by thinking aloud to explain the thought process to the students. Following the problem-solving activity, the independent work for the week is introduced with a mini lesson. On Tuesday, the class begins with a read-aloud of mathematics-related literature as the whole class gathers to listen and then discusses the mathematical connections. After the read-aloud, students begin independent work in Math Workshop. The tasks were explained on Monday, so students should be ready to begin with little additional direction. For the first fifteen minutes of the Math Workshop, the teacher circulates around the classroom, conferencing with individual students. For the last thirty minutes, the teacher meets with Guided Math group 1. The lesson is tailored specifically to the needs of these students who have been grouped together because of their similar needs. They may be students who have already mastered what most of the students are currently working on and they can be given more challenging instruction. Or, they may be students who the teacher noticed have a particular problem that can be addressed easily through small group instruction. Sometimes, they are students who need additional scaffolding and support with the concepts on which the class is working. Wednesday’s structure is similar to that of Tuesday. The class begins with a mini lesson, but this time a problem is posed for the class to solve and discuss. Math Workshop begins with the teacher engaged in conferencing initially. The teacher meets with Guided Math group 2 after conferencing, which is another group with different needs. To meet with two groups on Thursday, the teacher dispenses with the mini lesson. Students begin Math Workshop immediately. The teacher spends fifteen minutes conferencing, followed by thirty minutes with Guided Math group 3. For the last thirty minutes of the class, the teacher meets again with the first group who had met previously on Tuesday, for additional instruction. The schedule for Friday is quite different. Students meet for whole-class instruction as they participate in a Math Huddle. During this time, they share and discuss their observations, problem-solving strategies, conjectures, or representations with the class. The ideas shared are recorded in a chart or graphic organizer that is posted in the room for future reference. \| Day \| Activity \| Guided Math Components \| \|-------\|--------------------------------------------------------------------------\|------------------------\| \| Monday\| • activating strategy • problem solving think-aloud by teacher • explanation of independent work for the week (investigation, paper/pencil practice, games) \| Whole Class \| \| Tuesday\| • mini lesson (read-aloud) • independent math work with teacher conferencing for the first 15 minutes • Guided Math with group 1 \| Whole Class Workshop Conferencing Small Group \| \| Wednesday\| • problem challenge mini lesson • independent math work with teacher conferencing for the first 15 minutes • Guided Math with group 2 \| Whole Class Workshop Conferencing Small Group \| \| Thursday\| • independent math work with teacher conferencing for the first 15 minutes • Guided Math with group 3 • Guided Math with group 1 \| Workshop Conferencing Small Group \| \| Friday \| • Math Huddle (students share their observations, problem solving strategies, conjectures, representations) • create a chart or graphic organizer to post in the classroom for reference \| Whole Class \| This weekly plan is an example of the kind of flexibility the framework offers teachers. When planning, it is important to take into account the curriculum and the students to determine which of the components work best for each day of instruction. The U.S. Department of Education’s National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008) suggests that research does not support the contention that mathematics instruction should be completely teacher-centered or student-centered. Instead, it should be “informed by high-quality research, when available, and by the best professional judgment and experience of accomplished classroom teachers.” Guided Math is a framework for teachers that allows them to use their professional judgment to structure mathematics instruction to meet the diverse needs of the students in their classes. It moves away from the one-size-fits-all model and empowers teachers to determine the best instructional strategies for each student, for the class, and for the concepts being taught each day. Review and Reflect Think of the way you currently teach mathematics. 1. What aspects of it are successful? 2. What aspects of it trouble you? Why? 3. Does your math instruction lead your students to a deep conceptual understanding of the math standards that they are learning? If so, what are you doing that contributes to that? If not, how do you think you would like to change your teaching? You’ve Just Finished your Free Sample Enjoyed the preview? 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1. Tick the representations that show $\frac{3}{4}$ 2. Colour $\frac{3}{4}$ of each shape. 3. Rosie is sharing out 16 strawberries. She shares them into 4 equal groups. a) What is $\frac{1}{4}$ of the strawberries? \[ \frac{1}{4} \text{ of } 16 = \square \] b) What is $\frac{2}{4}$ of the strawberries? \[ \frac{2}{4} \text{ of } 16 = \square \] c) What is $\frac{3}{4}$ of the strawberries? \[ \frac{3}{4} \text{ of } 16 = \square \] d) What is $\frac{4}{4}$ of the strawberries? \[ \frac{4}{4} \text{ of } 16 = \square \] 4. Work out $\frac{3}{4}$ of £20 \[ £ \square \] 5 Year 2 are planting sunflower seeds. Annie has 4 pots and 12 seeds. She plants the same number of seeds in each pot. a) Draw the seeds she puts in each pot. b) Complete the number sentences. \[ \frac{1}{4} \text{ of } 12 = \square \\ \frac{3}{4} \text{ of } 12 = \square \] 6 The bar model is split into 4 equal parts. a) What is the value of each part? Label it on the bar model. b) Use the bar model to find $\frac{3}{4}$ of 8 7 Draw a bar model to find $\frac{3}{4}$ of 40 \[ \frac{3}{4} \text{ of } 40 = \square \] 8 Write <, > or = to compare the statements. a) $\frac{1}{4}$ of 4 $\bigcirc$ $\frac{3}{4}$ of 4 b) $\frac{1}{2}$ of 20 $\bigcirc$ $\frac{3}{4}$ of 20 9 Scott has some seeds. He puts $\frac{3}{4}$ of the seeds into his hand. He puts the rest of the seeds on the table. How many seeds does Scott have in his hand? Use a bar model to help you.	e13afd13-f49f-44b5-9d6e-e026315cc53b	CC-MAIN-2021-39	https://www.yattonschools.co.uk/_site/data/files/users/y2/BCA5774110B40AFA725F6D47FEE110C5.pdf	2021-09-22T01:30:58+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057303.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20210922011746-20210922041746-00203.warc.gz	1,073,842,644	550	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.941609	eng_Latn	0.953132	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 645, 1541 ]	[ 4.34375 ]	3	0
A MARITIME MISSION Security Forces Join to Protect an Ocean of Opportunities PLUS A Conversation with Nigeria’s Chief of Naval Staff VISIT US AT ADF-MAGAZINE.COM features 8 Waves of Opportunity and Risk Africa’s maritime riches are threatened by crime and foreign interference. 12 ‘It’s Our Navy’ Nigeria’s chief of naval staff relies on technology, cooperation and discipline to defeat maritime crime. 16 Putting the Pieces Together Nigeria’s Deep Blue project integrates air, land and sea assets to secure the nation’s maritime domain. 22 Power Play Russia’s and China’s designs on naval bases could imperil the continent’s maritime security and sovereignty. 28 Changing With the Times As maritime security comes to the forefront, the Ghana Navy must evolve and build new partnerships. 34 Time to Act Nations can take proactive measures to deter illegal fishing. 40 Eyes In The Sky Nations are turning to drones as an inexpensive way to secure the maritime domain. 44 Protecting Inland Waterways Major rivers and lakes are a priceless resource when used properly. 50 Coastal Nations Band Together Countries are organizing in regional groups to fight maritime crime. departments 4 Viewpoint 5 African Perspective 6 Africa Today 56 Culture & Sports 58 World Outlook 60 Defense & Security 62 Paths of Hope 64 Growth & Progress 66 Flashback 67 Where Am I? ON THE COVER: A Kenyan diver trains at Cutlass Express 2022 in Mombasa, Kenya. This type of specialized training and the international cooperation on maritime duties and defense are key to maritime security. CHIEF PETTY OFFICER JUSTIN STUMBERG/ U.S. NAVY Africa Defense Forum is available online. Please visit us at adf-magazine.com As world leaders look to jump-start economic growth, many are turning to the so-called blue economy. African nations are poised to benefit from this focus on maritime commerce and security. The continent has 38 coastal countries and sits at the intersection of major trade routes connecting Europe, Asia and the Americas. By 2030, Africa’s ocean economy is expected to double compared to 2010 and employ millions more people. But this growth is not guaranteed. Piracy and armed robbery at sea derail trade. Illegal fishing plunders valuable natural resources. Pollution destroys marine ecosystems and scares away tourists. Security professionals know the high stakes and have begun to notch some victories. In 2021, pirate attacks sank to their lowest level in 27 years. Attacks dropped by more than half in the Gulf of Guinea, which had been the world’s worst piracy hot spot. In the Gulf of Aden and off the coast of Somalia, piracy dropped even further with only one recorded attack. This success is due to close cooperation between coastal nations and international partners. Nations are investing in maritime domain awareness tools to provide a better picture of the vessels operating off their coasts. They also are sharing information so vessels cannot cross maritime borders to evade capture or exploit areas of weak enforcement. Some are updating laws to make sure pirates can be prosecuted once they are caught. Countries must apply this same resolve to other threats. Illegal fishing costs the continent billions of dollars each year. Large foreign trawlers are decimating fisheries with harmful and unsustainable practices. Stopping it will require high-tech surveillance and stronger laws. Likewise, narcotics trafficking in West Africa has returned to levels not seen since the mid-2000s. Coastal nations targeted by traffickers are facing rising levels of violence, corruption and addiction. Reversing this trend will require international intelligence-sharing and domestic cooperation among military, police and government agencies. None of this will be easy. For the continent’s navies to defeat maritime threats, they must commit to careerlong training, technological superiority, and maintaining and expanding their fleets. But the payoff will be worth the effort. Securing the seas opens the door to new investments. Protecting marine ecosystems today offers hope for tomorrow. U.S. Africa Command Staff Senegalese Marines prepare to land a combat rubber raiding craft on the beach in Dakar during an amphibious landing drill. LANCE CPL. ETHAN ROBERT JONES/U.S. MARINE CORPS I am again very happy to meet you this morning for the closing ceremony of Exercise Obangame Express. In a year when some 18 countries from the Gulf of Guinea have taken part, not to mention our partners, the number of attendees bears witness to our countries’ commitment to promote and improve maritime security in the Gulf of Guinea. Obangame Express is an important event for the National Navy of Senegal, for all navies of the Gulf of Guinea and for the subregion. It has enabled us to acquire, test, and assess the techniques and the crews, and it thus represents an appropriate indication of the progress that we are making in strengthening and conducting our maritime missions. Obangame Express is of particular interest to us, as it enables us to develop an interoperability among the various naval forces in the subregion and the Gulf of Guinea. I am therefore pleased to commend such an effort to conduct training activities and drills on a subregional scale with the support of our American, European and Brazilian partners. The various scenarios that we conducted enabled us to develop the capabilities of the coordination centers, as well as the capabilities to plan and conduct marine operations, and the capabilities to lead naval units and on-board teams performing ship visits, and to work with aircraft. They have emphasized the means for information-sharing; I believe this is an essential factor on which we should all work together in the subregion. Despite these improvements, it is clear that there still remains some way to go, which is recognized by everyone. We still have some work to do, and this is why we need again to really mobilize the interministerial spirit, mobilize enough resources in our countries to be able to work together, and contribute the efforts that are required for securing our waters and maritime domains. We can see this at the national level: Various improvements have been mentioned during this gathering concerning the equipment, the training, and the interministerial efforts enabling the creation of appropriate bodies, in order to spark a synergy within our countries. I would like to thank in particular the military commander of U.S. Africa Command for holding the series of Express exercises since 2011 with the participation of our European and Brazilian partners. I would also like to congratulate all participants who came here to share their experiences in conducting maritime security missions under the direction of our respective countries. Your dedication, your exemplary commitment and your team spirit have all contributed to the success of this exercise. You have given here the proof that a cooperation among the naval forces of all countries provides the best defense in order to thwart the various maritime threats. Current events in our subregion require that we work together and adopt an operationally vigorous and permanent stance at all levels. Officers, noncommissioned officers, quartermasters and seamen, all that remains for me to do is to convey my best wishes as you return to your various countries. I hope that the achievements of this exercise will benefit the conduct of future operations. The hospital room is air-cooled to feel like a pangolin’s burrow. The patient, Lumbi, is syringe-fed with a protein-packed smoothie, given a daily dose of medicine and has his vital signs checked. Lumbi is being treated for a blood parasite after he was rescued from traffickers in South Africa’s northern Limpopo province. He and several other pangolins are patients of Johannesburg Wildlife Veterinary Hospital, founded in 2016 to treat and rehabilitate indigenous wildlife. They were confiscated from poachers in South Africa and neighboring countries, including Mozambique, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Many pangolins are in a horrendous state when rescued. They often need medical care after being kept in sacks and car trunks for weeks with no food or water. “It’s like an ICU (intensive care unit) for pangolins,” said Nicci Wright, the wildlife rehabilitation specialist attending to Lumbi. The pangolins are kept at a secret site during treatment. It can be weeks to months before they are ready to be released. Vets administer standard treatments used on other mammals such as cats and dogs. Often they work. “It’s just a leap of faith every time you try something,” said vet Kelsey Skinner after giving Lumbi his daily dose of meds. The scaly, insect-eating mammals are solitary and nocturnal. “They are like people. They have just the most unique little personalities. Some of them are shy. They don’t want to be touched,” Skinner said. “Others are very out there and play a lot in the mud.” Pangolins are believed to be the most trafficked mammals on earth. They’re prized for their scales — made of keratin, like human nails — which are used in Asia for their supposed medicinal properties. Found only in the wild in Asia and Africa, their numbers are plummeting under pressure from poaching. Some species are listed as critically endangered. No one knows how many are left. Freeing them into the wild is a crucial process to ensure that the endangered mammals survive after the huge investment poured into their treatment and rehabilitation. They can be released only into a relatively safe area, such as a well-patrolled private game reserve, to avoid them falling into the poachers’ clutches again. In addition, the habitat has to be right. “We need to be absolutely sure they are finding the right food, they are finding the burrows,” Wright said. “Otherwise they will simply die.” CÔTE D’IVOIRE WALLS UP FOREST to fend off encroaching city AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE Construction workers in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, are building a barrier around a primary forest in the center of the city to protect the endangered green space from urban expansion. When finished, a cement block fence 10 kilometers long will run along the edge of Banco National Park to prevent it from being swallowed up. Along with the Tijuca National Park in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the nature reserve is one of just two virgin forests worldwide to have survived in the heart of a metropolis. Ivoirian ecologist Tom Thalmas Lasme said the wall is crucial in a country that has lost a huge swath of forests in the past 50 years. The nature reserve of 3,474 hectares is home to about “30 flora species in danger of extinction in West Africa,” he said. But in six years, population and construction growth have eroded its boundaries. Those who live along its borders regularly slip in to chop down trees for firewood or hunt animals for food, locals say. Drivers speeding along its western edge also have started fires with discarded cigarette butts. Côte d’Ivoire has lost as much as 80% of its natural forests in just 50 years due to agriculture, bush fires, illegal forest exploitation and artisanal mining, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Of the 3 million hectares of forests the country has left, 2 million have been designated as 14 separate nature reserves, the Ivoirian Office for Parks and Reserves (OIPR) says. Every year 300,000 more hectares of trees vanish. The OIPR is building the barrier around the western and northern boundaries of Abidjan’s forest with government and Japanese funding to help halt the destruction. “The Banco forest absorbs carbon dioxide and emits essential oxygen for Abidjan’s 6 million inhabitants,” said the office’s head, Adama Tondossama. “We have erected this concrete fence to avoid this green lung from disappearing due to deforestation.” Fousseni Coulibaly, a lieutenant colonel in charge of the park, said preserving the reserve also helps regulate rainfall and recharge the underwater reserves feeding the nearby city with drinking water. Workers build a fence around Banco National Park in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, to protect it from urban encroachment. AP/GETTY IMAGES BURKINABE ARCHITECT WINS TOP PRIZE ADF STAFF Diébédo Francis Kéré of Burkina Faso has won the 2022 Pritzker Architecture Prize, making him the first African architect ever to win the prestigious international award. Kéré works mostly in challenging locales using local materials that serve entire communities, according to a report for the website ArchDaily. “Through buildings that demonstrate beauty, modesty, boldness, and invention, and by the integrity of his architecture and geste, Kéré gracefully upholds the mission of this Prize,” according to the official statement of the Pritzker Architecture Prize. In mid-March 2022, Kéré was in Porto-Novo, Benin, where his firm, Kéré Architecture, was working on a new parliamentary building based on the palaver tree, which “is a tree under which people come together to make decisions, to celebrate,” he told NPR. Kéré had an oasis in mind as he designed Naaba Belem Goumma Secondary School and Gando Primary School in his native Burkina Faso, NPR reported. Kéré was born in Gando. His designs are a harmonious blend of practicality, function and local materials. Gando Primary School, for example, mixed indigenous clay and cement to form bricks that have “bioclimatic thermal mass,” according to the prize announcement. This lets them keep cooler air inside while warmer air flows out through a brick ceiling and a wide, overhanging roof. The result: ventilation without mechanical air conditioning in a harsh climate. Kéré’s innovations helped the school increase its enrollment from 120 to 700 students. “I am hoping to change the paradigm, push people to dream and undergo risk,” Kéré said, according to the prize announcement. “It is not because you are rich that you should waste material. It is not because you are poor that you should not try to create quality. Everyone deserves quality, everyone deserves luxury, and everyone deserves comfort.” As nations emerge from the pandemic, they are trying to boost economic growth wherever possible. One focus is the “blue economy,” made up of the businesses that rely on water to thrive. This sector, which includes energy, tourism and fishing, is projected to double from 2010 to 2030, when it will employ 40 million people globally. Africa’s 47,000 kilometers of coastline ideally positions it to capitalize on that growth. But this prosperity faces threats from piracy, trafficking and illegal fishing. Security professionals will need to protect the continent’s fisheries, trade routes and ports so that the economic windfall can become a reality. These charts illustrate the promise and threats to Africa’s blue economy. Drug Trafficking In the early 2000s, authorities noticed larger volumes of cocaine trafficked from South America through West Africa to Europe. This peaked in 2007 when an estimated 47 tons of cocaine were trafficked through the region. West African security forces worked with international police organizations to decrease that volume for more than a decade. However, authorities now warn of a resurgence. There were record-breaking cocaine seizures in West Africa between 2019 and early 2021. Traffickers now target maritime ports, airports and ungoverned land routes to move drugs across the continent. Much of the product also is infiltrating West African communities, leading to addiction, corruption and violence. Major Seizures from 2019 to 2021 1. March 2019: Authorities seized 789 kilograms of narcotics from a truck that had traveled from Dakar, Senegal, to Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. It was the first major seizure in Guinea-Bissau in more than a decade. 2. April 2019: Authorities seized 72 kilograms of narcotics in Senegal at the Dam of Gouloumbu. 3. June 2019: Officials discovered more than 1.3 metric tons of cocaine over four days in Senegal. The cocaine was hidden in two Italian-flagged ships. The second shipment was the largest in the country since 2007 and was found inside 15 cars on a ship from Brazil. 4. 2019: Gambian authorities seized a large volume of cocaine at Banjul port. 5. September 2, 2019: Cocaine was seized in Caio and Canchungo, Guinea-Bissau. 6. September 17, 2019: Authorities seized 4 kilograms of cocaine in the port of Dakar. 7. October 2019: Two Bissau-Guinean nationals were arrested with cocaine pellets at the Giboro border post by Gambian authorities. 8. November 6, 2019: The Senegalese Navy seized 750 kilograms of cocaine aboard an intercepted fishing boat. 9. 2019: Authorities seized a kilogram of cocaine at Bissau airport in Guinea-Bissau. The head of Bissau-Guinean migration agency eventually was arrested in connection with the seizure. 10. January 8, 2021: Gambian authorities seized 2.9 metric tons of cocaine in containers at the Banjul port. 11. There have been numerous reports of narcotics being landed on islands in the Bijagos Archipelago of Guinea-Bissau before being smuggled into the continent. Current traffic at container terminals - 401–1,000 TEU - 100–400 TEU - Less than 100 TEU TEU = 20-foot equivalent units Legend: - Transit point or area - Key cocaine flows - Capital city - City - Airport - Crime zone - Free trade zones - Secondary hub of illicit activity - Primary hub of illicit activity - Area where Latin American nationals connected to cocaine traffickers are said to live Source: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime Piracy Piracy declined globally and across the continent in 2021. In the Gulf of Guinea, the world’s worst piracy hot spot, there was a 60% drop in incidents compared to the previous year. Nigeria recorded no successful kidnapping incidents in its waters in 2021 for the first time in recent years. Similarly, piracy in East Africa has dwindled from its peak a decade ago. In 2021, there was only one piracy incident reported in the Somali Basin or the Gulf of Aden. Continued security in the continent’s coastal waters is vital to maritime trade and tourism. Kidnapping Incidents in the Gulf of Guinea in 2021 \| Date \| Country \| Location \| Vessel Type \| Crew Kidnapped \| \|------------\|-----------------------\|---------------------------------\|------------------------------\|----------------\| \| Jan. 23 \| São Tomé and Principe \| 98 nm NW of São Tomé Island \| Container ship \| 15 \| \| Feb. 8 \| Gabon \| 83 nm WSW of Port Gentil \| Fishing vessel \| 10 \| \| March 11 \| Benin \| 212 nm South of Cotonou \| Chemical tanker \| 15 \| \| May 19 \| Ghana \| 66 nm South of Tema \| Fishing vessel \| 5 \| \| May 31 \| Benin \| 104 nm South of Cotonou \| Fishing vessel \| 5 \| \| Sept. 5 \| Gabon \| At Owndo Inner Anchorage \| Offshore supply vessel \| 1 \| \| Dec. 13 \| Equatorial Guinea \| 46 nm SW of Luba \| Container ship \| 6 \| nm = nautical miles Source: International Maritime Bureau West African Cocaine Seizures by Year 2021 figures are only through March. Source: Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime Oil Theft Coastal waters near many parts of the continent sit atop immense oil and natural gas reserves. Africa has an estimated 203 billion barrels of recoverable oil resources. Between 2009 and 2014, it accounted for 30% of global oil and gas discoveries. But insecurity and theft threaten this natural wealth. From small-scale bunkering to organized attacks on ships, criminals have disrupted oil and gas production, costing national economies billions of dollars. Many countries view protecting energy infrastructure as a vital national interest. Africa’s Largest Proved Oil Reserves In billions of barrels, 2021 \| Country \| Reserves (billion barrels) \| \|--------------------------\|----------------------------\| \| Libya \| 48.4 \| \| Nigeria \| 36.9 \| \| Algeria \| 12.2 \| \| Angola \| 7.8 \| \| Sudan \| 5.0 \| \| Egypt \| 3.3 \| \| Republic of the Congo \| 2.9 \| \| Uganda \| 2.5 \| \| Gabon \| 2.0 \| \| Chad \| 1.5 \| \| Equatorial Guinea \| 1.1 \| \| Ghana \| 0.7 \| \| Tunisia \| 0.4 \| \| Cameroon \| 0.2 \| \| Democratic Republic of the Congo \| 0.2 \| \| Niger \| 0.2 \| \| Côte d’Ivoire \| 0.1 \| Source: Energy Information Administration By the Numbers - 200,000 barrels of oil are lost each day in Nigeria due to illegally tapped pipelines. - As much as 80% of oil does not make it to terminals due to theft along transportation networks in Nigeria. - $133 billion in fuel is stolen or adulterated worldwide each year. - $4.8 billion is lost each year in Nigeria due to oil theft. - 30% of Nigeria’s refined fuel is smuggled into neighboring states for sale. - Two-thirds of all energy supplies globally are transported by sea. Sources: Nigerian National Petroleum Corp., Business Insider Africa, Tracti.Org, Stable Seas The Blue Economy With 38 countries touching the ocean, Africa’s potential to expand the sectors that make up the blue economy is enormous. In its Integrated Maritime Strategy 2050, the African Union prioritized protecting and expanding these businesses. One major goal is investing in African ports, which, on average, are underused and take longer to process shipments than ports in other parts of the world. But the potential economic growth engine faces an array of threats including environmental degradation, foreign exploitation and domestic insecurity. An Economic Force - Africa has more than 100* ports. - 90% of the continent’s imports and exports are moved by sea. - African-owned ships make up only 1.2% of the global fleet. - 10 million people rely on fishing or the fish supply chain for income. - 200 million people on the continent rely on fish as a major part of their diet. - Fisheries generate $24 billion for national economies. - Illegal fishing costs the continent more than $1 billion each year. Ocean Economy Sectors by Percentage The value of the ocean economy was $1.5 trillion in 2010, 2.5% of the world’s gross domestic product. Between 2010 and 2030, the global ocean economy is projected to double to $3 trillion. \| Sector \| Percentage \| \|-------------------------------\|------------\| \| Maritime and coastal tourism \| 26% \| \| Offshore oil and gas \| 21% \| \| Port activities \| 16% \| \| Maritime equipment \| 10% \| \| Industrial fish processing \| 9% \| \| Offshore wind \| 8% \| \| Water transport \| 4% \| \| Shipbuilding and repair \| 3% \| \| Industrial capture fisheries \| 2% \| \| Industrial marine aquaculture \| <1% \| Sources: Institute for Security Studies, African Union ‘IT’S OUR NAVY’ NIGERIA’S CHIEF OF NAVAL STAFF RELIES ON TECHNOLOGY, COOPERATION AND DISCIPLINE TO DEFEAT MARITIME CRIME Vice Adm. Awwal Zubairu Gambo has served in the Nigerian Navy for more than 30 years. His career includes time working on naval strategy, intelligence, training and as a defense attache. In 2017, he was the security coordinator for the Presidential Relief Committee on North Eastern Nigeria and was chief staff officer at Headquarters Naval Training Command. In 2018, he was appointed director of procurement at the Defence Space Administration. In January 2021, he became the 21st chief of naval staff. This interview has been edited for space and clarity. ADF: In 2021, piracy incidents in Nigerian waters fell to their lowest levels in 27 years. How do you explain this drop? Gambo: It is well known that the nation’s maritime domain is replete with criminal elements and economic saboteurs who had freedom of movement and action. This freedom hindered the conduct of legitimate economic activities, which, of course, caused attendant negative perception of the country. According to the International Maritime Bureau, there were 135 kidnapping cases recorded in 2020 worldwide, and 130 of these took place in the Gulf of Guinea. It became expedient for the Nigerian Navy to take drastic measures to reverse the unfortunate trend. The first line of action for me was to bolster the Nigerian Navy presence to dominate the space through aggressive patrols to deny these economic saboteurs freedom of action. Therefore, last year, Nigerian Navy ships were at sea for 32,665 hours compared to the 25,932 hours recorded in 2020. This eventually resulted in a significant decline in criminal activities in the nation’s maritime domain. I would say this is strongly attributable to the uncommon support of the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic, President Muhammadu Buhari. Through aggressive recapitalization of the Nigerian Navy we have added over 100 platforms, including flag capital ships, fast patrol boats, in-shore patrol craft and air assets. There has also been the indigenous construction of a seaward defense boat. ADF: How do you plan to prevent a resurgence in piracy? Gambo: Of course, to keep piracy at these low levels, the Navy must sustain an operationally efficient fleet with robust logistic support. This includes the upgrade of facilities at the Naval Dockyard Limited in Lagos, the Naval Shipyard in Port Harcourt as well as the fleet maintenance groups and fleet support units and our engineering college in Delta State. Additionally, the Navy has revamped the moribund apprenticeship school in the Naval Dockyard in Lagos to further enable the Navy to meet her technical manpower needs and the needs of the maritime industry, which is highly depleted. Lastly, I must not fail to highlight the contributions of my officers and ratings deployed on various ships and shore bases. They are availing themselves of professional training across various specializations, and there are diverse efforts to enhance living conditions and improve infrastructure at our bases, schools and hospitals. The personnel have demonstrated renewed focus in line with my mantra: “It’s our Navy.” This means we have to do it; nobody will do it for us. So, all hands are on deck. “The first line of action for me was to bolster the Nigerian Navy presence to dominate the space through aggressive patrols.” — Vice Adm. Awwal Zubairu Gambo ADF: Nigeria has sought to improve its maritime domain awareness (MDA) through use of the Falcon Eye surveillance and intelligence system. This includes radars, cameras, sensors and satellite monitoring of the country’s coastline and up to 200 nautical miles seaward. Can you explain how this system works? Gambo: I would say the Falcon Eye is state-of-the-art MDA and surveillance infrastructure. The system has sensor sites strategically placed to cover the nation’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone. These sensors cover the entire nation’s maritime border and further stretch over the maritime boundaries of our neighboring states in the Gulf of Guinea. The Falcon Eye system enables the Navy to monitor real-time activities of vessels within and around the nation’s maritime domain. It always continuously tracks vessels to identify those engaging in illegal activities and, thereafter, our naval vessels are vectored to undertake interdiction operations. Between June 2020 and April 2022, about 7,826 vessels have been tracked with some arrested using the MDA system. The system was instrumental to the arrest of two merchant vessels. We had the MV Chayancee Naree and the MV Karteria. These vessels were tracked and diligently monitored from their ports of departure in Brazil following reports by Interpol that they are involved in smuggling cocaine into Nigeria. There was also the arrest of the Motor Tanker Queen of Peace on March 15, 2022, which was carrying over 3 million liters of stolen crude oil from Nigeria. It is pertinent to state that prior to the arrest, the vessel’s suspicious movement was monitored by the Falcon Eye for a month. So this system serves as a veritable force multiplier, which ensures that our operational patrols are intelligence driven, results oriented and cost effective. ADF: In West Africa, illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing costs the region $2.3 billion per year and has contributed to the loss of 300,000 jobs. Much of this IUU fishing is done by large, foreign trawlers. What is your strategy to clamp down on this harmful activity? Gambo: The Nigerian Navy collaborates with relevant government agencies to assist in the enforcement of laws related to fishing within the nation’s maritime environment, particularly the Department of Fisheries under the Ministry of Agriculture. The Navy set up a task force in 2016 named Operation Tsare Teku, which has the mandate to combat maritime crimes to create an enabling environment for safe shipping, oil and gas production, and other economic activities. The task force also tackles IUU fishing within Nigeria’s maritime environment. Nigeria has some of the best shrimp fishing in the world, which is found around the Bakassi Peninsula shared between us and the Republic of Cameroon. I’m pleased to say that the Nigerian Navy vessels interrogate fishing trawlers within the maritime domain regardless of size to ensure that they are legitimate. Most of the criminal vessels come with fishing carriers where, within hours of fishing, everything is processed and packed for sale outside our territory. So it is a very serious issue globally. I don’t want to mention the big players in this IUU fishing, but I’m sure we know. For diplomatic reasons I won’t mention any specific country. ADF: Nigeria modernized its maritime legal framework with the 2019 Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act. Since then, the law has been used to convict pirates captured in Nigerian waters. How important is it to update laws, and do you hope other countries in West Africa will follow suit? Gambo: Legal framework is central to successfully combat maritime crime. Prosecution of maritime offenses involves several law enforcement agencies. These agencies have diverse rules guiding their respective conduct of operations. This gap was identified, as was the need to review, restrategize and develop a unifying document. Consequently, enactment of the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act, which we call SPOMO, has bolstered the Navy’s collaboration with other law enforcement agencies to criminalize and prosecute maritime offenders. It has also further assisted to streamline and harmonize actions and procedures of maritime-related agencies regarding the handling of evidence and suspects of crimes. One notable conviction is the piracy case last July [2021] in which 10 pirates were sentenced to 12 years of imprisonment and financial fines. However, most Gulf of Guinea countries do not have laws to prosecute pirates, while some only allow prosecution of their own citizens. In July 2021, I was in Ghana for an international maritime exhibition and seminar. During the side talk with the heads of navy of ECOWAS [Economic Community of West African States] and ECCAS [Economic Community of Central African States], I presented the template, and they are already reengineering that to situate it to the particularities of their environment for adoption. The European Union visited the naval headquarters a few weeks ago, and we presented this to them as part of their inquiries. They have taken that template with the view of developing a legal framework in line with their own particularities in Europe. There is a lack of legal framework in some countries of the Gulf of Guinea at addressing maritime insecurity, especially when other nationals are involved in these crimes. To this end, we have championed the advocacy regarding the Gulf of Guinea states adopting these acts in tune with the realities of their own situation. ADF: You have emphasized the importance of ethical behavior in the Navy. In a speech in 2022 you warned commanders of “severe sanctions” for violations. Since becoming chief of naval staff, what have you done to promote accountability and crack down on misconduct in the Navy? Gambo: The importance of ethical behavior and accountability in the Nigerian Navy cannot be overemphasized. My commanders have been enjoined to acquaint themselves with my strategic directives and other relevant Navy statutes guiding their responsibilities. Commanders have been warned of sanctions for acts of indiscipline or connivance with criminal elements in the performance of their duties. Accordingly, they are assessed periodically and assigned key performance indicators to determine efficiency and effectiveness. There are also strategies in place for the judicious and legitimate use of allocated resources. These and other efforts have culminated in the significant reduction in crimes within the nation’s maritime domain. I would say everybody is whipped into line, and they know the expectations from the leadership of the Navy and, at the grand strategic level, the leadership of the country. ADF: What are your hopes and goals for the future of the Nigerian Navy and maritime security in the region more generally? Gambo: The Nigerian Navy is constitutionally saddled with the responsibility of protecting the nation’s territorial integrity by sea. My agenda for securing this maritime domain is captured in my vision statement, which is “to leverage on all factors of national location, technology, training, teamwork and synergy to reenergize the Nigerian Navy and enhance her as a well-motivated and ready naval force.” The focus is to sustain the Navy’s presence at sea and enhance our capacity to undertake cost-effective and result-oriented patrols by leveraging the potentials of MDA facilities. We want to cultivate robust, collaborative engagement, both within and without, with maritime stakeholders. These measures will bolster efforts in actualizing maritime security applications for socioeconomic activity, the well-being of Nigerians and national prosperity. Putting the Pieces Together As 2021 drew to a close, the once-perilous waters off Nigeria’s coast were showing signs of becoming uncharacteristically calm. In fact, the entire Gulf of Guinea region had shown a steady decrease in pirate attacks and armed robberies. From Senegal to Angola, the actual and attempted incidents had fallen from 82 in 2018 to just 35 in 2021. For Nigeria, which has long had some of the most dangerous territorial waters in West Africa, the news also was promising. Actual and attempted incidents off Nigeria’s coast had dropped precipitously from 48 in 2018 to just six in 2021, according to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB). However, complacency has not taken hold in Nigeria. “We are not sleeping,” Bashir Yusuf Jamoh, director-general and CEO of the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA), told ADF. In fact, Nigeria is wide awake. As the threat of international maritime crime, including piracy, oil theft, drug trafficking and illegal fishing, persists, Nigeria is responding with the Integrated National Security and Waterways Protection Infrastructure, also known as the Deep Blue Project. The project, recognizing connections between land- and sea-based criminal elements, knits together coordinated air, land and sea assets for a comprehensive view of the maritime domain. “The presence of the Deep Blue Project sent very good signals to those criminals to know that we are now fully ready for them,” Jamoh said. THE PROJECT’S COMPONENTS The equipment and personnel committed to the $195 million Deep Blue Project are significant. Air, land and sea assets will work together to acquire, consolidate, analyze and share information for effective maritime security. The project relies on civilian and military cooperation. For example, NIMASA is a civilian agency that focuses on security for commercial vessels, maritime labor regulation, pollution prevention and control, shipping registration, and training and certification of seafarers, among other things. The Nigerian Navy is responsible for securing and protecting territorial waters. For that reason, the Navy staffs Deep Blue sea assets. Air Force personnel will do the same for air assets. Jamoh, as NIMASA director-general, directs the project, and the agency provides logistics and management support. The air component consists of two special-mission Cessna CJ3 Citation jets. Helicopters and fast interceptor boats demonstrate air and sea capacities as part of the Deep Blue Project. equipped with multimode radar, a satellite communication system, an operator workstation and a 10-person crew capacity. There also are three helicopters and four sets of three unmanned aerial vehicles. On the water, Deep Blue will deploy two special-mission vessels — DB Lagos and DB Abuja — and 17 interceptor boats. Finally, land equipment consists of 16 armored vehicles and 600 Navy special forces personnel. As of early May 2022, all but 10 of the interceptor boats and eight armored vehicles had been received, Jamoh said. Air Force personnel were expected to complete training by the end of May. All 600 land-based Navy special forces personnel and the sea-based personnel have been trained. NIMASA expected the Deep Blue Project to be fully equipped and operating by mid-June 2022. One part of the land-based component is the Command, Control, Communication, Computer and Intelligence Centre (C4i). “That is the brain behind the Deep Blue Project,” Jamoh said. As land, sea and air personnel observe the maritime space, they collect data, which is fed to the C4i by satellite. The center’s staff includes NIMASA, Navy, Army, police, civil defense and Air Force personnel. “The men that control the center now control the information data and send it to the appropriate channels,” Jamoh said. “The C4i center works with the satellite system and coordinates the entire operations in the situation room. That situation room has the computers, and has the control and has the communication system that can transmit to the land, air and the sea operations.” So, for example, a patrolling plane could observe a problem at sea, transmit the information to C4i and have interceptor boats dispatched to investigate. At the same time, C4i coordinates with other authorities, such as the IMB, to share data and coordinate assistance in areas that Deep Blue assets cannot access. LAW BRINGS ORDER Equipment and technology are valuable, but there is more to maritime security than personnel, gadgets, intelligence, planes and ships. To have a lasting effect, assets must be backed by effective laws that help nations such as Nigeria ensure that arrests lead to effective prosecutions in court, and, if necessary, incarceration. That is why part of Nigeria’s success is embodied in the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences (SPOMO) Act, which President Muhammadu Buhari signed into law in June 2019. In the past, many nations were forced to release pirates and thieves after capture because they had no effective laws under which to prosecute them. Jamoh told ADF that the law has been effective. Since its inception, Nigeria has successfully prosecuted 20 criminals under the law, with all of them getting prison sentences. In fact, the law first was used to successfully prosecute 10 pirates in the case of the Hailufeng 11, a Chinese-flagged vessel attacked on May 15, 2020, in Ivoirian waters. The pirates turned off the vessel’s automatic identification system, which broadcasts location, leaving authorities to manually plot the ship’s location. As the vessel passed through Ghanaian, Togolese and Beninese waters, authorities exchanged information until it reached Nigerian territorial waters. At that point, the Nigerian Navy Ship Nguru pulled alongside the boat about 140 nautical miles south of Lagos, and Sailors boarded it and subdued the pirates. According to a July 23, 2021, report in The Maritime Executive, the 10 pirates each were sentenced to 12 years in prison and ordered to pay fines. “That particular law changed the risk-reward calculus for piracy in Nigeria,” said maritime expert Ian Ralby, CEO of LR. Consilium. Other regional nations with similar laws also began to try cases, changing the dynamic for organized criminal groups in the region. In the past, there was little fear of getting caught, much less prosecuted, but now “all of a sudden there’s a risk that not only you, but your entire network, may end up getting in trouble for it, with some serious consequences of going to jail for a very long time, that changes the risk tolerance for piracy,” Ralby told ADF. “So I think that combination of procurement and prosecution has had a significant effect.” ‘STICK AND CARROT APPROACH’ The potential for punishment often is best contrasted with an attractive opportunity to avoid prosecution. Jamoh calls it the “stick and carrot approach.” Deep Blue and the SPOMO Act constitute the “stick.” The “carrot” consists of an effort to provide opportunities to young people who might otherwise be enticed to join Special-mission vessels DB Abuja and DB Lagos will patrol Nigerian waters. illicit maritime networks that participate in piracy, theft or illegal fishing. In October 2021, Nigeria selected 200 young people to send for training at maritime institutions in India, Greece, the Philippines and the United Kingdom. The effort is part of the third phase of the Nigerian Seafarers Development Programme (NSDP), according to The EyeWitness News, a Nigerian online news site. The NSDP, which NIMASA manages, was established in 2008 to train people ages 17 to 22 in practical and theoretical skills at maritime institutions around the world to build a pool of capable seafarers, Jamoh wrote for Nigeria’s The Guardian newspaper. “The aim is for us to see that we keep the children, those idle children, away from the streets … so that they can have something to do instead of them looking at the maritime business as a source of making illegitimate wealth,” Jamoh told ADF. Students who come back to Nigeria will be trained to help “reposition the country for the Blue Economy that is being championed by NIMASA, which is aimed at diversifying the national economy,” Jamoh wrote. STAYING VIGILANT Despite a relatively quiet 2021 in the Gulf of Guinea, one incident in 2022 underscored the continued need for maritime security vigilance. In early April, pirates boarded the cargo ship Arch Gabriel 278 miles south of Lomé, Togo, as it idled, presumably waiting for its next contract. It was the first such boarding attack in the region in more than three months. The Maritime Executive reported that crew members sought refuge in a citadel room and that after several hours, the pirates left the vessel, which is registered in the Marshall Islands. An Italian Navy ship secured the Arch Gabriel and escorted it to Nigerian waters, where another vessel escorted it to Lagos. By the second half of 2022, Nigeria is expected to have all of its equipment, personnel and training in place under the Deep Blue Project. The project is expected to increase security in Nigerian territorial waters. But experts warned against complacency. “The IMB welcomes all initiatives designed to enhance maritime security in the region,” Michael Howlett, director of the IMB, told ADF in an email. “The Deep Blue Project is a positive initiative, but it needs to take leadership, liaise and cooperate with other regional initiatives to ensure the waters of the Gulf of Guinea are safe for innocent seafarers and trade.” Nigerian authorities are mindful that their increased capacity could push maritime criminals into the waters of neighboring countries, such as Benin or Cameroon. It has happened before. In 2013, the navies of Benin and Nigeria joined in Operation Prosperity. Headquartered in Cotonou, the bilateral effort gave Nigerian vessels permission to enter Beninese waters to enforce maritime security. Rear Adm. Boniface Konan, former acting director of the West Africa Regional Maritime Security Centre in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, told ADF by email that neighboring nations “can capitalize [on] Nigeria’s achievements through sharing of information, best practices and cooperation.” The Yaoundé Code of Conduct, signed in 2013, which set up maritime zones along West Africa’s coast, helps do that. Nigeria is part of Zone E, along with Benin, Niger and Togo. Konan said a memorandum of understanding signed in 2018 by those nations is being acted on now, which allows for joint patrols among the nations’ waters. A bilateral agreement between Cameroon and Nigeria also would help, as would similar legal processes across the zone, Konan said. Nigeria also will try to improve knowledge and cooperation across the region with the establishment of a regional maritime security and safety training center that will open in Lagos in 2022 and eventually move to Delta State, Jamoh said. The center will attempt to examine the maritime security terrain to identify common elements of regional crime and help countries form effective responses. Nigeria’s interest is not just security in its own territorial waters, but for its neighbors as well, Jamoh said. “If Ghana is not free, Nigeria will not be free,” Jamoh said. “If Nigeria is not free, Togo will not be free.” POWER PLAY Russia’s and China’s designs on naval bases could imperil the continent’s maritime security and sovereignty. As Russian armored personnel carriers and tanks trundled into Ukraine carrying more than 100,000 conscripts, Sudanese Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as Hemedti, was meeting with Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov in Moscow. Hemedti, deputy chief of Sudan’s sovereign council, and other national leaders arrived willing to bolster cooperation between the two nations — one, which is prosecuting a brutal war against civilians and the other, which recently dislodged a move toward democratic rule with a coup. During the eight-day visit, Hemedti reportedly renewed the prospect of Russia establishing a naval base on the Red Sea coast north of Port Sudan, giving President Vladimir Putin a coveted African naval presence in an increasingly strategic and crowded region. Across the continent in the Gulf of Guinea, the Chinese government has engaged for decades with Equatorial Guinea, chiefly through infrastructure projects. It now appears to be working to establish a permanent naval base, most likely at the port of Bata on the nation’s mainland. The Bata port has two commercial piers, either of which could handle any ship from the People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), according to a December 2021 article by the Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS). The port is tailor-made for Chinese use. An adjacent oil facility makes refueling convenient, and warehouse space eases resupply work. In fact, the China Communications Construction Co.’s First Harbor Engineering Co. built the port in 2014. The China Road and Bridge Corp. later upgraded it. The Export-Import Bank of China provided funding. China even built the hydroelectric plant that supplies most of the port’s power. “China has strengthened defense and security ties with Equatorial Guinea directly through bilateral engagements and indirectly by increasing its activities in the Gulf of Guinea,” the CSIS report states. “In 2014, the PLAN began port calls with Gulf countries and launched its first anti-piracy drills with local navies. From 2014 to 2019, China engaged in 39 military exchanges with Gulf counterparts, many involving PLAN vessels conducting anti-piracy operations.” A Chinese naval base on the West African coast would complement its military base in Djibouti, established in 2017. In Djibouti, China joined France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States in establishing bases along the strategic Suez-Red Sea-Gulf of Aden corridor. Russian and Chinese efforts to bolster their naval presence along the continent’s coastline raise serious questions about how nations can control their exclusive economic zones, especially as it relates to the fishing industry, the extraction of natural resources and other financial concerns. National governments will have to consider long-term ramifications of such deals as efforts continue to make the continent ground zero among great power competitors. RISKS TO SOVEREIGNTY Any time a foreign government finances, builds and operates a major infrastructure project in another... Fishermen work the coast in Dakar, Senegal. GETTY IMAGES country, there are inherent risks. Much has been written in recent years about how China uses its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to strike one-sided infrastructure deals that provide major projects using Chinese labor while building up billions of dollars in crushing debt for host nations. Such BRI projects already exist across the continent and in Asia. Base and port deals open nations to vulnerabilities on at least three levels, according to “Influence and Infrastructure: The Strategic Stakes of Foreign Projects,” a study for CSIS by Jonathan E. Hillman, a former senior fellow. Financing is the broadest category of potential influence. As a project is negotiated, the lending country can win concessions and set repayment conditions. As funding is disbursed, the lender holds the power of reward or punishment. Debt, which can be profound and outside a host nation’s ability to repay, can be leveraged against the infrastructure if the recipient can’t meet payment terms. Countries such as China or Russia could exert unwelcome control over infrastructure if payments aren’t made. Intelligence-gathering is among the risks at the design and construction stage, Hillman wrote. “For example, Soviet intelligence agents produced highly-detailed maps that included not only a bridge’s basic location and dimensions, but also its height above water, the construction material used, its weight limit, and other details,” he wrote. Risks also could include the installation of surveillance equipment. Such was the case with the African Union headquarters building in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, which China built as a “gift” for the AU. Authorities learned in 2017 that each night between midnight and 2 a.m., confidential data was being transferred from AU servers to servers in Shanghai, a charge China denied. Three years later, Chinese hackers were found to have rigged a system to copy surveillance video footage from AU headquarters, Reuters reported. Finally, ownership and operation can limit competitors’ access to strategic areas and help owners accrue regional influence “as they own and control a broader network of infrastructure assets,” Hillman wrote. Again, this can aid in intelligence-gathering. “There is a long history of countries using commercial ports for intelligence operations, whether to gain information or conceal the movement of goods or people,” he wrote. Ownership also affords logistical advantages. The potential for such advantages would be profound for China were it to succeed in establishing a naval base in Equatorial Guinea, or anywhere along the West African coast. EXPLOITING RESOURCES China and Russia are known to sponsor vessels that fish illegally off the African coast. But China’s distant-water fishing fleet (DWF) is in a class by itself. It’s not clear how many ships the DWF comprises, but most conservative estimates put it at 3,000 or so. The fleet already has siphoned away a substantial quantity of West Africa’s fish stocks, and a naval base in Equatorial Guinea — or anywhere on the Gulf of Guinea coast — would make enforcement efforts nearly impossible. Maritime law expert Ian Ralby, CEO of LR Consilium, said the addition of a Chinese naval base in the tiny West African nation would result in a “really grim picture.” “It’s already a cataclysmic situation vis-a-vis Chinese illegal fishing across almost all of West and Central Africa,” he told ADF. “If they then also have the naval assets to protect that from any interference, there’s just no hope.” With Chinese ships stationed at the center of the Gulf coast, nations such as Cameroon, Gabon, São Tomé and Príncipe, and others would be hard-pressed to stand up to a great power navy if it sought to protect its nation’s fishing vessels. The potential problems don’t stop with just fishing. Ralby said a heightened Chinese naval presence also could harm economic development in Equatorial Guinea and the region. The effects could extend to marine and coastal tourism, and they could affect blue economy efforts such as the harvest of seaweed or other marine resources for use in soap, cosmetics and medicines. Across the continent, Russia’s relationship with Sudan threatens to plunder other resources, chiefly those from Africa’s interior. Sudan’s ties with Russia are nothing new. When Putin invited African leaders to a summit in Sochi in 2017, Sudan’s then-dictator Omar al-Bashir said “Sudan would become Russia’s key to Africa,” Mohammed Elnaem, a London-based Sudanese activist, told German media service Deutsche Welle. Sudan is strategically important for Russia because it “stands at the confluence” of the Sahel, Horn of Africa and the Red Sea basin, Sudan expert Khlood Khair said. Such a base would afford the Kremlin a range of new geopolitical advantages, she said. “A Red Sea base for Russia would allow it to have a presence between two international chokeholds — one, the Suez Canal and the other, the Bab el Mandeb Strait between Yemen and Somalia,” Khair, a founder and managing partner of Insight Strategy Partners, a Sudanese policy think tank in Khartoum, told ADF. “And so it will allow it to be able to potentially control, if not influence, some of the trade that goes through there and also allow it to expand its trade, including, of course, bringing in resources into Russia — for example gold coming out of not just Sudan, but Central African Republic, Mali, etc.” The proposed base reportedly would accommodate nuclear-powered vessels and be available to Russia for 25 years with built-in renewal opportunities. It could refuel Russian and allied vessels. Perhaps most important, said Khair, it offers a sea outlet for the extraction of mineral resources by Russia’s Wagner Group private mercenary force. Wagner operatives are active in the Central African Republic, Mali and Sudan. “Wagner is a military asset that is there for economic reasons,” Khair said. It is used to funnel resources such as gold out of landlocked countries to bolster President Vladimir Putin’s war chest. A base on Sudan’s coast significantly eases that task. Aligning with an increasingly isolated Russia represents a gamble for Sudan. The Kremlin saw renewed opportunity in Sudan with generals such as Hemediti and Abdel Fattah al-Burhan calling the shots. And Russia offers Sudan a significant ally that won’t pressure it to pursue human rights or democratic governance, Khair said. The military regime is losing money and access to debt relief and financing, so Russia offers markets for gold and bolsters Sudan’s financial standing. It is, Khair said, a reversion to al-Bashir-era politics. However, now that Russia is facing global isolation, the initial calculus might not pay off as expected. The Ukraine invasion has made Putin a pariah. Sudan’s military wants legitimacy, but it also wants to maintain power. Those two desires, mixed with Russian ties, are difficult to reconcile. The prospects for lasting civilian rule also suffer as a result. “For the pro-democracy movement, it’s bad news,” Khair said. “It means that the generals’ role is sort of externally strengthened by a patron such as Russia that also sees no reason to cultivate any kind of democratic will.” CHANGING WITH THE TIMES Since independence, Ghana’s Navy has been the sole seagoing state institution with responsibility for securing the nation’s waters. Today, its mission has expanded, as have the security threats in the Gulf of Guinea. Piracy, illegal fishing, illicit trafficking and potential maritime terrorism are all major concerns for Ghana’s citizens, business owners and elected officials. And the Navy is no longer alone in its responsibilities. It must work alongside government ministries, other security institutions and private entities to fulfill its mandate. As Ghana seeks to achieve financial benefit from the “blue economy” while protecting precious natural resources, key questions arise. How will the role of the Ghana Navy evolve in line with its expanded maritime security profile? Can Ghana’s naval capability and equipment keep pace? And how can the Ghana Navy use new vessel acquisitions, technology, training, and domestic and international security partnerships to respond to the threats? FOUNDED, THEN UNDERFUNDED The Ghana Navy was founded in 1959 by an act of Parliament. This was part of the post-independence nation-building effort to complement the Army, which already existed, and the Air Force, which was in its formative stage. Ghana’s first president, Kwame Nkrumah, had a grand scheme of establishing a world-class Navy to demonstrate the nation’s political independence, development and prestige. This drive was in tandem with his Pan-African and nonalignment ideologies. A strong Navy was aimed at supporting his vision of an African High Command, which would unify the nations’ defenses and prevent conflict on the continent. The toppling of Nkrumah in 1966, however, meant that his vision, as well as the agenda of equipping and building a high-class Navy, were no longer national priorities. For instance, contracts for two ordered frigates for the Ghana’s Chief of Naval Staff holds an inspection and fleet review at Western Naval Command. GHANA NAVY Ghana’s maritime domain has changed dramatically since independence, bringing difficulties and opportunities. Ghana Navy were promptly annulled. In subsequent years, vessel acquisition for the Navy became rare. In the first decades after independence, threats arising from the maritime domain were relatively sparse. This meant there was less focus on the maritime environment, maritime security and the Ghana Navy. However, the conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s, which led to an influx of refugees to Ghanaian seaports, changed the narrative. The refugee situation presented an early discourse on the maritime domain and potential threats arising from the sea. Since then, developments including the discovery of offshore oil and gas in 2006, the return of piracy, and the rise of drug trafficking in the Gulf of Guinea have underscored the importance of a well-resourced Navy. GREATER RESPONSIBILITIES, NEW COMPETITORS For many years, there was little public debate on the concept of maritime security. Even when piracy increased across the Gulf of Guinea in the early 2000s, the issue did not receive much attention in Ghana’s policy space. In some cases, Ghanaians apparently believed that they were protected from sea-based threats. For instance, Ghana’s deputy minister of the interior asserted that the security measures put in place along Ghana’s coast made it “too dangerous for pirates to operate.” Yet, piracy in Ghana’s waters was increasing. By the summer of 2014, two high-profile incidents off Ghana’s coast made it evident that the country had to address the challenge of piracy. A Ghanaian special forces team approaches a pier during an exercise in Nutekpo. PETTY OFFICER 1ST CLASS FRED GRAY IV/U.S. NAVY The attacks, as well as illegal fishing by foreign trawlers, highlighted the need to structure Ghana’s maritime security governance framework and capability to respond to the emerging complexity of maritime threats and their potential harm to the economy. Although the Ghana Navy once was the country’s only seagoing institution, the increasing threats triggered calls for a multiagency approach. This led to the 2011 reestablishment of the Ghana Marine Police, a unit that had been disbanded in 1942. Additionally, new assignments were added to the Ghana Navy’s package. The Ghana Navy defines its role and operational mandate to include: - Ensuring maritime presence in West African waters and provision of naval support when necessary. - Surveillance, patrol and control of Ghana’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). - Combating crime, such as piracy/armed robbery at sea, smuggling of illicit drugs, stowaways and dissident activities. - Disaster and humanitarian relief operations and search and rescue. It also assists other state authorities, such as the Ghana Maritime Authority (GMA) and Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority, in fulfilling their mandates. Lastly, it works to protect the country’s fisheries and enforce pollution laws in collaboration with Ghana’s Fisheries Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency. Although the multiagency approach to maritime security is a positive development for the country and its Navy, it also means that the hegemonic role of the Ghana Navy in the maritime domain has changed. For example, it remains unclear what the respective seaward limits of the deployments of the Ghana Navy and the Ghana Marine Police are. In practice, the Marine Police lack the capacity to conduct deep-sea operations, but no limit has been placed on them by law or policy. This has the potential to create clashes and conflict between the two entities. Another issue is the institutional conflict between the Ghana Navy and the GMA. The general view is that since the 2004 enactment of the Ghana Maritime Security Act, which was meant to implement the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code in Ghana, the GMA has been claiming a lead institutional role for maritime security in the country. However, this approach raises considerable concerns from the Ghana Navy and other stakeholders, an issue that has lingered for more than a decade. Finally, the Navy is increasing coordination with the private sector. The Ghana Navy has begun collaborating with offshore oil and gas companies, and entered into agreements to protect critical infrastructure. The Navy signed a five-year memorandum of understanding in January 2022 to provide security for oil infrastructure and personnel at the Jubilee Oil Field, 60 kilometers off its coast. Exercising this responsibility while avoiding clashes with civilians and without diverting attention from other key duties will be a challenge for the Navy. For example, it will pit the Navy against artisanal fishermen who regularly enter safety zones and exclusive areas around offshore oil and gas installations in search of fish stocks, which the fishermen report have been depleted in recent years. INCREASING PRESENCE Despite the addition of players in Ghana’s maritime domain, the Ghana Navy remains an important actor in the maritime security governance framework due to its institutional role, expertise and experience at sea. Ensuring maritime security requires effective surveillance and maritime domain awareness (MDA). The Ghana Navy depends on a number of MDA platforms to monitor Ghana’s coast and to sustain its operations. Two of these are worth highlighting. It relies on SeaVision, an unclassified maritime surveillance application created by the U.S. in 2012 and used by about 25 West and Central African countries. SeaVision draws from automatic identification systems (AIS) data that is processed to provide users a picture of vessels operating in their region. Relying on AIS means that it is vulnerable to missing some threats. The Ghana Navy also uses the Vessel Traffic Management and Information System (VTMIS) procured by the GMA. The satellite system of the VTMIS is supported by coastal radar-based technology with radars deployed along the coast of Ghana. Coastal radar-based surveillance platforms have limitations, including reach/range and the occurrence of dark zones where coastal radars poorly interlock. The system also is greatly impacted by sea and weather conditions. An obvious challenge for all navies, including advanced navies, is the high cost of vessels and the ability to procure enough platforms to cover vast areas. Most analysts of the Ghana Navy observe that it was better equipped in the first decade of its establishment, suffered a decline in capability in the following decade, and was reinvigorated in the 1980s through the 1990s with the acquisition of the Achimota and Sebo classes of ships. After long service to Ghana, these ships were decommissioned, reverting the Ghana Navy to a state of insufficient platforms for a long while. Despite ship donations from the U.S., the Ghana Navy still suffered capability challenges. The discovery of oil and gas in commercial quantities and the expanded tasks of the Ghana Navy have resulted in more attention to the institution, with Ghana steadily introducing new vessels into service in the past decade. --- Ghanaian Sailors assigned to GNS Chemie man the rails while getting underway in Tema during a maritime exercise. PETTY OFFICER 3RD CLASS HANNAH FRY/U.S. NAVY In October 2017, it commissioned four patrol boats. In February 2022, the Ghana Navy commissioned four new Flex Fighter vessels, while the Ghanaian government revealed that it is acquiring two new offshore patrol vessels. The four vessels, acquired with the support of the oil and gas industry, are christened GNS Volta, GNS Densu, GNS Pra and GNS Ankobra. Despite adding these new ships to its fleet, the Ghana Navy is stretched thin as it seeks to uphold its responsibilities along a coastline that stretches 550 kilometers and an EEZ spanning 235,000 square kilometers. THE WAY FORWARD Ghana’s maritime domain has changed dramatically since independence, bringing difficulties and opportunities. The Ghana Navy collaborates with various governmental agencies and international partners to tackle security challenges. As the concept of maritime security expanded in the past decade, Ghana’s Navy has had to deal with traditional stakeholders and “newcomers” in the country’s ocean governance architecture, some posing challenges to the Ghana Navy’s historical position as the lead maritime security and enforcement agency. The Ghana Navy is adapting to this. Although the Ghana Navy has challenges relating to MDA and being an effective presence at sea to respond to threats, it still is one of the most capable navies in the region. With rising insecurity in the Gulf of Guinea, Ghana is strengthening its Navy with new naval infrastructure, including multiple forward operating bases along its coastline and vessels to cover more area. The new vessels will enable the Ghana Navy to safeguard its maritime interest, including the protection of oil and gas activities and fisheries. Figuring out how to best use its limited resources and build effective security partnerships inside and outside the country will be the difference between success and failure in the coming years. By learning from its history and embracing new technology and partnerships, the Ghana Navy is well positioned to meet these challenges. --- Kamal-Deen Ali, Ph.D., is a retired naval captain, the executive director of the Africa Institute for Law and Security Africa, and a senior lecturer at the University of Professional Studies in Ghana. He is a fellow of the Council on Foreign Relations Ghana, the Australian National Centre for Ocean Resources & Security, and is an advisor of the Africa Centre for Strategic Policy. He has published studies on matters relating to maritime security and is the author of “Maritime Security Cooperation in the Gulf of Guinea: Prospects and Challenges” (2015). Humphrey Asamoah Agyekum, Ph.D., is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Political Science, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He works on maritime security and manages the project “Strengthening Maritime (In)security in the Gulf of Guinea.” He is the author of “From Bullets to Officers and Gentlemen: How Notions of Professionalism and Civility Transformed the Ghana Armed Forces.” TIME to ACT NATIONS CAN TAKE PROACTIVE MEASURES TO DETER ILLEGAL FISHING ADF STAFF Foreign fishing fleets have targeted the African continent’s coast for decades, devastating fish stocks, depriving millions of income and food, and destroying marine ecosystems. But experts say there are several ways nations can fight back. When the Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea (FCWC) established a Regional Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Centre (RMCSC) in May 2021, experts saw it as a way to counter illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. Headquartered in Tema, Ghana, the center helps FCWC member countries Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria and Togo manage their fishing sectors. The center is equipped with vessel-tracking systems and can collect data on authorized fishing vessels across the region. “The RMCSC’s establishment brings us a step closer to having coordinated approaches to joint action, including patrols for better security in the maritime domain of our region,” Seraphin Dedi, secretary-general of the FCWC, told GhanaWeb. Developing databases to track the shadowy world of flagged vessels is one way to combat IUU fishing. Chinese vessels are notorious for flying “flags of convenience,” which is the use of African open registries to fish in waters beyond the jurisdiction of African nations, and “flagging in,” which pertains to the use and abuse of local rules to flag a foreign-owned and operated fishing vessel into an African registry. China is the world’s worst IUU fishing offender, according the ILU Fishing Index, and commands the world’s largest distant-water fleet. Illegal marine trade costs West Africa almost $1.95 billion across the fish value chain and $593 million per year in household income. IUU fishing also has been linked to piracy, kidnapping and drug trafficking, among other crimes. In 2021, the Environmental Justice Foundation and fisheries intelligence analysis company Trygg Mat Tracking (TMT) joined forces with Senegal on a program to promote transparency among the nation’s fisheries and rid the country of illegal fishing. The nearly $1.2 million, three-year project publishes up-to-date fishing license lists and vessel registries online. It also empowers artisanal fishermen to help monitor the port of Dakar, and participate in government fisheries-related decisions. “Unlike some other coastal countries in the region, Senegal has experience in participatory surveillance, and its authorities acknowledge its importance,” Steve Trent, the foundation’s CEO and founder, told ADF. “Small-scale fishers and local surveillance units work hand in hand to prevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishing. This work faces operational, technical and funding limitations, which the project will help overcome.” In March 2021, Kenya ratified the Cape Town Agreement and the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel. Adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2012, the agreement outlines fishing vessel standards and regulations to protect crews and fisheries observers, according to the Pew Charitable Trusts. Chinese vessels engaged in IUU fishing are known for not providing crews with food, medicine and adequate shelter, and crew members often are forced to work long hours in deplorable conditions. There are several other measures nations can take to deter illegal fishing. Fishermen pull an artisanal fishing boat to shore in Mauritania. AFP/Getty Images Enhance Local Maritime Laws It might seem simple, but it takes political will, maritime domain awareness and input from local fishing communities to advance legislation that effectively tackles IUU fishing. Increasing fines for IUU violators is one effective deterrent, Ian Ralby, a maritime security expert who has written extensively on fishing issues, told ADF. “I think one of the things that has to be done is to change the penalty dynamics, because it’s a risk-reward calculus,” said Ralby, CEO of I.R. Consilium. “Let’s say a state actually has the political will to arrest and prosecute IUU fishing violators. If the cost of these violations is so low that it’s just the cost of doing business, then it won’t make a big difference to actually deterring the activity. The laws have to be recalibrated, given the immense economic benefit that comes with engaging in illegal fishing.” Ralby cited Senegal as an example of a country that dramatically increased its penalty for illegal fishing to $1.8 million. In one case, the country collected $5 million in fines, enabling it to buy a new patrol boat. The action led to fewer foreign industrial trawlers fishing illegally in its waters. Other West African countries that have had success in this area include Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Gabon and Ghana. “The biggest thing is really to team up [law enforcement efforts] between fisheries and the Coast Guard, and do more interagency patrolling that would actually mimic the success that the likes of Sea Shepherd have had,” Ralby said, referring to the nonprofit organization that has partnered with several nations to combat illegal It might seem simple, but it takes political will, maritime domain awareness and input from local fishing communities to advance legislation that effectively tackles IUU fishing. Above: Fish are displayed for sale in Dakar, Senegal. AFP/Getty Images Left: Artisanal fishermen in Côte d’Ivoire carry fishing nets to shore. AFP/Getty Images fishing. “The other thing is that when fisheries arrests occur, how do the penalties that are collected get divided among the parties involved?” Equitable distribution of fines will serve as an incentive for navies to work with coast guards and fisheries to bust IUU fishing operators, he added. Prosecute IUU Operators in International Court This is easier said than done. It involves a lengthy, complicated and expensive process, and political will. Ralby, who is an attorney, said seizing a vessel, building a prosecutable case, then proving it in international court is a process that must be coordinated by politicians, prosecutors, navies and coast guards. “It’s a very, very tough ask,” he said. “It can be done to a certain degree, but it is definitely not the most efficient or likely the most effective way of combatting the actual operational issues of IUU issues on the water.” Ralby said he believes a more efficient way to deter IUU fishing is to offer incentives to fishing companies that are “extra compliant,” perhaps by offering an extra day of quota “for essentially ratting on the people who aren’t compliant.” That would give legal operators a vested interest in a well-run regulatory system and create a de facto arm of law enforcement. “They’re saying, ‘Look, nobody’s going to undermine the benefits that we get legally by operating illegally, so we’re going to make sure we share information that comes to us about anyone who’s undermining the rule of law.’” NAME AND SHAME Publicly naming companies charged with illegal fishing is widely viewed as an effective deterrent. TMT, for example, maintains an online “most wanted vessel” list. Using advanced software and its own credibility, the company “brings to light the activities of both vessels and fleets and operators themselves, and in some cases flag states,” Ralby said. The company exposes entities that “either directly engage in or enable IUU fishing around the world,” he added. “That is helping. That is changing things.” TMT’s free website — www.tm-tracking.org/combined-iuu-vessel-list — offers the best available, up-to-date information on all fishing vessels that appear on the IUU lists published by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMO). The site includes information regarding changes to vessel identity, flag state, ownership and location. Information on the site is derived from a range of sources, including the original RFMO IUU lists, online vessel databases, national fisheries authorities, TMT’s investigations, and intelligence gathered by its partners and sources around the world. IMPLEMENT CLOSED FISHING SEASONS Ghana has imposed closed fishing seasons of two months for industrial fishermen and one month for artisanal fishermen since 2019. Godfrey Baidoo-Tsibu, the FCWC’s regional monitoring, control and surveillance coordinator, acknowledged that the region’s most important fish stocks “are fully exploited or over exploited due to overcapacity, overfishing and IUU,” according to a report by Ghanaian newspaper Daily Graphic. Ghana’s small pelagic fish populations, such as sardinella, have dropped 80% in the past two decades. One species, sardinella aurita, is fully collapsed. Illegal fishing vessels are known to use an array of tactics. Here are some of the most common: - Flying a “flag of convenience,” which is when a company uses open registries to fish in waters beyond the jurisdiction of coastal nations. - Using illegal gear, such as nets with the wrong mesh size, lets fishermen catch more fish than allowed. - Fishing in protected waters and underreporting catches. - Ramming smaller artisanal boats at sea and damaging their equipment. - “Saiko,” the transshipment of fish at sea, which typically occurs when fish are transferred from a trawler to a large canoe to hide the origin of the catch. The canoes can carry about 450 times more fish than an artisanal fishing canoe. - Bottom trawling involves dragging a net across the ocean floor and scooping up all manner of marine life, which destroys ecosystems. - Fishing with cyanide, which stuns fish and makes them easier to catch. - Using explosives, such as dynamite, which kill fish that then float to the surface, where they are easily scooped up with nets. APPLYING THE RULE OF LAW There are several measures nations can take to deter illegal fishing: - Develop databases to track the shadowy world of flagged vessels. - Strengthen local maritime laws. - Prosecute illegal fishing operators in international court. - Publicly name companies arrested for illegal fishing. - Implement closed fishing seasons. “The looming crisis of the artisanal fishery threatens economic growth in the sector and presents a potential internal security problem that directly affects the livelihoods of as many as 150,000 people involved in the marine fishery sector,” Nana Jojo Solomon, secretary of the Ghana National Canoe Fishermen’s Council, told the United States Agency for International Development. In December 2021, Ghana urged Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria and Togo to implement coordinated closed fishing seasons to help replenish the region’s stocks. Paul Odartei Bannerman, deputy executive director of Ghana’s Fisheries Commission, said the impact to fish stocks in the region would be insignificant if only Ghana observed a closed season, according to a Daily Graphic report. Bannerman added that closed fishing seasons in other parts of the world have effectively protected fish populations. Ralby agreed but said that closed seasons require the scientific knowledge of which fish stocks need to be protected and how best to do so. He added that maritime security must stay vigilant during closed seasons, as IUU fishing companies routinely ignore all regulations. “Closing the season but allowing somebody else to milk the fishery is not a good solution,” he said. EYES IN THE SKY NATIONS ARE TURNING TO DRONES AS AN INEXPENSIVE WAY TO SECURE THE MARITIME DOMAIN A common practice for vessels fishing illegally is to park themselves outside a country’s protected waters during the day and move in at nightfall. Vessels with 300-ton capacity or more are required to have an automatic identification system (AIS). It’s a major red flag when a vessel turns off its AIS. But sending out a patrol vessel every time that happens is difficult. Flying a helicopter or airplane may be too costly. Weather conditions can be too dangerous to risk lives. Most coastal countries on the continent have limited patrol capability, and many lack maritime aerial assets entirely, according to researcher Denys Reva of the South Africa-based Institute for Security Studies. “A drone can fill in this niche, being a somewhat cost-effective solution, especially with the right equipment on board,” he told ADF. “The simple fact of having this capability may serve as a deterrent and decrease illegal activity.” More African countries are using unmanned aerial systems, or drones, to address a range of maritime security challenges — surveillance, border control, port and coastal security, search and rescue, maritime patrols, and inspections of ships and cargo. Defending against piracy and terrorism has risen to the forefront of coastal security issues. An abundance of unsecured natural resources is just off the continent’s coast, as U.S. Naval officers Capt. Chris Rawley and Lt. Cmdr. Cedric Patmon wrote in a 2018 article for the Center for International Maritime Security: “Africa’s maritime economy is absolutely critical to the continent’s growth and prosperity during the next few decades. On the edge of the Eastern Atlantic the Gulf of Guinea is bordered by eight West African nations and is an extremely important economic driver. “More than 450 million Africans derive commercial benefit from this body of water. The region contains 50.4 billion barrels of proven petroleum reserves and has produced up to 5.5 million barrels of oil per day. Additionally, over 90% of foreign imports and exports cross the Gulf of Guinea making it the region’s key connector to the global economy.” More countries need to invest in maritime security, Reva said, but Africa has had what he calls “sea blindness.” “The maritime sector in Africa has been historically overlooked, leading to underdevelopment,” he said. “This trend has changed somewhat in recent years, but many African states to this day do not have even the most basic maritime security capacity and capability in place.” to respond to maritime insecurities, let alone investing millions of dollars in drones and related equipment.” An Island State at the Forefront The Seychelles exemplifies Africa’s changing approach to protecting its waters. An archipelago composed of 115 islands in the western Indian Ocean about 1,100 kilometers northeast of Madagascar, the Seychelles has an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 1.3 million square kilometers. Until the country’s recent acquisition of eight drones, illegal fishing ran rampant. The country’s fisheries authority bought two long-range drones equipped with artificial intelligence in 2021. In 2022, the Seychelles Coast Guard acquired two compact quadcopter drones from the United Kingdom, purchased in conjunction with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. “While the threat of piracy in the Western Indian Ocean may have receded, we have become increasingly aware of the challenges posed by illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, trafficking in people and arms, and, perhaps most damaging for Seychelles, trafficking in illicit narcotics,” British High Commissioner Patrick Lynch said during a ceremony on February 15, 2022. The vastness of the ocean surrounding Africa makes drones an excellent complement to available resources, Rawley and Patmon explained. They also highlighted the Gulf of Guinea, where illegal fishing has cost the region’s economies between $2 billion and $3 billion annually. “Key to enforcement is the ability to identify, track, and prosecute nefarious actors on the high seas and in coastal areas,” they wrote. “So-called maritime domain awareness is gradually improving in the area, but current options for maritime surveillance are limited. “The largest local navies have offshore patrol vessels capable of multi-day over-the-horizon operations, but even these vessels have limited enforcement capacity. Patrol vessels face maintenance issues and fuel scarcity. Shore-based radar systems at best reach out 30 or 40 nautical miles but are plagued by power and maintenance issues.” The Seychelles has several patrol boats but just one or two planes that can execute reconnaissance or surveillance flights. Experts say many countries would be wise to follow the Seychelles’ example — exploring the use of drones to combat illegal fishing, then expanding their use to other maritime security issues. “While addressing IUU fishing is important, issues such as maritime terrorism and terrorist travel, piracy, and drug-trafficking are seen as a much bigger security priority,” Reva said. “Until relatively recently, African countries did not even take IUU fishing seriously, unknowingly losing millions in revenue. Today it is still arguably treated as a ‘second-tier’ issue.” “However, countries that are expanding their capabilities to deal with ‘first-tier’ maritime security issues can then use existing equipment to address additional issues, such as IUU fishing.” The use of maritime drones in Africa also can include: Anti-Piracy and Counterterrorism In recent years, a stretch of the Atlantic Ocean that borders about 20 West African nations has become known as “pirate alley.” It’s an area of more than 2.35 million square kilometers where nearly all the world’s kidnappings at sea now take place. Pirates abducted a record 130 sailors in 2020, compared with five in the rest of the world. Drones were part of a $195 million Nigerian initiative known as “Deep Blue.” The first integrated maritime security strategy in West and Central Africa, Deep Blue aims to tackle piracy, theft and other maritime crimes. Marine Monitoring and Inspection Trafficking of narcotics, people and wildlife products is a constant problem across African waters. Many countries effectively outsource maritime security to foreign naval missions, Reva said, also noting the important roles played by international actors and regional maritime security operations. “They conduct extensive counternarcotics naval patrols in international waters,” he said. “That takes some pressure off African countries, as they can focus their investment to some areas, while relying on cooperation with international partners in other areas.” Drones, he said, are another cost-effective way to bolster law enforcement. Surveillance Detecting threats on open waters can be like finding a needle in a field of haystacks. Equipped with night vision, infrared or thermal imaging, land- and ship-launched drones can improve a nation’s intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities over its waters. The U.S. Navy uses drones for asset protection, deploying the MQ-4C Triton to ensure near-constant maritime surveillance around key naval bases. Among their many missions, the European Maritime Safety Agency deploys drones to help with border control. Search and Rescue Drones have shown they significantly increase the effectiveness of search and rescue missions, especially at sea. A drone equipped with VIDAR (visual detection and ranging) can locate hundreds of large and small objects at sea. Drones with VIDAR have been able to identify objects such as stationary personal watercraft and buoys at distances of up to 9 kilometers. Challenges Remain Ian Ralby, a maritime security expert who has written extensively on fishing issues, said nations face several hindrances in deploying drones. They are difficult to maintain in tropical weather conditions. It may be difficult to deploy smaller drones long enough to provide adequate monitoring. Some drones can’t go beyond 22 kilometers, making it difficult to cover a country’s EEZ. “Even when you have everything working, the drone is maintained and covers the area that’s needed, you do run into the issue that not every state can admit [IUU] evidence obtained through a drone,” he told ADF. Still, Ralby said he thinks drones can be useful in countering IUU fishing and other maritime crimes in Africa. “We’ll likely see more of it in the years to come,” he said. Before South African officials could tear down a makeshift bridge across the Limpopo River, they had to deal with the crocodiles. Parts of the Limpopo have been infested with Nile crocodiles since 2013, when 15,000 of them were accidentally released into the river from floodgates at a nearby crocodile farm. Locals shot at them, eventually driving them away on a Thursday afternoon in September 2021. With that, they set about destroying a smugglers’ bridge linking South Africa with Zimbabwe. Military personnel later helped them finish tearing it down. The bridge was a byproduct of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the pandemic lockdown, the two countries set up blockades at the bridges crossing the Limpopo beginning in March 2020. Even with air patrols over the 250-kilometer border, smugglers moved goods such as food, fuel, vehicles, diapers and electrical equipment into Zimbabwe. Going the other way, cigarettes, minerals, wildlife and explosives made up the bulk of items smuggled into South Africa, The Chronicle of Zimbabwe reported. Because of the smuggling, the two countries lost thousands of dollars in import duties. The situation was worse during the dry season, when some of the riverbed could be crossed on foot. Zimbabwe’s side of the river had few vehicle patrols, and security personnel could cover only about 30 kilometers per day on foot. Nonetheless, in eight months in 2021, Zimbabwean security agents arrested more than 46,000 people for border crimes. The 16 Major Waterways The Limpopo, which begins in South Africa and flows 1,750 kilometers past Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique before reaching the Indian Ocean, is a vital part of the lives of the millions of people of the four countries. It is one of Africa’s 19 major inland waterways — 11 rivers and eight lakes. They are: - Africa’s Great Lakes: Albert, Edward, Kivu, Malawi, Tanganyika, Turkana and Victoria - Lake Chad - The major rivers: Benue, Blue Nile, Congo, Limpopo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Senegal, Volta, White Nile and Zambezi These waterways provide priceless resources, including fish, drinking water, transportation, irrigation, shipping and electricity. But their resources are frequently abused. In a 2022 report for the Institute for Security Studies, researcher David Willima wrote that, “The continent’s lakes and rivers are increasingly threatened by illicit fishing, depredation of marine resources, illegal immigration and territorial disputes emanating from unclear borderlines.” The threats, Willima said, include: - Illicit fishing and the plundering of fish stocks. - Illegal immigration. - Territorial disputes from unclear borderlines. - Boating accidents, made worse by crowded, unsafe boats. - A lack of search and rescue and lifesaving aid. - Disputes over ownership of newly discovered energy resources. Some of the waterways, such as the 1,400-kilometer Benue River flowing through Cameroon and Nigeria, are especially dangerous during the rainy season. When a church outing on the Benue in July 2020 ended with 20 people drowned, officials cited high water levels as a contributing factor. Crowded ferries also are a consistent factor in waterway accidents, such as a December 2014 ferry capsizing on Lake Tanganyika, with more than 120 lives lost. The Freshwater Giant With a surface area of more than 60,000 square kilometers, Lake Victoria is Africa’s largest lake. It is the world’s second-largest freshwater lake after Lake Superior in North America. It has an average depth of 40 meters and is twice that deep in some areas. Its shoreline is 7,142 kilometers. The lake is divided among Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The fishing industry on Lake Victoria employs about 800,000 people, with 70,000 locally made small fishing boats operating in its waters. The small-scale fisheries sector alone brings in about $300 million in annual revenue among the three countries. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by organized crime syndicates endangers the livelihoods of communities around the lake. The lake has endured years of mismanagement. In the 1950s, the British introduced the nonnative Nile perch to the lake as a food source. Initially, the plan worked, but the perch wiped out other fish, perhaps even hundreds of species. The perch eventually were overfished, ruining the economies of villages that had become dependent on them. Today, the lake is plagued with pollution that is killing the fish. In just two months in 2021, more than 100 tons of mostly Nile perch washed up on the shores of the three countries, according to a report by the African Arguments website. At up to about $4,000 per ton, it was the equivalent of about $400,000 in potential lost revenue. Local industries are being blamed for the pollution. Regional authorities estimate that at least 200,000 vessels operate on the lake, engaging in transport and fishing. The lake has an enduring problem with boat safety. Negligence by boat owners is considered the main cause. The Standard newspaper of Kenya has reported that barely a month passes without a fishing boat capsizing. In September 2018, a ferry capsized on the lake near Mwanza, Tanzania. More than 200 people died, even though the vessel officially had only a capacity of 100 people. The Lake Victoria Basin Commission says that an average of 5,000 deaths are reported each year. The Standard reported in May 2022 that the three countries were establishing search and rescue centers and a “strong communication system.” Elias Bahanda of the commission said that improved safety will boost regional trade. “The project has been endorsed by all the three partner States,” he said. “Navigation will also be improved.” Kenya will host one of the rescue centers in Kisumu. Uganda’s center will be in Entebbe. The regional rescue coordination center will be based in Mwanza. All the centers will be equipped with rescue boats that have medical equipment. Officials said that fast boats also will be used for patrols. According to Bahanda, the project could be ready in 2023. A lack of equipment in weather stations makes it difficult to predict weather patterns on the lake in order to take precautions. The commission has prioritized modern technology to help locate vessels on the lake. Death on The Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is one of the world’s poorest countries and has few paved roads compared to its enormous size. For most people, the Congo River is the only real highway. The barges that travel the river are like “floating villages crowded with up Lake Chad is critical to the lives of millions of people in Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria. It provides drinking water and supports fishing, agriculture and livestock. But it also is shrinking. Today, it is only about 1,500 square kilometers — a mere 10% of the size it was as recently as the mid-1960s. The United Nations has described the crisis of water loss as “one of the worst in the world.” The United Nations has been monitoring the situation for decades. “The shrinking of the lake has also caused several different conflicts to emerge, as the countries bordering Lake Chad argue over the rights to the remaining areas of water,” the U.N. noted in a 2012 report. “Along with international conflicts, violence between countries is also increasing among the lake’s dwellers. Farmers and herders want the water for their crops and livestock and are constantly diverting the water, while the lake’s fishermen want water diversion slowed or halted in order to prevent continuing decline in water levels resulting in further strain on the lake’s fish.” Into this already critical situation comes the terrorist group Boko Haram. The group is believed to be responsible for at least 35,000 deaths and has forced 2.5 million people from their homes. In an effort to improve security around Lake Chad, the U.S. Naval Small Craft Instruction and Technical Training School established the Lake Chad Basin Initiative at its facilities at the John C. Stennis Space Center in the U.S. state of Mississippi. In its inaugural session in December 2017, the school worked with almost 50 security professionals from Cameroon, Chad and Niger. Offering 20 formal courses of instruction for the Lake Chad Basin Initiative, the Naval Special Warfare Command incorporated seven tactical, operational and strategic courses into the training. In addition to leadership training, the courses included such instruction as outboard motor maintenance, welding, boat hull repair, instructor development and small arms maintenance. The classes include in-residence training at the center and mobile team training engagements in Cameroon, Chad and Niger. About 600 foreign troops get training at the facility each year. Representatives from 124 countries have trained there. The second year’s session had more than 90% of the students coming from the Lake Chad region. Because the region’s primary language is French, the school again partnered with interpreters from Belgium, Canada and France. The permanent staff now includes an officer from Cameroon. Along with partner nation instructors and interpreters, observers from the United Kingdom Royal Marines participated as role players in a surveillance and reconnaissance insertion exercise during the school’s Patrol Craft Officer Riverine course. Commandos from the Royal Netherlands Army, who were training at the school in support of another operation, played the role of opposition forces. Before such issues as security, overfishing and water safety can be addressed, nations first must protect their water supplies and keep them clean. A United Nations study titled “Africa Water Atlas” makes these recommendations for Africa’s freshwater resources: Make safe drinking water available to more people. Improving access to drinking water also reduces the incidence of water-related and waterborne diseases such as cholera. One means of making drinking water more accessible is to encourage entrepreneurs to get into the water purification and water bottling business. Governments should promote water disinfection technology. Ensure access to adequate sanitation. Many waterways in Africa also serve as wastewater dumps. Governments and private enterprise should recognize the potential for revenues generated by sanitation technologies. Experts say that a cultural shift in personal sanitation is needed throughout Africa. “Learn from the extraordinary expansion of mobile phones,” the U.N. study noted. “Encourage and support simple solutions from entrepreneurs; introduce urban water tariffs; increase sanitation’s share in total aid; adopt system financing.” Reduce potential conflicts over water by improving cooperation at transboundary water sources. Africa has 63 shared water basins. Although there is the potential for conflict over water resources, there already are almost 100 international water agreements in place on the continent. Nations need to recognize and build on water as a binding factor in transboundary cooperation. Provide water for food security. Agriculture is the greatest user of water in Africa. Even so, a great percentage of Africans live with chronic hunger. Africa’s irrigation capacity is greatly underdeveloped. The challenge is to invest in simple and inexpensive irrigation technologies, avoid the pitfalls of overirrigation, and tie irrigation development to environmental sustainability. Develop hydropower. Africa has enormous hydroelectricity potential. The Congo River alone is a source of vast untapped power. Developing hydropower will boost the economy and improve people’s lives. Bringing electricity to rural areas will slow the migration of young people to the slums of the big cities. Prevent land degradation and water pollution. The Sahel in particular has suffered from land degradation with saltwater intrusion polluting groundwater. The solution is to foster the greening of the continent by encouraging adaptation to droughts and support scientific assessments of land degradation and water quality. Improve the capacity to address water management and shortages. Reform water institutions, improve public-private partnerships and educate the public on how to manage water supplies. --- to 2,000 people, mainly traders and their goods, from bags of sorghum to barrels of palm oil,” NBC News reported. Travelers and traders making their way to the capital, Kinshasa, can spend weeks on the river on crowded barges and boats. A January 2022 accident on the Congo River in the DRC claimed 50 lives. In a single weekend in 2010, an estimated 270 people died in two accidents. In one accident, a boat caught fire and capsized. In the other accident, a boat running without lights hit a rock and capsized. Such accidents on the Congo and its nearby lakes are common, officials say, because many boat owners cannot afford to keep their crafts maintained. It is common for boat owners to bribe navigation department agents when inspections show problems. With a length of 4,800 kilometers, the Congo is the continent’s second-longest river, after the Nile. It is the world’s deepest known river, with depths in excess of 220 meters. It is up to 16 kilometers wide at some points. Nearly the entire river above Livingstone Falls is navigable in sections, especially between the river ports of Kinshasa and Kisangani in the DRC. The Congo’s three major waterfalls now are bypassed by railways, making the river more useful for travel and trade. A large amount of Central Africa’s trade passes through it, including coffee, cotton, copper, palm oil and The river has the continent’s most potential as a source of electric power but so far remains underused. Researchers say that as useful as the Congo River is for transportation and shipping, it remains inherently dangerous to navigate. Most observers say that the solution to the perils of the river is to build more roads so that people can stay on land. Stopping Illegal Fishing Lake Nyasa, also known as Lake Malawi, is the ninth-largest lake in the world and the third-largest in Africa. Lake Malawi is home to more species of fish than any other lake in the world. Tanzania has come to recognize that its fish are critical to the country’s economy and is working to protect them. In 2022, Tanzania acquired 16 speedboats to monitor fisheries in the country’s lakes and in the Indian Ocean. Mashimba Ndaki, the country’s minister for Livestock and Fisheries, said the boats will be used to monitor and control illegal fishing. The boats will be allocated in Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Nyasa and in the Indian Ocean to manage, protect and develop the country’s fisheries resources. Ndaki urged leaders in regions and districts near lakes and rivers to support the government in its fight against illegal fishing. Lake Nyasa has shoreline in Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique, and who owns what parts of the lake is a source of consistent dispute. Malawi maintains that it owns the entire lake. Malawi has a $660 million tourism investment master plan to ramp up infrastructure development. Like Lake Nyasa, the Zambezi River has problems with overfishing. The river is sometimes referred to as “The Great Zambezi River” because of its power and its features, which include Victoria Falls, one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. It is the fourth-longest river in Africa at 2,574 kilometers. The river begins in Zambia and touches six countries before flowing into the Indian Ocean. Riverside communities fish the Zambezi for food, and game fishing is a tourism attraction, featuring safari lodges. But parts of the upper river have been heavily overfished. Officials have outlawed most types of nets and imposed an annual three-month fishing ban to allow the fish to breed. In recent years, floods and droughts have made fishing difficult, and now, the locals say, lower water levels seem to be a permanent thing. Protecting Africa’s inland waterways from extremists, overfishing, illegal immigration and territorial disputes will require a variety of approaches. Researcher Willima noted that Tanzania established mobile courts to prosecute illegal fishing in its seas, lakes and at dams. He noted that law enforcement in the continent’s inland waterways was only as strong as its weakest link, “as weak efforts in one might undermine progress in another.” “Legal frameworks exist that oblige African countries to improve maritime security and safety standards,” he wrote. “But most have not yet come into force due to insufficient ratifications.” The legal documents include the 2010 Revised African Maritime Transport Charter and the 2016 African Charter on Maritime Security and Safety and Development in Africa, which is also known as the Lomé Charter. Willima urged the continent’s nations to “throw their weight behind” such charters and legal instruments. Nations, along with the African Union, “must be capacitated to help states resolve existing and emerging maritime border disputes,” he wrote. “Policies and regulations on illegal fishing need to be implemented not just in Africa’s seas but also inland waterways. “Failure to do so will mean that blue economies along the continent’s rivers and lakes will be neither sustainable nor benefit Africans.” COASTAL NATIONS BAND TOGETHER The war between Russia and Ukraine should be a wakeup call for the 38 coastal countries of Africa to prioritize maritime security, according to the chief of the South African Navy. Vice Adm. Mosiwa Samuel Hlongwane spoke in April 2022 at the fourth Maritime Security Conference in South Africa. He said the conflict in Europe has forced “our European and Global partners” to reconsider and reprioritize national and maritime security, DefenceWeb reported. Fighting, ship deployment and sea mines threaten Black Sea trade routes. In March 2022, Russian authorities said 420 mines were drifting freely in the Black Sea after breaking loose in a storm. Even without the European conflict, Africa’s coastal nations face an array of threats, including piracy, robbery, drug and human trafficking, oil bunkering, pollution, and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. Although the Gulf of Guinea has been a hot spot for maritime crime, it’s not alone. The Gulf of Aden and the Mozambique Channel, and the Mediterranean and Red Seas, also have security issues. Many of the continent’s coastal countries struggle to deal with maritime threats and must work with neighbors in a unified effort. The countries recognize the need to work together and resolve their differences, such as what their borders are in terms of security and fishing rights. But many countries face challenges in enacting laws and rules that are compatible with those of their coastal neighbors. Even cooperating on bringing criminals to justice is complicated by incompatible laws in differing countries. The African Union and Africa’s regional economic groups are the logical parties to help improve and enforce maritime security, but they have had mixed results so far. In a report for the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), researcher Timothy Walker pointed out how seldom these groups get involved. “A Senegalese service member plays the bugle at the Senegalese Naval Headquarters in Dakar during the closing ceremony for Exercise Obangame Express 2022.” Petty Officer 2nd Class Peter Trochu/U.S. Navy “Major maritime crimes in African waters are often transnational in origin and impact, defying simple, unilateral solutions,” Walker wrote. “Yet the African Union and regional structures for mobilising joint action among African states seldom prioritise maritime issues or their consequences for the continent.” Walker said that although Africa is “taking stock” of its distinctive maritime security issues, it seldom takes collective action. He noted that when the African Union (AU) Peace and Security Council (PSC) discussed maritime security in a July 2021 meeting, “it was only its seventh meeting on maritime safety out of the more than 1,000 the council has convened after its doors opened in 2004.” This inaction has led to African countries taking their maritime issues to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) instead of the PSC. “This gives the impression of a PSC unmooored and marooned from African states’ maritime security policies and interests,” Walker noted. “In the world’s eyes, this is making the UNSC, rather than the PSC, the leading forum for determining how best to fight maritime crime around Africa.” 2050 AIM STRATEGY In January 2014, the AU adopted the 2050 Africa’s Integrated Maritime Strategy, also known as the 2050 AIM Strategy, a continentwide integrated maritime plan. The goal is to approach maritime security at all levels, not just piracy and armed robbery at sea. While it addresses illicit activities at sea, it also focuses on sustainable development of the African blue economy. A report in a 2018 Horn of Africa Bulletin noted that the strategy had to go beyond security and protecting trade interests. “Such a bi-dimensional approach would not address other maritime security threats and concerns that may adversely impact the blue economy developmental growth of African states,” the report noted. Researcher Brigid Kerubo Gesami published a study in 2021 entitled, “Maritime Security in Africa: The African Union’s Challenge in Implementing the 2050 AIM Strategy.” She said that putting the strategy into operation has proved difficult. “The AU 2050 AIM strategy … is characterized by a variety of linked but separate, disconnected, and uncoordinated policies, resolutions, regulations, and activities that are not coordinated with one another,” Gesami wrote. “In addition to the 11 strategic programs, the Plan of Action offered 21 objectives, 61 action targets, and 65 output metrics to assist, quantify and monitor the effect of the 2050 AIM strategy on the regional and national levels.” REGIONAL GROUPS FORMED In 2004, African and European officials began discussing a partnership that led to the 5+5 Defence Initiative, a collaboration between five African countries (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia) and five European countries (France, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain). The group’s goal, its organizers say, is to “significantly contribute to the solutions that address common concerns in the security and defense field.” European members of the cooperative regularly conduct three military exercises — Canale, Seaborder and Circaete. For the past few years, the Canale exercise has been open to all the 5+5 initiative member countries. The initiative’s areas of cooperation are maritime surveillance, air security, education and research, and armed forces’ contribution to civil protection. “By associating their efforts through close cooperation, the ten countries of the 5+5 Defence Initiative aim to improve their effectiveness in keeping the Mediterranean Sea a safe and secure area of exchange,” the initiative reports. North African political instability, particularly in Libya, has undermined African participation in the initiative in recent years. DEALING WITH PIRACY In January 2009, representatives of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania and Yemen signed what is commonly known as the Djibouti Code of Conduct. Comoros, Egypt, Eritrea, Jordan, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sudan and the United Arab Emirates have since signed. Under the code, participating countries declare their intention to cooperate fully to combat piracy and armed robbery against ships. The International Maritime Organization, a special agency of the United Nations, notes that signatories agreed to cooperate in: - The investigation, arrest and prosecution of people who are reasonably suspected of having committed acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships, including those inciting or intentionally facilitating such acts. - The interdiction and seizure of suspect ships and property on board those ships. - The rescue of ships, people and property subject to piracy and armed robbery. - The proper care, treatment and repatriation of seafarers, fishermen, other shipboard personnel, and passengers subject to piracy and armed robbery, particularly those subjected to violence. - The conduct of shared operations, both among the participating countries and with navies from countries outside the region. The code provides for the sharing of piracy-related information through a network established in 2011. The network has three information-sharing centers: in Mombasa, Kenya; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and Sana’a, Yemen. The network exchanges information on piracy across the region and other relevant information. The United Nations says that the information-sharing network has played a significant role in countering piracy. In 2017, the initiative adopted the Jeddah Amendment to broaden the scope of the code. The amendment covers measures for suppressing a range of illicit conduct, including piracy, arms trafficking, trafficking in narcotics, illegal trade in wildlife, illegal oil bunkering, crude oil theft, human trafficking, human smuggling, and illegal dumping of toxic waste. WEST AFRICA’S REGIONAL CODE Taking inspiration from the Djibouti Code, the states of the wider Gulf of Guinea, from Senegal to Angola, formed the Yaoundé Code of Conduct in 2013. The nongovernmental organization Stable Seas notes that the Yaoundé Code’s goal is to get member countries to cooperate in fighting all forms of maritime crime, from piracy to trafficking to oil theft to illegal fishing — the same measures the Jeddah Amendment addressed later in the Djibouti Code. The Yaoundé Code took advantage of the maritime zones already established by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). These institutions cover the coastal and landlocked states of the two regions. The code has led to the development of two regional information-sharing centers. The Regional Centre for Maritime Security in Central Africa is based in Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo, to assist ECCAS countries. The West Africa Regional Coordination Centre for Maritime Security, based in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, serves ECOWAS countries. Coordinating both centers is the Interregional Coordination Centre in Yaoundé, Cameroon. ECCAS has had some successes in maritime security cooperation. ECCAS Zone D, consisting of Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe, conducts combined operations at sea “virtually every day of the year,” according to the Africa Center for Strategic Studies. Obangame Express, an annual military exercise organized by U.S. Naval Forces Africa, is designed to improve regional cooperation in support of the Yaoundé Code of Conduct. The exercise focuses on maritime domain awareness, information-sharing and tactical interdiction expertise. Obangame Express 2022 concluded its 11th iteration in March 2022. The exercise took place across five zones in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Guinea, stretching from Senegal to Angola. ECOWAS MARITIME CENTER ECOWAS has been developing an integrated maritime strategy for several years. Kamal-Deen Ali, executive director of the Centre for Maritime Law and Security Africa, has reported that 13 nations exchange information, handle challenges to their maritime domains, and administer three shared operating zones in a collaborative effort. The West Africa Regional Maritime Security Centre in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire, opened in March 2022 in a ceremony organized by ECOWAS in collaboration with the Ivoirian government. Established by a decision of the Authority of Heads of State and Government on July 31, 2018, the center will be an essential tool for implementing the ECOWAS Integrated Maritime Strategy, which was adopted in 2014. The center provides information management and sharing, operational monitoring, crisis coordination, and training and capacity building. The center and others like it will make up the regional maritime safety and security architecture. MORE COMMITMENT NEEDED The Djibouti Code, the Yaoundé Code and the 5+5 Defense Initiative combined include every coastal state in Africa except for Namibia. But experts agree that more work needs to be done to get coastal nations working together to guarantee security. In particular, they say, the AU needs to get more involved. “The 2050 AIM Strategy is an impressive document that emphasises the multidimensionality of maritime security,” the 2018 Horn of Africa Bulletin study concluded. “However, for it to move from ‘paper to practice’ it must be implemented in a coherent and consistent manner. Thus, it is crucial that there is effective administrative coordination by an established department, proper information flow to relevant officials and stakeholders and that the nexus between the different aspects of the strategy is highlighted and properly communicated.” In his 2021 ISS study, Walker noted that countries need to cooperate more. “Insecurity at sea makes it difficult for states to secure trade routes, protect and harness the benefits of their blue economies, and ensure economic growth and social development for coastal communities,” Walker wrote. “The PSC and AU member states should begin crafting and implementing plans that cross-cut national, regional and continental levels.” When it comes to bragging rights, Nigeria and Ghana are rivals in many things. These days, it’s football and a festive rice dish. The latest edition of the intense rivalry came at the end of March 2022, when Ghana’s national football team defeated Nigeria to advance to the 2022 World Cup in Qatar. Any rivalry between the two countries might seem unlikely. In terms of population, Nigeria is the continent’s largest country, with 206 million residents. Ghana is the continent’s 13th-largest country, with 31 million residents. Their rivalry dates to 1957, when Ghana gained independence three years before Nigeria. The two countries have been competing ever since. These days their rivalries are football and competing versions of Joloff rice, a spicy West African dish used in parties and celebrations. August 22 is Joloff Rice Day in both countries, with contests comparing the two versions side by side. The football competition between the two countries has been dubbed “The Joloff Wars,” and the 2022 World Cup qualifier was dubbed “The Joloff Derby.” The football rivalry started while both countries fought for independence. The BBC reported that Ghana won its first nontournament games in the 1950s, including a 7-0 thrashing of the Red Devils, as the Nigerian team was then called, in June 1955. As of April 2022, Ghana had the edge in their games: 4-3 in Africa Cup of Nations trophies, a World Cup quarter-final appearance, and a 22-10 advantage in head-to-head meetings, which include the 2022 World Cup qualifier. Most of those victories came during the ’70s and ’80s, but in 1992, Ghana returned to form when the Black Stars inflicted a come-from-behind 2-1 victory over the Nigeria Super Eagles in the Africa Cup of Nations semifinal. Nigeria since has gone on to claim continental success in 1994 and 2013, to add to its 1980 title, while Ghana — four-time African champions — has not won the trophy since 1982. Ghana faced Nigeria in a 2022 World Cup qualifier match. Thousands of Mali’s Ancient Manuscripts GO DIGITAL ADF STAFF Google has partnered with Mali’s traditional leaders to digitize tens of thousands of ancient manuscripts from the city of Timbuktu. Political unrest in the nation’s north has endangered the manuscripts. In 2013, extremists burned two libraries in Timbuktu. Many manuscripts were reported destroyed, along with many other monuments of Islamic culture. However, librarians had secretly moved most of the manuscripts ahead of the attacks. Timbuktu was founded as a commercial center in West Africa 900 years ago. Dating from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the ancient manuscripts cover many elements of knowledge including mathematics, medicine, science and astronomy. They provide a picture of the complex society and daily life in the region during the Middle Ages. The digitization project showcases work done over the past seven years to preserve the documents. Up to 40,000 pages of the documents will be available online. The collection, known as Mali Magic, also contains online interactive tours of some of the country’s most significant historic sites using Google Street View, the BBC reported. Google is not the first company to try to digitize Mali’s vast archives. The Tombouctou Manuscripts Project began doing so in 1999. The project by the University of Oslo worked to physically preserve the manuscripts, digitizing them and making them accessible for research. The project ended in 2007. TANZANIA’S FIRST NETFLIX FILM GIVES WOMEN A VOICE ADF STAFF Tanzanian filmmakers have released the country’s first film to be streamed on Netflix. “Binti” is a story about the lives and struggles of four women surviving extreme hardship in Dar es Salaam. The film is about the painful circumstances that some women find themselves in as they pursue a “perfect” life. “We have dealt with so many obstacles, including post production in different countries during a pandemic, just to be seen, and this is only the beginning,” Angela Ruhinda, who co-founded the film’s production company with her sister, Alinda, told OkayAfrica. Godilver Gordian, one of the film’s actors, said the film shows the pain that women in families silently deal with. “‘Binti’ has given a voice to those who cannot speak,” she told BBC News Swahili. “There are some things that families or couples will go through but one of the partners does not get help or talk about what they are going through.” “We had a screenwriting competition in late 2018 called ‘Made In Africa,’ where we asked Tanzanian writers to submit original stories with the theme of female empowerment,” Alinda Ruhinda told OkayAfrica. “In 2019, they picked the winning screenplay, which was titled ‘Her Life’ by Maria Shoo. “We loved the story because it highlighted contemporary Tanzanian women, and it just felt like we had never really seen it before,” added Alinda Ruhinda. “Binti is the first Tanzanian film to get on Netflix as a global acquisition!” director Seko Shamte told The Citizen, South Africa’s national newspaper. “We are elated and deeply humbled by this honour. We have worked so hard to get Binti onto the screen — and to bring Tanzanian stories to a global audience.” Naval leaders from the European Union and Nigeria met to pledge a strong partnership to combat threats at sea. Held on April 7, 2022, the first-ever Joint Event on Strengthening Nigeria-EU Cooperation on Maritime Security took place at the Nigerian Navy’s Western Naval Command in Lagos. It included port calls from the Italian Navy frigate ITN Luigi Rizzo and the Spanish Navy offshore patrol vessel ESPS Serviola. The Nigerian Navy, the EU Delegation to Nigeria and EU Member States operating under the EU Coordinated Maritime Presences initiative organized the high-level event. It included two days of joint training and capacity demonstration events. “The security partnership goes beyond Africa, embracing the European Union and other key international players geographically outside the Gulf of Guinea because the Gulf of Guinea is of global importance as a crucial maritime route,” said Rear Adm. Saidu Garba, Nigeria’s chief of Policy and Plans, Naval Headquarters. The EU said that relations have deepened between the partners in recent years through enhanced operational cooperation, joint exercises, training and increased information-sharing. The EU praised Nigeria’s leadership role in the Gulf of Guinea Maritime Collaboration Forum on Shared Awareness and Deconfliction and regional initiatives such as the YARIS information-sharing platform. “It is good that we coordinate internally and engage strategically with the Nigerian Navy,” said EU Senior Coordinator for the Gulf of Guinea Nicolas Berlanga. “Because freedom of navigation and investment of economic activities is also our freedom.” More than 1,500 tankers, cargo ships and fishing vessels navigate the waters of the Gulf of Guinea each day. The ships have origins and destinations that span the globe, making intercontinental coordination among security professionals and information-sharing important. “Working together is sine qua non in the zeal to defend the seas by enhanced maritime security and safety needed to promote international trade, protect the environment and guarantee use of the sea for legitimate businesses,” said Rear Adm. Yakubu Wambai, flag officer commanding Nigeria’s Western Naval Command. Somalia’s maritime capabilities received a boost on March 30, 2022, with the inauguration of a state-of-the-art facility for the Somali Police Force (SPF) in the capital, Mogadishu. The $3 million project was funded by the European Union and implemented by the U.N. Office for Project Services (UNOPS) and the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). The facility will provide a base from which the SPF can operate around Mogadishu Port and along the Somali coastline. The facility, under construction since 2018, is made up of a furnished headquarters block with information technology equipment, a detention facility, a floating jetty and boat ramp, and an accommodation unit. It also has been equipped with maritime communications equipment to support operational readiness. As part of the project, 60 police officers were trained and attended workshops on maritime law enforcement, marine engineering and maritime communications. Dignitaries participate in a ribbon cutting at the new Somali Police Force maritime facility in Mogadishu. “The SPF maritime law enforcement component will have a much, much more effective ability to operate and interact offshore and within the coastal areas of Somalia to ensure maritime crime is reduced,” UNOPS Country Director for Somalia, Tim Lardner, said at the inauguration. Somalia’s 3,300-kilometer coastline extends along strategic international shipping routes. Somali leaders hope to spur innovation and growth in the coastal, marine and maritime sector in coming years. “For Somalia to continue expanding its ‘blue economy’ and benefit from wealth-generating opportunities its vast coast offers, maritime security and law enforcement will need to continue playing an enabling role,” said Anita Kiki Gbeho, the U.N. secretary-general’s deputy special representative for Somalia. Also at the event, UNODC’s Regional Representative for East Africa, Neil Walsh, highlighted that the facility will strengthen Somalia’s fight against transnational and maritime organized crime. “We’re able to help police and investigators visit, board, search and seize in keeping maritime security to the highest possible capability,” Walsh said. “Doing this together, there is no more important partner for us than the federal government of Somalia, and working with our partners across the U.N. and across the EU, we can make a real difference.” Cabo Verdean and U.S. forces made a major drug bust after intercepting a suspicious vessel during a joint maritime law enforcement operation. On April 1, 2022, Cabo Verdean authorities and U.S. Sailors aboard the Expeditionary Sea Base USS Hershel “Woody” Williams intercepted a vessel smuggling 6,000 kilograms of suspected cocaine. The illicit cargo has an estimated street value of more than $350 million. Cabo Verdean law enforcement arrested seven people during the operation, which was supported by Interpol. The Brazilian-flagged fishing vessel was stopped as the African Maritime Law Enforcement Partnership conducted operations in international waters near the west coast of Africa. The U.S. personnel worked in tandem with the Maritime Analysis and Operations Centre-Narcotics and Cabo Verde’s national Maritime Operations Center. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard have a strong relationship with Cabo Verde and a bilateral law enforcement agreement that allows support to counter maritime crime in waters surrounding the archipelago, the Navy said. “This operation is an excellent example of strong and mutually beneficial partnership between the governments of the United States and Cabo Verde,” said Vice Adm. Steven Poulin, commander of the U.S. Coast Guard Atlantic Area. “Bilateral agreements such as this allow the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy and other agencies to work alongside partner nations in addressing their unique and shared challenges through a collaborative effort.” The U.S. Navy said that in the past decade it has steadily increased maritime security cooperation with partners on Africa’s Atlantic coast to improve maritime domain awareness to help them protect their sovereign waters. “The United States has a longstanding commitment supporting African states to address their security challenges in the maritime domain,” said U.S. Army Maj. Gen. Gregory Anderson, director of operations for U.S. Africa Command. “Our long-term partnerships with African states, including Cabo Verde, are vital for addressing threats such as terrorism, illicit trafficking, and piracy, and building capacity in the region to ensure long-term security and stability.” Tanzania Shows Off Double-Barreled ‘Snake’ Rifle DEFENCEWEB The Tanzania People’s Defence Force (TPDF) is turning heads with the use of the Israeli Gilboa DBR Snake double-barreled assault rifle. The TPDF is the first military known to use such a weapon, according to a report by Janes, an intelligence company. The Gilboa DBR Snake combines two 5.56 millimeter AR-15-type rifles into a single weapon, fed by two standard magazines. Both barrels fire when the single trigger is pulled. The idea behind the weapon’s construction is to provide a rapid burst of fire to increase hit probability and faster target incapacitation with a single trigger pull. Gilboa DBR Snake SILVER SHADOW The weapons were displayed during a January 12, 2022, parade to mark the anniversary of the 1964 Zanzibar Revolution. Also displayed were Type 63A light amphibious tanks, a SCORPION tracked reconnaissance vehicle, motorized barges, bridge layers, P-15 radar systems, BM-21 multiple rocket launchers and H225 helicopters. Tanzania spends $742 million annually on its armed forces, making it one of the most well-funded militaries in East Africa. It has sent peacekeepers to the U.N. mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Southern African Development Community mission in Mozambique. Protecting Military Weapons Key to Defeating Extremists ADF STAFF When the extremist group Ansar al-Sunnah began spreading terror in the Cabo Delgado province of northern Mozambique in 2017, its fighters brandished machetes. Today, the insurgents carry assault rifles and rocket-propelled grenades. Analysts say a major reason for this is extremists have captured equipment from the Mozambican military. Militant groups throughout the continent have armed themselves this way. “Contingent-owned equipment (COE) loss has become a critical vulnerability for national armies and peace operations in Africa,” arms expert Eric G. Berman recently wrote for the Africa Center for Strategic Studies. “Non-state armed groups have regularly targeted and overrun peacekeepers and national armed forces to seize lethal and non-lethal material.” Over the past 10 years in Africa, armed groups have targeted and taken millions of rounds of ammunition, thousands of small arms and light weapons, hundreds of heavy weapons systems, vehicles and motorcycles, uniforms, communications equipment, and fuel. “Armed groups use this material against peacekeepers and armed forces in complex ambushes, perpetuating the cycle of munitions loss,” Berman wrote. “Platoons have been targeted at outposts. Companies have been targeted at forward operating bases. Battalions have been targeted at sector headquarters. And dozens of supposedly secure sites, both small and large, have been overrun and their stores looted.” In addition to battlefield loss, the study revealed that illicit weapons came from national stockpiles and from peacekeeping forces due to corruption, mismanagement and theft. Multiple studies emphasized the following as among the best practices for securing weapons and preventing them from falling into enemy hands: • Security around weapons depots and for stockpile transportation. • Permanent records in a registry of weapons, ammunition and related materiel for all military and peacekeeping forces. This includes weapons-marking programs, pre-deployment assessments, post-deployment stock recording and investigations into reported losses. • Weapons recovery programs — amnesties, exchanges, militant reintegration. • Participation in international information-sharing platforms to access weapons-trafficking intelligence. • Sharing regional and subregional arms-control standards. Experts also said leaders should prioritize morale, transparency, and payment and benefits for Soldiers to combat corruption and theft. As the sun slid toward noon, Adam Fuseina’s daughter jumped off a bicycle at their home in Nafaring village in northern Ghana. She called out to her mother to say that she was back from shopping with a basket full of cooking oil, flour and greens. “This will keep us going for a week,” said the 43-year-old mother of five, standing amid the village’s mud-walled shelters with fraying thatched roofs. Things were different a year earlier, when Fuseina’s family could sometimes manage only one meal a day. Ghana’s worsening floods and droughts have made growing fruit and vegetables harder, and when the staple maize and rice crops are hit as well, families like Fuseina’s are left with meager yields of grains. But in March 2021, Fuseina joined a free crop insurance project that tries to ensure that farmers aren’t thrown into poverty by extreme weather, pest infestations and crop disease outbreaks. Now when long dry spells destroy a share of the crops on Fuseina’s 2.6-hectare farm, her family still can eat a healthy diet, she said. Part of a larger initiative by Roots of Change, under the charity Opportunity International, the insurance program uses farmland and crop data collected by the agriculture ministry to help cover about 1,360 farmers in northern Ghana. The Ghana Agricultural Insurance Pool, a group of 15 insurance providers, compares data on historical farm yields to actual harvests to verify insurance claims that enrolled farmers make. Since it launched in 2021, the project has paid out 7,000 cedis ($1,120) to more than 300 farmers, according to Ebenezer Laryea, Ghana’s head of agricultural businesses at Opportunity International, which pays the farmers’ insurance premiums. Some farmers invest the money into community savings plans where people pool their funds so individual members can use it when they need it. Kenya has released the first group of mountain bongos into a sanctuary to save the rare forest antelopes from extinction in the wild. The two males and three females were released near Mount Kenya. The country is the last place where the species is found in its native habitat. Fewer than 100 are believed to exist. “Every subsequent year, an additional 10 mountain bongos will be translocated into the sanctuary in groups of five every six months,” Tourism Minister Najib Balala told the BBC. The animals taken to the sanctuary are selected from breeding herds and allowed to roam and mate randomly in the sanctuary. Preparing the captive bongos for the wild has taken nearly 20 years. As wild populations collapsed, conservationists in Kenya bred bongos with the aim of returning a select few to nature to give the vanishing antelopes a shot at survival. Officials hope to have 50 to 70 fully “rewilded” mountain bongos in the sanctuary by 2025. This rewilding strategy is difficult. Captive bongos must be totally weaned off human contact. The animals were a highly prized trophy for colonial-era hunters. In more recent years, the bongos have been threatened with habitat loss, diseases introduced by cattle and poaching for meat. Two young male mountain bongos are released into a sanctuary in Kenya. AP/GETTY IMAGES The last wild bongo sighting in the highlands around Mount Kenya — one of their historic rangelands, along with the Aberdare and the Eburu and Mau forests — was a carcass found in 1994. A decade later, with their extinction looming, some captive bongos were brought from zoos in the United States and placed in a rewilding program run by the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy. UGANDAN TEACHER TURNS HOME INTO CLASSROOM DURING PANDEMIC ADF STAFF When COVID-19 hit Uganda in March 2020, teacher Ocwee Irene Trends knew she had to take drastic action. The country entered a strict lockdown and closed all schools. The teacher had a feeling it would be a long time before her students returned. As director of Hilder Primary School, in a poor neighborhood in Gulu, north Uganda, she knew her oldest pupils, who were between the ages of 13 and 17, were at great risk of dropping out. She brought 30 boys and girls to live in her family home, where she homeschooled them for free. “The past two years were crazy,” she told ADF with a laugh. “But I loved the craziness. I didn’t know how hectic it would be to have 30 teenagers.” The government offered no funding. Most of the parents were too poor to provide assistance. At first, Uganda’s Ministry of Education offered remote learning options with lessons broadcast on TV, radio and in print. But the funding ran out, and about 15 million children nationwide put their education on hold. Ocwee Irene Trends is happy to be back at Hilder Primary School in Gulu, Uganda. OCWEE IRNE TRENDS But education did not stop at the teacher’s family’s 6-hectare farm. The students helped convert her five-bedroom house. One bedroom became a classroom, and three others turned into dorms for the students. Breakfast was at 9 a.m. Three lessons a day were taught in the classroom. The students washed clothes, fetched water, and helped farm peanuts, soy, cassava and beans. In the evenings, the students bonded by discussing their parents, their home lives and the community. That kind of perseverance during the pandemic has inspired Uganda’s Minister for Primary Education, Joyce Moriku Kaducu, who attended secondary school in Gulu. “I don’t accept that there is a lost generation,” she told The New York Times. “What I agree to is [that] there’s a percentage of our children who have gotten pregnant, the young boys have gotten into the moneymaking economy and others have gone into things. That does not mean that we have lost the generation completely.” In January 2022, Uganda ended the world’s longest pandemic-related education closure. It lasted 22 months. Hilder Primary School reopened, and the teacher’s home-schooled students took their national exams. All 30 will attend secondary school and Hilder, which is ranked among Uganda’s top 20 schools. The students were recognized on the radio. Their pictures appeared in newspapers. “Everyone was talking about them,” the teacher said. “It was then that I started realizing what I did. We did something good.” Community health worker Mariam Traoré spends her days going door to door in Yirimadio, just outside Bamako, Mali, treating her neighbors for everything from malaria to diarrhea and even providing immunizations. On days when she can’t visit, some patients come to her. Traoré belongs to the network of community health care workers serving on the frontlines of Africa’s health care system. Like her fellow community health care workers, Traoré is overstretched and needs support. The World Health Organization estimates Africa needs 2 million community health workers to meet the demands of its rapidly growing population. A shortage of community health care workers is just one part of Africa’s medical shortfalls. On average, the continent has about 1 doctor for every 3,000 patients, about one-third the ratio the World Health Organization recommends. It also has about one-third of the 6,000 epidemiologists the population needs, according to experts. “If we really want to be prepared for the next pandemic, we really need to expand that,” Dr. John Nkengasong, former director of the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, said during a news briefing. To confront Africa’s shortage of health workers, the African Union launched the Health Workforce Task Team with the goal of rapidly expanding the ranks of medical personnel. The unprecedented effort seeks to attract billions of dollars in funding to train thousands of new health care workers and help Africa close the gap. The team has a lot of work ahead of it. Sub-Saharan Africa has about 145,000 doctors for a population of 821 million — a ratio of 18 doctors per 100,000 residents, according to a study by researchers at George Washington University. “A health system is not a health system without health workers. But Africa has remained short-changed on the numbers, the training, the skills training, the availability of health workers across the continent,” said Dr. Githinji Gitahi, CEO of Amref Health Africa in a video in April 2022. “This must be addressed if we are going to be ready for universal health coverage and also ready for the next pandemic.” The WHO estimates that Africa needs more than 1 million doctors to meet international standards. Africa has about one-third the number of doctors it needs to treat its growing population, a problem the African Union hopes to address by expanding the ranks of health care workers. Nigeria has unveiled what have been described as the “world’s largest rice pyramids,” made with a million bags of rice, in the capital, Abuja. The temporary pyramids were aimed at showcasing the country’s efforts to boost rice production and to make Nigeria self-sufficient in food. It was one of the main promises that Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari made when he took office in 2015. Nigerian officials said the initiative has sharply reduced Nigeria’s annual rice import bill, from $1 billion in 2015 to $18.5 million in 2021. The price of rice, a staple food in Nigeria, began to climb when the government closed the Seme border between Nigeria and Benin in August 2019. Nigeria said the decision was to strengthen the agricultural sector and curb extensive smuggling, especially of rice. The border was reopened in December 2020. The increase in rice production came through the Central Bank of Nigeria’s Anchor Borrowers’ Programme, launched in 2015 to boost agricultural production and reverse Nigeria’s negative balance of payments on food. Buhari said the measure will help reduce rice prices. “The significance of today’s occasion can be better understood by looking at the various economic strides the administration has achieved through agriculture,” he said, as reported by the Premium Times, Nigeria’s national newspaper. Rice has a special place in Nigerian culture, with it and other countries in the region boasting that they make the best Jollof rice, a staple at celebrations. --- Rail Projects Signal New Era of High-Speed Travel ADF STAFF Governments are developing modern high-speed railway infrastructure to replace outdated diesel-powered locomotives with electric trains. Trains arrived in Africa in the 1850s, with the first railway built in Egypt. Over the years, railways sprouted up across the continent, but mostly for industry, not passengers. Now, with interregional trade becoming more common, railways are seen as a way to move people and goods at a large scale. These are some of the new railway developments on the continent: - Al Boraq, Morocco: Morocco debuted its first high-speed train in November 2018. The continent’s first bullet train has a top speed of 320 kph. Morocco says it has reduced travel time from Casablanca to Tangier to 50 minutes from slightly over three hours, with 3 million passengers as of 2022. - Suez Canal on rails, Egypt: Egypt signed a $4.45 billion deal with transportation company Siemens Mobility in September 2021 to build an electric rail line with a top speed of 250 kph. The train will travel on an 1,800-kilometer rail line linking the Red Sea and the Mediterranean starting in 2023. The full project will take 15 years. - Regional Express Train, Senegal: Senegal launched the final phase of its $1.3 billion project in late December 2021 to limit traffic jams in Dakar. Construction began in December 2016. The final phase is expected to be completed in early 2024, according to Railway-Technology.com. - Bullet train, Tanzania: Tanzania is introducing 160 kph trains that will be the fastest in East Africa by 2024. South Korea’s Hyundai Rotem is developing a 546-kilometer, high-speed electric line. In March 2021, Tanzania started testing the electrical systems for the new standard-gauge railway. - Gautrain, South Africa: The Gautrain is South Africa’s fastest train, with a maximum speed of 160 kph. It began service in June 2012 on an 80-kilometer commuter rail system linking Johannesburg, Pretoria, Ekurhuleni and Tambo International Airport. Great Zimbabwe is mostly deserted now, but in its time it was a wondrous place. Historians believe that members of what is now the Shona tribe began work on the city-state Great Zimbabwe in the ninth century, with its heyday from about 1200 to 1300. It covered 720 hectares and was home to an estimated 10,000 people at its peak. Its centerpiece is a structure called the Great Enclosure. Craftsmen built it, stacking more than a million stones, with no mortar, with a precision that is evident to this day. It is the largest ancient structure in all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Its elliptical outer wall is 250 meters in circumference and is 11 meters high at its tallest point. An inner wall running parallel to the outer wall forms a narrow passage, 55 meters long, leading to a conical tower. The tower, 10 meters high and 5 meters across, may have symbolized a grain bin. Or it may have had no meaning other than as an embellishment, like the row of chevrons nearby. It was such a source of pride to the region that when Rhodesia gained independence in 1980, Prime Minister Robert Mugabe changed the name of the country to Zimbabwe, which translates as “house of stone.” At its peak, it was a thriving city, known for its gold mining and as a regional trading hub. But for all of its influence, it could not sustain itself. People began deserting the region about 1450. It was abandoned within a few years. Zimbabwean archeologist Shadreck Chirikure has made it his life’s work to prove that Great Zimbabwe is an important part of history. His findings have been recognized and honored internationally. Several theories exist for the decline and eventual abandonment of Great Zimbabwe. Some say the area became overpopulated and could not produce enough food. Although it once was a trading mecca, it might have lost its business to trading regions further north. Another theory is that it was supported by gold mining and could not sustain itself after the mines were exhausted. Some researchers have suggested that famines, water shortages and political instability caused Great Zimbabwe to outlive its usefulness. Most of the theories point to evidence that Great Zimbabwe ran out of resources. “We don’t learn from the past as much as we should,” Chirikure told The Economist in 2021. “Here is a place that was occupied by people who were heavily invested in production, who developed regional links, who were also interacting with other parts of the world — and they built a place with such strength and resilience.” 1. This fortified village is made up of a group of earthen dwellings. 2. Some structures date to the 17th century. 3. The site was one of many trading posts along the route leading to ancient Sudan. 4. Community areas include a public square, mosque, grain-threshing floor and two cemeteries — one Jewish and one Muslim. ANSWER: Ksar of Ait-Ben-Haddou, Ouarzazate province, southern Morocco Want to be published? Africa Defense Forum (ADF) is a professional military magazine that serves as an international forum for military and security specialists in Africa. The magazine is published quarterly by U.S. Africa Command and covers topics such as counterterrorism strategies, security and defense operations, transnational crime, and issues affecting peace, stability, good governance and prosperity. The forum allows for an in-depth discussion and exchange of ideas. We want to hear from people in our African partner nations who understand the interests and challenges on the continent. Submit an article for publication in ADF, and let your voice be heard. AUTHOR GUIDELINES FOR ADF SUBMISSION EDITORIAL REQUIREMENTS • Articles of approximately 1,500 words are preferred. • Articles may be edited for style and space, but ADF will collaborate with the author on final changes. • Include a short biography of yourself with contact information. • If possible, include a high-resolution photograph of yourself and images related to your article with captions and photo credit information. RIGHTS Authors retain all rights to their original material. However, we reserve the right to edit articles so they conform to AP standards and space. Article submission does not guarantee publication. By contributing to ADF, you agree to these terms. SUBMISSIONS Send all story ideas, content and queries to ADF Editorial Staff at email@example.com. Or mail to one of the following addresses: Headquarters, U.S. Africa Command ATTN: J3/Africa Defense Forum Staff Unit 29951 APO AE 09751 USA Headquarters, U.S. Africa Command ATTN: J3/Africa Defense Forum Staff Kelley Kaserne Geb 3315, Zimmer 53 Plieninger Strasse 289 70567 Stuttgart, Germany Can’t wait until the next edition? At ADF-Magazine.com we bring you in-depth coverage of current issues affecting peace and stability every week. Check out our website for the same credible and accurate security news, reported weekly, from around the continent. STAY CONNECTED If you would like to stay connected on social media, follow ADF on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, or you can join our email list by signing up on our website, ADF-Magazine.com, or email firstname.lastname@example.org.	72a89c7a-1591-464b-8a91-2a383758020c	CC-MAIN-2023-06	https://adf-magazine.com/ADF_V15N3_ENG.pdf	2023-01-28T01:13:34+00:00	crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499468.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127231443-20230128021443-00056.warc.gz	102,493,441	30,856	eng_Latn	eng_Latn	0.966792	eng_Latn	0.998126	[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "gom_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "unknown", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]	true	rolmOCR	[ 163, 1179, 1703, 4307, 7495, 9903, 14166, 17690, 19590, 21937, 23831, 23954, 27181, 29467, 35135, 35164, 37667, 39675, 42313, 44280, 46503, 46515, 49703, 49761, 52631, 54252, 57005, 57030, 59011, 60757, 63435, 66344, 69328, 69414, 72792, 74520, 76359, 78098, 80784, 80884, 83398, 86167, 89429, 90792, 92717, 96005, 98943, 103097, 106800, 106831, 109381, 111602, 113996, 116723, 119025, 121021, 124238, 126439, 128822, 131012, 134834, 136687, 141035, 143460, 147039, 149573, 149969, 152227 ]	[ 1.4453125, 2.34375 ]	1	0

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